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TOROXTO p ONTENTS. Intfoductiun to Humhrtics. Tirr.e and Qualifications for this Study. Empirical and System- atic Homiletics. Scientific BasiSi for Rhetoric in Logic and Psychology. Plan of this Treatise. Rhetoric and Homiletics Defined. The Relation of Rhetoric to Kindred Arts and Sciences. Objections to the Rhetorical Presentation of Truth Refuted Pages 1-2 1. Part I. The Subject and Text. Chapter I. — Subjects and Texts Distinguished, and their Mutual Relations. The Subject Derives Divine Authority only from Logical Connexion with the Text. Hence Texts must not be Allegorized ; and only Types of Christ and Spiritual Things Having Divine Authority, Should be Used. Suggestions in Reference to Choosing T< xts. Chapter H,— Suitable Subjects Classified, with Directions for Finding Them. Chapter HL— The Unity and th- Indention of the Subject. The Nature and Necessity of Unity. Conditions Favorable to Invention. Genuine and Spurious Inventions. . ..Pages 22-47. Part II. The Discussion of the Subject. This is Divided into Method and Rhetorical Development. Method deals with Explanation and Proof; Rhetorical Development, with Excitation and Persuasion Chapter I. — Method. Explanation — Omitting Percepts — Deals with the Logical Products of Thought in Extension and in Comprehension. Confirmation is Effected by a Series of Co- ordinate Proofs. Methods ol Sermons may be Divided into the Simple and the Complex. In the Simple Methods the Heads are Furnished either by the Division or the Analysis of the Theme, or by a Series of Proofs. In Complex Methods the 1 11. CONTENTS. Heads may be l^ormed by Explanation and Proof Combined _ bemg Understood that Unity and other Rhetorical On L ;^.a 1 be Secured. Note on the Treatment of Figurativ; Texts Note on Expository Sermons. f,"raiut. texts. Chapter U.-Rhctuncal Development Sect.on .^-Rhetorical Muve.nent. The Arrangement of the Matter of D.scourse to Produce Greater Interest, and a D Lper Impression. >•>-* ^ i^-eepLr oners, Characler, and Stales of Mind p„g^, ^^^^^ Apppindix. i.-The Exordium. Explanatory Introduction Relates to Text and Subject. Conciliatory Introduction Respects he Spe.ke and the Hearers, and Circumstances of Time'a d P ce ' !_ Sermons c;TV '^' ^'''^'^'°"^- 3 -Extemporaneous Sermons. 4.-Stud.es Conducive to Profkiency in Religious Discourse. 5 -Public Religious Service Page , ! o I 1 i if SYSTEMATIC HOMILETICS. 'N rhetorical discourse two things are essential : the one is a practical end to be gained ; the other is definite matter or a definite subject by the discussion or proof of which the practical end is to be gained. If the one be wanting, you will speak without a purpose ; if the other be wanting, you will fail to accomplish your purpose. I. We shall deal with the subject first, always keeping the end in view. The subject in preaching is always complicated with a text. We must, therefore, determine the relation in which subject and text should stand to one another. We shall also indicate the kind of texts that should be chosen, whether literal or figurative, whether doctrinal or preceptive. We shall consider the subjects you will naturally deal with, there being very few compared with the texts at your disposal. We shall consider the invention of the subject out of the matter of the text. In this, creative power is exercised, and rhetorical skill and inspiration are manifested. We shall consider the unity of the subject, its organic structure and rhetorical qualities. II. The discussion of the subject with direct and supreme reference to your purpose in speaking, which INTRODUCTION. must never be merely teacliiiif^, but always something ulterior for tiie sake of which instruction is imparted. The subject must be discussed or explained rhetorically. Rhetorical explanation, as distinguished from verbal or grammatical, must be understood. Rhetorical proof must also be studied and mastered, its kinds and matter. To excite emotion, explanation and proof must be suitably arranged. By this, Moi>enient is secured, and friction m the mind is produced, which is indispensable to excitation through the understanding. 2h intensify emotion, adaptation must be aimed at. You must take into account your hearers' active powers, classifying their emotions, feelings, or affections ; you must take into account their knowledge and character ; their maxims, prejudices, etc., and also their circumstances and environments ; you must learn how to make emotions subservient to your purpose by exciting some feelings, allaying others, and converting one class of feelings into another. You must know how to adapt yourself to your subject and to your hearers. My aim shall be to show how all the power suited to your purpose that is contained in your subject, may be brought out and applied to the whole mind of your hearers — understanding, sensibilities, and will. More than this Rhetoric cannot do. Principles will be stated and settled ; and the need of Homiletical knowledge and skill to the preacher will be explained and vindicated. While Homiletics is recognized as a part of ministerial education, yet students labour under special disadvantages in prosecuting this study. Special pre- liminary qualifications for it — such as a knowledge of Logic and Psychology — are not demanded, while linguistic qualifications for the study of Exegetics and gUALIFICATIONS FOR IIOMILKTICAL STUDY. Jg Theology are made imperative. Besides, sufficient importance is not attached to Homiletics. It should not be co-ordinated withtho other subjects in the Theo- logical curriculum, individually, but with them all combined. There are only two educational qualifica- tions for preaching : the one is a competent knowledge ot revealed religion ; the other is the knowledge and skill needed to present it in a popular manner, and to enforce its claims. Moreover, far too little time is devoted to Hrmiletics. Supposing that the study could be prosecuted without special qualifications, and that principles and rules relating to effective speaking could be soon acquired ; yet, without much time and labor, skill in the application of these could not be acquired. Think of the protracted and earnest labors to acquire skill in speaking by Demosthenes, Cicero, C. J. Fox, Webster, Gladstone, etc., not to mention the most eloquent Jesuit missionaries. Think how rarely true eloquence is acquired. The time devoted to rhetorical studies is entirely disproportionate to the time given to other branches. We can, indeed, explain and establish principles; but ''a system of principles imperfectly comprehended, and not familiarized by practice, will prove an impediment rather than a help." Students often leave college with little knowledge of Homiletical principles, and less skill in the application of them. They are thus placed at a great disadvantage, and they naturally forget what they have imperfectly learned, and they have to acquire by much study and painful experience what they ought to have mastered at college. It is now proper to indicate wherein the Homi- letics presented in this system differs from other works on the subject. It is commonly assumed, and some- i 4 KMPIRICAI- IIOMII.ETICS. times stronj^ly asserted, that preaching the Gospel is rhetorically cliffcreiit from spt;akin<; on political or judicial subjects. This is a fundamental mistake. As a result of this, preachinjj; tends to become either purely didactic, pedantic, or sensational. The subjects and aim of preaching' are, indeeed, different from those of ordinary, deliberative or forensic speaking, but this should not affect the rhetorical form of discourse. Rhetoric has no matter of its own ; and its principles are equally suited to speaking on all practical subjects,!.^., subjects affecting the political, social, or religious welfare of mankind. The mistake referred to is due mainly to two things ; one is that llomiletics is taught empirically, i.e , not scientifically. It is said that *' Homiletics is a well-meant attempt to build a system of Sacred Rhetoric on what is the only proper foundation — the prea' ^ing of Christ and the Apostles and Prophets. Valuable aid may also be obtained from Augustine, Luther, etc. A careful examination of discourses which have come down to us with a reputation of power, and which also move us when we read them, as well as the careful examination of effective modern sermons, reveal certain characteristics which were in them all, and which can be definitely stated. Homiletics is simply a body of principles or rules gathered by such searching analysis of the best sermons in every age of the Church " (Prof, Fisk). Works on Homiletics deal largely in sermons, and construct classes in which they may be placed ; and in outlines of the sermons of living preachers which are constantly publishing. This is empiricism and it is not satisfactory. It is true that science must begin in this inductive method, and that Aristotle adopted it. Still he did not stop at this, but proceeded at once to 'I EMPIRICAL HOMILETICS. I construct systems of both Lof,Mc and Rhetoric on broad and fundamental principles. iJesides, to find rhetorical principles only in sermons is to deprive ourselves of examples of eloquence to be found in the speeches of the great Greek and Koman orators, and even of modern statesmen ; and it is to i<;nore entirely valuable ancient works on Rlietoric. This must tend to perpetuate the distinction between sacred and secular eloquence, to the f,aeat detriment of the former ; and it has effectively discouraged all attempts to construct a Systematic Homiletics. The Bible docs not i .ch Homiletics any more than it teaches Systems of Theology or of Moral Philosophy. Although we must 1> indebted lu it for saving know- ledge, yet we mn:^.t by t' e biudy and exercise of our own faculties acquire a knowledge of persuasive dis- course, at the same time availing ourselves of the knowledge and experience of others. If we must analyze effective modern sermons, whose shall we analyze ? Those of men of great ability and learning ? But their methods are often conflicting and illogical, their excellence being more in the matter than in the form. Shall we analyze the sermons of popular preachers ? But popularity, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, gives a low and poor idea of eloquence ; and it may be due to novelty, presumption, advertising, sensationalism, or the use of means by which any excitement may be got up. Shall we analyze the sermons of those who have done most good ? But who is to determine this ? the abiding effects of good preaching being spiritual and invisible. The supposed good may be due to the previous, contemporaneous, or subsequent labours of others, or to the special work of the Holy Spirit. At the end of our Lord's ministry T EMPIRICAL HOMILETICS. 4 ill! I it t'lere were only 500 brethren, while through Peter's sermon 3,000 were converted. Empiricism is largely to blame for all that is peculiar, unnatural, and in- effective in preaching. The ractical ourse is ;xplains, : a man )ut he is urposes. e whole hty and of men, i in the h elocu- :tion of ;hers of )assages. 2 to fall act their m is the y it, and pleasing belongs all insist to the figures pt " the figure." already guide in thics to end of i rhetorical discourse, its moral purpose. Its relation to aesthetics was at one time much insisted on. Dr. Blair treated rhetoric as a department of aesthetics, having mainly to do with the beautiful and the sublime. Traces of merited contempt for it thus incurred are still to be found. Rhetoric does not belong to Logic, yEsthetics, or Ethics; it merely presupposes them, assumes them, and develops itself in conformity to their principles. " In respect of the matter of discourse, Rhetoric derives its regulative principles mainly from Logic ; in respect to the form of discourse, from ^Esthetics ; in respect of the end of discourse, from Ethics " {Day). There are some peculiarities not rhetorical, how- ever, in religious discourse which should be kept in view. They are very favorable to eloquence. The preacher has the matter of discourse furnished to him. He thus finds in Revelation the authority for his preaching, and is not required to pursue long trains of reasoning which would be fatal to eloquence. The Gospel, too, is perfectly adapted to man's fallen nature, for which it provides an adequate remedy. The end which the preacher should have in view is most pious and benevolent ; it is the conversion, sanctification and blessedness of his hearers, in subordination to the glory of God. This is not true of the deliberative or of the forensic orator. The preacher seeks the good of his hearers, and not so to influence them as to secure some ulterior personal advantage. The fact that the preacher seeks the permanent good of his hearers must necessarily make his oratory much more didactic than that which is secular. The more permanent the impression aimed at is, the more ample must be the information, the more clear and accurate the arrangement of it, and the more deeply must it be lodged in the mind. ■'fi i6 PREJUDICES AGAINST RHETORIC. M ! f i III The fact that the preacher seeks the spiritual good of his hearers, and that the message he has to dehver is Christ's message of love, should make his address affectionate. He must not consider his hearers antagonists, whatever may be their character or pre- judices. He must view them with love or at least with compassion, and he must address them as if they were sincere and ingenuous, and seek to attach his discourse to anything that is good in their minds, either actually or potentially. These points require special attention. They require careful method, and solemnity and earnestness in delivery ; and the faculty of com- municating a large amount of sacred truth in an interesting and impressive manner ; and they forbid per- sonalities, appeals to passions, reproach and invective. It is to be regretted that strong prejudices exist against the study of Homiletics or Rhetoric. These, though not expressed, lead to the depreciation and neglect of it. I. It is said that the practice of rhetorical art is dishonorable, because by it feelings are excited which blind the judgment of the hearers, and thus enable the eloquent speaker to master their heart and will, and to move them like machines. Such objectors contend that the understanding alone should be addressed, and that no attempt should be made to excite feelings and influence the will. Many clergymen in England act on this principle, and deprecate emotion as a species of fanaticism. But this objection is not valid when the understanding is satisfied, and when through it emotions are excited which are voluntary, and which do not impair the hearer's accountability and self- control. To object to rhetorical discourse when this condition is complied with, is to deny to man the faculty I'KIiJUDlCES AGAINST MOMILKTICS. '7 lal good ieliver is address hearers or pre- at least 5 if they ach his IS, either ! special olemnity of com- 1 in an rbid per- nvective. ces exist These, tion and al art is d which able the , and to contend sed, and ngs and d act on ecies of hen the lough it d which |nd self- hen this e faculty of persuasion, and to find fault with tiie constitution of his mind. Still, the objection is valid against all direct excitation of passion, all sensationalism, and tiic use of cunning and deceptive tricks. 2. It is said that this study is useless because many effective and successful preachers never prosecuted it. But it is difficult to estimate the success of preaching, as it consists mainly in the change and improvement of the heart which is invisible. Besides, the real and permanent success of such preachers is proportionate to their conforming unconsciously to homiletical prin- ciples under the infiuence of warmth, zeal, and single- ness of purpose. This is genius, which, although exceptional, confirms the principles of rhetoric. Persons should not believe without indubitable evidence that they possess this gift ; nor should they consider the possession of it an apology for neglecting to cultivate it. 3. It is said that Homiletics is injurious because its principles hamper the preacher. This is impossible if the science is based on logic and psychology. If a mind is undisciplined and erratic, homiletical study will educate it. After this, there will be harmony between mental activity and rhetorical principles, which will guide and assist. Should a well-disciplined mind be hampered by such principles, it may be safely assumed that the principles are unsound, or that they are not understood. A person cannot be hampered by being taught that he must have a definite aim in speaking, and that he must adapt his sermon to his hearers ; nor will he be placed under painful restraint by learning to analyze or prove a subject properly, especially if by adequate practice he is able to carry on these processes without conscious effort. 4. It is said that the study of Homiletics is 2 W\ i8 PREJUDICIiS AGAINST HOMILETICS. I, I irreligious, as it implies trust in artificial rhetoric instead of trust in the Holy Spirit. But Rhetoric is not arti- ficial in a bad sense, i.e., as opposed to natural, as the rhetorical is the most natural form of discourse. Per- sons reasoned correctly before logic was invented ; they spoke persuasively before rhetoric was discovered ; and they composed grammatically before grammars were constructed. In these cases nature was followed. Hence when a man reasons correctly, speaks persuasive- ly and grammatically, his discourse is in the best sense natural. An ill-constructed sermon is uninter^'sting, and it is repugnant to right feeling and purpose ; it dis- pleases every one, hence it must be unnatural. A good discourse is a noble work of art, and cannot be other- wise. If a man invents a subject and elaborates it in his own mind, and adapts it to the practical end lie has in view, and lias his heart inflamed by it, it is a work of art. The only way in which he can make a dis course that is not a work of art is to take the first view of a text that occurs to him, and then, without plan or meditation, to state thoughts that happen to occur to him, and these confused and incoherent. Besides, homiletical skill is quite compatible with trust in divine grace. An ignorant man is as likely as an educated man to trust in his own powers. There is nothing in proper intellectual culture incompatible with entire trust in God to give testimonj' to the word of His grace. It is not relevant in this connection to quote the Lord's saying to the Apostles, that when brought before governors and kings for His sake they should take no thought how or what they should speak. If ordinary preachers understand this as referring literally to them- selves, they cannot expect the fulfilment of the Lord's promise until they are arrested and brought before UTILITY OF HOMII.KTICAI. CULTUKK. '9 instead lOt arti- , as the e. Per- ;d ; they id ; and irs were ollowed. rsuasive- st sense erpstinfij, : ; it dis- A good )e other- tes it in d he has 3 a work e a dis rst view plan or Dccur to Besides, n divine ducated thing in entire IS grace, e Lord's t before take no ordinary to them- e Lord's it before I governors and kings, liesides, if it forbids the study of riietoric, it forbids also the study of the Scriptures or of the 'ogy, as they were not merely to take no thought how they sliould speak, but also what they should speak. I lefore concluding this Introduction, I wish to show the utility of Iloiniletical culture to the ministry. This is amply attested by the declarations of the ablest preachers. They acknowleilge that those admirable discourses which seem like the inspiration of genius, are the fruit of persevering study, and of private and pro- tracted meditation and prayer. Their extensive and various reading, their observation of nature and of man, personally and socially, are intelligently and purposely made subservient to the interest and power of their preaching. There are also various special reasons why homiletical skill should be acquired at any cost. One is that the Gospel should be preached as correctly and powerfully as possible. Tins is due to the subject tself, to the end contemplated, and to preaching as a divine institution. The preaching of the Gospel is, according to the Apostles, the most important work of the ministry. Tiiey place it above government, sacraments and the care of the poor (Lph. iii : 8, I Cor. i: 17, Acts vi : 4). It is a mistake when a minister spends nearly all his time in acquiring know- ledge, and little or none in accjuiring the art of com- municating it. Another reason is, that preaching does not in general seem to give satisfaction. The reasons for this are not hard to find. One is that acceptable preaching Vi now more difficult than ever. This is largely due to the diffusion of education and general information. Besides, the preacher has to compete for influence vvith daily news- 20 NECESSITY OF HOMILETICAL CULTURE. fill! 111 i|i 1 I papers, public lectures elaborately prepared, and sermons by popular and gifted preachers who are capable only of occasional and special efforts. It indicates weakness when ministers complain of the influence of the Press. There is no fear that the Press will ever supersede the Pulpit. In the Dark Ages, when there was no Press, there was no preaching; now while presses are multiplied there is more preaching than ever. Truth presented by the living voice of the preacher and by his expressive countenance, has an immense advantage over what is presented on a printed page. Another reason is to be found in the spirit of the age. This is an age of extraordinary excitement in all departments of thought and activity ; and hence it complains of lack of zeal in the pulpit. It is also an age of scepticism. Hence, many who hate evangelical doctrine, profess aversion only to the manner of preach- ing it ; and declare that preaching has lost its power, and has survived its interest and usefulness. It is evident that preaching is now in a state of transition. Hitherto it has been too didactic. There has been too much stiffness and formality in the construction of discourse, and in the announcement of its leading divisions. Its address has been too much confined to the understanding, and it has demanded an amount of thought and attention that people are unable or unwilling to give. Hence, it is not as attractive as it should be. This has been painfully felt by preachers. Hence, many have had recourse to external things to attract and interest, such as artistic music and church adornment. Some have greatly reduced the amount of Scripture truth in their sermons, have adopted a kind of word-painting style, a theatrical delivery and NECESSITY OF HOMILETICAL CULTURE. 21 ed, and who are :orts. It n of the he Press :k A^'es, ng ; now reaching ;e of the has an a printed t of the nt in all hence it also an ingelical " preach- i power, i. It is ansition. •een too ction of leading fined to nount of able or ve as it eachers. bings to church amount opted a sry and even painted scenery as in the U.S., to illustrate Scripture themes. Others, despairing even of such attractions, seem to put forth their utmost efforts to amuse and attract the young, preaching to them specially, forming societies among them, and furnishing amusement for them in week-evening meetings, thus virtually surrendering all hope of doing elderly persons any good. There is a feeling, too, that a crowd must be collected, that people must be induced to come to church— as if they are to convert one another— while there is less thought of edifying tiiem there. Now all these means of contending with the evil complained of are based on the fundamental mistake, that there is anything irj the world more powerfully and permanently attractive than the Gospel of God's grace. Let its doctrines be presented rhetorically, let them be brought into living contact with the whole mind, and their power and attraction will soon be felt. Paul's remedy for those who will not endure sound doctrine, is simply to preach it to them in season and out of season. If they shrink from the labor of close attention, let the preacher assume this labor by studying and elaborating his ideas so that they shall become as clear as crystal, and shine in their own light and beauty. Let the preacher's heart be inflamed with the truth which he speaks ; let him have confidence in his ofBce and doctrine, and in the promise of the Holy Spirit, and let him be filled with zeal for his hearers' welfare and God's glory, and then he may expect that people, nistead of being uninterested, will have their heart burn within them. When a man who lias such a Gospel to preach, such a remedy to present, such assurance of divine aid, complains that people are not attracted and interested, he merely condemns himself. "\ mSmmomtaiimim 22 SUBJECT AND TEXT. 'Ill 111 iliiijjjif . i Let the people be taught that it is their duty and privilege to attend church to worship God ; and not merely to receive instruction which they might obtain from books, but to hear the truth earnestly proclaimed, according to Christ's appointment, and officially by His ambassadors ; and to receive those spiritual influences which are needed and promised to render the preaching of the Gospel effectual unto salvation*. Part I. The Subject and Text. The importance of having both a Subject and Text is evident. A rhetorical, or any discourse, must have a definite subject, whether formallv expressed or not. Many do not perceive the imp ance of the subject because it is short, being generally stated in a single sentence. But it should contain in a concen- trated form the whole discourse with all its interest and power ; so that nothing can be legitimately introduced into the discourse that does not explain, prove, or illustrate the subject. Hence, when the rhetorical subject is invented and mastered, the greatest part of the hard work connected with the making of a discourse is done. Much time and labor, therefore, must be devoted to the invention of the subject. Tlie mental conflict involved in this process is due to the exercise of creative power, and it is the condition of the preacher's inspiration, of the ease with which he will compose and remember his sermon, and of the effective manner in which he will deliver it. To shirk this labor must be fatal both to personal improvement, and to powerful and effective preaching. In favor of having also a Text, there are good use and several obvious advantages. The Lord, in the synagogue at Nazareth, set the example of preaching I duty and and not it obtain 3claimed, y by His nfluences (reaching »ject and se, must essed or e of the ited in a concen- 2rest and troduced )rove, or hetorical part ^of discourse must be 2 mental exercise of the I he will effective lirk this lent, and good use i, in the reaching DISTINCTION BETWEEN TEXT AND SUBJECT. 23 from a text. This was followed by the Apostles in general ; and this practice has continued in the Church ever since. It has manifest advantages. It places the preacher in his true position as a minister of the Word, not presenting his own sentiments, but declaring the will, counsel, and testimony of God. It gives authority to discourse when it is seen not merely to be in accord- ance with the Word of God in general, but also to be vitally connected with a speciiic passage, of which the discourse is, less or more, the explanation and applica- tion. It also imparts to preaching variety and fresh- ness, qualities by which the Bible is pre-eminently dis- tinguished from all other books. Chapter I. The distinction between a Text and a Subject, and the relation in which they should stand to one another. In Heb. xii : 14, you will find the subjects : ist: " The necessity of holiness as a qualification for seeing the Lord." 2nd. " The duty of following peace with all men." You may say something on both of these, but a well constructed and effective discourse you cannot Have, because you have not a definite subject. You may make a sermon on each of these commands. But the subject that can unite both is pkinly, "The duty of following peace with all men with such earnestness as to sacrifice any thing for it except holiness." This is placing a man under tremendous pressure. Thus you have in this text your choice of three subjects. John iii : 16 has been discussed thus : " The giver, the gift, the motive in bestowing it, the design in bestowing it, the condition to be complied with on our part." This method is purely mechanical, and requires neither logic nor rhetoric. But a subject is expressly stated in the text ; it is, " God's great love to sinners ^ 24 DISTINCTION BKTWEEN TEXT AND SUBJECT. illll il evinced, ist, by the gift of His Son ; 2nd, by His design in bestowing this gift." The grand proofs of love are in making sacrifices for its objects and seeking their iiappiness. The fact that God bestows salvation gratui- tously, i.e., on condition of faith, may serve to enhance the gift ; but it cannot be co-ordinated with the other two proofs. Should you take for your subject, " Faith in Christ the condition of obtaining salvation," this may be proved, ist, by the express statement of the text ; 2nd, by showing that you could give no equivalent for the gift of Christ, and that you could do nothing to merit such salvation. Luke xiv : 15-24 — Subject, " The refusal of the invitation on the part of those addressed, is the only thing that will finally exclude from the blessedness of the Kingdom." Proved, ist, that the things that are generally supposed to exclude are no obstacles ; 2nd, that those first invited reveal this in their apology which refers only to worldliness. Proverbs xxiii : 17-18, "The n?ture of this fear in a truly religious mind ; and the blessedness flowing from its influence." I, There is the fear of offending God and its consequences, (a) God is a being of infinite greatness and excellence. He is very near to us. He is infinite in holiness. There is nothing in the Gospel to diminish this religious fear ; God in applying the remedy renews the heart and puts His fear into it. (b) Fear of the consequences of offending God : the loss of God's favour, the injury and ruin of the mind itself. H. " The blessedness flowing,'' etc. {a) It suppresses all envious and disquieting feelings, (b) Produces assurance that all things will end well, that our hopes will not be blasted. Imp. — How anxious should we be to possess this holy affection. How sad is the condition of the mind in which there is no fear of God. :t. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEXT AND SUBJECT. 25 [is design love are ing their m gratui- enhance :he other , " Faith on," this It of the quivalent othing to -Subject, of those / exclude Dved, 1st, ) exclude id reveal dliness. lis fear in 5 flowing offending being of near to ng in the applying r into it. jod : the le mind {a) It ngs. (6) /ell, that anxious w sad is r of God. Gal. i : 4, 5, " The supreme importance of being rescued from this present evil world," i e., the world of mankind in its sinful state. I. Christ gave himself for our sins to deliver us from this present evil world : (a) viewed as guilty before God ; (b) as sinful or morally corrupt; (c) as miserable. II. Such deliverance is most desirable in its own nature. Other things may lielp us to realize this ; Christ gave himself for our sins that He might, etc. It was according to the will of God and our Father, and most glorifying to him. Imp. — We must either be rescued or ruined. Christians should estimate the greatness ot salvation by what Christ thought of it, and suffered for it. These examples may illustrate the difference be- tween a text and a subject. The matter of the text is generally in a concrete form, and cannot be easily dis- cussed or proved. It may entirely lack unity and practical ami. Thus persons who have only texts — not subjects — are apt to make discourses in which the ideas are confused, incoherent, and aimless. On the other hand, the subject is invented out of the subject-matter of the text. It is to this extent a product of thought ; it is elaborated in the mind acting according to the laws of thought. It thus acquires organic structure ; it is easily analyzed and proved ; and it makes an impres- sion on the preacher's heart, and thus readily follows the principles of rhetoric. The distinction now indicated between the subject and the text will help to determine the relation in which they should stand to one another. Except in a few cases, they cannot be identical. Hence it is not necessary that the subject should exhaust the text, although the discussion must exhaust the subject. This is opposed to the dictum of old writers which is "*f, 26 CONNECTION BETWEEN TEXT AND SUBJECT. '! 1 "'■'^.'S? i that " a sermon must give the entire sense 1 I the whole text, in order to which it must be considered in every view " {Claude). This is in many cases a rhetorical impossibility. Instead of presenting a text in every view, you may present a particular aspect of it. It is not necessary that a subject should contain a proposition, yet it should be such as can be so stated. It is quite legitimate to preach on a phrase as " the love of God," " precious faith," " all the words of this life," or " obedience to the faith." Care should be taken not to preach on a subordinate idea in a text, as it is not treating the text fairly, and it is sure to dis- appoint and sometimes offend hearers. The subject should preserve the individuality of the text to secure variety in preaching, to guard against abstract themes, and to derive illustrations from the context. The sub- ject should have the spirit of the text, as incongruity in this respect is painfully felt. Although in some cases a text perfectly suited to the subject cannot be found, yet care should be taken not to make a text merely the motto of a sermon. The divine authority which the subject derives fro jn the text must be proportionate to the close- ness and 7ntnllty of the connection between them. This implies two important truths. One is that the scripture text must be the Word of God, or approved by it, or in harmony with it. There are many sayings in the Bible that do not profess to be the Word of God : there are sayings of good but uninspired men, of wicked men, and even of devils. Such sayings, if suitable for texts, may be preached on, if they are in harmony with the Word of God. Many of the sayings of Job's friends whom the Lord reproved, are good texts ; as it was not so much the principles contained in them as the appli- cation of them to Job's case that was censured. J EJECT. LOGICAL CONNECTION OF TEXT AND SUBJECT. 27 I r the whole ;red in every a rhetorical text in every ispect of it. Id contain a be so stated, irase as " the words of this re should be L in a text, as sure to dis- The subject text to secure Btract themes, Kt. The sub- ncongruity in in some cases lot be found, xt merely the rity w/iicJi the lateto the close- )i. One is that the or approved iiany sayings Word of God : lien, of wicked if suitable for larmony with )f Job's friends as it was not as the appli- ured. But even when the text is the Word of God, care must be taken to ascertain whether it be correctly rendered in our version, and also to ascertain its true meaning. Here is ample room for criticism and exegesis. The confidence of the people in the authorized version should not, however, be unneces- sarily weakened ; nor should their patience be exhausted or their thoughts distracted by criticism which should be prosecuted in the study, only its rich and edifying fruits being reserved for public discourse. The con- text should be carefully studied to ascertain the true meaning, and also, in many cases, to find a subject. For example, when preaching on Jude 20, 21, you might take for j-our subject, " The duty devolving on Christians to keep themselves in the love of God, as here indicated ; and the immense advantages of so doing." Or, in view of the context, the subject may be, " The grand antidote to seductive errors and sinful conduct, here referred to." It is not contending direct- ly against error and sin, but striving to keep the heart right, depending on divine grace, and aspiring to eternal life through the mercy of Christ. Notice the same principle in II Peter iii : 17, 18 The other truth is that there must be a logical con- nection between the subject and the text, as without this the subjecc can derive no support from the text. It is, therefore, not honest to preach a doctrine which your text does not contain, however scriptural and sound the doctrine may be, e.g., to preach on total depravity from Isaiah i : 5, 6, or on Christ's ability to save the greatest sinners, from Heb. vii : 25, or on in- decision, from I Kings xviii : 21, or on the preaching of the Gospel under the Old Testament, from Heb. iv : 2, or from Ps. Ixviii : 11. ir ^#j ■■ I :l I iiiii 28 TEXTS NOT TO BE ALLEGORIZED. This rule is habitually disregarded by those who allegorize or spiritualize texts. If a text does not con- tain some principle fit to be the subject of discourse without allegorizing it, it is not a suitable text, e.^i^., preaching on the perseverance of the saints from the words " Kaint yet pursumg." It is unfortunate when a preacher forms this allegorizing habit. He is apt to lose the power of distinguishing his own fancies from the Word of God, and also to give up all proper study of the Word of God, as he finds his resources not so much in it as in his own imagination. It is most offensive to cultivated minds, as it is in very bad taste. Besides, it tends to introduce doctrinal error. A mystical and allegorical manner of speaking of the Lord's Supper led to the Romish perversion of it. The same thing now leads some to attach saving efficacy to its observance, while it debars from the Lord's Table others who are timid. Origen was the founder of the system of spiritualizing. He attributes to the Scrip- tures a threefold sense : I, a somatic, literal, or historic sense, furnished immediately by the meaning of the words, but only serving as a veil for a higher sense ; II, a psychical or moral sense, animating the first, and serving for general edification ; III, a pneumatical or mystical and ideal sense, for those who stand on the high ground of philosophical knowledge. But the rule is not set aside by the use of texts in which a spiritual meaning is plainly intended, as the parables of our Lord, Old Testament types of Him, and texts in which there is a principle which may be legiti- mately applied to spiritual things. Parables were not mainly intended to beautify discourse, but to conceal for a time what people could not understand, John xvi : 25-29 ; Matt, xiii : 13-52. Although they were \^ TEXTS NOT TO BK ALLEGOKIZED. 29 se who lot con- scourse om the 2 when apt; to s from • study not so s most i taste, or, A of the ;. The :acy to I Table of the Scrip- listoric of the sense ; st, and ical or on the exts in as the m, and legiti- 2re not :onceal John I were intended to teach spiritual truth, yet even they are not to be allegorized ; but the point or moral of the parable must be found and held fast, and all other things must be considered parts of the figure to which no counter- part in the moral is to be sought, e.g., in the parables of the lost sheep and the lost piece of silver, the moral is the joy of Christ in the conversion of even one sinner. Thus no spiritual significance is to be attached to the numbers, except the one. As to Old Testament types of Christ and of spiritual things, we must adopt only those for which we have divine authority. The temple was typical of the Church, but this does not teach that priests and Levites were types of various orders of Gospel ministers, or that the tongs and snuffers had any spiritual signifi- cance. Hence the types must not be allegorized. The illustration is unduly pressed when, referring to the Church, we speak of the Architect, the material, the plan, the foundation and the style. Higher analogies only should be taken into account. The connection will indicate the salient points. There are many fine illiisirations in passages which are not declared to be typical, as you may find beautiful illustrations in nature. All that is meant is that such passages should not be used as texts, for they impart no authority to the sub- jects supposed to be found in them. As an example of texts that may be legitimately applied to spiritual things, there is the saying of the leper, " If thou wilt thou canst make me clean," because leprosy is a type of sin, and our Lord's miracles were signs, and they were designedly emblematical of His power to save the soul from sin and misery. There is no apology for allegorizing a book so full and varied in its teaching as the Bible. Besides, histories and 30 CHOICE OF TEXTS. biographies contain valuable lessons which are lost when they are spiritualized ; moreover, the thing is dishonest, and it destroys the value and authority of texts altogether. Chapter II. Choice of Texts and Subjects. A text and a subject may occur simultaneously to the mind ; but, in general, the one is chosen for the other. A diligent student of theology, or an active pastor who studies the state of his congregation, will find many subjects on which he should preach. Hence, he will have to seek texts suited to his subjects. He may be tempted to apply force to his text to make it fit his subject ; and he will be apt to neglect the individuality and spirit of the text, and the light shed on it by the context. On the other hand, the diligent student of Scripture will find many texts on wiiich he is inclined to preach, or texts will find him, fo'-'-.ing themselves on his attention. In such a case a subject must b'^' ^-^und in the text. The text will impart its complexioii and spirit to both subject and sermon. The subject will seem to grow out of the text, preserving its individuality and beauty. Choice of Texts. — A good text, is a real treasure to a preacher. It interests and gratifies his hearers, and, being easily remembered, it helps them to retain good impressions and to recall the substance of the sermon. Finding a text is often difficult, and sometimes requires as much time as the composition of the sermon. The reason for this is that a text is not truly found till the mind is deeply impressed with it, and a subject is dis- covered in it ; but this is the most severe labour con- nected with making a sermon, and it should not be grudged. CHOICK t)F TEXTS. 31 are lost lung is ^rity of A text mind ; lier. A or who 1 many he will may be fit his iduality by the dent of inclined Ives on ^ound Oil and 2Ct will iduality sure to s, and, n good jermon. equires . The till the is dis- iLir con- not be Suggestions: — ist. Splendid figurative passages should not be chosen in the belief that the subjects which they contain, or the sermons made on them, will partake of their splendour. Young preachers are fascinated by such texts as Isaiah vi : 1-4, and Rev. i : 13-16. But in the one case it is difficult to find a sub- ject, except in the plain words of the Seraphim, or in the proof of the Lord's divinity connected with John xii : 41 ; and in the other case the gloiy of the Saviour which is revealed is not that which attracts, but pros- trates. You should always look through the drapery of the figure for a valuable subject ; and if you can not find one you should not preach on the text. Besides, such texts start you at an elevation from which you must descend, which is most undesirable. 2nd. Texts that favour rhetorical treatment arc greatly to be preferred, -/i.^^, If you wish to preach on conversion, instead of taking the words " Be converted,'' you might take in the whole verse, Acts iii : kj, or the conversion of Paul or of the thief on the cross, in which you will find his deep conviction of sin, and such exalted views of Christ in his state of the deepest humiliation as to be able to trust his soul to Him. You may discuss a doctrine or duty from a doctrinal, experimental, or figurative text. But the more general, abstract, or objective your theme is the drier your sermon will be ; and the more specific, con- crete, or subjective it is the more interesting and im- pressive will be your preaching, and the more closely will it resemble our Lord's. 3rd. Texts that have been often preached on are not to be avoided, as they are generally the best, and it would be a loss to be deprived of them. But they must be taken up into the mind and thoroughly 'v J T ,,'** *' ' •m 32 CIIOICH Ol' SUHJKCTS. m elaborated and conformed to its habits of thoiij^ht, and by earnest meditation, maile its own. You will find new subjects in them, or subjects tliat liave all the interest and freshness of a (hscovery. 4th. It is important to find new and valuable texts. The Bible is full of such. The man wiio seeks them with a sincere and reverent spirit and with a view to the Church's edification, will often be unex- pectedly and richly rewarded. Preachinjij is too much confined to a few favorite passages, while the vast and precious resources of the Word of God are not explored. This must be detrimental to the health of the Church, as it is thus deprived of the rich and varied nourishment provided for it. Choice oj Subjects. — In choosing texts our attention is necessarily confined to the Word of God : in choosing subjects it must be directed to theology, to the spiritual wants of our hearers, and to the special occasions on which we may be called to preach. The number of texts at our disposal is unlimited, that of subjects is comparatively small. 1st. We should give special prominence to the great doctrines of grace, such as the character of God, especially as it is revealed in the person, offices and character of Christ ; the person and work of the Holy Spirit ; our own guilty, sinful, miserable and helpless state ; and ihe spiritual nature of salvation. These are the grandest, most interesting and powerful of all doctriiics. With them the preacher's mind should be so thoroughly imbued as to give tone and complexion to his preaching, whatever his subject may be. We are not to assume that these doctrines are perfectly under- stood and realized by our hearers. The unconverted do not realize them at all, and the pious only imper' m VAKIKTY OF SUHJKCTS. 33 '^\\i, and vill tiiul all the valuable ho seeks with a )e unex- )o much -ast and ■xplored. Church, •ishment ittention :hoosing spiritual ions on mber of )jects is to the )f God, :es and le Holy slpless liese are of all uld be flexion We are under- verted imper* i fectly. But all these doctrines need not be included in every sermon, nor should each sermon contain a full statement of the way of salvation, with invitations to exercise faith in ('hrist. Such preachnij,' though proper enough in an express address to the careless and un- briieving, has not sufficient variety and breadth to interest and nourish the Church. If a single aspect of any one of the^e truths is made prominent, or even clearly assumed, in a sermon it will be enough. Preach- ing should be as full, rich and varied as the JJible itself. 2nd. It is not wise to preach purely doctrinal sermons, i.e. sermons designed to explain, prove and defend a doctrine, and nothing more. The objection is not to preaching the doctrines of grace, but to j^reach- ing them in a didactic maimer. There is no rhetorical element in this ; it is merely teaching. It is not thus the ]3ible sets forth doctrines. E.g., Justification is never defined nor analyzed in the Bible. But it is presented in connection with spiritual life and holiness, or with the enjoyment of peace with God, or with the hope of eternal life. One practical aspect of a doctrine is sufficient for a discourse. A series of texts presenting various aspects of it may be found and discussed. The more special a subject is, the more will you find to say on it. To discuss a subject doctrinally, and seek to give effect to the discussion by an earnest, practical application, will generally prove a failure, as an effective discourse must have practical direction or movement from beginning to end. Many preach precepts and even religious experi- ence in a didactic manner. Every subject loses its emotional and practical nature in their hands. Every landscape in i.heir view becomes a prairie, without light 3 'Ti 34 EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS, ii'i or shade. Even Isocrates himself could not make such persons eloquent. It is complained that doctrinal preaching is not now relished as it was formerly ; and this is "onsidered an evidence of degeneracy. But it should not be assumed without proof that purely doctrmal preaching was ever relished. It was an old c/ictum, " We should preach doctrines practicaU)^ and practice doctrinally." Besides, we cannot complain if people are satisfied with the concrete manner in which truth is presented in the Bible. Moreover, it is essential that discourse be, as far as possible, adapted to the character and taste of our hearers. If this be neglected we shall not only fail to edify them, but we shall also do injustice to our principles, and create a prejudice against them. 3rd. Subjects of an experimental nature should be frequently chosen. They give a pleasing variet}' to preaching. They seem to have been chosen by the prophets in the Apostolic age, I Cor. xiv : 22-25. Such subjects require much reflection, and also a knowledge of the heart, and a good deal of imagination. There is a great deal of cant that is called religious experience. It is superficial, and to men who feel deeply it is dis- gusting. The very phraseology that belongs to it is offensive. If such subjects are not adequately dis- cussed, there is reason to fear that people will be mis- led by an unnatural, exaggerated, or spurious religious experience which prevails among certain classes, and in much religious literature. The grand test of religious experience is that of inspired men, and especially the doctrines of the Gospel, which present an accurate counterpart to it. A correct tone of religious feeling is not only valuable in itself, but it is also conservative of sound doctrine. Believers of sound doctrine will not MORAL AND SPECIAL Sl-BJECTS. 35 accept what is unsound at tlie outset. But if an excite- ment and a peculiar tone of feeling are produced, doctrines corresponding^ to such feehng will be eagerly embraced. When religious belief is changed by this process, people are not aware of it, and they cannot be convinced of it. It is much easier to refute doctrinal error than to correct spurious religious feeling. Religious experience should not be left to ignorant persons, nor should it be treated in a slovenly, careless, or common-place manner ; but the art of preaching it should be cultivated by earnest reflection, and by care- ful study of the religious affections. Such studies will enrich all your other sermons, and also qualify you to act as spiritual ad^•isers. 4th. Purely moral sermons should not be preached. A person does not care to have duties coldly presented to him ; he wishes to have them connected with religious principle, that he may feel the obligation to discharge them resting upon him. Such sermons being unevangelical and inadequate are lacking in both interest and power. The word " practical " is frequently used to denote sermons which merely set forth duty. But practical in its truest sense all preachmg, and, indeed, all rinitorical discourse, must be. A sermon must l)e pidcvical which increases our knowledge of God ♦^j whom we are accountable, or which enables us to feel more c'eeply the force of truth, or which produces or intensifies religiv^-- ffection, or whose tendency is to make the outwardly good moral charac- ter holy. 5th. Special occasions will suggest valuablesubjects. But such occasions should not be multiplied. Funeral sermons are not desirable. The minister is placed at a great disadvantage, K^mg £\p2cted to make a great il' 36 CONTROVERSIAL SUBJECTS. effort without sufficient time to prepare for it. It is damaging to a minister not to be able to say anything. Better far, take an old sermon, being careful not to state that it is an old sermon, nor to apologize for it. There is risk of either offending the friends of the deceased or of compromising the truth. The subject of the sermon should be some impressive or consolatory doctrine, not the character of the deceased. If he was a truly pious man the fact may be incidentally noticed and improved. If he was not, it is surely wrong to speak of his excellent social qualities, and then say, we must leave him to the mercy of God. The advantages of funeral sermons are that they are spoken to a seriously impressed audience and in the hearing of many who do not attend church. 6th. Controversial sermons, or even sermons which have a controversial tone, are in general not edifying. While the right to defend truth and to refute error is fully recognized and mamtained, yet the difficulty is to determine \yhen controversial sermons should be preached, (a) Sound rhetoric forbids us to refute errors that are not current among our hearers, or which are purely speculative, as rhetoric must not be specula- tive, and it must be adapted to our hearers' state of mind. It is presumed that few of our hearers hold very serious errors. It is not well to neglect the edification of the Church for the sake of such persons, especially as by formal refutation we are apt to give undue im- portance to errors, and either to exasperate those who hold them or flatter their vanity, (b) Were we to succeed in removing all speculative error from a hearer's mind, he would still need to be converted to God. Now, a man by divine grace may be as easily brought from scepticism to the exercise of saving faith CONTROVERSIAL SUBJI-XTS. 37 as to the exercise of merely historical faith. It is a poor thing to be satisfied with wounding or silencing an opponent. The victory thus achieved is one which Christ will not recognize or accept ; His desire is to con- vert an enemy into a friend, (c) There is also, in the case of formal refutation, danger of giving currency and publicity to error ; and also, by over-refutation, of producing a reaction in its favour, and leading people to suppose that there is vitality and power in it. Apologetic preaching tends to shake the faith of an audience. A complaming tone in reference to prevail- ing scepticism is most damaging. We should preach as men who have confidence in the Word and Spirit of God ; and oui: words should have the accent of con- viction. Young ministers should not involve themselves or the Church inopportunely in controversy. They have generally neither the resources nor the prudence needed ; and they should know that an unskilful advo- cate damages a cause. The question is a difficult one. This, even Solomon admitted ; for he tells us not to answer a fool according to his folly, and also to answer him thus. Christian prudence should be used, and divine direction should be sought. Magna est Veritas et pracvalebit. (d) But the greatest difficulty is to deal with latent error, which seems to be very closely related to truth, and indeed is incorporated with it. If by careful explanation it could be detached from the truth and clearly presented, it would not need to be refuted, but so long as it is incorporated with truth in men's minas, mere refutation will not dislodge it. E.g., Many are opposed to what the Bible teaches in reference to divine decrees or purposes, because they believe that it is incompatible with human accountability. Others are opposed to justification by the imputation ot ^rrr '..;V; 38 SYSTEM OF SUBJECTS. Christ's ri.G^hteonsness, because they beheve that this must lead to antinomianism, hence all their just opposi- tion to the latter is directed aj:(ainst imputation. Others are opposed to preachinj^ justification by faith alone, because they do not understand the nature of the faith referred to. If truth could be freed from all alloy, the very statement of it would be sufficient proof of it. Were latent error detected and clearly presented, it would refute itself. 7th. General suggestions in reference to finding ivib'-^cts and texts. It is useful to form a little system Oi i-rbjects, such as the Christian graces ; or Christian Ethiu., as in Eph. iv : 25-32; or the Biographies of eminent men, as in Hebrews xi. It might be well to take a system of Christian doctrine as in the Shorter Catechism, beginning at effectual calling, using its out- lines as mere landmarks. It might be followed in con- nection with systematic reading. But this plan should not be disclosed to the congregation, nor should it have the rigidity and formality of a doctrinal system. This might furnish one subject a week for two years; i.e., supposing that miscellaneous subjects should be freely interspersed. This might be demanded by the special study required for some of the consecutive subjects, by pressing ministerial engagements, and by special services. At the end of two years, the whole series might be re studied, re-written, corrected and em- bellished. Blanks might be filled up and redundancies might be cut off, and the whole might be enriched with your increasing knowledge and experience, making it cover the second time three years. At the end of this period repeat the process. But the work would become lighter at every repetition of the process, as less change would be required, in many cases, none at all. It might li ■J 1 ■i' 1 i I I UNITY OF SUHJIiCT. 39 be of use to change the texts occasionally. This would secure far greater variety, and conduce more to the edification of both pastor and people than the usual way of choosing subjects and texts. Many think that there is great variety in their preaching merely because there is great variety in their texts. This is a mistaKe. To secure real variety it must be found in the subjects. Besides, additional variety might be had in the miscellaneous subjects discussed at one service every Sabbath. Further, it might be well to keep a book in which subjects might be recorded as they occur to you ; and also texts connected with them, and any method that might have presented itself. Many keep a book for texts, but they grow tired of it, as it is found to be of little practical utility. The reason is that they fail to find, or record, a subject in such texts as pleased them Moreover, the regular study of Scripture in the original would suggest many valuable subjects, which would not otherwise be thought of. These would be always fresh, and would bear the impress of your own mind. Chapter III. The Unitv and the Invention of the Subject. Unity is essential in any work of art. An edifying and impressive discourse cannot be con- structed on several subjects. The very life of a dis- course IS in its unity. Unity requires that there be one leading idea to which every thing is subordinated. Unity IS not unicity, but it is the result of union, the union of parts in one whole. It is not absolute and simple, but relative and complex, a unity of different parts, the relation of which to each other and to the whole, can be perceived at one view. E.g., " The rest that Christ gives " has unity, although it comprises all the elements of this rest. " The blessedness of the 40 UNITY OF SUBJECT. t!i saints in Heaven " has unity, although it comprises seeing God, enjoying God as their portion and doing His will. This analysis is psychological. The proposi- tion, " Christ gives His people rest." has unity. By directing all your arguments to prove this, you secure unity, no matter how numerous the arguments may be, provided they are co-ordinate or lie in the same field of view. Intelligent and serious hearers demand unity. Each hearer of this class, unconsciousl}' to himself, will endeavour to give unity to a discourse to which the preacher has not given it ; or will attach himself to one of the preacher's ideas ; or will perhaps force all these ideas to take the direction which pleases his own mind. Thus the preacher, who for want of diligence or skill, fails to impart unity to his subject, imposes too great labour on his audience, and defeats his own purpose. To secure unity three simple rules may be helpful : I St. Reduce 3^our subject to the form of a proposi- tion, stated in the fewest, simplest and most forcible words. The doctrinal proposition is easil}^ transformed into a practical one. In this concentrated form, any incongruous element maybe readily detected. But this test is not infallible, as you may preach on one word, and not have unity. Eg., If you take " santifica- tion '' you may preach on its meaning, on the means by which it may be effected, on its relation to justifica- tion, or on the blessedness for which it qualifies the soul ; four subjects. 2nd. Have a definite object in view, or impression to be produced. A rhetorical subject is more definite than a logical one. E.g., "The Bible is inspired" is logical. " I purpose to explain the nature of inspira- tion " or " I purpose to prove that the Bible is UNITY OF WHOLE SERMON. 41 inspired " is rhetorical. A theme whicii has no relation to a subject practically important, or wliich can not be made so without painful effort, is not a proper basis for a rhetorical discourse. Rhetorical unity is different from didactic in this, that all the elements it combines have for their last term a practical application or conclusion. 3rd. Have one principle on which analysis or division is made in explanation ; and one principle on which arguments are invented or arranged in confirma- tion. This will prevent cross divisions, it will eliminate incongruous elements, and it will unite and consolidate the whole sermon. Notice that (a) Unity is not confined to the sub- ject, but it must prevade the whole sermon. The method, the arrangement of arguments and illustrations must be with supreme reference to the leading design of the sermon, towards which everythmg must be made to converge, (b) Strict unity must be maintained even in sermons on extended passages. One leading idea must be seized and everything subordinated to it. This subordmation implies no depreciation, as it is not ethical, but rhetorical. The laws oi co-ordination and sub-ordination must be observed in the interest of unity. They will guide you even when unity does not exist, as in duty and motives. To have strict unity you must determine whether you wish mainly to explain a duty, or to enforce it, and allow the main idea to be con- spicuous and to lead. E.g., In " thou shalt not bear false witness" you would naturally make the explana- tion of the duty prominent, as it is not generally under- stood, the motives being subordinated to this, (c) When the subject may be viewed in different aspects, or when the text contains several ideas of great value, 42 INVENTION OF SUBJECT. the selection of the one to be made prominent must be determined by the impression you wish to produce. Anythin^^ incompatible may be waived. Cicero attached much importance to havin<:( a definite subject and purpose. He said, " When after hearing and understanding a cause, I proceed to examine the sub- ject matter of it, I settle nothing until 1 have ascertained to what point my whole speech, bearing immediately on the question of the case, should be directed." The Invention of the Subject. " Standing between the Word of God and the special wants of the congre- gation, the minister must choose his theme according to his spiritual perception at the time, and his peculiar dis- position. However obvious in the circumstances a text may appear, yet the subject itself, the theme, is always a discovery, or rather a gitt of the Lord, a message to the Church." — Laiige. Genei^al comUtions favourable to the invention of subjects for seriiioyis. (a) A competent knowledge of Theology. Cicero insisted that an orator must be a man of learning and universal information, and although his knowledge of many subjects must be superficial, yet he must thoroughly' understand PIthics, Law, and Politics. The celebrated orators of antiquity were generally lawyers or statesmen. The preacher of the Gospel is bound to acquire a thorough knowledge of Theology. This will fertilize his mind, and furnish material on which the inventive faculty may work, (b) A knowledge of the opinions and feelings that prevail among his hearers, or their character and states of mind. This will enable him to invent subjects suited to their edification ; thus they will be fresh and interesting, and fitted to attach themselves to what is favourable, and to correct what is not. It is neglect of this fundamental rhetorical principle that raises learned men above their .. I' II Pill: CONDITIONS OF INVENTION. 43 hearers, destroys sympathy, and leads people to prefer illiterate men who can enter into their views, although their power of edifying is small and temporary, (c) A mind enjoying, or sincerely seeking, the guidance of the Holy Spirit. A mind in a right spiritual state sees the glory and beauty of spiritual objects, and a depth of meaning in the Word of God which is most favourable to the invention of precious and affecting subjects. SpfcAjic Coiiditiuiis of Invention, (a) An accu- rate knowledge of your text. It is only thus you can discover its its specific meaning. If your attention is concentrated on your text for a considerable time your diligence and labour will often be rewarded by the discovery of a valuable subject. You must not skip over the text, but dig therein to the very bottom, as in a gold mine, (b) An impression of the value of the principle contained in the text. There is a kind of in- stinct, which seems often to guide in the discovery of the subject. This kind of susceptibility is not con- tinuous, but occasional and spasmodic. Full advantage should be taken of it, when it occurs and while it lasts. Such inspiration is often worth days of study. Its pro- cess and results should be written down instantly for future study and use. (c) An earnest desire to promote your hearers' edification. This will not only awaken interest and stimulate invention, but it will raise the mind above all selfish feelings and vanity, and, by inflaming it with benevolence, will aid invention. The Process of Invention Itself. This is not easy to analyze. It includes deep meditation and concentra- tion of all the powers of the mind. It implies close, earnest, and protracted attention, by which all irrelevant thoughts and feelings are excluded. If this is persevered in with steadiness, decision, and courage, a subject will. 44 PROCRSS OF INVENTION. in due time, begin to appear in the matter on whicli you are {gazing. Bj' persevering and intense looking it will gradually become clearer. The mind will shed light on what is its own creation, and the subject will reflect light on the mind itself. In course of time, both tlie subject and the mind will be filled with light, and ihe subject will appear clear and distinct. This labour must not be shirked, but it must be continued until the sub- ject is fully discovered and till the heart is inflamed by it. In this process a thoroughly disciplined mind is a law to itself. There is a kind of habitual preparation for invention in a thorough and continual study of the flock, of human life, of ourselves, and of the Bible ; in a habit of disciplining our mind and arranging our ideas which will never leave us at a loss. Cicero says : " In speaking, three things are required in finding arguments, genius, method, and diligence. Diligence is to be par- ticularly cultivated by us ; it is to be constantly exerted ; it is capable of effecting almost anything." The inventive faculty may be strengthened by exercise. It may be greatly aided by a knowledge of the laws of thought, of logical division, analysis, and comparison ; and of the various kinds of proof and of arguments. Thus qualified and inspired by a high pur- pose, it will be able to work intelligently ; and, in course of time, easily and successfully. The mind acting thus imparts to the subject organic structure, which is the condition of its becoming a living thing. In this lies the great labour of making a discourse ; what remains to be done is a labour of love. Those who use published outlines of sermons do not acquire inventive or creative power, and they doom themselves to a life of perpetual drudgery and plagiarism. s 4 ? I CHARACTERISTICS OF INVENTED SUBJECTS. 45 What lias been explained is the direct process of in- vention. It is suited to cultivated minds havinj,' ample resources, and also the power and habit of concentrated thought. But there is an indirec/ process suited to per- sons who have not these qualifications. It consists in consulting all available commentaries on the subject aimed at, and meditating on them, the mind selecting and arranging what seems congenial to it. In this way a subject is invented and by meditation made your own. After the subject is partially invented by the indirect process, many are able to complete the invention by the direct process. This is most desirable ; persevering study is thus almost equal to genius. Characteristics of subjects w/ien invented. I. Objec- tive : The subject must be valuable, a real discovery. Even in texts in which a subject is distinctly stated, there must be laborious thinking that you may discover the full content of the terms and the relation existing between them. Thus there is the labour of invention, whether what you seek lies on the surface of the earth or at the bottom of a well. Mere conceits are not true discoveries ; they are the fruits of perverse or misapplied ingenuity. Illustrations: " By grace are ye saved." To convert this into a proposition, " Salvation is gratuitous," is a merely verbal discovery. This must be subjected to severe thought, e.g., what is included in salvation ? In what respect is it gratuitous ? Shall we prove the statement, say, by divine testimony and by human ex- perience ? or, shall we prove ■ r detail, by proving its various parts to be gratuitous ? In this last case I must analyze it, and prove that calling, justification, sanctification, and spiritual blessedness, now and here- after, are gratuitous. Your subject has now an organic structure, and you know what your resources are, and 46 INVENTED SUBJECTS. liow you are anectcil by the subject. — Isaiah liii : ii. (a) " He sliall see of the travail of iiis soul and shall be satisfied," — Christ's satisfaction with the result of His sufTerings. We may be glad to have His judgment, as He only can estimate His sufferings and their stupendous results. You may view the satisfr""tion as : first, rela tive ; second, absolute, ^..j,''-, a ma .lo has jnirchased a farm may be satisfied with his bargain, as he thinks he has got the worth of his money, i.e., he is relatively satisfied, but he would like to have a far better farm, i.e , he is not absolutely satisfietl. The eye of faith is thus directed to Christ's knowledge, and then to His love to His people. Thus tiie movement here, the under current, is from understanding to afTection. Under lying this, there are the grand proofs of Christ's love re- vealed in His sufferings for His people, and in the blessed- ness which He desires and secures for them. H. Chonicles xii. : 14, '* Applying thf ^art to seek the Lord, the condition of a truly good ' (i) Applying the heart, etc., etc., means a most earnest desire to en- joy God's favour — great steadfastness of purpose. (2) The condition, etc., etc., (a) because they that truly seek the Lord must hate evil ; (b) they are brought under the most powerful motives to do His will ; and they have the promise of all needed grace to help them. N.B. — A negative statement is here converted into a positive, which is most desirable. There is a casual relation here which secures unity ; and there is movement from understanding and desire to strenuous effort. Matt. xi. : 5, last clause, " Distinctive characteristic of Christ's Messiahship." Reasons, ist. The religion of Christ is not intended for a favoured class, but for the human race — the great mass in all ages being poor — Christ's religion being the only universal religion that ever DISCUSSION OF srnji'XT. 47 existed, ^nd. The poor are the best prepared to re- ceive and welcome it. II. Siibji'.ctive. " Tlie sul)jcct must be suited to the preaclier's spiritual perception at the time and to iiis pf.'culiar dispc^ition.'' It must exactly correspond to the state of the mind that invented it. Thus the preachfjr holds firmly and confidently the idea embodied in his subject ; he realizes its value and force ; and he is affected by it as he desires his hearers to be alfecteti. It is only thus he can compose and speak with affection. This is a specific characteristic of great value. As his spiritual perceptions and dispositions may vary very much, a valuable subject may lose its suitableness to his spiritual state. Hence, he will not be able to write and deliver it as he ought. A preacher should not be con- tent to invent a valuable subject, but he must seek to have his mind imbued and inflamed by it at the time of composing as well as of delivering it. This accounts for the fact that he often delivers an old sermon with greater comfort and power than a new one. Hence M. Coquerel said that " a man's best sermon is the one of which he is most thoroughly master." Part II. The Discussion of thk Subjfct. It is now assumed that we have a definite subject and purpose. The Discussion may be divided into two parts: Method and Rhetorical Development. It is by Method, i.e. explanation and proof, that all the interest and persuasive power contained in your subject — or as much of it as may serve your purpose— may be brought out. It is by Rhetorical Development that this can be applied to the whole mind of your liearers. Thus the one indicates an objective, the other a subjective pro- cess. Method has to do with explanation and confirma- 48 METHOD OF DISCUSSION. H^i; Hon addressing the understanding ; and Rhetorical Development has for its aim excitation and persuasion, — addressing the emotions and will. The whole mind is thus addressed. The grouping of these processes in pairs gives that prominence to method to which it is entitled in preaching the Gospel ; and it connects most closely excitation and persuasion, which should never be separated in religious discourse. Chapter I. Method. The Scholastic Method may be stated for the sake of illustration, as it is strictly logical. This requires that a strict proposition be con- structed, and that the Heads of discourse be the sub- ject, predicate, and copula. It is clear that if you explain the subject and predicate, and establish the copula by proof, all is done that can possibly be done. E.g., " Great patriots are courageous." i. Who are great patriots ? 2. In what sense courageous is pre- dicated of them. 3. Prove the statement. The faults of this method are that it does all these three things in one discourse, produciug intolerable sameness; and making the main subject always one of three heads ; and that while it states what should be explained and proved, it throws no light on either process. Whereas, if you wish to prove a proposition, you can explain the subject and predicate in the introduction, and then establish the copula by a series of proofs which will furnish the main outlines of the sermon ; or should the proof be ' analytic', i.e., contained in the terms of the proposition, the mere explanation of the terms will show their agreement, so that arguments will not be needed. It is clear that in proving the statement " God is love," you must adduce synthetic proof; while in the statement, " Whosoever hateth his brother is a mur- derer," you find proof that is analytic, i.e., in the terms EXPLANATION IN GENERAL. 49 of the proposition. So also, " Duelling was a crime of the Dark Ages " (synthetic). " Duelling is murder," (analytic). It is possible to combine the two kinds of proof, which should then be the two main heads, e.g., " Blessed are the dead that die in the Lord," etc. etc. I. Proof, the congruity between dying in the Lord and being blessed (analytic). 2. Proof, the testimony of the Spirit (synthetic). In this case, of course, the dis- course is called confirmatory. If it were made on the first proof alone, it would be explanatory. The Schol- astic Method is valuable because it shows all that can be done in discoursing on a subject. Its main defect also shows the necessity of determining how you are to treat a subject, — whether your main purpose is to explain or prove it. This will determine whether its outlmes are to be explanatory or conftrmator}^ or both combined. Explanation in General. — We shall — leaving out percepts — confine our attention to the logical products of thought, i.e. concepts and abstracts. These can be logically explained, and they contain most of our know- ledge in a concentrated form. These concepts are called class-words, general terms, or universals. If you state the species or the individuals included in the class you divide it logically or explain it through its species. E.g., you explain " great patriots " by logical division by naming Mosus, Brutus, Washington, etc. These must be coordinate, and when put together they are supposed to constitute the class. Any one of the species or individuals is entitled to the name of the class ; e.g., Moses was a great patriot. Divide man as a class or universal, and you have ethnologically Caucasian, Mon- golian, Malay, Ethiopian, and American Indian ; or, geographically, European, African, American, etc., etc. 4 .';!• SO EXPLANATION IN EXTENSION. A class is formed by adding two or more subjects having a common predicate. E.g., Plato is rational animal ; Socrates is rational animal ; Cicero is rational animal ; thus a class is formed and it is designated " Man," the judgments out of which it is formed being allowed to drop. Thus you explain a class, or universal, or general term, by stating the species or individuals — which are similar parts of it — of which it is composed. To effect this you view " man " in eoctenslve quantity or in extension ; and you explain " rin " by division when you state all the species ; in exff/iplijicatiofi, you explain the class by stating one of its species ; in coniparison or contrast, you explain the class by comparing or con- trasting two of its species ; and indirectly by analogy, you explain not by comparing or contrasting things but their relations. Thus in generic forms of thought you have division, exemplification, comparison and contrast, and analogy. These are the chief means of rhetorical expla- nation. These furnish the main outlines of innumerable discourses, and also the outlines of subordinate parts. They are as indispensable to discourse as multiplication is to conjputation. If skill and facility in division are acquired, all these processes of explanation are easy. They impart fulness and richness to discourse and stimulate invention. On the other hand, it is easy to see that as a class is necessarily bound together by some common attri- butes, these attributes can be subjected to analysis. E.g., the class "patriots" is formed by uniting those who ardently love their country. •' Man '' as a class is formed of those who are united by all the attributes included in rational animal. It is on these as its base the class is formed. Without the common attribute they could not be formed into a class at all. Now, EXPLANATION IN COMPREHENSION. 51 when the common attribute is subjected to analysis, the class is viewed in comprehension or in comprehensive quantity, and the analysis reveals the simpler attributes of which the complex attribute or bundle of attributes is composed. This I purpose to call " analysis." This is not strictly correct, as the meaning of analysis is more extensive even than division. But I cannot find a more suitable term, and I shall use analysis in this sense only. By this we reach attributes, not species ; and one attri- bute cannot have the name of the complex attribute. E.g., " Man " viewed in comprehension is composed of the attributes included in *' rational animal." By sub- jecting " rational " to analysis, we have understanding, sensibility, and will. N.B. The common subject in a concept, viewed in comprehension, is called its base ; and the common predicate in a concept, viewed in extension, is called its base. E.g., To analyze " Man," you must find the principle of analysis in the base ; thus, " mankind depraved " may be analyzed as blind to all that is spiritually good, alienated from God and holi- ness, and rebellious against God's authority. Thus the depravity pervades all his faculties of mind. To divide mankind you must find the principle of division in the base, ie., some attribute found in rational or in animal, i.e., either in his mind or in his body. As these attri- butes are innumerable, you can easily select one suited to your purpose, whether it be psychological or physio- logical. An abstract can be properly viewed, not in exten- sion, as it is not a class-word, but only in comprehen- sion — as it is an attribute word. An abstract has no base, hence there is no subject that furnishes the princi- ple of analysis. Help may be obtained by converting the abstract into a universal or a class. E.g., " God is 52 methods: the simple. love." Love is an abstract. Convert it into the class " benevolent," God being included in this class and standing at the very head of it. The question then is, How does God manifest His benevolence ? ist. He is complacent to the good. 2nd. He is merciful to the sinful, and compassionate to the miserable. Hence " love " here may be analyzed into complacency, mercy, and compassion. There are two classes here — the good and the not good. It is required that the principle of division or analysis found in the base be not only suited to your purpose, but that it be otie. E.g., If you divide man as accountable, you must adopt a moral principle ; if nationally, another principle ; if according to his rela- tion to mankind, another principle, etc., etc. But if you adopt several principles, there will be hopeless con- fusion, as when you divide mankind thus : Hypocrites, Europeans, Negroes, Frenchmen, ignorant persons, murderers, Roman Catholics, and blacksmiths. Divi- sions made on several prmciples are called cross- divisions. They are often unconsciously made in ab- stract themes. The confusion thus introduced into a discourse is proportionate to the number of the princi- ples, and to the degree of their mutual incompatibility. It is a matter of much importance to keep in view and to hold fast the four leading classes of attributes. These are the essential attributes of quality and causation ; and the relative attributes oi condition and relation. Methods may be divided into two classes according to their form : The Simple and the Complex. Section I. The Simple Method. This is strictly logical. It is a method in which there is a single idea or a definite subject that can be accurately and fully stated in a brief title ; and in which the heads are fur- EXPLANATORY METHOD. 53 nished either by the logical division or the analysis of the theme ; or by a series of proofs or arguments. Thus these discourses are either explanatory or confirmatory in their outline, but never both. They are adapted to make a definite impression. I. Explanatory. In this tlie theme is viewed (a) in extension, and divided by stating the specific or similar parts of which it is composed ; or (b) in comprehension, and is analysed by presenting its component attributes. N.B. Rules to be observed in logical division : i. The constituent parts must exclude one another. 2. They must, when added, be equal to the genus. 3. Division must be founded on one principle or basis. 4. Sub- ordinate species must be contained under the super- ordinate. Rule to guide in logical analysis, — That none but co-ordinate characters, and all of them, be distinguished. Logical division, (a) II Cor. v. : 10, first clause, " The judgment will be universal ; all must be there." i. Those to whom it is properly alarming, ist. Those who live in the practice of sin — the ungodly and the immoral. 2nd. Those in addition to this who refuse God's salvation — sceptics, self-righteous persons, or self-deceivers. (This distinction was made by the Lord, Matt, xi : 20-24.) I^* Those to whom it will be most desirable, as they will then be acknowledged and acquitted, etc., etc. The four rules are all respected in this. II Peter i : 4, first clause, '• Promises exceed- ing great and precious," a class. I. Promises of spiritual blessings to be enjoyed now, justification, grace needed to sanctify, and fellowship with God. II, Promises of spiritual blessings to be enjoyed here- after, admission into Heaven, seeing God, enjoying His favour, and serving Him. N.B. Other principles of division would give other component parts. E.g., I. 54 EXPLANATION IN COMPREHENSION. ■>■■„ Promises relating to temporal things. 11. Promises relating to spiritual things. Or, I. Promises made to the Church. II. Special promises made to individuals. The first division is suited to the Apostles' meaning. In it all the rules are respected. (b) In comprehension, by analysis. £.?., " Chris- tian Benevolence," an abstract, make it a universal. '• Benevolent '' viewed in relation to Christians. Con- sider the manner in which they should act or feel towards others. They specially love persons of the same character with themselves ; they are forgiving to those who injure them, not rendering evil for evil, but the opposite ; they feel deeply for those who are miser- able, especially spiritually miserable. " Christian benevolence," Fraternal love, and love to all mankind. It is a great thing to be able to divide or analyse concepts or general notions and also abstracts. Our religious knowledge is mainly treasured up in abstracts. Salvation is an abstract ; so is eternal life. " Piety towards God " is an abstract. It comprehends holy reverence towards Him ; and also love of His character, including gratitude and dependence. " The influence of the Gospel on man as rational" is an abstract, i. On the understanding, enlightening it in the knowledge of God and of divine things. 2. On the conscience and heart, stimulating and satisfying the conscience, and giving true peace. 3. On the will or disposition, chang- ing or improving it. The complex nature of the abstract is here revealed in relation to the various parts of man's nature that are brought under the influence of the Gospel. There is here also an attribute of causation. The rule for analysis is complied with. There is here a principle at work en- lightening, quickening, and moulding. " The EXPLANATION IN COMPREHENSION. 55 rest that Christ promises," Matt, xi : 28-30, is an abstract, i. Rest from the working of a servile spirit produced by erronious views of the ceremonial law, or of the moral law viewed as a covenant of works. 2. Rest from the spiritual conflicts of an awakened conscience. 3. Rest Irom moral strivings or aims, i.e., rest prevading the whole mind. Thus by an attribute of relation the " rest " is analysed. Acts. XV : 3, last clause. " The great joy of all the brethren " is an abstract. ist. Philanthropic joy, because the barrier was broken down, and Gentiles were brought into the Church. 2nd. Pious joy, be- cause God was glorified, and because the harmony between the Old Testament Church and the New was demonstrated. " The disinterestedness of Moses " is an abstract, ist. He refused Egyptian distinction and emolument, he was unwilling to be leader of Israel, and he never sought personal aggrandisement when promo- ted. 2nd. He devoted his thoughts and energies to the welfare of Israel, although his generosity was not appreciated, and to God's glory. A great many abstracts and notions in comprehension may be analysed by an attribute of relation. But this demands that the things to which the relation refers he co-ordinate, readied on one pHnciple, and exhausted. If there be any mistake in this respect, the analysis will be confused, faulty, or defective. I Kings xix : 12, last clause. "The suit- ableness of the manner in which God addresses man- kind, e.specially in the Gospel." This is an abstract. 1st. Suitable to the nature of the Gospel message. 2nd. Suitable to the affections and powers addressed, and to the Spirit's agency by which it is rendered effectual. (The relation here is to the remedy and the means of its application.) " The advantage of remembering 56 SIMPLE CONFIRMATORY METHOD. Christ's words by Christians in various states," Luke xxiv : 8. ist. When they sink into comparative unbehef as the disciples had done. 2nd. When they are dis- tressed by severe affliction or by guilt on the conscience. It would not do to add 3rd. When in the enjoyment of great spiritual happiness, as this would not be co- ordinate, because the other two refer to states of spiritual distress Should it be desirable to introduce this element, the first analysis should be: ist. When in spiritual distress. 2nd. When in the enjoyment of spiritual happiness. Then the former analysis might guide in the discussion of the first head. This simple method will do equally well for extended portions of Scripture ; eg., Mark viii. : 1-21, " Our Lord's state of mind here referred to." ist. His kindness and com- passion towards the multitude, 1-9. 2nd. His grief in relation to the Pharisees, 10-13. His mortification and disappointment in relation to the disciples, 14-21. 2nd. T/ie Simple Confirmatory Method. In this a statement is proved by a series of arguments, the dis- tinct branches of which furnish the main outlines of a sermon. Luke xiv : 15-24, " There is nothing to ex- clude any one to whom the invitation is addressed from the feast referred to, except refusing the invitation." I. Because no one will be excluded on account of per- sonal unworthiness. 2. Because no one will be ex- cluded for want of room, or of provision, or of willing- ness on the part of the Master to receive him. These proofs are co-ordinate and exhaustive. Romans vii : 7. 13, " The inability of the law to destroy sin in the soul." I. Because the law reveals sin. 2. Because the law exasperates sin, and thus furnishes the occasion of sin working death, exerting its most deadly power. I John iv : g, 10, "Proof that God is love." i. Be- SIMPLE CONFIRMATORY METHOD. 57 7- he he of er. Be- cause He sent His only begotten Son into the world to be a propitiation for our sins. 2. Because He sent His Son that we might live through Him, i.e., enjoy spiritual life through Him, now and hereafter. These are the grand proofs of love — making sacrifices for the sake of its objects, and endeavornig to promote their happiness. These proofs are contained in the text ; they are ex- haustive ; the relation here is love towards man as guilty, and love towards man a? miserable. Jeremiah ii : 1-13, " The great wickedness of retrograding in a religious life." i. Because it reveals ingratitude to- wards God, specially aggravated in the case of the Israelites, in view of God's great kindness towards them. 2. Because it was ruinous to themselves The magnitude of the people's sin should precede the state- ment of consequences. The bad quality is revealed ; ist, in relation to God ; 2nd, in relation to themselves. Luke xi : 13, "The great encouragement the Lord gives to pray for the Holy Spirit.'' ist, Because the gift of the Holy Spirit is inexpressibly great ; it in- cludes all spiritual " good things," faith, repentance, spiritual life, comfort, preparation for Heaven. 2. Be- cause we have the strongest assurance that such prayer will be heard, by divine faithfulness and the paternal love of God, His purpose to save sinners. Powerful incen- tives to seek a thing are furnished by its immense value, and the assurance that it is attainable It would be easy to give this a complex form, and to show : i. What is meant by giving the Holy Spirit. 2. What encourage- ments or motives we have to ask. Both methods are correct. But, were the complex method adopted, there would be a strong temptation to make the first Head purely didactic, and, while discussing it, to lose sight of the object you should have in view. Whereas, by 58 SIMPLE CONFIRMATORY METHOD. taking the simple metliod you are compelled wiien explaining to keep the end in view, i.e., to lead people to pray for this gift. This would make a more power- ful discourse, having greater directness of aim. The idea of '• Possibility " in the second Head, would be a powerful incentive to prayer or efTort. I Timothy iv: 8, " Godliness is profitabls to all things." This may be considered a complex statement, and may be analyzed. I. It is profitable in relation to this world. 2. In relation to the future world. Each of these might be proved by a series of arguments. In this case the body of the discourse would be proof, the analysis merely enabling you to prove the statement in detail. The process of division, or analysis, as the case may be, will guide in inventing and arranging arguments, and in securing unity and co-ordination among them. But when the arguments used prove equally all the parts of the complex statement, division or analysis should not be made. " The Sabbath was made for man" might be treated in the same way. ist. Prove that the proper observance of it conduces to man's temporal welfare ; 2nd, that it conduces to his spiritual welfare. Notes on simple methods : Explanatory and Con- firmatory, ist. Those given under "a" and "b" do not exhaust even logical explanation, as comparison and contrast are for the present omitted, because they do not generally furnish simple methods. 2nd. Explanation is of use not only in furnishing the outlines of methods, but also in discussing the heads, and the subordinate parts of all sermons, and even in rhetorical amplification for the sake of impression. 3rd. Although it is necessary to distinguish ex- planatory from confirmatory methods, yet explanation and proof are very closely related and they sustain one COMPLEX mf:thods. 59 another. We may have to explain proof and to prove explanation. Besides, explanation makes the point at issne clear, and thus facilitates proof; and sometimes it makes proof unnecessary by removing' prejudices, and causing truth to shine with its own light. When proof is analytic, explanation is all that is needed. More- over, proof that is relevant tends to limit and explain. E.g.^ You cannot properly prove that God is merciful, without, by this very process, explaining His mercy. In fine, proof and illustration are often used indifTerently for the sake of impression. We may explain what our hearers understand, and prove what they believe, pro- vided that by doing so we can mterest them and keep the truth for a considerable time in living contact with their minds, so that they may feel its power. Section II. Complex Methods. These are com- monly called Textual. But the name is misleading, as simple methods may not only explain the Text, but also exhaust it. If a Textual sermon is one whose heads are expressed in the very words of the text, there will either be few such sermons, or the division or analysis will be mechanical. A textual sermon, pro- perly so called, is one in which the ideas stated in the text — or as many of them as can be united in one plan, form the Heads ; the other ideas, should there be any. being either subordinated or waived. This is what a textual sermon should be. It might thus have strict unity and other rhetorical qualities. But as these limitations, by subordinating or by waiving, are both theoretically and practically ignored, a textual sermon may not possess rhetorical qualities at all. Thus the term " textual " has become so indefinite and misleading that I decline to use it. I shall therefore use, instead of it. Complex, i.e., not simple. 6o COMPLEX METHODS. ('onipU'x Methods. —Wch. iv : 1 1, " Great encoiiraf^'c- nient to labour to enter into tlie rest spoken of." i. The Christian life involves ^'reat labour. 2. The rest will more than compensate for it. To secure unity, either the labour or the rest should be analyzed, so that the latter may be seen to compensate for the former. E.g., the labour or unrest of the Christian life, ist, includes all the internal conflicts vvitli sin whicii are connected with sanctification ; 2nd, it includes all the external dangers and trials to which the Ciiristian is exposed. Now, the rest sliould be shown to compensate for both, as in Heaven the soul will be perfectly holy, it will also be safe and blessed. The Heads must not be discussed as little essays but in relation to one another. The first Head of this discourse is subjected to analysis ; the second Head is proved. The complex nature of this method is evident, as it includes the two simple methods of explanation and proof. The great ditliculty in such cases is to secure unity. Complex methods should be constructed with supreme reference to persuasion. This general idea will guide in the treatment of very many texts and subjects. In these (a) a duty and motives are both included ; or (b) a principle and its workings ; or (c) a course of conduct and its consequences ; or (d) one thing as the condition of another ; or (e) one thing contrasted with another. It is not meant that this enumeration is exhaustive, as it is uoi sed on any logical principle. It may, h<^ i . be practically of great utility and of extens, .pplicatioi Whatever the complex form may be, k should be logically dis- cussed according to the Logical m ;thods explained in " Simple Methods." COMPLEX METHODS. 6i Examples: (a) Job xHi : 7-10, " The duty of inter- cessory prayer." i. The duty is stated here expressly, is inculcated by the Lord and I lis Apostles, and it is exemplified by David and Paul. 2. Motives. Immense advantaj^es of it (i) to persons prayed for. To the Church— examples : the prayers of Moses and David, of tha disciples before Pentecost. To individuals : Job's friends pardoned. (2) To persons prayinj^ thus : Job's affliction redressed, it fosters brotherly kindness and for^nveness, and reminds us of our need of Christ's intercession, and it is a condition of our obtaininpf forgiveness. The first head is directly proved and exemplified in Scripture. The second head is ex- haustively explained by analysis, accordinj,^ to an attribute of relation. N.B. The discourse should not be equally divided between duty and motives, as this would impair unity and make the sermon weak in the middle. The one should be made prominent. The question is whether will it best suit your purpose to discuss the duty mainly, or the motives mainly ? (b) I Timothy i. : 15, last clause, " The influence which the Apostle's deep and abiding sense of un- worthiness exerted on his whole life after his conver- sion." I. Endeavour to account for his deep con- sciousness of personal unworthiness : (i) by the deep conviction of sin and rich experience of grace con- nected with his conversion ; (2) by continuous con- sciousness of indwelling sin. II. The influence which this exerted on his whole life, (i) It kindled in his heart a flame of love to Christ that could not be extin- guished ; (2) it incited and qualified him to labour for the conversion of sinners,— having himself experienced the efficacy of the blood and Spirit of Christ ; (3) it produced anxiety in reference to his own spiritual state. 62 BIOGRAPHICAL SUBJECTS. The first head relates to his state of mind at conversion and after it. The second head is analysed by an attribute of causation, or by Causal 'nalysis. This gives as its results causal parts, i.e., effects of the con- cept viewed as a cause. The rule is that " none but coordinate effects, and all of them, be distinguished." Complied with here — solicitude for the glory of Christ, the salvation of his fellow-men, his own salvation. If the discussion in Causal Analysis is confined to the orderly statement ot causal parts, the method is *' simple " Causal Analysis furnishes an illustration of the manner in which biographical subjects should be treated. They come under the head of narration, which is a kind of explanation, in which the theme is pre- sented in the relation of time, as something becoming or changing. It is not a product of thought, as a con- cept or an abstract, l)ut an integrate or concrete, i.e., an object as it exists in nature, invested with all its attributes. Thus, the subject of narration is different from the subject of division or analysis. The theme is either simple, consisting of what is outward and sen- sible ; or abstract, consisting of what is internal or spiritual, as conversion, the working of pride, or the formation of character and habit. Eg., if you notice any great change in a man's character or any peculiar and valuable feature, and present it clearly, and trace it to the working of some principle as its cause and make a practical application of the whole, the discourse will be interesting and edifying, otherwise it will not be so. E.g., The life of Moses furnishes a hne exanip/e of meekness. Numbers xii : 3, whether it ever failed may be disputed. Chap, xi : 10-15; xx : 11-12, may refer rather to the failure of faith, or to fear. I. His meek- ness was subjected to the severest tests, in view of his EXEMPLIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION. 63 exalted position, and tiie abundant revelations with which he was favoured ; and in view of the refractori- ness of the people, and the envy of Aaron and Miriam. II. His meekness must be traced to deep and fervent piety, by which he was distinf^juished, as no other adequate 'cause can be assigned for it. Application. — Notice the practical utility of his example to us in times of trial or provocation, and of difficulty. The first head is explained according to an attribute of relation ; the second may be discussed according to an attribute of causation ; and the application may be explained by an attribute of relation. N.B. The meekness of Moses furnishes an exemplification of this quality. Exempl'ifica- tioii is a process of logical explanation. It differs from division in this that instead of presenting all the specific parts whicii make up the theme, it presents one as an illustration. Instead of presenting the meek as a class, we present an individual belonging to it, who possesses this quality in an eminent degree. It is allowed to present several examples in a discourse without impair- ing unity, provided that the} be examples of the same quality, that they be used only in reference to it, and that they be kept distinct. In this case the method of division is to be respected. In exemplification you must respect not onl}' the end in view and the nature of the subject, but also your own resources, and the character and knowledge of your hearers. This seems to be the only iranner in which a man's character can be the subject of rhetorical discourse. You can use it as the exemplification of some important quality, or of the working of some principle ; in either case it is not the man that is the true subject, but it is the quality or principle. It may be said that a man's character may be described. True, but Description has always for its §4 DESCRIPTION. theme an object existing in space, an integrate whole, conceived of, or pictured in the mind as such. Hence, in description, being presented in the relations of space, and merely as existing, it has no movement ; it is not like a theme in narrative which is becoming or changing in time, but it is fixed in space. Hence, it is suited to the natural sciences and to poetry, but not to oratory. The orator in describing loses sight of his hearers, and lavishes all his power and affection on his own ideal. It is suited to what Aristotle calls " epi- deictic " and Cicero calls " demonstrative " discourse. It is fitted to amuse or please, not to persuade. Description is not suited to the abstract themes that the preacher has to discuss. The forming of an adequate mental picture of such is impossible. Who can form a mental image of law, of truth, of right, of government, of learning, etc, etc. ? Description is of use to the sensational preacher who seeks to address the passions directly by presenting vividly to the imagination some terrible or desirable object ; but to one who desires to excite moral or religious affection, it is unsuitable. It is used by those who aim at a pic- torial style of composition and delivery. But it is not in this way the true orator imparts vivacity to discourse. (c) Romans viii : 13, "Christians should live after the Spirit and mortify the deeds of the body" I. Exhortation to mortify the deeds of the body through the Spirit. Explain this. II. Consequences: (1) To live after the flesh is a state of spiritual death. (2) To live after the spirit and mortify the deeds of the body is to live, to enjoy spiritual life that will never end. (d) Acts ii : 42-47, " The spiritual prosperity of the Church is the condition of its influence for good, and of its own stability." I. Elements of the Church's COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 65 pic- not I. >ugh To To )ody ind. the Id of Ich's spiritual prosperity are, i, Cordial belief of the truth; 2, Union in Christian love and benevolence ; 3, Diligent use of the means of grace, and patient continuance in welldoing. II. These are the conditions, etc. i. They commend the Gospel and make the Church attractive. 2. They render the Church steadfast by confirming the faith and comforting the hearts of believers. In the first head there is analysis ; in the second there is proof. (e) When resemblances between species of the same class are indicated, it is called Comparison ; when differences are pointed out, it is caWed Contrast \ and when the resemblance is not between species as in the former cases, but between their relations, it is called Analogy. Luke v : 33-39, " Our Lord's method of reforming men illustrated by contrast with that of the Pharisees.'' I. The Lord dealt with the understanding and the conscience ; they dealt with deportment and the performance of external religious rites. II. The Lord's reformation was universal and progressive ; theirs was partial and complete at once. When com- parison or contrast furnishes the principle of division, it is not well to divide the discourse in the middle, pre- senting first the object itself, and then that which is contrasted ith it — as ist, the Lord's method of re- formation ; '2nd, that of the Pharisees. This tends to impair unity and to enfeeble the sermon in the middle, and also to make the second Head merely a converse repetition of the first. It is better to state together the points contrasted, so that the contrast may run through the whole length of the sermon. There are the same objections to stating, ist, what a thing is ; 2nd, what it is not. Besides, such a principle of division might lead to extraordinary results. What is really meant is, what 5 66 FIGURATIVE TEXTS. ■.J3 Vi a thing is frequently mistaken for, and what it tmly is. Show what a thing truly is in your discussion, and correct misapprehensions as you advance. No^e on the treatment of Figurative Texts. — Two extremes are to be avoided. The one is presenting the moral in an abstract form, and dismissing all allusion to the figure ; the other is allegorizing and dividing the figure, and seeking fanciful analogies. In the one case, no advantage is taken of the figure, and hearers are disappointed ; in the other, the whole sermon becomes a play of fancy, often off"ending good taste, and some- times making the whole performance ridiculous. A. middle course is to make the moral the true basis of discourse, and to adopt a form which will preserve the spirit of the figure. It is not necessary, in an abstract manner, to discuss the truth that the Christian life deni'-inds very great effort ; nor, on the other hand, to illustrate it by reference to military tactics. Luke xiii : 6-9, " Religious privileges must be improved, fruits corresponding to them must be produced or the con- sequences must be fatal." I. God expects fruit ; the very delay in cutting down the tree is with the view of using means to produce fruit. II. The unfruitful tree will be cut down, not only as useless, but also as injurious. I Timothy vi : 12, I. The nature of the spiritual conflict, and the great Ally on whose guidance and help we may depend. II. The glorious reward of victory, and the eternal disgrace and misery of defeat. Rules : (a) Strive to understand the subject lying under the figure, and the particular point that the figure is intended to illustrate, and use it only in this aspect, (b) Deal only with the higher analogies which are intended to present the subject clearly, and introduce no analogy, however beautiful, that will destroy the 1 EXPOSITORY SERMONS. 67 of ree as the mce of eat. ing ;ure ect. are uce the unity of the subject. Suggestions to aid in securing uiiifi/ in Complex Met/iods. i. Make either duty or motives the more prominent. 2. Discuss the Heads in the same Hne. 3. See that one tone or spirit perv ide the whole. Note on Expository Sermons. — A sermon of this kind is in Scotland called a lecture. This fails to indicate that it should be a sermon or rhetorical discourse, and also to distinpjuish it from other sermons. Originally, it was a kind of paraphrase and commentary combined, without unity, method, or specific aim, although prac- tical remarks were interspersed or added. What I mean by an expository sermon is one that is as strictly exegetical as is compatible with rhetorical qualities, and that finds not only its leading idea, but its whole matter in the text, which on this account generally embraces an extended passage of Scripture. Its Method must be either simple or complex. The Simple Explanatory on Mark viii : i-2i ; the Confirma- tory on Luke xiv : 15-24, and on Romans viiry-ij; and the Complex on Job xlii : 7-10, and on Acts ii : 42- 47 ; are suitable outlines for expository sermons. I maintain that they must have organic structure, and development, and definite practical aim, like other sermons. One great difficulty in such sermons is to secure unity in the subject. This can be aimed at by selecting a text which has unity in itself, by seizing a leading idea and subordinating all others to it, and by amplifying the most important thoughts in view of the end you wish to gain. Another difficulty is to know what points to make prominent by explanation. If you explain everything the discourse will be purely didactic, apd it will weary the hearers, leaving nothing to their judgment or 68 bXPOSITORY SERMONS. ■■■'I ■ f W It ^i'' ■ III, if'. 1.1 !■ !'*•;■■ imagination to supply. If you explain everything equally, the discourse will have no salient points and no movement. It is a pity to increase these difficulties by loading your sermon with parallel passages, or with conflicting opinions of commentators. If you can explain a real difficulty, do so ; if not, pass on to what you can explain, giving the results of your exegetical research, not the process. While there miisi be inethod in expository sermons, yet it should be as much conformed to the text as possi- ble, and it should not be emphatically stated, as it is desirable that exposition should seem to take the lead. Expository preaching was customary in Old Testament times. II Chron. xvii : 7-9 ; Nehem. viii : 8. It was practised by the apostles. Justin, A. D. 150, tells us that it was customary in all the public services of Christians. It was the method of Chrysostom and Augustine. It continued until A.D. 1200. Then a more rhetorical style, revealing much ingenuity, and conformed to logical analysis, commenced ; and it lasted till the Reformation, when expository preaching was revived. It continued till recently in Presbyterian Churches in Scotland. To it was due their extensive knowledge of Scripture, their steadfastness in the faith, and their strong religious sentiments. Its advantages are manifest. Ministers who addict themselves to it generally expound whole books or epistles consecutively. Thus " the whole counsel of God is declared," Acts xx : 27. "All Scripture is profitable," etc., etc., II Tim. iii : 14-17. Thus ample spiritual knowledge is provided for the people. They are deeply interested, and they are taught how to search txie Scriptures for themselves. Difficult passages are explained, prejudices are removed, and perversions are EXPOSITORY SERMONS. 69 exposed. The wiiole edifice of saving truth is presented in its beauty and grandeur. This is much more profit- able than the fragmentary manner in which truth is now generally preached. Hence people have " itching ears;" they lose relish for sound doctrine, they lack steadfastness, they are easily " carried about with every wind of doctrine." It is of great value to ministers. It compels them to keep up their exegetical studies, and to master whole books of Scripture, and to study doctrines in the con- crete form in which they are presented in the Bible, and in their connection and environment. It compels them to present all the great doctrines of revelation in the proportion in which they are found in the Bible. It thus secures endless variety, and keeps ministers from going round a little circle of doctrines that are congenial to their own minds. It leads them to enforce Scripture truth with divine and spiritual motives, and not with those derived merely from social and domestic life. Thus it teaches how to deal with the conscience. It presents an inexhaustible supply ot illustrations derived from nature, indeed as man}' as they can use. They never will discover the treasures contained in the Bible until they study the whole of it consecutively. It enables them to preach doctrines peculiarly offensive to the carnal mind, and to reprove sins or faults with- out giving offence, because they are presented in the text, and are not specially sought for. It fills their sermons with wholesome doctrine. It gives the minister commanding influence over his people. It enriches all his other sermons, and, in course of time, it makes him, as he shouM be, " mighty in the Scriptures." 70 RHLTORICAL UKVELOFMENT Excellence in expository preaching cannot be attained without great and protracted labour. It is much more difficult to make expository sermons than other kinds of sermons. There are all the difficulties conected with ordinary sermons, with the addition of exegesis, and also preaching on texts that are pre- scribed, and which may be difficult. Chapter II. Rhetorical Development. This is specially with a view to excitation and persuasion. It is assumed that the affections lie between the understanding and the will ; hence, if you wish to persuade you must excite. Unless discourse is sensational, you must apply the truth which has per- suasive power to the understanding by explanation and proof, and through the understanding you must excite emotion or affection, and thus influence the will ; either changing or improving the disposition, or stimulating to right action. The process of excitation has been already partially indicated. We have shown how by explanation and proof the full meaning of the subject may be applied to the understanding ; and it is easy to see that this pro- cess must keep it in living contact with the mind for a considerable time, and thus excite interest and feeling. But this feeling may not be sufficiently lively or strong to serve our purpose, hence the specific point now to be considered is how greater intensity of feeling is to he produced. We are clearly not to seek to excite feeling by departing from our subject, which contains persuasive power, nor by mtroducing extraneous matter, nor by presenting pictures t(» the senses or imagination. Nor are we to seek directly to control the will, which is impossible. Hence we must seek to strengthen feeling r RHETORICAL MOVIiMliNT. 71 and volition by sonietJiing in t/ie manuer of applying triitJi to /lie understanding. The question is merely one of degree of excitation, and hence it need not occasion any essential change in our procedure. The peculiarity referred to cotisists mainly of two things, Rhetorical Moi'enient iind Adapta- tion in its widest sense. Section I. Rhetorical Move fnent. (a) The design of Movement is to bring the subject, with which you seek to persuade, into contact with the whole mind, the understanding, affections, and will ; and that, too, always in the order now stated. It consists of the arrange- ment of parts reached by explanation and of arguments, so that they shall follow one another in natural order or shall increase in strength as they advance ; and of the arrangement of the whole matter of discourse so that the movement shall be from general to specitic, from abstract to concrete, or from objective to subjec- tive. So far as explanation is concerned, this has been illustrated in all the examples of methods already given. Thus in indicating the character of those to whom the judgment is properly alarming, the movement is from practising sin to self-deception. In considering the states of mind in which remembering Christ's words is beneficial, the movement is from partial insensibility to distress of conscience. In indicating the inability of the law to destroy sin in the soul, the movement is from revealing sin to sinking the sinner in distress of conscience or desj lir. The labour of the Christian life moves on to eternal rest. There is movement from duty to motives, from conflict to victory. There is a natural order m explaining before proving, or before setting forth the desirableness of a thing or the opposite. 72 VARIOUS KINDS OF I'KOOr. •i: m. 'm i T/ie tendency of this moiement is greatly to increase interest and afiection ; and if the movement is gradual, there is growing intensity of feeling. Mistakes in refer- ence to this are almost unpardonable. They are fitted to destroy a discourse and to exasperate an audience. This is a very common occurrence. So far as the arrangement of nrgnnienls is concerned, it has also been illustrated in the confirmatory methods that have been given. Whately says that " it is the only thing that belongs exclusively to rhetoric ; and further, that it is perhaps not of less consetiuence in rhetoric than in the military art." That the natural order may be followed, the arguments should be classified. There are two great classes — the analytic and the syn- thetic. The analytic have demonstrative certainty, as they are found in the very terms of the proposition itself. If you explain the terms, tlieir agreement is evident ; hence the importance of studying the meaning of a proposition ; hence also a clear statement often ter- minates controversy. Synthetic proofs are divided into Intuitive and Empirical. Intuitive proofs are such as are furnished by the mind itself, acting under the laws of its beftig. They have demonstrative certainty. Empir- ical proofs are divided into, a priori, signs and examples. In a priori proof, we reason from a cause to its effect, or from a general law to its results. Supposing a fact admitted, if the proof assigned would account for it, it is a priori proof. In signs, we reason from an effect to its cause, or to the occasion of its operating. Among signs are testimony and authority, the one relating to facts, the other to opinions. Thus we do not suppose that the testimony would have been given had the fact not occurred, or that competent men would have pro- I'KOOFS Cl.ASSIIIKI). 73 to g to se ct o- nounced an opinion without valid reasons. If tlic testi- mony be concurrent, when collusion is impossible, it will be much stronj^er, and, in many cases, will be suffi- cient proof, althou^^'h the witnesses, individually, have the reputation of beinj,' liars. The concurrent opinion of able men who have thorouj^hly examined a matter, is of great value and authority. Examples are proofs which are founded on the resemblance between individuals of the same class. They have a close affinily to a f^iiori proofs. Both direct the mind to a cause or law, and both rest their validity as proofs on the assumed uni- formity of the operations of nature. Supposing that proofs of all these kinds are adduced in the same discourse — although very unlikely— ihe natural order after analytical proof is, ist, intuitive ; 2nd, a priori ; 3rd, examples ; 4th, signs. The last two may change places, if more suitable to the structure of the discourse. When the arguments used are of the same kind, they should increase in strenyth. But here strength is a relative term ; it depends on the intelli- gence, prejudices or feelings of an audience at the time. We are not to suppose that an argument having demonstrative force, although sufficient in logic, is suffi- cient in rhetoric. Arguments have to be accumulated to suit different, and to iniluence unwilling, minds. Proof is often explanatory ; it is also used to refute objections, to strengthen faith, and to produce an im- pression. To the foregoing arrangement it is objected that, according to it. the testimony of God, in view of its nature and authority, must be put last. But surely it is not disrespectful to give it the position due to the strongest argument. Besides, it would seem to be dis* respectful to place any other proof after it. But divine 74 ARRANGEMENT OF I'KOOFS. m testimony is f,'enerally llie proof, and when other proof is connected with it, it is to remove objections or to help us to reahze the trutli. It is also objected that in refutation it is better to put strong' arf^aiments at the beginning' and at the end and weak ones in the middle. But in sucli a case it would be better to dispense with weak arj^uments, as an opponent would be sure to attack these and thus create a presumption against the others. There is a vexed question in reference to the position in which objections with which you may have to deal should be placed. If the objections spring from misapprehension of the state of the question, the point at issue, or the terms used, they should be disposed of at the outset. If they are directed against your arguments each should be disposed of in connection witli tlie argument against wiiich it is specially directed. But objections should not be allowed to stand together in solid phalanx, especially at the beginning or the conclusion of the discussion. It may be well to state reasons in favour of the arrangement of arguments that has been indicated. It is evident that analytical proof should come before signs, etc , etc., as it clears the ground for the edifice you pur- pose to erect. It leads to the explanation of terms, defines the status qnccstionis, and the point at issue. It thus greatly facilitates discussion. So far as logic is concerned, this proof might in many cases be sufficient ; but it is not so rhetorically. In view of diversity of character, prejudices and strong feelings in an audience, a variety of proof is required. A priori proof raises a presumption in favour of the proposition in hand. The arguments from signs strengthen that presumption by showing that the thing that was likely to occur did v CONTINTKI) MOVKMKN r. 75 occur, and tlic arf^imicnts from example streiif^'theii it still further by evidence of similar occurrences. Were (I priofi arj^uments placed last they mi^dit be supposed to be explanatory of a fact already proved, but not proof of it. It is most important to distin^^'uish an example f(ir explanation from an example for proof. The former may be an invented example ; in the latter an attribute of causation must be recognized. No one should allow objections to stand toj^ether for mutual support ; nor is one bound in debate to take up objec- tions in the order in which an opponent places them unless it is his interest to do so. (b) Further, movement must not be spasmodic, but continued or sustained, so that affection may not sub- side or be lost, but be preserved and accumulated. To be able to impart this movement is a far hif^dier attain- ment than to excite spasmodic feeling. To secure con- tinued movement the following; things are necessary : ist. — Positive, (a) The heads of discourse must be formed on one principle, as the principle running through the whole is the connecting link between them This will secure harmony and continuity of feeling and pre- vent discord by which affections are brought into con- flict and destroyed, (b) All that belongs to one head must be methodically arranged under it, so that its full force may be felt, and that it may bring an accession of interest and power, (c) Great care and skill must be used to make the transition from the discussion of one head to that of another. Oratorical genius is often conspicuous here. A happily chosen word or phrase is often sufficient, or even a fragment of the text. But if one cannot make this junction, he should not make the defect prominent by emphatically announcing the number of the head. m 76 FAULTS THAT ARREST MOVEMKNT. fi If i 211(1. Nefjative. As the continuity of movement is of vital importance, several thinj^s fitted to arrest or even destroy it deserve notice. (a) Minute sub-division of heads. It is difficult to make so many transitions or junctions p/; arc thus required. It is only severe meditation, from which many shrink, that can fuse together ideas which, at first, are unconnected and brittle, and thus diminish the number of parts. If this is not done these parts should not be numbered. Numbers always have a chilling and an arrestive effect. Rather say : first, again, besides, moreover, further, add to this. This order should be observed. Or, if it is preferred, use the following : again, then, now, once more. (b) Unnecessary digressions. A short digression, if an inciease of power or interest is to be gained by it, is admissible. But if it is to guard against possible mistakes, or to gather flowers that do not lie in your way, or to gratify an anrhetorical propensity, it reveals the want of a high moral purpose. (c) One- sided dt-velopment of the discourse by vvdnch one Head or idea is unduly amplified, and thus the balance of the discourse is destroyed. Care must be taken to avoid this ; it can be corrected only by reconstructing the sermon. It can be prevented by keeping in view, from the commencement, the proper proportion in which the various parts of the discourse should be discussed or amplified. (d) Repetition. A thing is stated imperfectly and then corrected, or figuratively, and then in plain language, or the point of the figure is indicated, or an illustration is given which itself requires to be explained, thus leaving nothing to the intelligence or the irnagina- FAULTS THAT AKREST MOVIiMEXT. 77 tion of the hearers. All these arrest progress and weary or offend iiearers. (e) Description arrests movement, as it presents an object in the relations of space, i.e., simply as a sub- stance having qualities, or pictured in the ima<,nnation as such. It belongs properly to poetry or to natural science, not to oratory. The speaker must be content to present his illustrations in profile, not in statuesque form. " The rapid, ^iD.shing metaphor is his figure."' If he must describe, let him throw his description into the form of narrative. Even when parables or narratives in Holy Writ are referred to, they should be merely recalled or suggested by a word or phrase, but never repeated. What an advantage it is to a preacher to have such an abundance and variety of illustrations as are contained in the Bible, and to be able by a word or phrase to call them up and present them to his hearers. Leave description to poets and sensational preachers who address the imagination, not th, conscience. (f) Wit. " It is the destruction of affection ; it is the bent of a mind, which, insteadof being carried away with the holy and the great, makes it an object of scrutiny, and entertains itself with apparent contradictions and contrasts which are contained in it." It effectually stops the current of affection, so that after it has been used, excitation has to be begun anew, if indeed it can be resumed at all. Cicero used it freely as a defence against a passion awakened by an opponent. But the confusion of an opponent is purchased too dear by the annihilation ot all feeling in an audience. (g) Excessive reasoning, being mainly addressed to the understanding, is unfavourable to the growth of affection. Sufficient proof must be adduced, l)ut no 78 ADAPTATION OF DISCOURSR. ■5! ■;*? more. An orator must not reason to please his own taste or to reveal his power. The nature and vital importance of movement can be easily seen. If you have a powerful relifj^ious truth or principle for your subject, and if it be adequately explained and proved, and if it be applied to the whole mind by proper arrangement of parts and movement, it must tend fo av/aken increasing interest and to lead hearers to meditate on it, and it must excite much affec- tion, and thus mfiuence the will and mould the disposi- tion. Movement is thus indispensable to persuasion. It is also most natural ; hence effective speakers who know notliing of its nature, its methods or utility, aim at it, guided by an inward impulse or instinct. There was eloquence befoiS rhetoric, as there was speech before grammar. Section II. Adaptation. (A) Adaptation of Discourse. I St. Adaptation to what is in your hearers' minds con- stitutionally. It is necessary to know this that the idea or theme of the discourse may be directed and attached to it. Aristotle, followed by all ancient rhetoricians, spoke of three kinds of oratory : judicial, deliberative, and panegyric, i.e., laudatory. He thus recognized the fact that men, viewed merely as members of civil society, have ideas of justice, the common weal, and civic merit or honour to which persuasive discourse may be directed. Now, as man has a moral and religious nature, there must be moral and religious ideas corresponding to these — moral ideas of duty, virtue and happiness ; and, on a higher scale, religious ideas of obedience to the will of God, of acquiring holiness, and thus becoming like God, and of blessedness in the enjoyment of God's favour. These general ideas are principles of action, with one or more of which the speaker should connect ' m. A PRINCIPLES OF ACTION IN THE MIND. 79 id. ire to ul, nil n, :ct the specific idea of his discourse. If he can assimilate the object desired with these principles of action he ^vlll influence or mould his hearers from within. This is different trom, and indeed directly opposed to, intlu- encinf,' them from v thout by operatin,f:f on their desires and fears throuj^h their .senses or imagination. For the statement of ihese moral and religious ideas based on Aristotle, I am indebted to Therein in. These moral and religious principles of action may be presumed to e.xist in man's nature, which, although morally ruined, is not destroyed. However latent and feeble they may be, they must be addressed, and ihis will enliven and strengthen them. It is clear that if man's ruin is a moral ruin, and if the Gospel is a moral remedy, the feelings which we should seek to excite — and which alone are of any real use — are moral feelings produced by truth in the mind. Tliereniin classes moral feelings or affections under the categories already named. I condense his statement, (a) Under the head of (iitty, or obligation to do the will of God, are placed zedl for spiritual good, which degenerates when it seeks outward good ; shdiiie and repetitance when a person has done wrong or neglected duty ; and amjei' towards bad actions, which degenerates when it is directed towards a person (b) Under the head of virtue ox holiness are placed /oty which has God for its highest object, and the good so far as they are like God ; friendship, which is pro- duced by particular moral qualities and desires fellow- ship with those who possess them ; emvlaiion, which has for its object excellence in another higher than we possess ; and admiration which regards that excellence as almost beyond reach (c) Under the idea of happr ness or blessedness in the enjoyment of God's favour 8o RELIGIOUS AFFECTIONS CLASSIFIED, m there aie longing for the highest good; hope to obtain it ; gratitude to him who has rendered aid in obtaining it ; pity for those who do not strive after it, or in a false way ; fear of all that would deprive us of it ; and abhor rence of evil within ourselves as the worst enemy to our happiness. Thus there are fifteen pure moral or religi- ous affections available for persuasion. They are the highest and strongest in our nature, and they can be excited by moral and religious ideas presented to the understanding. Among them you will not find any selfish, X'sthetic, or mercenary feeling. These are all pure affections. They differ from passions mainly in three things : They are voluntary ; they are excited by moral truth, and are thus amenable to reason ; and they are, or may be, permanent. A similar distinction between passion and affection is made by President Edwards. He says : " Affection is a word that seems to be something more than passion, being used for all vigorous or lively actings of the will ; but passion is used for those that are more sudden and whose effects on the animal spirits are more violent, the mind being overpowered and less in its own command." He also classifies affections : "From a vigorous, affec- tionate and fervent love to God will necessarily arise other religious affections ; hence will arise hatred and fear of sin, dread of God's disp'easure, gratitude to God for His goodness, complacence and joy in God when He is sensibly present, grief when He is absent, joyful hope when a future enjoyment of God is expected, and fer- vent zeal for the divine glory. In like manner from fervent love to men will arise all the virtuous affections towards them. ' Without understanding the nature of religious affections, a person, wliether he preaches or acts as a PASSIONS DIFFERENT FROM AFFECTIONS. Si id le IIS us a spiritual adviser, must work in the dark ; lie cannot tell what kind of excitation his preaching will pro'hice, or whether his spiritual advice will do good or harm. This is surely culpable uncertainty in an educated minister. E.g., present vividly a future state of misery as one of excruciating pain and physical torment, and you may excite the passion of fear to such an extent as to produce nervous prostration, despair, or insanity. Explain the same state as one in which the soul is crushed with a load of guilt, retains its sinfulness, and is excluded from the favour of God, and you will excite tlie affection of fear, which is moral, voluntary, and amenable to reason, and thus prepares the ;soul for the reception of the moral remedy which has been provided. These feelings differ not in degree, but in kind. Hatred of physical suffering can never be so intensified as to become hatred of sin, which is an element of holi- ness. You will, however, have much to do with passion, although you never purposely excite it ; and you will have to do with feelings that oppose you, antl which you should know how to make subservient to your purpose, or how to destro}'. The (jospel often incidentally pro- duces passion instead of affection, on account of the sad moral state of the sinful miiid. Thus you luay even find jTfission blazing away before you begin to speak. Do not come into collision with it, as this will only intensify it. Do not destroy it, lest the subject of it sink into spiritual insensibility. Do not tell the man prostrated by the passion of fear, that his fears are groundless, that the consetjuences of sin are not dreadful, and that God is merciful. Hut stimulate his conscience by showing him that it is sin that makes him miserable ; and that God acts in conformity with His infinitely 6 8a PASSIONS CONVKRTED INTO AFFECTIONS. It »:? holy nature in punishing sin ; and, further, tliat God has provided an atonement for sin, and also the means of sanctifying the soul. Thus, the distracting passion may be converted into a religious alTection and the soul converted to God. To convert a passion into a religious affection, you must strive to awaken the affection that corresponds to the passion by proceeding precisely as you would do if there were no passion present at all, i. e., b}' applying moral or religious truth to the mind. In Luke xii, our Lord's address shows how the fear of man, that produces hypo- crisy, can be suppressed by exciting the fear of (lod ; and how anxiety in reference to worldly things may be suppressed by trusting in God and setting the affections on spiritual and heavenly things. This is much more effectual than showing that riches make to themselves wings, etc., etc. General I //nstrations : To produce repen- tance it is necessary to enliven the idea oidnty by setting forth God's claims and the extent and spirituality of His law ; and by showing how His favour is to be obtained, thus connecting your subject with the ist and 3rd classes of religious ideas referred to, thus producing " a true sense of sin and an apprehension of the mercy of God in Christ," To encourage Christians to maintain a conflict with sin, enliven the idea of holiness by show- ing its excellence, and by proving that by divine grace it is obtainable. To stimulate Christians to send the Gospel to the heathen, enliven the sense of duty and allegiance to Christ ; and, to excite compassion toward the heathen, set forth the privileges, joys and hopes of true Chris- tians. This is much more effectual than describing the degradation and misery of the heathen. Jst and 3rd Classes. [ at' .a /ESTHETIC AND SOCIAL FliliLINGS. «3 Be careful, when necessary, to convince your hear- ers of the possi/fitify of performing the duties wliicli you inculcate, or of attaining the blessedness which you present. Motives are powerless when the idea of im- possibility is present in the mind. Let that be removed, and the full force of motives will be felt, and the affec- tions will awaken and exert their power. There is no use in exciting feelings of a pHreJy ci'sthetic nature. Feelings entirely destitute of religion may thus be awakened. Thus the description of the Lord's agony and death on the cross will produce feel- ings similar to those excited by the description of any great suffering. The power to convert the soul does not lie in the excruciating pain and agony of Christ on the cross, but on their moral nature as the punishment of our sins, and as the means of satisfying divine justice ; and in their revealing the wonderful love of God, and the tender compassion of the Saviour. Purely naliirat and social feelings may be taken ad- vantage of to lead to serious thought, but if they are not pervaded by a moral element they are of no value. The pathetic deifcription of a death-bed scene may awaken much feeling, and yet it may be merely fear of death and love of life, unless the connection of death with sin, and the need of mercy and of holiness to prepare for it, are clearly interwoven with it. 2. The Sivbject Matter of discourse must be adapted to the hearers. Philosophical explanation or proof is not rhetorical. Long trains of reasoning take up mucii time, exhaust patience, and produce such mental ten- sion as to prevent the growth of affection. They are not suited to persuasion. True oratory does not aim at giving full information, but merely such an amount of it as is compatible with rlietorical qualitie?, and as may 84 NATL'Rli OF RHETORICAL I'ROOF. produce the impression required. Aristotle says that the Ent/iymeme is the rhetorician's syllogism. *' By this term he does not mean a syllogism with a premise or the conclusion suppressed, but the kind of proof desig- nated Signs, IX., mainly testimony and authority." — Sir Willinm Hamilton. Now, this IS precisely the kind of proof furnished by the Bible. The Gospel is addressed to us on the authority of God revealed in His Word, the only authority on which eternal life could be reasonably — or even possibly — offered to sinners, and future misery threatened ; and on the authority of God revealed in the moral and religious nature which He has given us, and which is capable of responding to the presentation of the remedy, as we have seen. The authority of God is thus presented to us both objectively and subject- ively ; and when it is accompanied with the Holy Spirit, the highest assurance may be obtained. Thus the true believer " hath the witness in himself." John viii : 31, 32; I John v: 10. The Gospel message is divinely attested by prophecy, miracles, and the gracious and effectual influences of the Holy Spirit. Moral duties are revealed and enforced by the same authority, so that they have not to be deduced from first principles, which would be fatal to eloquence. The suitableness of the remedy is attested by the experience of all who have truly embraced it. There is experience of its power to relieve the conscience, to purify the heart, and to form and ennoble the character. An appeal may be made to human experience in all ages, showing that all spiritually-minded persons in the Church have embraced the great doctrines of grace, and have had substantially the same religious character and experience. Church Creeds, Christian History and TRUK POPULARITY OF UISCOURSK. 8.5 he e is to er. all the nd nd ind Biographies amply attest these trutlis. Vou may appeal to the amount of j^ood the Gospel has done, and the persecution and the scepticism a;;ainst which it has successfully contended. Yon s/ioitld adapt your discourse to tht moral and re- ligions maxims^ beliefs, sentiments, and even prejudices of your hearers, and even of the community at larj^e. Eg, " Man must live for something.' hij^her than him- self." " Be just before you are <,'enerous." " Success is a test of merit." " tt is seldom f,dven to man to do unmixed f^food.'' " When once you bef^in to deviate from a rule, you will never know when to stop " " The wisdom of our ancestors." " The advantages of paternal government in the State." " The Shibboleths of religious Sects." These maxims are principles of action ; if you can assimilate the subject of discourse with one or more of these, it will exert a powerful influence. There is in X.\\'\?, specific adaptation. You thus manifest sympathy with your hearers' habits of thought and feeling, and incorporate your ideas with theu's. In this consists true popnlarlty of disco ume. You thus avoid coming into collision with sentiments and pre- judices, unnecessarily, and enable your hearers to yield withoit undue humiliation. This sympathy with the hearers' habits of thought and feeling, is the main con- dition of the popularity of illiterate preachers. Educated men should not depreciate, but imitate it. As some of these maxims or prejudices may seriously obstruct dis- course — the last three being fallacies — it may be necessary to remove them. But nothing less than intimate intercourse and acquaintance with persons can enable you to adapt the matter of discourse to them. In addressing a large audience, you must make the best general estimate you can. In some cases you will find 86 DO NOT CLASSIFY HKAKERS. your licarers classified, as wlieii you preach to a St. Andrew's Society, to an Orange Lodf^e, to a Temper- ance Society, or to a Y.M.C.A. In each of these, one sentiment predominates. If you connect your discourse with it, you will speak acceptably and efTectively ; if you do not, your discourse will be a failure, or some- thing worse. In addressing a worshipping assembly, we should not classify and address our hearers as believers and unbelievers, or, more properly, non-believers. This is incompatible with tlie idea of a religious assembly. It is also without Scripture precedent, as the Apostles in speaking and writing never seem to make this distinction. Besides, it is not called for, as conversion and sancti- fication are one continuous work, carried on by pre- senting the same Gospel truths. II Timothy iii : i^- 17, Truths supposed to be specially fitted to convert sinners, are often most edifying to sincere Christians ; and truths revealing Christian life and experience, have often exerted a most powerful and saving attraction on non-believers. I Cor. xiv : 2425 ; Acts ii : 42-47. Moreover, it teaches hearers to classify themselves often wrongly, and to judge what in a sermon is adapted to them alone, and to give no attention to anything else. In fine, the thing is unrhetorical. It destroys the unity of the discourse, its definite aim, and especially its application. It is important to have a clear view of the sphere in which popular proof in preaching the Gospel is to be found, of the nature of such proof, and of its adaptation to the rhetorical preaching of the Gospel, and to the generality of mankind to whom the word of salvation is sent. It should not be forgotten that in a settled and long pastorate, variety in both matter and method is STYLE ADAl'TKH To IIKAKKUS. 87 needed. N'ariety of matter is to be found in an extensive knowledi^'e of Scripture. If the whole counsel of God is declared, and it doctrines and precepts are discussed in t/ie pr()/>(>;ti.(>a in \v\\\ch ihvy arc found in the Uible, there will he all needed, or indeed possible, variety. N'ariety of method is also needed. There are expository, simple and complex methotls in subjects ; there are doctrines and precepts contained in doctrinal, historic, prophetic, bio^^aaphical, and also in hi^urative texts. '• Iwery scribe that is instructed unto the Kinf,'dom of Heaven is like unto a man that is an householder, which brinj^'eth forth out of his treasure thin;;s new and old." Matt. \iii : 52. 3. The style of discourse must be adapted to the education or culture of the hearers. Lan^uaf,'e that can be easily understood and in which the Saxon element predominates, should be used. A clear vij^orous style should be acquired, all dead and enfeebling words should be avoided. Many think that they must have an elegant and highly polished style to please educated persons. lUit this is a remnant of the old mistake, that i^hetoric is merely the art of composition, a fnie art, an elegant accomplishment. But the beauty and power of rhetorical discourse are not in words, but in sentiments. Hence, what best expresses the orator's idea, and best suits his audience, will please the most cultivated ; while anything else, no matter how beautiful it may seem in itself, will offend good taste, as much as paint- ing a diamond or a piece of burnished gold. The words should be so adapted and subordinated to the subject as not to be noticed at all. But to smother an idea in words, or to bury it under flowers, will offend any man of common sense. 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