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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diff6rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre /eproduit en un seul cliche, il est filmd 6 partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche i droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 6 6 i MBI ^^^^^i^^... ^"^nTr^W^ 1^ ^•*.M- ■:\ THE STONE BRONZE AND IKON AGES '^\ # r VB ■ ! IBiH fin^^^^H^^^HH^mi^Hi * \ MiS^^wHi^^WII^BIiWsS'fltMli^^^Bf : i 1 I Man's Earliest Weapon. 1 * f ♦ . ^ t f J THE STONE BRONZE AND IRON AGES B popular ZTreatlsc on lEarly Hicbarolog^^ BY JOHN HUNTER-DUVAR ^ V- ' 3Lanbon SWAN SONNENSCHPJIN & CO NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO 1892 BdtLBB & TANIfBB, Thk SkLWOOD rKINTINQ WOUKS, Fkomb, and Loxdox. PKEFACE. Inquiry into Early Archaeology is comparatively new, yet so much information has been garnered therein that it is difficult to compress an outline within the limits of one little book. No study of which the materials are within easy reach will be found more fascinating. The pursuit of this branch of ethnology will furnish the amateur with out-door recreation, curios to adorn his cabinet, and data from which to frame intellectual deductions. As this book claims to be no more than a popular treatise, pains have been taken to give it that character. The subject is dealt with to date. To avoid overloading the text, the writer has not thought it necessary to distinguish his individual views from those generally accepted. Those opinions are subject to amendment by the thought- ful reader. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. EARLY ARC ILICO LOGY. Geological Periods.-Mammoth Animals appear in the Tertiary.- Man in the Post- tertiary ^*"«rj. ^ 2^. 1 CHAPTER II. PRIMEVAL MAX. CivilMon not necessary to Man.-His real Wants only Food and Shelter.-How he supplied tbem.-Not a Giant llace . p. lo CHAPTER III. MAN AND THE MASTODON. Survival of Animal Life of the Tertiary Period.-Giant Graminivora Carnivora, and Reptiles contemporary with Man; who had to nom'adic'^ """"""'' '""'""'' ''''^'''' ^ ^^^^^ "^'^^^^ p. 19 CHAPTER IV. DOMESTIC LIFE OF NOMADIC MAN. Tendency to Migration inherent-Adoption of Clothing.-Discovery of Fire.-Methods of producing it.-How Migration was con- ducted. -Dwellings of the Nomads. -Food.-Cookery and Pottery.-Domestic luaplements.-War-paint.-Occupations of Leisure. -Amusements. -Early Man as Boat-fisherman. -As Agiucultunst -Belief in a Future State.-These Remarks apply only to the Newer Stone Epoch . J. • • p. tiU CHAPTER V. THE OLDER STONE AGE {PALAEOLITHIC). Weapons ponderous in this Age.-The River Drift. -Theory of vii vm Contents. Curronts.— How Man's Handiwork is found in Drift. — Human Remains necessarily rare. — Vast Antiquity assigned to Drift Relics. — Where earliest Man lived.— London once a Swamp. — Flint Clubs. — Spears. — Palmolithic Discoveries in France. — In England. — The Age of ponderous Flint Clubs dies out i^. 37 CHAPTER VI. CA VED WELLEItS. BRITAIN. Cave Population not large. — Probably fluctuftting. — Classification of relic-bearing Caves. — Reading of the Caves. — Mammoth Remains therein. — Dog and domesticated Animals, Date of. — Kent's, Brixham, Bacon's Hole, and other British Caves. — The Relics found thereii analogous to those of the River Drift . p. 52 (■ I I i CHAPTER VII. (JAVE-DWELLEItS {cmlinued). COUNTRIES OTHER THAN BRITAIN. Cave Explorations in North and South of France. — Valley of the Somme. — On the Dordogne. — Cla.^sification of the Dordogne Caves. — The Reading of these Caves. — Germany, Switzerland, Poland. — In Belgium. — Other Countries.— In all these Man, Mammoths, and Reindeer. — Types of Weapons. — These Weapons were Palaeolithic. — Explorations in North America. — In the Tropics.— Summary p. 65 11 III CHAPTER VIII. NEWER STONE AGE (NEOLITHIC). CELTS OR AXES, HA TCHET-HAMMERS. Newer Stone Age, its Weapons.— Celts.— Classification of Celts. — Various Materials of which made. — How fitted. — Uses. — Mussel- shell the Theoretical Design. — Subtriangular Form. — Ordinary Form of Chipped Flint Celts. — Celts with Ground Edge. — Forms of Edges.— Polished and Ground. — Amazon Axes. — Two-edged. — Wedges and Mining Estampes. — Perforation of Stone, and how accomplished. — Socketed Celts. — Forms of Single and Double-edged.— Hatchet-hammers. — Migrations traced by Type of Ornamentation p. 80 A I Contents. IX - CHAPTER IX. NEWER STONE AGE {continued). LAXCES, DARTS, UAGOERS, AND ARROWS. Smaller Weapons of the Chase indicate smaller Game. — Theory of Spears. — Measurement and Weight of Spear-heads. — Materials of which made. — Lance-shafts. — Javelins. — ElBcaoy depended on Weight and Ilobustuess of Make. — Shields.— Daggers, British and Danish.- Arrows. — Invention of Archery. — Its great Im- portance to Early Man. — Progressive Steps therein. — Classifica- tion of Arrow-heads. — Did Early Man poison his Arrow-tips? — Singular Miniature Arrows of Mound-builders in Writer's Collection p. d6 CHAPTER X. NEWER STONE AGE (continued). IMPLEMENTS OF DOMESTIC USE. Similar in both Ages of Stone. — Knives for Cutting and Flaying. — Gouges and Chisels. — Pickers and Boring Tools. — Saws and Wool-combs. — Whetstones, Slickstones. — Weights and Sinkers. — Bracers. — Griddles. — Certain small Wheels may have been Spinning-tops.— Perforated Discs. — Mortars.— Mills.— So-called Spindles and Whorls. — Art of Weaving not known in either Stone Age. — Fishing Nets. — Manufactures in Bone . p. 117 CHAPTER XI. KITCHEN MIDDENS. Shell-mounds along Beaches. — Beach-feasts universal.— In Denmark. — Britain.— In America. — Explorations of Kitchen Middens. — Relics found.— Wholly of the Non-metallic Age.— Fauna of the Period. — Boats.— Shell-fishing. — No Human Remains found in European Middens. — Supposed Race that held the Shell-feasts. — American Midden-makers Cannibals, but not European. — Age of the Middens p. 131 CHAPTER XII. MO UNDB UILDERS. Who were the Mound-builders of America ?— Great Extent of their tmm 1 Contents. Earth-works.— Erected against an ever-present Danger.— Ground Plans.- Arms of Flint and Copper.— A timid and quiet People. —Cultivated Herb Gardens.— Excelled in Pottery.— Worked in Copper before the Bronze Age in Europe. —Were gradually driven South,— Graves.— Their Eeligion not obtrusive.— Their Date doubtful.— Siiuilar in Civilization to the Swiss Lake- dwellers j5. 139 CHAPTEIl XIII. THE AGE OF BRONZE. Difficult to define the Duration of this Age.— Ran into the Polished Stone and Iron Epochs.— Was the Shortest of the Three Ages. —Sources from which a Knowledge of it is derived —No intermediate Age of Copper.— Introduction of Copper Alloys. —Agriculture developed.— Horse, Dog, and Farm Animals domesticated ; and the Foundations of Trade laid.— Tribal llelations established, tending to the Consolidation of Eaccs. —Travelling Artitictrs.— They founded Centres of Industry and Marts for Barter.— The Weapons of the Period.— Axes, Spears, Arrows.— Invention of the Sword, when ?— Horse Furniture.— Articles of Ornament.— Weaving practised.— Bronze Age the Threshold of Civilization p. 151 CHAPTER XIV. LAKE-D 1 VELLERS. Discovery of Aquatic Dwellings in Swiss Lakes.— May have been at first Palustriuc— Similar Discoveries in Germany and Italy. — In Britain.— Plan of the Water Terraces.— The Habitations thereon.— Their Date.— Weapons and Implements of the Lake- dwellers.— Were acquainted with Weaving, and with Petty Agriculture.— Had Domesticated Animals.— Their Fishing and Hunting.— Fauna of the Period.— Manner of Sepulture obscure. —Whence the Lake-men came ; and when disappeared 'p. 173 CHAPTER XV. POTTERY. Pottery the Earliest of all Manufactures.— The Work of Women.— 1 Contents. xi Development of the Art. — Many Cave-dwellers unacquainted with it. — Others showed Skill. — Fragments in Caves and else- where. — In Kitchen Middens. — Whence Ornamentation arose. — Ornamental Markings in Stone Age. — Tempering of Clay. — Belgian, German, Danish. — Lacustrine. — American Mound- builders. — British Pottery never Excellent. — Imported Phconiciau Earthenware. — Potter's Wheel.- -Pottery of Bronze Age.— Orna- mental Markings in that Age.— Age of Iron. — Table of the Art's Progress. — Vessels of Stone, Amber, and Gold . . y. I'Jl CHAPTER XVI. THE IRON AGE. The Term "Iron Age" Indefinite. — Discovery of Iron-smelting. — A New Era began with Iron. — How Haw Material obtained and smelted. — Large Number of Furnaces sprang up. — Some Hundreds traced in Switzerland.— Description of. — Forging and Tempering of Iron. — Axes. — Swords. — Hilts and Sheaths. — Daggers.— Spears. — Javelins and Arrows. — Trumpets. — Horses and their Caparison. — Ship-building. — Architecture, Domestic and Defensive. — Implements. — Trinkets. — Establishment of Marts. — Intelligence of the Age centred in Northern Europe.— Invention of lluuic Symbols p. 203 CHAPTER XVII. 1. P0.ST-T1">RTIARY ; or Quaternary. Survivoi-s of huge mammalia from previous period. Divers animals approaching now existing types. Max. SIXCE THEN, man having passed through the, so-called, Ages of .Stone and Bronze into the Age of Iron, has contiimed to advance in civilization. Giant mammals have become extinct and existing types established. Arguments have been recently advanced that man existed on the coast of the Pacific in the tertiary period. While it is always hazardous to refuse the hypotheses of science, the supposition above offered may be received with reserve. It will be borne in mind that in the progressive i«ll The Stone, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. 1 1 ;> development of the world, mnch of the animal and vegetable life of one geologic period gradually dies out and becomc^s extinct, or is modified, in the period succeed- ing. Organic remains of any race of animals are there- fore only found in the strata of that j)articular period in which they came into existence, through which they lived, in which they died and became a race extinguished. Remains of that particular race cannot by any possibility be found in formations prior to the one in which it came into existence, nor (except by displacement) in those sub- sequent to the period when the race became extinct from changed conditions of the earth. Nothing can be more clear and convincing, nor less liable to error, than the testimony of the strata. Hence, as there exists no single instance of any vestige of man or of his works in any geological formation prior to the post-tertiary, it is con- clusive that it was no earlier than that period, when the earth had become adapted to the existence of Man, that man was created, or made. It is beyond the scope of this treatise to account for the appearance of man. Mr. Darwin and his commen- tator. Professor Huxley, have promulgated a theory that has met with much acceptance. Suffice it to say that two features strike us; namely, if man was evolved from the ape, it must have been either fr'om one single instance or from a general evolution of the species, and if from the evolution of many the uniformity in the type evolved is marvellous. The other is, that, whether from a single pair or from a general nobilization of species, the new form of animal, man, must have taken vast lengths of .w^-\ A Iuiii}> A rchceology. 5 time to have spread over the world with the identity of niauuers that his relics make it apparent prevailed. Geologists cannot even approximate the countless roons that have elapsed since the earth first took form, inas- much as they have no semblance of data to go upon beyond the relative thicknesses of the various crusts, and against this must be set the insurmountable objection that they cannot know whether or not the constructive forcG always maintained a uniform degree of intensity. In estimating the lapse of years since man occurred in the post-tertiary, the hypothetical guide of surface strata is equally invalid. Taking, as example, the three or four thousand years during which events have been recorded by symbol or letters, they present no notable change in the face of nature. Surmise is reasonable that (excepting what change arises from cultivation) the natural sur- roundings of mankind for thousands of years past have not diifered materially from what now exist. Throughout millenniums men multiplied until they occupied great spaces of the earth's sui-face, and evidently in the same uncivilized state, until the accidental discovery of metal enlarged their ideas and gave an impetus to their intel- lectual advance. It is with this long monotonous period of slow progression that Eai'ly Archaeology has to deal. When utensils began to be fanciful in shape the rudi ments of Art had sprung, and when progress was put on record it became History. Classified therefore by pre- historic industries, the past of the world ranges itself in three eras, spoken of by the names of the industrial materials used — namely, flint, copper, and iron — as — m^^^^sm^msmmm » 77/6' Stoiic^ Brou::c, and Iron Ages. i )| Tlio Ape of Stono. The Ago of Bronze. Tlic Age of Iron. In tlie geologic-ill quaternary j)erio(l, and during the existence of man, natural phenomena, not explicitly accounted for by science, changed the aspect, of tlio earth. Hyperboreal ico made its way to the most southern latitudes, and filled the plains — a glacial cataclysm. Periods of inundation, succecdinij: the recurrence to a higher teni])ei'utu]'e, hollowed out the valleys and de- po.sited banks of Avashed gi-avel, in which "drift" the earliest handiworks of man have been discovered, in the shape of rude clubs of flint. Man and tlie mastodon* both survived the devastation, although bones of both have been found mingled in the river drift. To this earliest period is given the name of pahr.olilhic, or Older Stone Age, and to that succeeding it wt'o/i7/i/c, or Newer Stone Age. A subdivision of the stone age into three terms of time that may serve as a guide in popular study has been suggested; namely, r- 1. Epoch of extinct animals (or cave-bear and mammoth period). 2. Epocli of migrated existing animals (or reindeer period). 3. Epoch of existing domesticated animals (or polished- stone period). Then followed the epochs of working in metals. • TliG words mastodon and mamtuoth are used loosely to mean the giant mammals generally. Early AnhcBology. Unlike tlio exact seiencos, whorein every piobleni carriea its jjroof within itself, anthropology, of which our .subject is a branch, allows a latitude to the imaginative powers. Says Charles Kingsley, " No definite assertion of certainty can be made in early arehrcology, the nearest approach to it can be but ' I think so.' " And to (juoto Professor Huxley, " Do not allow yourself \o be misled by the common notion that a hypothesis is untrustworthy simply because it is a hypothesis. . . . What more have we to guide ns in nine-tenths of the nujst important affairs of daily life thnn hypothesis?" From which it must not 1)0 deduced that archu'ologiciil studies are based on mere guess-work or anything like it. ]*]very oi)inion advanced, to be of any value, must be shown to liuvc tlu; reasonable probability that such a circumstance, with its dependent corollaries, was just so, ami could not have been anything else without a violation of likelihood. This is indeed the vital jn-iuciple of circumstantial evidence on which decisions of importance arc framed in our courts of law. In the present state of our kiu)\v ledge evidence maybe incomjilete in detail, but every additional investigation clears some point from more or hss of obscurity, and provides new data from wliieh to airive at an accurate conclusion. And, in fact, this i-oom for ingenuity of reasoning adds a charm to the study. The visible relics of the autochthones, or earth-begotten, although of the utmost value as a basis, form but a small portion in the study of early anthropology. Man's longevity, physical and mental capacity, language, mi- gration, increase, and decrease, with many other topics, 7"f«i^ ■S^^H ^s^mm ■ea ^r 8 T/ie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. ill! afford exhanstless subjects for investigation, but none of them come within tlie compass of this little book. Let none bo deterred from the fascinating study of Early Archaeology by an apprehension that the facts it discloses may clash with opinions they have been taught to revere. Hasty assertions have indeed been made that its pursuit may lead into devious ways of thought ; but the cry of alarm comes mainly from persons unacquainted Avith the subject, or who think that all knowledge is dangerous except in the hands of the few. Aiuli alteram jHxrtem. There is no story without two sides, were they but flat contradiction and assertion, and patient and judicial mast be the investigation before truth absolute can bo arrived at — before appearances can be reconciled with fact. Many estimable minds have an anxiety to "reconcile science with religion," by religion being meant revelation; but there can be no reconciliation where there is no quarrel. Science cannot by any possibility be irreligioHS, inasmuch as its soie object is to become ac<[uaintod with the beautiful processes of nature, and any wondrous truth disclosed is a revelation. Scripture nowhere says that this earth was created just 6,000 years ago, yot the statement has somehow become embedded among the articles of belief, and any attempt to show that Man has occupied a habitable world for longer than that period is regarded as profane. Excepting among the most narrow of minds, it is admitted — if reluctantly, yet not denied — that man may have passed through various progressions, yet some would condense these progressions within an inspired chronology of their own. kf I I Early ArchcBology. Thus, Tubal-cain, they say, v'as a worker in brass (bronze) on a date they specify. Faced by this declara- tion, a hoeoloo-y, callings geology to its aid, largely extends the comparative eras, and the largest minds find that reasonable inference is not incompatible with an historic faith. Claiming greatly lengthened periods of progress, archteology disclaims any design of throwing doubt on revelation, and approaches with reverence all tenets of faith. K=>- > V w 'I, ■ W^ l> • I CHAPTER II. PRIMEVAL MAN. Civilization not necessary to Man. — His real Wants only Food and Shelter. — How he supplied them. — Not a giant Eace. CiviMZATiON is but a superfluity of unnecessary surround- ings. The essentials of life are solely food and shelter, with an extension of " shelter " in the shape of olothinosition tliat tliey had any settled agricnltui-e in the stone aj^e. This inference gains strength from the fact, of extensive shell-heaps (kitchen middens), left by tribes who, in the food scarcity of spring, assembled at the seaside to feed on shell-fish, returning again in autumn to lay in fish supplies for winter, and spending sunmier in the more plenteous larder of the woods. Agricultural pursuits were not likely among such a people. Not that jirinieval man was constantly on the move. On the contrai'V, a long isolated residence in one i\ange would bo required to produce so many tribes speaking distinct dialects as were found when history begins. It is beyond oui- scope to engage in tlie futile task of attem])t- ing to ti-nce migrations or the causes that led to niigratoi-y tides. The successive waves of Ijarbarism that have swept over Europe have obliterated such traces as we would have to seek even in later days. Tradition vaguely says something, and a comi)arison of the shape and ornamentation of weapons in the later period of barbarism indicates more, as to the channels iu which migration has run. What little can be known, or surmised, from these indications strengthens the belief that the uncivilized world had grown populous, causing wars of aggression either from want of room or from innate savagery. A theoi'y has been advanced, that the earliest men, cotemporary ^yith tho huge animals that had survived the tertiai'y period, were a race of giants. Evidence contrtodicts this. It is true that several fragments of «■ i6 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, V ' human skeletons indicating large stature have been un- earthed; but a considei'able proportion of existing country Englishmen, notwithstanding the tear and wear of nerves and desuetude of muscles imposed by our arti- ficial mode of life, are six feet in height. Individuals of much greater stature were in the ranks of Frederick of Prussia's grenadiers. Likely enough that in a savage state, Avhere there was no mental strain and every physical power trained by necessity to the utmost, the proportion of tall men should be great, without sup])os- ing a uniform race of giants. " The survival of the fittest," too, must not be overlooked in the probability that only children of strong and healthy frame reached adult age. The mind would lose itself in the mists of speculation in attempting to lay down from what initial point primeval man spread over the world. Evidence is, we think, patent that the earth had become populous befoi'c civilization had advanced beyond its first stage. Not only the continents but the belt of islands around both hemispheres offer testimony to man's presence in force. Were search made to-day for leaden bullets in the soil, as indicative of a race who used missiles of lead in their wai's and slaughter of animals, how scanty a collection of specimens could be made. Of flint missiles how very many are turned up, and in localities how widely separated, tending to show either that the users of flint occupied the earth for an incalculably long time, or that they were more numerous than fancy can i-eadily grasp, — or both conclusions in one. In our remarks on Primeval Man. 17 primoval man, too, it must not bo omitted that liis coiulitioii of 8avaj]^crj and liis gradual progress towards emergence therefrom were not alike all over the world. Changes could not have been simultaneous everywhere. Nor did the one age grow into another by mere lapse of time and fulness of maturity, as spi-ing develops into summer and Avinter into spring. Circumstances might liave thrown a dim ray of light on some ti-ibe or locality earlier than it reached the bulk of mankind. Sullicient for this popular treatise to indicate that in all time the same forces were at work throughout the whole of human kind, and that in different terms of time and among diiTereut sections progression was making towards a fuller development, sooner or later. Being careful to guard against fraudulent imitations, amateur collectors may garner a small cabinet of relics of primeval man that will be eminently suggestive, at small cost. Fragments of pottery of untempered clay, sun-dried or slackly baked by the flaine of leaves ; flint or otiier stone axes and hatchets (both known as " celts ") ; flint and other stone spear-heads ; edged and pointed stone arrow-heads, in vaiiety, with and without barhs, — among which do not omit the elf-bolt of white (juartz, sometimes worn as a charm; flint flake-knives, chisels, borers, scrapers, with pebble-hammers, sling stones and sinkers; articles in horn and bone; similar weapons in copper and iron, with swords and knives of the same ; together with specimens of later date showing ornamentation and therefore carrying us into C n i 'I iM 1 ; "•"i«t iVWiaiBHPKIV^ I' 1 8 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. flu- (lemcsTie of art. Tlio sigiiificunce of each of these articles, and tlio stoiy that may bo woven with it, exceeds in interest any other intellectual "hobby" with which the writi']' is acquainted. I» m I t \ w u )f these exceeds Avliicli I CHAPTER Tir. MAX AXD Tin-: MASTODON. Survival of Animal Life of the Tertiary reriod.— Giant Graniinivorii', Carnivora and Reptiles contemporary with Man ; who had to take his Prey by Cunning ; sometimes himself a I'rcy ; became nomadic. Till: animal life of the Tertiary geological ])eriod, when the earth was preparing itself for the reception of man, was different from any before or since. Among the features wex'e giant mammalia, both graminivorous and carnivorous, that lived to great ages, also reptiles and amphibia of monstrous shape and bulk. Laying aside archaeology for the moment, we must take a dip into natural history and become acquainted with those gigan- tic and ferocious creatures of some of which man after- wards became the contemporary. In the early days when man fli-st appears, by his remains, in the geological record, survivors of the typical gigantic forms of the previous period still abounded in the temperate zone even to the edge of the arctic. Tn Britain, then united with the continent of Europe, the tusked mastodon, a vegetable-feeding quadruped of the elephant species, some tons in weight, went in herds. Mammoths, ten or more feet in height and twenty in 19 I 1 I! ■J' I 20 7Vu' Stone, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. lt'ii^''(h of l)()(ly, wniuk'i't'd in tho (.'oj)S('s and piiHtmrs n.s elsewluTo tlironp^liout tho i-aiiju^c of both licniisplitM-rs. Tho root-di'fjp^iiig dinothoriiim, in .shnpo like a hnji;o nioh* eif^flitccii feet in Ion«i;th, ijhjuphcd tho marshy shores of lakos and rivors or anohorod hy its potuh-i'ons tusks to the bank. I'ho woolly rhinoceros luid its haunt in thickets by streams, and tho hippopotmiiiis in tho sedj^cs. Enormous short-lep-^'cd sloths, siK'h as tho nicfifatlieriuni. in stature eight foot, with jifi-eat rotundity and length of body and armed with powcrfnl claws, crawled slowly along, uprooting trees to feed on tlu; foliage. A colossal armadillo, tho gly[)todon, sheathed in mail, bni-rowed in tho hillsides. Great bears, in bulk and stature equal to a drayhorse, and as tierce as the existing grizzly of noitli- Avestern America, were numerous, having their laii* in caves. No fewer than four species of liou-tigei-, some of them as large as tho tiger of ]k>ngal, lui-ked in jangles and liollows of the i-ocks, sallying out to attack the mastodon and other large ])rey. Towards tlie close of the stone ago tribes of ferocious hyenas extended fi'om the continent into Britain, and, hunting in packs, killed and dragged the largest animals to their dens. Nor on land only was this formidable colossal life. The waters teemed with monstrous swimming reptiles and amphibia. The air-breathing, cold-blooded plesiosaurus swum close to the sliore, or hiding among the i-eeds arched its long flexible neck, resembling the body of a serpent, and snapped at its pi'ey. The ichthyosaurus, or great fish- lizard, with eyes a foot in diameter, glared from the shallows. The tierce mosasaurus and mastodonsaurus 3f(Vi and the MastoiLm. 21 wc'i'c nmnerons alon;^ the cast coast of Kii,t,'lan(l. Many of their roiiiaius have buoii found at Lyinu llcj^is. Tlio liornt'd if^'iianodon, a iTptilo seventy feet long, with legs four or live feet in length and thicker than ati elephant's, lay concealed in tlie grass, altogijther a creature as ugly as a myth. Huge hati-achians, or fi'og-like animals, hoj)j)ed about, and iiave left their footprints on miry beaches now hiirdciicd into stone. 'I'lio pterodactylus, a monstrous winged cd't or tlying dragon that might have been evoked from a distempered dream, flitted in the dusk. As I'ro- fes.sor IJuckland widl observes : " With ' ' ks of such-liki; creatures Hying in the air, and shoals of ji ess monstrous iehthyo.saurl and plesiosaui'i swimming it lie ocean, and gigantic crocodiles and tortoises crawling on the shores of l»rimeval lakes and rivers, air, sea, ami hmd must have been strangely tenanted in tlic early pci-iod of our infant world." These huge and strange forms, in their then shapes, have now fiille!i out of the scheme of creation. Yet the world was not (piite so weird, excepting in reptiles, as tlu} abov(! im.igimitive summary would pic- tui'e. Many aninuils identical with existing types were to be found, as the bison, horse, boar, and ivindeer. For reasons whicli geological ehanges t'Xjdain, many of the more gruesome creatures died out in the t^uaternary period. The earth gradually became more suitable foi" the predominance of man, and Man appt-ared. But in the early period of the human race some of the monstrous beasts of the preceding period still walked abroad; and when man could not oveicome them he became their prey. The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. r \ Such then was the condition of animal life from which man had to procure his supplies of food, and from whicii ho had to protect himself. His limited strength was quite unable to cope with antagonists of bulk and fero- city, yet, wherever the line may be drawn between in- stinct and reason, he had the latter to put in competition with the propensities of the brutes. His own instinct would guide him to the idea of weapons of attack. 01)- servation would speedily teach him to select the most Huital^le in the only ponderous material he was acquainted with ; namely, stone. Brief trial would show the in- eiliciciicy of such weapons when merely thrown from the hand. We may here surmise that the next step in his reasoning would be induced by seeing that the resilient bougli of a tree bent and suddenly let go, scattered the fruit to a distance. Hand slings would naturally follow, Cutting axes and spears would succeed with jrtainty to the stone club, and other improvements, such as barbs on weapons thrown, would develop. The invention of the bow and projectile arrows, involving as it does the com- bined princii)le of the darted spear and sling, was much later in coming into use. Cunning sufficient for self-preservation is possessed and is manifested in a variety of ways by all animals accord- ing to the perils of their position, from those of the least complicated organisms to the highest of the quadrninana, or creatures with foiu- hands. The two-handed man- animal has no innate jjractical ideas beyond those of his fellows that have hands terminating every limb. Experi- ence derived from his gregarious habits carries hini ]\fan and tJ:e Mastodon. 23 Ob- 4 farther. Tliat is all. The difference, therefore, is, that man adopts and improves on the result of his past, while his congeners do not. Stealthiness and stratagem are the characteristics of the weak in every grade of animal. We naturally look then for stratagem in weak man placed in face of creatures more formidable than himself, but of which it was necessary he should make a prey. Customs of existing savages give us indication of what .such stratagems would be. A pitfall ])lace(l in the " run," or customary track, of a herd of mastodons would be apt to capture one or more of those unmanageabii' beasts, in like manner as elephants were at one time taken in India. Even the rudest tribes visited by ex- plorers have been found to be acquainted with pitfalls and spi'inges for the capture of animals that they do not dare to face openl}'. A ])itfall, it is unnecessary to say, is an artificial pit, or luitural cleft or hollow, lightly covered with boughs, so that it gives way beneath the tread, and the animal that steps on it falls in and is help- less to escape. Once in the toil, the ca])live is beaten to death with clubs. Nor would the trap for crushing large game, and which is still in use among American forest- dwellers, under the ap[)ropriate name of a " dead-fall," be unknown. This siniple but effective expedient is merely the trunk of a fallen tree placed on two props so slightly disposed that a large animal passing under displaces them and is crushed to death under the falling log. ]\Iany bears are taken in this way. Springes aie also available in primitive hunting. The " spi'ing deer-trap " is an artifice used in the Canadian woods by poachers, ■F ■^ ii ^t |i ti } M .} i r f ; ( I 24 T/ie S to fie, B rouse, and Ij-ou Ages. who tliere, as here, destroy game in and out of season. Strange as the statement may seem, cordage is one of the earliest necessities of savage life, and among the most readily procurable. Apart from sinews of slaughtered animals, strips of hide make no bad substitute for rope; and the roots of the black birch (hetnla nigra), for in- stance, furnish yards of small whip stronger than hempen cord of equal thickness ; and eveiy tangle of vines would teacli how to make knots. With seemingly inadequate means deer are still captured in wooded countries by the expedient of forcibly bending a slender tree Avith a run- ning noose attached to .a movable peg. Moss or other growth relished by deer being placed within the noose, the peg is displaced by the animal feeding, and the tree springs into an erect position, strangling tlie victim or suspending it by the antlers. Deer, horses, and other animals not ferocious could by concert of "beaters" be driven into morasses or defiles, and there slaughtered. All these stra*aa:ems were within the intelligence of pi'imitive hunters ; but whatever the method of securing live game of large size, the implements for giving the coup de grace would be clubs of stone. None of these modes of hunting would leave traces to our day, yet they Avere no doubt pursued. Indeed, early archaeology has several walks of investigation yet unexplored. We do not remember, for example, any satisfactoiy experiments yet nuide with a viev, to ascei-tain whether at any period in the prehistoric stone age })ois(ni was used on tlint arrow- tips. During tlie ages when man was contempoi-ary with the \ ]\ran and the Mastodon. 25 mastodon, his weapons of stone were much heavier than when gigantic animals liad died out and others more akin to existing types liad come in. Manufacture of the more ponderous clubs shows little skill. All were framed on the idea of a heary mace, club-headed, or roughly pointed for stabbing. Indeed, so little were they elaborated that many stones natui-ally fractured would have answered tlie purpose equally well. We give descriptions of pala'oUthic implements (so called) in a succeeding chaptei'. To sum up our notes on Man and the ^Mastodon, it has to be said that in the childhood of tlie lunnau race giant animals, suitable for food but now non-existent, were numerous over all parts of the world that i:;vv;ntigation lias yet reached. Carnivorous beasts, larger than now, warred on them, not sparing man. iMiormous and dan- gerous reptiles infested the shores and freshwater mar- gins, and other sti-ange creatures it' not dangerous wei'e ii-ritating. Among these perilous surroundings men, for a time too few to act in concert, had to procure food, for the nu)st part flesh, varied only by spontaneous vegetable productions. During a portion of the eai'ly age men lived in caves. When liumiin beings increased in num- bers until rock-shelters became too few for all, the great bulk of the race became nomadic. k \ CHAPTER IV. DOMESTIC LIFE OF XOMADIC MAX. I 1 .,? I i A Teudency to Migration inhereut. — Adoption of Clothing. — Discovery of Fire. — Methods of producing it. — How Migration was con- ducted. — Dwellings of the Noiuads. — Food. — Cuokery and Pot- tery. — Domestic Implements. — War-paint. — Occupations of Leisure. — Amusements. — Early Man as IJoiit-lisherman. — As Agriculturist.— Belief in a Future State. — These Eemarks apply only to the newer Stone Epoch. Tiiio first iiulividuals of the luimau race, ■\vhetlier they wei-e created or wei'e bred into existence, would have little di.spo.sition to remain in one place. The same feel- ing of curiosity that we oKserve in domestic animals when brought into new quarters would more powerfully induce the higher race to extend its knowledge of locality. Not that they at once set forth on definite wanderings with any special object in view. When tlie original stock had increased in number, small parties would wander afield beyond the usual limits. Man, it must be remembered, is a gregarious animal ; consefjuently the migrations, how- ever partial, would be in parties, not by individual ex- plorers. The one or more pe. ^ons who wandered off would take with them their women and families, enlarg- ing their numbers in coui'se of time by natural increase on the route. That pi'imeval men must have been con- gj Domestic Life of Nomadic Alan. V tinuously nomadic for a lengthened period is shown by their heing found in the west of Europe far from their supposed phnee of origin. The term primitive or pri- meval men is of correct application only to the race of the stone age, although those of the bronze and early iron ages ai*e equally prehistoric. In that sense we speak of " primeval men " generally as one continuous race, Iiaving throughout its course the same charactei'istics, although moditied by time and surroundings from a rudi- mentary past until they had so far advanced as to work ill iion and to lay out towns. IJesides shelter, the main wants of the race, nomad or stationary, were weajwns to procure food and clothing, and, in addition, fire. Unless we accept unreservedly the belief that tlic first hunum being was an adult created with his intellect mature, and possessing an innate knowledge of 'many subjects — a supposition to which early arclneology does nf)t lend confirmation— the mind of an inquirer can but draw inferences from the realistic data before it. .Material remains of human handiwork, that a consensus of the most acute thinkers imagines to date back to the \ery earliest dawn of the race, indicate no ])ossession of innate knowledge, but, on the contrary, a condition of emerging extremely slowly from a most rudimentary be- ginning. The subject is too august to be sui)erKcially treated, and api)ertains rather to the region of theology and revelation than a cataloguing of prehistoric facts. In accordance with the present state of anti([uarian per- ception, we therefore take as an initial point, that there \ w : I 1 . II 28 T//e Stone, Bronze, and Iron A}dc and neolithic, Older and Newer Stone Age. Ft is the so-ealled Older Age that we now contemplate. Confusion has sometimes arisen with respect to fossil remains from the loose use of the word "drift." Until 37 f '' r ^M 38 The Sione, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. . I I i of recent years the Noiicliian deluge was considered sufficient to explain the phenomena of the diluvial drift. Since that opinion pai-tially slipped out of ji^eneral belief, (^eolojury has not offered an explanation that is wholly explanatory why an era of moderate tempei-ature should be exchanged for one of glacial frigidity succeeded by a return to a condition not widely differing from that which had previously obtained, yet the indubitable testimony of the rocks bears witness that enormous rocky masses grinding upon the bed on which a glacial sea was flowing — perhaps rushing — to the southward ground themselves and the strata they passed over into viscid mud, which was left as moraines Avhen the irruption of ice thawed and retreated. Geognosts infer that these changes were caused by upheaval of the earth's surface itj the north circumpolar region or by depression else- where, Avhich latter explanation poets connect in faucy with the subsidence of the supposed submerged continent of Atlantis. The term Fresh-water drift, oi- River-gravel period, describes accurately that unknown stretch of time when the rivers were excavating the valleys and superimposing the materials they brought down on th: underlying strata. Relics of the earliest race of men Nvith which Ave are as yet acquainted are found in this fresh-watei' or river-gravel deposit. The force of a descending current of water overflowing a permeable soil may be fairly calculated, duo allowance beiuo- made for the volume and the torrential nature, much or little, of the flow. With a flow of 300 yards t The Older Stone Age. 39 n'lyin s % ■j; ll .;s -'■i per hour the water would be merely rendered tnrbid by the suspension of fine clay ; of 600 yards, would bring down sand ; 1,200 yards, fine g^ravel ; and if over two miles an hour, the tide would carry down, ic might bo to long distances, angular shingle stones as large as eggs, and would wear the edges off them, together with any articles of inconsiderable specific weight caught on tlio bank in the overflow. Where sinuosities of channel checked the flow, or whore eddies occurred, the drift tliiit was being borne onwards would subside, while tiio lighter earthy particles would be carried away to form an alluvial deposit farther down stream when the watei's should fall. Repeated overflows might again catch up the gravel where deposited by the first flood and convey it yet farther, until checked by some permanent obstacle, or until the deepening of the channel, or perhaps a change of coui-se in the waterway, should leave the drift high and dry. All evidence points to the certainty that men then lived in the valleys, following the course of streams margined bv meadows on which the larcfo graminivoriB pastured. In sudden inundations dead bodies of men or other animals overtaken by the flood would be carried onward to tlio sea or be east ashore and would decay, while indestructible flint implements swept from lodges on the banks w^ould be caught in the river gravels, and after vast periods of time give indis- putable evidence, as they have done within the past few years, of the existence of man in the most remote antiquity. For no flood could bring down stones, wrought or unwrought, that did not exist within the area of ITT i ■ \: I ' ■■ I ^ h i 40 T/ie Stone, Brojiac, and Iron Ages. drainapi'o ; and if bones of animals of ^I'cat size, now extinct, are found embedded with the handiwork of man, no furtlier proof is required that such animals likewise existed within tiie same drainasre area at the time when inundation carried man's implements away. The cii'cumstance that few human remains are found in the gravel deposits, althonoh bones of the largei- extinct animiils are not uncommon, has not escaped notice. Several suppositions have been advanced to account for the absence of tlie bones of man, although the presence of these Avould alford no more proof of his co-existence than are his handiworks. There does not appear difiiculty in tlie explanation. Inundations certainly I'ose with rapidity and force, otlierwiso they would not have swept away the gravel of the banks with man's magazine of flints, and no doubt his other possessions, if he had any ; but in all probability chance means of escape from tlie flood were available to himself that would not suit heavy wild animals. Allowing that some human beings were drowned in these floods, as no doubt they wei-e, their lightei" bodies would be carried downwards to the sea, and would not ground in the shallows as the bulky and ponderous corpse of a mastodon, for instance, would. A distinguished anti- quary has pointed out in this connection, that, so far as yet searched, the relic-bearing gravel beds contain the remains of no animal so small as man. The question here arises. When were these implements of flint, the evident handivvoi'k of man, deposited in the gravel-drift in which they are found ? So great a lapse 1- , n Tlie Older Stone Anslu'(l witli bilmiulcnl foi'ce. Ribs of the Tnastodoii liavo liccn found scjifird with stubs fi-om such spciU's. In •. h r of Older Stone Ago, 7 x ^J inches. iiddition to sliafted weapons a formidable ai-m (fiu-. 7), jointly el lib and spear, is not unconinion, in which a large nodule of flint has bt sharpened into a stabbing- so The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. tool, but with the crust of the pebble left to be held in the hand. The blows given by such a weapon would be severe. Ardour sometimes misleads into the belief that one has found an implement of antiquity when such is not the case. This has occurred in the article of sling-stones and pebble-hammers, it being so difficult to select from a bed of water- worn stones such as may have been used for either purpose. Indeed, it is not always easy to decide at first glance whether some angular ma.ss of Hint has really been an antique club, or merely a stone acci- dentally fractured in that shape. Nevertheless, pebbles must certaiTily have been used as hammers in the chipping of flint ; and the strong probability is, that slings for casting stones were known. As, however, any flat stone up to three inches in length would do for a projectile, it is little likely fliat chipped flints, such as may be occasionally seen in museums, labelled " sling stones," were specially chipped for that purpose. It will be observed from the tigures engraved in this and the chapter on Celts that the weapons of the Older 8tone Age are all round-backed or spear-pointed for bruising or stabbing, while those of the sub-period that goes by the name of the Newer Age are of axe-shape, adapted to cutting or cleaving. This fact alone typifies a great advance in the requirements of every-day life. The number of uses to which a cutting tool can be put ar(> many, and each requirement indicates an additional want and a further expansion of intelligence. Limited as the wants of men of the river diift must The Older Stone Age. 51 have been, they could not liavo been wholly without some kiiul of what may be called domestic implements. Ed^ed flints for skinninfj carcases, flint knives, borers, and other rude tools of the Later Stone Aj^o have been found in great numbers. The older race, no doubt, had the same requirements that these were intended to All ; but such small articles, being brittle, could scarcely bo found unbroken in the layers of stones brought down by- torrents. In absence of flints for scraping and dressing skin, we are oi^en to infer that human beings of the time had no other clothing than wraps of hide. There is perceivable a link amissing in the gradation of man's development between the Older and Newer Stone Age, but which further discoveries may supply. At present it is imperfectly outlined in the history of the Cave-dwellers. CHAPTER VI. CA VE-DWKLLJ'JIi^S. II I ^ BlUTAlN. Cave Population not largp. — Probably fluctuating. — Classification of relic-bearing Caves. — Reading of the Caves. — Mammoth Remains therein. — Dog ami domesticated Animals, Datt of. — Kent's, Brix- ham. Bacon's Hole, and other British Caves. — The Relics found therein analogous to those of the River Drift. L\ pursuiiif^ our subject ovoi' tlio unknown lenfrth of time duriut^ which at least a portion of the then existent human race made their liabitations in hollows of the rocks, it may be well to '(uard ai,'ainst the misconception that is apt to arise from usin<^ the expression " the Cave- dwellers" vaguely. That term is in itself prefei*able to the word "Troglodytes," which carries a savour of classic myth with it. The loose use of either appellation might convey the impression that all the race of remote an- ti(|uity had their dwellings in the rocks. This would not only have been impossible in point of space, but is at variance with what is accepted as sufficient evidence to the conti'ary. Limestone or other caverns were limited in number and dimensions — some of them being mere clefts. That many caves wei-e occupied as headquarters by successive bodies of men is proved beyond controversy ; 5a -r Cave-DivcUers. 53 ion of mains Brix- fouud til of stent f tho ptioii Cave- le to lassie night an- ould )ut is donee mi ted mere art era ,ersy ; ])nt in speaking' of tlio cavo-dwellers and the vcstifros of tlieii" rosi(ien('es, we must bear in mind tliat almost no triven eave wonld cfnitain at its fullest habitable eaparity more than a score or two of people, or the population of a small villiii»'e. At the same time even these few have left ns siitlicient evidence as to what was theii* manner of life. When ci-amped for room, the caves would give off swarms, the records of whicli' would be lost. Information given by caves once inhanited is there- fore that of the family, or at nioirt of small clans, not necessarily identical in all respects with the bulk of a people. Thus there always e.visted two concurrent branches of population ; namely, the tenants in caves and tlie dwcllci-s in the open. Tlie relics of the latter, scattered over the surface of the earth in the course of their nomadic life, offer us no continuous story, while from the memoi-anda li'ft us we can i'ej>ro(lu(;e cave-life with suflicient accuracy. The reading of the caves is indeed so clear that it leaves no room for error of much importance. Its weakest point is in assuming too I'oadily that the same individuals and their descendants con- tinued to live for long stretches of yefirs in the same caves, ovei'looking the much more likely probability that these convenient refuges had suc(;essions of tenaiits. It is (|uite cei'tain that if a (;ave suited the men of the valley, they wonld occupy it as a centre foi* their pursuit of game, and when sucsh ceased to b(> the case would abandon it, the same cavt; being liable to be again lodged in by the same or other persons, each occupancy leaving traces aftei* intervals of we know not how many ll I' 54 The Stone, Ih-on::e, and Iron Ages. years. The fact of such successive Avayfaring-s would reiulei- easy of explanation the slight variations noticeahlo in the i-elics from adjacent caves, and makes it safe to regard tlio measure of intelh'genco shown by the cave- dwellei's as tliat of the general race of the period. Ossiferous or relic-bearing caves, chambered or sinuons, are found in various places of both hemispheres, being mostlv natunil hollows in rocks of calcareous formation, especially oolitic limestone; hence with reference to ai'cha"- ology that rock is spoken of as "cavern limestone." Not all ossiferous caves contaiji relics of man and other animals in like I'elations. Some i^ock clefts have been no more than dens of wild beasts, such as hyenas, beai's, and cave-lions, and are low found to be flooi-ed with fi'ag- ments of gnawed bones, but none of man. Others have given nj) pieces of human l)ones, generally few in number, commingled with other gnawed remains, fi"om which it is not to be inferi'ed that man lived in that cave, but tnat lie had fallen a victim to its ferocious tenant. Next, the lai'ge number of caves that have served as the habi- tations of huntei^s wlio have left beliind tliem remains of existing and extinct animals of tlie chase, but no human remains, it being natural to suppose that the residents would I'cmove their dead from the presence of the living. Lastly, some few caves have been unearthed "wherein the dead were specially deposited. Indestrui Mblo specimens of man's handiwork have been found abnndanlly in caves. These relics range from rougldy chipped stone clubs up to artistically fashioned im[)lements of metal, thus showing the vast Cavc-Dii'cllers. 5i stretch of time during' Avhicli caverns were occupied, cither periodically or continuously, as human liabitations. Whether some of the rock hollows were packed with the matter they contain by the action of water flooding^ or pei'colating throug-li them is a matter of detail aifect- ing individual caverns. Sometimes on the original horizontal or sloping floor of limestone lies a stratum of washed pebbles deposited there while the cavern was being excavated by the joint influences of air and water. Over this lie layers, more or less stratified, of red or yellowish soil known as "bono earth," "relic bed," or " arclh'vological sti-atum," in which relics of man are found at different depths. Wlien lime is commingled with this earth, it forms a hard cement, or conglomerate, s{)()ke!i of as a " breccia." Sometimes in the slow progress of very many years a floor of stalagmite has formed over and shuts in the record of the cave. Gene- rally the relic-bones and implements lie without order throughout the bone earth. Such then are the fields in Avhich airhrt'ology laboui-s, and the self-imposed fatigues and indomitable })ersever- .ance of such men as Sehmcriiiig and a host of others teach that physical toil is as necessary as enthusiasm in nt floor of encrusted lime lias handed tlio osseous re7nains down to us in compU.te preservation, and recognisable beyond room for doubt. W w^ m% Fig. 10. Pin and noo.llo of bone. An interesting feature of Kent's is tl.at two distinct eras ,n man's history are brought before ns in conhnst. The earlier sojourners in the cav(. were associated-as lias been said-with the giant mammals that had beeon.e extmct before a second colony of human beings came to occupy the cave at a level above the buried relies .,f the m 60 T/w Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. J' i lirst (Iwi'llt'rs. Tlio hocoikI incomers iii'c; associated, not with pfitjantic i-emnina, but with bones of a lesser fauna, KU(!h as exists at the present day, but not any domesti- cated animals, such as the ox or do<;. Ifere we have an indication that the date when the d()<( became the friend of ]Jritish man, and hu n»Hixtnnt in huntinq, was not until after the bronze; w^a was some time advanccul. The Aveapons with which the later party slaupfhtei-ed this lesser game were of metal, a gieat improvement over the former heavy masses of stone, and therefore rendering? it easier to procure a steady supply of food. This easy su|)ply, joined to the fjict that abundance invariably induces indolence in the savage, rendering the exertions of nomadic life less welcome, may have been an induce- nu'iit for a party to protract its stay under the roof of rock; but persistent living in caves from generation to generation lacks much proof befoj-e It can be accepted as the normal mode of life of anvthing bevond wandei'ing ])arties of tlie race. Septs of different habits, and perhaps of different speech, would have evolved dui'ing the long period of the stone age, so that it by no means follows that any given cave was occupied continuously even by tlie same family type. Hunters at dilTerent dates might nuxke it their (juai'ters for a time, deserting it when game ran short or for other reasoji, and .again returning to it when circumstances changed. Among many able and. ingenious arclnvological essays, we have not met with any attempt to estimate for how long any one cave was iidiabited, or by what number of jx'ople, and yet this might be vngnely shadowed by approximating the quan- I Cave-DiJcUcrs. G\ H'liaps Ion-,' lllows n by |iif?lifc i^ame hear. bones of Ited loam 1") feet thick, mammoth and other with dint iiuplemeuts aud Riant quadrupeds. boues of Gravel, 20 ftn-t in depth, in which were tliut Hakes and a f fragments of bone, unrecoiiiiisablo. t;w Floor of cave. The wrouo-ht flints found in this cave (says ^[r. John Evans, F.A.S., the best authoi-ity on ])aheolithic relies,) are identical with tlioso found in other caves where the implements are analogous to those of the ancient river gravels. w i] »'■'■ 02 The Stoiu\ Bronze^ and Iron Ages. Several othoi* caverns associated with the longer or shorter sojourn of uncivilized men who have left traces that wo can recoj^nise and reason from, have boon iu- vfstij^ated in other parts of Britain. In ilyeua Uen, so called, near Wells, ruilely fashioned spear-heads closely resoinblinj^ those of the river drift, hut of smaller size, have been found, alonj^ with a fauna similar to Kent's. Xear Tenby, in Pembrokeshire, other Hint and mammoth- bearing caves have been examined, liacon's Hole, a cave in Glamorganshire, e.vplored by Dr. Falconer, and by him re[)orted to the Geological Society, exhibits a section not much dissimilar from Kent's: — Superficial earth, in whicli were bones of ox, horse, and deer, also wolf; with frii«inejits of British pottery. One foot of irregular stalagmite. Two feet of limestone rubbish, with bones of bear, also ox. One foot of irregular stalagmite. Two feet of earthy and sandy rubbish, with boues of bear, also hyena and wolf, aud of elephant, rhinoceros, bison, and deer. A thin layer of stalagmite. Limestone floor of cave, covered with a few inches of marine Hand. wm Cavi.-D:\.r a short time only, the bones found bt!ir\i»; those of animals of the chase, of types now cxistim^ and that are usually hunted in tho open tii'hl. TIk; FraL,'meuts of domestic pottery would indicate at onc(! a miLfratory party and the presence of women. Xo human osseous remains. .Several other cave explorations iu various parts of tho kin -k rn.vpTER vir. CA VE-D WI:L L i:nS {cnntinuo Reae Tropics. — Summary. niMiAi'KH scope exists for tlie stndv of oiives on tlie conii- ju'iit of Europe than in Hritain. Williin the hnlf-eentury or so tliat lias ehipsed since eai'ly archa3oIoeii to disclose a similarity in tiic jtrodncits of cavi's all over i'Jii'ope, showino' habits of life inoic rugged in the cave- dwellei's than were afterwaids exhibited by dwelJer.s in th(> open ail', hi course of the changes on tlii' earth's sui'face th.it substituted a newer fauna tVu* (he older "V m '-!" »! I < , I ! 66 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. •mammalia, the handiwoi-ks of man, made in imporisliablo stono, showed h'tth) modification in .shape or use, until by a sudden leap is presented tlie more skilful workmanship of the Newer Stone. Two districts, one in the nortli and the other in the south of Fi'anoe, olTor i-Ich archnoolor^'ical ground. That in the north is tlict valley of the river Somme, fertile in orchards, meadows, and corn lands. Many wrouij^ht flints have been found in the drift-beds. The.se are in general \y>\"^' rudimentary, being almost identical with those obtained from the earliest river-gravels, and of two forms, the first resembling rude spear-heads, the other almond-shaped and shai'pened all round. These last are known as "hatchets" (from hrtrJipffo, a little axe) — a misnomer, foi* they are little adapted to use as axes. Tht'v may, however, have b(>en used as chopping imple- ments if fastened in a cleft handle. The lanceolate form is iiKu-e common n(>ar Amiens, especially at St. Acheul ; the disc-shapcil near Ablx'ville. fn 18.")'.) (liseovtM'i(>s by Mons. Houcher de Perthes attracted the attention of I'liii^-lish antiiiuarians to a locality of even greater iiitei-est in the valley of the Vezere, an alTluentof the Dordogne flowing through the vineyards and nuflields of the land dear to medianal poetry and romauco as the Province of Aquitaine. These caves were jointly explored by ^f. Mdouard Lartet and ^\v. Henry Christy, both of whom died before their labours 'were fully appi'cciatetl. These caves, as well as many siiiular in lielgium and elsewhere, coiifuin liltk' l)eyond the bones of animals that had served for human food, wilh lost < » Cave- Dwell as. ^V and waste tools and utonsils. Nevortlioless, tliore is considerable vai'ioty in the relies taken from the respect- ive pits. oi'in Mil ; 'lies o a '.ITC, irds and •(M'O ■wry ■010 ar lies ost M' ; I/'" m '/r' ■^ Fic. 11. Section of Imtcliot, A slzf, St. Aclicul, .Vniicns. Some FiMMieli archasolofrists have devised a classificiition f>f tlie Aqnitainc oaves l)y wliioli a soqueiioe in f)i'(lor of time is intended to be su<^i^estcd by observiii!^ the form i'^ :(..-! I rv I iv 68 T/ic Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. and workmanship of (he implements rather than the non-identity of the animal remains. Remeniberin<»' that an ehaborate chissifieation, unh'ss it deals with differences well defined, is moi-e apt to cause than to prevent obscuritv-, the followinj^' ai'e the groups into which the caves in the south of France are arran(^(>(l : — 1. Caves produoinu; lar<,'o ovato-laiiceolato imjilements, spear-like or round-headed, dilTerinj; little from those of the river drift. No worked bone, llemains of mammoth and hyena compai'atively abundant; reindeer fe'^v. No bii'ds nor fish, Of these ai'e the caves of Le Moustier, Peysac, Doi-dogne ; and in Belyfinm the lower deposit of the cavern of Goyet, and some of the caves of the Lesse, an aflfluent of the Meuse. 2. Caves wherein the worked flints, chiefl}'' lanceolate, ai-e smaller ajul more neatly chipped than in No. 1, some beinj]^ lozencfe and leaf-shaped, resembling neolithic arrow-heads. A few lance-heads of bone. Of mammoth, no i-emains excepting a few teeth. Keindeer and hoi-se abundant. Of these are Laugerie Haute and Tayac, on theDordogne; also Solutre, in the de])artment of Saone and I.oii^e. H. Caves ])roducing no drift lanceolate forms ; hatchets roughly chipped ; edged scrapers nnmei'ons. Bone and horn implements more plentiful than in No. 2, in lance and dart-heads, but not barbed. A taste for ornamenta- tion traceable in trimmed deers' horns, iilso bored teeth and shells. Tusks of rhinoceros and elephant seemingly collected and brought there. Remains of horse more plentiful than reindeer. To this supposed age some have Cave-Divellcrs. 69 .issignuil the ciivu of Cro'niii|;;iion (wherein human ro- iiiiiiiis were found), in tlie vuUey of the Ve/ere, and (but d(jul)tful) the celebrated burial cave of Auri<,'nae in the JIaut Garonne, — of which more hereafter. In Helufiuia the Trou du Sureau at Montaii'le ii. assii^ned to this t^roup. Fui. I'J. Edged scraper. \. Caves cliaracterized by long' flint flakes and scrapers. In some caves flint saws, also hammer-stones and hones. Barbed dart-heads of bono ami horn, and eyed needles. Taste for ornamentation further developed ; attempts at engraving figures of animals, — a degree of skill that seems later to have been lost or to have stood still, lie- mains of reindeer j)redominating. Bones of birds and fish abundant. Of this date are the caves of J^a Made- laine, Turzac, Les Eyzies, Laugerie ]Jasse, and others, also the rock shelter of Bruniquel in the Tarn-et-Garonne. *;l i ! ;o The Stone, Brouse^ and Iron Ai:;es. >ii \ \\ v \\\ Bel»,nuni, Chal(!ux and the U2)per layer of the cavern of Goyet. To this aj^o belong the most proliHc and interesting arclueological grounds of Southern France. Although the classification of the French caves given above certainly indicates a ditt'erence in era of occupa- tion, the (piestion of continuous residence is no more settled thereby than it is by the cave relics of Britain. The cave of Le Aloustier, for instance, could not have been the dwelling of man later than about the time the reindeer came in. In Solutre man did not come until reindeer was the main food. Hunters .sought the cave of Cro'maitin while reindeer were still plentiful, and herds of wild hoi-ses were available as food suj)i>ly ; wliile La !Madelaine was taken possession of when the reindcei were beginning to i-ctreat northward, and the supply of food had to be Kupj)lcnientcd by fishing and fowling, water-fowl being killed by sling-stones and barbed darts of bone, oOU of which last were found beneatli a stalag- mite floor in the cave of IJi-uniquel. IJy the time the now existing type of game became established, the necessity for hunters occupying the caves ceased. They would thereafter have to follow their game in the open field. As we have already sutliciently implied in our i-emarks on Ib'itish caves, the sc^anty evidence olTered (amounting to little more than supposition) does not overcome the unlikelihood of any cave having been the permanent I'esidence of any tribe, or section of a tribe, for long periods of time, say foi' many consecutive centuries. The idea is Avell founded, that the men of the time of Hi Cavc-Divcllcrs. 71 stone liad few wants beyond a j)lentiful supply of animal food, and it is elear that permanent residenee in otic spot would thin the game. ^luch more likely to imagine that jiarties of hunters, j)erhaps lai'ge, would follow the tra(,'k of animals of the chase as the American Indians did the buffalo, and the caves that fell in their way be occupied (} Fid, 13. Barbed spear, DorJogne. Length 9 inches, stem J, bone. temporarily by successive parties. It is true that some of these parties might have protracted their stay as Ion"- as land animals continued plenty in the vicinity, especially as salmon could be easily caplai-ed on the shallow!?, as in the Vezei-e and Dordogne, by means of the biu-bed spears we know they ])ossessed. Another point lied and re- j)lenisheil the earth " at all under a continual drain by hostility. This rei^ni of the str()!i<^est must be taken into account in picturing the possible dwellers in caves. To occupy any one spot foi' a lon<^ time implies peace anil safety that do not seem to have been the characteristics of early (or of any) sava^'ery. If therefore caves were desirable i-esidences, — althoui^h, as we have shown, they could only have been so as lonif as i,'ame lasted near them, — they would be seized by the stron,uest parties on the huntinj^ patli, and by them held only for such time as desirable. In those days the whole face of the country of forest and morass would not be penetrable in every direction, either to the hunters or to the ^'ame they pursueil. Limestone cliffs presup|)ose valleys, and valleys indicate streams, within reach of which <^ame would be found. There would therefore be di'linite hunting-routes, maiidy following the water-courses. With this clue to guide our rea.soning, it would appe.ir more ratiomil to sup- |»ose that caves along the routes were temporarily occu- pied at longer or shorter intervals by successive ]»arties than that a pernument population dwelt peaceably in the obscurity of caves of limited e.vtent for so numy hundreds Cavc-DiveUers. 73 the as I try •luy ley ey.s 1)0 :c's, to up- 13 U- ius he riLs of years that the fauo of the woi-hl (rhan<,''e(l, uiul whole races of wild auiiiials porisheil, while totally ilitYereiit ty|)i'S iiii<^rate(l iti their room. Successive occupation would explain dilTereiices in the relics from individual caves, which, althoujifh s!i, and mn IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I m III 2 8 ||2.5 i50 111^ k4£ iU II 2.2 18J IIU II = m 2.0 1.8 1-25 1.4 ! 1.6 ., (,« *. ^ e". >> tt, and was pi-obahly used for spearing in mud. The sm')]!, nently chipped lance- hoad (fig. 15), found in a cave of tlie Dordogne date, must have been fasliioned for some special purpose. It is too slender to be serviceable in any serious encounter, and too heavy for projection, excepting it might bo as a light dart. AVhen working in bone became common, the use of im])lements of that material was greatly extended, but not to the exclusion of flint. Fig. 1(3 represents a bone whistle n ■ii. hi |.:| Fio. 10. Bone whistle, Dordogne. found in a cave of the Yezere. It is somewhat singular that the dwellers in the Aquit^ine caves seem to have been ignorant of pottery, at least no fragments showing an acquaintance with it have been discovered. The summary of all cave exploration is that in one pei'iod of the Older Stone Age in both continents,— but whether at one and the same time in poitit of date we Cave-Divelleys. 79 Imre no means of knowing- _,non of a low order of nitellio-cnce had their occasional, if not permanent, habita- tions in Shelters of the rocks; and in pursuing our subject it will be seen that there certainly appears a g,p in the scale of gradation between the close of the cave era and an advanced system of weapons in whieh Ijo-l.t projectiles form the leading feature, thereby showTng that there had been in the interim the vital invention o'f the bow and arrows. Whether this v.st improvement, so applicable to the changed conditions of hunting, arose' as some have supposed, from large streams of immigration flowing from the East and bringing a hiirher step in civilization, or whether European aborigines had aban- doned cave life for so long a time that they themselves originated the improvements, it is not here' necessary to determine. Suffice that the clumsy palaeolithic manufac- ture of flint was completely superseded by the n^orc skilful chipping and design of lighter implements, whieh HI their turn were improved into handsome articles polished and perforated. It is this neolithic age we now proceed to consider. i '. Ill ii CHAPTER VTIT. ■! ♦: :ti! |(ib < If 1' l! » ]\ ^i„,. 'S K^p^;^^''^^ or tintr r,-^/0 Fig. 24. Edges of celts. Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Devon, Suffolk, and some other counties. Fig. 24, of porphyritic greenstone from Cambridgeshire, conveys a good idea of the polished celt. Occasionally a specimen occurs of a much-elongated shape, almost resembling a modern broad-chisel. A few I'are instances, all small, bear a resemblance to a Roman lictor's axe, and are spoken of as " the Amazon axe," but the name is misleading. They have been found in Yorkshire. This form on a larger scale is common in Denmark. m 88 The Stone^ Bronae, and Iron Ages. Uuboied two-odged a\es with both edges ground may have been held in the hand as tools rather than shafted for offence. At the same time the less unwieldy of them, if hafted, would have made effective weapons of combat. Two of great size, one of greenstone, 13 inches Fig. 25. Polished celt. in length by 8 in width and 2 in thickness, and another similar of porphyry, nearly 4 inches in width, are in the Edinburgh Antiquarian Museum. These would be serviceable implements in hollowing logs for boats ("dug-outs"), and may have been made with that view. Other celt-shaped tools, yet more ponderous, unpolished, % «' ■ Nt'iver Stone Age. 89 with one end ground to an edge and weighing up to six pounds or more, have been recovered from various parts of tlie kingdom. Specimens range from a foot to a foot and a half in length. One found in Laneasliire weighs G| lbs., and another roughly chipped Danish celt G lbs. 14! oz. Such masses of stone are obviously too ungainly to be used as weapons, and are therefore correctly known as " wedges," their intention being evitlently for cleavage. In this connection may be mentioned certain large imple- ments that some antiquarians have regarded as weights f(.tr anclioring fishing-lines, and others as crushing- hammers used in mining operaiions after the discovery of metallic ores. They are equally adapted to either purpose. These heavy objects, in weight forty pounds and upwai'ds, are merely pebbles or blocks of stone roughly cylindrical, with a channel cut around the middle as a groove for the rope to which they were attached. Most of them have been found in districts where ancient mining operations are shown to have been cai'ried on, although they have also been discovered near the sea- coast. Their mode of use as crushing-hammers might have been by pulling and relaxing a rope to whicii they were geared over a fixed bar as a substitute for a pulley, thus letting fall a succession of heavy blows on pieces of ore spread beneath on a rock bed. If as anch(jrs, their weight would bo none too great in a channel-way; and theii" use for such purpose, if correctly surmised, would show that men of the time had boats that ]»ut to sea, and that they drew a part of their subsistence fro'ii the water. ' ! % if FfTf 90 T/ie Stone, Broiizc, and Iron Ages. i \, AV^e now arrive .'it a period in the relics of the stone age ■vs'hen polished celts and other implements were perforated ■with socket-holes. Not many have been found of bored flint, bnt many of metamorphic and other rock. These belon*'' exclusivelv to the later stayc of the Newer Stone Age, and show a great advance in eye for form, as well as considerable calculation and mechanical expedient. An amateur carver would find it puzzling if required to bore a hole tln'ouL;'!! stone some inches in tliickness without the aid of metal tools. Yet this was what the ai'tihcers of the Later Stone Age did, and they have left highl}'^ ingenious specimens of their work. J'^xperiments, liowever, made by archoeologists as to the practicability of the boi'ing process, show that it is practicable in one of three ways — by picking, by grinding, and by di-illing. All these processes can be accomplished by a mere sharp- pointed splinter of flint, or l)y a rod of Avood or bone used in different ways. Any one of these methods, or all of them united on one specimen, i-equired a vast expenditure of patient Avork. Trials sIioav that if the shining surface of flint is roughened by the a])plication of sand, a sharp triangular-])ointed pencil of the same is capable of making scratches on the face of the material worked on, in like manner as a diamond scratches glass. This scratching or engi-aving process being kept up by a succession of sharp etchings, until tlie exact dimensions of the proposed socket-hole is sunk one eighth of an inch or more beneath the surface of the stone, a " rubber " of wood that Avill turn freely in the groove is substituted. Sharp sand and water beinsT renewed as required, the rubber is rotated ^'i Newer Stone Age. 91 rapidly, either completely around or in a half-circle by the palms of the hands. The hole with a smooth floor as it descends in depth is thus literally ground t in process of time. Time, however, was of little importance in a state of life whei-e so crude a species of manufactui*e could obtain. AVe can judge from existing specimens that a further improvement, or at least another method, was sometimes resorted to by boring out and extracting a core instead of grinding an open tubular hole. This was evidently done by rotating an ox-hoi-n or other tube with sand and water, instead of a solid wooden rubber. The effect of this ingenious device was to excavate a circular trench around the core instead of wearing down the whole floor at once. Generally the socket-holes are larger on eithei- face of the stone, as might be expected, for the rotation being made by hand there would be room for play near the sui-face, and the hole would become of hour-glass shape. The fact that pottery cotemporancous with perforated axes is all hand-made, and not turned on a lathe, precludes the idea that pei'f oration was effected by means of that appliance. The reasoning, too, leading to the belief that weapons could be impi-oved, was easy. Hitherto the weakest part of a fitted axe was at the insertion of the head in a cleft stick, notwithstanding that it was bound with ligatures of wet hide that con- tracted in drying, and was additionally secured by vegetable mastic, yet the junction would not stand a succession of heavy blows without loosening at the joint. This, it was apparent, could be overcome if it wei'O possible to bore a hole through the head itself and tit a ' 1 ■■4 m\ 92 The Stone, Brofiae, and Iron Ac;cs. shaft directly through it. And in time it was discovered how this couhl be done. The discoveiy of perforating stone witliout the aid of metal tools opened a ncAV phase in tlie processes of manual art. From the addition;il hibour bestowed, weapons became of more pretentions linish. Shape evidently became attended to, as a quality pleasing to the eye and as thereby increasing the value. Hence some of the implements of the time are on lines that may be called graceful. Most of the highly finished and bored celts found in Britain, and still more on the Continent, are assigned to a time when bronze was already beginning to be known. This might in part acccjuut, but would not altogether account, for the improvement of shapes in stone, for few of the stone-workers would have had a chance of seeing the less clumsy patterns in metal. At all events in these perforated and polished weapons and implements, we are placed in presence of the highest develoi)ment that man's ingenuity wns capable of at the time with the crude materials within his reach, until the art of smelting and hammering ores opened to his intelligence a field that has not yet been exhaiasted. The commonest form of bored celt is given in tig. 2G, Fig. 2G. T Newer Stone Age. 93 Wlien of full size it would bo from 5 to 7 inches in leiigtli, with socket-hole of sufficient bore to hold the shjift firmly, especially when wedi^ed with a collar of deer's horn. More fanciful shapes are met with, as for example in fig*. 27, of serpentine, found in the Thames and now in the British Museum. Fir,. 27. Serpentine, \ size. rl Two-edood eelfs in several variations of form were likewise perforated. Usually they present a lozen^-e form when viewed from above, with the socket placed midway between the two ends. Instances of this type are found in ]']l1^•lan(l, Scotland, Sweden, Hanover, and France. The Sussex Archaeological Society has published an engraving of a beautifully designed, boat-shaped, double-edged axc-liead of ironstone, 5 inches in length by 2 in width. Others not much dissimilar liave been obtained from Yorkshire, Dei-by, Worcester, and Wilts. Looking through any extensive collection, it cannot fail to be observed that the form of the celt was gradually drawing towards the idea of a hammer for tlio perfor- mance of li'j:hter work. In liis first stage man had no :i' 1.. m ^' 94 Tlie StonCf Bronze, and Iron Ages. v.ariety of tf)ols, and needed none. To force a simile, it may be said that the man of one tool is like the man of one book — he has his one craft always at his finger-ends. This is well illustrated by the one tool of the Canadian "lumberer" (woodman), who with his steel axe, of three pounds and upwards in weight, equally fells giant trees by delivering blows within a hairbi'eadth with the precision of a machine, or shapes any form of deal by a few pats of the edge, or carves some toy for his children. The multiplicity of uses he puts it to must have been rivalled by early man ; and when the latter found that he wanted a diversity of tools, such as lighter hammering implements that would drive pins, bolts, and so forth, it clearly indi- cates an expansion of his industry and an enlargement of his views. This gave rise to the new class of domestic implements that may be called indifferently " hatchet- hammers," or " hammer-hatchets." Genetally they are of lesser size than celts, ranging from 2.t to 5 inches in length, and of different weights. Doubtljss they had become necessary as carpenters* tools for joining materials in wood\v'ork. There is no fixed design for these imple- ments, and great skill must have been required to make this form of axe. Leaving out of account the question whether the steps of improvement wei'o always consecutive, the intelligent reader cannot have failed to see by the sketches that illustrate these pages that the work of earlier men had a tendency — slow as it might be — to approach towards ornamentation. Whereas the practical forms of his workmanship were determined by the demands upon Nczvcf Stone Ajrc 95 them and became of general adoption, tlie ornamentation expended arose from the special taste of that person or portion, hirge or small, of that people by whom it was attempted, and hence possesses a certain individuality. An identity of shape and use of necessary handiwork throughout the race may therefore be looked for, but not an identity of ornamentation. Herein is opened a vast field of research that we believe has not yet been adequately entered npon by ethnologists; namely, to prepare charts of districts in which one type and kinil of ornamentation can be traced in the antique relics. The study of early archeology is, as we have said, but young, the past misty but clearing, and the opening vist^a boundless. ]\[any more years of close observation, and many observers, will bo required before attaining clear and comprehensive results ; but may we venture to believe that the clue to man's early migrations will be found by tracing and following up the comparative degrees of ornamentation. . ' ''lie m ;' If iiC: wm memetr I i f : •' 11 CHAPTER TX. xi':]vi':n sroxi-: agk {^'ontinued). Lan'cks, Darts, DAcKii-.Ks, and Arrows. Sinallor Weajions of the Chase indicate smaller Game. — Tlioory of Spears. — Meusuremeut and Weight of Spear-heads. — Materials of uliich made. — Lauee-shafts. — Javelins. — Ethcacy depended on "WuiKlitandliobiistness of Make. — Shields. — Daggers, British and Danish.— Arrows.-— Invention of Archery. — Its great Importance to Early ]Man. — Progressive Steps therein — Classification of Arrow-heads. — Did Early Man poison his Arrow-tips ? — Singular Miniature Arrows of Mound-builders in Writer's Collection. In a state of life wlieie food ha.s to be obtained by hunt- injy, the most impoi-tant weapons of the chase are missiles, — tliat is to say, aiTows, — excepting where the hunters are mounted, as the Indians of the American prairies and pampas are. Unless under these circumstances, close encounters -within arm's length are comparatively in- frequent. Hence the interest in studying the arrows of the neolithic ago, for careful search has failed to find any of the palivolithic. The general use of light spears and aiTOws indicates a change at once in the mode of attack and in the quarry to be attacked. It proclaims to us that the game to be pursued was of lesser size tlian when ponderous pikes were necessary to slay it ; and, besides, that greater t Ncivcr Stone Age. 97 close ill- 's of any agility was required in close engagement with light cut- ting implements that had to be used either as projectiles or held in the hand, and, yet further, that tho animals, being swifter or more timid tlian of old, were diflicult of approach, and had to bo reached from a distance. Hence rough stabbing implements of some pounds weiglit came to be superseded by sharp, slender lances weighing but a few ounces, and arrow-heads of slight VN'eight. A number of spears put on the scales from the writer's collection give an average weight for small spear-heads 2} ounces, measurement 3 to 4 inches, full size 5 to 5j inches, and weight ranging upwards from 2| ounces, according to the density of the stone. An average British specimen would be about 5 to 7 inches in length of blade, with a greatest width of one-third of that length, and in thick- ness from half an inch, or more, declining to an edge, either chipped or with the point, but rarely the edge, ground. Lance-heads of great length have been found in various parts of the Continent. One from Mons, in Bel- gium, where was a factory of stone arms, is lOj inches in the blade, and elsewhere othex-s approximate to that length. Some of yet longer measui-ement that have been mentioned, but not described, are of doubtful authen- ticity. The theory of a lance-head is, that its line of centre, or backbone so to si^eak, should be strengthened by a ridge of greater thickness from which the material is fined away to the point and edges at a greater or less angle of decli- nation. From want of skill, or stubbornness of material, this intention is not always carried out ; but it may :.^i I !, i :Pi 'I 'm I n ? H 98 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. I generally be traced, especially in javelins, whero the shock of the striking blow requii'es stronger niatei'ial than in the lighter spear. An estimate of this greater robustness of make will sometimes assist in assigning a specimen to its proper class, whether of spear or unbai-bod dart. It Is well to guard against too great refinement of classification whero tlie implements to be classified are 80 few — namely, spear, dart, arrow, and dagger — all of which run into each other both in shape and use. Spears (as we have said) were intendeol for light work in close encounter, and for ra{)id blows given from the point against a yielding substance. For this purpose a sharp flint would be sufficiently penetrating, and three inches depth of stab, or less, would kill. The length of the stone head would not represent the whole power of shafted weapons. Driven with force, a length of the shaft itself would penetrate the wound. Hence these primitive huntsmen, when they became fighting men and turned their spears against each other, wore much more formidable than a cur.sory glance at their seemingly puny weapons would lead moderns to suppose. If, as is likely, each individual owner of arms posses.sed skill enough to chip his own axe, speai', or arrow, it would supply him with a lazy industry in the intervals between huntings. One celt might be sufficient for one individual's equip, ment, but there was no i-eason why he should not fa.shion for himself more than one javelin and an am2)le supply of arrow- tips. The material of which spear-heads were made was at first flint, bat in process of time other stones that were a * i Ncivcr Stofie Age. 99 hard, lii^lit, not brittle, and that could ho shai'fieiiL'il to a point, were lar<^ely employed, althoiit,'li flint speai-s were prevalent down io Ani»'lo-Sa\'ou times. Jiid^'^in',' from )unj ^'L>ly, 1 to lim uip. lion •ply at ere ' m ft ^) ■*•; Fio 30. Flint, serrated, Danish, J-sizo. of a javelin, being weakened in proportion to tlie lenn^lli of its flight, depended greatly oii its own weight in pierc- ing the mark. We therefore find this missile of greater weight and more rotund shape than the spear. Several ' » m i! I02 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. ,stal)s could be given Avith groat rapidity by a spear, while a javelin could give but one, and would fail in its effect unless immediately fatal. In historic times it was customary to hurl darts attached to a line, which rapidly uncoiling as the missile flew was little drag on its flight. Hence, too, the reason why javelins were barbed and Fio. 31. Canatlinn, slate, ^-size. spears not. Spears would be used for a rapid stab and rapid withdrawal from tlie wound; Avhile darts would be thrown from ambush, and the barbs penetrating the body of the quarry would liold it fast until it was otherwise killed. A modification of the same principle underlies the use of barbed tirrows shot at small running game or "^ Newer Stone Acre. 103 at fowl, when the arro^y and shaft, adhering to the prej would act as an impediment, and make the flight of the Fig. 32. Isle of Skyo, full size, flint. victim slower, until it fell f,om exhaustion. Much manual skill and some theoretic knowledge of trajectory us noticeable in more highly finished javelins in the cur- M ■f;Nf '•;.l 104 The Stofie, Bronze, and Iron Ages. JH v.aturo by which the barbs are strengthened. The same knowledge no doubt regulated the length of shaft. Un- like spear-shafts, javelin-shafts would be short and gi'adn- fited to the weight of the head so as best to guide its flight. Roman war javelins, it may be remembered, had a shaft of only 4| feet, but the head was heavy. Appended are two illustrations of fine specimens of javelins that might have been equally suitable as weapons or as hunting implements. The first (fig. 32), of flint from the Isle of Skye, could not be much excelled as a harpoon by a modern lance for spearing seals, for which purpose it seems likely it was intended, f s witliout doubt the rocky shores of that island were the haunts of more than one variety of phocidv. The second (fig. 33) from the Yoi'kshire wolds, and now we believe in a private collection, is about 3 inches in length of blade, and one and a half between the barb points. Javelins are fashioned of any suitable stone. The mention of javelins naturally leads to the questio of shields. Javelins were not thrown with both hands, therefore one hand and arm were free during a combat. The same degree of intelligence that designed, fa.shioned, and fitted the weapon would be equal to some means of interceptins^ it when thi-own. We may therefore feel justified in supposing that shields were as much an equipment in hostile engagements as the weapons them- selves, especially as modern savages, even the least adv.anced, are provided with this means of personal de- fence. Shields at once simple and efficient could be constructed of basketwork covered with hide. This Neiver Stone Age. 105 of would of course be perishable. \Ve cannot recall an account of any relic having been found that must un- mistakably be set down as a shield, yet it may be safe to assume that bucklers of some kind were employed as a defence against hand missiles. Fig. 33. Flint, nearly full size. Another variety of pointed blades must be mentioned, especially as they are apt to be mist.aken for spear-heads. These are Daggers, of which Denmark su[)plies the fmest specimens, beautifully tinislied with ri{)plo marks and squared hilts. The tiner Danish are referred to a pei-iod immediately preceding the coming in of manufactures in i-f I io6 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. i bronze. An illustration is given in fig-. 34. Tlie or- dinaiy British form, generally lanceolate, is of flint, thin in section, about 5 to 7 inches or more in length by 1| to 2 inches at greatest width, Avhich is about one-third dis- tant from the point, and the point sharp. An outline of HI ' 'i, ;'.*1? ?fe-- ':'M i\ It n Fio. 3i. Dciuish ilaggcr, fliut, J-size. one (fig. 35), still 7 inches in length, although evidently ground down by successive sharpenings, is given here. It was found in the Thames. A dagger of this kind at- tached to a hilt might bo stuck in the belt or carried in the legging, as Scottish Highlanders were wont to carry a shene dim. When the art of perforating flint became Newer Stone Age. 107 known, dagger blades were sometimes bored with an eyelet hole for attachment to the person by a thong. i'! itly . Fio. 35. British dagger, flint, ^-size. Daggers are not uncommon in England, rare in Scotland, not known in Ireland, but somewhat abundant in the north of western Europe. Before the discovery of metal, ! * M i •> '1 n i ■■IP ■!!!!l!i! 1 08 The StojiCy Bronze^ and Iron Ages. 1,1 % I 1i; primitive man could have had no equivalent for swords. A light, short-shafted spear would be the nearest ap- proach, and the dagger was a formidable addition to his personal armament. The adaptation of Ari'ows (that is to say, of smaller javelins) to an elastic bowsti-ing as a means of propul- sion affords an interesting subject of speculation. It is impossible to imagine the custom to have sprung at once into use. Preliminary ideas improved upon could alone have wrought it out. Clearly it was the result of succes- sive steps, and did not spi-ing into general adoption from a single instance of accidental discovery, as perhaps the use of tire did. Arrows were an acquisition as useful to the savage as the invention of gunpowder was to later man. Moreover, it marked in the primeval race the point of passing beyond mere instinct into skill as the result of thought, for a good bow is as much a work of careful appliance of materials as is a Cremona violin. Without the bow human intelligence would have remained but one or two degrees above that of those man-like apes that use clubs ; for the new invention furnished the superior animal Avith a portable weapon that at once vastly enlarged his destructive powers, increased his safetj", and lessened his fatigue. It would not be too fanciful to liken the projectile arrow in the hands of the earliest men to the fancied vril with which Bulwer Lytton arms his " Coming Race." Let us analyse the steps by which this important implement was attained. The fii'st motive power that must have fallen under observation Avould be the resilient bow of a tree. Apes Neiver Stone Age. 109 I apes the lonce his too the Iwer the ider Lpes have observed this quality, and make use of it by seizinj;^ a branch and suddenly spring'ing it, thereby pi-ojectint^ the fruit to more or less distance. From this the use of an elastic bough as a means of projecting a weight (a stone, no doubt) would be but a step. Here we have at once a fixed sling — hallista, a formidable siege engine of raediicval times. An incident which may be true is I'c- lated, that in the Cabul war a small British contingent beleaguered in a fortalice where the ammunition had run short, successfully defended it by hurling stones of several pounds weight on the heads of the besiegers from a balHsta made with elastic firewood poles. A similar construction, used from an ambush, would be efticicnt against a herd of animals in the field. No vestige of un implement so perishable would now be found, yet chipped stones that could scarcely have been designed for other use than sling-stones testify to the knowledge of projecting them from fixed or hand slings. Not all modei-n savages when first known were acquainted with arcl.ery; the New Zealanders, for instance, though of a coin])aratively high grade, had no missiles save s[)ears tlirovn from the hand. Doubtless the first attempt to project a shafted missile farther than it could be thrown, would be to adjust an ordinary spear or javelin to an elastic bough, and cast it off by the recoil. Although this would of course be u failure, it was in the right direction. As already men- tioned, cordage of some kind is a necessity of mankind the least advanced, and is one of the most easily supplied as well as the earliest. Ropes of flexible root or vino '',1 I mmm I lO TAe Stone, Bronze, and Iron A^es. ' I mado use of in pullinj^ the bouj^li of the hullista would suggest fitting the projectile on the rope itself, which by its elasticity, when stretched to its tension and sud- denly let go, would propel a javelin forward to a distance greater or less. This fact ascertained, the discovery was made. All that remained was to stretch the string on a portable bough and diminish the weight of the missile, so that it could be shot to a considerable distance, yet still retain force to wound. No doubt further improvement was the work of time. The bow itself, combining as it does the principle of the thrown javelin and the sling, having been discovered could only be improved mechani- cally; but the laws of arrow-flight had to be formulated from lengthened experience. Weight of missile adapted to the strength of the bow and bowstring and force of the archer, the line of trajectory, the form and the shaft that with a given impetus would fly farthest l)y offering the least resistance to the air and with greatest power of penetration, with other points of the toxophilito art, would bo elaborated gradually. Although no data exist for the periods of time the successive improvements took to accomplish, nor even for the order of sequence, the art of shooting with the arrow at length settled down to a universal practice, guided in its details, no doubt, by general and long-continued experiment. The many arrow-heads recovered in all parts of the world make it clear that multitudes were lost. There would be few expeditions in which hunters would not miss one or more among the brushwood. ]\rucli labour would not therefore be wasted in chipping for common Newer Stofte Age. 1 1 1 the Ihere not )Our lOU use Hiissilos so easily lost wlioii carelessly shot away, ludeed, a fx-acture from any qiiartzoso pebble would servo as substitute when the supply of wroufjht ammuTiition failed. Arrows pcdished as well as more neatly fashionful bIiow that the process of n\anufacture came to bo simpli- fied and shortened as to the time it took to produce them. In places where a large number of lieads have been found within a limited space, some cause other than care- lessness presents itself. The locality might have been the scene of a hdttue, or of a tribal encounter; but in tliis latter case it might bo expected that javelins and spears would also be found there. At first individuals fashioned their own arrows, but afterwards there were factories for theii' production, several of which still show yards full of flint chips. It has been well said, in attempting to account for the close resemblance of arrows in all parts of the world, that where wants were the same, and scanty materials for supplying them the same, the results would bo alike. This is doubtless the truth, but it does not cover the ground. A savage rarely originates, but imitation is one of his most marked characteristics. IMay it not be readily explained that one portion of the race copied from another? Failing this solution, it is iuipossiblo to believe that multitudes of isolated and unimaginative groups, each following a local taste, should arrive at so complete au identity of execution either by their own unaided tact or by chance. Tliis close similarity oi im- plements has a bearing on other points, among them that the population at some period was numerous, and that I'l % 'IS '■t\ ■''I 1 1 2 Tlie Stone ^ Bronze^ and Iron Ages. ■ ! Hi '■i!i bodies of pcoplo riuist have been mignitoiy, else they wouhl lujt have conic in contact with others from whom to leai-n tlic standard pattern tliat g'rew into worhl-wido use. Other spocidations arise, but we need not hero fol- h)W the channels into which they lead. Amonf,' the first ari'ow-hcads of flint described in Enfj- land was one found on the Dovo by Charles Cotton, the friend of Isaac Walton. Attention bein<^ drawn to the matter, further search was quickly rewarded by finding numerous others in dilTerent parts of the kingdom, until now ever}' museum contains specimens. Following fhe form of spear and javelin heads, arrow- tips, if unbarbed, are in general lanceolate, leaf-shaped, lozenge, or sub- triangvilar in fthape. If barbed, the completed outline follows tliese figures, with spaces filed out to form the barbs. Those with barbs have either one wing or two, the former being much more rudimentary in cvecution, and probably in use before greater skill achieved double flanges. Indeed, some of them are little else than a tri- angular head, with one angle drooped to form the wing. Single-winged seem to be peculiar to the United King- dom, and are not uncommon on the Derbyshire moors. Double-winged without stem are frequent, of compara- tively lai'ge size, in Ireland, liai-bed, stemmed arrows are the most common forms found in tumuli, from which we may deduce that the unstemmed and unbarbed were those in use prior to mound burial. Yt)rkshire and Wilts are prolific in arrow-heads of various forms. Anti- f|uarians difl'er as to which of the four usual forms of arrows comes first in sequence of date. Perhaps tri- aug- loors. Ipara- hrows L-liicli Uvere and Liiti- lis of tri- Nciver Stone Age. II angular may l)o rcgat'ded as tlio primary form, followed by lozenge, which by an easy gradation passed into the stemmed leaf-shaped. The lozenge, howevei", may have been the latest from the greater ease with which it could be inserted iu tlio cleft end of the arrow-shaft. Tn dimension oixlinary arrows vary from half an inch to full two inches in length, beyond which they may have been heads of darts or knives rather than ari'ows. Weight Fig. 36. Barbed, without stem. varies from oO grains to half an ounce or more. No indications remain from which to judge of the length of arrow-shafts, excepting that an ounce head (lies well with a feathered shaft of 2G inches ; but the early hunters no doubt reduced this length to a minimum, say 12 to 16 inches, for convenience of carrying in the belt. The figures 37 to 69, inclusive, will convey an idea of the forms, but not in all cases of the actual size, of the usual types of arrows. Without occupying space 1 r i^' ill 1 14 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. by specifying wlioro each was ohtaiued, the outlines are all from existing specimens in flint or other stone. Whcthoi' at any period the Earopoan men of the stone age did or did not j)oison their arrows, is one of several questions in early archroology that is left opiMi to con- jecture. Unfortunately there is little possibility oT bring- ing it to absolute proof. No data exists on which to base an affirmative opinion ; and on the other hand no negative evidence can bo adduced that would justify saying they did not. At all events, any vegetable or animal poison, — even the famed vvourali venom investigated by Mr. Waterton, — would have become innocuous through lapse of time, leaving little possibility of tracing it. The or- dinary large size of average flint and other arrow-heads would militate against the supposition of thcii- having been envenomed, although it is more than pi'obablc that the eiTects of several poisonous .substatieos were knosvn. The users of stone projectiles, always living in the open air, would necessarily become more or less conver.sant "with the malign properties of plants and gums, as well as with the deadly qualities that render putrescent flesh and certain reptiles adverse to life. An idea that the use of these poisons would render themselves more for- midable would not be unnatural, although it was likely long in taking practical effect, if it ever did. Neverthe- less, the record of most modern savage tribes of which we have knowledge outside of Europe she as that the use of poison-bearing arms was habitual in some period of their history. Here again the size of arrow-heads lends a faint indication towards a solution of the question, for Fios. 37 to 59. Mo-ma-builders- arrows, full eize. 116 I y'l I ;i M —•rvsimrs^ ^^*^SSSi I 'i ;: f i 'i 1 1 6 T/ie Stone, Brofise, and Iron Ages. the smaller the missile the more likeliliood of its beiii^ envenomed, even if so small as a chip of bone blown through a hollow reed. Some interesting specimens from the Dalles on the Cohimbia river, Oregon Territory, U.S., and now in the writer's collection, are engi-aved {ante) of full size. So small are some of them, yet so admirably chii'pedare these relics of an unknown race — presumably the mound'builders — that the uninitiated are disposed to regard them as mere toys for a doll's house, and manu- factured by metal tools. Some have supposed them to be votive olterings, but the strong pi'obability is that they wei'c real projectiles, once poisoned, and may have been blown from a tube, but more likely, although so light, shot from weighted arrow-shafts. Many are of obsidian, the smaller ones weighing about 4 to 7 grains. Unfoi-tu- nately the precise locality whei^e found is not obtainable, excepting that they are brought in by Indians, who say that they are uncovered on the i)laiiis by sand-storms. The manufacture of such specimens is quite beyond the skill of the alleged finders. The Indians themselves pro- fess to know nothing of them excepting there is a tradi- tion that a "squaw " of immense age had said she had heard that the fathers had said that they were split by being heated and suddenly chilled. This would not, however, account for the beautiful delicacy of the chip- ping. It is observable that these tiny bolts are fashioned in most of the characteristic shapes of the larger arrows of flint and othev stone in Europe. I )l |t, by not, 3lup- loned [rows i CILVPTER X. NEWER STONE AGE (continued). Imi'Lkmknts of Domestic Use. Similar in both Ages of Stone. — Kuivea for Cutting and Flaying. — Gouges and Chisels. — Pickers and Boring Tools. — Saws and Wool-combs. — Wlietstones, Slickstoues. — Weights and Sinkers. — Bracers. — Griddles. — Certain small Wlieels may have been Spinning- tops. — I'erforated Discs. — Mortars. — Mills. — So-called Spindles and Whorls. — Art of Weaving not known in either Stone Age. — Fishing Nets. — Manufactin-es in Bone. As a few rude implem nts of flint filled all the require- ments of the men of the Older Stone Age, — of which specimens have been unearthed from the river-drifts and from beneath the floor of caves, — .so similar articles con- tinued to be the sole domestic appliances, without much improvement, during the earlier part of the Newer Age. These seem to have been for a long time so alike as to be almost identical. The list of articles is brief ; namely, flakes longer or shorter, split from pebbles and going by the names of knives, " fo.bricators," or by other terms according to use ; flat pieces of flint o£ a few inches in superficies, and with one edge sharp, known as scrapers or skinning tools ; sharp-pointed splinters of flint, spoken of as borers, awls, drills, or augers (the last name mis- 117 4 ^ ^m t\ I II ■ I 1 1 8 The Stone^ Bronze^ and Iron Ages, leading), for boring eyelet-lioles in skins or articles of bone ; chisels and gouges, so called, which were but flint flakes straight-edged or grooved at one end ; and flat serrated pieces of flint, known as saws, and fairly well answering that purpose. With this limited outfit con- structive industry was carried on, the sharp stone axe, of many uses, supplying all deficiencies. In addition to the implements named were several minor articles of stone, or of bone as its substitute. Towards the end of the age grinding and baking stones appear, showing the making of bread, but not of cultivated grain, agi'iculture not having been practised until the age we call of bronze. Even when advancement had produced improvement in domestic implements, it was rather in workmanship than in kind. When small pieces of rough flint such as above described were the only working implements, badly baked clay vessels the sole cooking utensils, with no acquaint- ance with woodwork or furniture, the social condition of the race continued on a low level during the greater length of the stone age ; but from the number of small and more flexible skins captured by bow and arrow, and from quantities of scrapers for preparing them, and a few eyed needles that have been found for sewing them, marked improvement as the age advanced may be fancied in dress, by the substitution of skins dressed like chamois leather and stitched, instead of rigid blankets of hide. Improvements in cookery, too, are manifest from the grinding and baking stones by which bread like Scotch oatcake was made. When persons have become accus- tomed to improvement in their domestic arrangements, Newer Stone Age. 119 inze. it in than bovo keel aint- )n of ater mall and few lem, cied Imois lide. the otch cus- nts, the tendency is never backward, but onward. By the time perforated axes and tools had become common domestic wants, the means of supplying them had much increased, — while no doubt their habitations had im- proved, — and the people must have attained to a limited degree of rude comfort, although their domestic aids were still clumsy and few. Brief notice of these imple- ments will suffice. In fracturing nodules of flint to be chipped into celts, a number of splinters would be struck oft'. Without any further dressing some of them were sharp enough to be used as knives or as common arrow-heads, or for scraping wood or bone, as glass is used by cai-penters for scraping surfaces smooth. Some may have been fitted with a handle at one end, or at both ends in the manner of a spoke-shave. &5uch splinters are spoken of as " flakes," or when partially formed by chipping or grinding as " dressed flakes." From marks of wear observed on the edge of some of them, it is seen they have been made use of for striking Are from iron pyrites. Flakes, not the waste of celts but intentionally struck off from blocks, are usually five inches and upwards in length, with a clean fracture, and could be used for knives without any secondary chipping. A large proportion of those found in Britain, with edges ground, are from the Yorkshire wolds. Curved flakes are less con\mon than straight, but they too are available as knives. It has been assumed that these curved blades were sickles ; but the infrequent opportunities that the early race could have had for the gathering of crops would scarcely demand a special in- * ' 1 \ ■I 1:1 '■m ■JI I W X as 120 The Stotie, Bronze, and Iron Ages. strument prepared for the purpose. Besides, the usually short length of a flint flake would not be well adapted for the cutting stroke by which a sickle is operated. Scrapers (grattoirs) are hand implements, generally of flint, used in flaying and in cutting away fragments of flesh from hides. Some in appearance resemble imperfect Fig. go. Chisel. celts, and generally approach in shape to an oyster shell. Scrapers arc more appropriately called "skinning knives." The colloquial division of dres.sed flints as "finger flints " and " thumb flints " is not necessary. They occur over the whole of Britain, also in Denmark, Belgium, and the north of France. Gouges are flakes with a natural or ^yorked groove at one end, for the same use as a modern Neiver Stone Age. 121 tool of the same name. They were no doubt used in hollowing troughs, log boats, and other excavated articles. A short-hafted celt, as a gouge on a larger scale, would be a serviceable tool for such work. Chisels are the same tool, not grooved, and cut at one end to a chisel 111 I.I- Fio. 61. Borer. edge. They were usod either in the hand or inserted in a haft. The use of both chisels and gouges was mainly to work in wood. Pickers were but chisels with a more acute point, which, skilfully tapped with a hammer, were employed to roughen the grasp of hand tools, as also t(^ i' Ihell. es." Its " vcr the 11 or ern I' I Figs. 62, 63. Awls, fliut. ■ ^ .er Stone Age. 125 pestle. Many of these mortar stones exist. Stones of various weights, with a groove cut around to anchor them as '"sinkers"; stones of any shape but of some weight and with one side smooth, known as "slick- stones," for pressing seams in stitching; "sling-stones," or stones dressed as missiles for hand-slings, — although we have elsewhere pointed out that flints wonld not be carefully fashioned for slings when every pebble would "^'i 11; ■'J Fio. GG. Sling-stone, flint. do as well, — and stones that have been called " weights " because their use is not apparent, were all among early manufactures in stone. Other stone implements of which the pui'poses aie not so readily determined have been found in considerable number. The first is known as "bracer," a thin (|nad- rangular plat of hard stone from six to eight inches in greatest length, slightly hollowed lengthways and ])er- forated at each end with two or four holes about large enough to admit a bass fiddlesti'ing. A fanciful opinion m wma 126 T/ie Stofic, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. it H ^\. I •: 'i I' has been advanced, that this is the shell of a stringed mnsieal instrument. Another view is, that it was for keeping the strands separate in the twisting of fishing- lines ; and yet another surmise is, that the bracer was a guard for the wrist in archery, although it is hard to see why it should be made of stone when leather would answer the purpose better. A recent essay considers these *' bracers " Avere bi-eastplates. Probably their true use has yet to be a.scertained. Flat circular discs of stone, of six to nine inches or other diameter, have been found chiefly in Orkney and Shetland. These may have been covers for pots, also " griddles " on which to bake as oatcake is baked. Simi- lar discs are used by American Indians in playing quoits. Here let us say that, in estimating early man, too little weight is given to the fact that amusement forms a fea- ture in savage life. Modern savages recreate themselves by athletic feats, quoits and ball, shooting display's and the like, and have tribal or lesser contests as our parishes and elevens have. Boys, too, are boys all the world over, in whatever degree of civilization or savagery ; so we find Indian lads making and competing with le8.ser bows and arrows, or carving toys, while the girls nurse dolls and play at tent-keepiug. Hence certain small wheels that have been called whorls for weaving may be nothing more dignified than spinning- tops, or perhaps may have been appended to fishing- reels. Mills for grinding do not by any means presuppose any preliminary process of agriculture. On the contrary, grain is but one of many products that may be ground Neiver Stone Age. 127 ea- ves and shes )ver, find and and ;hat ling ave |any iry, md into a species of flour for bread, for the earth produces spontaneously many kinds of breadstuffs for liuman food. Almost all the grasses produce edible kernels. At the present day there are aborigines in Canada who find a great aid to their winter store in wild rice {zizania aqym- tica). Pulse, nuts, acorns, and the seeds of trees and shrubs, the roasted bark of certain deciduous trees, as well as dried roots and fruits, are all broad-making materials. A hand-mill would therefore be in every family when the race ceased to be wholly carnivoi-ous. A form of "meal- ing stone," consisting of a hollowed bed in which sub- -! Fio. G7. MealluR stones. stances were crushed by rolling a heavy muller of stone, is a common relic throughout the three kingdoms, as also in France and Germany (fig. 67). The name of "saddle- quern " has been given it. An advance on this form is the more modern hand-mill, or quern propei*, in which the principle is the same. We should be inclined to consider rotatory hand-mills as not much antedating the beginning of history. Circular millstones have been found in various parts of Britain, but they cannot be of high antiquity. i m r I '! I * II t r 128 The Stout\ Brmisc, and Iron Ages. A not nncnnimon error with Kome investif^ators is, to bo too iii^'ciiiouH in devising uhcs for iniplomonts the purpose of wliieli is not (piite apparent. It is f()i'j,'otten tliat a savage is very " niake-sliift " in his operations. Where a chanee stone picked up from the groiiiul would serve as a wc'iglit for liis loom (if he had one), it would never occur to him to fi-ame a perforiated disc for the j)urposo. It is therefore more reasona))le to assign an unknown im- plement to some industi-y that is known to have heen pursued than to devise from the doubtful implement some new industry. We have already offered a semi-jocose surmise, that if certain small wlieels, the largest not exceeding two inches in diameter, were not used in spin- ning hshing-Hnes,they may even have been spinning-tops ; but it has been rather deKnitely asserted they could have been nothing else but spindle whorls for stretching the web of textile fabrics. Now this n.sscrtion is based on the gratuitous as.sumption that the spinning and weaving of textile fabrics was practised in the age of stone. Two or three almcst undecipherable fragments of matted wool, claimed to be cloth from a Biitish tumulus, are not sufficient weight of evidence from vwhich to adjudge that the custom of wearing woven woollens was general. The assumption is surely too ingenious. Without doubt it is to the tropics we must look for the invention of weaving at no extremely remote period. Ostentation, and not necessity, would induce it. The oldest Egyptian monuments exhibit the loom, while the most antique northern traditions speak of robes of hide, like Scotch plaids clasped by fibuIaB, as being in use as late as the Neivey Stone Age. 129 metallic nge. Therefore a costume, like the transatlantic bo h been hunters', of dressed skin may bo assuniec the customary dress of the race in ICurope, until the nso of metals gave a spur to now wants and introduced cloth, which, after all, was not a want and would be but a luxury, or rather n fashion. Some remarks are here pertinent on the subject of implements of bone. These appear to have been known both in the Older and Ncwei- Stone Age, and to have been about the earliest of man's manufactures. Nor could this well have been otherwise. From the circum- stance that the bones of tlio large mammalia found with- in the haunts of earlier man are usually found cracked across and gnawed, marrow seems to have been regarded as a bonne bonchc. In cracking lai'go bones to get at tho mari'ow, sharp splinters must often have be* 1 struck off, that without more preparation might be made to servo as knives and the like. These had the advantage over stono of being lighter, and, in reality, less brittle. Besides, bone could be readily sawn and dressed by flint instru- ments. In the Newer ago it is somewhat strange that so few ari'ow-heads of bojie have been found, suitable as tho material is for that purpose. It is, however, so much more peri.shable than stone, that most of the implements from it may have passed out of existence. Nevertheles.s, in a barrow in Wilts thirty specimens of articles of bone "were together, including spear-heads in length from three to nine inches, and formed of the leg bones of animals. Other similar specimens from the Thames and from Lin- colnshire are in the British Museum. Bone bodkins and > I 'I'll ■ I t I It' I t », i 130 The Stone^ Bronze, and Iron Ages. needles with eyes have been found in various places, also netting needles and gauges for nets. Buttons and clasps, of uncertain date, are among the relics of useful bone manufacture. Purely ornamental articles are treated of in our Chapter on Ai^t. V* II ;i CHAPTER XI. KFTCHEN MIDDENS. Shell-mounds along Beaches. — Beach-feasts universal.— In Denmark. — Britain. — In America. — Explorations of Kitchen Middens. — Relics found. — Wholly of the Non-metallic Age. — Fauna of the Period. — Boats. — Shell-fishing. — No Human Remains found in European Middens. — Supposed Race that held the Shell-feasts. — American Midden-makers Cannibals, but European not. — Age of the Middens. '15 1 i 1 Ix the progress of archnoological research, an interestini^ discovery was mado ; namely, that great banks of shells along certain sea-beaches, which it was always supposed had been washed up by the sea, had been deposited, shell by shell, by human hands. The watchful eye of science was first attracted by noticing that the shells lay without stratification, and were all of mature size witliout any admixture of smaller ones, which facts would not have been so had the lieaps been deposited by the wash of the Avaves. Investigation of those shoU-mounds, revealinrr lost flint implements, blackened hearthstones, and frag- ments of pottery, gave indication that man had lived there and had cast up the mounds. Those heaps of shells ai'o known by the name of " kitchen middens," from the Danish word kji'ikken- 131 111 'Ml I ^ "li :ti'a ii 132 The Stone ^ Bronze, and Iron Ages. moddings, or refuse o£ kitchens. They are found in many- parts of the world, both in Europe and America, but have been chiefly investigated on the Baltic, there being several of large size on the peninsula of Jutland. Along the beaches of the Danish Islands, Devon, Cornwall, and Scotland, also in North America from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Florida, and on the Pacific, similar heaps have been casually observed. Some of them in Denmark are about 1,000 feet in length by 200 in width, and 8 to 10 feet in depth. They are wholly composed of oyster-shells, or nearly so, the other remains intermixed being mussel, cockle, and periwinkle shells, with bones of cod, herring, flounder, and eel, with frequent remains of seal and porpoise. It is among these that flint imple- ments have been found, but no human bones. The mounds unmistakably show that the men of the time were gregarious, and, in considerable bodies, had periodi- cally to depend on the sea and the mollusc-bearing beaches for a portion of their food supply. Writers on tiie aborigines of North America use the expressions " land or prairie Indians " and " shore In- dians " somewhat loosely, the latter really meaning, not persons who live absolutely on the sea-shore, but tribes that occupy the country nearest to the sea, in contra- distinction to those whose " nations " lie in the interior. Although each of these tribes, or group of tribes, claimed and held a certain extent of the hand, they were more or less nomadic within that limit. Their main occupa- tion, like that of all savages, was hunting land animals; but at certain seasons of tlio year the bulk of the Kitchen Middens. 133 "shore" population gravitated towards the sea, partly for a change of fresh fish food, and again to catch and dry a supply of fish to serve them in winter when moor- land game would be scarce. As long as these fishing localities remained productive they would have no occa- sion to seek new ones, but would return ycai' after year to the same stretch of beach, leaving traces of their sojourn in mounds of shells. The question has been discussed whether tlie men who raised the European heaps lived permanently on the beaches or only visited them at stated times ? From careful comparison of the bones of land animals found in the American heaps, — too long a process of reasoning to bo here detailed, — the conclusion seems plausible tliat large detachments from the shore tribes visited the beaches in spring for an indulgence in fish diet soon after the breaking up of the ice, and again in late autumn when cod and other sea- fish could be caught and dried on the beach for the coming winter, as is done in modern stock-fisheries. Similar habits on the American and European coasts may give a key to the reading of the European kitchen middens. Although the principal products of kitchen middens are mainly of marine origin, bones of land animals, though comparatively few in the European shell-heaps, are not wanting. Relics of stag, roe, wild boar, and urus are recognisable, as also of wolf, fox, wild cat, beaver, marten, hedgehog, and water rat. The absence of all traces of the reindeer would place the date of these middens as anterior to the migration of that animal to : tl ' ; ua -J ^1 ill ^ I. 134 The Stone, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. tlie North. Vestiges of the horse and great elk are also avvanting, and nothing has been discovered to indicate that the time was contemporary with the mastodon. Among the fragments of bones said to have been identiKed are some supposed to have been those of the dog. It would be well to adopt this supposition with caution, it being all but established that dogs were not domesticated as the friends of man until far in the bronze age; and the shell-heaps show clearly that they date from non-metallic times. Apart from the comparatively few remains on which to found a judgment, there is difficulty in distinguishing the bones of the dog from those of the wolf. The question of the subjugation of animals now domesticated to the service of man is dis- cussed in another chapter, and the conclusion arx'ived at is, that the supposed canine remains cannot be those of the domestic dog as we now know it in its relations to man. Likelihood, however, is in favour of the relics being the bones of a small species of wolf, semi-tamed, and following the camp as untamed jackals haunt around encampments in the East. The fact that these supposed bones of dogs are cracked across to get at the marrow, in the same way as are the bones of other animals used as food, shows that the canine animal, whatever it may have been, was eaten, which would scarcely have been the case Avitli domestic dogs, when it was evident fish food was abundant and flesh from the chase presumably so. Among many bones of aquatic birds have been detected those of wild geese, ducks, gulls, and swans, and some supposed to be those of the great auk, — which they M Kitchen Middens. t' AW 135 probably were. No arrow-heads by which winged game could be shot have been found (another index to the date of the heaps). The bii'ds were no doubt killed with sling- stones. These visitors to the shore could not have accomplished the object of their mission without boats. Equally im- possible that they could all have dragged with them, through a foi'est country without roads, heavy boats of hollowed logs requiring the muscular strength of three 01 four men to move them along land. Not more likely that a fleet was hollowed on the spot. It is true that some of the visitors might come to the rendezvous in such boats by water, but not from inland. Boats of this description have been found intact in peat mosses, but show no necessary connection with kitchen middens. A light coracle of the Esquimaux type, the skin of which could be easily carried on a journey, would answer the purpose of fishing molluscs. Live oyster beds vary in depth beneath the surface from low-water mark to two or three fathoms or more. To reach this pavement of edibles would not be difficult, not by the toilsome method of dredging as practised in England, but by the American implement of " oyster- tongs," the construction of which useful instrument is not beyond the intelligence of a savage. Two wooden rakes, such as used by haymakei-.s, are constructed with long slender shafts and teeth long and curved. Tines of deerhorn would do well for teeth. The two shafts being connected by a pin, they act on the principle of a pair of tongs for lifting oysters from the bed. Most of the supply fi*om the oyster fisheries of ' ^! I ■ ■lii; -I ' i ^' 136 T/ie Stojte, Brojiae, and Iron Ages. the maritime provinces of Canada is collected by this implement. The handiworks of man himself yet found in the kitchen middens are few, chiefly flint celts, roughly chipped, and flake-knives and scrapers, with fragments of pottery. One form of celt so generally prevails that it is known as the " kitchen midden axe." An outline of its form is given in fig. 21. A few spear-heads and even a very few celts, ground and polished, have been found ; but from the inconsistency of finding manufac- tures of a late ago there, it is reasonable to suppose that these polished weapons were lost by parties visiting the beach after the heaps were made. The fragments of pottery are of very inferior workmanship, of untempered clay mixed with pounded shells, and seem to have come from vessels of a circular shape. The question has not been settled whether the race that has left its memorials in the shell-heaps of Europe permanently lived on the coast, or, what is more pro- bable, made periodical migrations thei-e. In the latter case, it is difficult to decide what induced large bodies of people, in numbers to fringe the shore, to gather towards the sea at stated times. It must have been the subject of previous arrangement. Whether it were scarcity in eai'ly spring caused migration to the beach for fish food, or if in autumn to lay in supplies of dried fish for winter, the trait in the life of early mankind is curious. Bones of land animals found in the middens would imply that it was not want ; for when so much game as the relics show could be taken on the shore, the supply would be Kitchen Middens. 137 abundant inland. And further, when we know how low the grade of intellect was among eai'ly men, and tluit their lives were passed in alternations of torpitl indolenoo and violent physical strain, and yet again, from the absence of anything in the mounds that would show sacrificial ceremonies, the idea is precluded that the tribes could have assembled by the sea for the observance of religious rites. Cannibalism among the American shell-heap makers is placed beyond a doubt, human bones, both in Florida and Maine, having been found fractui'ed along with bones of other animals, to extract the marrow. Suspicion of a like practice whispered against certain cave-dvrellers in Europe, may requii'o clearer proof than yet exists. The European midden - builders are not charged with the practice. Nothing is known of how the makers of the middens disposed of their dead. Ethnologists have ingeniously reasoned from certain rounded human skulls of small size, Avith a le- treating forehead and much protuberance above the eyes, found in Danish tumuli (near middens), that the par- ticipators in these shell-feasts were a race in physical features resembling Laplanders. Respecting the age of the middens, saA'S the !Mar- quis of Nadaillac, in speaking of those of America, " in regard to the age of the shell-heaps, the day has not yet come for expressing a definite opinion. It is certain many of them are of great antiquity, and that additions continued to be made to some of them up to a very recent date." The remark of being added to up to a recent date does not appear to be applicable to Europe, 11 i ' 1: 138 TJie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. but may bo to America, where, until recently, were roving tribes who might still have indulged in shell- feasts. From the circumstance that Danish middens so far as explored have produced no paloeolithic implements, but do produce celts, of a rude type peculiar to them- selves, but still celts, and that all the implements are of flint, one has fair ground for an opinion that the date of the European middens is later than the close of the pala'olitliic age, and may be set down as of the early period of the neolithic. CHAPTER Xir. MO UND-DUILDEHS. Who were the Mouud-bnilders of America? — Great Extent of their Earth-worka. — Erected at,'ainstaii ovtr-pretujiit Daiiwv. — Ground Plans. — Their Arms of FUnt and Copper. — A Timid and Quiet People. — Cultivated Herb Gardens.— Excelled in Pottery. — Worked in Copper before the Bronze Age in Europe. — Were gradually driven South. —Graves. — Tlieir Keli^'ion not obtrusive. — Their Date doubtful. — Similar in Civilizatiou to the Swiss Lake-dwellers. } =fi i i A POPULAR treatise on Early Archeology cannot omit all notice of an interesting but vanished American race known as the Mound-builders. Not much longer than a lifetime ago, that present portion of the United States of America lying west of the great river Mississippi was uninhabited by settlers, and only thought of as the Wild West, the home of savagery. The first white men who penetrat^jd into the unexplored country for the purpose of trading with, or robbing, the Indians, were rullians of a type as brutal as the savages themselves. Such were not the })ersons to take notice of the features of a country. When these rough pioneers were followed by an immigration of "squatters" (unauthorized settlers) to pre-empt lands, they noticed that in many places were long regular ridges 138 1 I m ^ i »! 140 T/ie Stojic, Bronze, and Iron Ages. covered Avith f^rass or trees ; hut, if thought of at all, these were sot down to the natural configuration of the terri- tory. At length, when Government appropriated and surveyed the lands, these ridges were found to bo arti- ficial earthworks erected by a lost people who had possessed walled towns. The attention of science being turned to the subject, plans of the mounds were pub- lished by learned bodies, and the Mound-buildors became an impoi'tant feature in American ethnology. The remarkable works that have given to a vanished race a descriptive name lie chiefly between the Alleghuny and Rocky ^Mountains, from south of the great northern lakes to Florida and Tex.as, where they are lost in the archaeological remains of tropic America. What is now the State of Ohio seems to have been the centre of popu- lation. Scattered as the detached mounds are over half the North American continent, they evidently preserve a co-relation with each other. The works consist of walled forts constructed of earth, and ranging from a few feet to a thousand in diameter, and from four or five to fifty feet in height even after centuries of vertical denudation. Inside of the surrounding wall the houses of the town were placed without regularity, as is still traced from blackened hearthstones .and circular foun- dation trenches. The dwellings seem to have been bee- hive in shape, wattled and plastered Avith clay. At a little distance from the inhabited part the dead were placed in a recumbent position in a circular tumulus of earth. Cremation was also practi.sed. On the subject of their bui'ial, see Chapter XVII. on Sepulture. MoH nd- Bu ildcrs. 141 ►So extonsive a Hystom of earthworks could not luivo bueii constructed in face of a sudden invasion, but must have been prepared as a defence a<^ainst an ever-present danger. Exponents of the f^round-plans seek to show that all the lines ai'e part of one system of defence /(/ci'/ij/ t)ie north. This is not by any means at variance with probability. Existing Indians of the western American plains have still vague remnants of tradition that their ancestors came from that (juarter of the compass. The tide of conquest always tlows from the north. Given a southern people comparatively settled, so far advanced as to employ themselves in pursuits partly agricultural unvn use, usually of serpentine, about eighteen inches in length, polished, which may have been a dagger of ceremony, — perhaps religious (fig. G8). A few serpentine celts resembling in shape those of Europe have been obtained. From the number of sharp flakes of obsidian found in graves, the Fio. 68. Implement of ceremony. mound men may have possessed a weapon similar to the Mexican mahquahwitl, made by inserting sliiirp obsidian teeth in a club of hardwood used with both hands, and which Spanish writers say was formidable (fig. 70). Besides these stone implements aie barbed darts, not of large size, knives, borers, and fishhooks. Published accounts that we have seen are mostly imperfect for Moil nd- Bu ildcys. 145 compainson, the vveif^hts and dimensions not beln<^ {^iven. The shapes of avi-ows known to the mound-buiUlora arc shown in figs, 37 to 59. An interesting" featare in the record of the race who built the mounds is that they worked in copper. Crude ore would be found in many places of the district they occupied, and an ample supply could be obtained by direct working- or by barter from tlie almcst inexhaustible deposits of Lake Superior, where prehistoric mining was ^ JO). I not led I for Fia. 69. Ornaments of copper. carried on largely. Their metal work was done wholly by hammering, not by casting. Indications would show that the oi-o having been pulverized and roasted, the irregular streaks of metal were cut into si/.c for tlio article required, and then finished into shape by beating. Beads, for example, were not cast in rotuntl form, but -were made of small ribbons of copper rolled tightly into globular or pipe form. A stone mould for co^jpersmith's use, found in one of the settlements, shows from traces u 146 T/ie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. known to expci'ts that tho niotal had not heen fused, but had been beaten into tho mould till it took the required shape. Of the smaller artieles, knives, sheai-s, scrapers, awls, and ai'ticles of personal adornment were made of copper. Some oi-naments in the shape of tortoises, about two inches in lenf^th and manufactured from a sheet as thin as a wafir, were found (fig-. C9) packed in i-abbit's wool and covered with leather as in a jewel case. Spear and arrow heads of excellent neatness and workmanship uro found, of tho same metal, ^found artificers excelled in the art of making* potterj. ^fanj specimens have been found, from the rudest to some that exceeds, both ^ Fio. 70. Obsidiau mabquabwitl. in design and execution, that produced in ]']nropc in the same stage of social development (Chap. XV.). Largro numbers of pipe heads of clay and stearite have been collected, many of them of grotesque human faces. To some of them we are indebted for an idea of the costume of the period, which seems to have resembled the existing Imnting shirt, or "ather the l)louse of a French onvrier, and belted at the waist. Mummies that have been dis- covered in burial mounds in the south-west show that coarse cloth of vegetable fibre was woven. Examination of mound skeletons does not discio.se any marked dif- ference either in average stature or ci'anial development Men nd- Bu ilders. 147 from the Indian races now occupyinf^ the district; and some specimona of portrait pottery represent counte- nances that might be seen in any crowd at the present day (Chap. XX.). While this page is being written, explorations are making at Fort Ancient, in Ohio, the largest of the mounds, for relics of the mound-builders to be exhibited at the coming World's Fair at Chicago. As regards the religion of these people, a liierarchy is always contemporaneous with civil government, if in- deed the terms are not too often synonymous. In study- ing work done by the collective labour of a people, we are in genei"al safe to look for the religious object for which it was designed, or which underlies it ; but these mound- I)uilder8 seem to have been singularly devoid of any conspicuous ?hvi: os. The "altars," so called, wei-e merely flat stones level with the ground, some of them of small size, others extending to fifty feet in length by fifteen in width. It has been surmised with much show of justice that the rite practised there was merely cremation of the dead. Small figures of baked clay that have been called " idols," found in tho vicinity of these supposed altars, were more likely to have been votive offerings cast upon the pyre than objects of woi-ship. In fact, no reliable symbols of a prevalent worship have boon made apparent. The same remark, it will bo noticed, applies to the human race generally in Kuropo in an equivalent neolithic era and similar stage of de- velopment, which fact is in a measure confirmatoiy of tho theory that a race religion never obtains until per- verted individual intelligence arises to lead it. T Il 148 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. It is for ethnolor^y to discover whctliet North America was peopled fi-om tlie north v'm Behring's Straits and tho Aleutian I.shands, or whether an iinmigi-atiou came from tho south by way of the Pacific islands, through tropic America, or by a route no longer existing'. Suffice it that the continent became occupied by a population differing in density in different places, and in course of time broke into tribes, each feeling its way towards civilization more rai)idly or more slowly. TiOcality must have had much to do in regulating the pace at which improvement was made. Where the sti-ugglc f'oi* subsistence was ruggeil and unceasing, habitude would make little effort to escape from the round of toil. On the other hatid, where ])lenty permitted leisure, improvement would advance. The fact is illustrated more noticeably on the North American continent than in Europe, that in the early stages of the race ornamentation inci'eases as we ad- vance towards the south. Uelics of tho Canadian tribes struggling for a living in their dense forests show no ornamentation whatsoever, while the workmanship of cotemporary tribes of the South is overloaded with orna- mei\t. The difl'erence may be ti-aced even by the degrees of latitude. If we nniy a.ssume tha>' the northern con- tincMit of America was peopled from both north and south, the riddle of the mound-builders is read. The meeting of the two influ.\es took place in the region where we find tho earthworks. A race of s thern origin ex- panding northward, bringing with them their indolent temperament and their knowledge of building, led in Mound- Builders. 149 that region, the most fertile part of temperate North America, a compai-atively peaceful life, employed partly in hunting the abumhince of buffalo and partly in gar- dening, living moreover in large settlements and with- out any great excitement to keep their senses on the alert. The other section from the north, fierce and nomad, or nearly so, in their habits, would in time follow their instinct to extend towards the South. ^Midway the collision of the two bodies took place, and the weaker was driven back. This view is confirmed by the mounds in the South being evidently less ancietit than those in the North, from which the doomed race had been driven back upon the tropic tribes from which they emei-ged, and with which they again amalgamated. The most leasoii- able conclusion is, tliat the mound-builders weiv not m^'sterious inmiigrauts of higher civilization from beyond the sea. They were in reality not a foreign strain, merely a soutiiern branch of the same race of ri'(l iiicii that now occupy their place. Indian tradition supports this view of the case. As to the date of these peoi)le, the rules by which attempts are made to assign an era to communities in Europe do not Jipply. 'J'he ])ossession of copper by the buildei's does not make them necessarily coincident with the broir/.e nge in Europe. Indications are i-athcr that their manufiictures in coppi-r wei-i' earlier than l*]ui'opean bronze. Something may be judged from tiii-ir paucity of arms in metal. A wai-likc tempei'anient awakens priile in the numufacture of weapons; but these were a peoj)le ■■ 1^0 The Stone, Bron::e, and Iron Ages. sunk in the lethargy of plenty, and their best work never reached the excellence and enterprise with which the bronze age began. Their degree of civilization was about equal to that of the Swiss lake-dwellers, and we Bhould be disinclined to allow them a higher antiquity. M 10 IS CHAPTER XriT. THE AGE OF BItUXZE. Difficult to define tlie Duration of this Age.— Ran into the Polished Stone and Iron Epochs,— Was the Shortest of the Three A{,'es. — Sources from which a Knowledge of it is derived.— No Inter- mediate Ago of Cupper. — Introduction of Copper AlloiiH. — Agriculture developed.— Horse, Dog, and Farm .\iiiuiuls domes- ticated ; and the Foundations of Trade laid. — Tribal Kelations established, tending to the Consolidation of llaces.— Travelling Artificers. — They founded Centres of Industry and Marts for Barter. — The Weapons of the Period. — Axes, i^pears, Arrows. — Invention of the Sword, when? — Horse F'urniture.— Articles of Ornament. — Weaving practised. — Bronze Ago the Thre.shold of Civilization. DuiUNd the whole of the Ages of Stone mankind had no knowledge of any smelted metal as a material for nianu- factui-e. The name of the "Stone Age" is tlicreiore correetly applied ; but the term the " Uronze Age," made use of to deseribo the wliole industry of an era, is mis- leading. Not all artifieers worked in bronze. Xeitiier did the bronze ago succeed tlie age of stone. There was no date on which the manufacture (jf stone ceased and bronze took its place. On the contrary, stone imjtlements and arms continued to bo made throughout the whole period usually spoken of as tho bronze age, and until the SSI H ii i <■■ ' 'Hi :ii la i 152 7Vie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. sudden I'ise of working' in iron supplied iniplenients of tlie iiowly-disoovured metal so rapidly and cheaply lliat. it was more easy to procure iron wai-cs by barter than for individuals to manufacture them of stone. The iron age did succeed the bronze epoch, inasmuch as it extin- guished it ; but the bi'on7,e age did not succeed the stone age — it Jiin concomitant with it. There wei-e many reasons for this. In the case of individuals, it was not fi\QY'^^ savage wlio had any portable property of his own that he could ofTer in exchange for one of the new implements that he had seen or heai'd of. All his life the skill taught him by his fathers had sufliced to make implements of stone for his own ivcjuirc- ments, and necessity compelled him to continue to do so. Besides, the places where the novel manufactui'o was carried on were inaccessible to the bulk of mankint , Even had men had in their hands an e(|uivalent to biirter, many of the would-be purchasei-s would have had to mak«> journeys over the gi-eater pait of l*]ur()])e to reach the founderies. Moreover, with so little intercommunica- tion, news would travel but slowlv, and thei-e Avere no doubt multitudes who never heard that any material had been found to su})ersede Hint. Thus it happened that two manufactures, of stone and uietal, went on con- comitantly but independent of each other, the latter gaining in poj)ularity and the foi-mi'i- losing. Stone- chipj)ing produced no change in the life of the tribes that practised it. ^[etal-working, on the othei* hand, stirred up energy and attracted a permanent population towards the industi'ial settlements. AVhere men are gathered The Age of Brouac. 153 together in one common pursuit there must fiisue either improvement or deterioration; and in the association of bodies of tlie people for industry in metals, it was all improvement, pi-oducinf^ a wider rant,'e of wants aiul .more intelli<,'ence and resource to supi)ly tliem. We follow therefore the fortunes of that ])ortion of the race that worked in bronze. And first as to the length of time the bronze age is supposed to liave lasted. All evidence goes to show that of the three ages, stone, bronze, ainl iron, bi-onze was the least enduring in j)oint of .actual ti?ne. It was also the most iinj)ortant as being the transition link between savagery and partial civiliza- tion. Monsieur ^birlot, a Swiss savant, carefully ex- amined a cutting whei-e a railway had cleft a hill of diluvium deposited by the river Tiniere, a feeder of the Jjake of (Jencva, and found thi-ee well-deliiied sti'ata i-e.spectively of Roman, bronze, and stone dates. From a calculation of the relative thicknesses of these stiata, estimated from the shallowest as well as from the deepest ])ai't of their deposits, he would make the stone age to have covered from 4,700 to 10,000 years, .and tli(> bronze age to have lasted not less than 2,!H)U years, and at tlu; utmost not more than 4,000. Many archaeologists are inclined to adopt M. Mai-lot's views, but othei-s tliiiik tliiit too long a duration is assigned to the bionzc epoch. Briefly it may be summed up that the bronz(! era \\as at its lieight about 4,000 years before the Chi-istian (,'ra. Vast as this period seems when counted by years, reflec- tion will not .say that it was long whei'ein to have changed the condition of Euroj)e fi-om being covered with i ti,»i 154 '^^^^ Stotu\ Bronze, and Iron Ages. I 1 1 ft I tliiuk forests, tlirou^^li the tangled footpiitlis of which savjij^e hunters tracked the wild beasts on whicli tliey fed, to portions of it beinj^ dotted with j)0[)uUjus and industrial settlements in ccirninunicNition with each other. Time had imperceptibly brought about a new world with new men in it. The sources from which wo derive infornnition as to the bronze age are comparatively few, as contrasted with the time of the stone age, and (besides occasional " finds" of bi-on/.e workmanship in unlooked-for }>laces) are chieHy ai-ticles found in tombs, lake, and palustrine settlements. Too much reliance has, however, been })laced on a sup- ])Osition that the life of dwellei'S on rafts on secluded lakes exactly rescuibled the current life of the bronze age. Such could not have been the ca.se. Although not identical with the commuuities inland, yet .so large a collection of contemporary metallic articles of daily u.so has not been found elsewhere than in the lakes of Swit- zerlaml to throw light on the stage of progress to which tlte people of the time had attained. As the initial chapter of unwritten bronze age history only began to open to lis less than forty years ago, when the first lake discoveries were made, there may yet be much to learn of this somewhat obscure epoch. I'alustritie lodges, or sites of ancient hamlets I'aised on piles above the level of marshes that may have once been water shallows, have likewise furnished a few relics, chiefly from the triangular plain formed by the rivers Po, Adchi, and Rena, in Italy. These lodges were small, built foi' temporary occupation, whereas the lake settlement.s were |)opulous and as The Age of Bronze. 155 permanent as if they had been on terra finna. Occupy- inf( the same sites tlirough generations, tliey must have had their own traditions and a settled groove of life ; but, after all, they were merely a collection of village com- munities. The affairs of life among them must liave moved in a dull, mechanical routine. No particularly startling incident could occur except alarm from lui-king predatory bands, or rise or fall of the lake, accidental lires, or some incident in hunting or fishing. They seem to have been a patient, })lodding })eople, "without ambition to better themselves ; and it is scarcely tenable that any considerable number of them were lured away to share in the activity of the time, and, returning, to inoculate the rest with advanced ideas. More likely they plodded on until driven out by some unknown invasion or unrecorded pestilence. That they were in possession of many bronze articles, not of tlieir own manufacture, shows that they had traffic with some seat of industry on the mainland that sold its wares. Such i)etty tradings were on a small scale, but were still Commerce, awaiting only a htrger field for expansion. Examination of the articles they purchased throws considerable light on the general pro- gress of bronze manufacture, and the developments, agricultural, mechanical, and social, that the people at large eventually attained. Firstly, with i-espect to agricultui-e and the domestica- tion of farm animals, it will be remembered that, in a given locality, a supply of vegetable food would in time become a necessity in view of the falling off in game that Avas sure to follow permanent settlement and increase of 'i "¥ i ' im ' 156 The Stone^ Bronze^ and Iron Ages, S population. In this ennuL'otion it would not cscnpc the notice even of savai^os that, with the recnrrenco of autumn, ])laiits that nii^'ht be eaten dropped their ripened seed, and fi-om the s(!eds tliu.s self-sown a supply con- tinued. It would be (juite within the reach of a very limited int«'lli!^ence to reason that, if the i'ii)ened Reeds of such edible ])lants were di-oppcd in places where none wi-re, it would cause an additional supply of food plants to spi'inu;' up. The point of i-easoninj^ thus i-eached seems trivial, but it changed the mannei-s of the race when j)ut in practice. The first committal of seeds to the ground with the view of growing an additional sup])ly of food therefi'om was ])regnant with results from otlier points of view. The .sele(!tion of a site would be a mattei" of calculation, some sheltered spot near the existing jdace of residence. In time the rule would be leversod, and the habitations be built near the fields. At first the place selected would have to be cleared fi-om a growth of grass and weeds, necessitating some imi)Iement of wood, which Avould, of course, perish wlien thrown aside. Further, the site would i'e(|nire to be enclosed, to protect it from the ravages of animals. Here we liave assumption of title in land. In the beginning the experiment would be on the snuillest scale, and might be made by some individual more enterprising than his fellows. Such a one might liave obtained a few handsful of grain from some Eastern trader. The venture once successful would be eagerly followed by all to whom the result became known, and larger and larger s^jaces would be cultivated, presumably The Age of Bronze, 157 in coniinon, until vc^'otablo fields became an important Bource of tril)al food sn[)ply. An extension of cultiuo would lead to the selection of stretches of "farm lands," around which the habitations of the common cultivatoi-.s would cluster, and thus ai^ricultiiral settlenients arose. With the- increase of cultivation, huntinf^ would diminish. Conimunicati(m between these embryo villafjes would take place, and recognised routes ("trails") be estab- lished between the populated parts of Kurope. 'I'lu; impetus g'ivfsn to intelligence by intercommunication becomes speedily obvious; nor could continuous inter- course take place without quickeninf? the i,a'rjn of political relations, but which we need not here touch upon. Such was the condition of life in some parts of Europe when the discovery of workiiii^' in metals was made. To the gi-owinp^ of sjfi-ain or of other {grasses liaving edible t-eeds the taming of animals to be used as food in a scarcity of game would succeed as a mitiiral sequence. To a per.son familiar with nujdern colonial "clearings" on the edge of forests, the domestication of grass-eating animals appears less wonderful than it would to one resident in a country where stock has been raiscil for generations by stud-book, anil where; farms are cultivated according to indentures of lease. Kven in Scotland, where wild deer trespass on the nujiintuin farms, one particular deer often comes to be known as resoi-ting regularly for pasture, as if from prescriptive right. In Canadian clearings in like manner, particular animals sometimes drop their timidity and become semi-tame. 158 The Stone, Bronae^ and Iron Ages. \ ■ * ! I Yonri!'' iTtlvos of tlio moose deer, that aro occasionally fonri'l m the snow, if placed with cow calves will bccomo as tame as they, and when j^r^wn will accompany the cows to o-raze in the forest paths, and return in the even- ino" without desire to roam. Other animals that are willinf^ to tamo themselves mi<^ht bo mentioned from colon'al ex aric-nce. WIumi <]frowinfip crops had been onco enclosed by early husbandmen, the capture of animals for domestication was easy. It A\as but to leave the enclosure open until stray animals had entered to steal, and then prevent egress. Nature itself and a little exercise of patience would .\o the rest, for the lower fauna do not have the same instinctive horror of man that they \avo of beasts of prey ; on the contrary, some ci'catures seem to have a kind of curiosity in regard to man's surroundings, A wild doer will come and look down from a height with an expression more of interest than fear on a settlement below. From all of which it follows that no didicuUy was experienced in bringing aiiim^'ls nnder domestication as soon as crops were grown. The order of domestication would be first deer, then animals of the ox tribe, which would be used as beasts of burden, and lastly the most useful of all, the horse. A litter of young wolves would account for the dog, which Avould not take long to develop into an assistant of the cattle-owners. The rude figure (fig. 71) from the mounting of a vase, is supposed to be about the earliest representation of the domestic dog. Although the figure is not very like a dog, it approaches somewhat to the fox-terrier ; Avhile in a rock-carving from Algeria, The Age of Bronze. 159 of about tlic same date, tlio vwv reprcsonfod is clearly a turnspit. The circle in tlio same fifj;. with cows is from a small plaquet attached to a necklace. Sli<,'ht as this evidence is, it shows that these animals had aheady been domesticated. Hero, tlien, were all the ajipliauces of agriculture in operation. Until altered circumstances demanded it, produce would be limited to the quantity I'equired for supply of the local settlement. At a later time farm surplus would come into demand as an ai-ticle of regular trade. A moment's reflection will show what a changf this testifies in the ireneral condition of man. Fio. 71. Animals in brorze. For how long tliis peaceable stream of pahMarchal life flowed without a break, no data exist to show. Interrup- tion to it from any cause would be but local. When a .settlement became overcrowded by all the ai-abl(> lands within reach being occupied, young men would move on and forni new colonies. At all events it probably flowed smoothly enough until stiri'ed into ripples by the excit- ing discovery of a new kind of industry; namely, collect- ing of ore and woi-king in metals. A feature of consiilerable signiticance hei-e demands attention; to wit, that in America there was no bronze age, and in lOurope no preliminary age of copper such as i6o TJie Stoney Bronze^ and Iron Ages. % \ \ existed among' the Amei'icau mourul-huildcM-s. Manu- faetni'cs in alloys of copper seem, from all evidence, to have Kpriiiig at once into existence in Mui'opc, prodncin<^ specimens of woi-kmanship all with (iiialifyint^ alloy of ,'„lh to ,\th per hundi-ed of the main metal— an exa(!ti- tnde that conld not have heen reacheil by chance, but oidy by practical acipiaintance with metallurgy, especi- ally a knowledf^o of the qualities of ores other than cuprinc. Thos(! anti(iuaiM'ans, thercfoie, who assume tliat tlu! discoveiy was developed in Asia in a staj^i; of civili- zation sujjerior to that of Murope, and brou«(ht by IMui'iiicians who canu! in shi[)s to ti-ade for their own supplies of coppei' and tin, may h;ive hit the factt. That adventurers of the Tyrian coast built sea-^'oin<^ ships, which must liavo been fastened with coj»i)er bolts, in itself argues an acijuaintance with practical metallurgy in the builders. Also that these PJKrniciiUis were ac- ([uainted with the s[)ecial article of bi-onzcs is not con- tradicted by any tangible proof. Why niiiy they not then have introduced articles of bi-onze ready-nuule into ]"]ui'oper' Instead of the surmise, so hard to believe, that it oceurved to some smelter of surface cojjper ore when hammering with a pebble on a i-ock for anvil, that an alloy of exactly one-tentti of tin would pi-oduce a new metal, and that the discovery s[)read with lightning rapidity, how much inoi-e easy of credence is it that the IMicenicians thmiselves supplied bronze implements com- pUlo, until at length they either contided the secret of the alloy or themselves set U[) forges in Kui-ope to supply the increased demand 't It is noticeable that great differ- |i The Age of Bronze. i6i to lilt If II an II, IT It! ni- di" .ly C I'- ll eiice ill skill of workiiiuiisliij) is seen in (liiTci'cut iuticlcs of bi'oMzi', Tin's iii.'iy liavc; been dilTci-eiuro of ability in local artisans, or may (listini^'uish imported from liomc- ma»le wares. Me that as it may, it is iinpossibb; tiiat in till' abscnco of rapid modes of ordinary commniiica( ioji a knowlt'(li;;o of broii/.ii con.ld fly (piiekly over Miirojie. At tlie same time, men's minds once awakeiieil to tliedis- coveiy, it would spread ineroasin a pebble into a celt (ioiild forye one from metal, (!raftsiiieii, sin^'ly or in parties, would itinerate, workinjj;' as tliey went wlieri'ver ori^ was supplied by (Mistomers or was discovered from surface indications. Such desultory work could lutt liavt; been very jtro- ductive in wares. The manifest iiuMiuveniences of the plan, especially in the collection and carriai^e of ores, would lead to permanent associations of workmen, and the establishment of depots to which iindeis of ore could brin;^ it to be worked. Vesti^'cs of such Kineltin;^-work.s are yet to be traced in nii'iiy places. From this central- ization would fui'ther arise subdivision of labour into forgers and collectors of ore, also teamstiirs for conduct- ing traiis[)ort, for the hor.se either was then or soon would be used for carrying packs. Agriculturists not (Migaged in metallurgy would bestir themselves to pro- vide food for the workmen in e.vchangc for fabiii ited implements. Footpaths would expand into i-oad-^. Habi- tations for the men with their women and childrrti would cluster ai'ound the vvoi'ks, and thus would be established industrial as well as agricultural communities. And lastly would spring up middlemen to distribute the prf llie .sword. It has been usual to speak of bron/.e swords of the bron/e an'(\ I)ai'in<( that age, it is true, htiig knife blades sixteen inches in length, longer than could be con- SI I 1 68 The Stone ^ UroitZi, and Iron Ages. vt'iiiciitly wurn in the f,'ir»lli', were inami fact u red. Such a bhuU' — a prolongiition of the da<,'ger — was a first step t Fio. T'.t. lln'iize Kwonl. ^i towards llio invention of tlie sword, hnt ^vas not tlie sword itself. There is indeed no evidence that these shoit hhuh's were used in war at all. They could not The Age of IWoHZi\ 169 IllO have Ik'i'Ii elTt-ctivo iigainst u spoiir, and could not liavo turiit'd tlio blow of an axo in clo.so combat. Itcsidt'S leng'th (if not too lon<^ lor perfect command of the weapon), two main virtues in a sword are Hexibility ami lightness. The.se (jualities are awanting in broii/.e. A cutting and stabbing instrument shaped like a sword in bronze, even if short in length, would r('(|uire to be made heavy so as to give it strength, else, when encountering any hard substance with a forcible blow, it would be apt to bend and be useless. When steel swords aiv forged, it is with cai'c to combine strength with flexibility and liglitness, so as to give scope for the play of the wrist, which is the leading secrtit of the swordsman's trade. Indeed, a short heavy blade is practically an a.\e with its edge prolonged, and could not )ecome a favourite with warriors who trusted their lives to its ((ualities. We arc inclined to believe that the sword as we Jiow see it, with its finish and relative proportion of parts, was not reached until steel manufacture had made considerable advance; but it is admitted that the idi'a of it was in all likelihood taken fi-om the long bronze knives of the bronze ago. That many bronze swords weic miuiii- factured in the time of steel, is partly explainable on the ground that lighting-men would be at first chary in trying a new weapon of a new metal, and prt'fenvd. even in the early iron age, brc^nze as a niati'iial they wi're better acquainted with than with sliglitcr arms of a metal as yet in a measure unjjroved. Bronze swords of more finished make may be set down to the later period of the bronze age, or rather to the transition stage il IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) 1.0 I.I m 1^ - IIIIIM ' m ||M = 1.8 1.25 1.4 JA -t 6" — ► «^ % /}. "^ *;. ^* =* ' vi ># %.^^ '/ Photogi'aphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 €?, : or 8 inches in dia- meter, of oak, beech, birch, ash, and the resinous woods, which could have been felled by the aid of tire and pointed by the same means with the help of celts. The houses seem to have been constructed of boughs bent bee-hive shape (not angularly, as some have supposed), wattled with reeds and plastered within and without with clay — miniature caves — with a flat slab of stone serving for a hearth in each. These platforms were erected in shallow water not far from the shore, to which they were connected by a narrow causeway of piles. Ovei-lying the decayed stumps of the posts on each site a bank of sand had collected, which being removed discovered another mound of detritus, chiefly consisting of decayed organic matter that had fallen from the habitations. It was in this " relic bed " or " archa>o- logical stratum," as it is called, that vestiges of the resi- dence of man in his water-dwellings were founil. The " finds " were rich where villages had stood over the submerged relic mounds. They comprised all the it I. ' m !f^:i ) ' I i '78 T/ie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. implements of stono described in previous chapters as liavin*^ como down from the neolitliic aj^o. At the same time wo may lioi-o say that, contrary to the opinion at first entertained, most, if not all, of the settlements are now assigned to the bronze era. It is true that in jMeilan, for instance, no relics of metal- work have beei\ found, but this might well bo without relegating it to an earlier age. Fig, 80. Two celts, serpentine, full size. Pole-axe. Celts were the implements most in use among the lake- dwellers. Few were of flint, that material not being found nearer than the Jura. The great majority Avere of serpentine, basalt, diorite, syenite, quartzite, and other stone, many polished and some few perforated for shafts. Generally (fig. 80) they wei'e of small size. Pole-axes ranged from 4 to 8 inches in length, and at the cutting edge 1^ to 2 inches. Arrows Averc also small, 1^ to 1^ Fin. 81. Celts, serpentine, J-size. I I i: rii 1 , ;■■ ria. 82. Arrow, stag-horn, full size. 179 . ■!■• J, i8o TJic Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. inches, tliu niiiterial bt'in<^ gt'iJoriiHy flint, trianf^ular, l(j/engi', barbed and stununed, and notched. Fiaynicnt.s of wood, supposed to have been bows, are of yew. Spear- heads show no special feature (fig. '^\l). The implonients named were fashioned on the spot, nniny in progress of I ;>d ra Fio. 83. Serpentine. manufacture having been found, as well as flint saws, 2 to 3 inches in length, by wliich they were cut. All im- plements except celts were likewise made in staghorn and bone, as pegs, eyed needles, and barbed fish-spears. Notwithstanding the ])erishable nature of wood, some Lake-DivcUers. iSr nrticlcs of oak', y(>\v, fuid jiinplo liavo bocn prpsprvod, in tlio sliape of bowls hollowed by firo and sTUOotliod witli n ^^-onq-e. Cliarred nuts and fruit wore amonj? tlio th'hrin. Althonp^li, in all sojuo thousands of articles of bron/c liavc been collofitt'd, thoj are in general less valuable than might bo expected, leaving room for the inference tlint tlie lake settlements liad ceased to exist before the bronze ago had reached its full development. The most ] K Fio. 81. Socketed axe, bronze. J - 1- important of these are axes, the greater number of which have the pecnliarity that they are made to be fitted on the shaft in the manner of adzes, instead of trans- versely as stone celts were. In weight they range from 10 to 15 pounds, and in length 4 to 8 inches. i\rany are made with lappets to bo bent and riveted over an angu- lar shaft, tlie larger ones having a ring for a ligature. Others have sockets of various designs, including tubular, I! ^''l wm 182 T/ie Stable, Bro;:'^e, and Iron Ages. as well as the ordinary cylindrical and square socket- holes. Well-finished chisels and a great many knives with good (cutting edges, and intended to be fastened in handles, have been obtained. Some of the knives of curved shape are known as "sickles." Small sharp blades known as " razors," were evidently for slmving Fig. 85. Kuife, bronze. skins. Numerous pins for coifure or for fastening ap- parel are among the relics. A number of bronze bracelets, generally of small size, and pendants for neck- laces have been recovered, not dili'ering from those worn by women of the bronze age on hind. A very few bronze swords of an ordinary type are among the finds. I « Fig. 80. 2-iuch mesh, llax \ Lakc-Divcllcrs. 183 The mode of life of the lake-dwellers can be guessed at .vith tolerable precision. No licence is given ns to Fig. 87. Fish-hooks, bone. imagine their indoor habits as in advance of the torpor that ^vith uncultured man passes for content. Out of doors their main dej)endence and chief occupation was ■.■'1 ■ n % 5'' '^1 -hoolis, Ironzo. fi r .i ' t I. . ii . ... t » j! =!?f??ms!i I'M 11 n 11 1! 11 1 If :' 1 ill II: ' I I 11! 1 I 184 77/6' Siotie^ Bron.zCy and Iron Ages. fisliin^-. Abnnd.ant supplies of fish could bo dr.awn from the lakes. ]{emains of nets — preserved by having' fallen into i^itch — ai-c extant, also bono fish-hooks \\\ shape of needles, -whicli, suspended from a line, caur^ht in the gorge of the fish. At a later period they had barbed hooks of metal, of pattei'ns in use by modern fishermen ; and at all times had barbed fish-spears and harpoons, ii-M Fro. 8^^^:^i^ LfyNYo5V' % ^' [d were lo- been of pre- This and if carry ion the Fir,, on. Harpoon, Lono, full size, the chase, nrus, bison, stag, r()(\ boiir, fox, ns an ai'iichi of food, and a Vcariety of land and water birds. Domes. tication of animals must have been on a Aer}' liniiteil ;nid imperfect scale. Jmlging of ihe population by an esti- mate of the area of platform, (iii(> settUnnent in \\w lak(> of Constance would have nuTnbei'cd 1,1^00 souls, anothci- 800, and oth(>rs proportionately. Otic refpiii-es a lively fancy to realize the pastoral word-painting drawn by a 10 ;^ ,1- p fef i- t HI r 11 I ]U ;'i ; ,! i 186 T/ie Stonc\ Bronze^ and Iron Ages. distinguished Freuch writer, of the dwellers' herds being driven across the causeway into the town every evening and led forth to pasture every morning, guarded by faithful dogs. Flocks and herds must needs have been more numerous than their bones show them to have been, to have made cattle-raising the engrossing occupation of so many people. The domestic dog does certainly appear elsewhere in the bronze age, and may have been known to the lake-dwellers. The term " Agriculture," however, embracing as it docs both grazing and the growing of crops, is too comprehensive an expi-ession for any indus- try that these people could have been engaged in. At most their arable work could have been but petty kitchen-gardening of potherbs, grown in common on the mainland near the settlements. No areas that seem to have been cultivated as corulands have been traced ; and although stress is laid on barley having been re- covered from the lake silt, it must not be overlooked that farms have margined those shores for hundreds of years, which may account for ears of wheat and barley found in the lake sand, and also that seed grain in the first instance would have been difficult for these isolated lakenien to obtain and couvey. The horse does not seem to have been yet broken for use. Although the lake-dwellers could not be called an agricultural people, they may be regarded as having been semi-pastoral, inasmuch as, although de])ending on the water fur the greater pro- portion of their food, they yet kept a few llocks on I' certain degree of incredulity is allowable that the J Lake-Divcllers. 187 being vening ed by e been e been, tion of appear known owever, wing of ' indus- in. At it petty 11 on the I seem to traced ; been re- ked tkat )f years, ound in instance cuien to to have dwellers may be iiiucli as, ater pro- ocks on that the lake-dwellers practised cloth-weaving and dressed in cloth, and the disbelief is not removed by inspecting tlio carbonized scraps of linen fabric conjectured to have been woven on a loom. A dd r-rxor%. one ^ likely that a tribe of fishe: men-hunters would clotlio themselves in fabrics so laboriously produced, so easily djimaged, and altogether so unsuitable tor rude work, while they had material of dressed skins to convert into durable garments pleasant to wear. The theory of their practice of cloth-weaving seems to have arisen from a Fig. 91. Fabric of ve{,'etablo fibre. misapprehension of the object of certain stone implements obscurely resembling gear for a loom, but which might have had other uses. It is not easy to see why tlieso men, who spent their time alternately in rough work on the water and in the forests, should want to change their serviceable hereditary costume for one in every way less suitable. Certainly not for garments of linen. If dress of artificial material w^ere sought when skins ran short, it could have been formed in felted wool, and would have been enduring. Moreover, if the relics . :' ill ■'A %. . lii 1 t iScS T/ie Stone, Byou::e, and Iron Ages. siiid to be woiii^lits, wlioi-ls, and otlier loom ^ear were roallj Rucli, tliey arc far too few to be the remains of an industry that provided clothiuf^ for a people. Appended, (fiir. 91) is a fabric that has been found in the lakes. ^J'lie uselessness of sucli material for p-eneral olothin;:^ is manifest. Other tissue of unbleached flax, of a similar fibre, moi-e closely woven, yet still open, has been found, of coarser make ; also other of closer work, both woven and plaited. Samples are en- graved in Fi^uier's excellent work "Ty'/iomwe priinitif,^* and others in the hwchnrc of Professor Rau, of Washing- ton, U.S., " Early ^lan in Europe." The mode of se^mlture amona^ the lake-dwellers is obscure. Earth burial being contemporaneous with the settlements, the deceased were no doubt committed to the earth on the land, and search may yet come on some burial-place. The dead would not bo carried out and sunk in deep water, for, besides that the absence of human bones points against that custom, fishermen, even at the present day, have an insurmountable objection to casting their nets where corpses have been, as in the ease of shipwreck with loss of life. Here again it is forced on our notice, as in the stone age, that the relics, so far as yet found, show nothing that would testify to the celebration of religious rites. One peculiar article, the use of which is unknown, has been supposed by imaginative persons to lx> a symbol of the worship of the moon. Specimens, all large, crescent-shaped, have been found, up to IC) inches between the hoi'ns. Other wi-iters have shown the idcTititv in shape with the sleepi leepi nff Lakc-Divcllers. 189 " head-rest " of the Egyptians ; but such hirge and lioavy articles in stone would l)e out of place in the lake huts. Besides, too few have been found for them to have been in general use; and why nuike them of stone when wood would have been so nmch easier to manufacture and so much more portable ? The Egyptian head-rest is de- scribed as "a curved semi-elliptieal piece of wood adapted to receive the l)ack of the head wdiieh titted into it." Possibly these stone crescents were no more than "pauls" ■ll t (.-* :■! Ihf* .1 Fio. 92. Cresceut-stone. set on the wharves I'or hauling in ropes of boats and tishing-nets over the groove, as a substitute for a pulley. All the lake-dwellings in Europe; were not contempo- raneous in their date of settlement, nor nearly so. At Voiron, in the departiiunit of Isere, in Fiance, lake habitations investigated in 18tt.")-(> discloseil wants un- known to the Swiss. The Voiron liouses were of timlu'rs mortised and fitted with doors and window frames. Numerous implenu'uts of iron, bronze, and horn, as well as of stone, were found. Among these articles were iion knife-blades, chisels, awls, cramiis, and fish-hooks, and, it r.r hi 1; 11 ^^n J 1 90 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. ] . •• ■?! is said, a pieoo of blue enamel ; but this last might havo been a spontaneous product of vitrification in smelting. Pottery of the Roman typo was also found. From this it is safe to assign the Voiron settlement to a date later than Caesar's invasion. To conclude. Leaving it an open question whether the Swiss lake-dwellings were at first lacustrine or palustrine — erected on a lake or on its margin — brief notice may be taken of habitations built on piles in marshes identi- cally with the lake villages. Those have been specially investigated in Italy, mainly in Tuscany, and are known by the name of terramnre, also marniera. Relics of bronze and stone not differing from those of the Swiss habitations havo been found therein, also the remains of domesticated animals. For the rest — the lako-dwellors wore a tribo — but seemingly a tribe only — interesting in many points that will be yet further elucidated, but at present our knowledge of them reaches no further than as a comparatively small body of colonists of the bronze ago who adopted that mode of life for reasons that we do not now fully see. Their level of civilization was much on a par with that of the American mound-builders. 1 CHAPTER XV. WTTFJIiY. Tottery the Earliest of all Manufactures.— Tlie Work of Women.— Development of the Art. — Many Cavo-dwellers unacquainted with it.— Others showed Skill. — Fragments in Caves and else- where.— In Kitchen Middens. — Whence Ornamentation arose.— Ornamental Markings in Stone Age.— Tempering of Clay.— I)el- gian, German, Danish. — Lacustrine.— American Mound-huildcrs. — British Pottery never Excellent. — Imported Phtenician Earthenware. — Potter's Wheel.— Pottery of Bronze Age.— Orna- mental Markings in that Age.— Age of Iron.— Table of the Art's Progress.— Vessels of Stone, Amber, and Gold. PoTTEKY of baked clay, although so fraf^ile, is, as a me- morial of the persons who fashioned it, only second in endurance to implements of stone. When hand-made it is the simplest of all manufactures, as it is the earliest. The articles made from it cominj^ within the class of domestic utensils, the construction of them would devolve upon the women in uncivilized life. It is a manufacture in which is little choice of materials and involving little labour. Nevertheless, " crockery " is a possession that women take pride in ; and accordingly, among specimens rescued from localities widely apart, wo find early at- tempts to ornament it. In a Report on American Ethno- logy published by the U.S. Government is given an 191 m I - r :l '^m m ill I I I i '!■!' 192 7Vu' Stone, Bronze, and Iron Aiscs. Iiidiiiii Icireiid of tlio iiilveutiii'cs of the IJiihhit which K.'iys, " 'I'lio next day ho suw two tiicii milking iii'row-liciids of stoiu's ; . . . tho foUowini^' (hiy hu camo upon two women fashioning jugs. . . . Looking around lio said, ' liL't mo go into youi' ehiy,' and tliey allowed iiim to do so. Then ho said, 'Now braid the neek.' Tliis tiiey did, nniking the neek small." Here we have the re.spectivo occupations of tho sexes. Tlie (ii'st ])ractical use of clay would be a hollow made in a sha{)eless lump to servo some temp(jrai'y purpose of holding licjuid. Next the walls of the \\x\\\\) would bo raised to give greater capacity as a vessel. Not unlikely the first clay lump would bo set near a tiie to dry, and from this would be discovered tho art of hardening by baking. The rude requirements of people who lived in the oi)en air oi* in caves near a stream would not demand cai)acious water-vessels. Accordingly, almost all tho frag- ments found belong to jugs of the capacity of from a pint to a (|uart. Tho art of moulding ami tiring seems to have been a talent in some families antl not in others, for relics from adjacent places show no uniformity of skill. All specimens, however, are not fair criterions. A wide difference exists between pots hastily made for passing use and broken when done with, and those intended to be preserved. Nevertheless, a distinct progress can bo traced in tho illustrations to this chapter, not given in strict chronological sequence, but shown by arrangement of taste. No fragments of pottery have been found in the river gravels, but it by no means follows that men were unac- w^rmmt^rw Pottery. 193 which -huiuls jn two 10 said, to ilo ey did, pectivo ^v mado pose of ouUl bo iulikcly Iry, and ning hy lived in dt'xuaiid he frag- 1)1 a pint to have or relics 11. All A wide ;i • passing ended to s can be (riven in ingemcnt the rivei" ere unac- (luaintcMl with it, for it would have hiHMi ground past re(.'o<,'iiition in tlic How of toi'i-ents. The knowledge of it among the cave-dwellers was very limiteil. Some of tlie cave-dwellings in the soutli of Fi'ance appear to have luul none, although they have produced attempts at carving on bone. Tlu; cehibrated cave of J5rnni(|uel, thouL,'h rich in implements of Hint and l)ono, has yielded none. The valley of the Vizere (l)ordo^ne), none. On the other hand, in a cave near Nismes, not far distant, wei'i; found deep down with remains of the mastodon, and also in a surface deposit, fragments of plain but good make. On the plain of Soiiletre, potsherds have been found, but Fio. 93. Early, unornamentecl. none showed attempt at ornament. The singular ti'ibe, or association of tribes, that periodically visited the sea- shores and left their traces in shell heaps wherever shell- fish abounded, seem to have had snfliciency of pottery, many fragments being found among the shells. All ar(» of unpurified clay intermixed with coarsely pounded stone or .shell and insufliciently baked. The form is in- tended for circular, evidently hand-made by unskilful fingers and without ornament. Without doubt a know- ledge of earthenware in time became general. It was still devoid of ornamentation, and followed one or two rudimentary shapes as in fig. 93. m ill II '" f ' ' if ■ ' 1 194 77/ 1' StofiCy Ih-ouzc^ and Iron Ages. As tiiiic wciit^ on, ^^TOiitei' skill was iic'(|uir(Ml and a iflirnniciin''' (*i tasti) Ix'ijfan to show in (loniosti(; (H-i-aniics. As wo liavo said, tliei'c arc plausihli* {^rounds for assnin- infjf tlmt tho making; of tday ware was woman's work, and the inft'i'ence is natiu-al that she; would try to inaki.' it as pretty as possihlc. Now the rani-c of pretty tliin;^'s with which she was then accjuainted was extremely limited Ooooo t> ti o a Q

4 shows that tho orna- mentation of cart he'-i ware (hiring' tho hiter half of tho Stono Ago in Muropo was a conihination of (h)ts and bars, beads and pins. Dishes believed to be (d' the veiy earliest date are witlujut any of these niai-ks. Besides tho adoption of sm-faee lines for einbellishinent, a tjfreater variety in sliape be<,Mn to appear. UelLfiiun has s beads inrs she ) reprc- ratches. imon to ti'oy the around lie fancy 11 Fig. 9ij. Water-bottle. supplied specimens in various desii^ns. One, as shown in ii^'. 05, a gourd-shaped water-bottle, was found in a JJel- gian cave. Articles from tho Swiss lacustrine dwellings show little general improvement, although those settle- ments ran into tho iron ago. Exceptional instances of bettor manufactui'C are, however, found. One is ropro- sontod in fig. 96. It is noticeable that forms similar to the Swiss, as well as to liritish, vessels are found in an 'i- w 196 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. early Egyptian painting- of a potter at work (fig. 97.) British pottery was never of liigh excellence until very late times. Little improvement can bo pei'ceived during Fir,. 90, Lacustnue. the bronze ago or in that early period which this treatise covers. Native ware was all hand-made and of clumsy shape. Fig. 98 represents ordinary forms of drinking- Fig. 97. Egyptian. cups. All vessels were hand-made ; and if fragments of superior make are discovered, the chances are they were Fig. 98. BritiKh driukiug-cups. of Phoenician importation. The distinction between the two manufactures is very noticeable. Roman taste af- ;. 97.) il very during s treatise jf cUimsy driiiViiig- rm ents of I they 7 were I 3t\veen the taste af- Pottery. 197 footed pottery in Britain for the better, both in material and desi^^n, the ornamentation having developed into interlaced bands, linked I'ings, Vandykes, and otlier etfoc- tive forms, but not yet into representation of objects animate or inanimate. Specimens of marked artistic merit found in tlie Thames may have been of late date and. imported. Denmark excelled not only in skilful chipping of flint and polishing of stone, but many of her ceramic nifinufactures were well made and of graceful design, but from the markings they must in reality be !• u;. 09. assigned to the bronze age. S{)outs and handles to vessel ' did not come in nntil that era. The peo})le known as tlie American mound-buihlers excelled in ceramics all other ti'ansatlantic races, except- ing later the Mexicans and Peruvians, and Avere greatly ahead of their supposed contemporaries in Kiu-ope in that respect. The material they used was a clay of gre3'is}i colour, whicli they mixed witli river sand and pounded shells, or with crushed feldspar, particles of mica or small fpiantities of lime, and the finer kind.s with gyp- sum. Their relics are not smoke-blackened, but liave i H W m «IMU 198 The StonCy Bronze, and Iron Ages. "i Ik como out clear iiiid crisp, whicli loads to the supposition tliat either thoy had l)akinn;-kilns or were acquainted with the method still — or till recently — practised by the Indians of Cahfornia, of bakiTio^ in a covered pit heated l)y u'w froni blazing' chips of Avood. No fragments show marks of having been turned on a lathe, although the circular sha{)e is well preserved. Great dilference exists between their pottery for every-day use and that for Fid. 100. pi-esorvation, so tliat a range of articles fi-om cbinisy to artistic may bi' found in the snnu! ruins. Tlic grotesrjue seems to have been attractive to these ])otters. Fig. I'X) betrays the hand of man, not woman, resembling in motif some of the tobacco pipes that men carved for tluMiiselvcs. An exami)le of their finer \vork is shown in a funeral ui'n (fig. 101). A great diversity of tobacco pipes in clay and pipe-stone have been recovered fi-om the mounds. Indians of the [iresent day exhibit con- Pottoy. 199 sition [lintctl by tlio ;icat(nl , show tIi the exists lat for nmsy to otesfino Fi.r. 1(»0 wed for sliown in tobacco red fi-om libit cou- 'ml I'Kt. 101. siderable frcedoiu of fancy in fasliionin^- pipes; and tli iuhI In;! exlijbit ri.i. 10-2. Fi(i. 103. two specimens, the lirst of elay and the oflicr of stone. Another pipe Ii(>ad re]>resents the bust of a wnman, the M I'" I i IT I. i ■ 4 1!, I ■; i VI i Hi. 200 T//e Stone, Bronr:c, and Irojt Ages. pattei-n of her necklace preserved ; and yet another is the head of a man with a pointed beard of Assyi'ian cut — an " oiled and curled Assyrian bull," as Tennyson hath it. Potteiy, wo have said, continned g-enerally as rnde during- the bronze epoch as it had been during the time of stone. Woman's Avork, it Avonld l)e little cared for by men more worthily employed in metal-working or in tlie processes of hus])andiy. Around the furnaces in the age called of iron are found many shreds of clay vessels of the type classified fis Celtic, poorly baked and of un- tempei-ed clay intermixed with small nodules of qnartz. The vessels were evidently made as i-equired, and are not to be taken as a typical standard of the time, for numerous instances of good form and make have been found in various j)laces. We now begin to notice figures of animals represented on urns, Tiot accurately designed, yet shoAving a partial advance in ideas evoked in the transition from the bronze to the iron age. The ordinary ornamentation of the bronze age is given in fig. 104. The pottei-y of the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland is of tlie bi'onze ago. I'^ven in the early period of the Iron Age ceramics remained without taking any great stride beyond the ;ige of bronze. Generally vessels Avere badly baked and smoked, although some seem to have been turned on the potter's wheel. A few specimens of finer make are not tliought to date earlier than the spread of Roman taste. As an aid to memory, the progress of early pottery manufacture may bo briefly summarized. 1. For tem- ])orary use mere lumps of untempered clay, sun-dried ; Pottery. 201 for longer use, baked in an open firo. 2. Tempered witli sand, vessels made lighter, and shape more eircuhii-; baked. 8. Clay better tempered, circular shape more ac- curate; ornamented with dots and short incised lines. 4. With handles and spouts. 5. Ornamented with trans- verse incised lines, also circles made bj pressure of a cord. G. With circles and knobs in relief. 7. With figure handles. 8. Ehiborate, with figures in relief. !>. Painted aftei" baking. 10, Of stone. i'i % ramies 1(1 the d and on the lii-e not aste. lottery r tem- -dried ; + # "'S^ © Fid. 101. Oiiiamentatiou of Bronze Ai;e. Funeral ui'ns among nil early tribes were made with the expcnditui-e of but little laboui', and were seldom thoroughly baked. E.^amples of form ai-c given in the chapter on Sepulture. Although not strictly pottery, drinking-cups and otliei" vessels of stone have been found, not probably of I'eniote antiquity, and in all likelihood hollowed with metal tools. Several of soft stone have come from Scotland and tlie Western Isles, from three to six inches in diameter, some- times provided with unpierced liandles, and ornamented II SI *■■ * ii iy-''n?'Mrgaf!:i,i»4ij»iJ i 202 The Stone, Bronrje, and Iron Ages. with rings in relief. Their date has been assigned to the Di'uidioiil era. Cinerary urns of similar stone up to twenty-two inches in diameter have been met with in the North. Two small cnps wrought out of shale, that may have been drinking-cups, Avero found near Honiton, placed beside the dead. Evidently they had been turned, and are attributed to the later bronze age. A small cup of amber was found with bronze implements at Hove, near Brighton, and a small gold cup in a tumulus in Cornwall. These two last may have come from the Ph(rnicians or from Gaul. Colouring does not seem to have been in use in Euro- pean pottery. Fire glaze was unknown. When mineral fluxes are used for surface glaze, pottery passes into ceriimic art. Britain could not have been a large im- porter of earthenware from tlie merchants of Tyre, for potteries were in existence in Staffordshire and elsewhere in England in the time of the Romans. y CHAPTER XV T. THE lUOX AGE. The Term "Iron Age" iu.lefinite.-Discovory of Imn-smoltiiv -\ New Era bogan witli Ircn.-How Eaw Material obtainocr an.l smelted—Large Number of Furnaces sprang up.-SomoFunareas traced in Ssvitzerland.-Description of.-Forgi„g and Tomporin.^ of Iron.-Axes.-Swords.-Hilts and Sheaths. -Daggers.- Spears.— Javelins and Arrows.— Trumpets.— Horses and their Caparison.— Ship-building. -Architecture. Domestic and Defon- sive.-ImpIements.-Trinkets.-Establishment of Marts.-In- telligenee of the Age centred in Northern Europe.-Invention of Runic Symbols. The "Iron Age" is a very indofiuite term. Unlike bronze, tlie knowledge of vJiich is n.ssnmed to liave !)CH>n communicated by Asiatics to Kuropeans, iron Avas nuKst likely a liappy local discovery, eitlier made by chance or sought for. Xothing is more easy to imagi.u- than that bronze running short in some locality, another ore wns tried with a higher degree of heat, and the result was a uew metal, found to possess all the ,|ualities of bronze and at the same time liarder and in much more abnn.lant ■supply. Information would spread far more rapidly at the clo.se of the bronze epoch tiian it could have done in the stone age; and a knowledge would speedily be- come general of the splendid triumph of metallurgy that 203 I'l m r =ae: ixtamM I ! t I ?" 204 T/ic Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. t-hen l)e<^an, and has expanded so grandly to our own day. It is pormissibh; to say that, take away iron, and the human race wouUl fall back into its primeval bar- barism. With tlie first bar of iron smelted, a new era began. Wlu'ii we remember that men of the time of polished stone, whieli immediately preceded the epoch of working in bronze, had no means of pi-ocuring woodwork for their habitations or other structures but by splitting logs with stone wedges, smoothing with a stone chisel, and com- bining by means of wooden pegs patiently scra[)ed into shape by a sharp flint, wo must be struck by the enoi-- mous development that abundant iron opened, especially in the branch of structure. The article of nails alone, though seemingly a trifling detail, enabled men to frame permanent habitations, to construct furnishings for them, and, ill the lai'ger shape of bolts, to build sea-going ships. Tlio industry of the bron/.e ago did little in providing small articles of domestic use. There were few hatchets ov chisels, but many implements of war. The demand for these last, joined to the comparative scarcity of the raw material, precluded the industry frona devoting it- self to the supply of domestic needs. That became an especial fleld of iron- working. The smelting of metal would be no new thing to the generality at the beginning of the iron ago. Most per- sons had seen the process of converting metalliferous stone by means of trituration and heat into a malleable material superior to flint or any other substance they had hitherto used. For want of raw copper ore, few men bar- vidint^ Tlic Iron Age. 205 could have themselves engfi<,'ed in tlie mannfacture of the articles they needed, althon^'-li they niiirht have collected it for the forj^ers. Jlere then was a revelation, — a material so abun(hint that evei-y man inij^'ht mannfac- ture it for himself. The means "were of the simplest; naniel}', a hole in the ground, and a supply of ore and charcoal. The new industry was rushed into. In the canton of J3erne in Switzerland alone, the remains of over two hundred small smelting- places have been traced among the hills. During the time we treat, oi-e would be procured wholly by collecting from the surface. Copper ores are more discoverable to the eye ; but the " leads " have soon to be followed deep. Fei'ruginous stone, on the con- ti'ary, was a main constituent of the hills themselves amid whicli the furnaces were placed, and suitable wood for charcoal would be plentiful in every valley. Small parties of men combining could carry on the work. M. Figuier is of opinion that the reduction of iron ore to a state of fusion for running in moulds would at first be beyond reach of the appliances with which copper was melted at a heat of 1,990° Fahr., while iron requires not less than 2,786° Fahr. This objection would apply to the small forges. He suggests that ii'on may be obtained from the oxide, reduced to a spongy state without fusion by the application of charcoal-heat, until when hammered in a red-hot state it is converted into a bar, and he refers to this process as successfully made use of by the Tartai'S in preparing small quantities of three or four pounds at a time. Means so inadequate would do i 'i^ 206 TIic Stone, r>ronzL\ and Iron Ages. (ij )' i u littlo towards advancinG^ the industry when the new metal was first discovered ; but experience in bronze- workin',' had sj)i'ead considerable knowledfife of nietallui'g-y, and the hillsides where iron ore was found were ere long- dotted with forges. W. ^Eorlot, naturalist, and ^I. Qui- ([uerez, mininfj ent^ineer, — authorities quoted by jM, Fiijfuier, — give a description of an iron foundry of the better class, restored, which may not l)e far astray in the main. Fi-oni e.vamination of the remains of many furnaces in Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden, these f^entlomen found the erections sufiieiently simple, and rather kilns than furnaces. A hole of moderate size was scooped out on a slope facing the wind. Sometimes, though not always, the hole was lined with stone, forming a kind of largo crucible, with or without a funnel of clay. A layer of wood was placed at the bottom, then a layer of ore, then again other layers of wood and ore alter- nately, and the heap was lighted from the base when a strong breeze was blowing. Bellows for artificially i-aising wind do not seem to have been known. The fire, kept from blazing by the layers of ore, smouldered in charcoal; and iron in small quantities was found at the bottom of the kiln. Later, however, kilns of ten or fifteen feet in depth, coated inside with clay, were in use. !M. Qui()uerez's careful research in the Bernese Jura has distinguished two grades of furnaces, the first, and rudest, going back to the beginning of iron-casting, and the other of later but still remote date. The first kind were mere cup-shaped holes of no great depth, iiollowed in the hill-side, and lined with clay, in which the ore was fed i The Iron A(^i\ 207 with chai'coiil. Tlio liitor, l)y fiii* tlio most numerous, wero on a much hii-ji^or scalo, heiiiiJf conical lioUvs likewise ([\\\* in the hill-side seven or eij,''ht feet deep, and elaye(l within, hut havinu^ no contraction towards the top. As these smeUinu;-pits were not lari^o enou^'^h to hold <;riMMi wood, mounds of charcoal (!arhonized in the stack have heen found near some of these carlv foundries. In historic times smelting' estahlishments came to be largely improved in construction and e([uij)ment, turning out a much larger proportion of metal from the ore. Classes of iron ready for market, in shape of fwo connected pyramids, and weighing' twelve to sixteen pounds, have been found. Silicious fluxes and artificial means for increasing draught do not seem to have been known until historic times. The facility of obtaining material for manufacture soon produced mechanical skill, although inventive ingenuity was not mai'ked. The production of weapons and other lethal im[)lements still claimed a large share of the industry in tempered iron. Axes continued to be cast and hammered in iron, as formerly in b.'onze. Iron heads, however, were made larger and heavier, with a wider cutting' edge. Lappets to be welded over the eiul of the handle fell out of use, and a S(iuare socket-hole was substituted, into which a wooden handle made with au elbow was driven, thus making the axe more serviceable in carpentering and wood-cutting. A modilication took place in axes intended as weapons of war, the blade being made broader and heavier, with the edge crescent-shaped, from which it may be gathered that the shields they LP' >.' I4«i ill 2oS The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ai^es. were used aj^ainsfc wero stren^tliened with metal bosses, if not made wliolly of ono motallic; disc, roqiiiririf,'' effoc'tive wnwipons to cut tliein down. I lefts of war-axes were fiiitlier given stren<^th by beiiij^ plated with iron. Ilespecting the favourite article of inanufactuiv, the sword, — the museum of Copenhafjen possesses more than si.v hundred bronze swords, which weapons some have set down as being the product of the age before steel was Fio. 105. Iron axe, square socket. known. AVo think this conclusion is hasty, and ai^e inclined to believe that no arm in the form of a sw^ord was invented until the iron age. The value of this king of weapons would at once strike every one familiar with the use of arms, and warriors -would be avid to possess one, but it does not follow that they wished it made of iron. The virtues of bronze were well known, its integ- rity, polish, and strength ; but the new metal was untried, and might prove inferior in action, for it is not pro- [IX OS 1. the tlliVll ■e set 1 was nd are sword lis king Jar with possess Hniade of s integ- untried, ot pro- The Iron A^q'r. 2 ^9 bable that excollonoo in tonipcring was a discovci-y sirmil- tanoons with that of casting'. 'IMic ])L>aroi',s of afriis wanted their weapons of the hcst. If w(> read I Tomer aviglil. notable lieroes at the siei,^' of Troy had swords of l)ron/,e. while the common soldiers wore ii'on. For a long tim • many steel swords of the most approved qnality continued to be hilted with bronze, showing that ai'titieers worked Fir.. IOC,. T>iini;isconod sword-bladi'. equally in cither metal. If the su[)position that swords were not invented till the iron age be correct, it would make tiie tombs in which bron/e blades arc found less ancient, it being at all times hazardous to assign dates from articles that might have been heirlooms. A general description of the sword-blades of the period is, that they were in general of one of two lengths — one short, about V ! ' I i m\ ■4 t: 210 The Stoiu\ BroiLzc, and Iron A^i^cs. l(j iiielirs, tlic otlior l<)nr<)n/e was dedicated to the hilts of the most highly finished swords. Sheaths oifer some features of interest. Several weapons have been found still with remains of woo.len sheaths that have b.'en covered with leather, more or less traceable. Others were of thin plate iron wrought with the hammer, and with rings for attachment to the sword belt. Some of these metallic sheaths show designs either incised, or in M liil jMl \'\ , ! ^\\ I I ■ ! * n1 tl I III ii p 212 T/ie Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. a kind of roponsst' wck, in wliicli tho hortiod h(n\st', f)r armovial sj-mbol of Gaul, moi'O than once appears. Sword-bolts were frequently of connected discs of bronze or iron, oi-namented. Dago-ers or poniards were a nsual article of personal equipment. CVcnerallj thej were in one piece, with the steel blade tempered; but sometimes were hilted with Fig. 109. Swonl-shcath, iron. bronze secured by rivets, in the pattern of swords in miniature, and worn in the belt as daggei's of flint had been. A few have been found showing considerable fineness of workmanship and ornamentation. They were worn without sheaths ; or at least, no evidence declares otherwise. Spears of the period were of snlllciently formidable dimensions, some of them IG inches in the blade, equally The Iron Age. 21 \ suitable for war or of spearing the boar, which then ;'an,-ed the forests. Commonly they were hu.ceohtte ni shape, clouble-eclged, and oceasionally serrated or wrought in fanciful shapes, as in fig. 110, representing one with scalloped edge. Much care was evidently be- stowed on their manufacture. From the small size of I Fi«. 110. Fancy spear, steel. the sockets, the shafts seem to have been slc-uder; and some fx-agments of staves, supposed t. have been spear- I liafts, were shod with iron ferrules. Javelins, on the eontraiy, were carelessly made. Most of them show a pccuhanty iu nutke, being short in the shoulder, mostly without barb, socketed for a heavy shaft, leaf-shaped. I 1, l-'-J Ir 214 TJie StonCy Byo)izc^ and Iron Ages. and (tf I'ude finish, 5 to G inclius in leni^'tli. It may be reniemljc'i't'd that in Roman times each legionary in tlic front line of attack was armed with two javelins, one to hurl on the advancinj,' foe, the other as a defence against cavalry, and that the practice was imitated hy the (loths. Wcai)ons for such use did not require careful finish. Experiments made in France by direc- tion of tiie late emperor, with prehistoric iron javelins, showed that they could not be thrown far with pre- cision by mere sireng'th of arm, and therefore must have been disehai'ged by some mechanical power, pro- bably not by balista, but by a thong attached (mnentu))i), . Fio. 111. Iron javelin, 5 iiicbes. on the principle of a sling, the weapon being whirled until it ac(pnred a high degree of rotatory motion, and then suddeidy loosed. These experiments demonstrated that a javelin such as desei'ibed could be thrown by average sti'cngth of hand about 22 yards, but by a tluMig wt)uld fly a distance of from 80 to 90 yards, thus becoming a formidable missile when en- countering an obstacle in its course. To the use of such projectiles nniy be attributed more than to sword, or even spear, the use of breast-plates and other defensive body-armour, a. few ])ieces of which have been found. To the sword, howevei', we must credit the adoption of niiiy )niuy elins, fence )d by jquire dlrec- s'clins, 1 j) re- must 1-, \n'o- ist \vhivUHl ion, and trated tlirowu ds, but ) to 90 len en- of sucli word, or lefensive u found. >ption of T//C Iron Age. 215 helmets, svliieli beeiiine general as steel nuuuifaettire advanced. Iron arrow-lieal.s, on wliieli not mueh ex- penditure of labour Inis been wasted, liave been found in considerable quantity. With the inereiise of warlike pomp, the liorse of the warrioi- was decorated with metal trappings, and was shod with iron shoes not mueh dilTering from those customary now. Up to the date our treatise covers, horses do not seem to have l)een cinj)loyed as auinials of draught, a circumstance sudieiently accounted for by the absence of roads suitable f(jr wheeled vehicles, notwith- Th;. 112. Steel bit. standing that this has been somewhat gainsaid by an iron tire of a wheel having been found near Berne. Judging from buckles and other small metallic ai-ticles, ordinary caparison was Jiot much different fi'om now. A bit (tig. 112) is of a pattern still common in the rural districts. Saddles have not left any recognisable I'c- mains ; but possibly mounted men Averc contented with rugs of skins for shabi-acks. With cavaliy mailed and helmeted, and armed with swords, came the ])omp and panoply of war. We must go to theeddas for the information that troops of warriors had in their train clanging instruments of martial noise, :-:t l!i^ , I" [i I 'I j i :i V. i 2l6 The Sioiic^ Bronze^ and lion Ages. I, Mi besides the beatinfj of weapons on shields at the moment of attack. Trumpets and cymbals, the eai-liest instru- ments of sound of regular war, are supposed to have come into existence in the later pai't of tlie bronze a<(e. In the stone age, horns of the urus Avould answer every purpose of a trumpet-call. 'J'he metal ages improved on the bi.son-horn, and produced war-trumpets of formidable volume. How early the prehistoric men of the North began to build sea-going shij)S is matter of dispute. Doubtless long before the fleet of the twenty-sixth Egy[ttian dynasty circumnavigated Africa, about n.c. GOO. At all events early in the iron epoch northern Europeans claimed to be kings of the seas ; and on a knife-blade of the bronze age we already find a rude arabes([ue of a ship headed like a swan. Earlier than the northerners, in fact in the stone age, the sailors of Tyre were familiar with the Mediter- ranean, and may have tui-ned their prows northward after passing the narrow strait afterwards called of llei'cules, and thus have taught the mysteries of sea- going. Be the actual date left open for amendment, but the general standard of intelligence must have been enor- mously raised when men had the skill in shipbuilding and the daring in adventure that extended their enter- prise from the land to the sea. From the changed condi- tion of the people on land, the art of building with stone arose, by fitting together blocks of uncemented masonry. Architecture divided itself into domestic and defensive. The latter produced those singular structures, fortiiied watch-towers, also missile-proof uudei-ground vaults, with 77/6' Iron Ai:;c. 217 o enter- Icondi- stone [,sonry. jnsivc. jrtified with others vaL,''ac'ly j^rouped as " antiquities of the northmeii," a wide term that conveys nothinj^ as to date, but whieh falls under the study of "Architecture." Domestic resi- dences had become much improved in the eai'ly time of iron, stone and timber being alike used in the consti-uc- tion of dwellini^s. Domestic implements, of which metal formed a chief material, likewise show that a vast advance had been made in manners, and in an increase of wants. The industry of the bronze age was much occiqtied in manu- facturing weapons, or implements that might be used as such. The age that had now come added the handiwork of the artisan to that of the armourer. It is needless to catalogue articles of iron that would sj)eedily come into common use. Carpenters' cutting and boring tixjls are fre(iaently met with. Sickles of G to 8 inches in the blade, for the cutting of grain and grasses, are curious as indicating that agriculture had already developeJ into a system, but had not yet labour-saving ap{)lianccs. Among the iinds are many requisites for women's usi', as scissors, tweezers, and the like, as also thin cutting blades (useful for many pur[)oses), called '" razors," showing at once that ai'titicers had become skilful in the manufacture of snuiU wares, and that considerable attention was paid to the toilet. Necklaces and broodies (jlbtihe) were the chief articles of female ostentation. Bracelets, bangles, and ear-rings were worn. Some few were Oi gold, others of bronze, with some delicately wrought specimens in iron. 'J'hese were proiluced by the hammer and graver, rarely by casting. It is believed the T; 1 1 M-i M i «l i i * < 1 i i 1 . 2l8 7/u' Sialic, Broii::c, and Iron Ages, blowpipe was not unknown. A considerable trade was carried on in anibei-. " Tor(|ues," or collars of dignity, ollen oi" t^'old, worn by chieftains at the time of the lloinan c()n(|Ue.st, ai'e not Avithiu the jjcriod our remarks cover. Most articles of cutlery were now made of iron ; but Fici. 113. Lmcelet, iron. from their tendency to oxidize, not many are i-ecovered i.'i q-ood condition. A table-knife (tig. Hi) dug U}» in Noi'folk, will illustrate this. When iron nnxnut'acture spread so rapidly, the supply must soon have exceeded any demand likely to be niado Fig. 111. Steel knife, oxidized. by persons calling personally at the workshops. The two hundred iron-factories up among the hills of Berne, for instance, must have produced many times more than enough to pi-ovide all the near inhabitants with all the ironwork they could pay for. Industiy does not con- tinue to produce an unprofitable surplus. A market The Iron Age. 219 bc^'ond liful therefore to be sought for. Tliis woiiKl impose the establishment of a fair, either periodicul or permanent, at some point accessible to customers, although it is difficult to see what portable articles they could h;ive had to barter for metallic ware, or how such were dis- posed of when obtained in exchange. On this point we do not hazard an opinion. Considerable mystilication lias arisen from some authors assigning too earlv a d;iti> to the use of coined money, leading to the inference that coin was the customary medium of commei'ce tVoiu ihc time of the bronze age downwards. Jt is true that money was struck at an early date in Gaul, bearing \\\(\ impress of that nation's arms, and that a coin of such stam]) was found in a Swiss lake, in which were villages of the bronze ei-a ; but the evidence that in that age such tokens were the ordinary counters of commerce is defective. Ordinaiy calculation, however, makes it clear that so many furnaces alit would soon fill the immediate local demand, and the surplus produced would have to be disposed of farther aiield. This would set in motion all the wheels of sub-division of trade — the producei", the wholesale and retail customer, and the middleman, besides the agriculturist to gi'ow food for the lai-ge number of jiersons withdrawn from woi-k in the fields. Our theme is confined to the industrial ])rogression of prehistoric man, otherwise it Avould be interesting to endeavour to trace the effect that a growing mythology had on mechanical art. If there are gleams of Orientalism later in the Sagas, any inspiration that may have come from the East, if assimilated, was roughened by the more I I .;■; : It ' '1(1 ! J 220 TJic Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. \\ \ \ 11' >i ' forciblo character uf the northerners. It is not to bo overlooked tliat, in the early part of the iron a^e, it is the tribes of northern Kuroj)e that entirely lill the eye. Their intelligence had devel(){)ed to a .stage that grasped s(jiiie of the abstract })rinciples of society, and would further expand by mere progression of time into full civilization. Among them was approaching the Discovery of Typical Symbols, that is to .say, of written letters. Although imaginative fancy is an unsafe guide, it is not dillicult to see how a hieroglyi)hic to convey information, not only could, but almost necessarily would arise from the extended conditions of industry and its consecjuent trade : — a. The least advanced savages, if gregarious, have ])ant()mime; and the less expressive their language the more comprehensive their slight but significant gesture. A slightest motion of the forednger in a more or less per[)eudicular or lateral direction expresses much. b. This pantomimic meaning cait he rendered visibly to 'persons absent. The position a twig or two is left in on a route conveys comprehensive information to parties follow- ing as to the direction the guides have taken or will take, also incidents of the journey or of contingencies to be expected. More dui-able symbols of the same kind would serve to commemorate events. Hence lluuic in- scriptions and painted rocks. c. As to its domestic use :— -suppose a forger of arms in the earliest time of iron, wishing to send word through many hands to a customer that an axe or spear-head he had ordered was ready and awaited him, what more The Iron Age. 22[ have the natural than to sci-atch on a wasto sci-aj) an out line of tho article and send it as a notification thus: " one axe, two axes, and a spear " — fl R PI ^ (which symbols ai-e in reality the letters ur and /yr of the Runic alphtihot). The symbol would be intelli<^ible. The priesthood would appreciate the possibilities of this means of communica- tion, and hence, in time, a phonetic alphabet. d. Hieroglyphic that could be passed from one pei'son to another as representing value appeared in due time in thesliaj)e of coinage. It ma}' lie said that the Iron Age belonged mainly to Europe. IJy the time its ti-aditions began to report connectedly events of the immediate past, man's capacity was vigorous. His industrial effoi-ts, that were to ushei- in a splendid civilization, wei'e no doubt still crude, and in the beginning had expanded but slowly; but intelli- gence once awakened was continually progressive. When Runic inscriptions were cut with tempered metal tools, iron was in use in all the purposes of life. In face of those pictured or written columns, — even if yet untrans- lated, — the need for hypothesis ceases, for history has begun. And here is the suitable point at which to close our sketch of the Industries of prehistoric mmi. % if Lrms in li rough lead he more C'TrAPTET? XV] r. sin'rr/rrh'K rit'spoct to llic Dcail varies. — But tlicir Moiiidry ^^'onpinlly preaorvod.— Ill tlic Stone A^e hy dnirns, — ("romleclis or Dolincu?!.— Kiutli- iiiouiulrf cr liarrows.— PassaRC-Kraves. — Ailvicc to Explorers of Harrows.— Cremation and Cinerary Urns. — Votive ()neri'i<».s with the Peail.— StandiniT Stones or Menhirs. — Driiidioal Circles. — l-'nneral Feasts. — liurial Caves. — lUnial Customs of the Bronze Aj,'o. — Of the early Iron Age. — Costume of tlie "oriod. — Religion of file People. Tin: (Ic^M'i'o (»F i-cspoct paiil to tlie dotul is no!; in itself a oritciioii of tlio liciy-lit that civilization lias nttiiinod. It woiihl be easy to eite (examples to the eoi-trary. Sneli i-espoct arises from a more or less defined sn})position tliat the animating- principle of xist in some other place iiivisihly to the eye of the snrvivoi's — in a woi-d, a belief in the immortality of the soul. The p^euerality of this impression has led tlieolo- gians to rest on it as a dog'mn, and to maintain that a conviction of its truth is inhei-ent in man. Althouf»'h tlio earliest epic poetry — and epic is the earliest of all compositions — abounds with the plaints of " nnbnried o-hosts " seeking" sejinlture, the custom ainono" very earliest men would be to leave the dead Avhcre they fell, or, at most, to cast them out from the 222 I ll -KiiilU- nrers of tigs with livolcs.—- (1 r,roiv/e -rveligion in itsolf tt'.iiticil. Such position ontinucs e ()£ the y of the ll theolo- |u t\mt a |c is the |o plaints custom the tV'ad from the Scpiiltinr. ^^l ]>r(>sonco of tlu- liviii corpses with eiutli iiml to licap stones over tlio spot to jn-eveiit tlieiii heiiiy' diiLT up Iiy wild beasts. (2) As a fiirtlier piotcetion, to enclose tlu> body within shibs of stone, Miid, in I'ocky count i-ies, to heap a pile of stone over it. {'.\) When stones were scarce, to cast n|) a inonnd of earth over the spot wlier(> the dead lay in a eoirm of stone slabs, sometimes placeil in a rnd(! chamber of the nature of an artilicial cave. (4) To set up over tlu^ dead a pillar of unhewn stone. or a tabic of rock on two or nioi'c u[)ri,<,dits instead of a mound of stone or earth. And (o) in tinn> bodies were burned and the ashes pi-eservcd in urns of pottery placeil in tnonnds in little chambci-s. All these burial systems belouf^ to the n(>o]ithic or stone a'^v, and weic continued with slii^hfc variations in detail in' > the era. of metals. It i.s only from monuments thai any inlormation can be extracted as to the rites of sepulture amont^ primeval ra('es. The monuments embi-aco Cairns or stone heaps. Cromlechs, or as now more commoidy called Dolmens, erect or standincf stones, and Hariows or cai'th-mounds, topfether with stone structni'cs of desi^-ns tluit involve questions touchini^ on the reliLJfious belief and political administration of long a^o, and known as Druidical re- mains. The eai'liest and simplest of monuments Is th(> Caii'ii, or formless heap of stone cast on the spot where the dead were eitlicr laid on the surface or covered with earth. Ordinarily the stone-heaps would not be larjicr than ■would answer the purpose of protecting,'' the body beneath. n ■ 224 ^/''' S/iyh\ Brofice, and Iron Ages. These small lieaps would be easily dispersed or grown over and become unrecognisable. In the case of persons of eminence the heaps were of large size, the import.anco of the cairn indicating the fame of the occupant, every passer-l)y adding to it by casting a stone on the pile. Hence the Gaelic compliment, " curri mi cloch er do charne" — I will add a stone to j-our cairn. Three noted cairns near Fraserburgh, Aberdeenshire, each occupy a base of nearly 1000 feet by 40 feet in height. One in the pai'ish of ^linnigaff, in Galloway, Scotland, is nearly 300 feet in diametoi* of base ; and another, very celebrated f(n' its interior gallery and chambei", but believed not to be older than the Christian era, is on the bank of the Boyne, near Drogheda, Ireland, and measures 400 paces in circumfei-euce by about 80 feet in height. Some noted cairns have their base outlined by a cii'cle of large stones, oi- even si double circde with traces of a ditch and Avail. Some cover a burial chamber with the body packed in a rude colliu of slabs of unhewn stone, called a " cist, ' which coffin rarely reaches four feet in length, and still more rarely is the length of a man. Cairns are found in many rocky countries, as Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany, also in Norway and Sweden; but few in Denmark. Most of them have some legendary name associated with them; but such popular nomenclature is an unsafe guide as to date, or even as to personality. ^Many cairns of remote age must have become covei-ed with turf or wood, and have still escaped discovery. In more recent times cairns have been erected as landmarks and to commemorate local events. Sepulture. rrown evsons rtaiico , every e in^^- er ^^ :o noted occupy One in Is nearly alebratcd eved T\ot uk of tbe 400 paces omo noted pcro stones, and Avall. packed in a "cist,' [h, and stiW are found Cornwall, but few in [idary name enclature is personality. nne cov i-ered In scovery laiulmark In fii^. 115 is represented a cromlecli, or, as it is now generally called, a dolmen, from the Celtic words rZan/, a table, and viacn, a stone. The word " dolmen " exactly describes a cromlech ; namely, two or more uidiewii stones erect on the ground and supporting one or more horizontal tabular slabs, with a paved, or unpavod, open space beneath. This is the simplest form ; others more elaborate, such as Kit's Coty House in Kent, Wayland Smith's in Berkshire (alluded to in Sir Walter Scott's novel of " Keuilworth "), and Clmn Qnoit in Cornwall, lis Fifi. 115. A cromlech, or dolmen. I'osonible artificial caves. The table-stone is often of surprising weight to have been I'aised to an elevation of several feet without a knowledge of the mechanical powers. An elevated slab 12 feet in length by 10 in width, is in place at Plas Newydd in Wales; one of basalt, 18 feet by 11 in Stirlingshire, Scotland ; and another of satulstone, 2;^ feet by 17, on six supports, at Kilternan, Dublin, each weigh up to twenty tons. A remarkable one at Saumur, in France, is G4 feet long })y 15 wide, unpaved, with four supports of si.x feet in height on each side, and one at either end, the four stones laid across the ■■^ ;'' 1 1 ; a 226 The Stone, Bronce, and Iron Ages. 'V. ' top being- of great size, one of them 24 feet in length b}' two in thiekncss. Dobnons <'ii'o found in England, Wales, Denmark, Germany, Jei-sey, and Spain, but loss commonly in Scotland, where the caii'n is more prevalent. Cists with flint and bone relics in them are frequently found interred under the canopy in dolmens. A supposi- tion has been offered, not without jilausibility, that dolmens were not ei-ected as we see them, but were the chambers of earth tumuli now washed away by i-ains, leaving the stony structure revealed. Although there are objections to this theory, it may have been true in some instances ; for when certain bai'rows were opened, it was found they were of earth heaped over a cromlech. High antiquity has been claimed for these monuments, notwitli- standing that one examined in Derbj'shire had Roman coins ])laced beside the skeleton — an index to the date of burial, but not of the dolmen itself. The former idea, that these structures wei-e Druidical altars, is now ex- ploded. A frequent declination of the tables from the level originated the impression that they were sacrificial, but the divergence from horizontal is explained by the unequal settling of the ground. Brittany, part of the ancient Armorica, affords a j-ich ticld for the study of these and kindred monuments. The class of monuments most frequently met with and the most readily come at for purposes of investigation is the Barrow, or Tumulus (" little hill "), which is mertly a mound of earth heaped above a place of sepulture. Most of these are artificial works, although, in instances, interments have been made in natural mounds. They are rland, it less ralent. ucntly ipposl- ,-, that ere the y vains, icrc avc in snino ., it was notwith- lloman the date mer itlea, now cx- from the acn a by ficial, the ;t o stuO f the b' ot Wl th and titration IS is merely Iscpviltvire. instances, They are Sepulture. 227 numerous throu<^]iont ]{i'itain. All liave the same general characteristics — a grave, usually with cists, heaped over with a mound of superincumbent soil. IJarrows examined in Germany have been classified into — (1) Tumuli without discoverable remains. {'!) With bodies and flint relics, but no urns. {'.\) Without bodies, but with baked clay urns. (4) With bodies and urns, and in some cases, besides flint, articles of bronze and iron, showing these to be of a later date. The late Sir Richard Colt Hoare, as long ago as seventy years or more, examined many barrows exhaustively in Fio. 110. Forms of barrows. Wiltshire, Dorset, and pai'ts of Hampshire, where there are many, and has arranged tumuli by shape in a classi- fication which, sligl^tly moditied, still holds good, and is thus amended: — (1) The long barrow or tumulus. I^ro- bably the earliest, no relics of bronze or iron or articles of ornament being found therein. These vary in outline either from design or action of time, it being noticeable that many are wider at the end facing the east, at whicdi end the bodies are placed on the floor, protected by a covering of loose stones. (2) Tumuli slightly elevated. "il i; t ! ■ ^ ■ !;: ' M 228 T/ic S/o?ie, Brcnze^ and Iron Ages. HI. I'^i % \k .! I ' '• I These may have been of greater liei't^lif, but worn away by denudation. Of a (\;\\ii equally caily witli Xo. 1, or eai'lier. (8) The Bowl barrow, or most common shape, in foi'm of an invei-tod bowl. Karly. Sometimes having traces of a surrounding ditch. Examples in Dorset and on the ^lendip hills in Somersetshire. (4) The IJroad barrow, resembling the bowl, but wider and flatter at top. No evidence on wliich to assign a different date. (5) The Bell bai'row. An impi-ovenient in symmetry on the bowl. Sometimes suri'ounded by a ground ring of stones. Examples near Stonehenge. Three, if not more, varia- is iu- tarative ngtli of ter til an )een set ubstitu- hat en- aiiy tons lis, was Diidevous ones, or s to how uornious ot where with like of battle me " cat and the i-iite their I around Among claim to cliieftainsliip ; and these moiuunents were raisod to per- petuate deeds of renown done; by eliieftains in whose prowess the people who raised them felt they had a share. Nothing more natural than that they shcjiihl hold festal celebrations on anniversaries of the givat event on the spot wliere it was symbolized in stone. As the renown became exaggerated by repetition, and hazy as the monu- ments themselves grew venei-able from passage of time, })0[Milar myth migh be exalted into a mythology with its superstitious rites, but no concurrent evidence shows it in the stone age. I'Vstal gatherings in connection with sepulture and sepulchral celebrations would be no new thing. The buried or cremated dead were always in- terred with some degree of ceremony. AI. Lartet dis- covered in front of the burial-cave of Aurignac, in the department of the Haute Garonne — the oldest known place of sej)ulture, and believed to have been used for that purpose prior to the pluvial period — eonvinciiin' signs that funeral feasts accompanied the depositing of the dead and the '* rolling of the stone to thr mouth of the sepulchre." JJesides surface burial, caves were used as I'cceptacles for the dead at an early ei"a. »Scri[)ture shows that in traditional tiims certain caves were set apart for burial. Abraham purchased the cave of ^lac- pelah for a family vault (Gen. xxiii.). Menhirs usiuiUy stand alone, but fretjuently t wo oi- more in line or in gi-oup. Human remains aie fouiul under some of them, together with relies, indicating that they date chiefly from the nges of bronze and iron. Instances of monoliths having a perforation, most likely natural, II A iAKii 236 The Stoni\ r>ioii.Zt\ and Iron /Igi's, l! ai'o known, to wliicli the loiiiaiuH! of Ic^'ciid iittuclics. One jx'rfoiiitcMl Tiiciiliir stfuuls iit Miidtlerly, in Coi-iiwall. Sir Wiilltr Scott inakcs liis luToini', Minim Troil, |)lt'cl^'o \\vv tiotli hy claspini,'' liands tlirou;,Mi tlic liolc in tlio Stone of Odin, one of the Standing,' Stones of Stennis, in Shethmd, the lar^'est cii-ele of menhii's in Urifain next to Stoneheiif^e. These stones of SteiiiM.s are arianye-. ''c '1 3,0(jO menhirs, IS to '20 feet in heigh thousand of lesser lenn the heath of lianvaux lises a forest of ItiO standing stones, and on the headland of Penmarch neap tides disclose the St'Piiltiin ^17 ituflu'S. nil Willi. , i.k'il^'o in the •iiiiis, ill lU'Xt to iu;4i'*l »" of ubout lii;^'lhI ill ouelvengo •y hei'c to ne, N/"H- -oinpi-isfil lui outer es of t^it^'- iter stones tlie rciieli na is r.ot )\\ to the ■•nlo with of date icinity of work, the h fo' Ml' ral nten' >•" o^ I )n the ling stones, disclose the »,U'!4' lieiids of siil)rner<,'('d nienliirM. Foniu'i-jy all circleH of stono were supposed to bo of Druidical ori<,'iM, fill it WftS renienihered that the symbol of the cii'cle was as eointnoii to tli(! worship of Odin and other faiths as to the Di'uids, Hueh struetures had elcarly a more eomplieated n»eanin<^ than niei'e eoniplinuMitaiy nieinorials. \^-':.^-/^J^Jt ^1 i 4 % 240 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. ^ifi 1 \\ 5 dating fi-om the e.arlier part of tlic iron ng'o, and by Avliich much information was imparted as to the manners of the epoch. la a tliousand graves opened, half the number of the dead liad been buried, and tlie ren:.iinder either wholly or pai'tially cremated. In burial places in Savoy the same modes of sepulture were observed, and some charred arm-bones were encircled with bracelets. Trinkets of various kinds were found with the dead, includinfr, besides ornaments of iron-work, glass and enamel, showing that commerce had already led to impor- tation of luxui'ies from abroa .1 . ' 'I Dvokc :ecl in ploits minon J nivist gods, on age. Egyp^^i subject ;home is ver, and care in ikl liave lion had ny path- CIIAPTI<]Il XVII I. FOSSIL ^fAN. Scope of the Inquiry. — Table of Comparative Brain Powor. — Human Remains found at Bize. — At Aurignac —In Belgium, the Engis Skull. — At Dusseklorf, the Neanderthal Skull. — Dordogne. — Bruuiijuel. — Souletrt''. — Trou du Frontal. — In Kitchen Middens. — In Lake Dwellings — In Mound Buildings. — Few Remains in British Crves. — Peculiarity in Shinhono and Humerus.— Remains of Fossil Man show no Difference of Structure or Appearance from E.\isting Race. Comparative nnatonilsts are the authorities competent io deal with the study of Fossil Man and to draw infei-ences therefrom, and in so doing are vpt to bring on themselves the charge of matei'ialism. Setting aside mere ([ucstions of date, the issue desired is whether man in all eras of liis race had a physical identity with ours, and, resulting from it, a like mental capacity with ours? This is on the assumption that a certain size of brain, as shown by capacity of cranium, represents a given degree of mental power as estimated in relative figures of proportion. From this point of view comparison of skulls from different localities is interesting as throwing a glimmer- ing of light, more however on the physical than on the intellectual capabilities of the persons to whom they 243 ^i ««^ 244 TJte Sto)h\ Ih-flN-ze, and Iron Ages. Iieloiiyed. Tlio t'liancos are against Ibe fii'st lialf-dozen heads that come to liand in a preliistoric diteli beinj^ typical examples of the i-ace or throwing' leliablo light on the cultivation the jteoplu had reached or were capable of reacliing. It lias been said that among the crania in any mn ^' ,, , r -v^ Arabs 1 It? - > '^ :i- --:^ '.ii>^ Hclavonian Croats Aleutian Islanders ..... Esquimo of Xortli-Westirn America Modern North American Indians . Australian ahoiigines .... Nubians ....... Hottentots ...... Mound-biiilders ..... Greenland KsqTjimaux .... This liihle i.s (U'fective in that it dory not irivc tlii' coiti- ])iiriitivo capacity of tlie avci-at^o C\aucasian skull, and (perhaps from sonio of the crania chancing" to be of niinimiirii measurement) tlio estimate wliich phiccs lower than the lI(jttentots and Australians a race that crcctcil mathematically designed eartli works and fashioned poi- trait-pottery may be subject to le-coinputation. As long ago as the year 1SJ8, hnnuin bones were fouml associated with those of the aur(»ch and leinilcer at JJi/.e, in tlie south of France, and others with bones of the rhinoceros at Nismes, but they escaped ciitical investi- gation. About lH'y2 a burial cave was disccjvercd at Aurignac, in the iFaute-diaronne, France, containing with vestiges of mjk,nimoth the bones of seventeen pci'sons, including several pei-fect skull.; but unfortunately tin- relies were re-buried in a ci'owded churchyard, and they too were lost t(j science. The ivmains aie vaguely de- scribed as liaving been of small stature. Some doubt is thi'own on these mixed ])ojies having been all of one period. i 246 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Jielief that man and the nianinioth were eotemporary j^aincd j,^round but shjwl^-, until in the year 18ii3 a skull (fig. 127) belonging to the paheolithie age was discovered by Smorling in a IJelgian cave among flint implements and bones of rhinoceros ; and a fragment of skull of a verv low type was found, in 1857, in the valley of the Xeandei", near Dusseldorf. Both of these excited much interest, and ai-e still referred to in distiuisitions. That from the Neanderthal is marked by enormous superciliary pro- minence, and by great reti'ocession of the frontal bone. \ i i •? i Fio. 12G. Xcaniloi'th il skull. It is now generally accepted that this skeleton belonged to a man of medium stature, of great bodily strength, but of a mental capacity little removed from idiotcy. Pro- fessor Huxley says it is of all extant human skulls the one most nearly approaching to the apes. We may readily dispose of it by imagining that it belonged to some wandeiung imbecile, whose body was washed into the deep ravine where it was found embedded in five feet of mud. It is unfortunate, however, that the first cranium of prehistoric man that came to the knowledge Fossil Man. 247 lorai-y , skull )vered ineutfl a very under, iterest, am tlio y pi-o- bone. K lolont^ed Ml, but Pro- ulls the e may iiijed to leil into in five the first owledge of science shouhl have been of an abnormal type, inas- much as for years it misled ethnologists in the deduc- tions they drew. The Engis skull is of a much higher cast, with no marks of inferiority. Huxley says of this i-elic, " It is, in fact, a fair average skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher or might have contained the thoughtless brain of a savage." In 1868 portions of human skeletons were taken from the drift near Paris, among them the complete skull of FiQ. 127. Engis skull. a woman, of an un intellectual type, nari'ow and slanting. Caves have not been prolific in human remains, but, also in 1868, skeletons of a very old man and a woman were found in the cave of Cro' martin, Dordogne, the man nearly six feet in stature, the woman tall in proportion, and both with heavy frames and skulls rather elongated but of fair capacity. Their features were broud. The woman liad been killed by the blow of a flint club. A i if i ' 248 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Aj^es. 1^ II'' ♦ M number of fran^ments of skulls liavo been picked from beneath a staliij^nnite floor in the cave of Di'unitiuel, near Montauban, Fnmco. They show no marked de<^radation. From the celebrated station of Souletre, Soano-et- Loire, an ancient buiial-placo on a liill-side, numerous skulls have been examined, showing-, on the whole, a type approaching" the modern Ija,)landers and J^inns. For years explorations have boon carried on in Belgium by the Government. In the Trou do Frontal, a supposed burial-jjlaco of the reindeer period, a few skulls, suffi- (iiently intact to be examined, wei-o more round than elongated. No human remains are known with certainty to belong to the kitchen middens ; but skulls found in Danish tumuli, supposed to have liad some connection therewith, are small and round like those of the Lap- l.anders, but witli more I'etreating foreheads and greater prominence over the orbits of the eyes. Remains are wanting among the lake-dwellers, exceptiiif^ bones of children accidentally drowned, and one fragmentary skull (the date of which we doubt), which is described as "allied to the cranial foi-ms now prevalent in German Switzeiland," In 1872 was found by M. Riviere, in one of the caves near Men tone, in the Riviera, the complete skeleton of a man associated with flint implements and bones of the cave-bear, rhinoceros, urus, and hyena. The skull was elongated, with a somewhat narrow foi-ehead, stature about medium height. In 187IJ the same ex- ]ilorer fonnd in an adjacent cave three more skeletons, two of them of children, the other of a strongly-built adult man of medium stature and of no inferiority of Fossil Mail. 249 fi'om , near ation. LoiiT, skulls typo For im by pposcd , sufli- l tlmn rtaiuty luiul in ncction 10 Lap- (rvcater ins arc ones of ry skull ibed as German >, in one omplcte nts and iKX. The (n-elioad, iune ex- koletons, gly-built. •iority of 1 cranium. Dr. Paul Brocca, of Paris, who lias made a specialty of examining the bones of the cavo-dwellcrs of the south of France, has arrived at the conclusion that these people were a taller race than Frenchmen of the present day. Few human bones have been found in British caves; and they have not added much to our knowledge of the persotiucl of the aforetime dwellers therein. Relics of fossil man from America, incliidini^ the mound-bnilders, all have chai-acteristics allying them more or less with the type of the American Indians of the present. Sevei-al of the skulls, from both continents, but especially those of Europe, exhibit fair intellectual shape; but outline profiles convey so faint a conception of the relative brain room that it is unnecessary to en- cumber our page with illustrations. It would be as absui'd to assign an average of stature or of feature to the men of prehistoric times as it would be to assign an average of the altituilc aiul expression of the race of to-day. Skeletons from ancient burial-places vary as much as do present individuals and nutionalilies. Common minds are easily confused by science })oiiiting out some slight difference in a bone, say an anirle or depression ; and, by the unlearned, the mutter that re- quires hard words to explain is exaggerated into a supposed organic difference. A national ]»hysiognomy, for instance, is an intangible thing, yet we expect to see it in tribal communities, and do see it at a glance with- out laboured explanation. 80 it is with the osseous framework. Says Vesalius, the father of anatomy, a.d. 1543, "The only natural form of the skull 'm-: that of an 250 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron A^tfes. obloiif'' splieioid rj)inpre.ssetl at tlio sides and pi'omincnt beforr and l)eliind;" and Lavater, the pliysiognoniist, adds, in 177o, "Take a man of the eonrnonest understanding to a cliarnel-liouse, and make him attentive to the dif- ference in skulls. In a short time lie will either perceive of himself, or understand when toltl, here is strength, there weakness, here obstinacy and there indecision. . Herodotus says it was possible, numy years after- wards, to distingfuish the skulls t)f the effeminate Medes fi-om those of the manly Persians, and 1 think I have heard the same remark made of the Swiss and Burgun- dians." Suffice it for us, that in the osseous remains of man that have yet been discovered, no organic diffei'ence is seen since he first appeared in the world. His head, trunk, legs, and arms all have borne the relative propor- tions they do now ; and if any trifling individual cha- racteristic is noted, it is a mere detail such as one would see among an equal number of living acquaintances, for nature never identically reproduces herself. So far as bone remains can give testimony, the race of man from the earliest has been pretty much as it is now. Art, by its portraj'als, lends a verification for the past three or four thousand years, during which no change has taken place in tlie pictorial representation of the human animal. Stanley's African dwarfs and a platycnemic tibia and perforated humerus may interest evolutionists, but do not affect the question of genei-al structure. Reviewing the few remains of corporeal man that have been collected from prehistoric times, enough has been observed to show that even earliest man possessed the Fossil Man, nincnt , adds, luidinjf lio dif- LM'ceive I'cngth, juision. s after- Medes I have Jurgun- uiiiis of ffet'cnce s head, propor- lal cha- e would ices, for I far as m from Art, by it three nge has ! human iycuemic itionists, hat have las been jssed the 3 i 'I caj^aclhj for iniprovonirnt ; hut his surrouiidings in the Htono age were not favourahio fi,r its developnu-nt. That l«is intelligeneo expan,U>.l during the three thousan.l years or so thnt are called the age of bronze, the handi- work attributed respectively to the beginning and end of the period proves. As regards the prehistoric race of tlje iron age, immediately antecedent to our own, M. Figuier sums up the case by saying, «' IJotli the skulls an.l the bodies of the skeletons found in the tombs .,f the iron age jx.int to a race of men entirely identical with that of our own day." % I 1 ' X. •'■% 1 * II i .. il\ ! M' CHAPTER XIX. MYTH. Not t'lo Invention of Earlj' Man. — Myth distinct from Mytliology.— No Idols found in LJtonc Age. — A Visildo and an Unseen Wurl 1 recof,'nised from Earliest Times. — Myth of Transformation into Htone. — Of Burrows, Croudechs, and Monoliths.— Of (Hauts. — Why some Supernatural Beings were Dwarf. — Myth of the Mas- todon. — St. George and the Dragon. — Trolls that live in TuthuII. — Ciive-dwellers. — Lake-dwellers. — Fairies and Elf-holts. — Eield for Research is wide. All mylli is modern. The lapse of a loiifj; time is neces- Kary to ntteily blur the details of an occnrrence known to a whole tribe. As Nature imperceptibly moulders away the ani^fles of a nej^lected tower, covering' it with evei'- incroasing masses of verdure, until it assumes new outlines yet retainint:^ a va<^ne but pfreatly eidaro^ed resemblance to the orifjfinal lines, so do actual hard facts become ma<^. nilied by the mosses of eld. This is no place for psychological discussion, but the mere savai^e is stolid. The objects ho is iic<|uainted with are confined to a very limited numbci-. Not havinl p 1U'(.'CS- lowu to •s awivy h ever- Mitlincs nblanco Ibut tlu' iiiaintiMl I'.is own niuiiins contractoil, or i-atlin-. lie possesses none at nil. Itufiijina- tion can never l)e stiirctl unless by a diversity of life- surroundincfs. 'rii(> child of lo-dav, it niav bo said, possesses imafji-iiuUion in an eminent dt'<,Tee, but it is petted and chattei-ed U\ and allowed to run about at will among' a succession of civilized fi-icnds, and in conse- {jueiurc the self-instructed little one tells impossible storii's to its nurse; but all its fancies, if carefully analysed, will bo found to be nothing more than a gi-o- tcs'|Uo combination of thin«]fs it has become accjuainted w:th more from hearsay than observation. The meri' S'lvage has no such stimulant to his intelleittual powers in his surround ins^s. In the early stone nj^e there could have been no generally accepted myth. Neither in the later stone ago wei-e the ciirumstances greatly varied. That was the age of cairns and tumuli, i-e- (piiring the association of numbers of men to build thciii. Such association would tend somewhat to enhu-gt; the range of ideas, for tiotable events must have occurred, to commemorate which they were building. The events were too fresh in memory for immediate myth to attach to them. There must liavo been lapse of time and great en- livenmont of fancy before the popular mind would break out in romance ; for myth is, after all, but early epic. A certain degree of development is re(juirod before imagina- tive narrative can strike the people, and a longer time before it pervades them. The later stone age, we may assume, hiid a foundation for the growih of myth, but possessed none. The men of the later stone age had themselves built 254 The Stone, Ihvnzc, and Iron Ages. if! I M the tumuli, erected cromlechs and monoliths, and con- tinued to build them until the improved conditions of life which we call the Age of Bronze had spread and become general. With the cessation, or change, of monumental works of the old type, forgetfulness of detail would gather round them. In the later ago of bronze, memorials of the long antecedent age of stone would have become works of antiquity. Then followed the Iron Age, which drew a line between the then present and the past, and set out with new habits, new aspirations, and new opinions. Vestiges of what would be considered as an inferior past would be neglected, and their liistory become fabulous. It is quite in accordance with human nature that names and deeds at first handed down with accuracy should by frequent repetition in more stii-i-ing scenes grow exaggerated, distorted, and indistinct. Here was myth proper from the middle time of working in bronze. Active metal-workers, assembled in many small centres of industry, are not, however, the persons one would expect to busy themselves with the memory of a rude past. To those who I'cslded more or less permanently among the memorials may V attributed the want of care in preserving a truthful remembrance. The common mind must have retrograded when the supernatural (which is synonymous with the incomprehensible) was call il in to account for the monuments ai-ound. Imagina- tion, too, must have gained in activity since the stolid hunting times, and have become open to wonder. Writers of weight have advanced, that myth was born of Myth. !55 con- Df life ccome nental gather ials of aeeomc ^ which ist, and id new il as an history human vvn with stiiTinvft*^ Tma(?ina- Itlie stolid wonder. LS born of an inherent proclivity in the human mind to deify the objects of its admiration. On the other hand, some have said that it arose mainly from a propensity in rude minds to invent exaggerations. We venture to take issue on both points. Any cultivated person whom chance has brought in friendly contact with the vulgar of a i-ural type must have been struck with tlio evident good faith yet utter want of consequence with which tliey will depart from the strict details of a narrative, but with tio intention to mislead. This is quite difFci-ent from in- tentional exaggeration, and far removed from a design to hoax. Nor is the assumption that untutored man itches to deify his heroes more tenable. Negative evidence leads directly the other way. As we have already men- tioned, a notable feature in the study of Early Archa^olog}' is, that among the relics of the stone ages no idols have been found. Cave-dwellers felt no need of lares and penates. Had mankind of the period impersonated their deities, they would have materialized them in visii)le shape ; but the action of mental childliood seems to be to clothe striking qualities or events with vagueness, not to impersonate them. Whether this fact can be brought in support of the theory, that the idea of an imper.sonal deity is inherent in the human breast, it is for theodicy to determine. Not till after a long time and on a palpably lower plane of mind do shadowy attributes (continuing to be exaggerated by fancy) become concrete, and man nuiterializes his god. Then, and not till then, did crude fancies and grotesque imaginings condense into fdrms that were equally fanciful and grotesque. The hideous . i, 'if a I h ii 256 y/rt' Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. idols of liuliii and K<,'yj)t iiir examples. Wheu inaterial- i/in«^ has once begun, and wlicn the woi-sliip of fear i.s ^iven to visible O!" invisible ol)jeets not comprehended, tlio extent to which it may be carried is appallin )lation oi and (lis- jndeavour ings." ^'^ „f belief, ave grown secluiled no of the llk-cnstonis ; habits of a pi-ivnary ,-isiblo ami two ave so |vu them is the eyes, ^.,\. AVhen a kind of They are laious, occu- The singu- ! i larity is, that myths havo doviateJ so liitlu from their original typo and have been current so long that they into a trroove of quasi-authenticity, and have nave run gained credence among the unlearned in all parts of tlie woi hi. Wiieii the mind of a savagi; attempts to personify great strength, it unconsciously associates that quality with great physical bulk. The conjunction underlies all heroic njyth, as well as deification in general. Hence, natuially, heroes of long antecedent time, whose real deeds were foi-gotten, become in popular story giants strong enough to have erected by their own unaided strength the stones of cromlechs or set on end the nu^no- liths. Huge bouldei's of the glacial period that lie about on wolds were supposed to have been used by heroes in hurling at each other, or in playing quoits, which goes at once t(> prove tiie anticjuity of tliat game and a belief in abnormal sttength. Anticipating a superstition that obtained in the much later classic times, shades were su[)posed to haunt the places of their sepulture. "Their voices were heard on the breeze," and poets have been provided with the simile of the wailing' of unhuricd L;'h()sts. While the idea of giants arose from the want of any other way to account for the erection of huge monumental stones of forgotten origin, dwarfs owe iheir invention to another fancy. ^Many of the dsi vat)is (stone coflins) in chambered burial mounds were short, not more than four feet in length, into which limited space the body had been bent and packed. Stalwart shepiiei-ds compai-ing 258 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. li N these receptacles of the ancient dead with their own stature, came to tlio conclusion that the people buried there were a i-ace of pigmies. Hence the fancied shades of those dead in the unseen world were supposed to be still dwarfish, and when thoy did appear to men were of diminutive stature, — under various designations. Cromlechs were generally i-eputed to be still inhabited, and haunted by the ghosts of those interred there, which it was averred were of full human size, somewhat hazy of outline, but had been seen of many, and even heard wailing. Whoever has had the experience of losing his way on a moor at midnight, with clouds racing over the moon and throwing titful and flitting shadows, while the wind wails through the stones, will not wonder that the ignorant fancy they see the shade of the hero buried there. A cairn is even a more deceptive place of shadows, and more ready to produce the impression of mysterious beings lurking near. In late times, when a mythology had been established, it was believed that the gods had the power of trcansforming persons into pillars, as happened to Lot's wife and to the giant Ardfind, whom Olaf turned into a standing stone. The 3,000 standing stones at Carnac, in Brittany, are said by the guides to be an army of Ciesar's transformed into stone. A much earlier belief was, that the stones cf Carnac were placed there by supernatural beings called the Gories (Korred), about throe feet high, who brought the blocks from a far distance in their hands, and set them on end, the object being to confuse seekei'S after a great treasure that is buried under one of them — for the Gories were expert \ Myth. 259 r own buried shades id to be were of dmbited, •e, wliicli liat ha7.y en heard losing his over the while the ;r that the iro buried place of )ression of es, when a d that the ito piHai'Si find, whom standing guides to A much ere placed s (Korred), from a far , the object iure that is Ivere expert miners and gold-workers. These are the gnomes of oastei'n fable, more allied in myth to the northern hoeg- folk than to the beings that dwell in bairows, yet their derivation is the same. When modes of life had changed, and possession of land had become tribal, perhaps indi- vidual instead of collective, it seemed a mystery to later generations how great mounds had been constructed in waste places. By a freak of fancy this was attributed, not to the giants, but to gangs of working beings other than human; namely, dwarf "earth-men." Pursuing the idea, these labourers wore supposed to dwell in the mounds they had erected, and credulity fancied it often saw them entering and issuing. Following existing folk- lore as our guide, lights are imagined to burn at night in the chambcjs of the burial tumuli, originating as we may surmise from materials for making fire being found with the dead. The sound of smiths hammering in the tombs is traceable to implements of bronze being found therein : and the myth of lights in the barrows and accompanying sounds of revelry may be set down to the vulgar fancy associating festivity with liglits. These " earth-men ' are almost identical with " trolls " and the Scandinavian " bjerg-folk." The '* hoog-folk " were imported goblins, inhabiting caverns in the liills lying south of Scandinavia, and doubtless were a misty reminiscence of the cave- dwellers. Even the lake-dwellers contributed a share towards the stock of myth. There is no doubt tliat many traditionary legends that have sprung uj) along water margins owe their origin to some misty reminiscence of these people. For instance, near Brecknock is a small 26o 'J III' Stoiti\ Ihonzc, and Iron Agts. m lake wlioiciii no islet breaks the siuootli surface, yet the rustics of its neighbourhood tell there is an island there built on piles, and inhabited by the Tylwyth Teg, a kind of fairies. When the astonished tourist declares ho sees nothing, it is gravely explained that the residents theic- on, liMving taken affront at some slight [)ut on them l)y nioi'tals, have withdrawn their settlement from observa- tion, but it is there all the same. It might be curious to investigate wliether an actual lake-settlement was eve r on that piece of watei'. Perhaps another legend nmy be traced. A huge, nameless, and almost formless beast is thouglit to wander in lonely glens and morasses of Scotland, Ireland, and (Jei-man}', — m.'iy it not come from the story of the mastodon? Were it not that folk-loi'e has almost died out, more than one domestic rite might be tr.acod back to the stone ag>,'. For example, placing a plate of salt on the breast of a coi'pse, as was done in the wilder liighlands of Scotland within the present generation, and also the pretty every-(hvy afTection of bui'ying a child's toys with it, evidently have relation to the phicing of food and trinkets with the dead to comfort them on tlieir iournev to tlie unseen land. Beltane fires, too, that wei'c wont to be kindled, within remembi-ance, on festal occasions in the northern part of the ki'igdom, may have come down from festive and funeral tribid gatherings with their camp fires in the stone age, before paganism tinned them into the worship of the sun. Fairies in myth were an offshoot froni the trolls, yet it is difficult to trace their personality to anything in the m yut the I there , ii kliul ho sees s then - lieiu hy obseivii- Li'ions to vas evi r may he 1 beast is rasses of nne fn»in folk-lore ite might ., placing was clone e present octiou of L'hitiou to o comfort tune tiros, onibrance, kingdom , nil tribi.l (re, before un. lolls, yet it iii<^ in the n M)th. !6l liistory of primitive man. IVi-h;ips it was iKiiural, wluii the civdulons tliought they had seen the jiiiiiiyii trolls and yet no harm Ijad ensued, to come to the conelnsir)ii that there must be two classes of these beings, the malig- nant and the hai'inless. The latter likewise would live in mounds, hut mounds of pieasant greensward, n(jt in tombs. So at least fancy painted them, i'lvt-ry Knglish child has heard fi'f)m its nurse that thci-e arc L;'ood ami bad fairies, .so it must be the latter who, nnsccn, shoot actual flint ai-rows of the iic(jli(hic period to inllicl injury on the cattle f)f per I CHAPTER XX. Ain\ Hypolhehis that rrimeviil Man Lad a Taste for Art. — Fallacy of this — How Progrt'ssivo Tasto may bo traced.— lu Adornmeut of I\r- 8011. — In Ornanieutatiou of Pottery.— In Embellishment of Arms. — Pictorial Dosij^ns found in Caves.— Carving.— Had no Efifect on General Taste— Portrait-pottery among the Mound-builders. ~ Ijronzo Ago did not improve the Condition of Art.— The Iron Ago. — Sculptured Stonen.— Conclusion. Ml'CII subtle lijj)()tlie.si.s hii.s been wa.sted in seeking' a reply to the question, " Wa.s a taste for Ai-t inherent in primeval man ? " — a ([uery at once vague and misleading. Stress has been laid on finding in the oldest caves of Southern France several outlines of aninnils incised in bone (not superior to similar work ob.served among the North American Indians when their historv was first recorded), and the inference has been too hastily drawn that these pictures show a taste for and a skill in Art, from which the race of early men afterwards retrograded. The artistic faculty can be not unclearly traced among any community by ob.serving its disclosures in three paths; namely, personal adornment, shape and embellish- ment of implements of use, and in woi'ks of Art i)roper. These last-named may be either imitative or imaginative ! IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V / O {■/ >" C. s /'W ^0 Si (P., :/. Vx V. 1.0 I.I 1.25 ''1 111^ i^ ^' IIIM mm 2.0 IIU 1(4 U III 1.6

/A '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 4. > C^x % /1^< ".•••}»»' ^mm mm 264 T//e Stone, Bronae, and Iron Ages. it 1^ n I •' — the latter covei'inj? and idealizinfj the foj^mcr — but the few -works of early man that have come down to ns are wholly mimetic, and none of them planned hy imagina- tion. Copjn'ng-, however, by ganarc and measurement is an effort of mechanical accuracy, and can only by com- pliment of speech be called Art. AVlion the form and quali- ties of an object, animate or still, ai-e so stronf,^ly imbued in the mind, and through the mind impressed on the retina of the e^'c, that they can be reproduced with re- cognisable exactitude on a plane in absence of the model, the tirst step in the stairway of Art has been ascended. To this height (in a stumbling way) early man, thi'ough the vast period from his origin to the beginning of the Iron Age, reached, but no higher. The first inception of ornament, that is to say (loosely speaking) of Art, awakens new sensations, not shared by the lower animals, as far as man can divine, and thus di-awing a broad line of distinction between him and the inferior creatures above whom he was created or from Avhom he was evolved. This would indicate that among men's latent faculties is one which circumstances may develop into a power of seeing beauties where an un- cultured eye sees none. There is much similarity in the development of the mind of a child and of an individual savage, or of a Avhole savage race. Nurses observe that angles in connection with cnlonr first attract the infant's dawning perceptions. Red corals and coloured frag- ments of potsherd are the earliest objects the infant will stretch out its hands for. Afterwards it is attracted by curves, and later by a combination of curves and angUjs. I! '-i 1) : >• 11 'II Art. 265 -but the ) us are imagiua- •ement is by com- md quali- y imbued \ on the with re- hc model, ascended. 1, through ng of the ay (loosely shared by , and thus m and the )d or from hat among ances may ere an un- rity in the individual serve that he infant's ureu frag- infant will ttracted by and angles. Appreciation of the symmetry of form does not come without special culture. ^Vhen the child has attained school years she dresses dolls in rococo gauds, or, if a boy, scrawls unintentional caricature on his slate, or carves dogs' heads on his .slate pencils. This description applies equally to the Art progression of any barbaric race. One of the earliest instincts of both sexes, even in the most primitive times, was the adornmCiit of the poi-son. Relics of supposed ornament, through all stages of cos- tume, have been found by archreologists. It might bo imagined that a careful comparison of specimens re- covered from various localities and of different dates would give an outline history of the growth of taste ; but it does not. The, ^n;/.;:' "0U.3 dresses in which the female sex have ari-ayed themstives in all ages cannot be taken as showing progressive improvement in artistic culture. In earlier epochs before fiats " what to wear " issued from Paris or elsewhere, personal adornments merely indicated somewhat of amelioration of manners, and not increased delicacy of choice. Trinkets recovered from the older eaves are very bai-baric, chiefly animals' teeth and bones stiunsr on sinews of meat. From that we come to strings of shells, a pretty custom that still survives. Cilitter is the quality that most attracts the barbai'ian eye, as it does the eye of infancy. Hence pieces of rose quartz, jet, and amber were prized and worn as beads. Although the tendency of untutored taste is to overload, and the adornments from early times include ehaplets, Tiecklaces, bangles, bracelets, waist-belts, buttons, and brooches of bone for the apparel and hair, few are massive or elabo- 1^ i -aHBi^ 266 The Stone^ Bronze, and Iron Ages. rate. Doubtless it was rather from scarcity of gauds than from delicacy of perception. Exceptions have been noted in necklaces, one of which was in four rows with 425 beads, found in a tumulus in Yorkshire, and a few others elsewhere with 300 to -400. The arrangement of these worthless treasures was no doubt the work of the women themselves following one petty fasJiion, arising from the vagary of the hour but disclosing no definite standard of taste. In the plastic material of clay, so easy to be wrought into form, many articles might be expected to have been imbued with creative taste, had the fashioners had the skill to put it in shape. The reverse is noticeably the case. Pottery in Europe remained throughout the pi'C- liistoric centuries as clumsy as ever, although a little better baked. During the whole of the stone age its ornamentation, as we have seen, was mainly a com- bination of sti'aight scratches and dots. It never got beyond the arrangement of these symbols until the bronze age slightly improved on them by introducing I'ings and chevrons with a vandyked edge. The mound- builders of America, whose pottery may have been con- temporary with later Egyptian, excelled, as we have seen, the European races in ceramic art, and showed not a little skill in design. The forms of their urns were graceful, often with elaborate ornamentation, and with figures of animals serving as handles, with a decided lean- ing to the intentionally grotesque. Among the many pipe heads of quaint design that have been found, it is worthy of notice that throughout the number of pieces in f^^gmtmmm Art. 267 uds tliaii jen noted with 425 )\v others of these 16 women from the ,andard of I wrought have been •s had the ceably the ,t the prc- r\\ a Uttlc p 18 age its ly a eom- never got until the ntroducing 'he mound- been con- s ^ve have showed not urns were , and with 3cided lean- the many found, it is of pieces in which human faces are represented a distinct type of l)hysiognomy is preserved. Those given in the margin are, from their individuahty, generally considered to bo portraits. In fig. 128 the first countenance would be looked on as that of a pleasant person anywhere ; the type of the second is unfortunately still to be met with ; and the third has an Egyptian cast that is of interest. European pottery did not in prehistoric times attain this artistic height. We may accept the above representa- FiGS. 128, 129, 130. Portrait pottery, mound buiklers. tions as average countenances of the time, for in truth all normal statuary, however idealized, is contemporary por- traiture, and conveys an idea of the prevailing type of faces in the era when chiselled. It is evident that in a very I'emote pciod of the stone age one man — perhaps not more — with a talent for draw- insr lived in the cave of La ^[adelaine, in Southern France. His sketches found there afford no proof that a taste for pictures was common in that cave. In fact, his works could not have been esteemed, otherwise they would not have been carelessly lost. To him Ave are indebted for n\ 268 T//e Stone, Ih'on.ze, and Iron Ages. perhaps the earliest picture in the worhl (fig;. 131). The cave- shelter bcino; contemporary with tlie latest days of the mastodon, he gives us a portrait of that animal, drawn no doubt from the life, and cut in a slab of tusk, Fig. 131. Mastodon, cave of La Maclelaiim. "not, howevei", the only likeness of the giant beast that has come to us. From the flint burin of the same etcher we have what is called " study of an eel," but may rather be intended for the huge winged reptile, the pterosaurian. !H,i Fig. Ii52. rtorosaurian, cave of La Madi'laine. It will be observed the human figure in this sketch is nude, as is the case in other stone age pictures. We re- cognise the same hand in the horses' heads. " A runniny: reindeer " (fig. 133) is in the artist's later stylo, or by a pupil who excelled his master. The reindeer, in the . 1; I ■HP Ar/. 269 ). The days of animal, of tusV, portrayal of which not much skill is manifested, was an object of the chase coniinn; in about the time of these cave pictures. Massat cave likewise had an artist, — oidy one, — a better driiftsmau than he of La ^ladelaine. His Dcast that me etcher lay rather ;vosaurian. sketch is . We re- lA runnin<>- le, or by a |er, in the Fig. 133. RuDiiiug reindeer, La Madelaiuo. style is somewhat feeble and his lines thin, yet his out- line (tig. 134) may be called fairly accurate. Desiyiiers of the cave period, however, must yield the ])alui tu one Fia. l;M. Cave-bear, cave of Massat. or more artists in the cave-dwelling of Thayngen, in Switzerland. Both the specimens, shown in the above cuts, Avere engraved on deer's horn. Fig. 135, an outlining of a fox and bear, shows a good deal of character. What 270 The Stojie, Bronze^ and Iron Ages. is considered the finest specimen of stone age drawings, " reindeci' browsinrj," is lierc reproduced from the same Yu-, \'Ao. cave. The cave of Laugerie Basse was not without its sculptor, whether the same person with the engraver of Fig. 136. fig. 136 is not known, but a carved staff of reindeer's antler testifies to his skill. The carving is thought by Arf. rawing, lO same some to I'epresent the head of a cave-bear ; but it is not much like a cave-bear, and may liavo been meant for a mylodon. When we know that one industrious artist can leave behind him a stack of pictures, it need not bo matter of surprise if the few prehistoric remains that for want of a better term may be called Art were the work of not more than half-a-dozen persons. An experienced eye will detect the peculiarities of style in the most rudiincn- .' ritbout its irrravev or r5 Fig. 137. reindeer s thought by lary sketch as readily as an expert does the differences in handwriting. Not more than half-a-dozen styles can be detected in archaeological art " finds " as shown by published engravings. Notliinj^ is therefore more fallaci- ous than to attribute to the cave-dwellers a general taste for Art from these few specimens. Modern advertising enterprise, that scatters coloured "chromes" broadcast throughout the land, may have the effect of awakening a taste for such pictorial representation, but the few minia- tures of animals etched in caves could have had none. 27; The Stonc^ Bronze, and Iron Ages. % It' piooi" were wanting, it is found in tlii) circMunstuiu'o that in collecting museum sjiccinicns for an exhibition at Paris to illustrate the incalculably long stictcli of tlio stone ago, only fifty-one could bo obtained showing any trace of pictorial design, and this in face of the fact that one oi- two hundred thousand stone-age relics must be in public and pi-ivate collections. Throughout the whole of the stone ago and greater part of the bronze, Art stood still at the "grazing i-eindeer" of the cave of Thayngcr. The proof is enipliasized by finding that up to about the middle, or later, of the bronze age ornamentation nuirks were in general mere scratches. 'i'ho })ubHc mind must be in a state of activity before it turns itself to general embellishment. To compare great things witli small in Art, — the sculptures of Greece were produced and gi-aceful surroundings adopted when every (ireek had an active personal share in politics, — the Athenians, according to St. Paul, being ever avid after some new thing. The art pictorial of Byzantium and of the Italian cities developed in the intervals of wars when the general mind was excitable. People of the pre- historic epochs, on the contrary, at sucli time as food was in plentiful supply, must have led a most indolent life, alternating with spurts of wearying fatigue. Both con- ditions of existence were unfavourable to the growth of the finer perceptions. Isolated and nomad habits could not be responsive to the stirrings of sentiment. The reason that individual draughtsmen of primeval times confined their drawings to figures of animals of the chase is not hard to find. The art student of the schools J/7. '■75 mstiinoo )iti(m iit » of tbo ing any fact that ust bc> in wl\o\e of U-t stood jibout the on niai'ks y before it pare great reece were hen every itics,— the aviti after um and of ^vars when the prc- s food ^^■as olent life, Both con- gvowtli of ibits could pr imev al lals of the Lhe schools ill (Irawiiif^ from thu roiuul has to iiiulergo (Irudgery in di.sci[)liiiiiif^ liis niiud to tako in the ix-lativc proportions of the model, so that tlie traits impressed on the mental retina may unconseionsly guide tiie hand in ri'produeing them when the visible copy is absent. Kspeeially is this the case in designing on a Hat surface, to convey the idea of roundness, and yet more so where a copy is made from the life, when the slightest motion of the muscles changes the expression. To acquire anything like a mastery of any one life class, the student must have continually be- fore his visual eye not only one but many of the species to winch he devotes his pencil, until, closing his l)()dily eyes, ho can call up in his mind the exact attitude and expression a living model would take under any given circumstances, and so be able to reproduce it by what lias become the inlierent skill of his baud. With less pro- longed and patient culture the pupil of the schools will Hud that expression (which is the life of Art) escapes him, and he will be unable to produce a satisfactory represen- tation on his canvas. Now, the savage with a taste for drawing has none of these laborious preliminary studies to make before he becomes a delineator of animals. We will not say of " animal life," for that im[)lies composition^ a higher reach than he has ever attained. It is in simple figures that his knowledge is depicted, and with consider- able accuracy. From the time he could walk and take notice of anything, ho had his model before him. When old enough to go out with the hunters, he stalked his model, ■watching it for hours from ambush and noting its every motion and expression until it should come within I (" ;74 ^/^<-' Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, I'iiiiLTe, and at. iiiL,'lih lie would sec it in dreams, Tlius would the ivsult of the educated artist's protracted studies !)(• nftaiiuMl by the savage unconsciously and with- out elT'orf. And, therefore, Art amojig all savan^es is limited to the reproduction of one familiar model. (\-u'vin<^ is an art more likely to bo attempted by un- tutored man than di'awinf>-. Schoolboys with their first j)Ocket-knife have an itch for it. Sailors in lont^ calms, prisoners in foi-tre.sses, aiul othoi's with a superfluity of enforced leisure scom to take to it naturally. Very few instances of tifrnro carvint.^ have been fourul among the relics of the old ages. Where implements sucdi as staves, spears, and the like have beeu graven, it has been with mere lines, rrxxstly on horn. Although the obdurate nature of stone prevented the exercise of the art, much might havt! l)een done in more manageable material had a general taste for it prevailed. The Brou/e Ago did not improve the rudimentary con- dition of art in Eui'ope. The impetus given to activity ran in a business channel, in producing and trading. There is said to be only one representation of the human figure extant from the bronze ago (fig. 188), the figure of a woman carrying a trencher. Be it or not that this is the sole specimen, it gives the information that Avomen's ears were then pierced for heavy e.ai'-rings, and that the costume of at least one waiting-maid of the time was a short tunic and trousers of woven stuff, girt at the waist by a belt of beads. Although the horse, ox, goat, sheep, and dog had come in, w'e have no representation of them worth V of the name. Limners h.ad no occasion to studv . h '/;•/. 2/5 Jl'o tm>tH of (lo.aesh-cvitoa amnmls as fl,. huntet-artist l.ad nf h,H .,,.uny. f„ fi.. 1.S9 f,,,,,, fh. c-ovcm- uf a hron/e va30 a conventional sty], is uppar(>„t. Kv.n l.,ul Kurh aft.attempt, Iuh., g.nentlly ,H1^-m.s..1, it o.uM I.nt In.vo ^levelope.! into a stilT n.ainuM.isn., akin to tl.at of the Fid. 138. Oriental and Egyptian, had not a new influence traversed It. That influence was the bold and Herj spizat growing, m the North, and of which the Scandinavians were after wards the type. Among a darinj. and warlike people a degree of rever- ence approaching to worsiup IS given to the sword. It IS 2'jCy The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. mainly from the hilts and trappings of swords that we gain an idea of the art of the early part of the Iron Age. These weapons had tlie utmost skill and rivalry that armourei's could lavish on them. While in the bronze age sword-hilts were mere grasps of connected rings with a conventional scrollwork showing baldness of invention, bolder designs were now evoked and artificers lai-gely imjiroved in skill. Damascening wa^: introduced to 'TSESSS^^^ Ir: Fid. •.;}'J. r ■' l.'l beautify the blades. Trappings, equally of men and horses, were decorated with ornamental designs. Thus on sword-sheaths we find engraved the equivalent of coats of arms ; the dragon and swan in the North, and the horned horse of Gaul in the South. Not many crested figures from helmets have been preserved, but many re- liefs from bosses of shields, showing bold designs. Horse trappings were ostentatious, laden with metal-work. Fancy buckles on the principle still in use are many. Linked metal rings and chains were in common use. Keys to lock-fast places already showed a touch of the grotesque mediaeval decoration of that article. The Art. 277 whole round of life received an impetus, not omitting the department of female adornment. Iron is not the most suitable material foi- trinkets, yet attention Wius given to form articles of vanity. Gold began to be -worked for that purpose, but, taking the average of such adornments, the ai'tisans have shown more delicacy in hammering than in a)sthetic design. As the age advanced improve- ment gradually crept in, for the ]>rogress of Art, though sure, is ever slow. Sculptured stones, with or without inscriptions, belong rather to Letters than Art. The carvings on them assign a probable date to their crectiou, inasmuch as the sculp- Fia. 110. tors had attained to a knowledge of grouping, some of the monoliths in Scotland and Scandinavia showing com- positions of men and horses executed with considerable spirit. As the lines must have been cut with metal tools, tlieir era would be Avhen the use of iron was general. Compare an attempt at grouping (lig. ItO), fi-om a sculp- tured stone in Algeria, showing that a dog of the turn- spit breed was domesticated, also that the ostrich was known in Northern Africa, and was attacked with lanceolate ari-ows. " v" " ^ ' » ' 2j8 The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. ! I A question of some interest arises, "Were primeval men actjuainted with any otlier art besides the pictorial — with music, for instance? " Here we have only hypothesis to g"o by. No relics of stone have come to hand that could be construed into any part of a musical insti-umcnt. The only specimens that surmise has su])poscd might be plates on which to stretch strings are certain small thin parallelograms of slate pierced with a small hole at each corner, more generally believed to have been wrist-guards or breast-plates. There was neither necessity nor like- lihood that stringed instruments should be of stone. The twanging of a tense bowstring produces the ele- ments of music. AVhat more likely than that three or four bowstrings would be strung on a frame to ])roduce rude musical sounds ? A drum could be in- vented by a child. Whistles of bone have been found, but nothing to show any more powerful instrument of sound, although horns of the nrus would produce a far- heard call and were indeed used by the Swiss as wai'- trumpcts till I'cccnt times. Strong probability would favour the belief that early man did possess some kind of instruments devoted to lyric uses, and the rather that some such are known among modern barbaric tribes. To sum up our remarks on Art. We have seen, as might be expected, that no trace of artistic taste either of embellishment or symmetry of form exists in the pon- derous flint of the river drift. In the succeeding troglo- dyte time, of the many cave-dwellings examined, only three or four have produced a few drawings of animals on bone, — they being of the mastodon and reindeer dates. ./;■/. 279 Ihe long romainacr of the stone a.\^ '^•X ^Orv^Y'S^ IfS I! INDEX. Abherille, 46, 57, GP. Abraham, 235. AchtuI, St.. 4o, 75. Agriculture, 157, 158. Altars, 147. .. Druitlical, 22G. Amiens, 47, GG. Anchors, 89. Aquitaine, GG, G7. Archaeology, 1, 5, 8, 47, 55, 73. Architecture, 216. Armadillo, 20. Armorica, 226. Arrow-heads, III-II5. '• „ Forms of, 112-115. •• ., Poisoned, 111 115. Art, 2G3-279. Asia, 160. Aurignac, GO, 235. Austria, 239. '■intochthone.i, 7. Auvergne, 75. Awls, 122. Azoic Period, 3. Bacon's Cave, 02. lialUsta, 10). Bark of trees, 12. Barrows, 227. Different forms of, 228 Bear, 20. Bedford, 47. Berne, 205, 21.1, 218. Bison, 21. 98r Bit, Steel, 215. " Bjerg-folk," 259. Boar, 21. Bocca, Dr. Paul, 249. Boring tools, 122. Boucher de Perthes, M. , G'J. Bourbeuse River, 7G. Bow and arrow, 11, 108-110 I Boyne, 224. "Bracer," 125, 12G. Breastiilate, 214. Brienne Lake, I74. Bri.xham, Gl. Bronze Age, 151. Bruni,|uel, Cave of, G9 70 l'*j 248. ' ' ' Buckland, Professor, 21. Bucklers, 105, 215. Buhver Lytton, 108. Brecknock, 259. Byzantium, 272. Ccosar, 258. Cairns 223, 221, 258. Cannibalism, 137. Canoe, 13. Carnac, 230, 258. Cath, 234. •' Cat stane," 231. Cave-bear, 37. Caves, 11. 13, 30, 65, G9, 70. Celts, 17, 81, 84. ,. Classification of, 81. .. Edges, Shajie of, 87. ■■**»^» ■-■■p-«l — 2S2 Iiidi'X. m Celts, Hammer form, 94. ,, Manufactory of, 8-1. ,, Terforatecl, 91. ,, Theoretical design of, 83. ,. Two-edged, unbored, 88. Chaleux, 70. Chisels, 121, 182. Christy, Henry, 06. Chun Quoit, 225. Cinerary urns, 228, 230, 232. Chi vaeiis, 257. Cloth weaving, 187. Columbia lUver, 110. " Combs," 124. Constance, Lake of, 185. Copenhagen, 170, 208. Coracle, 13, 135. Cordage, 24. Cotton, Charles, 112. Cracow, 74. Cremation, 240. " Crescent stone," 188, IS!). Crocodile, 21. Cro'magnon, (59, 247. Cromlechs, 225, 258. Cymbals, 216. Dagger, 105-107. ,, Bronze, 107. Iron, 212. Dalles, 116. Darwin, Mr., 4. J)aul, 225. Delaware, 75, 7G. Dinotherium, 20. Dolmens, 225, 226. ,, Where found, 220. Domestication of animals, 158. Dordogne, 06, 68, 71, 74, 78, 247. Drift, 37-39, 75. Drills, 122. Drogheda, 224. Druids, 237. Dupout, M., 73. Dusseldorff, 73. "Earth men," 259. Egyptian fleet, 216. ,, monuments, 128. Elephant, 68. Engis skull, 73, 247. Evans, John, 61. Explorations in America. 75. "Fabricators," 117-119. Fairies, 260. Falconer, Dr., 62. Figuier, 188, 205, 206, 251. Fire, 28, 29. Fishermen, 35. Fish hooks, 184. " Fort Ancient," 147. Francouia caves, 75. Funeral urns, 228, 230, 232. Gaiiggrabev, 228. Geneva, Lake of, 153, 174. Geology, 2. Germany, Explorations in, 71. Gorics, 258. Goths, 214. Gouges, 120. Goyet, 68, 70. Gray's Inn Lane, 45, 46. Gregarious, 10, 26. " Griddles," 126. Ilallstadt, 239. h Index. 283 Hari)oon, 184. Hatchets, G6. Haute Garonne, 69, 235, 245. Heine Bay, 47. Herodotus, 250. Hippopotamus, 20. Hoare, Sir Eicliard Colt, 227 230. " Hoeg-folk," 259. Homer, 209. Horse, 21. Hunters, 36. ' Huxley, Mr., 4, 7, 246, 247. Hyena, 20. .1 den, 62. Ibex, 74. Ichthyosaurus, 20, 21. Idols, 147. Iguauodon, 21. Implements of house labour, 1G2. Iowa, 76. Iron Age, 20.3. ,, smelting, 204-207. Isle of Skye, 104. Italy, 154. Javelins, 101-104. Jutland, 238. Keller, Dr., 174. Kent's Cavern, 56, 57-59, (]3. Kilteruan, 225. Kingsley, Charles, 7. Kirkdale, 56. Kitchen Middens, 15, 131. '» " IVoducts of, 133, 134. .. ,, Where found, 132. Kit's Coty House, 225. Koch, Dr., 76. Lii Madelaine, 70, 2G7. Lake-dwellers, 13, 14. M dwellings, 14, 173. M ,, Where 174. Lauvaux, 236. Lartet, Edouard, 60, 235. Laugerie Basse, 69. „ Haute, 66. Lavater, 250. Le Moustier, 68, 70. Les Eyzies, 69. Lesse, 68. Lion, 37. Loire, 68. Longfellow, 12. Lubbock, Sir J., 41, 228. Lubec, 238. Lucretius, 2. Lyme Regis, 21. Macpelah, Cave of, 235. Maen, 225. Mahquahwitl, 141, 146. Mammoths, 19, 37. Marlot M., 153, 206. Mastodou, 37, 48. "Fort," 112. ,, Portrait of, 268. Mastodonsaurus, 20. Maycnce, 75. " Mealing stone," 127. Megatherium, 20. Moiian, 173, 178. .Alenhirs, 234-236. Mentone, 75, 248. found, 184 Judex. ISrense, f)8-73. Minnigaff, 221. Mons, 97. Montaigne, 09. Morat Lake, 171. Morlot, M., 20(». Mososaurus, 20. Monnd-buildors.l.'}, 139-150, 197, 198. „ ,, worked in cop- per, 115. Mound Citv, 1-12. " Moustier typo," 77. Mummies, 11(5. Myth, 2o2-2()2. ,, Similarity of, in different countries, 257. Nadaillac, Marquis of, 137, 214. Neanderthal skull, 73, 2-16. Nebraska, 76. Needles, 59, 130. Neolithic Arjc, G, 87. Neufcliatel Lake, 174. Nismes, 193. Noachian Deluge, 38. Nomadic, 15, 27, 29. Odin, 237. Ornaments, 1G3. ,, of Iron Age, 217. Othello, 211. Ouse, Little, 40, 47. " Oyster-tongs," 135. ValceoUthic Age, 6, 25, 27. Paris, 247. I'eysac, 6S. Phaenicians, 160, 190. Pickers, 121. Pins, 58. Plas Newydd, 225. Plesiosaurus, 20, 21. Poland, Explorations in, 74. Post-tertiary Period, 3, 4. Pottery, 192-202. ,, Ornamentation of, 194, 201. ,, Phoenician, 100. Portrait, 2G7. Primary Period, 3. Quadrumana, 22. Quiquerez, M., 203. Rau, Prof., 03, 188. Reindeer, 21, 74. Religious superstitions, 210-242. Rhinoceros, 20, 68, 240. Riviere, M , 248. " Rock shelters," 30, 44, 09. Runic inscriptions, 220. " Saddle Quern," 127. Saumur, 225. Savoy, 240. Schaffhauscn, 74. Schmerling, Dr., 55, 73. Scott, Sir Walter, 225, 23G. Scrapers, 120. Secondary Period, 3. Sepulture, Forms of, 223. ,, Connected with reli- gious superstition, 240. Shell mounds, 131. Shield, 104. Sickles, 217. Silbury Hill, 228. Skene dim, 100. Skulls, Brain diuion.sions of, 2il, 245, ,, Coiniiarison of, 2i;5, 2U. " Slick stones," l2o. Sliug stones, 50, 125. Sliugs, 22. Suiitlisuuiau Institution, G;j. Soane, C8. Sonime, 00. Houloutie, C8, 70, 218. Spears, 'lO-lOl. ,, Fancy, 2);}. Sl)imlle wliorls, 128. St. Achcul, CO. Stanhen(ji,-it, 230. Stennis, 2:50. Stone Age, Classilication of, 0. Stonehenge, 100, 228, 230. Sun worship, 170, 171. Sussex ArcLieological Society 93. Switzerland, 7-1, 151, 155, Sword, Development of, 109. ■ ., Damascened, 210, I M hilt, 210, 211. Steel, 20'J. Tarn et Garonne, G9. Tayac, 08. Tertiary Ptriod, 3, 15. Thames, 11, '.}3, 100, 120, 107. Thayngcn Cttve> Tiger, 20. Tiniere llivor, 153. Tobacco pipes, lOM, i