.n%. ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / 1.0 I.I 1.25 I 4.0 M L8 14. ill 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation ^^^.^^^S^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 4^^ fe CIMM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian institute for Historical IVIicroreproductions / Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Novas/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may altar any of the images in the reproduction, or which m&y significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below □ Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagte a Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur^ et/ou pellicula □ Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque r~7| Coloured map*/ b^ Cartes gtegraphiqiies en couleur □ Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encra de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) □ Coloured platea and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur □ Bound with other material/ Relii avoc d'autres documents D n Tight h<;iding may causa shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La re liure serrie peut causer de I'ombrc ou de la distorsion lo long de la murge iniArieure Blank leaves added dun'ig restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration appcraissent dans le texte. mais. lorsque cela itait possible, ces pages n'ont pas M filmies. The totr L'Instituj a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire . qu'il lui a iti possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont pout-itre uniques du point de vue bibliographique. qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuveitt exiger une modification dans la mithode normale de filmage sont indiquto ci-dessous. r~l Coloured pages/ D Pages de couleur □ Pages damaged/ Pages endommagtes I — 1 Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicuides Pages discoloured, stained or foxei Pages dicoior^es, tacheties ou piqudes Pages detached/ Pages ditach^s Showthroughy Transparence Quality of prir Quality inigale de I'impression Includes supplementary materii Comprend du matiriel suppCementaire r~7] Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ r~| Pages detached/ r~T] Showthrough/ I I Quality of print varies/ r~~] Includes supplementary material/ The posi of tl filmi Orig begl the slon othc first sion ori! Only edition available/ Seule Mition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmad to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages tota!ement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont iti filmies d nouveau de fapon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. Tha shal TIN! whi Ma( enti beg righ reqi met El Additional comments:/ Commentaires supplimentaires: Various pagings. Wrinkled pages may filmed slightly out of focus. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est fiim^ au taux de rMuction indiqui ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y ! 12X ttx aox 24X 28X 32X i The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Dougias Library Queen's University L'exemplaire f ilm6 f ut reproduit grAce A la g4n6rosit4 de: Dougias Library Queen's University The images appearing here are the best quallT/ possibSe considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming ccntroct specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol ^►(meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol Y (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at di^^erent reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la netteti de rexemplaire fiimi, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires origineux dont la couverture en pepler est imprim6e sont fiimte en commen^ant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernlAre page qui comporte une ampreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le ces. Tous les autres exemplaires origineux sont filmte en commenpant par la premiAre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la derni6re page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la derniiire image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre fiimds A des taux de reduction diff6rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, 11 est film6 A partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en has, en prenant le nombre d'images nAcesseire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 m^j^. % ■^ North Polar Basin. A^'ith Professor Nordenskicild's kind permission I had undertaken to prepare from the abundant materials tliat were avaihible, a popular account of his Arctic voyages before tlu> Nortli-East Passage Expedition was plannal ; and not to leave my work incomplete, 1 have added a sketch of the history, so far as 3'et known, of this memorable Toyage, by which, when it is finished, the Vega will have, for the first time, circumnavigated the twin continents of Europe and Asia. The slight outline here given will, I trust, increase the reader's appetite for the fuller details of the narra- tive which the illustrious explorer will v/rite on his return home. I have thought the valuable and interesting report of Dr. En vail on the hygiene of the Polar Expcnlition of 1S72-7;} deserving of a place in this volume, and tlu" PREFACE. i^ scientific reader will find in the List of Books and Menioi]-s in the Appendix, a sort of index to the large mass of printed matter, consisting of more than G,000 pages of type and 150 plates, to which the Swedish Arctic Expeditions have given rise. It is my pleasant duty to acknowledge the valuable assistance that has been kindly rendered to me in many ways in the preparation of this volume by my friend Heijii Gustaf LiNDSTiioM, Assistant in the Mincralogical Department of the lldvs Museum, Stockholm. I am also indebted to the eminent firm of Nokstedt and SoNEK for the use of some of the original woodcuts, to the proprietors of the Geogologiml Alcq/azine for others, and to the proprietors of the Nya lUmtrerad Tidning for the one given at pn.oe 3G0, representing the Vega saluting Cape Chelyuskin. ALEX. LESLIE. ERRATA. Page ix, lino 12 fvoiu top, for "Sunkh," read "Soss." ,, ix, ,, 13 ,, ,, for "■ 0<'0(ii)lo<)ical" reivl " (IcdlofiiriiJ." „ 117,,, 12 „ ,, for "hoiV]i',"' read" \od\r." „ 119,,, 1« „ „ /or "says," mrr^" say." „ 209,,, ir, ., „ /or "Oui',"nw/ "Oiii." ,, 26G, „ 20 ,, ,, /,/■ "gui'lleniots,">-K 1872-3 170 277 r*^ jtr: . ■icr . yw '■'l xu CONTENTS. CHAPTElt VII. VOYAGE TO THE YENISSEJ IN 1875 AND ASCENT PAGES OF THE niVER. 278—319 CHAPTER VIII. SECOND VOYAGE TO THE YENISSEJ IN 1876 320-342 CHAPTER IX. THE NOUTII-EAST PASSAGE EXPEDITION, 1878—79 343-387 APPENDICES. APPENDIX I.-OFFiCIAL REPORT TO THE (sWEDISIl) ROYAL BOARD OF HEALTH ON TUB HYGIENE AND CARE OF THE SICK DURING TUB SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION, 1872-73, BY DR. ENVALL, MEDICAL OFFICER ' 391—417 APPENDIX II.-UST OF BOOKS AND MEMOIRS RELATING TO THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS 418—440 I'm m . . 320-342 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PROCELLARIA GLACIALIS »"*°*- 50 LARUS EB0RNKUS GRAVE ON SPITZDERGEN 57 59 ^MAODALENA" IN ICE HARBOUR (MIDSUMMER DAY) (ji "^OLUS" IN TREURENBERGBAY GROUP OF POLAR BEARS IN MUROHISON BAY .... ' BEAN OF ENTADA GIGALOBIUM. (NATURAL SIZE) . SAXIFRAGA FLAGELLARIS CHARLES XII.'S ISLAND AND DRABANTEN REINDEER HUNTING HEAD OF WALRUS MAINLAND AT SMEERENBERG— GRANITE ... DANES' ISLAND IN THE INTERIOR OP KINo's BAY FOX AND DEAD REINDEER I'HOCA BARBATA DRAGGING BOAT OVER ICE . . . THE " SOFIA " . , . . ■ ■ SHARK FISHING .... .MUSHROOMS AT ADVENT BAY king's BAY— WESTERN SIDE BEDTIME nUR[NG A BOAT VOYAGE MORMON ARCTICCS .... rU. "SOFIA" CROSSING THE ARCTIC CIRCLE, UtH ".U^y; I8G8 ^ ' INLAND ICR ABUTTING ON LAND 62 67 73 76 83 87 89 91 92 97 103 126 127 131 132 138 140 141 148 152 171 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOK INLAND ICK EXTENDING INTO TUE SEA 172 INLAND ICE ABTTTTING ON THE BOTTOM OF AN TCE-FJORD .... 172 INLAND ICE AUUTTINO ON A Mt'D-DANK 173 THE " POLHEM " 183 VIEW OF GOTHENDrno RCADS 184 THE " OLADAN " 190 GLACIER IN FAIR HAVEN 192 LAPP WITH REINDEER ]98 POLHEM — WINTER STATION 199 BURIAL IN 80° N.L. DURING THE POLAR NIGHT 212 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY 216 DREDGING UNDER THE ICE IN WINTER 217 MUSSEL BAY 220 CLEFT IN THE INLAND ICE (cANAL) 2.'i9 mattilas' winter quarters at grey hook 273 north point op prince charles* foreland 27g winter dress and hunting weapons 277 the " vega " saluting cape chelyuskin, the northernmost Point of the old world 360 MAPS. To he placed at the end of the Volume. 1. MAP OF SPITZBEUORN. 2. MAP ILLUSTRATING NORPFNSKIULD's VOYAGER TO THE VENISSEJ IN 1875 AND 1876. 3. MAP SHOWING THE COURSE OF THE " VEOA " FROM THE MOUTH OF THE YENISRE.T to THAT OF THE LENA. I . , ; I lERNMOST THE ARCTIC VOYAGES OF YENISREJ IN ADOLF ERIK NORDENSKIOLD. MOUXn OF THE i ji< ■ 1 h 1 I ( } TI A] ca th: sis die Gil the So] spr of nat fou was sevi cliai spec Fin NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES: 1858— mo. CHAPTER I. THE NOIIDENSKIOLD FAMILY : AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. Adolf Erik Nordenskiold waa born at Helsingfors, tlio capital of Fiuland, on the 18th November, 1832 the third in order of seven children, four brothers and ihree sisters, all of whom, with the exception of a sister who died young, still survive. His parents were Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold, a well-known naturalist, chief of the mming department of Finland, and Margareta Sofia von Haartman. The race from which Nordenskiold sprang had been known for centuries for the possession of remarkable qualities, among which an ardent love of nature and of scientific research was predominant. Its founder is said to have been a Lieutenant Nordberc who was settled in Upland about the beginning oT the seventeenth century. His son Johan Erik, born 1G60 changed the name to Nordenberg. He was chief in- spector of the saltpetre manuf^ictories of Nyland in Finland, and was considered by the enlightened a ma'ster V. KOIIDENSKIOLD'S AllCTIC VOYACiES. [ CHAP hi in agi-icnUurc and by tlio common people a pi-oficiont in tJie black art. His only art, however, consisted in a persevering study of Nature, in closely following her footsteps. In tlie year 1710, when he heard that the plague had broken out ;J1 over Finland, he protected himself against the epidemic in a very peculiar way. He loaded a vessel which belonged to him with provi- sions and other necessaries, went on board with all his family, and cruised about in the open sea for several months, taking goorl care to have no communication With the land. Jf his voyage had a certain resemblance to Noah's in the ark, it had the same successful issue About the beginning of 1711, when the plague had ceased, all on board landed safe on Aland. Johan Erik Nordenberg died in 1740, leaving two sons, Aiiders Johan and Carl Frederik, both of whom, though the latter was only lieutenant, were elected members of the Swedish Academy of Sciences when it w^as founded in 17;] I). J3oth were ennobled in 17.'5l. Carl Frederik is the common ancestor of the families l)caring the name of Nordenskiold now living in Sweden and Finland. One of his many remarkable sons, the third in order, (V.lonel Adolf Gustaf Nordei-skiold, became owner of Frugord in Finland. This property,' si^tuated in a forest-crowned valley in the department of Nyland, is still in the possession of the Nordenskiolds. Here Colonel Adolf Gustaf Nordenskiold built a pecu- liar resi.lonce, ilic middle of which is taken up with a hall two stories high, round the upper part of which runs a broad gallery in which collections in natural history are arranged. Life in this home has always bo,-ne a certain o]<] Nor^c stamp. Jn |],e surronndh.^r iij iES. [CII.M'. IH'oficioiit in Jiisipted in a fullowing Iior ard tliut the lie protected )ccu]iai way. with provi- Avith all ]iis I for several mmunication rcsemLhmoc 3cssful issue. plague liad leaving two li of whom, ^ere elected CCS when it d in 1751. the families J in Sweden e sons, the )rdenskiold, s property, )artment of xlenskiolds. ilt a pecu- iip with a t of which in natural las always llJToillldilirr >• 1 THE NOUDENSKIOLD FAMILY. 3 park a sepulchral mound has been thrown up, whicli forms the last consecrated resting-place of a portion of the Finnish members of the Nordenskiold family. In these arrangements, as in much else at Frugord, tliorc was something uncommon, indicating a peculiar idio- syncrasy in the owner, and undoul>tedly not without an influence on the youth that grew up there. Many of tlie Nordenskiold family M^erc devoted to literature and scientific research. Otto Magnus Nordenskiold, a brother of Adolf Gustaf, after undertaking extensive tours in Holland, France, Germany, &c., for the purpose of studying the commerce of those countries, was the first to introduce " many-bladed " saw-mills into Finland, on an island on the coast of which he planned the foun- dation of a manufacturing town, for which he wished to secure neutrality in the wars between Sweden and Kiissia. His scheme, however, was frustrated by the outbrenk of the war of 1742, when the Russians burned down the only manufacturing cstaljlishment that had been erected on Fagerci, a wind-driven saw-mill. Soon after, the unlucky Otto Magnus drew on himself perse- cution and threats of capital punishment both in Sweden lor being concerned in the surrender of Tavastelms in' t-:e war of 17^2, nnd in Russia, for a very well-meant proposal made to the Czarina Elizab->th concernin.. perpetual peace between all Christian nations. He died excommunicated by the clergy of Finland Colonel Adolf Gustaf Nordenskiold had many children one of whom, August, was a zealous alchemist, nnd laboured with Bernhard Wadstrom for the abolition of negro slavery. He died at Sierra L.one from iniuri.s received from the blacks during an attempt at colonisation. r. 2 IM NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. 1 i undertaken with a view to form a free negro state. August's youngest brother, Nils Gustaf, was born in 1792. After passing his examination in mining at the University of Upsala he was for several years a pupil of Berzelius, with whom he formed the warmest friendship, which was only broken off by death. Nils Gustaf, early known as a distinguished mineralogist, was ap- pointed a government inspector of mines in his native country, and by means of liberal grants of public money was enabled to undertake extensive foreign tours, which brought him into communication with most of the eminent mineralogists and chemists of the day in England, France, and Germany. After three years of foreign travel he returned to Finland, and was promoted in 1824 to be chief of the mining department, and devoted thirty years of restless activity to the improve- ment of that important branch of the industry of his native land. He travelled through Finland in all direc- tions in the prosecution of his untiring mineralogical and geological researches. His travels extended as far as the Ural. He published his views, discoveries, and experiments, in many scientific periodicals and in several independent works, and a large number of minerals discovered by him afford evidence of his keen research. He was made Councillor of State, and ob- tained many distinctions for his scientific services from . the sovereign and from learned bodies. On the 21st of February, 186G, he ended bis active life at Frugord, and was laid to rest in his father's grave. " His simple frank manner," said A. E. Arppe in his eloge on this veteran of science, "his wit and his extensive expe- rience, made his society equally agreciiblo and in.slructive. •ES. [chap. ^] NOIIDENSKIOLD'S I50YH00D. negro state, was born in lining at the ,rs a pupil of 3t friendship, Nils Gustaf, jist, was ap- in his native 3ublic money tours, which nost of the the day in iree years of .^as promoted rtment, and ihe improve- ^ustry of his in all direc- mineralogical 3nded as far !overies, and ;als and in number of of his keen xte, and ob- lervices from . . the 21st of B^ugord, and " His simple 'loge on this cnsive expe- l in.struetive. TJie young, who were interested in his researches, cotild especially reckon on his friendship ; they enjoyed his company, and were strongly attached to him. He had the uncommon happiness of seeing one of his sons not only devote himself to the same kind of studies, but maintain with distinguished success by his scientific travels and labours the ancient honour of the family name." Frugord, with its old books and natural history col- lections accumulated from generations of nature-lo vino- ancestors, was a fitting home for the future naturalist and explorer, Adolf Erik, who was to make the name of Nordenskiold world-famous. While yet a boy he was an industrious collector of minerals and of insects, and was permitted to accompany his father on his tours, acquiring thus early the keen eye of the mine- ralogist. After studying for some time with a private tutor he was sent to the gymnasium at Borgo, where, as at similar institutions elsewhere, there then prevailed, as ]ie tells us in the autobiographical sketch which he wrote for Bejer's "Swedish Biographical Lexicon," an almost unlimited freedom, the teachers taking no oversight whatever of the pupils' attention to their studies. "Even in this respect," he says in the sketch already quoted, " the gymnasium was a connecting link between the school and the university — in my opinion a for- tunate circumstance, which is now changed. It must, however, be admitted," he continues, " that the liberty was used badly enough by many. This was the case with myself, for instance, during my first year at the gymnasium, for during the first term I distinguished myself, as the rector expressed it, 'only by absolute idleness.' At the close of the spring term I was not ii >■:■ I !l fi m i I il ':! al " NUIIDENSKIULU'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cuai'. only not advanced, but I was marked in my certificate ' unsatisfactory ' in nearly the wliole of the subjects. My parents were judicious enough not to attach any import- ance to this well-deserved mishap. Instead of breaking out in reproaches and increasing the control which my mother's presence at Borgo, and a private tutor installed for the purpose during the first year of our attendance at the gymnasium were intended to exert, the watch kept upon us was now completely removed. We ' were boarded in very modest quarters for five silver roubles a month for board and lodging, and got full liberty to manage our studies in our own way. Self-respect was thus awakened. I became exceedingly industrious, and was soon one of those then attending the gymna'sium who obtained the best reports." Among the teachers of the gymnasium at Borgo at this time was Johan Ludvig Buneberg, the distinguished poet. He held the Greek lectureship, and was greatly esteemed both by his colleagues and his pupils, which however, did not prevent him having much unpleasant- ness during the year of his rectorship, 1848. For taking part in an unseemly brawl two of the pupils were condemned to rustication, and two others, accord- ing to the school laws, which were then new, to corporal punishment. The two former obtained a mitigation of their sentence by an appeal to the ordinary courts, but the latter had to submit to their punishment, which Avas inflicted with due severity by the then rector Buneberg. This was indeed quite legal, but by no means m accordance with the old traditional freedom of tlie gymnasium, and it took place in the eventful 1 Adolf Erik ;inf the oppor- 3f the world- horn, thanks icularly well I returned ked by Pro- tico-physical itely for the ly and geo- of the large vide myself I chose the 4 the literary '.1 MY MASTER OF AIITS DEGUEE. 13 travelling grant ' I was passed over l)y my friend, the distinguished philologist Ahlquist, under the express promise, however, that I should have as an equivalent the Alexander stipend, which would be vacant some months after. The plan of travel which I gave in to the Consis- torium was for a geological excursion to Siberia, and above all to Kamschatka. The plan was abandoned for the time, but I hope now, twenty years after, to bring about a scien- tific expedition to the same regions, though on another and far grander scale than would then have been possible for me." ^ "Immediately thereafter I obtained the Alexander stipend for a tour of study through Europe. Before my departure, however, I wished to be present at the Pro- motion festival of 1857, when I was at the same time to be promoted to the degree of master (magister) and doctor, with the first place of honour among the masters and the second among the doctors. This 'promotion' became an unexpected turning-point in my life." " At the invitation of the young men who were to become laureates, there was present at the ' promotion ' a deputation from the universities of Upsala and Lund, consisting of a professor and five eminent younger aca- demicians. They were received by us, and everywhere as they travelled in Finland, in the most cordial manner. Innumerable speeches were spoken in their- honour, and even the older men did not weigh with any special care the words with which the guests from the dear old mother-country were welcomed, all to the great provo- cation of Count von Berg, who was childish enough to consider as trer.son such a reception, called forth by ^ This was written in 1877. f • 1 i; ^1 < 14 NOKDENSKIOLD'H ARCTIC VOYAGES. [vhav. grand and illustrious common memories of many cen- turies' old, and a debt of gratitude for culture, freedom, national existence, which can never bo forgotten. In von Berg's favour it may be mentioned that he had not yet been able to comprehend the peculiar Dualism which then prevailed in Finland between Russian despotism and the habit'6x- Tr-viom centuries old." "At the parting festival I, who oiliorwise seldom aj)pcared as a speaker, was asked to propose a toast— a request which from my position among the 'promoti,' I could scarcely decline. My speech was not long, and was naturally in the tone that prevailed during the course of the entertainments, perhaps somewhat more pointed than the others, which had the fortune to fall unnoticed into the sea of forgetfulness. I concluded with a verse by K. Vetterhoff in which he calls for a toast *to our memories all, and to the time that has been and the time that shall come, if o^ily it does not bring Finland's flUl, a toast to the days of memory that have fled and the hope that still remains.' " " The preceding part of my siieech was a repetition of the same clearly very prudent, sensible, and resigned sentiment which the verse contained, naturally embel- lished according to use and wont to some inconsiderable extent with such flourishes as intelligent practical folk describe as ' rhetorical tropes.' It is well known that such figures of speech are as indispensable to a speaker, especially to a speaker at such an entertainment, as salt is to meat." "Either it was the case that I now 'salted' too much, or that the temper of the guests from the long continued feasting had become more than usually rccep° •■] AN AFTER DINNEU SPEECH. 15 tivc of the impressions of tlic momoiit. At all events my words were received with a storm of applause from one quarter, mixed with a prudent dissent from anotlier. The affair, liowever, would certainly have passed un- observed, like so many other similar effusions on such occasions, if a highly-esteemed, warm-hearted, and patri- otic academic teacher, Professor Cygnrous, had not been seized with the insane and impolitic idea of seeking, while the temper of the meeting was so heated, to counteract the unfavourable impression the behaviour of the youth might make in higher quarters by a Kpecch directed against some verses read a short time before at a student festival at Hasselbacken, in which J. G. Carleu said of Finland ; ' Soon a gilded nest of thraldom.' An historian of literature now made Carlcn a representative of opinion in Sweden, and our guests ivere reproached on account of his poetical effusions. A general and well-grounded displeasure, this time I believe quite independent of all politics, broke loose : and urged by many, I went up to the speaker's chair, where Cygnceus still stood, and cried : ' lie docs not speak for us.' " " This occurrence attracted much attention and gave rise to much talk, and came the following day to von Berg's ears. He had been lying in wait the whole time for an opportunity to get hold of some suitable scapegoat, and I became the scapegoat. The rector was sent for and got instructions to inquire into the circum- stance. He a])plied to me. I gave him a correct account of the whole affair. ' Now why in Heaven's name did you talk so ? ' cried he. On this I drew from my pocket the draft of my speech, and handed it I ill 16 NORDENSKIOLD'S xVKCTIC VOYAGES. [cuxv. to 'uncle ' Rein— as all the former members of the Viborg division, of which he had been the much-liked inspector^ called him." "After reading it the rector's countenance cleared. He declared that my words did not contain anything oflfensive, and was confident that to communicate them to the Governor-general would certainly mollify him, if he were permitted to give him a copy — a request which I considered myself bound to answer in the affirmative, altliough I doubted the prudence of the step he intended to take." " The written word, as is well known, has many meanings, at least when it is interi^reted accordin^r to the prepossessions of the readers. Governor-general von Berg immediately declared to the good rector that what lay before him almost amounted to high treason, and took steps to have the crime punished. ° I treated the whole affiiir with contempt, and betook myself to Frugord, where a couple of days after I received a communication from a Finn, one of von Berg's most intimate friends, advising me either to go abroad imme- diately, or to remain and boldly declare that the whole affair arose from mistake, misuuderstanding, &c. 1 ';hose the former alternative, and crossed over 'to Sweden with a passport which I had taken out some months before. Soon lifter there came a Government missive from St. Petersburg, in which I was said to have been declared to have forfeited, not the stipend which I had, l)ut one which I had never possessed, and to be deprived of the right of ever holding office in the university. I never obtained a complete copy of this document, al- thougli I mado repeated application for ity quite certainly JES. [c'lrAP. )f the Viborff ed inspector, ince cleared, tin anything nicate them )llify him, if — a request wer in the ncc of the has many ccording to ■nor-general rector that gh treason, I treated : myself to received a >erg's most oad immc- the whole ?, &c. 1 to Sweden fie months nt missive have been lich I had, 3 deprived t^ersitv. I !ment, al- ! certainly ^•] REQUEST FOR A PASSPORT. 17 because the whole judgment was rash and perhaps not 4uite legal. Late in the autumn of 1858 I returned to Finland, after having taken part in Torell's first expedi- tion to Spitzbergon, and having received an offer of an appointment as successor to Mosander in the mineral- ogical department of the Riks-Museum. On receivino- a telegram that I was nominated to this post I applied for a passport in order to return to Sweden. Difficulties were raised. I got a message to call on the Governor- General. He received me at first in a friendly way, and found fault with me for having travelled on the former occasion without a passport. To this I replied that that was not quite the fiict, as I had travelled with a passport which I had already taken out during the winter. 'But that passport was over three months old,' said von Berg. To this I answered that the pass- port regulations were completely unknown to me, and that it was the duty of his ofiicials to see that they were complied with. Von Berg— 'You must at least admit that those acted wrongly who allowed you to travel with an old passport.' Nordenskiold— ' With the greatest pleasure, your Excellency.' " "This reply was evidently gratifying to von Berg. He now began to speak in a very judicious way, on the wliole, about the promotion catastrophe, declaring that everything could easily be made right again, and our relations be put on a better footing than before. To this 1 answered evasively that even if I had sinned through my speech at the festival, T had now suffered so much loss of money and annoyance on account of the affair that I thought the whole might be forgotten. Turning to a Finnish official who was present at our meeting c I i-ii. , •< IM t ' >i ! i 18 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. von Berg said : ' It is not enough for a man to recocrnise his errors, he should be sorry he made them.' On my replymg to this, ' That I shall never be ! ' von Bero- answered somewhat impetuously, ' You shall have yout- pass, but you may say good-])ye to Finland, I shall see to that.' Thus was the conversation concluded. The following day I obtained a passport, and in fourteen days had crossed the frontier." "I liave been informed that von Berg afterwards formally urged in the senate my being exiled from the <^ountry. not however witli r.-ferenee to the occurrence at the promotion, but because I had entered foreign service without asking permission of the Governme^. Ihc proposition, however, was negatived, and it was declared that I had in the circumstances only availed myself of the rights belonging to the ennobled class Instead he obtained an order to the Eussian minister at ^tor■kholm, forbidding him to vise my passport to Finland A vi,e accordingly was repeatedly refused to me till the summer of 1862, when von Berg was no longer Oovernor-General. Since then I have been allowed to go to Finland whenever I pleased." " After having married a Finnish lady, I applied in tiic year 1807 for the professorship of mineralooy and geology in the University of Helsingfors, and oblxined the unanimous recommendation of the consistory for tlie post. Daschkoir, who was then Russian minister at btockholm-with whose family I became acquainted through my wife, being received by them with much Inendliness— asked me at an accidental meetino- some- what doubtingly, if I rmllj/ wished to have the post llhen I answered that tliis of course wa. the ea«e as I A GES. [chap. ^] SETTLEMENT IN STOCKHOLM. 19 u to recomiise em. On my e ! ' von Bern all lifive your id, I shall see icluded. The -1 in fourteen g afterwards led from the le oceurrenee :ered foreisa Governiuent. and it was only availed lobled class. 1 minister at t to Finland. L to me till ■s no longer 3en allowed applied in eralogy and id obtained Qsistory for minister at acquaiDted with much ting, some- -^ tlie post, lie cii.sL', a,s I had a[)pliod for it, he said he could answer for the result if only I would promise him privately not to mix myself up with politics in Finland. This promise I could not give, but I told him that of course I had the intention after my return of submitting with 'loyautc' to the legally existing state of affairs. With this, however, he was not satisfied. He afterwards, with good intentions towards me, endeavoured to reach his ol^ject through the ladies, and api)lied to my wife, asking her to put the matter right. He got the answer, 'But my husband is a very decided person,' and thus the negotiation was closed. I was not appointed." "After my departure from Finland in 1857, I passed tlie summer principally in visiting Swedish mineral localities for mineralogical purposes. The following winter I settled in Stockholm, where my old father also happened to be staying at the time. I employed myself in working out a couple of papers published in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, to one of which the Lindbom prize was awarded by the Academy. At the same time I was engaged in chemical researches at the laboratory of the Caroline Institute and in practical studies in the mineralogy of Scandinavia at the mineral cabinet of the Academy of Sciences, rich in Swedish and Norwegian minerals. Here I was received witli special good-will by my illustrious predecessor Mosander, a zealous mineralogist, and, though his sight was much impaired by incipient cataract, still very skilful at re- cognising the minerals of Scandinavia. Mosander was a fully developed Conservative and did not spare now and then furious attacks on the Liberal views of his c 2 20 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. younger colleague, which, however, did not in the least disturb the good understanding between us." "In the spring of 1858 I received an offer through Professor Sven Loven to take part as geologist in Torcll's first expedition to Spitzbergen, during which the fjords on its west coast were visited and rich zoological, botanical, and geological collections made. With reference to the geological collection, it may be stated that I was successful in finding at Bell Sound a number of fossil plants belonging to the tertiary period, which were afterwards described by Professor Oswald Heer, of Zurich, and form the commencement of the comprehensive collections in this field wliich have been brought home by the Swedish Arctic expeditions, and which in the experienced hands of Heer have yielded such important new contributions to our knowledge of the former geological history of our globe. There were obtained, besides a large number of fo^ ils from the carboniferous and Jurassic formations, line minerals from the limestone veins on the Norways, Cloven Cliff, &c." "Immediately after my return from my first Arctic voyage Mosander died, and I was asked privately if I was willing to take his j^lace at the Eiks-Museum, in case the Academy should appoint me to it. When, after no little hesitation, I had declared myself willing to do so, I was appointed on the 8th Dcvjember the same year Professor and Intendent of the mineralogical depart- ment of the Riks-Museum. I was then, as has been said, in Finland, and had the conversation narrated above with the Governor-General, in connection with which it deserves to be mentioned that von Bero- ■M }ES. [chap. in the least )ffer throiio;li ist in Torcll's li the fjords L zoological, ide. AVith y be stated il Sound a he tertiary )y Professor encement of which have expeditions, Heer have »ns to our •f our globe. IV of foF ils ations, line e Norways, first Arctic .'ivately if I Museum, in When, after Uing to do 5 same year cal depart- .8 has been n narrated iction with von Berg o WORK IN MINEBALS. 21 then was clearly ignorant that I had been appointed to an honourable scientific post in the neighbouring country." •' I started from Helsingfors in the last days of Decem- ber, 1858, in order to return to Sweden by the Sea of Aland. I passed New Year's Eve with relatives at Bjorkboda, in Kimitto parish, and had the good fortune to make once more a remarkable mineral discovery in Finland; for during an excursion from the works I found, at some quartz quarries the working of which had been lately resumed for the puddling furnaces situated at a place called Rosendal, a very considerable quantity of the exceedingly rare mimeral Tantalite, previously found only at two places in Finland, two in Sweden, and one in France, important as the only mineral occurring in any considerable quantity into which the simple substance Tantalum enters as a main constituent. The passage of the Sea of Aland was exceedingly difficult. I skated over Skiftet, and, from my impatience to get across over such weak ice that three times on the same day I got a cold bath up to the throat." " Immediately after my return to Stockholm I entered on my new employment and began to work partly at the arrangement of the museum, partly at scientific researches which formed the subjects of several of my papers published either in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences or of the Geological Society. At Professor Mosander's death, when the rebuilding of the Academy's house had just begun, the mineralogical collection was stutFed into three small rooms, where there was so little space that the exhibition of the 1 99 NOIIDENSKIOLD'8 ARCTIC VOYAGES. W i [CUAP. collection couIJ not be tl,ougl,t of. Tl,c new sp.uioua ai.artn,ents intended f,,.- the Rilcs-Mnseum were finished ni the smnn,™ of ISiIJ, a„,l ahv,.dy by the fullowinc autunm (he arrangement and removal of the eolleetions were so far advanced that the JFusenn, eould be opened to the public. It h„s since been my const-nt en.h-nv^ur to enh,rge the eolleetion not only by ,:,: ..^os fr„„ .lealers m nuneral.,, but n,„i„ly by visit, .o the most nnportant m„,eral l„,.aliti..s in Sean,linavia, undertaken on account ot ,1,,. Museum, partly by the Inteudeut hmself partly I,y Assi.stant Lin,lstrom, or by students o nnnoralosy fron, the Universitie.,. I„ conscp.enoe "t tl,e extraordinary riclmess of the Seandiuavian penn,.sula „. rare and ren.arkable minerals, the Minora- logical Museum at Stoc'kholn,, with the h.-lp of the colloetions, valuable in certain direction.s, whieh havJ ox.stal from llosander'.s time, has in this way becon.c one „f the most considerable in Europe. In the sunnner ot 1850 I made a tour for minerah.gieal purposes to Jemt 1 „„,.,. .,^ .,„,„„ ,,„,=^^,, ;^. 1^ ^^^ t^ yd of gastne fever at a peasant's house at Storsj«,; Jl foll«wn,g ,.„,ter I had the pleasure of receiving as colal:on,/enr at the laboratory the friend of my ym.th and promotu,n-eon,rade, J. J. Chydenius, after vards Hol^^^sor of ehem.stry at Helsingfor,. and in the sunm>er ot 18C0 ,ve made together a pleasant and a<.reeable journey neh in ndneral discoveries to ArendafErevi. Kragcro, Kongsbcrg, and other ph,ees in southern Isonvay well l-„„,,„ ^o the mineralogist. I„ the foUown,g year, 18GI, I took part in Torell's carefully oy students onsequence :andin;ivian lie JMinera- 3lp of the kJiieli have ny become lie summer urposes to 'ime I lay '■' Storsjon. ceiving as my you til afterwards le summer agreeable 1, Brevig, southern In the carefully I bad an of Spitz- bt;rgen and of clearing up the main points of the geognosy of tlio country. It was fully described by one of those who took part in it, K. Chydenius, who unfortunately died prematurely, so that it is not neces- sary for me to say anything more concerning an expedition, through which the first foundation was laid of a true knowledge of the natural hi.story of the polar countries." " After von Berg quitted the post of Governor- General there were, as 1 have said, no longer any obstacles ])]aced in the way of my visiting Finland by the authorities. I took advantage of the foct, and passed j)art of the summer of 18G2 in my old country, where I luul the pleasure of finding my father in good health, and of undertaking a tour with him to several of the most interesting mineral localities of Fin- land. During the time when I had not been allowed to visit Finland my mother had died at Frugord, on the 2Gth .January, 18G0, without my being permitted to come across to bid her a last farewell. As my father spent a great part of his time in travelling, both at home and abroad, it was my mother who conducted and arranged our first education. Her good judgment, and her liking for employment of all kinds, and for generous, impartial, and frank behaviour, exercised a powerful influence on all within her family circle, and created a home at Frugord where singular unanimity and mutual affection prevailed." "In the month of December, 18C2, I again travelled by the difficult and, during winter, even dangerous way of Grisslehamn and Aland to Finland, in order, at Pro- fessor Edlund's request, to make some investigations 24 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. concerning the formation of ice in tlie sea. After having in Finland betrotlicd myself to Anna Manner- he.m, cknghter of Ex-President Count Curl Manner- he.m and Eva von Schantz, I returned on 1st January 1863, to Stockholm. On the 1st July in the same year our marriage was celebrated at Willnits, near Abo." "I had now of coui-se abandoned all thoughts of Jurther Arctic journeys. Circumstances, however, so arranged themselves that just from this time they were resumed by me, and on a greater scale than before, llie occasion was the following :— " Torell's polai- journey of°1861 had for its object among other things, to carry into effect a proposal, made several years before by the President of the Koyal Society of London, to examine how far it is possible in these high latitudes to obtain the measurement of an are of meridian of sufHcient extent. The north part of the tr.angulat.on for this measurement had been staked out during the expedition of 1861 by Dr. K. Chydenius who took part in the expedition as physicist on board the schooner ^olus. But the plan for examining the aouthern part of the proposed triangulation could not be carried out, it having been impossible during the course of the summer for the other vessel of the expedi- t.on, the sloop Magdahm, which was a bad sailor and was long shut up by ice on the north coast of Spitzbergen, to reach Stor Fjord, the part of Spitz- bergen along which the southern part of the triangula- lon should he. On this account the Eoyal Academy of Sciences applied for and obtained from the estates a grant of 10.000 crowns (about 550i) to defray the expenses of an expedition on a small .,cale, having IL ES. [chap. I 3ea. After Qa Manner- rl Mannor- st January, } same year Abo." Iioughts of owever, so time they lian before. its object, osal, made 'al Society 3 in these )f an arc art of the staked out 'hydenius, on board ining the 3oulcl not Ji'ing tlie e expedi- Ld sailor, coast of of Spitz- riangula- A-cademy 3 estates ifray the having 1-] EXPEDITl ;N TO SPITZBERGEN. 20 for its object the completion of the survey commenced in 1861." "Originally K. Chydenius, a skilful, very energetic, and warm-hearted man, was appointed to the leadership of the expedition. But he fell so seriously ill during the winter of 1863-4 that ho was unable to take charge of the necessary preparations. I was asked by the Academy to step into my sick friend's place under circumstances which scarcely left me any choice. The intention was that Chydenius, if he got better, should take part in the expedition. He died in the course of the winter."*" " In his place I asked Decent N. Duner, of Lund, and Dr. Malmgren, of Hclsingfors, to join me. The expedition was very pleasant, and, taking into account the limited means at my disposal, rich in results. The preliminary survey for the proposed measure- ment of an arc of meridian was completed, the southern part of Spitzbergen mapped, and important new data collected towards ascertaining the flora and fauna of that group of islands. That year the sea was very free of ice, and when, after finishing our other work in autumn, we made an attempt in our little schooner-rigged gunboat to sail far up towards the north, we might probably have been able to reach a very high latitude, if the proposed excursion had not been interrupted by a meeting with seven boats, laden with walrus hunters from three vessels which had been wrecked upon the east side of North East Land. They had to be rescued, and such a demand was made both on the room in the vessel and on our stock of provisions that I was compelled imme- diately to return to Norway. During the voyage we 36 NOllDKNSKlULD'fc! ARCTIC VOYAGES. i '; [C'HAI'. If pretty good spurt, and our sul.s covered part of tiio expenses of tlio expedition." "In 18G5 I was with my family over in Finland, in order once more to visit my old father. He had already been attacked by the illness, through which, on the 2Lst February, 1866, his active life was brought to a close He therefore could not accompany me on the excursions which I undertook in the course of the summer to Launnkari, Ersby, Skogbole, Kulla, and others of the most remarkable localities of Finland. The folloNvin^. sinnmer I travelled in Vestmanland, Vern.Lmd, and F>alecarha, making mineralogical researches, and took part as juryman for the department of porcelain and stone ware in the Scnndinavian Exhibition, opened at {Stockholm that summer. In 18(37 I visited Paris, havin<. been commissioned, along with Professor A. J. Ann!= i ^1 11. i& 11 30 NORDENSKIOLD -S ARCTIC VOVAGKS. [cuxv. becomes lifrhtcr. Two diirerent kinds of clrauglit ariim.ils are used for sucli purposes in the most nortljerly iulia- bited regions of the globe, viz., reindeer and dogs. Tiio first ptMut to determine was wliieli of tliese was to 1)0 preferred ? For this pur[)ose numerous statements were collected, by the care of Mr. Oscar Dickson, from the northern ])ar:s of the king(h)m, concerning the suit- ableness of reindeer for such journeys, their power of (b-aught, the possibility of fecnling them with collected moss, &c. ; and it was at the same time determined that I should go to Greenland to collect similar statements regarcbng dogs, and to puichase a large number of them in case I should dett'rmine on their employment durin- Swedish scientitic men took part. The journey to (Greenland yielded uni'xp(H;fedly rich scientific results, among which may be mentioned the followin<>- : — The collection of new contributions to the ilora of tlie Polar countries during several preceding geolo.o-ical periods of spei'ial importance for a knowledge of the history of the development of our globe. The discovery in the miocene basaltic strata of ( Greenland at Ovifak, on the ishmd Disko, of the largest known blocks of meteoric iron, regarding the oricrin of which an extensive scientific controversy has arisen, and which perha[)S will at 3ome future time form the startin. He jj t i «;i Bf 32 NORDENSKIOLirs ARCTIC VOYACIES. [chap. began -not without some jocular protests about the absurdity of a botanist making a dangerous excursion in tlie only region of the known Itind of the globe where he could not expect to meet with the least trace of vegetation. Berggren was, however, mistaken, for on the inland ice itself he had the opportunity of making a very remarkable and unexpected botanical discovery. His keen accustomed eye soon observed that tlie inland ice was everywhere bestrewn with a scanty vegetation of microscopic algae, which, exceed- ingly minute as it is, by its dark colour certainly conduced in a high degree to limit the extension of the glaciers, and to change the ice deserts of the Tee Age into the green valleys and plains of the pre- sent period. At the same time that Dr. Ber^Tareu investigated, in a very careful way, the bryology of north-western Greenland, Docent P. Oberg made rich collections of marine animals, and I succeeded in collect- ing about 1,000 more or less perfect stone implements from the Stone Age of Greenland, &c." "With respect to the proper object of the Ex- pedition, I arrived at the conclusion that dogs could not he employed with advantage in long sledge journeys in the regions where no game was to he had.' " The same year that I went to Greenland two young Swedep, Docent H. Nathorst and Hj. Wilander visit^.d fep.tzbergen, at the expense of some men of business in Stockholm, in order to examine for technical purposes some phosphatic deposits, and see whether they could not be worked with advantage. The result was favour- able, and a company of commercial men was formed in [I'HAP. ibout the excursion the globe the least mistaken, ^portunity botanical observed 'n with a 1, exceed- certainly tension of f the Ice the pre- Bcrggren ^ology of iiade rich n collect- iplements the Ex- ogs could y sledge as to be vo young sr visit°.d siness in purposes ey could s favour- ormed in J-] ATTEMPT TO FOUND A COLONY. 33 Stockholm and Gothenburg to work the deposits. We determined to endeavour to found a colony in Spitz- bergen for this purpose, and as the country belonged to no State in particular we petitioned the Swedish Government to take steps to obtain international pro- tection for our undertaking. This petition gave occa- sion to an attempt by Count Wachtmeister, then Foreign Minister of Sweden, to take possession of the whole of Spitzbergen for Sweden and Norway. For this purpose the necessary inquiries were made of the Powers of Europe who could have any claim in this respect. Favourable answers were received from all the States, with the exception of Russia, where the question caused a brisk newspaper controversy, from which the Russian Government took occasion to give a friendly answer in the negative." " An attempt at any rate was made by the company to found a colony at Cape Thordsen in Ice Fjord. In the summer of 1872 two vessels were sent thither with some miners, a house was built, and a small railway constructed from the intended workings to the shore The same summer, however, the enterprise was aban- doned, partly because the manager of the company considered the phosphatic deposits not rich enough for profitable working in so remote regions, partly because the share capital was too limited. The company was dissolved, after having repaid to the shareholders what remained (about 25 per cent.) of the paid-up capital." " As son of a native Swedish nobleman, I was able, soon after becoming a Swedish subject, to sit and vote in the House of Nobles. I was also present as a member of the House of Nobles at the two lasti meetings of the D I- 34 NORDENSKIOLDS AKCTIO VOYAGES. [chap. Estates, but without at an)^ time speaking or following the business with any special interest. Naturally, how- ever, I was a zealous supporter of the views of the Liberal party, and I took an active part in the agita- tion for a change in the representation. After the introduction of the new system of representation, I repeatedly came forward as a Liberal candidate for Stockholm for a seat in the Diet. In this way, and through my taking part in the so-much-denounced 'new Liberal society,' to which I was introduced by August Blanche, I brought upon myself for several years much unpleasantness from the Conservative circles of the city. It was perhaps on this account that I was put up in 1869 as a candidate by the Liberal party, and after a contest, vehement in our circumstances, was elected. I thus became a representative for the capital from 1869 to 1871. With regard to the part I took as a member of the Diet, I will here only mention that, together with Hedin, Gumselius, and others, I took part in an attempt which was made in 1869 to form a Liberal Opposition Party to the Country Party in the Second Chamber, which, however, was completely unsuccessful as all the peasant representatives, who at first joined us,' returned to the Country Party, when we refused to follow them in what we thought their mistaken views on the question of the national defence. Two motions were brought forward by me. In the first I proposed that the Geological Office should be placed under the Academy of Sciences, and not, as is still the case, under the Civil Department, where there is scarcely to be found that knowledge of the subject which is required for the Bupcrintendence of an ollice, whose work, in '■] MY WORK IN PARLIAMENT. 36 n views oruer that it may be truly fruitful in a practical point of view, must, like all preliminary work in the present day with a technical end in view, be founded on a purely scientific basis. The motion was rejected. My second motion met a better fate. I proposed that the Diet should take the necessary steps for the appointment of a committee with a view to reconstruct the Techno- logical Institute, so as to form a technical high school (or rather a technical and military scientific faculty of a future university in the capital) by uniting with it several teaching institutions already existing in Stock- holm, as the Pharmaceutical Institute, the Institute of Forestry, the Military High School, &c. The motion was agreed to. The committee I asked for was appointed, and drew up a complete plan for the reconstruction of the Technological Institute ,as a Technical High School. Part of the alterations which it recommended have already been made. Unfor- tunately, however, a number of considerations have prevented the carrying out of the reform to the extent and in the direction which I proposed." "The long prepared new Polar expedition finally started for the north in 1872. The state of the ice on the north coast of Spitzbergen was more unfavourable ni 1872 than it had been at any time since the coast was frequented by the Norwegians. Three days after our reindeer were landed they made their escape. Some hours before the time when two vessels acting as tenders to the expedition, which were not provided with a suflScient stock of provisions for the winter, were to start on their return to Norway, they were shut up hy ice in Mussel Bay. The stock of provisions which the D P'9«™a!? K m u 3G NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ouap. expedition had at its disposal then became insufficient. Some Jays after, in addition to this, we were like to have been compelled to receive and maintain a large number of shipwrecked wakus-hunters. In the end of January all our vessels were in danger of being wrecked during an exceedingly violent storm, which broke up the covering of ice which had previously been on tlie surrounding sea, &c. This expedition, notwithstanding, yielded important scientific results, among which I may mention the discovery on the Polar- ice itself of a dust of cosmic origin, containing metallic nickel-iron; researches by Dr. Kjellman on the development of algte during the winter night, which at Mussel Bay is four months long ; researches on the Aurora and its spectrum by Dr. Wij- kander and Lieutenant Parent, of the Italian Marine ; researches by Dr. Wijkander . horizontal refraction in severe cold ; a complete series of meteorological and magnetic observations in the most northerly latitude where such observations had up to this time been carried on ; the discovery of numerous new contribu- tions to a knowledge of the flora of the Polar countries during former geological epochs; a sledge excursion under- taken under very difficult circumstances by Palander and myself, whereby the north part of North East Land was surveyed, and a journey, very instructive in a scientific point of view, made over the inland ice of North East Land, &c., &c." " The shutting up of the transport vessels in Mussel Bay was attended with very great expense, which had not been reckoned upon when the expedition was planned, and which was defrayed exclusively by Mr. Oscar Dickson. When the news spread at home that [CIIAF, ufficient. J like to a large ; end of wrecked Toke up L on the tanding, h I may I dust of searches ring the bs long ; >. Wij- Marine ; ifraction ical and latitude le been ontribu- ountries 1 under- ider and md was cientific th East Mussel ich had on was by Mr. le that '•] TliE EXPEDITION OF 18 75. 37 three times the number of men that had been intended were compelled to winter on Spitzbergen, Dickson placed 100,000 (Swedish) crowns (about 5,500Z.) at the disposal of Baron Fr. von Otter, in case he considered it pos- sible immediately (in late autumn) to relieve us. Von Otter rightly declined the proposal as impracticable." " The comparatively unsuccessful issue and the heavy expenses of the expedition of 1872-73, by no means diminished Mr. Dickson's interest in such undertakings. On the contrary these were perhaps the reasons why he shortly after my return home declared himself willing to 'go on.' A new Arctic voyage was projected to the Kara Sea and the mouths of the Obi and Yenissej, and we started from Tromso at midsummer 1875 in a small sailing vessel. I was on this occasion successful in almost completing the programme which had been arranged before our departure, a circumstance of rare occurrence in the history of northern voyages of discovery. We came here to a new, previously untouched field of in- quiry, and succeeded in bringing home exceedingly numerous contributions to a knowledge of the flora and fauna of the region we visited. I made my way with- out difficulty in my little sailing vessel to tlie mouth of the Yenissej, and thus inaugurated, as I hope, a new and important route for the commerce of the world. From the mouth of the Yenissej the vessel was sent back under charge of Doccnt Kjellman to Norway, while, in company with Docent Lindstrom, Dr. Stuxberg, and three sailors, I ascended the river in a Nordland boat, which we had taken with us for the purpose to Dudino, where we fell in with a steamer. From this point we continued our journey by steamer to Yenisseisk, and 38 NORDENSKIOLDS AECTIC VOYAGES. . [chap. thence overland by Ekaterineburg, Moscow, Petersburg, Helsiugfors, and Abo to Sweden. During this journey the Swedish isavants were received in the large cities with fete after fete in consequence of the enthusiasm with v/hich the foremost geographical and commercial circles in Russia hailed the prospect of a sea route between Siberia and Europe." "There were, however, many doubters who affirmed that the success of the Proven in 1875 depended dnly on the uncommonly favourable state of the ice, which prevailed that year in the Siberian Polar Sea. This gave occasion to the expeditions of the following year (1876), which had for their object partly to continue the interesting scientific researches of the year 1875 in the Kara Sea, and along the river valley of the Yenissej, and partly to show that the success of the preceding year did not depend on a fortunate accident. Their expenses were defrayed by Messrs. Oscar Dickson and Alexander SibiriakofF, and they were completely suc- cessful, notwithstanding that 1876 was a bad ice year. Before I started on this occasion for the Polar Sea, I took part as juryman in the department of porcelain and stone- ware in the Philadelphia Exhibition. I returned from America on the 1st July, and at Trondhjem stepped on board the vessel that had been chartered for the voyage. On the 15th August I was at the Yenissej, although I had halted at several places on the way. It had been ar- ranged that I should meet a party at the Yenissej which was to make its way by land under Docent Thdel to an appointed rendezvous near the mouth of the great river. I waited there seventeen days for these comrades in vain, and then returned successfully to Europe. [CIIAP. I.] ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE EXPEDITION OF 1878. 39 " For the present (July 1877) I am engaged in making arrangements on account of Mr. Sibiriakoff to send tliis summer to the Yenissej the steamer Fraser, which has been purchased specially for the purpose, with a cargo of commercial goods, and with the equipment of a new expedition, having for its object to extend farther west- wards, if possible to Bchrings Straits, the scientific ex- plorations in the Siberian Polar Sea commenced in 1875 and 1876. His Majesty King Oscar takes a lively personal interest in this enterprise, and has made a liberal contribution to it from his privy purse. The balance of the expenses is to be defrayed by Messrs. Oscar Dickson and Alexander Sibiriakoflf, and I hope to obtain for this undertaking support from the Eoyal Navy like that which was extended to the Expeditions of 1868 and 1872-73." CHAPTER n. THE SWEDISH ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS OP 1858 AI^D 18G1. We shall now proceed to fill in with the more important details the rapid outline which Nordenskiold has sketched of those Arctic Expeditions which have re- vived the ancient glories of Sweden, and shown that the thu-st for adventure, the love of the sea, and the cool, daring, and unflinching intrepidity which characterised the old Norsemen, still run in the veins of their de- scendants, and that the love of nature and of science still animates the countrymen of Linnaeus and Berzelius. It was with a scientific object in view that the first Swedish Arctic Expedition was projected, and the series has always retained a strongly scientific character, though practical results of the greatest importance are already visible. The credit of originating the series of expeditions by which that part of the Polar Basin, which lies to the north of Europe, has been explored, and its natural liistory investigated during the last twenty years with such energy, skill, perseverance, and success by Swedish men of science, must be ascribed to Otto Torell, now Chief of the Geological Survey of Sweden. The' dis- covery of the Ice Age, the geological ppriod during (11. II.] which SPITZBERGEN. the 41 northern hemisphere was in the condition in which Greenland still is — covered with an immense sheet of ice- -had conferred on the natural conditions of the high north a special signi- ficance for Scandinavia. To the study of glacial pheno- mena, the importance of which had been first perceived by Professor Playfair of Edinburgh, by the Norwegian Esmarck, and the Swiss Venetz, and Charpentier, Otto Torell, while Adjunct in the University of Lund, de- termined to devote himself, and with that end in view to make himself acquainted with the nature of the high north by travelling. His first voyage was to Iceland. In 1857, accompanied by Olsson Gadde, he travelled for three months in various directions across the island, making observations on its glacial phenomena, and rich collections of its marine fauna along the coast. The following year he visited Spitzbergcn. Spitzbergcn, a group of islands, of which three are large and the others small, having a total area estimated at about 30,000 English square miles, lies 300 miles north of Scandinavia, and 325 east of Greenland. It was discovered on the 19th June, 1596, by the flimous Dutch explorer AVilliam Larentz, in the course of his third voyage to discover the North East Passage. Bnrentz is said to have cireumnfivigated Spitzbergcn, but considerable doubt rests on this statement, and if it is correct the feat was not repeated until the yeaf 1863, when it was performed by Captain Carlsen, a Norwegian walrus-hunter. The sea to the west of Spitzbergcn was once a fa- vourite whale-fishing ground, to which most of the seafaring nations of Juirnpp sent fleets of wJifiiers ; 43 KOBDENSKIOLD'S AllCTIU VOYAGES. [cum'. P' i but the "right whale" is now extinct on its coasts and the whale-fishing in that sea Jms long since terminated. Spitzbergen was next visited by Kussians, who built huts in all directions along the coast, and carried on iishing and hunting, their principal game beincr wal- ruses, foxes, bears, and seals. The visits of the Russians became less and less frequent, and about 1830 it was only some private persons and the rich monastery, Solo- vetskoj, on the White Sea, that sent any vessels. TJic last Russian expedition to Spitzbergen for fishing and huntmg appears to have been before 1850, though the date is not exactly known. It is only the Norwegians that in our days visit Spitz- bergen in order to hunt the walrus, with the exception of a stray Englishman like Mr. Lament. According to Keilhau it was a Hammerfest merchant who, in comp^my with a Russian, carried out the first Norwegian hunting and fishing enterprise in Spitzbergen in 17.95. Part of the crew consisted of fishing Lapps and Russians, and they passed the winter in Spitzbergen. But the now existing Norwcginn fishing and hunting dates properly from the year 1819, when an English mercantile firm at Bodoe sent a galcasse, with a crew of eleven men to Bear Island and Spitzbergen, for the purpose of ascer- taming whether fish and other animals existed in suffi- cient numbers to make fishing and hunting profitable. I hey returned from Spitzbergen-they had missed Bear Island— with accounts of the abundance of walrus, rein- deer, and down, on Spitzbergen. A vessel witl/eiglit men was accordingly sent out from Hammerfest. But when they reached Bear Island, and the greater part of if •' [CIIAI'. ta coasts, ng since k'ho built irrictl on ing wal- Russians it was ry, Solo- Is. Tiio ing and )Ugll tllG it Si^itz- fcoption ding to Dnipany !nmting Part of as, and le now ropcrly firm at len, to ascer- L Sllffi- Eitable. 1 Bear , rein- eiglit But •art of ii.J POLAR EXPEDITION FllOM aPlTZlJEliOEN. 43 the crew had landed for the purpose of hunting, a fog and a high wind made the skipper lose sight of land, and finding it impossible to regain it, he left his men behind and returned to Hammerfest. The abandoned men provisioned their boat with walrus beef, and re- turned in it to Norway. Another expedition, similar in all points to the preceding, with the same skipper, the same crew, and precisely the same result, was under- taken in 1821. In 1822 a party of Norwegians wintered on Spitzbergen at Cross Bay, and their success induced others to imitate their example, not always with the same fortunate result. The fishing and hunting is still carried on in these waters by vessels from Tromsoe and Hammerfest ; and these voyages, while on the whole a source of considerable profit to the owners of the vessels, have also been a school for the masters and crews in which the best qualities of a good seaman have been developed, especially those required for navigation among ice. For more than a century Spitzbergen has formed the base from which a number of expeditions have endea- voured to reach the North Pole. For this it is well adapted. A branch of the Gulf Stream gives its west coast a much higher temperature than is due to its geographical position. The existence of land to the north of it is exceedingly probable ; and, if it does exist, it would form a very convenient stepping stone to the Pole. We shall briefly enumerate the expeditions that have endeavoured to make Spitzbergen a point of departure. In 1765 Admiral Tschitschagoff was sent by the Czarina Catharine of Russia with three vessels to u NOI !I'|':nskj()LI)'m aiu'tk; V()ya(jks. [ CHAP. S[>i(>;l)('r NorMi |\)I,>. || <'. ro.'ic ih farMi <'l «<)" 21/, l)ii(, found it shod nij»f)SHiI)l(> t |>OSHll Ik- roll()\villol,.. ||o crot ns fa,r as SO 87' N. L., visited Homo of the Seven I.sla,nnant (afterwards Sir John) Franklin in the Trent Htt.a.ne,! the lalitn.le of 80" llV north of Spit/luM-c^en ' In 1823 Olaverin.!: nnd Sahine, in tlic ship ^rn^.r vKs.ted Spit.hero:en. and whih, Sahine .-arried on ma<- "ot.e observations on (he inner Norway Islan.l, (^laverim. wont fo sea, and eteered, n„r(hwa,rds/but did not ..^t i.irUuM- than 80" 20' N. L. '^ In 1827 Tarry, who had a, short Cnio before returned fmni h.s tln'rd Aretic voya,n:,s whi,!, had for its object Nortii-West l>assa^e, undertook his woil-known expedition in the I Ma, ,nd made Treuren- ly.!,^ 1% (he slarling-point of (|,c .l,,|.e> iourncy In ^vh.eh he reached the latitude of 82°45'N.'^ theii" ',nd lor long after the higluvst attained by man. Tho same year the Norwegian geologist, Prof-ssor Ivoiliiau, paid a, visit to Spitzbergen, of which lie has givon an interesting account in his attractive work 7.V/sy. I Ost og M'vst Fi»mudr,i. Ten years after Prof.-ssor Tnv-'p .^r ^*.,..]-k i,, • .. , I. [chap. Ic- l"OJI,cll(!(l o.s.siI)](> to iicliod tJio. V(h liOi'd oass, with US far n.s nh ot tliiclc, nd Tii(>u- ('- Trenf, ''VgVU. •' Griper, oil nijitr- ■lav(>ring not got 'otuniod S ol)j('('t took liis ri'ourcii- •iioy, in ini and rofcsRor he lijis \, J?cis(' visijod II, TOJilOLL'S EXPEDITION IN 1858. 45 Si)it;cb(!rg('n, dredging along its coast, and collecting orgunic romain.s from its fossiliferous strata. This visit is romarkaJjlc as the first made from Sweden to Spitz- bej'gen with a stuentific purpose. In the following year, 1838, the French Government sent to Spitzbergen in the corvette La Recherche a scientific expedition under the leadership of P. Gaimard, and invited Scandinavian men of science to accompany it^ an invitation which was accepted by several Swedish,' Danish, and Norwegian naturalists. La Recherche vhiiA Bell Sound ill 1838, and Magdahina Bay in 1839. The great work in which an account of this expedition is given is unfortunately incomplete. It contains, be- sides, exc'clleiit views of the regions visited; among other valuable matter, important meteorological and physical observations, and a great number of drawings of objects of natural history, made for the most part under the direction of the Danish and Norwegian members. It was in the year 1858 that Otto ToreU undertook, at the suggestion of Professor Lov^n, a voyage to Spitz- bcrgeii. He fitted out in IJammerfest, at his own expense, the sloop Frlthiof, of about sixty-four tons burden, and sailed on the 3rd June accompanied, as has been already stated, by A. E. Nordenskiold and A. (iueimcrstedt. The wind was favourable until some leagues south of Bear Island, where it turned against them, and they encountered drift-ice, which made the island iuacccssil)le. They now cruised for a week in the ice until they were about 30 mUes west of Bell Sound, when they succeeded in making their way through a belt of ice which lay several miles from land. On t],o ISlh June they nearcd Ilurn Sound, I( i I I' ,111 46 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciup. wliere islands and hiJIs were still clothed in their white winter dress, which, however, was daily disappearing, as the melting of the snow went on with incredible speed Excursions were made in all directions, the geognosy of the i-egion was described, glaciers were ascended, mo- raines examined, and specimens of markings collected and dredging was carried on at the same time with great success at different depths up to a hundred fathoms On the 28th they sailed to Bell Sound, where, the following day, they anchored at Middle Hook. There dredging was again undertaken with abundant success birds and mammalia were shot and prepared, a tertiary formation containing fossil plants discovered, and bota- meal collections made, particularly of mosses and lichens On 6th July they left this anchorage to sail north- wards, but calms and head winds compelled them to seek the north harbour in the same fjord. There Nord- enskiold discovered thick vertical strata of limestone and siliceous slates rich in fossils of the genera Productus and Spirifer, and which therefore appeared to belong to the Carboniferous Formation, and found these strata over- lam by other nearly horizontal beds belonging to the same tertiary formations with impressions of leaves as he had observed at Middle Hook. On tlie 24th July they again went to sea, and on the 28th anchored in Green Harbour in Ice Fjord, which they examined till the 2nd August, when they again steered northwards. On the 4th they were at Amsterdam Island, on the 7th in another harbour between tlic Norways and Cloven Cliff on the 10th in Magdalena Bay, on the 13th in English Bay, and on the 16th in Advent Bay in Ice F^ord. There they remained till the 22nd, when they sailed with 'S. [ciup. their white )pearing, as lible speed, jeogaosy of :^nded, mo- ? collected, with great 1 fathoms, where, the )k. There at success, a tertiary and bota- id lichens, lail north- l them to lere Nord- istone and Productus belong to rata over- the same is he had uly they in Green 1 the 2nd On the 2 7th in ^en Cliff, English e Fjord, led with It.] TORELL'S PLANS FOR A NEW EXPEDITION. 47 the view of visiting the Thousand Islands, but an easterly storm obliged them instead to shape their course for Hammerfest, where they landed on the 28th August with an abundant harvest of observations and collec- tions from all the different places they had visited. In 1859 Torell visited Greenland, going as far as Upernavik, the most northerly settlement. He ascended the inland ice, which covers the whole land like a single enormous glacier, and dredged along the coast to a depth of 280 fathoms. He thus accumulated rich collections and increased his experience of travelling in these remote regions. He had no sooner returned from his visit to Green- land than he began to form plans for another expedition to the Polar Sea. The Swedish Estates voted him a sum of 8,000 rix-dollars, which was supplemented by a fur- ther grant of 12,000, the total grant, 20,000 rix-dollars, being equal to about a thousand guineas. The Crown Prmce, now King of Sweden, gave a contribution of 4,000 rix-dollars. It was arranged that each of the scientific men who were to take part in the expedition should pay his own expenses. During the summer of 1860 Torell visited Copenhagen and London. Carl Petersen, the experienced Danish polar traveller, who accompanied so many Arctic expeditions from Penny's to the latest one, in which he met his death, consented to take part in this, and to assist with the preparations. In London Torell's plan was received with lively interest by Sir Leopold McCliutock, Captain Sherard Osborne, and by Sir Eoderick Murchison, then President of the Geo- graphical Society. In the latter part of the summer Torell visited Norway, making observations on its Ci V 'l 48 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. glaciers, until tlie return to Tromso and Hammcrfest of the Spitzbergen walrus-liunters, from whom he obtained information and assistance in making preparations for his projected expedition. During the winter Torell submitted his plan to the Swedish Academy of Sciences. It embraced two objects — a comprehensive survey of the geology and natural history of Spitzbergen and its coasts, and a geographical excursion still farther to the north and north-east. The latter was to be carried out by him- self, Nordenskiold, Petersen, and a number of picked men with boat-sledges and dogs, with a view to settle the question whether in the neighbourhood of the Pole there is really an open sea or not. During the absence •of the party the aL.ention of the other members of the expedition was to be taken up with geological, zoological, meteorological, and magnetic work. Observations on the tides, on marine currents anl on optical phenomena were included in the plan. Preliminary surveys were also to be undertaken to determine as to the possi- bility of measuring an arc of meridian on Spitz- bergen, an undertaking that had been proposed by Captain (now Sir Edward) Sabine, more than thirty years before. The Academy expressed its warmest approval and made a representation to the Government, the result of which was the increased grant to which we have already referred. Torell was in treaty for chartering the steamer Fox, in which McClmtock had made his famous Arctic voyjge, but did not succeed, so that he was obliged to Ibe content with the yFoIus and Magdalena, two small vessels, the former of about ninety-two, and the latter [chap. nerfest of obtfiined itions for plan to aced two logy and 8, and a orth and i by liim- )f picked to settle the Pole J absence rs of the )ologica.l, 28 on the enomena iys were e possi- 1 Spitz- osed by n thirty warmest srnment, hich we Fox, in vovafje, . to be small e latter ".] START OF THE 1861 EXPEDITION. 49 of about eighty-two tons, the ordinary size of the craft that sail from the north of Norway to Spitzbergen, and also the handiest, because they can the more easily push through openings iix die ice into the fjords or between the many small islands by which Spitzbergen IS surrounded. On board the Ai'olas, which was under the command of Lieutenant Lillididok, were Torell the chief of the expedition; Nordenskiold, who shared the command with him, carried out the geological sur- veys and took solar observations; Malmgren, zoolo- gist and botanist; Chydenius, physicist; and Petersen guide. On the sloop Magdalena, under the command ot Captam Kuylenstjerna, were Blomstrauch geolocrist and leader of the scientific work; Duner, astronomer and physicist; Goes and Smitt, zoologist and botanist, the former also physician to the expedition ; and von ^len hunter and artist. An old seaman, Anders Jakobsson, who had accompanied Torell in his visits to Iceland, Greenland, and Spitzbergen, was also attached to the expedition as assistant to the zoolo- gists. Though seventy years of age, he was still very active and much interested in it. The expedition was ready to start from Tromsoe on the 15th April, 1861, but its departure was delayed by northerly winds, accompanied by fogs and falls of snow until the 7th May, when the two vessels were towed through Tromsoe Sound by the Norwegian mail steamer Aegir. After a short involuntary delay oif Carlsoe the yl^olus and the Magdalena put to sea. On the morning of the 10th May the voyagers lost sight of land, and by the evening of the same day they had fall.n in with the first fulmar petrel {ProceUa,-!^ .'i 50 NOJlDE^^SKlOLDtS AIKJTIC VOYAUK8. [clIAl'. (jlackdis) , Nvhicli tlicy looked upon as a herald from the l)ohir regions. This bird has its home in the high north, on the Fiiro Islands, the rocky islands of Iceland, Green- land, Arctic America, Kanischatka, and Novaya Zemlya. It breeds among the highest fells in colonies of many thousand pairs, and every pair has but one agg, wliich is very Lirgc, and is laid in the beginning of Mav, l'Hl)CKI.I..VHIA OI.AlIAI.lS. exceptionally in June. The fostering of the young is not finished before the middle of September. Together with the burgomaster {Larus glaiicus) and the *' tjuljo " (Lestrls 2)cii'iif^ifioa), it is the most dangerous enemy of the other birds, i)lundering their nests of eggs and young. The bird and the place which it inhabits have a suffocating carrionlike smell, and when taken living, it squirts from its bill a trainlike liquid of evil odour on any one that incautiously attempts to lay hands on it. " Obscena' pelagi volucres, ftudissima veutris Proluvies, unex'que m;inus, ot pallida semp'v Ora faiiio." J. [chap. I from the igh north, lid, Grcen- a Zemlya. 3 of many ',gg, which : of Mav, S.,jt* young is Together "tjiiljo" IS enemy eggs and •its have a living, it odour on [s on it. ".] DEEP DREDGING IN THE ARCTIC SEAS. On the 12th May 51 Ik-ui iviay mar Island was sighted xvx tiu- m«c time, and the vessels began to be surrounded continually by a great number of auks. Bear Island lies to the east of tiie bulf Stream, and beyond its influence. Its climate is m consequence, much more severe than might be supposed from Its position. It is often concealed by fo^s and swept by storms, and landing on it is always clifficult and dangerous. Two attempts were made on this occa- sion, but both of them were frustrated by the drift-ice that lay close packed along the shore. Leaving Bear Island on the L'Hh the vessels fell in with whales ( tinners ) for the first time, and on the IGth thev were visited by snow-buntings {Emhcri.a nivalis) on their way to the north ; they settled on the riggino- and cheeks of the vessels; among them were young a year old. ihey appeared to be very tired, and were not in the least shy. After a short rest they resumed their labo- rious flight On the I7th and 18th May, the wind being ight and the sea calm, deep dredgings were carried on^ On the first day a "Bulldog" machine took bottom at a depth of 1,000 fathoms, but did not work properly A Brooke's apparatus, however, brought up some clay" with PolytMamia from a depth of 1,320 fathoms On the second day the "Bulldog" machine was successfully used It brought up from a depth of 1,050 fathoms five different layers of clay containing animals, among others Annelids, and Holothuria, of which classes no species had l)een found at so great a depth. The deliaht ot the naturalists at this Jind was naturally great. On the 18th the vessels were in 75° 45' N lat and 1 J 3 V E long. Since the 1 5th " finners "* had' been often visible, the sea had a beautiful azure blue colour, E 2 \l, 111 ' S ! 9 1 52 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. and its temperature varied between 2-5" and 'SS" C. Now the " finneivs " disappeared, the temperature fell to between 0° and I'S" C, and the sea assumed a dirty green colour, arising in great part from a number of microscopical, slimy, ill-smelling algse belonging to the families Diatomacece and Desmidiece. The boundary of the Gulf Stream, w'th its well-known blue colour, had been passed. " Finners " were not seen again until the return of the expedition in September in 78° N. lat. The temperature of the water was then about 3-8° C. It is probable that " finners " never live in colder water than this, and that the northern limit of their distri- bution coincides with sea of this temperature. It has to be kept in view, however, that this boundary line lies several degrees farther to the north in summer than in winter. After falling in among snow-covered drift-ice with a great number of rotges {Mergulus alle) and black guillemots ("C/ria ffryUe ) and shooting a lew of them, the expedition came in sight of Spitzbergen on the 21st. Early in the morning the mountain-tops round Bell Sound and Ice Fjord were recognised from the sloop, and at 9 o'clock Prince Chp.rles's Foreland was visible from both vessels. The land strongly resembled Norway as it had been left in its winter dress, mly the pre- cipitous sea-faces of the glaciers with their beautiful greenish-blue colour, indicated a much colder climate. On the 21st the vessels sailed along Mie Foreland and passed King's Bay and Cross Bay, and the glacier fifteen miles wide, which being here and there divided by elevated rocky ridges, is called " The Seven Icebergs." On the 22nd they passed Magdalena Hook, Danes' ( S, [chap. 11(1 3-8" a turc fell to ed a dirty number of ^ing to the (oimdaiy of colour, had n until the 78° N. lat. out 3-8° C. )lder water leir distri- re. It has ry line lies ler than in ■ice with a ind black J of them, n the 21st. mmd Bell the sloop, ras visible ed Norway Y tlie pre- • beautiful jr climate, ■eland and cier fifteen ivided by Icebergs." ik, Danes' ^] LAND TO THE NOKTIIVVAKD. 63 Island, and Amsterdam Island, but falling in witli pack- ice, wliich lay between the mainland, the Norways, and Cloven Cliff, and extended north and north-west as far as the eye could see, they returned and anchored off Amsterdam Island. A boat party was immediately sent off to ascertain the state of the ice. Finding it impos- sible to make way in a north-easterly direction, they turned to the north-west and rowed to a vessel that had been driving before a gentle breath of wind. Its skipper, the experienced Quane Mattilas, whom we shall often encounter in the course of this narrative, informed the Swedes that a belt of ice to the northward, visible from his "crows' nest," completely blocked the way. They accordingly returned to the vessels. During the whole voyage no birds had been seen but, auks and black guillemots, on their way northwards in immense flocks to revisit their old breeding-places. The same night, however (23rd May), great numbers of barnacle geese {Anser hernicla) were seen flying towards the north-east, perhaps to some land more northerly than Spitzbergen. The existence of such a land is con- sidered quite certain by the walrus-hunters, who state that at the most northerly point hitherto reached such flocks of birds are seen steering their course in rapid flight yet farther towards the north. " We w^ere occupied as best we might with the exami- nation of this hypothesis, the clearing up of which is reserved for futurity," says Chydenius, " when we were interrupted by an adventure which ought not to be left untold, as it had for us the charm of novelty. Two of the crew were harpooners, and among the best walrus^ hunters existing. The guns lay ready for use loaded I r 64 #1 I! I If ^^ ^ With th NORDENSKrOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGKS. [chap. pointed bullets, the polished lances and the were in fully eoiled lines hung in the fore where the 1 care- their places, and the harpoons iJ'Xjiiti ^ sat, and, like the no less skilful steersman, eagerly looked for game." " Hitherto none had })een visible, but now the steers- man said that he saw walruses in a direction which he pointed out with his hand. In this direction two small black specks were visible, which an uaaccustomed eye would never have discovered at such an immense dis- tance, and it certainly could not have traced in them the least resemblance to animals. The hunters, however, stated that they were two walruses sleeping on a piece' of ice ; and we rowed for a little with a view to ascertain how far in among the drift-ice the animals lay. A short consultation was held about the quickest and easiest way of getting at them ; we resolved on going by an . open channel in the ice, which extended to a point which was about 200 feet from being within range of shot. At first the animals had the appearance of two yeUowish- brown shapeless lumps. Suddenly two walruses, quite close to the boat, raised their heads above the water, with a pair of Img white tusks projecting from each of their mouths. They lifted a part of their round bodies out of the water, looked at the boat and ducked hastily unaer, head foremost. After some moments they again came up, but it was thought best not to follow them for fear of frightening the others that were the first objects of pursuit. In the meantime we had come so near the latter that the narpooner stopped rowing, fixed the line to the harpoon and stuck it on its shaft He now stood in the fore and made a sign with his hand which way the boat should be steered. Few words s. [chap. 1..J A WALllUS HUNT. I the care- J harpoons d, like tlie mn." the ateers- which he two small omed eye (icnso dis- in thorn however, n a piece ascertain A short d easiest "g by an . int which ! of shot, ellowish- 3es, quite le water, I each of id bodies d hastily ey again )w them the first come so ig, fixed ift. He lis hand ■ words, only the most necessary, were spoken, quite silciilly the eight nuifiled ours passed through the water, and silently l»ut speedily the l^oat glided over its surface. The animals did not move. Finally the boat got behind an immense block of ice, against which the sea broke furi- ously, and thus prevented the noise of the motion of the boat among the ice from being heard. The breakers, however, had to be avoided, and the boat came again in sight of the walruses. It was not long before they began to move, and one of them raised its head. That instlnt the boat stood still, all bent down as well as they could, and soon it was whispered 'They arc lying quiet.' The harpooner placed himself with his weapon ready for a throw and a gun close beside him. A few fathoms more and they were within reach, when the animals lifted up their heads, regarding us with unconcern, and raising the anterior part of the body, the thick hide on the neck lying in great folds. ' They will dive ! Shoot ! I this— you that— close b( liind the ear." The boat stood still, the harpoon whistled through the air, and two shots were heard. Both walruses sank down on the ice, one motionless— the steersman's bullet had hit home— the other showing signs of life. Duner handed his gun to the steersman. Again a report, and a stream of blood from the neck where the shot had taken effect. The animal raised itself up half its length. ' Shoot ; I cannot reach the gun,' cried Uusimaa, a Sidlful Quane harpooner. I fired, the bea.^t sank down, and a new stream of blood from the breast gave hope that it had got enough, but already part of its body was beyond the edge of the ice, and it sank and disappeared." " The boat was now pushed forward to the edge of the 66 NORDKNSKIOLDS AUCTIC VOYACiES. [cup. low piece of ice, on wliicli wo all sprang up. The re- maining walrua, a beast of ten feet in lenr it does not cause death until the animal has reached the water, as was now the case. If a swimming walrus receives a mortal wound it sinks immediately, and there- fore the gun ought only to be employed to confuse it tdl It can be reached by the harpoon, for it and the lance are always the main weapons in this kind of hunt- ing. We had scarce cast loose our boat when an im- mense number of gulls, that had gathered in the neigh- bourhood immediately after the death of the walms, alighted in order to feast on the remains. Now, as always, the glaucous gull {Larus cjlaucus), which of old Martens, for its stately bearing, obtained the name of 'Burgomaster,' was the most active and least shy among these guests; after it the pretty snow-white ivory gull {Larus ehurveus), Marten's ' Councillor ' ; a kittiwake {Larus tridactylus) and a fulmar petrel 'or two bore them company." " When a man approaches a walrus he must, especi- ally if it is lying upon ice, make as little noise as [chap. Tile rc- ! stripped 1 (lubber ko teeth not the the right PS imnie- the head 31' passes >f which •t of the blul>bur ubber — reached ? walrus d there- nfuse it md the f hunt- an im- ) neiorli- walrus, I^ow, as I of old ame of st shy i^-whitc or'; a fcrel or especi- »ise as ".] SEAL liUJsTJ^(J. 07 possible not to friuhtcn it ; but this is jiut necessary with the seal, except it be close to its hole, for then it is very easily frightened. If it be in open water or among - day the bay was filled with pack ice. Midsummer eve found the expedition still imprisoned in Treurenberg Bay, but the great Scandinavian festival was duly celebrated. The sun shone in a beautiful blue sky, but he had not been able to bring forth from the reluctant earth leaves and flowers for a garland, much less for the indispensable midsummer pole. What the land could not furnish the sea supplied, Th(ire grew luxuriant forests of seaweed, brown Laniincu'la^ with leaves four feet in length, and stalks noarlv as •'^] long. MIDSUMMER P]VE. 61 With tliese a high pole was docked, which was raised on yEolus' Mount, and ornamented with all the flags and standards that were available. Alongside of the pole was kindled an immense drift-wood fire, and round them were assembled the members of the expedi- tion and the crews of the imprisoned vessels, amona MA(ii)Ai.i:N-A" IN icr i[Ai;ii,,ui(. (^miuslmjikk day.) whom were representatives of the four northern peoples —Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Finns : the Lapp even not being wanting. The burning pile, the mid- summer pole, tlie cross of yEolus, the variegated assem- blage lighted up by the flame, the mount with the •graves, the pack ice stretching as far as the eye could reach, ov.^i- wliich tlio midniglit sun in the cloudless f.M ff 1 I'' r if' ii m f' m I 62 NORDKNSKIOLD'S MIOTIC VOYAGES. [chap. firniamciit liglit to the iiortli beamed mild and hopeful — all formed a picture which, says Chydenius, " by its contrasts made an indelible impression on us all. The gayest sport and the most serious earnest contended for tho mastery; the former won, for seldom have glasses clinked more cheeriully than by the graves in Sorge Bay." During the weeks that elapsed from the imprisonment of the vessels till their release the zoologists carried on ".i:Ul.Vs" IN TKEL'HENUKKC, jtAy. dredgings, the other members of the expedition being employed in copying charts, with a view to future ex- « ursions, and in calculating observations. On board the ^ohia meteorological observations were taken hourly : and measurements were made of Ihe tides. n.j A SPlTZJiKJitiEN SPUING. 63 At leugth tlic ice broke up, and on the 2nd of July the ships got out to sea accompanied by rhe Jaen Mmjen, a fishing vessel that had been imprisoned alon- with them. ^ June is the spring month of Spitzbergpn. The sun rose higher and higher above the horizon, and his ravs were by no means powerless. Tlic snow first became «oft and water-drenched, and disappeared in spots from the ground. On the 11th June Cocidecwia Jenestrata, ami the polar willow began to open their buds ; on the 22nd June the first expanded flowers of Saxifmga opposiKfoha were gathered, a sign that the midsummer «un had at length won a victory over the northern winter, and on the 20tli there were In flower Draha alpina, Cochlearia, Cardanune heUldifoUa, and Saxl- Jraga cernmc, and here and there Oxgria, and the willow, and in the beginning of July Cerastium cdjnnaui. Small Fodura' hopped about in a lively way aniong the snow. By tlie 7th June there we.e seen on Hecla Mount, more than 1.500 feet above the sea a number of gnats, and on the 21st there were captured near JEohis' cross Biptnu, which, however, were unable to raise their wings to a higher flight than a foot or two from the ground. Small spiders and a kind of worm like our dew-worm, living in the already thawed ground! were found here and there. During nearly tlie whole stay of the expeditiou in Treurenberg Bay the thermint, and after the 22nd Jun, it did not sink below it'' while It once rose as high as 15= C. {66° F.) in the sun! Ihe mean temi=erature of the month of June, includino- the cold days in the beginning, when the vessels were III IE ^mBammmmr^ttOm u NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. cruising off Red Bay, was, according to 305 observations made on the yEoIus, V7° C. {li5" F.). The temperature of the water, filled as it was with colossal ice masses, also underwent a remarkable rise. During the first week it had kept under the freezing point, and even fallen to — 1'5°C., but afterwards it rose as far as to + 2*6° C, while the ice floating in it visibly melted, and thus took up heat from the wator. This rise, which, of course, cannot be ascribed to the immediate action of the sun, was specially perceptible at those times of the day when the tide set in from the sea. By the end of the month the border of the fasu ice was a little south of the position which it occupit;d on Parry's arrival, as stated by him. Snow, and on one occasion rain, fell in abundance during the first part of June, but none during the remainder. Towards the end of the month the fogs, that before had been rather troublesome, also dis- appeared. With the beginning of July summer set in with a surprising rapidity of which the inhabitants of more southerly regions can form no idea. The temperature now occasionally rose to 11'' C. (52° F.) in the shade ; the strong light was troublesome to tlie eyes, and the heat oppressive, when any hard work had to be done in the sun. The ice-foot, undermijicd by the waves, broke asunder and tumbled down, the bare patches on the fell sides, and on the level low land hourly extended themselves, and where skating had been going on shortly before rapid torrents cut deeply into the loose gravel of the terraces and slopes. " The promontory where wc lay," says Chyclenius, [chap. It ".] A NEW ATTEMPT TO EEACH HIE NORTH POLE. 65 hS" ""f '7"--™- "» g»tk dopes towards HecU Mount, and tl« ground, deprived of its winter covermg, resembled with its loose surfeee of gravel "Id fr^^ents of „.iea, hyperite, and Ii„.estone, a L wIh Aictie flora, now ni their best flower. The freshw Jr AI . "™' '""' ''"^^ ""'^ "^«-« *'- beautiful ^Mnch as plentiful n, these waters, but not yet developed Au Older or two had built here their artLs ne" and ,' '^'"•' "''"^l' "> 'company with fulmar petrels .nd ^" aie louiicl la iimnense numbers of fi • season on the con^^i- nf q •. i ^^Lunoers at tins of tl.o fi . T ! ^i''^'^'''S<^^' '-^nd in the interior th fjords .vhore they in spring have their favou te iiiioitat at the mnnflio r^f +i i • ^^ivuunce -uface of th water if T ^ '*'"™^ "^•^'- '''^ ;^.-...edr:;.f:'S:r~— :,s: NortirpihT""! 1 "'"'" ^™>-'^ """"P' t« --h the i^oith J ole by a sledge journey over the i<-,. II ■ !! ... .1... .i,..s„ i.,„; ...i«t ™, Ti" - -^i'lx. xt uiigat be able :f^ 66 N0I;DENSK10I.D'S arctic VOYAOEH. [oicap. to reach the pole and avoid the three main difficulties he had to contend with, namely -the uneven nature of the ice, the softness of the snow, and the current which carried the ice towards the south. 'J'he ice would then, Parry thought, show a hard and unbroken surface. It would probably lie motionless and reindeer might be employed. The forming of dep6ts and the sending out of returning parties were also proposed. Thus the only man who had made the attempt, but failed and declared it hopeless, came in the end after many years' considera- tion to hold the A'iew that such a journey was possible. Admiral Wrangel was of the same opinion. He twice travelled with dog-sledges for to the north of Siberia. Torell had hoped to reach north Spitzbergen by the beginning or middle of May, as he had been informed that the walrus-hunters were sometimes at North East Land by the end of April. His plan was that Norden- skiold, Petersen, and he, with two men and three teams of the best dogs should start for the north, accompanied at first by two reserve parties, one to return after four or five days and the other after nine or ten days. He reckoned that without the help of depots or reserve parties five men could be out between forty and fifty days and with the help of reserve parties nine or ten days longer. He had ^evoted himself for a long time to the working out of the plan and to the perfecting of all the details. It had noAv to be abandoned because in tlie first place the continuance of northerly winds delayed too long the departure from Tromsoe, and in the second place during the long imprisonment in Treur-cnberg Bay the ice was found to be quite unsuitable for a sledge journey, and finally when the vessels could leave the [OKAP, ifficulties uature of lit which lid then, face. 1 1 night be (ling out the only declared onsideni- possible. ie twice iberia. a by the informed rth East Nordeii- 'oe teams tni2)anied fter four lyci. He ■ reserve xnd fifty D or ten y time to ng of all se in tlie delayed e second )erg Bay a sledge ?ave the 11.] A BOAT VOYAUE. 67 i i'"y tl.c season w,« so far a,Ivan,-«I and tho i.o f„ ;..titu.lo ,«nM have „.„ at. :; , t^Z'J:^ iH. plan of the sIo.,ge jou„,..y n„.,lnvarfs It .1 "" --lv«,, as in,W, „a. ,.e„ agree, .„„n ,1X^2 "now OP ro,,AK pkahs ,.v Mrnc.r.s.v p.u-. ~e.ontofan^a::lfte£'''"'-^^^"^^^ ^i^o boat party started on the lot), Tn] -.hofM„eHsonBa,,an..;StonI'Sli F 2 6» NOIJhMNSKIOI.D'H AlldTIO VOVACI'H [ciiAi-. wUviv Ifu.ssi.-m Hiiiloi-s Jiad niiHcd a fiiK! ci-ohh with iimm-rouH iiiHciiplioiiM, nnd thon on wliiit on old niups was en lied Noil li Kji.st; Islimd but which turned out to •"' i' l>i'<>i(>('tiMo- |,„rt of Noi-tli East J.and. TJic rock lu'i-c \v;r Inund (o he an unlo.s.silih'rouH liniOHtono, the .^t I'M I a i-r wliicli wviv very much twintcd, having JM'cn c.\|M>s(«(l lo ijic action of tlic eruptive Jiypeiilc" wiiich lraversi>(l (hem at .several phice.s. They tiien ].ro(re(h'd (h)\vn the Strait, retcrHen's rilh> keepino' the cook well .supplied with iVesh rein- deer beei; at least after Cape Eanahawe wa.s j.assed, walrus hunt inn- .,lso lH'inven miles broad and standing out into the sea with its perpen- dicular wall. J*:norm(.us flocks of auks .sought their food among th(> ice. Nund.ers of walruses were to be seen in the sound. The sj.lendid illumination of the sun, which at this season does not set, and the abundance of animal life, gave the whole landscai)e a .stamj) of strangvness and grandeur which made a deep in the first fossils found on North Spit/bergvn. As the i)arty proceeded towards South W'aygafs Islands a fog came on and they found it ditUcult I'liough to make their way with the aid of the compass among the pieces of drift-ice. Innumerable walrnstvs tumbled about in the water, or lay crowded together on the low pieces of ice that were everywhere i |(!IIA1'. losH witli old ii)ii[)s '<1 out to TJic rock tone, tho ing Itcou 1 1' wiiicli ^ctorHon's ivsli reiii- s jKissed, usioiially. Ft)stcr's L'S 1(01111(1 il i)la(;t's 11 Jiiilo.s p('r])ou- lit their were to itiou of and the Iscape a a deep enbcrij's imdaiieo mild on towards y found d of the nicrable Towdt'd lyvvhere r ii.j A C'kOWl) IN Tin-: HEA. noutilio- nhrmt A »>;^„^ c • II ", one ot tiio men gave a sudden civr Ti. a very poruliar speetacle ° 1^ ''"'" "y ov. «ft, ., ,, eon, :.-l:;, f XoTr'l quarters aud s.vin, ;„ „, ,, . , "•" o''tliucd (rom all hot. Evel IV ™ . H '"■'■'" ^''^'"' "'^ '^'"'* «'if'"" tins, and ! ve o« 1 I n "' """"■''"' ''*'='> "^-^ at anin^K Co" "e f ;" ^"r ^''""'^^ '"« '-''«'• The Tl.evfollow«l peace. ,!•""■ ''•T"''""^' ""' '^™"8- J' iitacib as tai as possible out of the IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.2 ^ 1^ ill 1*0 2.0 m U. Ill 1.6 *» -x" Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 ^<5 f h ;■ < 70 IsORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. water the better to view the proceedings. Even when the dead walrus was drawn up on a piece of ice to be flensed, its comrades looked on, plashing among the ice that was floating about, till the blood, mixing with the water, drove them away. After collecting a large quantity of fossils at Angelin's Mount the party rowed along the shore to another mountain, 2,000 feet high, which strongly resembled it. This they named Loven's Mount. Its upper part con- sists of hyperite and with its flat, steep, and black sides strongly resembles a roof. Underlying the hyperite are horizontal lime- and sand-stone strata with nearly per- pendicular faces towards the sound, giving the whole mountain the appearance of a regular cobssal building. Another rich collection of fossils was made here. The party then proceeded down the Sirait, but after two hours' rowing they were met by fast ice and obliged to turn. They then rowed along the west side of the sound, taking an hour to pass a broad glacier. After it they came to another which lay like a stratum of rock on a perpendicular cliff of hypente, and accordingly tumbled with its ice over the rocks into the sea. The hyperite was found to be beautifully polished and marked, and here, as at several other places, were found many signs that the ice in former times had occupied a larger area on Spitzbergen. On reaching Dym Point, a number of eider-nests were found containing some fresh eggs, which afforded a welcome means of varying the auk soup which for some time had formed the standing dish. Between Dym Point and Cape Fanshawe the Swedes passed the greatest auk-fell they had hitherto seen. "Bkck cliffs, 800 to 1,000 feet high here, for a [chap. 1..] AN AKCTF.C GLACIER. n- tretchof about a mile an.1 a half, rise perpendicularly out of the sea, inhabited by millions of auks which sit close packed together in all the clefts and crevices, and wo were witnesses of the literal truth of the wcU-k^own tatoment that the air is darkened by the number 7f fowl fly,ng out of such a fell when a g„n is fired, with- out It bemg possible to distinguish any diminution in consequence in the number of those which sit still so quietly that some, which had made their nests, could be reached from the boat and taken with th^ hand AVhere we rowed forward there were besides food ' H "r" ""'^ ''''"^^" «■« '^^ »^«king their food Here also was found, rising from the sea to a heiglrt of 1,000 feet, a perpendicular wall of hyperit« everywhere split vertically into basalt-like, upright^four: oi- eight-sided columns, standing free or only e°on;ected with the mam rock by a small corner, and sometimes — ^ capital-wise by a stratum of greyish-white After passing Cape Fanshawe the party next entered Lomme B.y on the west side of which they found he largest glacier they had yet seen on Spitzbergen. It IS about ten miles wide, and projects into th .onnd with a curved front. The stratification of the ;ee IS horizontal. After rowing nearly seven miles into the bay, a small sandy beach was met with on which they drew up their boat. Near this, a little ttr H \7' """ '"""' ^"-"^ fe™^ *— 'ike opes. Here Petersen landed and in a short time killed three reindeer, which the Swedes could hardly believe to be the same species of animals as those they had shot at Iretu-enberg Bay scarcely four weeks before. Then i ' i t I. I 1 72 NOHDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. they were so lean, as if they had consisted entirely of skin, bone and sinew ; these, on the contrary, might have competed as fat stock at an English cattle show, for the largest rein had a layer of fat four to five inches thick on the loin. After visiting an island in the sound where a walrus-skin had been left, the party sailed with a favourable wind to Dep6t Island in Murchison Bay. The Mollis had sailed, but Lilliehook had left according to agreement a writing in a cairn, which they found. Lightening the boat of a sackful of fossils and other superfluous articles, they proceeded without resting to Shoal Point. The beach here is everywhere covered with an enormous mass of driftwood among which are found pieces of pumice-stone, birch-bark, cork, poles and floats from the Lofodden fisheries, with other thino-s which had been carried hither by currents from the south. The driftwood formed a broad line along the beach. Farther up was another line, where the water now scarcely comes even during spring tides, probably elevated by a raising of the land. In this line the driftwood was far older and undergoing decomposition. While Torell was examining all this, he found among other things a well-preserved bean of the West Indian plant Entada gigalohiim. This bean, which is upwards of an inch and a half across, floats with the Gulf Stream through the Atlantic, is found not unfrequently on the coast of Norway, and being also found on North Spitzljergen, aflbrds the most convincing evidence that the Gulf Stream reaches this high latitude.^ Following ' De Candolle states that one of these beans was found under the roots of the oldest chestnut tree in Paris, and that on being planted it germinated and grew. There is another bean of the san-e kind [chap. II.J A WEST INDIAN BEAN. 73 the ^olus, the boat party arrived on the 21st July at the north side of Low Island and tliere fell in with Mattilas and his sloop. He informed them that LiUie- hook had sailed the night before for the Strait, and that ■Tl"^- BEAK OF EKTADA GIGALOBIUlr. (naTTHAL SIZE.) from the top of the mast of his sloop he could see with his glass Chydenius' boat at the border of the fast ice that yet covered Brandywine Bay. After a rest the in the Riks-Museum in Stockholm, which was found at Tjcern in Bohus Laen, ,n a peat moss thirty feet above the .ea-level. 11 74 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. pcarty determined to join Chydenius, and hearing from him that Lilliehook intended to return soon they waited his return between Bird and Brandy wine Bay. Ascend- ing a high mountain, they came, at a height of about 1,500 feet, to a phateau almost free of snow and bounded on the north by Bird Bay, towards which the rocks rise perpendicularly. From this plateau the mountain top raised itself, covered with snow, or rather loose fine- grained ice. From its highest point there was a splendid and uncommonly extensive view in all directions which the glorious weather with which they were favoured enabled the Swedes thoroughly to enjoy. In the north the horizon was bounded by an endless ice-field, in which from this height no opening could be distinguished, and whose uniformity was broken only at some fevv places by the groups of islands lying north of North East Land, the Seven Islands, Walden Island, Great and Little Table Island, and the land marked on Parry's map " Distant High Land." Towards the east the view was bounded by the high desolate snow plain which occupies the whole of the interior of North East Land. In the west, notwithstanding the great distance, it was possible clearly to distinguish the contours of the mountain tops around the Norways and Cloven Cliff". In the south-west Grey Hook and Hecla Mount were visible, and to the south of the latter two isolated, very high, pointed snow-covered summits, which were believed to be situated on the north shore of Stor Fjord. On the 23rd July the boat party rejoined their vessel which had agam anchored off" Low Island and found all well. Chydenius in the meantime had been at work in the neighbourhood of Low Island, and with the help of [chap. (■•] ONH OF PAKUY'S UJSPdiS. 76 Parry's map had come to a clear Bnclorstanding as to how the tria„g,,latiou should be arranged as far south Istd^T ,"'"'T° ''"'*' '""' '■- ^'"'"^ had mI ^''''"'^''S Bay and there fallen in with Mattdas, who. under a heap of driftwood, had just dis- covered one of Parry's dep6ts, containing a g^n nol car rwV° —"''°" "''"' °^ ™'"'' ''"«' ^'^ lead, ca ndges and loose powder, all in good preservation and eleven hermetically sealed tins. In one of the later on its being opened, was found roast meat, im- bedded in jelly and fat, that tasted as well .« if it had been placed there the day before. On the well-made ammunition chest the word Heoh could U clearly dis- t.Dguished and the wood, like all wood on Spitsbergen was scarcely .n the smallest degree affected by the ai!. JiTlZ^ Nord-ski6ld, on the 2«th July, started agam with their old crew from Low Island to examine Uie hitherto unexplored coast of North East Land. The ^ous was to visit Depflt Island, and then lie at suitable til the 24th August, afterwards in Lomme Bay, then in order at the Eussian Islands, mouth of Wijde Bay, R d Bay, the Norways, and Kobbe Bay, and if the boat party did not turn up it was not to run the risk of an involun harbours of Spitsbergen, and thence to Norway. ToreU and Nordenskiold were accompanied as far al Brandy^ wme Bay by Lilliehook, Malmgren and Chydenius, the whole party numbering sixteen men in four boats. A Brandywinc Bay, one of the boats, made of galvanised iron, was drawn up on the beach, and a dep6t form^ On a steep ridge which starts from the neighbourhood 76 NORDENSKIOLD 'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. of this point Malmgren made a rich collection of plants. On the lower slopes there is a moist and soft carpet of the liveliest green, for the most part composed of mosses, Aulacomniim turgidiim and Hypmim uncinatum, spread as a thick covering over a black layer of peat a foot thick. On this damp soil there flourished in large SAXIFRAGA FLAOELLAHIS. numbers several species of grass : Alopecurus alpinus, Dupontia Fisheri, Poa cenisia ; and among other plants the little Ranunculus hyperboi^eus distinguished itself ; Oxi/ria renifm^mis, a foot high, and large-leaved scurvy grass. Cochlearia fenestrata shot up in astonishing luxuriance at the less marshy places, mixed with the stately Ranunculus sulphureus, whose golden-yellow [chap. "•] ARCTIC PLANT LIFE. 77 flowers came up to the wanderer's kneos. Not to name other awourites of the Arctic soil, Saxifrages, Cerastiura alpimim, Potentilla emarginata here had the fowl-fell as their home and formed a strong contrast to the stunted specimens found on the gravel wastes. Nor were the driest places without occupants ; yellow Drahw and poppies, with Saxifrages, Cardamine hdlidifoUa the dwarf willow and Dryas, alternating with reddish patches of the hitherto unknown grass Catahrosa vil- foidea, were strewn like bouquets over the greyish brown ground. Among mosses the American Pottia hypevhm-ea distinguished itself, and among lichens the Usnea melaxantha, which occurs in North and South America in the latter along the Cordilleras, and which like many other plants is peculiar to East Spitsbergen, being absent on the west coast ; so different are the natural produc tions of the two coasts separated only by a comparatively small extent of high land. Nor were the steep fell slopes without some, though scanty, vegetation. Torell brought down from a height of 1,.500 feet several speci- mens of LuzuJa hyperhorea, Stellaria Edwardsi and Papaver nudkauh. The locality, however, was favour- able, the slope was to the south, and sea-fowl in millions breed there. Starting from Brandy wine Bay Torell and Nordenskiold rested first at North Cape, the northernmost point of North East Land, resuming their journey on the afternoon of the 28th July, but not proceeding farther than a small island, one of two lying to the south-east of North Cape, which they named Castrens Islands. From the top of the larger island, about 1,000 leet high, an excellent view was obtained of the sea !I M tl 78 NOUDKNSKlOijrs ARCTIC VOYAGE.S. [chap. between the Seven Islands and the maii)hmd. The ice, wliich was thought to liave been dispersed, was found to have collected anew, so that there appeared to be little hope of being able to force-a passage through it. This, however, turned out to be practicable, and the party landed on the southern point of I'arry's Island. Parry's Island is almost entirely occupied by two mountains, about 1,500 feet high, separated by a low valley. The rock is gneiss, traversed by veins of granite, in which there are to be found here and there crystals of tour- maline. Although the geological formation is thus the same as on North West Spitzbcrgen, and the difference in north latitude does not amount to a degree, th(>. difference both in animal and vegetable life is very striking. It is probable that a cold ocean-current from the east is the cause of this state of things. In the valley the vegeta- tion is extremely poor ; even on the fell sides manured with birds' dung it is very scanty, consisting only of some few phanerogamous plants, among which are the yellow poppy of Spitzbergen, and stunted lichens. Here and there however there was a little green, and at one place there pastured three large and fat reins which were shot. Traces of foxes were visible in the sand. Up to this time the weather had been fine with few exceptions. It uow^ changed and became rainy and foggy. Bad weather compelled the Swedes to remain on Parry's Island during the 31st of July. The following day it was only with difficulty they could make their way through the mist and the closely packed ice to Marten's Island, the most easterly of the Seven Islands. They ascended the highest summit on Marten's Island, but could see nothing for the thick showers of snow that were "•] CHANGES OF ELKVATION OF LAND. 79 full lllff. Tlic stones at the top , ... - -r •■>"'« covered with it oose y.Mttuig «hi„i„g cake of iee, cluarly newly formed by the condensation of watery vapour. This cake which was several lines in thickness, loosened at the least motion and fell down, splitting asunder with great noise into a thousand pieces. No snow.field could bo discovered at a height of 800 to 1,000 feet. 0„ this island a reindeer was shot by Petersen. While hunt- ing It he discovered the nest of a beautiful little wader, CImmdnus hiaticda, which was here seen for the first time by the Swedes on Spitzbergen. On August 5th they visited Phipps Island, which con- sists of several isolated mountains about 1,800 feet high connected by a low land covered with driftwood and fragments of ships. Among the driftwood, there were as at bhoal Pomt many pieces of bireh-bark, pumiee- stone. and fishing-floats, often marked with Roman characters &e. Remains of whale skeletons were found ying high above the present level of the sea, both on the low promontory on Marten's Island, and on the beach of the bay on the east side of Parry Island. AH this indicates a considerable elevation of the land since the time when the Dutch whiUe-fishet. first visited the neighbourhood. No more reins being visible it was determined to return to North East Land, and on the 8th August the party reached Castr&s Islands with considerable difliculty and danger through the drift-ice which was in continual motion, and on one occasion nipped the boat so that its form was altered and water streamed in through many joints. But the soft Ame- rican elm w thstood the proof, and after the water was baled out, the boat, with the exception of a triflin» srsBi BE i!; IS lit'-' t 80 NORDENSKIOLDS AllCTIC VOYAf^ES. [chap. fracture, was as good us ever. A\'ithoiit much hope of beiug ablo to tulvuuce very fur, tlic Swedes next day continued their row eastwards. Tlie ice, however, soon became so packed tliat it was impossible to proceed, and they returned to the point which is incorrectly given in okl maps as the most northerly point, and thus ob- tained the now in'ii)pr()i)riato name of Extreme Hook. From the heights in this iieighbourliood but little open water could be seen. On the Dth August an unsuccess- ful attemi)t was made to force a passage eastwards. A landing was eflc^cted on the western shore of the bay between Extreme Hook and North Cape, where a view was obtaiued from a neiglibouring hciglit of the state of the ice and the surrounding country and islands. Up to the top of this mountain peculiar shallow depressions were met with from two to three feet in diameter, which completely resembled well-polished giant cauldrons (jiittegrytor). If it be taken as settled that such caul- drons have always been i)olishc(l by currents of water, these showed clearly that even this mountain, which was at least Ij.'iOO feet high, lay under water in former days and was perhaps covered with glaciers. The following day the party landed on Scoresby's Island, where Nordenskiold had an unpleasant adventure. •' Without being provided with any weapon," he writes, " I ascended the island, in order from its highest point to measure angles between the neighbouring promontories. When I had reached a distance of fifty to sixty paces from the top I saw that a bear had occupied that place before me, probably that he might thence see what prey the surround- ing ice-fields had to ofler. He had also observed me, and I did not venture to return to the boat, but went straight II.J towards 1 AN ADVKNTUUK WITH .' i'EAK 'i'H, HuppoMing that ho wouhl h 81 X! iViirhtcned nnd " when a n.,m a,.,,..„ac.|,e.l tl.on,. ( ,,„d mi,„,,l„ul,.t,,l • «a.l w wee soou so close together that I eoul.l havo o„e e. ij..,. «,Uh a stick. . to stood s„,„ewhat hig upon a boek of stone, hissing and tramping witlthi, -re-fee ; I stoo,l somewln.t lower, erying aid iLting I was able and threw big stones at him, with little a, pa^neeet. At length a big stone hit one of his foo- uvs >estmg on a stone, and the pain orperj.aps satisfi,.,! em.os y „.d«eed the „ni„,al to retreat. I folLod hi,„ fbr a short d,stanee till he was eoneealed behind a pro! ? rell wl f """'■"' "'""■'»" "- -'-""«- to fece there he ,8 1' and pointed to a rock .about fou^ hundred feet distant, from the top of which the wll Bovercgn of the island was surveying us. Two of our men were sent after him, but when they approached the bear he immedmtely took to flight and wc saw him 110 more. On the 11th August the party continued their east- • ;y""' ™".''^^'' ''""^'•'S <"^ » »"' I'oint, the third of those that project from the north part of North East Land Here they found a beach, eight to ten feet IHgh, formed of sand .and rolled stones, in whiei. a large ^aintity of dnftwood was imWlded, a peculiar circumstance, show- ing that m a rock form.ation matters that are .altogether foi-o.gn to it may become incorporated. A ^milar phenomenon is met with in Norw.ay, where beds of clay Lave been found containing, along with fossil shells of G fci' 1 i r i! 1 ! I ! 82 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. liigh iiortliorn varieties, tree stems wliich probably grew elsewhere than in the regions where they are now found. In the afternoon of the same day the stretch of coast marked by Tarry "Distant High Land/' was reached and named Prince Oscar's Land. The " ice-foot," which Jong defies the heat of summer, and like a white girdle encloses the shore long after the snow has disappeared fiom the heights, was now at last gone, and had, where the beach consisted of sand and gravel, left behind it peculiar indi- cations. Everywhere were to be seen conical depressions in the gravel four to six feet across, which had probably been formed by the ice, when it was loosened and raised by the thaw and flood-tide, carrying with it large blocks of stone of which tliese hollows were the marks. Drift- wood was still to be found here, but no longer any articles of Norwegian origin, only a harpoon rhaft or an oar which Petersen recognised as belonging to the whale fishery. Animal and plant life were here alike scanty. On August 12th another advance was made, and the party landed immediately south of Cape Wrede, ascend- ing afterwards a mountjiin about 2,000 feet in hei^^ht, affording an extensive view. Towards the horizon two small islands were seen, the one of which is high and bold, the other low and inconsiderable. They are named Charles XII. s Island, and Drabanten (The Lifeguard). They were surrounded in all directions by impassable masses of drift-ice, but the sea between was pretty open. The boat party accordingly puslioa on past Cape Platen, but finding the sea getting more and more packed with ice they resolved to retu-n. So after making a festive meal of some preserved grouse washed down w.th some old wine that had circumnavigated the globe in the i. [oh A p. )ably grew 10 w found, ill of coast IS reached ot," which liite girdle eared fiom 5 the beach uliar indi- [epressions I probably and raised rge blocks :s. Drift- 3nger any ^^aft or an the whale ie scanty. !, and the e, ascend- in height, rizon two high and ire named ifeguard). npassable 3tty open. )e Platen, iked with a festive kith some e in the TlfEY REJOIN THE .WZaS. IT.] frigate R,a,nk, wliich some Stoekholm frien* h,«l sent them before their departure, the Swedes turned S Wrede, and landmg for the night on Scoresby's Island They rested next at Castren's Islands, passed North Cai« on t^,e following day, and on the evening oftt «ext day Dep6t Point. On the 18th Brandywfne fit was explored, and found to offer a good Inrbo' 7 wmtering in. On the 19th the Sw^de ,!t 1 , ha.nn,erfest skipper and got fro. him i::r:„: CHAULES .XII.'S ,.s,,AXD AN,, B«ABANTK.V, tl ^,l„. Opposite Low Island, .....uses, which had not been seen on the north eoast of North P,r , were now visible in number, , , , "V^"'* ^'""^• harpooners were preparing i:-;'^,:^^' ^ J o^paS: iSl~;t1' 't ^"^'^'^ ^ hu«ting.;;i- wife f'p? *''" '"' ™'-^ ^l"--''" killed ^in^e r nte """ "''' "'^ '^^i"""'^- il 1(1 hi ■ 84 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. The JEolus had been cruising in Hinloopen Strait during the absence of the boat party, the naturalists on board making observations on the temperature of the water, and carrying on daily dredgings. On the 3rd August flocks of the Greenland seal {Phoca grwnlandica) were seen for the first time in the neighbourhood of Foster's Islands. They kept together in compact herds, thirty to forty each, swimming with extraordinary speed, and when they breathed, lifting their somewhat pointed heads out of the water all at the same time and ducking immediately down again to repeat, some few minutes fiter, the same dexterous manoeuvre, but at a considerable distance from the place where they showed themselves before. This species of seal is, in the economy of the Greenlanders, of nearly the same importance as the reindeer in that of the Lapps. It is also of great importance in commer'3e. Near Waygat's Islands, where the ^olus lay from the 8th to the 20th August, the divergence between the marine fauna of East and West Spitzbergen was very striking. Here w^ere found animals exclusively belong- ing to the fauna of Greenland, seen exceedingly seldom or never on the west coast. During an excursion to the south of Hinloopen Strait, in the course of which Chydenius satisfied himself of the possibility of extending the triangulation to Stor Fjord, two " marked " reindeer were killed. " We had pre- viously met with such," says Chydenius, " and it is well known to the walrus-hunters that they are often found on Spitzbergen. They are called " marked " in common speech, but it is not meant by this that they have been marked by the hand of man. On the supposition, IT.] "MARKED "REINDEER. 85 ?2 'the 1°/T/ "^ '^J'""'"'' *^* '^"y '-« strayed irom the peopled regions of the mainland to SpL b rgen and because the country of the Samoyedes is he nearest where tame reindeer are to be fonnd.-ior Novat Zomlya as ,s well known, is „ninhabited-it ha^^bZn supposed that the sea between Eastern Spitlrl and the co„nt,y of the Samoyedes is iiUed'with t therto unWn .slands between which the reins may go on ubLnf y'^^''^'"- ^^^ •'mthesis was often the North EatT TT-'""- ^"'"^ '""^ ^** -^ off ■North East Land and .n Hinloopen Strait, our hunters obUmed at least four or five "marked" eindeer !hd cropped nl~j :rr"^ "'^''t ''"^ ^^- the root b„f .1, I. """' '•'^'•■"'"o from the root, but the obtuse angles of the point were not covered with hair as the other parts of the ear All tb. hunters who have killed such reins steadi ; asseH £ both ea. are always cropped at the same h "ht a greater or less distance from the root, and durinr'the expedi.o„ to Spitsbergen in 1864 some reinde r Ve e obtamed that were marked in the same way. On tl' aupposition that these marks have been made Sth knrfe by the hand of man-a supposition To wh.'h^h; unevenness of the ear-point does not lend antlba bdity-and that the animals at some past time beWd oanomade household inhabiting some other count'; a^l the marked reindeer hitherto shot on Spitsbergen must have belonged to one owner, for the ...irk, at W am 86 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. during the last twenty years, has been unalterably the same. And as the number of such marked animals on Spitzbergeu is so large that they certainly form a tenth of those that are yearly killed, and as the number of these may be, without exaggeration, estimated at the lowest at one thousand, some seasons up to fifteen hun- dred, the number of '* marked " reindeer must have been a hundred per annum. A nomade household, that can lose a hundred reindeer yearly merely by straying, can perhaps scarcely exist for twenty years and have such considerable herds still remaining as to allow the strayino- still to go on on the same scale. It is to be noticed, besides, that when the northern races mark their reindeer in the ear they only cut a hack or hole in one of the ears, never in both, and it is highly improbable that any one would mark all his cattle by cropping both ears. The marked reindeer on Spitzbergen are not distinguishable from those that are not marked either by size, the branching of the horns, or in any other way ; that is to say, they all belong to the Spitzbergen race, which differs from the reindeer li-ing on the mainland by their size being con- siderably smaller, and by other striking peculiarities, and their skin never has scars from the Oestrus larva, which are exceedingly common in the skins of the north-European reindeer. Finally, another more pro- bable cause of the cropped ears may be found, namely, the sharp frosts that occur in some seasons du-ing the nights in spring while the rein-calves are yet young and their ears impatient of cold. For it is an experience obtained in Finmark and Lapland, according to the Statements of trustworthy persons, and confirmed from various quarters, that tl-ere, too, in the hin^h fell regions. [chap. 11.] WHITE WHALES. 87 the young reincalves in the cold spring nights have their ears frozen, which never regain their normal form, but appear in the full-grown animal as if cropped." In Lomme Bay, the rendezvous of the boat parties there is abundance of animal life. Reindeer pastured near its shores, and eleven were killed. A brood of beautiful Arctic ptarmigan, which is very uncommon nEINDEBU HnNTfNO. elsewhere in Spitsbergen, was seen here. The white whale, Bcluyt, catodon, tumbled about in the water and one was captured. These beautiful animals, over fourteen feet long, are inhabitants of the Polar Sea proper. They live, like other dolphins, in steals, and are so shy that they are only taken with difli;ulty The Norwegians catch them with a peculiar harpoon: called a shttd, different from that used in the whale' I I 88 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. fishery. The white whale is frequently found in the neighbourhood of glaciers, where the water is often turbid with the fine rock-powder which the glacier grinds down while in motion, and which is carried out into the sea before it. In such water the white whale cannot see the harpooner and his boat. At a distance it strongly resembles a seal in the water. When fully-grown the animal is milk-white, and ex- ceedingly beautiful. Its young, on the other hand, are dark in colour. If the water is clear it is possible to get near them, but they always go down so fast that they cannot be taken. When they used to visjt these regions, the Russians caught them in a strong net, in the same way as is usual in Greenland, where several hundred are taken yearly. The white whale occurs along the shores of the Polar Sea, and the east coast of Asia as far down as 52° N., and on the coast of America it is taken m St. Lorenzo Bay. It often ascends rivers for great distances to hunt fish, and it is found in the Amoor river upwards of 250 miles from the sea. The Mollis weighed anchor on the 24th August, and after steering first to north-west then to north reached 80° 30' N., the highest point attained during this voyage. The intention to anchor in Brandywine Bay was given up for fear of being shut in by ice if the wind should be unfavourable. Dredging was next carried on in deep water ofi" Treurenberg Bay, after which the ^olus anr-^iored on the west side of Muffin Island where dredging was resumed, and Nordenskiold, Malmgren, and Chydenius landed to make observations.' Ihis low, flat island, which rises only six feet above [chap. II.] WALRUS KILLING. 89 the sea-level, is a favourite resort of the walrus, when the lee melts on the sea and it is obliged to go on land. Here our party met with a sight so sad that It could never pass from their recollection. A lonpth of the ijord where the glacier enters the sea. When they p.iter the sea most of tlie glaciers of Spitsbergen rest on tiie sea-bottom, as on a firm foundation ; ''on which account, for evident reasons, oidy comparatively small pieces can be broken off. If the wak-r, on the contrary, is so deep that the front of the glacier is entirely borne up by it, very muc;h larger masses may break off at once, the glacier wanting the cross-fractures which are apt to occur under such circumstances. In this way are produc(>d the enormous icebergs which float out to se;v from the deep fjords of (^IreenlaiRl, and those, in some d(>gree comparable with tlioni, which are to be found in and off Cross ]iay, the depth of whi(jh was measuivd by the zoologists of the expixlition up to two hundi-ed and fifty fathoms. That icebergs proper arc so S(>ldom heard off from this region of the high north, is thus, perhaps, caused less by the glaciers being small and the inland ice inconsiderable, than quite simply ])y the water round the coast b-ing too shallow. The larger masses from Cross Bay probably ne^er reach the o^nm sea as they are too deep in the water to get over the coast shallows. They are stranded here and there on the shores in the form of ground-ice. In the neigld)onrliood of King's Bay, where tlie iS. [chap. ad, liaving 40 to 50, ?ct. Tlioy orgs, with 1 the con- Bay, tljo •test coin- atcr (Icptli .. Wlien [)itzl)crgeii ition; on pai-iitively i-'r, on tliG glacier is usses may i-fractures nces. In liicli float md those, i-re to be hich was p to two L'oper arc L^h north, ng small niply ],y he larger the open over the -e on the lere the II. 'i'HK 01,1) akctk; wouli A). !»7 I'O-I, .1 ».>ul.I npp,.,„, ,.|,i„„y ,„. |,,„„,.,,,^^,„, '■■«on,l,l,„,, our mai,l,.s, cv,..,ry„-li,.r,. oovercl th„ ^■allcv^ '>■ IIIK INTKUK.U (.K K|N,i I .V\. ind nioiiuhiiii-sK) pos, where honv, if thev I.e not entirelv hllod w,th thick heds „r i.e the And.' u-ill 1 1- , , ' I" 1 lilt .VKiie wiJIow, ei'eeuiiio' "'••1' higli noiio- the oToii„bc Bay, where the j^olus was found at anchor, having arrived some days before. Pr(^parations were now made for the homeward voyage, wdiich was commenced on the 1 2th September. In the course of it deep drcdgings were carried on. Torell had i)reviously dredged at depths of from 1,500 to n.j DKEDGING IN TilK ARCTIC SEA.S. 101 1,700 feet in the moutlis of Omeiiak and Upemavik Fjords, on the coast of Greenland, where, in a bottom of fine mud produced by the action of glaciers on the rocks of the mainland and carried into the sea by the glacier streams, he found a fauna, so rich that no dimi- nution of the number of animals Avith the increase of depth could be observed, and at the same time full of variety, embracing all the dift'ercnt classes of inverte- brate animals. He had found also at Omenidi and Upernavik two faunas very different with respect to species at the same depth and on a bottom where no difference could l)e perceived. He had made careful pre- parations for the dredgings he now proposed to carry on, and had got a " Bulldog " machine constructed, witli some improvements by Chydenius. After two unsuc- cessful attempts with Brooke's apparatus the Bulldog machine struck l)ottom at a depth of 8,400 feet. The temperature in the middle of mass of matter brought up by the machine was found to be 0*3° C. The tem- perature at the surface of the sea at the time was .5' C. (4rF.), and of the air 0-G°C. At this eonsidera1)le depth, where the temperature is always near the freezing-point, where the only motion of the sea is a flowing from the pole towards the eqliator, where the pressure of the water on every point is more than the weight of 200 atmospheres, where light is absent, but where the air and salt contained in the water are probably the same as at the surilice, there was found on the few square im-hes acted on by the scoops a number of animals as large and rich in species as could have b<'en expected at a smaller depth ;i m NORDKNSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [(,tAP. on the same kind of bottom. The bottom was found to be covered with a fine sediment, greasy to the touch, of a yellowish-brown or grey c )lour, which, with the exception of some few and small fragments of stone and grains of sand, consists of finely- divided remains of microscopic calcareous shells o{ rolythalamla or siliceous parts of muUohma, diatoms, and sponges. The section of the raised mass, sixty-four cubic decimal inches, showed five layers of different thicknesses, from two inches to one-third of an inch, clearl3^ distinguishable by difference of colour, perhaps a sign that periods probably of lengthened duration succeeded each other in the motions of the currents and other circumstances determining the progress of the deposit, and perhaps also in some degree in the conditions of animal life. In tins mass there lived limUoIana and numerous Pohf- fhalanua, among them many very large and well de- veloped specimens of Glohujomm, BihcuHna, DentaUna JSomouum; of Annelids, ^ Spiochetopterm and a Ch- ratulus ; of Crustacea, a Cama ruhivumla, Lillieboro- • an Ap^cudes ; of Mollusca, a Cylichm ; of HolothuiCa fragment o^M,,notrodn,. ItlnU Stccnstrup, and an allied form, apparently a new species ; of Gephyrea, a Sipun- culu. hk^ S. nuuyarltlc,,, Sars; finally a Spo>upa, m which were found three species of Crustacea. The success with which the dredging was carried on awak- ened a strong d.-sire to prosecute it, but the wind rose and water got scarce and Torell determinc^d in consequence to return to Tronisoe where the ^olus anchored on the 23rd and the Ma^daleua on the 27th ot beptcmbor. II ■j COST OF THE KXPKDITION. 103 The expenses of the expedition (not inchuling the travelling expenses of the meml)crs to and from Tromsoe) amounted to 51,967 rix-dollars and G3 ore/ which were defrayed thus : — IMx-dollar.s. 12,000 8,000 4,000 (Jnint I)y tJie Swedish Government Additional grant by the Swedish Estates Oift by His lloyal Highness Prince Oscar „ IJaron S. Adelsviird l qoo Contributions from members of the Expedition 5,400 Sale of remaining effects, tfec 4 210.83 Supplementary grant by the Swedish Estates 17,356.80 51,907.03 ' About ^2,887 sterling. I'O.X AN1> DKAI) i,'l:rS-I)KKI(. 'I C'lJAPTKIi III. THE SWEDISH AKCTrC EXPEDITION OF 18G4. The prelimiiiaij survey to ascrtaiii tlie possil>iJity of measuring an are of meriaian having l.een left unfinished by the Expedition of 1801, the Swedish Academy of fecienees made a representation to tlie Government of the desira]>leness of completing it, and the Estates, on he proposition of the Government, voted a sum of 10,000 rix-dollars (about £550) for this purpose. The new expedition was placed under Nordenskiold's leader- ship. Chydenius was to have accompanied him, but he died a few weeks before the departure of members of the expedition from Stockholm, and Duner, who had also taken part in the work i„ 1861, was appointed in his stead. In order that the opportunity of studying the botany and zoology of the polar regions might not be lost, Count B. von Platen provided funds to enable a liaturalist to accompany the expedition ; Dr. Malmgren from Finland acted in that capacity. All the members of_ he expedition were familiar with Spitzbergen and with the peculiar difficulties that there meet the observer An old and strongly- built gunboat of only twenty-six and aq-rter tons burden, newly-schooner rigged, named the A.vd Jhorchen, was chartered at Tromsoe, fully '■•juipped and manned with nine men, for four month^ III. 111.] l5JiAl! IHLAKDS. 1(»5 for 1,400 spfcie (]„l]arH. Tliin snmlJ veHsel was pro- visioned for five and a half months, without counting some sacks of Kus.sian meul which ]iad l)een hiid in, in order tliat, in case of an invokintaiy wintering, there might be a supply of some vegetable food. There was neither room nor funds for provisioning the vessel for a whole year, as ought alwaj's to be done in these waters. The Axel Thorchen carried four boats, and, to enable three of these to be manned at once, three additional hands were hired in Tromsoe, so that the crew consisted of twelve persons, of whom the sailing-master, Hellstad, and the dredger, Joachim Loienz, had taken part in the Expedition of 1861, and Uusimaa, the harpooner, in the Expeditions of 1858 and 1861. The little schooner got to sea on the 15th June, and on the 17th had Bear Island in sight. When Nordenskiold passed Bear Island in the spring and early summer of 1858 and 1861 its coast was quite blocked up with closely-packed masses of drift-ice, and, 111 the autumn, landir.g was rendered impossible by storm and the thicknns. of the atmosphere. On this occasion Bear Island v,.,., .oncealed by its winter coverino- but the sea round ; a.^, ^f i,,^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ .^.^.^^^ ^^^^ been met with in sa. . . from Norway, it was supposed that the south coast of Spitsbergen was yet surrounded by "spring ice," that Stor Fjord was not yet accessible, and that a few days' stay at this known little island would not be prejudicial to the main object of the expedition-the preliminary survey in Stor Fjord Nordenskiold and his companions with some difficulty cHccted a landing near what is called the South Harbour but which does not deserve the name of harbour, beino- l\ if i [fl l'"i N(.>l!nKN.SKld|,D'a ARCTIC VOYACiHS. |,„a,.. Jiuite open to tho soutli, „ihI tlicrcforo not nffor.lin- tlio least protection against southerly or south-easterly win,] or sea. Tlie sliore nearest the anchorage is eom|,osed of pcrpeiulicular rust-coloured cliffs, whoso weathered sides were on this occasion nearly free of snow and covered with sea-fowl and their nests. Farther inland the islan.l had an unbroken covering of »now wjiich extended to tlie foot of the enormous fell mas.ses of irount Miserv Ihc rocks on the shore were hollowed out by the waves at mnunierable places into gigantic grottoes and arches, winch gave the whole the appearance of a onee nii..hty city now m ruins. A hindhig was effected on the sandy beach of a bay near the southern Russian hut, the only convenient laudnig-plaee in the quarter. Nordenski,il,l made an excursion to Mount Misery, Mal.ngren to the south part of the island while Duner, after taking .solar observations went towards the centre of tlic isl.and. Later in the day Nordenskiold, .stopping up the door, window, and ;=l"mney of tlie Russian hut with tarpaulins, converted it into a photographic stu.lio, and took .several photographs of the neighbouring coast. Next day tl,e Swedes rowed to the west coast, into the sound between Bear Island and Gu 1 Island, the ro.-lcs on both si,les risiii. boldly out of t le sea, so that there was no po.,siliilitv of landing except here and there where there was a smal' sandy beach at the foot of them. The party h.a,l almost .■oacho,, the pillar of rock which, pierced by two immense arched opening.,, ri.,es at the southern extremity of the island to a height of al,out rm feet above the level of he se,a, when a heavy swell eoinpoll,.d them to return to the harbour. Here they found their skipper very L |<'IIAI'. I'fling tlio crly wind n posed of Ted sides I covered ;lie island ended to fc Misery. lie waves d arches, 3 mighty 3f a bay nvenient nude an uth part ovations, ' in the ow, and verted it ^ographs Swedes m Bear 3 risinof )ilitv of i> sniaJ^ almost nmense of tlie evel of return ir very ....J THE ARCTIC LAND RISING. 107 uneasy lest the wind should freshen and their vessel, having an insecure anchorage, be driven on land. While he was weighing anchor niA cruising off" the ishmd, Nordenskiold rowed back to fetch his photographic apparatus, and to insert a water-mark at the JJurgomaster Port. "This mark consists of an iron wedge «>lll.'II.M,< |,.,,|.;. of VN„||„ . l.n||,.M ||o m|„V..|.| "'"•»"■ '»'»•! '""■••I VMtlhviM (.. lll.«,.,„MM|,..|l r,.r lhrM,,| I NvlnHiM..,r l.l.n.lu.-,. |,v.,„.„(lv vi,,!..! ii, r,.i n.rr |, „„.,.. *""' •''"' •"''•■'"•••'I l.-lNhoil |,r,UM|s, Tuo |,„|,.. ,vn.:.ll,' •''•'* "UM„OM.,|, of ll,.,.,.. M..,(,, n,,., vv,. |,,,,„ ,,|,,,,,,.,^ "'•''"';""'''; '•' !'<''• VVMM hull! ,„.„■ N..,,|, ||,„Ih.„V "> 1-'^'.'- I'\ .1 llMmmrilrMi lunvliiiiil. who (nr ■..vnal N.-Mr,M,s,.|,( uu'u (ou, „(.,•..„ (1... i.l.n.l lor ll.o pur,,o,sr "'' ''»""»"K "ill, I ||,.« u|:.,I,, .,.i,.,„ .,„,,, ,,,. .^^,^^^.^^^ ''''"''*" '" •""••«'l'""'i.v ..I' ,„ mimi.umIIv unr,ivoiir,,M,i wmlrr, ^.uUI i.o.d,u.,nK(lh-ro»us,. Ivin,j..slu,.r.l U il,,- nu.MIr «'«' ^' -(Ml. .h.nr. ;, l.rll of i.v u .■ Mv., ui il.r nonli, nnIu.I, nv;,. i;,„m,I i,( lir.si i.. Im« ,,,;.(,> \*l""' '"" >'l'''-nNa.,ls luv.uur ,so ,-lo.srlv l-.i. kr,| 1 1,.„ ,,„v <"<»'llu«r |Mv,u«V8.s u;,,s .uipossihlo. 'ri,,. ^^,M.| iMI ,,,^1 ■' ''''^'^ ""■'• '■«"'»'' <>'>• "rix- l.ojv of ,v...rlni,o Slop ''>"^^ ''•■"' '*^ ''«' r.'v>-n u|.. ;„ul ...Itrr lioluino (|,.-,r Nvav (luvno.h iho uv for (luv. vv l.olo .l.-.vs. ||„« Sw.m1.«s slUV,v»Ul III ^^,MIUU. out of ,1 „. Iho IMlohluMuhoo.! o[- VhiuW roivbihl. aiul ;is ;n> mnuM.ni.iMo WU si,|| SUnVUlhlo,! (IU> VNholo SOIHIUMI. .O.i.M of Sp.l.IviVVI.. \hp aiu-houHl u. S;,fo Hav.u. ouc o( d.o ui.iun ha.I.ou.s ^''" '>v Kioul. tlh-rr to auau a uu^vo fuoumhlo stalo *"•' ''''"J^^^- ^^^""^^ "•'^'" i-- ;< Intl. Imn o„ (h. north Shoiv of Ko Fjonl. U.II ,M0t<.l,.l fu.. nu.st uuuls. wijh a soft Ja.v lotion.. ..lu! . otisr^urtiilx ooo.i . '.or' <\^.. riu- u^M.-.n.vvst ,,,.. of SatV llaNu, ,> o.vnp.o.l IM ill Mfiritiy uilniM. Ill IIVi'llli'llI if M|ii'i'iii| I' H.'iIm' III IT lilllCM, > I'i'iii.'iiii .iIiv.iiIn ll.'ii liDiir ' M'\('I;|| pill |I|).S|< MCIIIV \ , I i>iir,'ili|i' Sill imw < lllillljlc it'o u.iM l't> i|itil(< lull ;iii\ Ml .111.1 i,i^' Slot' i; lln-ir Swctlrs llOOll (if II Mill iilxMirs I' St;il0 lUMlll W IIUJS. \' '^or A iKtAT lv\r|i|{M|nN lOli •'^ "" ' "■'^'' Ml'X'i. r. IVui,, whirji |„r^r,. |,|,„.|ii>< I'n.k.-i, i,|., |.n,|,.r|,.Ml IVoh, ||„. ..,||;„.K of 111'" l<»N. fiM :.iv ||„. ..iilvM Mii.l mmimII.t miiIIm. Uy ||„. i„ ' •""''''•' '•'"■'-^ ^^ '""'••• lliry l.nv.l. Tli.« pink r.M.lnj i^ooHi^{Aiis,r hnu'/i„r/if,,u'/ii,s)ou ll„. oil,,.,. |,;„„| ,v,,iii,,.s ""' l"'"'l'''l'<'ii. .iihI iIi.'IvIoiv I.iv.mIs 01, t|„. ,„.,iM|.,,H|. ''.^ P''l''''''"»'< \w .'.|,.v of ||„. ,,„.k,M, vvl,i,.i, 01, Ihr n.Tlll-OMsl .si,!r of ll.r |,;,,lMi,ir ris,. |„.r,»r|„li,.,.|;,Hv out o( lilt' si';i. •^^ ''"' •''■''"' I""' ■^lill l"V in r,.iu|K,.( iiiMssrs ;,| ||,r ""*<'••' "I' ll"' Ij-nl. N'onlrn.ski.lM, llrilsln.l, iunl flnv.> ni.Mi w.-iil ..11 Ml.oal .-x.iirsioii to lli<" fells wliirji djvido lit*, tj.mj inl.) lu.. !.nns. .mimI wlii.'li Ilk,- ni;niy olh,.,- siinil;ir promoMliM-i.-s on S|.il/luM--vn |,;iv,- l..vi. ,,,llr.l Mi,|,|!o lli>.>k. l.iii whiih N,.nl.'nski.i|.l iv nMiiicI iSjiiiric Hook. TIu" lirsl ,l,iy ih.-y n-ii.h.Ml n low pnunonlory. to which ilu'y oMNv th.' n.inu' of C;,p,. nohnn.-in. " Nrxt djiy lin.lino- ,t inip,>ssil,h« |o p.Mu-tr.ih- (,. (!„' hoMoni of Nonl I'jov.l. (Iu> p.nty l.nuK>,l ;»t ||,.> mouth of ;i strcvun which t;ills into the sc;i between Nor,| Fjord nnd Kk.as Hillen il m ' i 1 1 I ^ if- 1 -r 3 j j ; ■1 j ,; , I j . ]\ j i i j 1 J 1 no NORDENSKIOLD'8 ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chai.. yniy. This stream flows tlirougli cf valley which from Its being frequented hy reindeer is called Kendalcn (the Reindeer Valley). Here Nordenskiold collected a large number of fossils from the interesting Triassic strata which occupy a considerable extent on Ice and Stor Fjords. The following day he fourd yet finer fossils among them large nautilus-like shells, and fragments of bones, some of which appeared to have beel four feet long, belonging to crocodile-like animals, such as are now found only in the warm countries in the neighbourhood of the equator. In the meantime Plell- stad killed seven very fat reindeer, which were carried to the boat with some difficulty, one of the sailors Mdio was fording a rapid stream, with a rein-cow and calf on his back, being carried off his feet and narrowly escaping drowning. Nordenskiold, returning to the vessel on the 30th of June, sketched the pleasures of his boat journey in such lively colours that his comrades came unanimously to the conclusion that the best thin- they could do under the circumstances was to undertake another boat expedition to the inner part of the fjord Leaving therefore the key of the cabin in which the stock of wine and spirits was kept in the hands of Johansson, a trustworthy Stockholm man, and ap- pointing Uusimaa skipper in the absence of master and mate, the party started, Malmgren, Nordenskiold, Hellstad, the cook, and two men in one boat, Duner' the mate, and two apprenti(;es in another. The former party landed first at Coal Bay, and then rowed on through a tolerably icc-frcc channel to the mouth of Sassen Bay. During the row Malmgren shot a pink- footed goose and <-ollPcted some of its egg,. Ildlstad [chap. icli from ilcn (the d a large ie strata mtl Stor r fossils, agments Ben four such as in the ne Plell- carried sailors ow and aiTowly e vessel lis bout ;s came ig they dertake 3 fjord, eh the nds of d ap- master skiold, Duuer, former ed on ith of pink- ^llstad HI.j GIPS HOOK. Ill also shot some reindeer. The following day after landing at a rocky hat-formed hill, which at a dis- tance was seen to consist of hyperite, and taking angles there, they explored some islands off Gips Hook, also consisting of hyi)crite and covered with eiders' nests. The sailors, who now had considerable experience, had strict orders to collect only fresh eacrg, and, the test being applied of putting them intra vessel containing salt water, most of them sank, showing that they had been selected with great skill. Gips Hook was the next landing-place. Here the scene was magnificent. The headland itself consisted of a low, much disintegrated hyperite rock, from which at some distance from the shore rose a high fell, below consisting of horizontal, grey strata of gypsimi interspersed here and there with white nodules of ala- baster, resembling strings of pearls ; higher up was a black band of hyperite with a perpendicular face, and above it again were grey fossiliferous strata and snow- fields blinding white. Farther up Sassen Bay was Temple Mount, rising directly out of the sea, and perhaps grander still. The thick band of hyperite forming the top of the fell, has been very regularly cut by the streamlets into forms, which at a distance strongly resemble enormous Gothic arches, and. give the whole the appearance of a colossal Gothic dome fallen into ruin. At the foot of the mountain the fjord Avas strewn with innumerable, fantastically shaped pieces of drift-ice, and lay so calm and still that it mirrored every fragment of ice and every rock along the shore. Innumerable sea-fowl, breeding partly on ilic sides of the mountain, partl}^ on the hyperite *ii I 1 • i I vi il I 112 N-()RI)ENSKrOLl)'S ARCTIC YOYAdEi^. [nixv. islands fircled in the aii- or swam among the ice seeking their food in the sea, and giving animation to the otherwise calm and silent 'nature of the high north. After collecting fossils and shooting somc^ reindeer here, the jjarty started to row to the opposite shore and narrowly escaped having their boat nipped between the fast-ice and drift-ice that was carried up the fjord by the tide. Surrounded at first by small ice which could carry neither their boat nor themselves, they managed to follow in the wake of a large block of glacier ice Avhich nt first threatened to destroy them by its whirling motion, and reaching the edge of the fost-ice succeeded after several attempts in drawing up their heavily-laden boat on it, so that they could in safety Avitness the collision between the drift-ice and the fast-ice, by which large pieces of drift-ice were foi-ced upon the fast-ice, forming a wall along its border, the fast-ice at several places itself being broken up. After some hours' waiting, open- ings appeared in the drift-ice which gradually extended to the land. The boat was again launched, and the north shore of the South Fjord safely reached on the 7th July. The provisions that had been brought along being now nearly exhausted, it was determined to returih After several days' delay, occasioned by the state of the ice, and meeting with a party of Englishmen who had been employed in hunting on the east shore of Advent Bay, Nordenskiold and his companions rejoined tlieir vessel in Safe Haven. Dujier in tlie meantime had visited Coal Bay and Green Harbour, going as far westward as Cape Stara- tschin, named after the Kussian hermit who live.l in its [CH/ A I' the ice lation to jh north. leer here, lore and between bhe fjord 3e whioli es, they ^e block destroy lie edge mpts in so that between :e pieces L'ming a \\ places ig, open- 'xtendod and the on the ht alono' ) rotnni. e of the rho had Advent d tlieir ay and ' Stara- d in its "'•J AN ENGLISH YACHT. ug neighbourhood. Here he was obliged to turn, and passing Coal Bay he came to Advent Bay, where he was iniormed by some shipwrecked Norwegians, who were iiuntmg reindeer, that Nordenskiold and his party had gone to Safsen Bay. He then crossed over to Cape Thord- sen, finding there a fine waterfall 700 feet in height -The ice in the North Fjord being closely packed, Dun^r returned to the Axd Thordsen, and finding that Nor- denskiold and his c-omrades had not come back, thouah the time fixed for their return had long passed started again to search for them, and landed first at tape Boheman, then at Advent Bay, where he was informed by the Norwegians that Nordenskiold and Malmgren had left it a few hours before. Immediately after their return the Swedes were invited to dinner on board the yacht Sultana, where they made the acquaintance of the Englishmen on board, Mr. E. Birkbeck, owner of the yacht, Mr Graham Manners Sutton, Mr. Alfred Newton, now Professor of Zoology at Cambridge, Dr. W AV Wao- staffe, and, finally, Herr H. Lorange, a Norwegian and interpreter to the party. The Englishmen and Swedes often visited each other, and, says our author, - we had the opportunity of admiring the elegance and comfort uncommon in these latitudes, with which the Sultana was fitted up, and at the same time of being astonished at the idea occurring to any one of sailing in this beautiful but fragile nutshell through seas bestrewn with drift- ice, without serviceable boats or other proper equipment. A collision with the smallest ice-floe had been sufiicient to drive a hole in the vessel's side." Tl IP mouth of the fjord had been free fr om ice for 1 114 NOllDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. some (liiys before tlie return of tlie boat parties, but on account of a persistent cahii the Axel Thordsen could not sail before the KJth of July. IJefore leaving an iron bolt was placed as a water-mark on the outer °side of the island otf the eastern shore of Safe Haven. On the 15th of July at 4 p.m. the mark was 1-4 metre above the level of the sea. On the 17th, while the Axel Thordsen was oft' Bell Sound, a violent storm came on, compellmg the Swedes to anchor in the sound. It continued with undiminished force during the 19th and 20th, but notwithstanding it Nordenskiold betook himself to an island off the mouth of the North Fjord that he might photograph a glacier which had filled up a harbour that a few yenrs previously had been one of the best and most frequently visited on Spitzbergen. Malmgren and Duner landed at Midde Hook, finding there an uncommonly luxuriant vegeta- tion, remarkable for the abundance of plants otherwise rare on Spitzbergen ; for instance, the beautiful blue and white flowered Pohmonium jjulchellum. On the 21st the storm was followed by- a calm so complete that there was no possibility of a sailing vessel making any progress. Duner embraced the opportunity to map Van Keulen Bay, while Nordenskiold went to Van Mijen Bay, returning on the 2Gth to the Axel Thordsen, winch again put to sea on the 27th. After passing Dunder Bay an impenetrable fog came on, which did not lighten till midday of the 29th. As it dispersed the "most majestic picture that Spitzbergen has to offer, the white tops of Horn Sounds Tind glancing in the sun, became visible. These mountains rise in three steep and pointed summits to a height of 4,500 feet above the sen and 1 1 m M i H H 1 ■ [chap. III.] FLOCKS OF TERNS. 115 Scorcsl>y names them as the ],iglicst and stateliest of the mountains of Spitzbergon. To Noi-denskiold and his comrades, though they had often sailed past this stretch of coast, the view was altogether new. Durino- the greater part of the year mists conceal them from view. The wind dying away, the Axel Thordsen an- chored at the Down Islands on the 30th of July The islands are all low and flat, with numbers of fresh- water ponds. They are thus specially suitable breedino- • places for eider, the rather because the ice round them 1 .eaks up sooner than round most of the other islands on Spitsbergen. The walrus- hunters often visit them in the ...onth of June and luxuriate on the eggs and birds. Hatching time was past, and the eider were now swim- ming about the shores accompanied by their newly- hatched young. On landing on the islands great flocks of terns were met with, which sought with wild cries to protect their eggs or only down-clad young. If they had not in this way shown where their eggs or youno- were, it would have been often diflicult°to discover them among the gravel on which they lay, which was often pricked out in yellow by a species of lichen on account of their greyish-yellow colour. The terns, how- ever, now flew round the observer in flocks with such violence that it is only in case of necessity that any one would visit their breeding-places. The sides of the fells on the mainland next the sea were formed of coarse debris, which up to a great height was covered with a lively green. Here were found in- numerable flocks of Spitzbergen's smallest natatory bird the rotge {Mergulus alle). These birds choose for their breeding-p]n<'(>s the enormous stone heaps, which at many I -3 i\\ 116 KORDENSKIOLD'S AKCTIU VOVAaKS. [(ha... places arc found on 8pitzbcr to kill ten to twenty of them, or creep under . like rats in holes among the stones. When Torell and Nordenskiold visited Si)itzbergcn in 18G1, they anchored off these islands in the middle of June. They wished to collect some rotgcs' eggs, and for this purpose searched for them without success in the openings between the stones. They were on their way to return with their errand unaccomplished when the cackling sound, which came from a greater depth, drew their attention. They now began to lift the stones, and they captured several living birds and found some eggs lying on the ice between them. Probably tho proper hatching-time had not begun. It was curious to hear the sounds that came from among the stones when one counterfeited the cry of the rotiro close to the ground. Without any bird being visible ready answers were heard from underground in all tlirections, and those answers called forth cackling again and again renewed, so that a single question gave occa- sion to a veiy long-continued conversation between the feathered but rat-like inhabitants. The flesh of the rotgc is exceedingly savoury, with no flavour of train-oU. During the stay of the expedition at Horn Sound a great many were shot. A shot was thought unsuccessful if it did not kill seven to ten birds at once. Nordenskiold and Duner, each in Jiis boat, set out to [('IIAI'. .1,.] MURDER WILL NOT HIDE. 117 survey Horn Sound, but were obliged to return by con- trary strong winds and an exceedingly high sea. after lying to near the north shore of the Ijord, and there by triangulation obtaining some considerable contributions to their map. During their return they visited the inner- most island at the harbour, and found there in a little heap nine skulls of Russians said to have been robbed and murdered by an English crew who went unpunished. Another similar deed of blood done on the coast of Spitsbergen was discovered in a wonderful way and the actors brought to punishment. On their return to Arch- angel, the crew of a Russian bodje stated that they had lost their captain and two men at Spitsbergen by an acci- dent. This did not of course attract any special atten- tion, but some years after, in 1853, a Norwegian who was still living in 18G7, found a gun-barrel lying beside a human skeleton. The gun-barrel was covered with inscriptions scratched on it, stating that the owner along with two men, who before the writing was finished had died of hunger, had been intentionally left on land by his crew. This remarkable journal closes on the 3rd of March. The Norwegian who found the gun-barrel sent it to Archangel, the crime was discovered, and the perpetrators sent to Siberia. The Axel Thordsen put to sea again on the 3rd of August, sighting, and after a long chase overtaking, a Norwegiaii vessel, the skipper of which in an " uugentle- man-like " way, uncommon on the coasts of Spitsbergen, disregarded the signals made by the Swedes. They got no letters or newspapers from him, but coaxino- him on board by the offer of a glass of spirits, an unusual luxury, as no liquor is allowed ou board the lis NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAOKS. [cup. Nonveginu vessols tliat frcjuent Spiteberge.,, they ex- tracted from hhn as best they could some idea of the state of matters in Europe. On the 6tli of August South Cape was passed, but it was impossible, on account ot .ce, to anchor as had been intended. The position ot the drift-ice also prevented Whales' Kay from bein" reached. After sailing some time in a nortli-easterly direcfon open water was found along the south part of Sans Foreland. The course was therefore set for Whales I „n,t, where (he vessel anchored on the mornino of the 9th. ° The proper goal of the expedition was thus reached but the short polar summer was already so for advanced that at most three weeks' working could be reckoned on without exposure to the risk of a winter passed without the necessary equipment. It was therefore necessary to use every favourable moment, more especially because fron. the accounts which they obtained from visitors to Spitzbergen, the weather in Stor Fjord did not promise to be very good. Fortunately it appeared that the discouragmg descriptions of the fogs prevailing here were properly applicable to the Thousand Islnds comparatively clear weather ),eing really general in' the inner part of the fjord. Here, as at many other places on Spitsbergen, may be found cloudless skies and sunshine, while an impenetrable fog lies at the mouth. 1 he cause of this is to be sought for in the course of the marine currents. While an arm of the Gulf Stream as the masses of driftwood heaped up at South Cape and the Ihousand Islands show, flows past the southern part oi A\ est .Spitzbcrgeu an.l Stans Foreland, at least during a portion of the year, it is the Arctic current [chap. HI.] THE THOl SAND ISLANDS. 119 entering from Helis Sound and Walter Thymcn's Strait which principally i:)rovails in the interior of Stor Fjord, There is, therefore, no driftwood to be met with on the shores of this fjord, on which account it is necessary to carry a supply of fuel on boat voyages. During .boat voyages along the north coast of Spitsbergen one may, however, nearly always reckon on finding dry and excellent material in the neighbourhood of the resting-place even for a large log-fire. At Whales' Point there still stand ruins of some Russian huts, remains of one of the largest Russian settlements on Spitzbergen. These were described by Keilhau as they existed during his visit in 1827. From the top of Whales' Point, which was ascended with difficulty, a very extensive view was obtained. On the east Decvie Bay lay open, bounded at the horizon by a black precipitous fell. " To the right of this moun- tain w^e could," says Dun^r and Nordenskiold, " with the help of a glass count twenty-eight islands belonging to the Thousand Islands, and gathered, it appeared, into two groups, one near Deevie Bay and the other right to the south of Whales' Point. They were in general small and low. In the sound between them three vessels were seen, among which, as we afterwards found, was that of our English acquaintances from Ice Fjord. We could not on the other hand see Hope Island, and it appears very probable that, as Lamont remarks, it lies considerably farther to the east than is shown on the chart. We can- not state this with comjDlete certainty, however, because Hope Island might have been concealed in a fog that lay on the horizon. On the contrary, the whole west coast of Stor Fjord, the extreme point of which, Suutli 120 r' I !i I'! M L » NORDENSKIULD'S ARCTIC VOYAG KS. [t'irAP. Cape, ooul.1 w,t), certainty h. .li.sting„i.,I„.,l, l„y i„ the moat glor,ou, sunshine. It appeared to consist of a con- fused assemblage of snowy summits of nearly equal .e,ght, among whiel, only a few were so re™,,rfc.,,r o be easdy recognised, as for example the n.ountains at Wi,ale» Head and Agardh's Bay. Jiut oy.,- ,M those ove. the houses of ,a great city the n.ighty Morn Sounds imd, w,th an angular height at least double that of the otie m„unta,ns. It was easy to see from this that t state y menu ta,„ ,s the loftiest in Sonth Spitsbergen " Whales Head being inaccessible, Aga-'dh's iL ,v,« next v.s.ted, and on the l;uh the 'am TkLZ " -Lored near Lee's Foreland. Here, as at the fome l^aee, the Swedes landed and ascended the neiglb^u „ no n,a,„ w ere they found a Russian cross at°a hS S o F or t 1^^ ""'""'• ''"" ^^•'"•" •■"-'"<"• down ," """"'I ^^ "'°™™^ S'""'^'-. "-''-h ?o down to the sea, and are only interrupted by black often conu-ally-shnped mountain tops. On the east o^t on the contrary, between Whales' Point and Helis Scm d here ,s only a single considerable glacier, the Ist bcmg formed of a ..ontinuons rocky "wall, vhich se about 1,000 feet m height. At the foot of this wall there are here and there grassy slopes, whi..h fern, the fin mndeer grounds on Spitsbergen. Walter Thymenl Stra,t was nght below, and appeared from the ma y sandbanks wh,ch are found in it to be very shallorind After anchoring near the only glacier, remarkable for It. immense mora.ne, which is to be found on the east sf [CIIAI', ..,.] MISTAKK POINT. I 121 coast of Stor Fjord, and shooting an immense Polar bear, our party proceeded on the IGth August to the western extremity of Darent/ Land. Along the shore here there is a low plain, during the latter part of summer free of anovv, without any proper turf, indeed, but affording ex- eellcnt summer pasture, and therefore known as excellent reindeer ground. Dundr and Nordenskiold landed here to take observations, Malmgren to botanise. Dundr shot a fine reindeer, and the cook, who was with them, was sent to the vessel for a boat, witJi orders to row round to the point which lay nearest the place where the reindeer lay, and fetcli it and the party on land. By a series of misadventures Nordenskiold and Dundr were unable to rejoin their vessel until after a twenty- four hours' l^ist and sixteen hours' continuous wandering and climbing. To commemorate these the promontorp was called Forvexlings Udde or Mistake Point. Weigh- ing anchor again during a complete calm the Axel Thonhen was driven backwards and forwards by the current, and for some time moored to an iceberg, or rather to an immense block of ice, which was forced along l)y the current through the other ice leaving a broad ice-free path behind it. It often happens that the ice moves in two different directions, the low shallow fjord-ice going i]i one, and the high glacier-ice deep in the water in another. During a calm the Spitzbergen skippers often make an iceberg driven forward by°an under-current tow their vessel through the surface current running in an opposite direction. When icebergs are spoken of in the region of Spitz- bergen, it ought to be remembered, that what is meant is large blocks of ice which fall down from the perpea- - 'I If '23 NOUDENSK-rotD'S AIIOTIC VOYAIIES. 1,„„, .ee.,l„„d „e,.,. tl,e s,.,. are iu,lec.l highe,. tl„,„ those on Sp.t.l,erK,.n, l,ut tl,i« ,lis„i,„ila,ity is not .sulK- ccntly great to e.j.Iai,, ,l,e „,.«.( ,IiHfc,.en,.o in ,l,c ,li,„en- e.on,, of tlie ghieie.-s at the two ,,l,„.es. 'I'lur. is ,„,„.!, prul,.b.hty in Professor fiUnnd's l,yj,ot),e»i.s tl.at tl... larger .eebergs a,e fo,.,„ed l,y Moei^s of iee falling down frotn a gla,.,er eoming in eontaet in th,.ir lower part, with an over-cooled stratu.n of water wl,i,.|,, ,« i« „,„ known when in ,.ont,.et with ,„.tnal i,.e, i„„ne,liately assumes the suhd for.n. On a,.,.ou„t of the Golf .Strea,.^ any s„,.h over-eool-.d stratu.n of water oan oecur onlv: exceptionally on the eoasts of Spit^herg,.,,, while the contrary ,s the ease in the waters of Greenla..,!. whi,.|. are fc.ken up al.nost exclusively by the Ar,.ti,. ,.urre..t Ihc .ee seeds whieh have fallen fr„n, the gla,.iers thus find a suitable soil for their further develop,„e..t only at Greenland, it is only th,.re that they g,.ow to thos'e enonnous .ce-masses which are so often the cause of the navig„t,)r's astonishment and ahwrn The^a-./ nor,.as obtained. An excursion was made to the inland ice, w.hich was found to be quite level, and as easy to walk on as a floor. Kelis Sound was next visited. On reaching their destination, the party drew up their boat on a low piece of hind be ween the sound and the glacier near White Mount' After tin. ncrssary interval of rest, th,.y ,,roce,.,led to ascend White Mount. The ascent was difficult on account [flUP. Ill 1 (ilLES' LAND. 123 of tho frozen ciu.st by wlii.-h tlie snow was covered often giviog way under their feet. The view from the top is tlu! grandest to be found on Spitsbergen. In the cast at a distance of 120 miles there was visible a very higli land with two rounded cu[)ola like mountains surmount- ing the others. This was the westernmost part of a large, nearly unknown Arctic land, which though dis- covered so early as 1707 by Commander Giles, has been completely forgotten and left ait of the newest maps. Between this land and Spitsbergen the sea was covered with lai-g(^ unl)roken ice-fields, among which it was certain that no vessel could make way. A visit was planned to this inaccessible country after the conclusion of the survey, but the plan had to be given up. In the north and north-east were visible, as far as the eye could reach, the mountains of North J]ast Land and Ilinloopen Strait, and the Strait itself, with its islands, which now appeared to be surrounded with quite ice-free water. Nordenski()ld recognised Loven's Mount visited by him in 18G1. Between it and White Mount rose the high snow-covered fell- tops of Thumb Point, and right behind these ran a long, very crooked sound, into which several glaciers fell. The interior consisted of an endless dcsohite snow- wilderness, broken only here and there by some black, solitary stone masses, strongly contrasted with the blinding white ground. Far away in the west and north-west more continuous mountain-chains appeared. The whole of the west and north coast of Stor Fjord was also visible as far as Whales' Head, and the whole north part of Barentz Land, the northern extremity of which consists of a considerable glacier, much splil up, projecting into tlie sea. "Tender our 4 124 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. feet lay the little ound discovered by Norwegian walrus- hunters in 1858, which we marked with the name Helis Sound, already occurring on Dutch charts. Mr. Lamont mentions it in the account of his voyage under the name of Ginevra Sound, but from his statement it appears that he was not farther than the point of Forvexlings Udde, and that he accordingly did not see the sound proper. Lamont is guilty of another mis- take, through not being acquainted apparently witli the sketch-map of north-eastern Spitzbergen in Parry's famous voyage, and not having himself determined the latitude. He makes his Ginevra Sound open out about where Lomme Bay is, and places it in 79" 30' N while it is in foct in 78° 40', his latitude being thus no less than 50' wrong." After taking a number of angles the party returned and found that the men had been hunting reindeer, and had succeeded in killing two very fat ones, and that a bear had taken advantage of their absence to pay a visit to the boat, creating such confusion that it required a whole hour to gather the articles scattered about and put everything to rights. The bear was believed to have been frightened hy the noise, to him unusual, made by a bagful of biscuits as he emptied them out, for the marks on the sand showed that he then took to flight. In the course of the night the bear, as was expected, paid another visit to the boat, but he was obliged to make a rapid retreat, unhurt by the bullets which were sent after him, to the great disappointment of our partj^ who had already by anticipation divided his skin, and were looking forward to bear-steaks, having found those of the bear they had formerly shot very good. Their men [chap. n vvalrns- me Helis Lament rider the mient it point of I not see ler mis- ly witli Parry's ned the it about 30' N., ig thus nber of len had kill in "• ^antaoe ig such ler the rights, by the )iscuits sand arse of r visit etreat, to the [ready loking f the men. III.] THE LAST DAYS OF SUMMER. 125 on the other hand, woukl eat none of it, though it tastes very well, resembling fat and coarse-grained beef, with perhaps a little flavour of pork. This prejudice is thought to be grounded partly on the statement, possibly correct, that the liver is poisonous, partly on the fact that the flesh of the bear, when he has eaten too much blubber, becomes ill-tasting and ill- smelling. The younger sailors fear that they will be grey-haired before their time by eating bear's flesh. The boat party returned to the vessel, arriving on the 24th of August. The survey being now completed, the question arose how the short remaining working time should be employed. Instead of proceeding to Giles Land, which was clearly impracticable, it was resolved to sail as far north as possible, with the view of ascertaining the position of the ice on the coast of Spitzbergen in the first half of September. Two ways were open, one by South Cape, the other by Helis Sound and Hinloopen. The latter was the more tempting as shorter and affording an opportunity of circumnavigating Spitzbergen, as the Norwegian, Captain Carls^r, had done in 1863, but it was considered too dangerous for a sailing-vessel so late in the season on account of the probability of being frozen in. The former way accord- ingly was chosen, and on the morning of the 25th the Axel Thordscu sailed southwards, after killing six very large and fat reindeer. On the 26th Hellstad shot a bear, and Malmgren and Duner a number of seals, which followed the vessel from curiosity. They were so fat that they floated, and thus were not lost, as is other- wise generally the case when they are killed in the water. Passing South Cape without landini?, as had 126 ^'ORDENHraOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGI'X [(,.„ap. been intended, they sailed northward witli a fresh wind, and by tlie morning of the ;30th liad reached the laritude of Charles Foreland, when a boat full of men, with a large flag in the fore, was seen rowing as fast as they could towards the vessel. As they were clearly sliiinvrecked men the ship was put about, and they were soon on board. They stated that th(>re were six other boats, containing altogether thirty-seven men, l)elono-ino- to I'lliit'A I'.AKI'ATA. three vessels, among them the yacht Anna EUzahcth, of which JVfattilas was master, which had been beset by the ice -^ the coast of North-East Land. They had traversed in their boats a distance of 100 geographical miles in fourteen days. Another of the lioats was picked up in the afternoon, and, on the night between the 2nd and 3rd September, four boats more. After searching for som(> time for (lie Rcventli boat, the Axel [c.'llAP. sli wind, latitude I a large 3y could wrecked soon on V boats, ^ing to ff m N^_-- ^ m fa^ -- ^ X^p ) HP^ ll ^=-- E *■- - ,(j- v.'-'"' zahcth, set by y had .pliical s was itween After ! Axel f1 '.5 'i in.] CLOSE OF THE EXPEDITION. 127 ThorcUen was anchored in Ice Fjord, wliither the missing boat also arrived on the morning of the 4th. Fortu^ nately places could be found for ten men on two small yachts which still lay in Ice Fjord. There thus remained twenty-seven men on board, making in all forty-two men on the little Axel Thcmhen. There was of course no question now of going farther north. Ice Fjord was left on the 4th of September, South Cape was passed on the night between the 7th and 8th. On the 10th, in 72° 54' N., the temperature of the water rose almost at once from 3° to 8° C. (37° F. to 46° F.), a proof that the Polar Sea proper had been left behind. On the 13th they reached Tromsoe, and the expedition came to a termination. di;a(1(![xo udat (,VKif icn. . CHAPTER IV. THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION OF 18G8. The aim of tlic previous Arctic expeditions which had started from Sweden liad been tlie exploration of Spitzbergen. Tlie main object of the expedition of 1868 was to penetrate as far northwards as possible. In order to raise funds for this expedition Nordenskiold, finding the prevailing opinion of Stockholm society to be that enough had already been done in the way of Arctic research, turned to the commercial commu- nity of Gothenburg for assistance. He addressed a memorial setting f .rth the plan and objects of the expedition to the Governor of Gothenburg, Count A. Ehrensviird. Li this document he pointed out that autumn is the mo.i; fovourable season for sailing north- wards, because the old ice has then been partly melted by the heat of the sun, partly broken up and carried away in a southerly direction by the polar current, and the formation of new ice is not yet begun. He also enumerated the varied objects which were to be kept in view duiing the progress of the expedition. The list included an examination of the flora and fauna of Bear Island, the single remaining fragment of an extensive polar territory which probably at one time connected Scandinavia with S])itzbergen, the flora and y-.st ; G. Naiiekhofr, geologist and miieralo ! s ' THK "SOFIA." J he Sojia sailed from Gothenburg on the 7th July and after calling at Aalesund to take on board coal and provisions, reached Tromsoe on the 16th Here a short stay was made to complete the necessary equipment, and from this, the usual starting-point of the Swedish expeditions, the Sofia sailed on the morning of the 20th July, ploughing the waters of the Gulf Stream, which wash the shores of nortliern K 2 13-> NORDENSKIOLD'.S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cn.vp. Norway, nncl tlic colour of which is a very clear blue, almost as beautiful as that of the Lake of Geneva. The Polar current comincj from the east and runuinsr in an opposite direction, is of a dirty grey colour. The sea oft' the north of Norway is in summer enlivened by numerous vessels, most of which are English, em- ployed in the Archangel trade. Small Russian craft besides visit Finmnrk every summer to exchansre their •I o SIIAKK FISIII\(i meal bags for dried fish, and a number of Norwegian bank-fishing vessels lie scattered about catching sharks. Such a bank-fisher was visited, and the crew found employed in hauling on board a shark somewhat over eight feet in length, a "foul fish," with an unpleasant expression in its emerald-green deep-set eyes, which lay passive on deck, everybody, however, taking good care to keep at a respectful distance from its dreaded jaws. .v.] BEAU ISLAND. 133 I, em- craft their After Its hver bad been extracted, it was banded over to the Swedish zoologists, by whom it svas taken on boar.1 the Sofia and dissected, its (hirk ash-grey skin being salted for preservation. Bear Island was sighted on the 22nd July, and on the evening of the same day the sc.icntifi.j staff and then- assistants landed with provisions for a week's stay Five days were employed in an exploration of the island, which forms a pretty lovel plateau, two to three hundred feet above the sea, rising here and there into inconsiderable elevations and furrowed by small valleys in the bottoms of which little streamlets seek their way among the naked stones. In the south-east th. appro- priately named Mount Misery rises perpendicnh.rly from the sea to a height of about 1,200 feet, and in the south the Fuglefjeld is about the same height. On neither of these, however, is there any glacier or perpetual snow. It is not the formation of the island which gives it so desolate and forbidding an appearance, but the monoto- nous grey colour of the whole landscape. No trace of an> grass turf is to be found in the interior, far less of any trees or bushes ; only the Polar willow {Salix polans and herhacea) with its thread-like stalks creep- ing in the moss, and two or three leaves, scarcely the size of a finger-nail, raised above it. Green patches in hollows where water has collected and formed a sort of marsh, consist principally of mosses with scattered specimens of the Polar ranunculus {Ranuncnlus sid- ' phureus)^ and a few other plants and grasses sparingly mixed with them. Except in these marshy places, the ground IS nearly everywhere without the slightest trace 134 >.'0KDENaKlULL>'8 AliCTlO VOYAGES. [chap. of covering. By the coiiiliiued action of water and frost the rocks have been literally frozen asunder, the lime- stone to small angular fragments, and the sandstone to larger or smaller blocks heaped one upon another. Such collections of stones cannot, of course, afford nourish- ment to higher plants, the more especially as any little mould that may be formed is immediately swept away by the wind or washed away by the rain. At long intervals in this wilderness of gravel and lime- stone there are found solitary specimens of the Arctic poppy {Papavcr nudicaule), Saxifracja, Draba, Set- gma, &c. Lichens, especially the larger species, occur here very sparingly and badly developed, though in spots the ground is almost covered by s^>ecies which are exceedingly rare in the iiora of Scandinavia. AVhere sandstone- is the prevailing rock, the view is still more unpleasing. There is a considerable extent of surfoce where the only method of progression is by jumping from one block of stone to another, from which blocks all the higher plants, with the exception of a grass or two, are banished. The exterior of the island is more attractive. The rocks rise perpendicularly out of the sea, and as they consist of the looser formations, they have, in course of time, been shaped by the waves into the forms of arches, grottos, towers, columns, &c. The projecting rocky promontories are in some places found to be clothed with turf, and the perpendicular cliffs are richly hung with luxuriant Cochkaria. The explanation is easy. It is only the ledges where the sea- fowl sit that are thus ornamented, and it is only in the rich mould originating from these fowl that the plants can attain such luxuriance. This leads us to the most ■ \ [cilAP. ^ IV.] A WORLD OF SExl-FOWL. 135 remarkable thing a]^out Bonr Island, Us fabulous rich- ness in sea-fowl. Indeed it may be said that the fowl are the proper inhabitants and owners of the island. There are, it is true, some mountain foxes, but they are very scarce, and the greater number only make a visit during winter ; res(nnbling in this the Polar bear, from which the island is named, as it cannot, at least now, support itself here in summer. During that season the walrus, which soon after the discovery of the island was found upon its shores in unheard-of numbers, and a little flock of which Keilhau had an opportunity of observing, is now sought for in vain. Even in winter, according to the latest observations, the Polar bear is an unusual guest. The more amaz- ing is the number of the sea-fowl, which build their nests and live upon the perpendicular precipices on the islands and projecting cliffs. One may sail along the coast for stretches of several leagues, during which all the ledges, clefts, and corners of the mountain sides to a height of 400 or ,500 feet above the sea are seen to be literally covered with sea-fowl, whose white breasts show against the dark rocks as if they were closely sprinkled with chalk-white specks. Thousands of others fly far out to sea, innumerable flocks float on the waves, and the air near and far is, so to speak, thick with fowl. The number of plants found by the botanists of the expedition was thirty-three, which, with the other five formerly observed, but not now found, makes the whole number of phanerogamous and higher cryptogamous plants fo.und on Bear Island thirty-eight. The num- ber of species of insects found was twelve. The number of marine animals was unexpectedly small in ■ \ ^■•»<5- NORDKNSIvlULOS AKCTlf VOYAUES. [..up. conHcqm.nce of tho in,«i.ital.lo iwilurc of M,e l.ottom. A groat i.art of tlic islaiul coiiHi.stH cf stmta l)elongin.r to tlie Mountain Linnvstono, in wl.idi are found in abun"- .li.iK'c muHHcI .l.oIlH, corals, &e., .showing that in times long iKiHt quite adilH.rent anin.al worhl lived in an almost In'pical oeean. Two and a half eenturie-s ago seams of coal were discovered ou the north coast of the ishmd showing as black parallel bands on the porpc-ndicnlar chtls facn.g the. sea. As the coal that occurs on Spitz- beigen had been provc.l by the preceding Swedish ox- ix'dilions to belong to the comparatively recent Tertiary lH'no.1, It had be(.n considered probable that this was llie ease also with that found on Hear Island. Hut on examination being made impressions of plants were iound, partly in the coal, partly in the sandstone sepa- nitmg the seams, which afforded indisputable evidence that the strata here belong to the true Coal Formation Splendid SUjdIaria, Lepidodemlm, Caninnfes^and other characteristic fossils of the Coal period were taken, not without danger to life, from the peipendicular sea-cliffs ou the north side of the island, and it was with deep regret that others had to be left behin.l because there was not time to cut them out of the rock. The Sofia, whose steam horses had been fed durin^r part of the time she was cruising off the island with coal collected here, received the naturalists and their collections on board on the 2rth July, an.l the course was shaped right for Spitsbergen, with the intention of anding on South Cape, but on approaching this head- land on the 29th it was found surrounded by an im- passable barricade of ice. TJie course was then shaped towards the east, but it was soon found impossible to .1 f I [clfAP. n.) WIIITK VVllALK I'iSlllNa 137 make any progress in that dirnction, and tlio Sofia turncl wo.'.tvvards, and on the Gist anchored in Green ilarljonr in leo Fjord. In Groon Harbour wore found three fishing vessels the crews of whidi were hunting reindeer in the nei.d.l.our- ing valh>y8. A party of white-whale fi.sliers Juid erected a tent on the other side of the Bay. and awaited the arrival of a shoal of these animals. On paying a visit to the party twenty-four white whales, of various si.es. the argest 14 to IG feet long, were found laid in a row on the beach, most of them already deprived of their blubber and the rest waiting similar treatment. It was stated that a single animal may yield a barrel of blubber worth in Norway 25 specie dollars, and as a large number (in former times as many as 150) can be taken at once it is evident that the profit from this branch of industry is not inconsiderable. The skin, when properly prepared, yields a soft and pliant leather. The state of the carcases on the beach afforded evidence of a peculiarity of the climate of Spitsbergen. Although exposed day and night to the direct action of the sun's rays, there was no sign of putrefaction, and the entomologist of the expedition could not capture a single flv or other flesh-loving insect upon them. The gulls, on the other hand, did not neglect to feast on the abundant layers of flesh. "^ Near Green Harbour is tl,e grave of the Russian liormit, Staratscliin, who died of old ago in 1826 The rums of his hut are still to be seen ou a pro- montory which bears his name. He wintered on Spitsbergen thirty-two (some say thirty-nine) times, til teen consecutively. ..■•'I: J 38 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. The Sofia removed to Advent Bay on tlie nio-Lt between the 3rd and 4th of August, having on board the brothers Palliser, who had the day before arrived at Green Harbour in a vessel they had chartered for a hunting expedition to the Spit;ibergen waters. In Advent Bay lay three walrus-hunting vessels, and one laden with coal for Lord Hastings's pleasure yacht. Lord Hastings made only a very French visit, and having a boil in his finger returned home again with a few reindeer and auks and other sea-fowl. MUSUnOOMS AT ADVENT liAV. The Sofia lay in Advent Bay till the 11 th August. Vegetation was uncommonly luxuriant, and the animal world afforded abundant material for collections. In the fjord four salmon were taken, one of them about three feet long. They were all of course preserved in spirits. On the 6th August, Nordenskiold, Palander, Malm- gren, and four men started in a boat to explore Nord Fjord, lying opposite to Advent Bay on the other side t^- t [chap. n-.] FOSSIL "FINDS." 139 of Ice Fjord. Here was found a splendid field for geological observations, both in the Saurian Mountaius upwards of 1,000 feet high, and in the steep banks of a stream, which offer to the observer sections of beds of earth and rock, which are specially instructive with re- spect to the changes which the Polar regions have under- gone. Lowest in the valley there is found a phenomenon which is exceedingly uncommon on Spitzbergen, namely, an alluvial formation consisting of peat-moss, in somJ places twelve feet deep. Although deposited during a comparatively recent period, when the forests of pine and broad-leaved trees could no longer thrive, and containing, in consequence only the remains of more northern plants, these peat- mosses and the beds of earth which accompany them afford evidence of a climate in which the ice had not yet attained the nearly unlimited sway which it has on Spitzbergen in our days. The river has washed out of the earthy strata on which this peat rests various large and well developed shells of species {Mytilus ediilis, Cyprina Islandlca) which do not now live on the shores of Spitzbergen, but are found in northern Norway. The remarkable Triassic formation discovered here in 1864 containing the remains of animals resembling crocodiles' was re-examined, and a number of fragments of vertebrc^ were found, but no cranium, though a reward of ten specie dollars was offered for the discovery of one. Among other remarkable finds which were made here far up the Reindeer Valley, was a large bone of a whale, wdiich, however, could not be wrenched from the sur- rounding ice and frozen snoAv, and had to be left behind. After exploring both the western and eastern arm of 140 N()J{I)KNSK1()I,|)S AIMTK; V()YA(;KS. [ciiai'. Nonl Kjonl [\hv ladcr was iiaincd Dick.soii liay), and c'olk'cliiiir a, larw mimlx'r of iossiln hc'loiijrinnr lo the I\I()U!ilain Ivimcstoiio, llio [)ai \:M\\ Auonsl, I he So/in sloamcd out of Ice Fjord, l(>a\ing Nordcii.skiold, Palaiidcr, I'.crn-irn.n, and four men in a. lH)al. lo surNcy Vy'iiwe Cliarlcs' Foreland 8ound, wliile llie parly »)n hoard surveyed (li(> seaward side of the Foreland, and carried on dredij^ini;' to a dei)th of 1,250 fathoms in (lie sea oil" it. Tin; So/ia aneliored KlSlJS HAY W RslKHN SIDK. \'\ in King's Ray on the KUh August, and was rejoined by the boat party on the 17th, remaining there until the li)th, after taking on board about seventy cubic feet of coal from the neighbouring seams. The pres-nee of eoal on Spitsbergen has been long known. Keilhau states that in \S-2C> sixty barrels were brouuht to llammerfest, l^esides King's Hay small seams have been found at several other places, ehietly at Bell Sound and lee Fjord, all belonging to the Tertiary period. I CI I A I', IV.J Till-: STATM OK TJrK U'l]. Oil tlie 20tli August a .small vessel arrived with letters i"ul a cargo of coal from Sweden. This was taken on board while the Sojia layoff the site of 'Smecrenberg, the old whale-fishing station. On the 23rd August the >yia, leaving a number of the naturalists on land at Kobbe JJiiy, started <»n a cruise to ascertain the state of the ice. Jiy noon of the following day the jmck was llete]y surrounded by ice, and for the time inaccessible. The course was next shaped for Bnfiidywine Bay, which was found filled with packed drift-ice, extending several leagues out to sea. This proves that 18G8 was a bad ice year, for in 18G1 the 142 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cur. Bay wa, free of iec by the middle of August. Another harbour had to be found, and on the 28th the &> anehored in Liefele Bay, whenee Nordenskiold. Malm- greu, Nystrom, and throe men started the next day in M ,T,''"/r''™^'"*5 expedition, ero,,si„g the bay to Middlehook (Cape Roos), where, by the discovery of a fossil shell, the Red Bay shale or Hekla Hook formation was^ ascertained to belong to the Devonian period Their work aecomplished they were again taken on board, and the Sofia returned to Kobbe Bay where i violent snowstorm had almost put a stop to the work of the party that was left behind, but did not prevent a series of magnetic observations from being taken and some hitherto unknown insects discovered. The colony immediately went on board, and on the 31st August the &> steered for Smeer.nberg to load coal, and next for Liefde Bay to dredge, with satisfactor; results. Brandywine Bay was next visited, the vessel being able to make her way through ice-floes to the north headland, Dep6t Point. I„ 1861 the fjord was quite free of lee in the middle of August ; now there was a continuous covering of ice, though it was pretty much broken up. It was everywhere sprinkled with black spots, which by a glass were seen to be seals, resting by their holes, whence they could make food excursions into the deep. Neither walrus nor Polar , T:, v'; "'"■' '"°™°" '" 1861, could be seen, but hey did not seem to have altogether disappeared, for traces of the latter were found, and the walrus- hunters, who had made a little excursion among the dnft-ice. reported that they had got a glimpse rf the former. The object of visiting Brandywine Bay wa IV.] AN OPEN ICE-FREE SEA. 143 to take on board a little iron boat, with oars and other equipment, ten boxes of pemmican, and various otiier articles that had been deposited there in 1861. Boat and provisions were found safe ; the latter were very neces- sary, m view of a possible wintering. On the 5th Sep- tember the Sofia left Brandy wine Bay and shaped her course for the Seven Islands, but was compelled to anchor at North Cape, the northernmost promontory of North- East Land. An unbroken belt of ice, several leagues wide, stretched from North-East Land, south of Casti4i's Island, towards the north and east, where the mountain masses, 1,500 to 1,800 feet high, of the Seven Islands, raised themselves defiantly. Only near North Cape the' drift-ice floated in different directions, accordino- to current and the wind, and in the field between it°and the more southerly of the Seven Islands lanes of open water were visible. But behind the belt of ice which blocked the way to the north and east, there stretched an open and ice-free sea— how far ? At last the ice was so broken up and scattered by tlie fresh south-east winds, that an attempt could be made to reach the Seven Islands, and giving and receiving blows the Sofia got within a mile and a half of Parry's Island, but like the other six it was surrounded by a girdle of ice, so thiit there was nothing for it but to make the vessel fast with an ice anchor and walk to the land. The greater part was covered with snow and ice, only in some depressions in the rocky slopes a lively green was visible, produced by thickly-growing tufts of moss among which— especially at places frequented by sca- fowl-a small number of higher plants sought a settle- ment. The animal world was poor, and the number yu NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. of insects had so diminished that only some half-frozen specimens of a single species of gnat were found, and numerous swarms of bluish-grey small FodurcB, which here, as everywhere else on Spitzbergen, moved amongst the sand or cra\vled on the snow-fields. A Polar betr, which had left recent traces on the shore, was tracked,' but made his escape, sliding down a steep slope of snow on his hind-quarters— a mode of locomotion the animal seems to fancy— plunging into the sea and swimming to the neighbouring Phipps' Island. This point (80°°40' N.L.) was the most northerly reached by the Sofia on this cruise. After Loven's Mountains had been visited and a couple of barrels of very fine Moiu>tain Limestone fossils dug from beneath the snow, the course was shaped for Smeerenberg, where a small coal-laden vessel was wait- ing with letters from Sweden and new potatoes, both of which were highly appreciated. By this vessel, the Sevenne, Fries, Holmgren, Malmgren, NauckhofF, Smitt, Svensson, and four Norwegians, returned to Norway' and on the 16th September the Sofia, after towing the Set'erine out to sea, shaped her course for the Seven Islands, meeting Tobiesen's vessel near the entrance to Hinloopen. From Tobiesen important information was obtamed as to the state of the ice in the Strait, and the movements of the German expedition which had that year visited Spitzbergen. The southern part of Hin- loopen was blocked with ice which was considered quite impassable. By the 18th the Sojia was among the ice The Seven Islands could not be approached within twelve nautical miles, but open water was visible to the northward, and hopes began to rise, not indeed, of reaching the Pole, but perhaps a higher latitude than 5 ^- iv,l OUR FARTHEST NORTH. I4d f-f f i any vessel had hitherto attained. Scoresby's 81° 30' had up to this time been the nltl,na TlJe JH In tl,» .ft ,. •^-'' "'* "P*^" water still ahead. athoms The following day, after many doublings among ,ce of variable nature, the latitude of 8 « 42' was attamed, the longitude bein<. IT w "We reached the point." write O.pt'ain von Otter just at caght o'eloek in the morning I ..offied t ^ aTd Id "'^"'"^ "^" "^«™^^«wed.shsi; and when hey came on deck they found the Swedish flag flyn>g from the tops in honour of the memorable J.ave been 81 39. but an altitude which I there took got the f llown,g day. showed us that on this occasion vve had the current m our favour. Farther to the west however, it was found to set regularly twelve to twlnt; mmutes per twenty-four hours toward' the MY Xct IS also an old experience." ' Captain von Otter adds, after expressing his views a^ to the impossibility of reaching the pole I o! ««/«■, views confirmed by the result Tf H ^ "^ the Sofia: "I consider H ' ^y"*" "^ ./ consider the honour of the tlao--,, ,> was flying on the steamer-to have been inltaLd L ipw 146 NOllDENSKIOLDS AECTIC VOYAGES. [chap. experience, that the open belt he found there in 180G was of very rare occurrence, and when such men as Phipps and Franklin had to be content with reaching 80° 48' and 80° 28' N., more ought not to be required even of one having the advantage of a steamer with a good iron bow than to go a degree farther. That the altitude we gained could not have been reached without at many places charging ice-floes, where no sailing vessel would ever have dreamed of making its way, need not be saidj for when we had advanced some distance there was not a lane or any sign of * water- sky' to the northward that was not attempted, and when the Sofia reached her place of honour in the latitude of 81° 42', I venture to affirm that there was not a point of the compass towards which a man might not with the help of a boat-hook have walked a league on pieces of ice." The Swedes had thus gained one of the frost-bitten prizes in the international race to the pole, but here there was a limit to their progress. The ordinary scientific work went on. The physicist made magnetic observa- tions on the ice, specimens of water were taken, and the "Bull-dog" machine brought up from a depth of 1,370 fathoms a sample of the bottom which as coming from that latitude was naturally regarded with more than common interest. As it was impossible to advance in a northerly direction, the course was shaped towards the west, where the sea appeared most free of ice. The current here was southerly. In the evening the depth was found to have diminished to 370 fathoms. The Sofia was now surrounded by ice, and some labour was required to work out of it, but on the 20th September [chap. ) in 180G 1 men as reaching I required er with a That the d without lo sailing its way, ced some if * water- pted, and iir in the there was lan might . a league ■ost-bitten liere there scientific 3 observa- 1, and the . of 1,370 ning from lore than ^ance in a w^ards the ice. The the depth tns. The abour was 5eptember L! v.] THE ICE BLOCKS OFF SPITZBEKOEK 147 Spitzbergcn ,va.s sighted. Thorc was uo intention of seek- r r:""- /"^'"•"^l^f '■-*. the.V«followedtte edge of tl e pack or «aded througli drift ice of varyin. ormand d.»en.,ions, trying every opening tl.at app a ed to load to tie north. The blocks of iee viried iu several espects fron, those seen during the Angust .^ ihey were harder, hnger, and higher, and seen at a formulaUe enough. Here and there some of then were Wackoned w.th adhering earth and gravel, a si.n tl m some unknown reoion thev U,1 )„:„ ■ Im.,1 p; ,- , y ^ "°™ '° contact with . . d. P ces of d„ t-wood wore found in the sea. and on of the 8h.ss balls already mentioned, spe kin. wtnesses ,„ the quesrion of marine currents. 'L eold was pretty .ntense, but the Swedes were acclimatised by the. t the high north, and found a temperatureo'f warm Tl "^ t "'"'"°""'' ""'' *''^'^ ''^'"'' efficiently waim. The greatest mischief produced by the cold was he increase the ice ; the surface of the sea where It was ddutcd by the addition of fresh water from tl ! meltrng masses of ice, froze, the mist also fro^^ "s ouched the water, and the old blocks of ice bed .rd as steel Animal life was still abundant; t 2 ' L. ' """ ^""" ™' '"'^ '"■"-'^ i^'^ormon th loir r"-' ""' '"''='"8 ''^'^''y "-Jded to uie zoological collections. wlfnt rT ''^^ '"""""»" ">^ ''so of the iee, inch v.., found, as in Angust, to trend southwards .t was determmed on the 23rd September, as theToek of coal was pretty well exhausted, to return 1% * ^»gen. At this date the Sofia ^a in 20 N I t" and 2° 17' W Lono- TI. .i ^' ^'^^' >V. Long. The weather was splendid, with L 2 us NORDENSKIULD'S AUOTIC VOYAOEa. [chap. clear sunshine. The vessel lay in an ice-field sur- rounded on all sides l»y large and sn^nll blocks of ice, some lying flat, others raised up ageckled winter dress), auks, and rotges. In the water near the surface swam Pto'opoda and Copepoda, their forms and colour sharply defined figainst the clear "ice feet" (the exten- sive uuder-water parts of the swimming ])locks). An attempt was made to blast a block of ice with gun- powder. A cavity was produced which, however,''did not extend through the whole thickness of the ice, which was not considered suecv 32:f'il. The return was commenced on the evening of the 23rd. After getting into open water the course was shaped towards the east; on the 24th bottom was found at 1,400 fathoms, and on the 25th Spitsbergen was seen in its white winter shroud (tin abundant fall of snow having taken plaee during the niuht), looking like a gigantic snowdrift. As the coast ''was neared great flocks of rotges were seen. The Sofia anchored in South Gat, between Danes' Island and the main land. After lying here four days preparing for another cruise, the Sofia igain started on the 29th September for Kobbe Bay to take on board the re- mainder of the coal lying there, n,nd on the 1st October weighed anchor and commenced another attempt to penetrate to the north of Spitzb(-gen, with the hope of discovering land, the existence of which there Avas reason to suspect. If this was found impossible it was ISO NOUDENSKIOLD S ARCTIC VOYAGKS. [chai'. intended to make for the Seven I.sland.s, and tlience t(. undertake exenr.sioiis to the nortli and eaat (to tlic; alluj'infr CileH' Land, "das sagenliafte Land im Osten," as it is called l)y the Germans). It miglit be necessary on this account to winter, and preparations were made for doing so. Parry's Ishmd was chosen for tiie purpose, and it was calculated that provisions and other neces- saries for sixty days' travelling on the ice could be carried along, and that within this period it would bo possible to reach the 84th degree of latitude and return, leaving time for another excursion to Giles' Land in spring. But the programme was not to be carried out. Before night ice was visible, and the vessel was moored to an ice-field to await the dawn. On the 2nd, auks, guillemots nnd fulmar petrcds were seen, and a walrus, one of the few observed during the expedition. Tlu; cold, which on the 1st had been -7V., was now -13-3°. The new-formed ice was several inches thick, and the vessel could make no more rapid progress through it than two knots per hour. The ice to the northward getting closer and more difficult, the Sojia steered towards open water, and so southwards ; but on the 3rd, followed the edge of the pack eastwards and northwards till, in the afternoon, ice was seen in the N. E., which appeared likely to bar further progress. On the morning of the 4th, as the Sofa was working her way among the masses of ice by which she was surrounded, she came into collision with one of them, and sprang a large leak, through which water rushed into one of the coal -bunkers. The door was immediately made fast so as to confine the watev within the bunker. The collision had not only bent and cracked a plate on 11 [(■HAP. IV.] HOMEWARD BOUND. 151 the starboard side amidaliipa, but also fractured two ribs and driven out several bolts, and broken up the deck al)ove the coal-buuker. It was only by the most strenuous exertions of all on board, that the Sojia was kept afloat and safely anchored, 11 hours after the accident, off Amsterdam Island. Next day, the vessel, lightened as much as possible on the lenky «Hle, was brought to King's I3ay, where she was beached nnd the damage made good. On the 11th King's Bay was left, and the SoJia sailed southwards' passing tiirough, on the 12th and 13th, a belt of floating ice, 60 nautical miles broad. On the 14th South Cape was reached, and an attempt was made to penetrate eastwards towards Giles' Land, but on coming within 30 minutes of the Thousand Islands, ice was met witli, which, though at first open, soon became of so difficult a nature, that it was impossible to advance. Tlie attempt had therefore to be given up, and after weathering a storm near Bear Island, the SoJia reached Tromsoe on the 20th October, Gothenburg on the 15th November, and lay in the harbour of Carlskrona on the afternoon of the 26th, the members of the expedition being welcomed everywhere with unbounded hospitality. Of this expedition, the distinguished savant, Professor Oswald Heer of Zurich, declared—" In my opinion the Swedish Expedition, by the rich collections it has brought home, has achieved more, and more widened the horizon of our knowledge, than if it had returned merely with the information that the Sofia had hoisted her flag at the North Pole." After the close of this expedition, Nordenskicild h y> mw^^^n^wm mm !i 1 152 NOllDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cii. iv. obtained from the Royul Geographical Society, its large gold medal (Founder's medal), and soon after a similar distinction (the Eochette medal), from the Soci^te de Geographic of Paris. THK "SOFIA" CHUSSISU THE AUCTIC ClnCLE 14t1I JULT, 18C8. i [CU. IV. s large similar i^te de CHAPTER V. EXPEDITION TO GREENLAND, 1870. The result of the expedition of 18G8, had been to convince Nordenskiold and tlie Swedes, of the im- possibility of reaching the Pole, or indeed of advanc- ing much farther northwards by mea.s of a vessel. Ihe comparative want of success which attended the expedition by no means diminished the interest that was taken m the question in Sweden. So far was this from being the case, that, almost immediately after the return of the expedition, steps wove taken, principally m Gothenburg, to raise funds to send out another Polar expedition, which was intended to push forwards as far as possible in the direction of the Pole by means of sledges, and in the course of a twelvemonth; the greater part of the funds considered necessary for the new expedition was subscribed. The sinews of war having been procured, it was necessary to fix on a ph.n for carrying out the new attempt We find Nordenskiold accordingly enumera- tmg and comparing the different routes to the Pole thus : — I. The way cast of Srifabci-gon. Tliis he considered miprachcaUc, from the faot that an unbroken ice-belt 154 NOllDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. alrotclK^s botwcon Si)itzlK'rgcn and Novaya Zemlya as far down as 78°, only in l-ivourable years leaving a broad (•lijiniud running up to 80° along the cast coast of the fonncr, .-md tli(>. west coiist of the latter island. ir. Tiie way along the east coast of Greenlnnd. To this route, although, like the former, recommended by Petermann, there is the objection, that a broad and jUmost always closely i\a(;ked ice-strejim is swept by the North Polar current, not only along tlic^ whole east coast of Grc(>nland, but also during a great part of the year, past Cape Farewell into Da,vis Strait. in. The way through Behring's Straits, proposed by Custavo Lambert. Here, however, ice in impenetrable masses meets the navigator, in latitudes where, north of Europe, traces of it are scan^ely to be met with in mid- winter. IV. The way by Sj)itzb(>rgen, and V. The way by Smith's Sound. These Nordenskiold considered the only practicable routes. Rejecting the hypothesis of an open polar sea, and believing that the only practicable method of reaching the Pole was by sledge-travelling over the ice, he pointed out the im- ]X)rtance of choosing as a starting point for such a journey, some easily accessible p.lace as near the Pole as possible. The choice lies between Spitsbergen and Smith's Sound, and Nordenskiold preferred the former as lying near to Europe, and being every year accessible a little north of 80°. By Smith's Sound, on the other hand, he considered it scarcely possible to reckon with <'ertainty on being able to advance with a vessel much farther than 78°. C • 1 * opitzbcrgen was therefore fixed vjvmx p.s a startinn- [oil A p. V.J SEA COLOUES. 155 erect a bml.Img m „luch to pass the winter, if possible on one of the Seven Islands, and to advance n/tZi towards the Pole over the ice by means of sled J "° O.eculand dogs as dra«gl>t animals for such a sledge journey, and, rf H seemed advisable, to procure h n~y „u„d,er, Nordenski«ld determinal to v (.reenlan,! u. 1870, and having sailed from CopenhZ .».eompan.„I by Dr. Sv. licrgg^en of L„„d, a, , D 'p Ob,.,., and Dr. Th. Nordstrom of Up.sala, 1 e lan.led .t ».odhav„ on the 2nd of .July. During the voya^lll! rnade observations on the colour of the Arctic "s'eas, winch u. some places greyish-green, and in ot'.er n a.Kl the other in greyish-green water. Water is 1 to 1 :;;■''';;''««'•-'-'' «»wuh a decided lli'f •sLme which ,s absent where the blue colour prev,.,il, Jl.- slnne, which is formed of various species of Z/^ Ic HoT ! tl "^'"T "'^'^' '''''''' '^" indispensable b d ha froquen the northern seas, but also of the giant of the animal creation, the whale and -dl hr i of iiirlnc.f..,r 1 1 vviitue, ana all branches 01 industiy dependent on whale-fisheries On arriving at Godhavn, Nordenskiold found it im possible tiiere to man the whale boats, in wh Z intended to visit the shores of tJie W- v^at TH p and Omenak Fjord and to JT '' ''/f^' ^^^^o ^y, whJr), ' 1 y '''' /'''"^ ^o explore Auleitsivik Fiord ^^^"^^^ --1 not previously been visited or surveyed 'l>; P* Ui 1 156 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Europeans. After rcinaiiijng for a week at Godliavn he proceeded to Egedeaminde, where, by the assistance of the resident manager Mr. Bollbroe, he was able in a few hours to make the necessary arrangements for beginning the work of t'le summer. Oberg remained at Egedesminde for the purpose of carrying on dredging and other geological work. Nor- denskiold, Berggren, and Nordstrom started on 12 th July, and halting at niglit on the 12tli at Manermiut, on the 13th at Kangaitsiak, on the 14th, 15th, and 16th on islands at Auleitsivik Fjord, arrived on the 17th at the northern side of the glacier which projects from the inland ice, and occupies the northern arm of Auleitsiviks Fjord, the spot they had selected for a journey over the ice. Of this inland-ice the natives entertain a superstitious fear, an awe or prejudice, which has, in some degree, communicated itself to such Europeans as have resided long in Greenland. It is only thus that the curious fact that in the whole thousand years during which Greenland has been known so few efforts have been made to pass over the ice farther into the country can be explained. There are many reasons for believing that the inland-ice merely forms a continuous ice-frame, running parallel with the coast, and surrounding a land free from ice, perhaps even wooded in its southern parts, which might perhaps be of great economical im- portance to the rest of Greenland. In 1728 a Danish expedition was fitted out for the purpose of rediscover- ing the lost (East) Greenland by an overland journey. The horses intended for the attempt died either during the journey or shortly after their arrivnl in fjip Poimh-v, [chap. v.] LOST GREENLAND. 157 and tlie expedition, which was really magnificent, but equipped in entire ignorance of the nature of the country, was abandoned. Another attempt was made by^Dahiger, a Danish merchant, in 1751, in about 62° *n' latitude to advance in tlie beginning of September over the inland-ice to the east coast. Dalager only succeeded in penetrating about eight English miles to some mountain summits rising above the ice-field. He was then obliged to return along with five natives who accompanied him, partly because their boots were worn out, parJy because the cold at night was so severe that their limbs became stifi" after a .^ew hours of rest. In 1867, Mr. Whymper accompanied by Dr. R. Brown, three Danes and a Greenlander, endeavoured to make their way upon the inland-ice with dogs, immediately to the north of the ice-fjord at Jacobshavn, but they turned back again on the second day, after having proceeded only some few miles. It was Nordenskiold's original intention to renew these attempts, l)ut on conversing in Copenhagen with Mr. Rink and Mr. Olrik, who had formerly been Inspectors in North Greenland, as also with several other persons who had visited Greenland, he found them all so unanimous in considering further advance over the ice as impossible, that he determined not to risk the whole summer cn an undertaking that was before- hand disapproved by everybody. He was, however, unwilling entirely to abandon his Dlan, and determined to mal 3 a. journey on the inlan-l-i. e of only a few days' extent. The starting-point was selected because the ice there was believed to be freer from cre^^asses and clefts than m the neighbourhood of the ice-streams. On the 17t]i Jv.lv, ^he party pitched their tent on ir».'^ N<'1{|)KNSKI()IJ)'H AI{(TI(! VOVAOI'X |, i,Ar. lllO hIm.IV noHll ,>r Hh- m|.M-|. |.|Vri|,i|„„H ..l^r,. „f 1,1,0 '"'••'"•I >.v .Ml, Awloiisivilv Kj..hl. All..,- l,,,viMo- ,.,n|.l,nv.| i.,i!-iilioi.s ,ui«l u f.«w ivr,.iiii(.ilnii;rs, |ji,.y '■•""""'"'■> iM..n.iM,ir, .mikI llr.sl, n.wod (o n liiil,. l,,,y Niluj.l.Ml ill ||„. i.,.iolil„Mirli,„Hl of (I,,. .s|.,.(, ,urii|,i,.i| h ""'i'- l«"nl. wli.-iv s,.v(>ml inuoii,-I„.,l. Iloivlli,' I.iimI .•is.suiiumI a cliiinu-tor v.-iricl |.y |,ill .,„,| "'•'l»': .•nid riir(li,>r iinv;,nl i(, w;,s I.,.,in,l,>,l I'.v Jiii icv w.ill sonuMimrs iMM-j),Mi,ii,iiI,,r ;in,l sonulimrs nuiiidnl, •■"v.Mv.I will, a. thill hycv oi' ,,,r||, and stones; only *' ;'''"1'1'" <'i' Inmdivd loot i.ioh ncjii- tl,«. rdov. j,„| i|„."„ risino- .,t. iirst rai)idly. .•ill,>nvard"^ nioiv siovvl'v to a l,(>in|,t, «r .^«'Nvr;,l Inm.iivd iWi. Tn luo.i |.';„rs this i,v-wall .'ouia not possibly 1.0 sr.-ilod ; ;, pl^.r, I.onnvv.m-, w;ih lound wIkmv it w;,s cut tlu-ouoj, hy ;, sninli ,'I,.rt„ 8ul- iu'icuiW d,ri> (o .•illord ;, possibility of ,-lin,l.ii,o- i,p Nvitli tlio in,-;,ns at the dispos.-.l ..f tlio p;,rtv, j, sh'doo wliicl, in c'.Msr o( n.rd .-ouhl he usod jis a l;uld(>r, and ^' lino orioiiuilly lOOiatl.onis lono. 1,„(, ^vliioli, p,-ovin- ("o lio.'.vy a luinlon. had Uoloro arnvino- ;,| il,e f],.s^ vostino-phuv boon shorton.ul oiu-hali: Tho whoh> party, with tho oxooption of an old and lanio boatman, assisted "1 tho by noni.ans oasv wovh of hna}r\n.r ovor nunin- t;nii, hill, and dalo, tho oiiuipniont oi" tho ioo ox]H'diiion to iliis sj.ot and, at'tor our midday ivst, a littlo furtluT up tho ioo->vall. Ucvo tho party soparatod. and only ^^n•donskiohl and liorooiv,,. and two Civojilandor^, Isak an/i Sitarniak. wont on. Tho inland-ioo ditVois iVom ordinary glaoirrs, amono- othor things, by tho almost total abson\"o oi' moraino"^ formations. Tho rollootions of oarth, gravel, and stono, (ft |('IIAI'. v.] lIUMMOfJKYTUAVMM.fNd. '■ '» I- »" ..„"U.s„l,.,,,,l,l.. i„ ,„„n,„.,.i»„„ will, tl„ »»'■'"■■'- "I -v,.., v,.,y s,„.„ ,,,.„;,,„, „„t „„.y «.,..; ;" '';\'"'V"'''' "'''■-'•'" 'I"' '-■'. v,vitc,i; ^^^^^^^^^ <'V,'l- WlH, s,„„|| „|,,„.j, „t,„„,^ "I" "'l""l ll,.,-,. ,l,„ i,,, «,,« u.l,.,..l,|y «""<.tl., tl,„„,,|, n,nv,w..,l •'-'•■;-'';--• "f to . -limb „,, ,,y. liut i„ ,„,,„/„ .V unify tijo (u-wnl.'uiders by elioosl.Kr t'".u mpuatvoly s.nocth ground, and at first to fiko •in..rvv.M.J. < . , ^ ^^^ ^^'"i the (Tovasses, and '"'•'\^J«i(l.s („m lo 11,0 cast. Tliev o-,i„o.l n • ,• -".),.,„,,, «„,„et„nc.., .inking tln-m clown t.. , ymn,], «,,.co,ni,„ny,ng their gcvstures by t„llc ,,„ mloll,gil,l„ („ the Swe.les. Tlie «,v,.n|.,„ ? IV fbi^i t„ 1 -I , >J'«i>nIanil,-i-.s meant i> tin., to .lesenbe the eollection of clos,.lv 1,„ i .•yn,n„.ls an.! ridges of iee that bad „„, be "" '-•.t"l. The inequalities of the ie 1 ^u"" more than foitv C...f i ■ i • , " ""-'Jom to HO de, JrM > •, "'"' ™ '"«''-"'» "f =^5 >"„H(S, but one does not ^et on v,>,.,. e . when he has continually to dta.. a lu.; v Iv I, T \ t "1- ^ i.T0guIa,- an aeelivity. a,,,,";,;, ^ ™ ^ ^^^ '" I 160 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. to descend at the risk of getting broken legs, occasionally- losing one's footing on the slippery ice in attempting to moderate the speed of the sledge in its downward rush. The component parts of the sledge were not nailed but tied together, and it lasted at least for some hours. Had it been an ordinary sledge it would have been immediately broken to pieces. Next day, Nordenskiold and his party, found it im- possible to continue dragging with them the thirty days' provisions with which they had furnished them- sei^^es, especially as it was evident that, if they wished to proceed further, they must transform themselves from draught to pack-horses. They therefore determined to leave the sledge and part of the provisions, taking the rest on their shoulders, and to proceed on foot. They now got on quicker, though for a considerable time over ground as bad as before. The ice gradually became smoother, but was broken by large bottomless chasms, over which it was necessary either to jump with a heavy load on the back (in which case woe to him who made a false step) or else to make a long circuit. After two hours' travelling the region of crevasses was passed. In the course of the journey portions of similar ground were frequently met with, though none of any very great extent. The pai./ had now reached a height of 800 feet above the level of the sea. Further inward the surface of the ice, except at the occasionally re- curring regions of ci-evasses, resembled that of a stormy sea suddenly bound in fetters by the cold. The rise inwards was still quite perceptible, though frequently interrupted by shallow Viilleys, the axes of which were occupied by several lakes or ponds with no apparent [chap. casionally btcmptiug iowuward were not least for it would ad it im- he thirty led them- ey wished jlves from L'mined to [iking the )t. They time over y became iS chasms, p with a J to him ig circuit. asses was of similar le of any d a height 3r inward onally re- a stormy The rise ■requently liich were apparent v.] moUT AND DAY SLEEPING. 161 s rcms running down the sides of the hollows. These streams presented liindranwo t„ tl,„ . mrtv „„; o 1 '""'"™'='=' t» tl>« progress of the paity, not so dangerous, but causing quite as .reat a often, but th. eircuits to avoid them were much lon-^er Dunng the whole of the journey on the ice "the weather was fine, frequently there was not a in bud visible in the sky. To the travellers, clad a hey were, he warmth was quite sensible in the shad near the ice, of course a little over the freel! Pont, h^her up m the shade as much as r or 8- but m the sun 2.," to 30° C. After sunset the pools' of water fro.e and the nights were very cold. Uo : 'bo rend! :: tC: "'"""'--^ "^^^'"^ -^'^^' with „,.„ , VI ; ^° Tl^'^"^ "oul'l. though with their feet ,„ opposite directions. With rouMi ic for a substratum, the bed was so uncomfortable tn rfter a few hours' sleep the sleeper was awaSd I ramp ; and as there was only a thin tarpaulin betwe „ cold on the side resting on the ice, which the Green- kders, who returned before the rest of the pX intimated to Dr. Nordstrfim 1,„ i • ■ , ^ ^' throuo-hnnf tl , , , ^y shivering and shaking roughout their whole bodies. The nights' rests were whi : :•" "" ''"''' ""' ''^ -''-'^y -*'. during wbich a glorious warm sun-bath was enjoved were .ken on a proportionately generous seal , 'aLZ M ir} 162 NOUDKNHIvlULDVS ARCTIC VOYA(iKS. [cuav. On the HurfiU'c of thv. iiil.uul ice no stones were met with at a cli.stanec of inoiv than a cnhh'n length from tiio border; hut everywhere tliere were to l)e found vertieal eylindrieMl hoh'.s, a f.x.t or two deep, from a eouple of line:, to a coui.le of feet in diameter, and so elo-se to onc! another that it was impossible to find between tliem room for the foot, mueh less for a sleeping sack. The travellers had thus always a, system of ico" pil.es of this kind as a substratum when they rested foi- the night, and it often happened in the morning tliat the- warmth of tlieir bodies had melted so mueh of the ice that thi; sleeping saek touehed the water, of whieli the lioles were always nearly full. But as a eomi>ensation, when they rested, tliey had only to stret(th out their hands to obtain tlie very finest water to driidc. lu tliese holes in the iee, filled with water and in no way conneeted with (>aeh other, Nordenskicild found everywhere at the bottom of them, not only at the border but in the most distant parts of the inland ice whieli he visited, a, layer, some few millimetres thick, ot grey powdei-, often conglomerated into small round balls of loose consistency. Under the microscope the prnicipal substance of this remarkable powder appeared to consist of white angular translucent grains. There could also be observed remains of vegetable fragments ; yellow, imperfectly translucent particles, with, as it appeared, evident surfaces of cleavage, possibly felsimr green crystals (augite), and black opaque grains, which were attracted by the magnet. "The substance," says Nordenskicild, "is not a clay, but a sandy trachytic mineral, of a composition (especi- 1. fcitAI', were met igtli from l)c foiiiul >, fi'oni ii, ir, and ho to fnul a sleeping )m of ice- ey re.stcd moniiiiir f~> .so nuicli water, of But as a only to est water ikI in no Id found ly at tlie nliuid ice I'es thick, nil round ^eopc the appeared 5. There ;jgments ; :h, as it r fels^mr, IS, which t a ciny. 1 (ospeci- v.l TFIE Tf'K DESTI{(n'KH. 163 ally as regards ^o.l,,) uJuch indicates that it docs not "ngmate in the u.,„nte region of Oreciihmd. Its orio-i„ appears to mc, tl-n-cfore, very enigmatical. Docn^t eomc from the basalt region? or H U.e .apposed volcanic tracts in the interior of Greenlan

Si-' + AlSi'^ + H), it would perhaps |,e desirable to enter it under a separate class ^" the recr.ster of science; and for I, purpose I propose for this substance the nmne Kiyc.kouite (from /epvos and Kouis). "When I ],ersuade.l our botanist, Dr. JJergcrrcn to accompany me in the journey over the ice," he c'on- I ".lies, 'T joked with him on the singularity of a botanist making an excursion into a tract, perhaps the OHiy one in the worhl, that was a perfect desert as regards botany. This expectation was, however, not confirmed. Dr. Berggren's keen eye soon discovered pa- tly on the surface of the ice, partly in the above^ mentioned powder, a brown polycellular aloa, which small as it is, together with the powder and certain other microscopic organisms by which it is accompanied IS the most dangerous enemy to the mass of ice so many thousand feet in height and hundreds of m'ile. m extent. This plant has no doubt playerite were found, evidently formed by thfi oxida- tion of the iron, as also small imbedded partieles of niekel- iron." ' The meteorites were found, as has been stated be- tween high an.l low water, and within an area of about fifty square metres. There were twelve large and many small iron masses. The following year (1871) the Swedish government sent the gunboat, In^jefferd, Cap- tain F. W. von Utter, and the brig, Gladau, under the command of Lieutenant G. von Krusenstjcrna, to bring these remarkable meteorites to Europe. The larcrest mass, the weight of whieh is estimated at nineteen tons was placed in the Riks Museum of Stoekholm, and the second largest, weighing about nine tons, in the Museum of Copenhagen, the capital of the country to which Green- land belongs. ^ For an account of these romarkal.lo moteoritos see Geoloaical M^^ne, vol. ,x. pp. 449 and 516, and vol. ii. Ne. .Ws;;;'^ ">" i' ! 1 i : I ■I CHAPTER VI. THE SWEDISH POLAR EXPEDITION OF 1S72-3. The main object of Nordenskiold's visit to Greenland had been to find out by personal inquiry whether it was advisable to employ Eskimo dogs as draught animals in the projected Polar Expedition. The result he arrived at was a negative one. The advice which he received from the experienced Greenlanders whom he consulted was against their employment, th. -lain reason alleged bemg that the necessary number could not be obtained unless purchases were made at all the settlements of North Greenland, in which case it was almost certain that the contagious dog-sickness, which had recently raged at several of the settlements among the Greenland dogs, would break out among those bought for the expe- dition. If this should happen the money spent in the purchase would not only be lost, but the expedition would also be deprived of an important means of assistance on which reliance would have been placed. Having thus broken with the once prevailing Arctic tradition, it was natural that the Swedes should turn to the reindeer, Avhich is exclusively used in the north of Scandinavia as a draught animal in travelling over trackless regions deeply covered with suov/. c... V,.] THE REINDJiER AS A DEAUOHT ANIMAL. 177 _ In order to obtain materiak for judging of tl,o fitness of the reuKleer for being employed for the purpose in question, a eireular was sent by Ih. Oscar Diekson to persons acquainted witj, the nn.nagen,ent of tliis animal with nupnneB on a number of points relating to the sul.ject. As the answers to these questions may be ex- pected to interest our readers we oflei no apolooy for nisertuig here the main drift of tliera. First question : Ifow much can a reindeer dnnv upon Z^''"t7n ''"'P'i"^'-"l »«"»? Answer: 160 to -,00 Swedish lbs., not including the weight of the sledge If the rem is to travel fast this is sufficient weight that IS to say, not much more than the weight of the person who sits in the sledge behind him. But if the rein is in good condition so that he has sufficient marrow in his bone,, he can with this weight get over 10 Swedish (6G fcuglish) mnes m the course of twelve houi-s He |loes not go at his full speed until his tongue begins to hang well out of his mouth, f„r the rein has n^ pores for the escape of ,,ei^piration, which must all pass out through the mouth. He requires no food during the day .f ho IS only allowed to have bis freedom to go loose during the night at places whei-e it is certain that reindeer moss is found under the snow, and that the iee crust has not fro.en fast to the ground. The reindeer may be foddered with the greyish white reindeer moss Nvhich is eoUeeted earefolly. so that no dirt adheres to it,' «-ith the lichen both of the pine and fir, and with hay (especially of river aorsetail or so-called star fodder but not with meadow hay. which he does not cut) If the reindeer be allowed to go at his usual pace, led by a i ; I 178 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. man, tliG sledge ought not to weigh more than GO lbs. nor the load placed in it moie than 300 Swedish lbs. Second question : Hoiv can the reindeer he armnged most advantageously ? Answer : Eight to ten reindeer are fastened together so that the first rein, which has no sledge to draw, is fastened by traces to the saddle of the following rein, to whose piilka or sledge the next in order is fastened and so on. The last rein which has nothing to draw is tied with a rein to the pulka of the one pre- ceding him. These eight or ten draught reindeer thus fastened together the Lapp calls a rajda and when thus arranged they can be managed by a child of ten or twelve, at least when the leading rein is tame. The last rein, with no pulka to draw, may be unbroken, and he is obliged, notwithstanding all the resistance he may make, to follow the rajda. If the weight to be con- veyed is greater than six or eight reindeer can draw, a new rajda is started, and so on. Third question : How far can such a reindeer caravan travel daily ? Answer : Two to five Swedish (thirteen to thirty-three English) miles according as the reindeer are good and the attendants quick-footed. If the snow is two or three feet deep, it does not hinder the reindeer in travelling with a load, but the men in charge must have suitable snow-shoes, broader and lighter on loose, than on packed, frozen or hard snow. Fourth question: Hoio many draught reindeer can one man manage on such a journey ? Answer : One person, man or woman, even a child, commonly manages six reindeer or a rajda during the march. Fifth question: What food is most advantageous during a journey, when pasture cannot he counted on, VI.] THE REINDEER AS A DRAT - ANIMAL. 179 and ivhit quantities of different kinds of food does the reindeer require daily f Answer : The pine lichen is best, next, the river horsetail, but the fodder must be collected and dealt out with the hands covered with Lapp gloves.i The reindeer, however, cannot altogether want reindeer moss without falling oflF. Three to four pounds of reindeer moss together with five pounds of barley, or still better, oats coarsely ground, may be con- sidered a good daily allowance. The rein besides eats every possible thing, even butter, but above all, he re- quires a little reindeer moss daily. Sixth question : Is there any difficulty in getting the reins over lanes or other openings, which may he occa- sionally formed in an extensive icefield ? Answer : If the edge of the ice does not project over the water and the current is not strong the reindeer can cross any stream openings whatever. Wherever a man can cross there is no difficulty m getting across reindeer. The rem is an excellent swimmer and not at all afraid of the water. It is besides very agile, so that if not too heavily loaded it jumps without hesitation over open- ings four to six feet wide. ^ Seventh question : Hoiv great a distance can a rein- deer sledge be reckoned to last without other repairs than those which can be executed during rests in uninhabited places ? Answer : A new and strong pulka (reindeer sledge) will last during a journey of 2.50 to 300 Swedish (1,650 to 1,980 English) miles, probably longer When tarred or greased so as to run easily in the snow it ought to last three or four winters. 1 This was shown by experience to be an unfounded prejudice a. were other similar statements. ^Ji'uice, as N 2 i! 180 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. Eighth (picstioii : Is there anij cUJicuUi/ in feeding reindeer during a winter on collected reindeer moss, gram, tCw, at a idace where no proper paM are is to be had.^ To tliis (jiu'stiou the following different answers were obtained. A. considers it impossible, unless by- felling a broad-leaved tree and dragging it to the licrd, or by strewing the fodder that had been collected over the snow field. B. No, not tlie smallest. C. Some rein- deer can certainly be kept within inclosures and fed with reindeer moss and other fodder, but with great trouble, and, perhaps, at considerable expense, but not a great number, for in order to thrive the reindeer must be free in a large inclosure. The fence must be at least eight feet high above the surface of the snow, for if a s'low drift be formed within the inclosure the rein imme- diately climbs over. The reindeer's excrements in a few days make the place unhealthy for this very cleanly animal.* Ninth question : Is it the best 2»lc(n to keep the reins within an inclosure, and if so of ivhat nature should the inclosure be, and how many reins could one Lapp attend to ? Answer : The best way is to allow the reins to go at large with a herdsman, for the inclosure would require to be very large, otherwise the reindeer would not thrive long. The Lapps have iu the fjells milking yards, the fences of which consist of parallel bars supported to a » Tho fears, shown by experience to be ill-founded, which are expressed in two of these answers, induc-d Nordenskiiild to allow llio reindeer herd that was tnmsported to Spitzbergen to go at large as long as possible, whii-h again led to the loss of all the reins with a single exception. This one was afterwards kept bound during tho greater part of the winter; it notwithstanding throve well, and liocamo fat and unite tamo. vi] PRICE OF KEINDEER. 181 ding throve heiglit of six feet by posts or Lrauches of trcos. Wlieu the reiucows are milked the wliole herd is turned out and may then, even if it consist of 500 to 1,000 animals, bo taken charge of by a single person and a good dog. If the ground is covered with ice so that the reindeer cannot get sufficient food, it may happen that the herd separates even if never so many herdsmen try to prevent it. But if, while they are thus scattered about, they are not attacked by any beast of prey, they come; back of their own accord to that region of the fjells where they were reared, and the Laj)]) ovts back his whole herd. Tenth question : i.s- there any danger of disease at- taekiiH/ and destroyhuj the reindeer herd during the course of the winter? Answ^er : If there is good pas- ture or other food to be had, the danger of disease among the. reins is not great. The hoof disease indeed some- times causes great destruction among the herds, but this IS in most cases occasioned by insufficient or inferior pasture. There also occur two other diseases, one of the liver and the other attended by a stretching of the neck. Eleventh question: Where can the best draught reindeer be bought, and at ichat price ? Answer : The best draught reindeer are bought with the greatest ease and certainty in Jockmock parish, but good dranght reindeer can fdso be bought in Arvidjaur and Arjeploug parishes. The price of exceedingly good draught rein- deer cannot be stated lower than forty Swedish crowns (£2 4.S'. G(7.) A pulka and harness of the best quality cost together about the same sum. The largest and strongest reindeer are found in An ;djanr in pfte Lapp- mark where a tribe of Lapps is found, consisting of twenty to thirty families, who have not allowed^'the '! 4 182 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap agricultural population to drive them from the forest region. Their reindeer accordingly have not been com- pelled like those of the common fjell Lapps, to seek their food on the bare fjells, but have kept to the woods where the pastur'3 is better. Twelfth question : Hoio much eataUe flesh, hlood, <&€., does a draught reindeer yield on an average ivhea daughtered f Answer : An average reindeer yields-^ 2 roasts of 18 lb. each . 2 shoulders of 8 lb. each 1 brisket of 7 lb. . 2 sides of 9 lb. each , 1 neck of 17 lb. . . Feet Head . . , , Total, 36 1b. 16 „ 18 ,. 17,, 8 V 8» 110,, As the answers were in general favourable, the necessary measures were taken for the purchase of reindeer and reindeer moss ; the reins, to the number of forty from Kautokeino, after an attempt to procure Samoyede rems from the east side of the White Sea had been found attended with too great difficulties ; the reindeer moss partly from Norway, partly from the district of Orebro in Sweden, the latter costing one Swedish crown (about 1.. id.) per sack when well compressed. The number of sacks was about 3,000. The new Polar Expedition obtained from the Swedish Government, on an application being made by Norden- skiold not only a grant of 15,000 Swedish crowns, but also the use of the mail steamer Polhem and the brig Gladan suitably manned and equipped. The large ES. [chap i the forest b been com- 5ps, to seek » the woods ^csh, bloody erage ivheti ' yields— nb. 5 ,. VI.] THE EXPEDITION. 183 liable, the urchase of le number to procure ^hite Sea ilties ; the from the )sting one ^^hen well 3,000. B Swedish Y Norden- owns, but the brig ['he large quantity of reindeer moss that had to be conveyed to Spitzbergen necessitated the hiring of another steamer, the Onkel Adam of Gothenburg. The Polhem was .built for carrying the mails in the Baltic during the winter, of excellent Swedish plates, and had a high pressure engine of sixty horse-power. On board this vessel, which was under the command of Lieutenant L. Palander and was manned by sixteen man-of-war's men from Karlskrona, were, along with Nordenskiold, THE POLHEM. chief of the expedition in its entirety. Dr. A. Envall, medical officer, E. Parent, lieutenant in the Italian marine, who took part in the expedition at the special request of the Italian Government, A. Wijkander, physicist, from the University of Lund, and F. R. Kjellman, botanist, from the University of Upsala. The expedition was well provided with meteorological, mag- netic, astronomical, and physical instruments, together ! I i ; 184 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [vuav. with soiirulir.,(r a.imsoe on Tluy remained for more thuu a fortnii,rht at Tronisoo lor the purpose of completing tlie preparations w],ich tlie prolonged ab.senee contemplat.-d rendered necessary J)uring their stay was observed tlie thousand year festival of Norway— the thousnndtli anniversary of the battle of Hafrsfjor. 2Gth the Polhem anchored in Advent Jiay, whieh reudezvo>,s the aiadan had reached three days before, and fell in besides with the Mimcr. a, steamer belonging to a Swedish company that had been formed for the purpose of working a coprolite bed at Cape Thordsen. After exploring Dickson Bay, the most easterly of the two arms into which North Fjord, one of the two main divisions of Ice Fjord, divides itself, the Polhem with the Ghidau in tow left Advent Bay and on the 2nd August both vessels anchored in G-een Harbour. Here Nordenskiold was disappointed in finding that the stratum containing tertiary fossils which had been found here during preceding expeditions was so disintegrated and washed away that it was impossible to collect any i i 1 ]i li 186 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. remains worth speaking of without removing considerable quantities of earth. He fou'xl instead a number of fossil plants belonging to the chalk formation. Kjellmau and Wijkander, in the meantime, visited Coal Bay, the former with the view of finding the place where the Dwarf Birch had beeur discovered in 1870 by Nathorst and Wilander. After a long fruitless search, after all hope of finding it was given up and the return to the boat commenced, its dark green leaves were at last observed projecting from the surrounding moss. The dwarf birch found here, the Betula nana, var. relicta, Th. Fries, is believed to be a survival from the time when Spitzbergen possessed a finer and warmer climate than now. Its height, as found here, did not exceed two feet, the thickest stem being from two to three lines in diameter. After the return to Sweden it was found by the help of the mi croscope that a stem of this thickness was about eighty years old. The yearly rings were ex- ceedingly thin and faintly marked in several specimens, and in some parts of the stem, altogether indistinguish- able. A well-grown beautifully flowering specimen of the Cardamine pratensis also rewarded the search of the botanist, a Jind which was specially welcome, because this plant, though pretty widely distributed, is seldom found in flower on Spitzbergen. Leaving Green Harbour on the 4th August, the Polhem proceeded on her voyage with the Gladan in tow, passing through the sound between Prince Charles Foreland and the mainland and anchoring on the 7th in Fair Haven for the purpose of regulating the chronometers at the place where Sabine and his com- panions spent three weeks in 1823, carrying on a series v,| COSMIC DUST. 187 of physi,;,,! and astronomical observations. Tiio iJaco winch ,s situated on the south-western shore of tho n.ner Norway island still bears the name of Sabine's observatory and is distinguished by a great number of stones collected in a circle. Next day Fair Haven was left and the course shaped for Parry Island, but au impassable belt of closely packed drift-ice was met with, and the vessels had to turn southwards. In the neighbourhood of Welcome Point, on the morn- ing of 9th of August, they fell in with a Norwegian vessel, from the crew of which they received the unwelcome news that the state of the ice to the north of Spitz- bergen was worse than it had been for many yeara that their vessel had lain three weeks shut up in' Liefde Bay, and that the sea to the eastward was filled with closely-packed drift-ice, through which it was impossible to force a passage. The PoU^m and Uie Gladan, fearing to be frozen in, returned to Fair Haven to await the dispersion of the ice by a favour- able wind. During this enforced delay, Wijkan ler carried on a series of magnetic observations at Sabine's observatory. Astronomical observations were also made and two and sometimes three boats were at work dred..- ing from morning till night. It ought also to be mentioned that on the drift-ice which the Polhem had encountered a short time before, Nordenskiold had found small quanties of dust similar to that which he had discovered in the snow during a snow-storm at Stockholm in December 1871. This dust, which he believes to bo of cosmic origin, contains metallic iron cobalt, nickel, phosphoric acid, and a colloid organic substance. "However small and inconsiderable the i 188 NORDKXSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAfJES. [(Iiap. (luantity of this sulKstancc! may bo in proportion to tlie snow or water falling at tlu; same time," ho writes, "it may yet play an important part in the economy of nature, for example, by means of the phosiihoric acid whic^h it contains it may restore the fertility of the soil impoverished by repeated harvests. This observation ought also to be of great importance for the theory of meteors, of the aurora, &(!. Perhaps we should inquire wlu^ther in this phenomenon wo are to seek the explanation of the abundance in vvhi('h magnesia, which occurs plentifully in meteorites, is found to exist in certain distinct geo]ogi(;al districts, and if an increase of the earth's mass, which is certainly minute, but which is going on continuously, ought not to produc^e very considerable changes in the geologic^al theoriiis now prevailing, which proceed on the supposition that the globe is as nearly as possible unaltered in mass since the first occurrence of plants and animals, and that the geological changes have always depended on changes of distribution in the mass over the surface of the earth, never upon the arrival from without of new constructive material for our globe." On the i;^th August the Onkel Adam sirrived from Tromsoe, laden with coal and reindeer moss, and havin<>- on board the forty reindeer f6r the journey over the ice and four Lapps, Nils, Mickel, John, and Anders, who had been hired to take charge of the reindeer and who had with them two dogs, Kunn and Kepp. The reins had stood the voyage well. All the thre'7 vessels of the expedition being thus assembled, ;;i(';:>'3r attempt was made to penetrate the ice, but witbout success. Returning to Fail- Haven, iVi. VI ] UNPAVOUUAIILK STATK OF THE ICE. igo the reincle,3r were landed on the inner Norwny, the Lapps aecomimnying them and pitching a tent Tlie reuis appeared to tliiive well on tluur scantv provender of lichens mixed with a few stalks of trniss." The weather continuing unfavourable, calms altcr- mitmg with northerly winds, part of the lading of the Onkd Athim was discharged, and she was sent to meet the Swedinh company's steamer Aflmer, that had been de^spatched to Tromsoc to bring stores for the ex- pedition from thonee to the so-called Svedish colony Cape Thordsen. On the 17th August a Norwc-iau fishmg steamer, uame «'« were, ami uhat was the object of their vi<,it Ihereaht, surpassed the worst Lebodi g iT^s fewer than six T " '"' '"'" '""' ^^'■'«"- - from e'r stated r Tl ""* '"'" "'"'= ^--'^' »= been emp,;^ ' ti 'r ,,e f" ^"' ''t "'""'•^"'^^ " Hinloopen Strait in .!•' P"' "^ "'<' ™'"'»«-' i" with fi suocTss S f r'^' "^'™^'^' "-"^ !-«- before the " .Sent T "'™ '""* '»^' «""-P- Wijde Bay to h«nf T' ""' '"^"""" '"^--'vei to "ut had been overtT n J Sie^'r' 7^"° '•="■' Jiiy shut in at rm„ Ti 1 """^ "^ *''e ^ssels fifty-eight ™ra„,„ T"" "^ •'" "^^^'''^ "™bered fen- forty-two sutX t rAe f ^'"S! ""'''^ «ix like him,plf • ' ^'^' '^^'^S ^^ith thirty- enforced wintorin<»nn «„■. i ^ " """ ™ His ^re J ^., S,p,t2bergen, and carried to Norway whose iJ e° ,:; : "*r ' *'" "^P"""""' -"' walrus-hunt rs „d1 ' '"" •"^'-'=''"'^<'- T'- p-.ons.w:ic:i;j;::r:r^^^^^^^ A"ei that,, death by hunger stared tliem 2 f II M l'\ u lil !l i i^ l'J6 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. ill the face if they could obtain no assistance from the expedition. The position was most heartrending. The Swedes numbered sixty-seven men, and it was ascertained, that by reducing the rations to two- thirds, the provisions might be made to List till relief could come from Sweden. To refuse help was impossible, but the attempt to feed one hundred and twenty-five men with provisions which were too scanty for sixty- seven could scarcely have but one result, to involve the whole in a common Me. From one quarter, how- ever, help seemed possible. Captain Clase had brought information that at Cape Thordsen in Ice Fjord there was a stock of provisions. It was accordingly proposed to the walrus-hunters that a number of them should attempt to reach Cape Thordsen, either by land or sea. To this they agreed. But if a third should go and succeed in reaching their destination, the number of those left behind would still be too great. There was little to be hoped for from hunting. Perhaps in their extremity, the reindeer moss might be converted into a substitute for bread. The Swedes did not conceal from themselves, nor from the walrus-hunters, that their pro- spects were exceedingly gloomy, and the result beyond calculation. "But the requirements of reason and humanity," says the narrative, " were met. It re- mained to us all only to meet our fate like men, with trust in the guidance of a higher power, and with vigorous efforts on our part to endeavour to conquer our difticulties." A council was held by Nordenskiold, von Krusen- stjerna and Palandcr, and they agreed to send to the [chap. ice from ! Swedes ertained, •ds, the Lild come ble, but five men If sixty- involve :er, how- brought •rd there proposed Q should id or sea. . go and imber of hero was in their 2d into a ceal from heir pro- t beyond ison and It re- icn, with md with conquer Krusen- d to the VI.] LOSS OF THE REINDEER. 107 captains of the imprisoned vessels, a document pro- mising them all the assistance in their power. Tliis document was first read to the six men who had been sent as a deputation, and the reading of it caused a gleam of hope and satisfaction to spread over their countenances. They left on the 1st Octo))er with hearts visibly lighter than when they arrived. As misfortunes never come single, the storm of the 16th September, and the shutting in of the vessels con- sequent upon it, were soon followed by another, which was fatal to the carrying out of the original plan of the ex- pedition. During a violent snowstorm, while the four Lapps were drinking coffee in their tent, the reindeer made their escape and were never seen or heard of more. The storm prevented the sound of the bells which some of them bore from being heard, and their footprints in the snow were immediately effaced by the furious blast. The Lapps were exceedingly grieved at what had happened, and declared their willingness to do all in their power to recover the runaways. But not the slightest trace of them could be discovered either then or afterwards. The only supposition that could be hazarded was, that they had perished in the crevasses of the inlan.d ice. One indeed returned after a week's absence quite unexpectedly, with a large gaping wound in his back, supposed to have been caused by a piece of rock rolling down some mountain side. The rein was tied to the corner of a house and fed with reindeer moss. The wound was washed and covered with a piece of reindeer skin and speedily healed. The loss of the reindeer was not only regretted as deranging the plan of the expedition, l)ut ns depriving it of a supply of it S NOIJDKNSKIOLD'S AlUTK! VOYAniOH. |(iiai'. Ircsh luciit, ol' (ho giviitcst imporlMiicc if .scurvy .should bi'i'jilc out. Oil Iho l.stOcJolHM- (ho huihliu^' on IjukI \v;ih oocupicil, and iioxt nioriuiiu:, INthtndor after a .sliort roli«riou.s .sor- vico, Mddiv.sMod \m num mustorod in tlio li;dl, roviovviiig Iho occunvnco.s that had taken plaee, telling them tliat on (heir l>ehavi.)ur dei)ended the .saving of many lives l.AI'l" WITH l.KiNllKHU. » from death by starvation, impressing on them the necessity of patiently submitting to unavoidable priva- tions, and of carefully observing the winter regimen that had been fixed upon, on which observance a for- tunate issue in great part depended, concluding with a " God save King and Country," in which all joined \\'ith one accord. All were now busy in getting their 'U v,,| VVIM) IM-IINDKMR. 100 "<'^v [J IMLIIKM— wi.vinij .STATIOX. accustomed. Tliey were reins in winter dress. Tlio wliole body was covered with a very close winter coat of hair, several inches thick. The head nearly indis- tinguishable from the neck, was short and thick, with broad nose, and eyes only visible on careful scmtiny. The trunk appeared shapeless, and the legs short and clumsy. This peculiar shapeless appearance IS win Of ! -» 11 5 200 NORDENSKlbLU'S ARCTIC VOVAGKS. [ciap. not moiely to tlie coat of long hair, but also to the thick layer of fat by which at this season the whole mass of muscle in the rein is surrounded. Jt is indeed surprising how this animal can collect such a mass of fat m Spitzbergen, where the vegetation is so scanty and the summer so short. In spring, even in the end of June, they are only, as people say, skin and bone ; but m autumn, by the end of August, and throughout September, they resemble fat cattle, and have their flesh so surrounded and impregnated with fat, that it is for many nearly uneatable. Other three wild reins were soon after shot by the Lapps when out searching for the tame reindeer. They saw no other animals but some ptarmigan, a mountain- lox, and an cider. On the 22nd October, Palander with five companions, started on an excursion with the view of visiting the imprisoned Norwegian vessels. They took with them an ice-boat, a sledge, and provisions for fourteen days On the third day they reached Grey Hook, and found four of the frozen-in vessels lying close together near the beach, with a close broad belt of blocks of ice five to six fathoms high thrown up on a shallow; beyond this, the ice was of comparatively inconsiderable dimen- sions. The walrus-hunters were of opinion that even if storms during winter should break up the rest of the ice this belt would withstand them all, and not be lispersed till the summer sun exerted its consuming power upon it Before then they thought that the vessels could not be liberated. The other two vessels lay about sixty-six miles west at Welcome Point. On the 17th October seventeen men from the vessels' crews taking a boat V..] WINTER CLOSING IN. SOI tnuW to proceca Z tt t f'\TT "'"^ ■"■ "P the,-.. qu«er., ia t e , „1 ' '' VT, ' "?'' "^" ■ Cape ThoKlson n,„l „, ""' ^°™ ''»'" «' i- iiiuiuson and was now imoccuiiir.,1 ti i-emainoil shfwl ti, * *i ■ '"""I""'- J lie men who o^No™.n^e. To iti^f ;::;.:« -;'' ■<=e was, ,t may be stated that Mattilas til tv , veteran, whose forty-seeond vi t ^ .s't e"""" previous visit liad return,.,! tn N ' ""^''^ this, notwithstandin t Zt ] : T^V" """""'' •'^'"' 'reward vo,a,e ,:t::i!: ;r;:rnn^ -n^pMiedidnotW^orthEast^Und^il",:;^ Tlie party left Grey Hook on the 2'^fl. n . i :-i":;:rt;:iS^^^ ward in fifteen 1 , f ?' '""'^'"S "'» J°"™«=y borne- having oeeuS Hen'; ' '°"^' '"" "'"™^'' ^--^ -me eider duet tlf"^^^^ '""'"''''"' '^ "«">''-; enough to uiie r T' ""'" ""' ^°°"»' ^'^"8 the l^st to WTW^"^"'"'™^ ""'•'""■''■ "^^"^ <-. at thelttom':?M:rr ^7 "" ' qucnce of the stronn- .„ . ^' ' ^^ ^^^^^e- 1 v^i i/iiL brronof current, wno o^:n ^„ ,■ ,, partially free of ice. By tJic end of etober tJie on ly v.'inged creature 11 ! 203 NOUDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAdKH. [chap. visible were a few guillemots, which now and then were seen flying ningly over the bay, eoming from the north, where probably every opening between the iee-blocks Ijad not yet been frozen over. They began, however, day by day, to bo more rare. Occasionally there was heard the cry of an ivory-gull, " which " says the writer of the narrative, " though not melodious, was plejisant to us, because it was a token of life, showing that we were not altogether deserted, and because it broke the silence which had begun, and which the seldomer it was broken, was all the more remarkable and impressive." The tem- perature now became pretty steady, the thermometer in general showing about - 20° C - 4° F. The 13th October was the last day for four and a half long months on which a glimpse of the sun was visible. Reckoning for refraction, the sun should have been visil)le till the 20th of October, but the mountain-chain to the south of Mussel Bay, cut off seven days. On the 26th of October, artificial light was required the Avhole day long, but out of doors it was still possible to distinguish one's way. The long dreary Polar night having thus set in, it was of the greatest importance that the resources at tlie com- mand of the Expedition should be husbanded in the best way possible, and every precaution taken to preserve the health of its members. The first question was that of food. When the Polhem left Sweden there were on board provisions for twenty-two men for eighteen months. The Gladan having on board two officers, two subordinate officers, and twenty-one seaman and boatmen, had pro- visions for about six months on leavinsf Sweden. The steamer Qnhel Adam, with twelve persons on board besides the captain, one of whom was a stewardess, Amanda, had, [('IIAI' V,.] IIEINDEER MOSH FOR FOOD. 203 when Him camo to Spitzbergeri in September, provisions for only a few weeks. These were supplemented by the purehase made by Captain Chise from the lee Fjord Compar.y, wiiirli included about six months' provisions Jt was resolved to give the OM Adam in addition from tue J olhem's stock, a certain quantity of provisions, Hue ly preserved, as only a small quantity of these could be oUained at Ice Fjord. The crews of the Polhem and the Gladan were regarded as a unit. In the end of September a calculation had been made and a like ration fixed on for the crews of both vessels to be in force from the 1st October. This was of course con- siderably smaller than that which liad been originally settled on.^ ° ^ If the Norwegians, as was daily expected, were to make their appearance, a further reduction must be made, and it was determined to prepare for such an emei^ency l>y experimenting on the reindeer moss, of which there was a large stock which was now useless for Its original purpose. An attempt was made to bake bread of the moss mixed with flour. The moss was picked and carefully freed from all foreign matter. It was then boiled some minutes to get rid of its bitter taste. In this way pare of its nutritive value was lost but this was unavoidable. It was then dried, ground' or powdered, and mixed with rye-flour and water. The' dough thus obtained was fermented, baked in thin loaves and fired. The bread looked very well, had the colour of common ryebread, was well fermented, &c. But it had a very bitter taste, though not in so hicrh a degree but that it was quite eatable. After being a little 1 See Dr: Envall'a Report in Appendix. •^ ^n^-. i Ik I' '■■', 11 :r J I 20 1 NOIIDKNSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. jicciistomoil to it, iuul especially when very hungry, a porsou could oat it with relish. 'I'he vstoek of suitable clothing was iuiiply sufficient not only for the wintering party, but for all on board the ijuprisoned vessels. I'lie ordinary routine of a man-of-war was observed on boiird the Gladan, and also on land as far as the scientific character of the expedition permitted. The scientific work carried on duriiig the winter was the following : — Complete meteorological observations every hour both dav and niolit : hourlv maonetical observa- tions and in addition five minute observations twice a month on tlie 1st and 15th, in correspondence with similar observations at the ])liysical institution at Upsahi ; refraction, pendulum, and other astronomical observa- tions ; observations of the aurora, and its si)ectrum, of atmospheric electricity, and the temperature of the earth and of the sea, aiid tidal observations; zoological re- searches by dredging under the ice, and in connection with these, algt)logical studies. The leisure time of the crew was principally occupied with reading, but also with various games, as draughts, chess, and dominoes. The last game was much liked by the Lai)ps, who, at the beginning, had amused them- selves much by playing cards, and who soon picked up the simpler rules of chess, and became afterwards assi- duous and very ingenious chess-players. They also occupied themselves much with a game with the exact nature of which the Swedes did not become acquainted. The apparatus for it consisted of tlice, a board divided into squares like a draughtboard, and a number of small wooden figures somewhat resembling cones, which were [citAIV VI] HOPES OF HKLKASE. 205 huiigiy, ufficicnt ti board )l)serv('(l : as the was the IS every ol)serva- is twice ice with IJpsahi ; 3bscrva- triim, of lie cartli ical re- inectiou )C('upied rauglits, ill liked d tliem- 'ked up ds assi- ey also le exact iiainted. divided )f small ch were placed on tlie outer squartvs of the board and moved ac- cording to the tln-ow of the dice. The whole — dice, cones, and board— were made by the Lapps themselves. Song, music, and sometimes dancing, shortened many leisure^ hours for the men. In spring there were also ganu^s in the open air, as skating, though skating-ice was not so common as might have been expected. November began with a furious storm, and durino- nearly the whole month violent storms raged from the south, south-west, and south-east. On the 24th, for instance, there was a snow-storm, the like of which no member of the expedition could remember having seen. The observations were completely stopped, and it was a little time before they could be resumed, as the damao'c done had first to be repaired. These storms, though ratlnu* unpleasant, were welcomed by the Swedes as t(mding to open a way for the release of the Norwegian vessels. The direction of the wind was the most suitable for driving from land the masses of ice collected along the coast, and it appeared almost certain that in the be- ginning of the month, there was still open water north and west of the Norways, and that the ice shuttino- in the two vessels lying at Welcome Point could not be of any great extent. The fear which walrus hunters generally have of wintering in Spitzbcrgen led to the conclusion that if both, or even only one, of these vessels could be worjced out into open water, the crews of the other vessels would abandon them, if they were still shut in, and find a passage in one or both of the others to Norway. In the meantime all necessary preparations were made for their reception. The steamer Folhem was assigned to them, and all available means were used III 20(? NORDENSTvIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [cuav. to make tlnui- qiiartoivs as coiiveiiieiit, warm, and wliolc- some us possihJe. In tlu> l)oginiiing of November there was found to be open water at a distanee of about four miles from tlic house. By the 8th and Otli the edg(. of tlie ice eould be readied in a quarter of an Jiour. TJie arrival of the Norwegians was awaited witii the greatest intej-est. They were to arrive on the 10th according to the ncrec- mentmade with Palander at Grey Ifook, but they did not come. AVhen some days had passed und the weather continued favourable for the breaking up of the ice, and the open water came still nearer the coast, the appre- hensions of the Swedes began gra.lually to subside, and most of them became convinced that the imprisoned vessels had got out to sea, and wei-e so far on their way back to Norway. The question now began to bo eagerlv discussed whether the Glcuhn and the Onkel Adam should return if opportunity offered. The difficulty of navigating in the darkness, which was now almost continuous and eomplete, and the danger of being again beset with ice possibly in a more iinfevourable position, were urged against the return of the vessels, but preparations began to be made to take advantage of a favourable conjuncture of circumstances, such as the bay being free of* ice, the weather steady, and the moon above the horizon. During nearly the whole of November the weather was very mild. The temperature seldom sank to - 20° C. and was often, especially on stormy days, a degree or two above the freezing point. In September the\vinter promised to be very severe, but now the contrary appeared probable. VI.] THE rOLAR NIGHT. 207 ice " With the polar uiglit in all its dreary length," says Kjellniaii, " wc first became aeciuainted during the last days of the month. Towards the end of it the sun was indeed far below our horizon, but tlu; mild lifrht ot the moon dispersed in some degree the darkness of the night. Never had this lieavenly body been so dear to us, and never had her light appeared to us so strong and beautiful as when she now held back the darkness that was to settle over the region where we had fix(Hl our dwelling. Long shall we remember, if indeed we ever forget, the moonlight November days at Mussel Bay. Certainly we shall never again see a heaven so beautiful as that which we occasionally had an ojiportunity of gazing at with deep admiration. It was speci;dly at noon that it was finest. One day Nordenskiold and I walked out to the edge of the ice to enjoy near at hand the sight of the waves dancing in joyous motion and the ice blocks (piietly swimming about. Our way was over tlie ice, and walking was exceedingly difficult. When we reached the fartliest part of the archipelago we threw ourselves down to rest and take a view of our surroundings. They were surprisingly grand. The south-western part of the vault of heaven was lighted by the cireumpolar full moon. In the flood of light which streamed out from her there swam some few long drawn out clouds. Right to the south near the horizon there was visible a faint reddish glimmer, clearly and sharply distinguishable from the white moonlight. Here the sun had gone down, wh(>n the long polar night began ; it was the last glimpse of his light that we now saw. In the south-east some few rays of light chanirino- everv moment in strength, colour, and position— in fiict, the Hr < s ) d as a second magnetic observatory. 211 NORDENSKIorjrS AllCTKJ VOYAOKS. [ciui-. Durliipj the wliolc winter tlie (lrc(lyineut in which all thus sliared contributed greatly to keep them in good spirits, and to pnsvent them from sufferino- so much from the reibiced rations as might have been expected. Tlie repeated outbreaks of scurvy, amenable as it was to treatment, showed that if the Norwegians had been obliged to join the expedition the result would, in all probability, have been that the greater number, if not the whole, would have found their graves on the desolate shores of Spitzbergvn. For the insufficiency of rations must be considered the main cause of scurvy breaking out so early and attacking so many members of the expedition, although great weight ought also to be given to the depressing effect of the long darkness and the predisposing influence of the Arctic regions. On the 8th January the thermometer rose in the morning from -30^ and -32° up to -7°C., and soon after a violent S.E. storm began to blow, which in a few ■ hours cleared IVfussel Bay of ice and set the vessels free. Preparations were now made for the Polhein going north- wards to find out where the edge of the ice was, but before they could be completed a^KW. storm came on and the vessels were again frozen in. During the rest of January the cold was inconsiderable, the wind mostly from the south, and the ice in the bay was breaking up. It was now settled that as soon as the vessels were free they should all leave Mussel Bay, the PoUicm to go north- wards, the other vessels to return home. On the 29th January the whole of the bay was free of ice, and the [c'lIAl', VI. TIIK HPyriJUN OV THE SUN. 21S cvoning of tl.at day was fixc.l for the (leparturo, but the Mind rose to such a hcicvht that it had to be deferred. On tl|o 3()th the storm continued and increased in violence, llie ro/Iicm, aiadati and OhM Adam were all like to drive on land, the rolhcm actually running aground on a Haridl.ank but being got off without much dithculty. Soon the storm subsided and the members of the expe- dition congratulated each other on their escape from the dangers that had threatened them, the greatest of which was the loss of the provisions that were on board the vessels. For if the vessels had stranded, the greater pai-t of the provisions would, in all prol)abiIity, have been lost or damaged, and the Swedes would thus have become a prey to starvation and to death. On the Gth February lamp light could first be dis- pensed with at noon, but only for a short time. It was not until the i;3th March that the sun was visible. On the 20th February the cold reached its maximum, the mean temperature of the d-^y being -30°, the minimum - 38° C. This was welcome to Wijkander, who int.nided to make observations on refraction at a very lo^^ tem- perature. Preparations had been made for them, and the instrument stood waiting the opportunity that now offered. Fortunately the cold was accompanied with a calm and clear atmosphere. AVijkander remained whole nights in his observatory bravely defying the cold and patiently overcoming the many diffi.;ulties attending astronomical observations made in such circumstances! In the cold weather the woi-k out of doors was not stopped and the dredgings still went on, it being of great importance to ascertain whether the severe cold and the long darkness exercised any special influence 21fi NOIIDKNSKIOLD'S ARCTIC V0YA(;EH. [.hap. Upon tlie murine animal and vogeta1)l(! world. The 8oa was now covered with ice; as fur as we (tould see, and the ice in MushoI hay increased in thickness every day. On the '.hd March, however, the arrival of some glaucous gulls led to the 8upi)ONition that there was o])en wutcr at no great distance. Tiiis was rendered .'^-■J^^S^Kii^^i- -^T^:%<.\t^\^.(\!' m ^$ ASTI'OHOMIC'AI. OI)SKltVAT( il( Y. ii more probable during the following days by a heavy swell in ]\lussel Bay, and on the 4th a small bow-formed, open channel was seen from a neighbouring height stretching from the mouth of Hinloopen Strait to the little Muffin Island, and from that down to the Norways. Another lane went from Hinloopen along the west (^oast [« IIAl'. . Tho Id see, every viil of ; there tulcrcd v'-l FRESH MEAL. 217 of Nortli Ea,st r-und toward.s L„vv I.slnnd and Braudy- wiue Ihy. The H.inio day tlu; Lapps went up on the western fVILs to look for ptarnn'gan. They also saw open water and found ptarniioan, but could not shoot any. They saw besides a not inconsiderable number of -^-s.'s^tSt^OtA'^ leavy lined, leinjht the tvays. (^oast -'".;;..:v-"i 'if!;,i? - -- sa^ ^..^.. .^^^ '.i^>^ .-,--l?!TTri rf DIlKnoiNO rXDEI? TirH ICK IN WIM'KK. glaucous gulls and guillemots hovering about the tops of the rocks and settling on the ledges On the Gth March a large polar bear was shot, and his flesh afforded a welcome change of diet to the Swedes who had been so long confined to the tasteless preserved provisions. It was hoped that another bear would soon make his appearance, but none came. 218 NOIIDENSKIOLD'S AllCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. About the lOtli March it was determined that two parties should start on tJie IGtli, one Jed by Nor- denskiold and Palander to Giles' Land, the other headed by Von Krusenstjerna and Parent to explore North East Land. Fate, however, seemed to be set against the expedition, for by the IGth a violent storm, accompanied by snow, had come on from the S.E., and it was impossible to start. The weather for a long time was bad. It stormed and snowed almost daily, and was comparatively very cold, between - 25° and - ,35° C. Before any alteration of the weather took place the greater part of March was past, and it was too late to carry out the plan that had been formed, because the polar journey proper was to be begun in the middle of April. On the 3rd April a snow-bunting made its appear- ance, and v^'as welcomed as the messenger of sprino-. The sun now remained so long above the hori.^on that there was in fact no more night. Short but i^leasant and invigorating the time was felt to be during which night and day succeeded each other. During the first part of the " dark time " a nearly unconquerable sleepi- ness had been experienced. Men felt as if they could sleep without difficulty the whole twenty-four hours. Towards the end of the "dark time" sleeplessness succeeded, and it was difficult for almost all to obtain the needed rest. The sun returned, and the interchange of day and night began. Now all fell asleep the moment they went to bed, slept undisturbed till morn- ning, and rose refreshed and strong. With the unbroken polar day the sleeplessness returned, but not in the same degree as before. [CIIAP. VI.] THE ICE JOUllNEY TO THE NORTX 210 In tlic cud of March part of the sea off Mussel Bay was open, but during the cold days about the middle of April all the ice-free places froze again, so that as far as could be seen from the island on which the house was situated, the sea was covered after the 15lh April by a continuous sheet of ice. The month of April was occupied by preparations for the ice journey towards the north, of which we shall now give an account in the words of Professor Nordenskiold. "The situation of Mussel Bay is exceedingly un- favourable for an expedition in which sledge journeys northwards are proposed to be undertaken. Although partly in consequence of this, partly on account of the greatly diminished strength of our men from the insuffi- ciency of their rations during the winter, and finally on account of the unfortunate accident of the escape of the reindeer, we had given up thoughts of reaching so high a degree of latitude as we had previously reckoned upon, we were unwilling to let our abundant sledge equipment remain altogether unemployed. Independ- ently of the latitude that could be reached, a sledge journey northwards was of gre^it interest, because only in this way could we obtain a knowledge of the state of the Polar ice during this season of the year, founded on actual observations. My intention was, if possible, to arrange that the main party should be attended by two smaller ones, of which one should bring with it pro. visions to the Seven Islands and then return, and the other the same, after coming some distance to the north of this group of islands. With the help of three Lapps (the fourth had fallen very ill, as it afterwards appeared, of scurvy, just as the expedition started), two 220 NORDKNSKIOLD'8 ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciiai'. Norwegians hired for the expedition at Troinsoe, and a volunteer, Christenson, a mate from the OhM 'Adam, the main party and the returning party, which was to accompany it farthest towards the north, could be manned from the Polhem. Tlie tlnrd party the com- mander of the Glailan had promised to organise from the vessel under his command. i iressKj, JUY. " The departure was fixed for the 23rd April, but had to be postponed till the following dciy, because onj of ''e sledges broke down immediately after it was set in motion. We started, therefore, on the 24th April with tliree sledges, each provided with its boat. We went over the chain of hills, about 1,000 feet high, which divides Mussel Bay from the entrance to Treurenber^r [chap. , and a Adam, was to lid be i com- B from t had m of let ill with went v^bich ibei'tT vi.l OUR SLEDGES BREAK DOWN. 221 Bay. At the beginning nearly all the men who were in good liealth helped to draw the sledges up the high l)ut gently sloping acclivities wherewith the chain of hills sinks towards the starting-point of onr journey. Notwithstanding the acclivities and the heavy loads on our sledges, we accordingly made pretty rapid progress. At the summit our companions left us, and we continued our journey down the hill, which here slopes pretty gently towards Verlegen Hook. "During our downward journey, however, a new misfortune befell us, inasmuch as the sledge which was set apart for the main party was smashed, nnd when farther forward we met with Von Krusenstjerna who had taken another way over the hills, we received the unwelcome intelligence that one of the men belonging to his party had ftdlen ill, on which account he con- sidered himself obliged immediately to return. One of our own men, too, complained of what afterward ,s appeared to be a pretty severe attack of scurvy. Everything thus appeared to be in league against us. "In any case it was our intention immediately to proceed with tlie two parties from the Polhem, after having exchanged the broken sledge for that which was intended for Von Krusenstjerna's party ; but on a close examination that too was found to be broken. It was now clear that our sledges, made with the greatest care at Copenhagen after patterns from England, were not sufficiently r^crong to bear upon rough ice or uneven ground the heavy loads (2,000 to 3,000 lbs.) which were here required, and that it would be necessary, in case we made another journey, to provide new sledges, or sufficiently strengthen the old ones, with the materials 222 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. available at our winter station. For this purpose Palander and part of the men returned to the Polhem. "It was of course unnecessary that all the men should return, and I accordingly determined to employ the time required for getting ready the new sledges in forming a depot as far on our way northwards as we could, consistently with the possibility of allowing the necessary number of men to meet at Verlegen Hook. For without the help of a portion of the men whom I required for this expedition, the equipment of the prin- cipal party left behind at Verlegen Hook could not be brought on. "Accompanied by ten men I started on the 24th April from or.r encampment at Verlegen Hook, going over Hinloopen Strait towards Shoal Point. The smallest boat was carried by four men on their shoulders, the provisions, the tent, and other equipments were loaded on two sledges and a pulka (reindeer sledge), to which our sole remaining reindeer was attached, which was accompanied and observed by me with a quite special interest, chiefly to obtain a knowledge fully to be dcDcnded on and grounded on experience, of the fitness of this animal for such journeys as these. I can safely say that it surpassed our expectations. The reindeer dreiv, although the Lapps declared it ivas not one of the best, npivards of 200 Ihs. (a good reindeer draws 300 lbs.), ims quiet and easily managed as an old work-horse, ate ivith relish the moss we brought ivith us, and when slaughtered, after the moss ivas finished, afforded excellent flesh. With forty such draught animals and Parry Island for a starting-point, we might certainly have reached a very high latitude, VI.] FOG AND SNOW. 223 24tli even with so unfavourable a state of the ice as pre- vailed this year north of North East Land. "The distance from Mussel Bay to Verlegen Hook was, reckoning by the circuitous route wc had taken, nearly two Swedish {about thirteen English) miles. So far had we advanced the first day, notwithstanding that a height of about 1,000 feet had to be passed. On the other hand, on account of the extremely unfavour- able state of the ice, I required three days to cross Hinloopcn Strait, which, at the place where I passed it, is at most eighteen miles broad. The weather was at first favourable, but by the second day there descended over the mouth of Hinloopcn an ice fog, which made it impossible for us to choose a way for our sledges among the fields of rough ice. This fog, however, was speedily dispersed by an easterly and south-easterly wind, which swept before it along the ground a stream of driving snow, consisting of fine ice-needles glittering in the sun, which in a few minutes filled a hole more than six inches deep in the snowdrifts so that no trace of it was left. The rest of the sky was still indeed quite clear, so that not only the sun but also numerous fine mock-suns and halos, produced by the refraction of the solar rays by the ice-crystals were visible. On the other hand, all near the horizon was concealed in an impenetrable mist. The mountain tops, surrouii ling Treurenberg and Lomme Bays, lying at a distance of several Swedish miles, showed contours so clear and sharp, that they seemed close at hand, while objects near the ice or ground at a distance of only a few hundred paces, either could not be distinguished at all, or appeared, when the wind and driving snow 224 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. lessened for a few moments, as high snow-covered mountain ranges, looking as if they lay at a much gieater distance than the mountains at Lomnie and 'Ireurenberg Bays. These circumstances, so different from those to which we are accustomed at home cave occasion to the only accident accompanied by loss of human life which the expedition has to record. " Before referring to this I shall, in a few words, give an account of the beautiful halos produced by the i(;e- fogs, which were constantly visible at this time. Un- fortunately I had already, the day after we left Verlegen Hook, in consequence of ray imi^rudence in not im- mediately using snow-shades, been attacked hy incipient snow-blindness, so that even the slightest strain on the eyes was attended with the most severe pain. It was tl'.erefore impossible for me to carry out any measure- ments, and I can consequ^ .tly only gho here a de- scription of these beautiful phenomena, without a statement of the angles, which is indispensable for their complete explanation. "The halos appeared, as has been said, almost con- stantly, but of variable brightness and extent. Some- times they consisted only of a single ring with faint mock-suns, but occasionally it was possible to follow the phenomenon round the whole horizon. Even when it was brightest the halos were coloured only at tlie part of the horizon lying towards the sun. They did not consist of circles, but of beautiful curves of very various forms, which to a certain extent also underwent variation in their relative position. Thus, the one nearest the sun was of a pear-shaped form, pointing downwards. In its border three mock-suns were visible [on A p. VI.J HALOS. 225 two particularly fine at the same height as the sun and another less developed below. When the sun was' on the horizon the lower mock-sun was not visible When up on the inland ice I observed it touchinrr the lionzon on the 7th June at 6 o'clock p.m. We "were then in the latitude of about 79' 50', frou) which it is possible to calculate the angle between the sun's centre and the lower point of the pear-shaped halo of 221° AVhen the halo was complete, the pear-shaped figure wis surrounded by two others, the inner like an Q and the outer bell-shaped, the latter at its uppermost' point being touched by an arc of a basin-shaped rainbow. " Of these two outer halos, however, there were com- monly visible only the bows which touched the inner pear-shaped halo, and that just referred to which touched the outer one at its highest point. A line drawn through these two points of contact by no means always corresponded with the vertical plane, but oscillated, often withm a short time, and, as 1 believe, with the wind which probably had a very considerable influence on the position of the ice-crystals, now to the right, now to the left All the lines which have been described were coloured with the colours of the rainbow, which were sometimes intense, but generally only faint. Ihrough the sun and the two horizontally placed mock- suns there went a band of light, which, though faint was continued round the whole horizon with clearly- marked brighter points of light here and there. The halos visible opposite the sun consisted of circle-like or pear- shaped curves of the same dimensions as the pear-shaped ^-1- already described. Eight opposite the sun, upon lier side of the horizon, t^^o such curves touched Q the 22G NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. each other witliout showing any trace of mock-auns at tlie point of contact, wliile, on the other hand, two lunnnoua points were visible where the curves in ijucstion touched the curves next to them on their otiier sides. Tlie whole vault of heaven was besides, as it were, marbled by regularly grouped lighter and darker spots, whose position however I could not further clear up. All these lines were uncoloured. " The forms which I have described, and which were also visible, although less clearly developed, farther on during our journey over the inland ice-field of North East Land, diU'er considerably from the halos which have previously been sketched. This depended perhaps on the circumstance that the stratum of air filled with ice-needles which gave rise to the phenomenon of dif- fraction lay in this case close to the surface of the earth along which the ice-dust was driven at a furious rate by violent winds. " The halos originate, as is well known, in the dif- fraction of the solar rays by, and their reflection from, the ice-crystals with which the air is sometimes filled. For the theory of this phenomenon the knowledge of the crystalline form of ice is of the greatest importance. This I had previously endeavoured to investigate, and during this year's stay among the ice and snow of the Polar lands I had besides on several occasions oppor- tunities to make observations, which show that the statements found in most scientific handbooks are in some respects very incomplete, in others altogether erroneous. These are generally founded on the form of snowflakes, which has been described by Kepler, De ]\Iairan, Wilke, Scoresby, &c. These writers^ and many V,.] THE CllYSTALLINE FOKM OF ICE. 227 others, have shown that snowflakes and similar crystals artificially protluced from water are composed of six- sided star-like figures, more or less complex, consisting of fine long crystal-needles disposed at angles of 60° and 120° to each other. From this the conclusion has been drawn, that the fundamental form of ice is a regular six-sided pyramid. Although twin formations of the kind which occurs in the case of snowflakes do not absolutely exclude the possibility of an hexagonal crystalline form, they are so much the less an evidence of it, as such twin-groups seldom occur in the true hexagonal system, but are much more frequent in the case of rhomboidal crystals with a fundamental prism of about 120°. " In order to settle the question of the true crystalline form of ice, it is necessary to examine single crystals of sufiiciently large size to be determined crystallogra- phically. By such an examination I have found that ice is dimorphous, for it crystallises— •'1. Ilexagonalli/— Short six-sided prisms optically uniaxial, seldoia truncated by pyramidal surfaces, and not showing any particular disposition to form double crystals. I observed crystals of this variety, strongly resembling crystals of colourless apatite, several years ago upon certain minerals which had been packed in moist blotting-paper, and had been exposed to a tem- perature under the freezing-point, and in old snow which had several times been alternately exposed to mild weather and to a low temperature. The finest crystals of this kind were, however, found during our journey over the inland ice of North East Land. They form here a separate stratum, of which the passage Q 2 228 N(JIll)KNSK[()LL)-8 AllOTIC VOYACrRS. [<;uap, from the looso .snow to tlio firm ii'o is coinpoHetl, ancl are often of u siuguljirly ivjruhir formation, oHpocially on the walls of the cavities of which this stratum is full. Thv, ciystals are commonly bountled by a terminal piano forminected. The reason of this was that North Kast Land, as the accompanying map shows, extends considerably ■ farther towards the east than the distance given in most of the sea charts, a circumstance which was first pointed out by Mr. L(>igh Smith, who, as is well known, has visited Spitzborgen in summer, partly for sj.ort, partly to carry on researches in geograpJiy and natural history. We had now an opportunity of confirming his observa- tions in the main points by means of astronomical obser- vations accurately mad,> with an artificial horizon, and of makmg a complete map of the north coast of North East Land lying east of the turning-point of the expedition oflSGl. ^ " For some days a dark sky had showed itself in the east and north-east, which was thought to be a si-u that there was already open water on the east side of 8pitz- bergen. In order to make certain of this and to get a view of the state of the ice both on the sea and the in- land ice, Palander and I ascended the highest summit of von Otter's Island on the 31st of Mav, the most easterly on the north coast of North East Land with the exception of some .mall islands, Accordin<>- to aneroid observations, the height was 105 metres. ° K -2 214 NOUDKNHKlOl.DS AUCTIC VUYA(!KS. [CIIAI*. it- " 11 \i "We luid an extmiHivc! view from this point, wliicli sliowi'd tlmt a ('on.sidcmltU! Htretcli of open water siir- roumh'd on all ,siIJT1CI) TKIlKIToKV 2(5 north of Helis Sound. Tlie hmd in named CI iles' Land in the map published by us. When Cunt Zcil and Baron von HciinlJn some years afterwards visited 8tor Fjord they siglited the same hmd from sonic liioh hills on the north-eastern sith) of Kdges' Laiul, but they believed that they ought to give the land a very great extension towards the south. The land was treated as if new and obtaiiKMl the name • Konig Carl Wilhelni'a Land.' At first the observation by Dunur and me was neo-lected entirely. Afterwards it was deelared that the hmd seen by both of us was only a plateau-shaped island or a forc- hmd, • Schwedisches Forhind,' which lay in the front of the newly discovered hmd, a statement, the incorrectness of which is shown both by the sketch of the land seen from the top of White Mount, published in the account of tho expedition of 18G4, and by the description given in that account. "To avoid loading the mnp unnecessarily with new names, we had continued to mark the land with tho name Giles' Land, and, on the ground of our measure- ments made from the White Mount under favourable circumstances, we had called in question the extension of the land so far south as von Heuglin supposed. We were violently attacked on the subject by Petermann, who ex- pressly declared that our remarks originated in envy and other discreditable motives. The great extension which von Heuglin gave the land to the south led the English also to wish to identify it with that marked Wiche'a ' Land in Purchas's map to the east of Spitzbergen and to claim it accordingly as an English discovery. This claim, however, was also resisted in the most positive manner by Petermann. Finally the question of the extent of ! i" I !: 246 NORDEXSKrr)LI)'S AKOT[0 VOYACJES. [ciiai-. the now or old land was completely settled in 1872, when three Norwegian whalers, Altman, Johnsen, and Nilsen sailed round it and determined its extent. The observations of the Norwegians were arranged by Professor Mohn of Christiania, who, to put an end to the dispute about the name, proposed at the same time to call the land after the King of Sweden, King Carl's Land, a settlement of the name question against which people in Sweden, at least, can have no remark to make. In various maps published during the last few years Peter- mann has marked with the name Giles' Land, a land far to the north-east of the nortli-eastern point of North East Land, situated as far to the north of van Keulen's Giles' Land as King Carl's Land is situated to the south of it. It is reserved for futurity to show wh(.>ther this land does in fact exist. From the top of von Otter's island, as I have already stated, no land could be ob- served in the direction given by Petermann. " The geology of the region east of Cape Platen is exceedingly monotonous. The ro^k consists everywhere of a mica-schist mostly stratified horizontally, here and there gneissoid, resting on greyish white granite, in out- ward appearance strongly reseml)ling Stockholm granite, but wanting orthite. Strata of a granite of similar na- ture, alternate with the schists, which though in the main horizontally stratified are botli much folded. Nearly everywhere the underlying rock and the low islands lying off the coast consist of granite and the hills of mica-schist. Well-marked strife are seldom met with here ; they have been destroyed by the action of the atmosphere and of lichens wherever the receding glacier has left an exposed stone surface not coverc'l by i. [C'UAP. ill 1872, Jobnsen, ts extent, ranged by- end to the rnc to call s Land, a 3h people nake. In irs Peter- i land far of North Keulen's the south >ther this •n Otter's Id be ob- Platen is ery where here and 3, in out- 1 granite, inilar na- the main Nearly ■ islands hills of let Avith I of the ( fflacier 3red by VI 1 ROCK FOLDS. 247 water or clay. But innumerable other signs show that the inland ice of North East Land in" former days extended many miles fj-ther north, and that it is the denuding action of the ice that has determined the pre- sent distril)ution of the land. " The power of resistance of the mica-schist has in this case been clearly much less than that of the hard granite, and the existing rock surface on the low promontories and islands therefore consists of the stratum of contact between the two rocks. Here, for long stretches, we may walk forward over horizontal granite rocks, into which, to judge by the surface, angular pieces of gneiss are as it were kneaded. A geologist of von Buck's school would here doubtless believe that he saw an immense eruptive mass of granite, cveiy where interspersed with fragments of gneiss mechanically transported. On a closer examina- tion, however, it is founrl that there is no true inclusion of gneiss in granite but that the whole effect depends on the denudation having stopped just at the boundary between the two i-ocks, in which however all the bends of the waved strata have not been followed, the consequence of which is that a fold of the gneiss descending here and there into the granite has been left behind. It therefore appears, judging from the surface, as if the whole rock consisted of granite interspersed to a great extent with angular blocks of gneiss. That the granite and the gneiss stand to each other in the same relation as the layers of sand and clay in the later rocks I consider a settled truth. "That in Sweden, too, inclusions of gneiss in granite have a similar origin, I consider highly probable, though many cases occur (for example, tlie inclusion of crneL t' *miM 248 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [c'HAr. and magnetite blocks in pegmatite) where this exphma- tion is not admissible. " Before we discovered, from the sinnmit of von Otter's Island, the open water channel mentioned above I was very doubtful which way should be chosen for our further advance, whether upon the sea ice along the east coast of North East Land, in which case there would be a possibility of accurately determining the extent of the inland i(^c in that direction, — and this, if repeated after several decades of yetirs, w^ould be of great im- portance for establishing the rate at which the ice advances or recedes, — or over the inland ice itself towards Cape ]\Iohn or Cape Torell, which offered abundant opportunities for observations of a formation which is exceedingly interesting in a geological point of view. But the open water wliich we saw from the summit, no longer left any choice open to us in this respect. If, as was to be supposed, some considerable opening or w\ater channel extended from the open water to the pre- cipitous impassable border of the glacier, it would form an insurmountable obstacle to our advance in case the way along the east coast was taken, as we had left the boat provided for the sledge journey behind at the Seven Islands. Seen from a distance, on the other hand, the in- land ice of North East Land was level and free from clefts. " North East Land forms the most northerly of the four large islands, into which Spitsbergen is divided. Its extent from north to south is seventy-five and from cast to west about ninety-two geographical miles. The whole interior is occupied l)y an ice-sheet 2,000 to 3,000 feet thick, to which thi; fall of snow (and rain) during summer and winter brings new material, and which f .1 VI.] THE BROADJJST GLACIER IN THE WORLD. 249 accordingly would be nnceasiiigly increased, if the mass of ice did not, as is the case with all glaciers, flov/ out into the sea slowly, but witliout intermission. The principal direction of the ice-stream in North East Land is towards the east, and the whole of the east coast is therefore occupied by a single precipitous ice-wall, insurmountable from the sea, which, being nowhere interrupted by rocky heights or tongues of land, forms the broadest glacier or skridjokel known to man. It is, for instance, consider- ably broader than the Humboldt glacier in Greenland described in such lively colours by Kane. Northwards, however, the ice-sheet of North East Land terminates with an even and gentle slope, which sometimes reaches the sea, but generally leaves a small stretch of ice-free land along the coast. On this side there is no obstacle to an advance into the ijiterior, at least from precipitous slopes. " After a halt of twenty-four hours at our last resting- place on the north coast, for the purpose of taking ob- servations and for short excursions in various directions we started again on the 1st of June. We now went no longer east but southwards to a point where the ice-field was believed to terminate towards the sea with a slope sufficiently gentle for the up-transport of our sledges. This went on more speedily and with less difficulty than we expected, but wo had scarcely advanced a few hun- dred yards before our journey was interrupted for a little by a hazardous adventure, which showed us that we had now entered a field full of dangers, certainly not unex- pected, but much more serious than we had supposefl. " Like the glaciers of Switzerland, of Greenland and of Scandinavia, the glaciers of Spitzbergen are interrupted by clefts or fissures which often extend ..4^ 250 NORDENSKrcir.D'S ARCTK! VOYAOES. [c'lrAP. rerpendieularly thmugl, the whole >.a.., of ice several .ou.™,l fcet tl,i,*. The oecun-ence of tl.ese n.Zt stomls ,n cose eoanection to ti,e motion of the glacier and there ,s therefore a .„,allcr nno.ber to he r^, 2 wh re the glaoer ,s «prca,l over a„ extensive level field wthout interruption from rocky heights. Accordingly „-o had reason to suppose that clefts or. fi.s.,„res wonld not in any specially great number intersect the way we Ind cho.,cn. and I hoped besides that all the crevasses would have been lied with snow during the snowstorms 1 winter, il ,s supposition was so far eorreet, inasmuch as fissures o not here occur in such numbers or of s ,. .- as m that part of the inland ice of Greenland wh I examined along with Dr. Derggrcn in l870-but ,le» almost bottomless openings ,1„ nevertheless oecu in numbers sufficiently laric. The inland ice extended to the south and west Avithout interruption by any ridges of hills, or so-called glacier islands, raising itself evenly and imperceptibly to a plain, the farther side of which we could not see, lying 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the sea, along whose level surface every puff of wind drove along a stream of fine snow-dust, which, from the ease with which it penetrated everywhere, was as troublesome to us as is the fine sand of the desert to the travellers in Sahara. By means of this fine snow- dust steadily driven forward by the wind, the upper part of the glacier, which did not consist of ice, as in Greenland, but of hard packed blinding white snow, was glazed and polished so that we might have thought ourselves to be advancing over an unsurpassably fault- less and spotless fioor of wliite marble, or perhaps rather over a white velvet carpet. At the resting-places there was nearly always dug a deep hole in the surface of the glacier for the use of the cook, whereby I had an opportunity of closely examining the way in which the glacier is formed of snow. " The snow, at a depth of four to six feet, passes into ice, being changed first to a stratum of ice-crystals, partly large and beautiful to the eye of the crystallo- grapher, then to a crystalline mass of ice and finally to a hard homogeneous glacier ice, in which, however, there coidd still be observ^ed numerous cavities filled with air, compressed by the pressure of the overlying ice. When ». [CIIAP. licm, and tlic inland lad a good water cast lie inland tcrruption ds, raisin Of lie fartlicr to 3,000 every puff ist, which, k'herc, was ; desert to fine snovv^- the upper ice, as in lite snow, e thouo'ht bly fauit- aps rather aces there surface of I had an which the •asses into e-crystals, crystallo- finally to ver, there [ with air, , When V..] MAN-SOUNDINGS. 253 the ice wall becomes, on the melting of the ice, too weak for the pressure of the inclosed air these iioles break up with a peculiar crackling sound which in summer is continually to be heard from the pieces of glacier ice lloating about in the fjords. " AVith the exception of the first day there prevailed during the Avliole of our wanderings over the inland ice-field (1st to 15th June) either a snow-storm, which in case the wind was high and contrary, hindered our advance and compc'lled us to pass several days in com- plete inactivit}^ closely packed in a thin tent of cotton duck, or so thick an ice-mist that we could only see a few yards before us. As the ice, with the exception of the fissures l)efore mentioned, which in all cases were covered with snow, was at first completely level, this mist did not particularly hinder our journey, the direction of which was determined by the compass. AVhen the ice farther forwards began, however, to be intersected by broad canals (which ought not to be confounded with the fissures previously mentioned), which were too broad and deep at mosr of the places, and bounded by walls too steep to be passable with sledges, this ice -fog became exceedingly troublesome. It was not only a liindr;nice to us to have to choose the ground least interrupted by cmials, but it was a special disadvantage that it was impossible to dis- tinguisl'. by the eye whether we had before us a deep impassable channel or only a depression a couple of feet deep. It was therefore neces^^ary at suspected places to lower a man for the purpose of finding out the depth. Often he had to be hoisted up again without having reached the bottom, but it happened sometimes that the bottom was reached at a depth of some few feet, often enough alter we^ on account of that inconsidora!>Ie depression i 11 I'.. m il V 264 NOKDENiSKlOLD'S A15CT1C VOYA(iES. [t had made a circuit of several hours, wliieli we found out too late to have been altogether unnecessary. Another time it happened that we were so deceived by an ivory gull, which had alightcul iji our neighbourhood, nnd in the mist resembled an imnu'nse Polar bear, as to make the common preparation for a bear-hunt, by oi-der- ing all the men to the tent or behind the sledges', so that the bear might not be frightened beforehand and so escape us. " The table below exhibits a comparison between the temperature on the inland ice-field and at the sea-shore, and shows that there was a not inconsiderable difference between them. Comparative Table of Ohm-vations of Tevipemture on the Inland -^t-e and at Mussel Bay. Altaii Ti'iiipcia- -\}ipi'oxiiiiiiti> Mussel liay. , the liiliiiid lee. i 1 June 1 1 ■1 )) 3 )> 4 " f) 1 6 )) 7 ?) 8 »i li ») 10 )> 11 )? 12 )> 13 >> W 1.-) -i-o-Trc. + 1-20 + l-()8 + 1'[)0 -1-58 -1-45 -2 99 - 3 09 -1-98 + 0-4.") + o-m + 0-2<' -I- 3-83 + 1-72 + 1 -40 - 3-2 - 2-3 -4-4 -no -4-2 -3-5 - 7") -7-1 -71 -5-9 -5-5 -4-6 -t-0-4 -48 -16 0- 98n!eties. 98 „ 98 „ 98 „ 78 - 307 „ 308 - 454 „ 454 - 495 „ 495 495 - 488 490 - 407 „ 407-473 „ 4G8 - 492 „ 477-480 „ 480 - 550 „ 550 - 553 .. ' Uockoned by comparing the barouietrical observulions on tlie mknd icc and at Mussel Bay. V..] SliOWKKS OF JCJ!]. 255 )VL' Uie Sea. ^ "During ,.ui' journey over the inland ice we several times had a liighly peculiar fall of— ''1. Small round snovvflakes, sometimes resemblino- stars, of a, woolly ai)i)earanee. ^ *'2. Grains falling simultaneously, of about the same size as the snowflakes, but f.^rmed of a translucent .rregular ice-kernel, surrounded by a layer of water, whicj], however, froze in a few moments after the fall to ice, and in a short time covered our sledge-sail, &c., with .'. thin and smooth crust, or fastened itself on our hair and clothes as small translucent ice-drops. Durino- one such fall on the 5th June there was seen .shnuKa- neou,ly a faint halo and a common rainbow, the temperature being 4^^ to 5^C. under the freezing-point. That a fall of ice mixed with water can take i.la^ce with 80 low a temperature is clearly due to the fall beino- derived from a stratum of cloud formed of over-cooled watery vapour, that is to say, formed in i,art of small drops of water cooled under the freezing-point, but Btill fluid. A similar fall is perhaj.s also very common even m more southerly regions. For instance, such a fall IS the cause of the crust of ice which during the late autumn so often fastens on all the tackle and rioo-ina of a ship, and forms the wor^t obstruction tc AWnter navigation. The thin covering of ice had probably also a similar origin which, when Torell and I, durino- the expedition of 18G1, ascended the hill on Marten's Island, covered all rocks and stones thereabouts with a translucent crust of ice so loosely fostened that it fell down with the least motion. " In many respects there is a very essential difference between the ice-field over which we now travelled and 256 N()IIDENSKI()LD'S AllCTIC VOYAGES. [nur. the inland ice-field in Grconluud, wliicli was visited l)y me in 1870. The roa.son of this may perhaps be iu a great degree the fa(;t tliat in North East Laud we wandered over a kind of neve nylon, that is to yay, over a part of the glacier whore the surface is occupied by a, layer of snow which docs not melt away during summer, while in Greenhmd at the beginning of the month of July the snow upon the surface of the glacier was on the contrary already nearly conii)lctcly mcdted. No tracer of the glacier lakes, the beautiful and abundant glacier streams, tlie fine w iterfalls and fountains, &c., which occur everywhere on tlie Greenland inland ice, could be observed here, and the confi crura tion of the surface showed that such forms never occur, or only to a very limited extent. The melting of the snow clearly goes on upon Spitzbergen on too incon- siderable a scale for such plienomena to arise. " As might have been expected, the crevasses of the Greenland inland ice were much larger than those of North East Land, but, at least at the time of our visit, th<^y were much less dangerous because they were open, not covered with snow. On North East Land almost all the fissures were so much concealed by a thin- arch of snow, partly loose, partly hardened, as to be quite indistinguishable. Here, therefore, a man must be prepared every moment for an abyss opening at his feet. Over the Greenland inland ice, Dr. Berggren and I could advance unbound and even without having a rope with us ; during our wanderings in North East Land, however, prudence required us to keep all the men bound to the sledges, carefully to examine the ground where the tent was pitched, and to n.] HNOW ^GUSHING. 00 incon- stake off nt ni-ht with poles stuck into the area within which the mmi had leave to 257 Hnow, the "^ go unbound ana without special permission. ^ " Th<^ fissures in general run parallel with each other m straight lines, but they al«., sometimes bent, and at some places there occur two diftcrent systems of fissures which cross one another. Here the danger is multiplied. If a ,tn glances down from an opening in the snow vault he sees how the fissure is, as it were lost m a bluish-black darkness. Upward comes the' glitter of innumerable loosely-fastened table-shaped ice- crystals, like those that are t< ',. seen on the sides of the blocks of which the hummoeks are formed. The •surface of the snow was, as has been already mentioned cjuite level, generally hard packed by the storms, and completely glazed and polished by th. stream of snow which even the gentlest breeze of wind carried forward along the ground. This stream of snow, or more correctly of air mixed with snow, had, however, in the absence of a downfoll, and provided the wind was not all the more violent, only a depth of a few feet It threw fragile bridges of snow .ver the crevasses, but did not fill them; formed, where there were great precipices, true snow-cascades ; and filled up in a few minutes all shallow holes and depressions. Thus for instance, when we emerged from our tent in the mornino- all trace that the snow had been trampled down the evening before had generally disappeared, and the sledges were concealed in a large drift. Accordincrly no such cylindrical water-filled holes, one or two feet deep, as were met with everywhere on the Greenland inland ice, were to be met with here, at least at this time ■ft! .%. 1 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) LO 're IIIIIM I.I I lis 12.0 l>'25 114 1.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN 5TREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 i\ iV <> .<>*•- % V ^S. [chap Bay, wliich extends consitlcrably farther to the east than '•ve supposed. " In this bay, named after the renowned botanist and gLacialist, we found on the 15th June the first plant in flower of the year, a beautiful red saxifrage. The lirst plant in flower was found in 18G1 in Treurenberg Bay on Midsummer eve. " The ice-field does not terminate towards the bottom of Wahlcnberg Bay with any steep slope, but with a gentle declivity interrupted by no precipices or cre- vasses, over which our sledges made rapid progress. In the proximity of the lower part of the bay some low granite rocks projected out of the mass of ice at a height of 280 metres, and farther on were to be seen extensive moraines formed of clay and angular gravel of the same type as those which I observed in 1858 at Axel's Islands in Bell Sound, and in 18G4 at the bottom of Stor Fjord. I consider it highly probable that the moraines here, like those on Axel's Islands, have been forced up by the glacier, and that its border at this place is not receding but advancino-. " When we came to Wahlcnbei-g Bay on the IGtli June numerous openings were visible in the ' 'e-covering of the fjord, especially near the shore, so that it was only with difllculty that we could come down upon it, and go up again at the opposite shore near the mouth of the fjord, where, on account of the way in which the sea-ice was broken up, we were again compelled to take our course over the glacier that occupies the southern part of the peninsula between Murchison and Wahlen- berg Bays. Here, too, the glacier close to AVahlenberg Bay was completely cut to pieces liy dangerous gap.^ i [chap ' tlio east taiiist and t plant in The lirst il)ei"g Bay ho bottom ut with a 's or cre- ^ress. Ill some low ice at a be seen lar gravel 1 1858 at le bottom that the lavc been r at this the IGth -eoverinsr at it was . upon it, mouth of .'hieh the i to take southern Wahlen- ihlenberer )us gaps, V..J CHARMING MAY. 203 but farther forward it l)ecame quite level and free from fissures, and terminated northwards and westwards with an even slope without any cross terraces. A heavy snowstorm detained us here too, so that it was only at midnight between the 23rd and 24th June that we reached Shoal Point. From the high ice ridge which we crossed during our wandering between Wahlenberg and Murchison Bays, we could see a small vessel cruis- ing in tolerably ice-free water in the north part of Hiuloopen. We tried in vain, by firing shots, waving flags, &c., to attract attention, and we therefore, to our great disappointment, missed the news that this, the first messenger from horn 3, could have given us. "With a little boal left at Shoal Point on our out- ward journey, Palander with three men immediately crossed over to Mussel Bay, in severe weather and with a high sea. I was obliged to remain at Shoal Point with the rest of the men till Palander could send a sufficiently large boat for us. Before it could arrive, however, I had got on board a fishing-vessel lying at anchor near Low Island, which brought me and my men to Mussel Bay, where the whole expedition was thus again assembled on the afternoon of the 29th June." For the members of the expedition that remained at Mussel Bay the time which followed the departure of the exploring party was the dreariest of all. The month of May was come, but winter continued. The teiupera- ture of the air occasionally rose to — 5° or — 6°, but was in general about -10 °C. The sun bad been long circumpolar, but was seldom visible. A cold thick mist lay for the most part over Mussel Bay, or the sun was concealed by heavy, low-lying clouds. The ice lay li <: i '. 264 NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [(,„ap. iindisturhecl, and increased instead of diininiHhiiig in thickness. No 8i)eck of open water was visil)le. The stock of provisions got very low. Some indispensable articles, as vinegar and lime-juice— two of the most powerful antiscorbutics— began to grow scarce. A great and general lowering of strength took place, especially among the men, and showed that an increase in the rations was highly necessary. But it was to be feared that a still greater reduction than that which had taken place would have to be made. On the Gth May it was found that all on board the Onkel Adam, with one exception, were scorbutic, and some so ill that Dr. Envall thought it best to remove them to land. On the Gladan the sanitary state wtis far from satisfactory, and even in the case of several on board the Polheni symptoms of scurvy began to show themselves. Daily a number of scurvy patients from the vessels came to land, some on crutches, others supporting themselves with a stuif, and others again carried by their comrades. A more' sor- rowful sight could scarcely be seen. Home-sickness or cat least a desire to get away from Mussel Bay, began to seize the greater number, and concern for their absent comrades made the lives of those that remained behind anything but pleasant. The cold, the ice, the want of food, the scurvy, were the common subjects of conversa- tion, but the scurvy was regarded with the greatest apprehension. This dreary time, however, was not with- out its pleasant moments. These were chiefly the few days when the sky was cloudless, when the sun shone and the temperature neared the freezing-point. Then the imprisoned Swedes sunned themselves, enjoyed the warmth and drank in the fresh air, listened to the V,.] THE APPROACH OF SUMMER. 265 pleasant spring twitter of the snow-bunting, and be- thought thoin.sulvoa that summer was coming wlien the air would bo warm and the sea open, when many birds might be shot, and the walrus-hunters would bring letters and newspapers from home, and, best of all, when they could leave Mussel Bay, some of them steering their course direct for home, and others to visit unknown regions of Spitzbergen and make great discoveries of various kinds. Attempts were made to shoot game for the sick, but only a brace of ptarmigan and a few snow-buntings fell to the guns. Seal-hunting was attended with the same want of success, thougli a considerable number were seen daily, and strenuous efforts were made to get within shot of them, but in vain. This was the more tantalising, as dislike to the preserved, and even to the salt provisions, had become general, and a seal steak was looked forward to as a luxury. The observations still went on. Soon after Norden- skitild's departure Wijkander commenced a series of pen- dulum observations. The tidal observations were also extended. Five minute observations were carried on at least a whole hour twice a day, at ebb and flood. After the first half of May was past an agreeable change took place in the weather. The sun shone in a cloudlets sky and the air was pure as it can be only on Spitzbergen. The birds became more numerous, small pools of water began to appear here and there, and the damp reindeer- moss which lay before the house began to reek in the sunshine. A " water sky " was visible. On the 20th of May, von Krusenstjerna, Parent, and seven men set out for the Norways to deposit there -T»' m ^■OI?DE^VSKIOLD■S AltCTlC VOYACJES. [vuav. infoinmtion na to the position occui,ie(l by the expedi- tion, &c., but had to return without eiiecting their pur- pose, the canvas boat on a wooden skeleton and the sJedgc they Jiad taken with them requiring alteration. On the same day another party, consisting of Clase, Stjernbcrg and one of Onkcl Adam's crew, started for Verlegen Hook, where they built a cairn and deposited papers. On the 2:3rd May a part of Nordenskiold's party returned in good health and highly delighted with their journey. After this the Polheyn became more lively. The dredgings now went on with new spirit. They were very troublesome on account of the thickness of the ice, which was now from six to seven feet, but were of great importance and interest. The Lapps always took guns with them. One day two of them went up to the Ptarmigan Fell—so the place was commonly called where ptarmigan were first discovered by the Lapps— and succeeded in shooting three ptarmigan and thirteen guellemots, on which some of the most severely-attacked scurvy patients made a good meal. Some plants of scurvy-grass were found with beautiful green leaves from the former year, l)ut which, having been protected by a covering of snow, remained, it was thought, quite fresh. The day after, Saxifraga rivvlaris was found opening its leaf-buds. At the same time a little black spider was seen busily engaged in spinning Its web m a cleft of a rock, but no small creatures that could be caught in the net were yet visible. On the 29th May open water was reported in the neighbourhood, and the ice off Mussel Bay was soon seen to be broken up to a great extent and in drift. On the VI.] TIDJNfiH FROM TflE WOKLD. 3G7 3()th tJ.c baroiueter lu-gau to fall rapidly, and in the af or.uon a ircsh sou tli- easterly breeze sprang up which set the ice in motion off Wijtle lUv .L i r , m. cxtc. nsive ,u.iaoo of water w,„ visible glitterin., ia ho .u««lu„o and extending from Verlegen Hook towlrd. >V t'leomc Point. The 31st iky w,.., tl,o fi„t day that ti.e avc-a.^o emrorature ro,e above the free.ing-point. At ,Z. ho thermometer showed 4'C. In the afternoon. Chri,- ..an and one of the J,ap,,., who had been out at the edge of he ice returned, bringing with then> a nun.ber of l>n-d.s and a young seal. The seal beef was in great ,le- mand and much relished. On the 5th June, von llolten and four men of the Mns erew starte.1 for the Norways in a boat which ad, the day before, with sail set, been driven over the lee on .ts sledge by a stiff south-easterly bree.o, the canvas-bo,rt. intended only for narrow openings in the i<^e, not being used on this oeeasion. At length the long-looked-for moment arrived. On he 6th June a sail was visible, and up went the flag at fc flag-staft ou the house, the Ghdan and the OnM Adam also showing the blue and yellow. The house is almost deserted. All make for the edge of the ice and arrive in good time, the vessel yet being far off and seeming to move as slowly as if she sailed in tar. At lart she reaches the edge of the ice, and before the ice-and^r IS fast her deck is crowded with visitors, gathering in compact circles round the crew, who are stormed with questions from all directions. What was learned was in short that the vessel, a little sloop, was named the Solid and hailed from Hammerfest ; that King Charles XV i ! 268 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYxVGES. [citAP. wns dead, and another of the? roynl fnmily, tlioy knew not wliicli ; that thoy had not licanl of any vessel being sent to the relief of the ex})edition ; that several fishing-vessels had been seen on their way northwards — two of them jit a short distance from Mussel IJay ; that the greater numl)er of the walriis-liunters who had been fihut in the previous winter had returned to Norway after a very difficult passage, but that many had win- tered on Spitzbergcn, their f;ite being as yet unknown. The Swedes tried to punthase some provisions from the master of the Solid, but he could only spare a few I)otatoes, a little salt meat, and some coffee. Imme- diately after noon the two vessels were seen, and one of them bore down on INFussel Bay, having on board letters and papers for the ex])edition, and some pro- visions which the agent Ebeltoft, at Tromsoe, had had the thoughtfulness to send. Her walrus-hunters brought the sorrowful news that Mattihis and his Quane cook, who had stayed behind to look after the four vessels which were shut in by the ice at Grey Hook, were dead. There was no news of the seventeen men who had sone to Cape Thordscn before the opportunity of escape by means of the vessels at Welcome Point had occurred. On the f)th June von Holten and his men returned, having only gone to Grey Hook, where at the place where Mattilas ended his days they found a document stating that a vessel had gone from Grey Hook to Mussel Bay with provisions " for the Swedes." Notwithstanding this supply the situation was exceed- ingly serious. The lowering of strength was great and general, and the scurvy threatening. Every effort was made to obtain fresh food, and a great number of fowl [{•IIAI'. VI. AN ENQLISHMAN TO THE RESCUE. 260 wcro shot, but t' • / were insufficient for nearly sixty me!i, sincl ammunition began to fail. Tiio reduced rations were sutHcicnt to last only at farthest to the end of July, and the Swedes were by no means certain of reaching, by that time, a place where a fresh stock could bo obtained. Such was the state of things when, on the 12th June, a large vessel steamed into the bay. It had been observed far out at sea, and was at first taken for a Swedish gunboat. It turned out to be the Diana, belonging to Mr. Leigh Smith, who, along with several young Englishmen, was on board. The Swedes hastened to the edge of the ice and were very hospitably received by Mr. Smith, in whose countenance they saw expressed the greatest satisfaction with the way in which they had contended with the dangers of the Arctic winter— dangers in which he was by no means inex- perienced. On being informed of the state of the expe- dition as to provisions, Mr. Leigh Smith stated that he had a large stock, and offered to give the Swedes all that he could spare— an offer that naturally wls most grate- fully accepted. N'3xt day he came to visit the settle- ment of the expedition, inspected the building and the observatories, and received an account of the winter- ing and of the scientific work that had been carried on. Ihe same day the promised provisions were received ; fresh potatoes, preserved vegetables, and soups and pre- served meat of varioub kinds, " all of excellent quality, and much better," says the Swedish account, " than the preserved provisions we brought with us," lime-juice, wine, tobacco, &c. All was handed over as a gift to the expedition. " May we here be permitted," says the I: T ■sms 270 NORDENSKlt)LD'S AUCTIO VOYAGES. [chap. I Mil author of the Swedish account, " publicly to express the deep gratitude of all of us to Mr. Leigh Smith for the costly and welcome gift, and to assure him that it will be long before the members of the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1872-3 forget the Dianas visit to Mussel Bay." ^ The Swedes could now look forward without appre- hension. The weather, too, became exceedingly fiivour- able for the breaking-up of the ice. That which covered Mussel Bay diminished gradually, but perceptibly, diy by day. When about the half of the bay was free of ice von Kruscnatjerna determined to saw a channel through that which still lay between the ships and open water. The sawinri: commenced on the 20tli June, and was carried on with tlic greatest eagerness. Release was now at hand. Cold, wet, and snow-blindness mattered little. Spring had commenced The temperature was not rinfrequently a couple of degrees (centrigrade) over the freezing-point. The wind from the south began to be mild. Day by day the covering of snow on the lowland diuiiinshed. Snow still sometimes fell, but there were also occasional heavy showers of rain. The lagoons were freed from their ice covering and the mountain streams began to rush down the fell sides. Snow-free places became green with vegetation, and by the 14th June the beautiful Saxifraga. opposififoUa had de(jked its branches with young fresh leaves and opened its blossoms^ whose red-violet colour showed agreeably {tffiiinst the luxuriant green of its leaves. The whole of the Spitzbergen bird-world had returned. Auks, 1 This timely .elief was the ; wing of a number t>f lives. S T)t, Knvall's i-oport in Appondis-. 63 Li .If VI.] HETURNINa HEALTH. 271 guilloinots, and eider-ducks swam ia thousands in the sea or sat in large flocks on the ice-floes. Geese, looms, and snipes frequented the lagoons and small fresh water-ponds. By the 13th of June geese had begun to lay eggs. On the 15th two long-tkiled ducks were shot— a rare occurrence, as these birds are very seldom met with on Spitzbergen. The hope of the vessel's speedy release, the increase of the stock of provisions and the consequent increase of the rations, exerted a powerful influence on all the dwellers at Mussel Bay. The scurvy began to disappear, the cripples laid aside their crutches and staves, and gladness and cheerfulness drove away the low spirits and the depression which had overcome almost all of them in the hard and threatening days of May and the beginning of June. Midsummer day camn, and with it Palander and some of his companions. It was a day of rejoicing. The travellers were so changed as to be almost unrecognisable. Their hair and beards were long and matted, their faces darkened with smoke, soot, and sun-burning. But they were welcome. It was indeed a disappointment that tlie Polar excursion had to be broken off" at Phipps' Island, but the Swedes consoled themselves with the thought that all that was possible had been done, that the journey over the inland ice of North East Land, rich in dangers and difticulties as it had been, was unique, and that the observations of various kinds made m the cor se of it would form an important contribu- tion to our knowledge of the nature of the Arctic lands. On the 29th Nordenskiold returned with most of his 272 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. party, and the same day between four nnd five o'clock p.m. the channel was finislied, and an hour later the Gladan and the Onhel Adam anchored with hurrahs in open water. At eight the same evening the Onkel Adam started on her home voyage, followed by the Gladan early the following morning. The Polhem was to remain some time on the coast of Spitzbergen, and left Mussel Bay on the 1st July, leaving Wijkander together with some men to complete his magnetical and mete- orological observations, and to put everything in order for the return home. The Polhem shaped her course for Grey Hook, where the mournful duty of burying Mattilas and his companion was performed. A fishing-vessel lay at Grey Hook commanded by Fritz Mack from Tromsoe. With him the agent Ebeltoft had sent pro- visions, letters, and newspapers. Captain Mack was employed in saving what he could of the cargo of the vessels that had been run ashore, and had made some preparations for the burial which took place the follow- ing day. Mattilas and his companion had turned two boats together with the keels outward, and covered them with sails and skins. This formed their dwellino-. in which they had a little stove. "Mattilas," says Kjellman, "indeed deserves the name of an Arctic veteran. For two-and-forty summers he had ploughed with his little skiff" the cold billows of the Ic} Sea, defying all dangers and suff'erings, A period of success and good fortune had made him a prosperous man, one of the richest of the Norwegian walrus-hunters, but he had afterwards met with many misfortunes. His vessel was wrecked and sport was bad. In this way his property was diminished, and VI.] MATTILAS- LAST YEA " SPITZBERGEX. 273 what now remained was a sm . share in the vessel of which he was master, and in the proceeds of the summer's hunting and fishing. It was the hope of bemg able to save his small property which induced him to remain on Spitzbergen, and not to accompany his comrades and countrymen on the return home. There perhaps conduced— so we have at least been informed— >v-v>v<<.v,,r;^. MATTIT.AS' WIKTKR QUARTERS AT QRET HOOK. to this unfortunate determination a long cherisliod desire to pass a winter in the land whose coasts he had visited so many summers, and wliere he had successfully escaped so many dangers and survived so many adventures. "It was with reverence that wo stood bcsi de the grave of these men. They had struggled manfully and I; I 274 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. suffered much. Affecting were the simple words they had written in tlieir journal. They tell us how both of them had at first striven, with the elements in uproar, unceasingly and energetically to save the vessels and their cargo, which formed the whole of their pro- perty, and the loss of which would bring them to poverty. They failed in the endeavour. The vessels had to be abandoned, and were thrown up on the beach, where wind and waves worked with success at their destruction. Now the struggle for life begins. Disease unites itself with the elements. They exert themselves to keep at a distance the murderous scurvy, but in vahi. When no other work is left, one of the unfortunate men draws round their wretched dwelling a sledge which they had made, loaded with stones. Disease weakens them more and more. Drawing the sledge becomes too difficult. In a short time they can no longer walk. One is completely helpless ; the other is compelled to crawl out for a little fuel, with which he warms up their quarters once a-day. But this, too, becomes too troublesome ; indeed they are not able even to write down, as was their wont during the last period, a prayer to God in the journal. The death-struijffle 'oo" begins — and relief comes." Mack had also the sad news to give us that the seventeen men who had gone the previous autumn to Ice Fjord to pass the winter at Cape Thordsen had perished of scurvy. He had been among those who first landed at their winter quarters. Fifteen of them were found dead, and two were supposed to have been buried by their comrades, but, the ground being covered with snow, their graves were not visible. The men VI.] THE WINTER PARTY AT CAPE THORDSEN. 275 had unfortunately not understood how to avail them- selves of the resources at their command. There were provisions in superabundance. Even to the last they had lived principally on salt-beef and pork, using little of the preserved and dried vegetables and of the potatoes, of which a large quantity still remained. Noj o who ever wintered here before have had so great re- sources as they— the necessaries of life of all kinds in superabundance, an excellent house, sufficient fuel, tools of all possible kinds, a carpenter's bench, &c. It was plain that they had given themselves up to inactivity, and believed that the abundance of provisions which they had would keep them free from scurvy. Instead of using two rooms for sleeping in, they had all seven- teen packed themselves into one. They seemed to have thought of nothing else but eating and sleeping. The last entry in a journal which they kept was dated 19th Aprd. At that date there were supposed to have been three men still alive. Leaving Grey Hook late on the morning of the 2nd, the Polhem sailed northward towards the Seven Islands,' and at 9 o'clock p.m. on the 3rd was in 80° 42' N. lat.^ and close to the ice, which stretched in a curve east and south of the Seven Islands and then towards the N.W. or W.N.W. There was now abundance of provisions. The walrus-hunters provided the expedition with abuni dance of eggs, fowl, and reindeer flesh, and were generally unwilling to accept anything in return. After dredaina for some time near Muffin Island, the Polhem stetred eastward, and passing M:v.^^ Bay, entered Treurenberg Bay, falling in there with Mr. Leigh Smith and his vessels, the steamer Diana and the schooner Samson. T 2 m ft ;, «.^.....»«-.>«g ,i I , I" i m 27rt NORDKNSrvl(")MVa AROTrC VOYACES. [chap. After visit iuL,' llinl(»o|)(>n .Strait, where unbrokon ieo M'iis louiid near Dim I'oint, the PoUicin returned t(3 winter ([uarters, where the ohservations were now con- cluded, the instrnnients jvieked, and everytliing in order lor start ino-. The Pul/icni, however, iirst conveyed Nordenskiohl to Ice Fjord, and then sailed northward, passing west of Charles' Forehind, dredging every other hour. On nearing tli(^ Norways the ice was found to have drawn southwards, which occasioned some fear of NilHTir IMtIXT op I'lNNCK CITAUl.KS' VOUKrANn. Ix'ing again shut in ; hut afti^r tedious delays from foo-s iho I'ol/u'iu anchored in .Mussel Day on the 17th, and, after taking on board everything that could be removed, iinally left the bay on the 18th July. At Grey Hook it was only with the greatest difliculty that the PoJIwm could force her way between the land and an ice-field about two I"]nglish miles long. After visiting Smeerenbero- liay and Kobbc Bay, and taking on board Nordenskiohl and. his companions at Cape Staratschin, the Polhem [clIAP. ecu ico •nod to w eoij- u order nveycd thwanl, y otlior uiul to fear of VI .] THE I'OLIIKM SAILS FOR HOME n fogs, !i, and, moved, iook it R could about euLerof iskio'd ''olhem u i entered Ico Fjord and anchored in Skans Jl;.y on tli,^ 2l8t, and Jay there eight days, during whicli time the botanieal and zoological colk-etion.s were greatly in- creased, the former by T<>/Hdia howulls, a plianiTo- gamous ]>lant, new to the flora of .Si.it;ibcrgen. On th,^ 28th the Polhi'm left Ice Fjord, and was conipelhnl t.. nn(;hor in Green IJarbour, wh<.re six Norwegians, wl,„ had formed ])art of the crew of a Norwegian vessel that had been nipped by the ice on the east coast of S{)itz- bergen jd)out a month before, were taken on board. The Polhcm proceeded the following day to liecher(;h(! I5ay in IJell Sound, finding there the remainder of the crew of the vessel just mentioned, and on tjie Jst August weighed anchor on her return voyage, arriving at Tromsoe on the Gth, and, after some delay at liergen"^ on the 29tli August at Gothenburg, where the "ex- pedition was broken up. 2^. \' WINTEK ni.KSS AND UUi^TlNu WKAPONS, it mssam .'hi CHAPTER VII. VOYAGE TO THE YEKISSEJ IN 1875 AND ASCENT OF THE RIVEll. Spitz BEiiGEN having now been pretty tlioroiighly ex- plored, Professor Nordenskiold turned his attention to that part of the Polar basin which lies to the north of Siberia. The Sea of Kara, lying to the east of Novaya Zemlya, had long been considered impenetrable, an " ice cellar," as von Baer called it ; but this had been shown to be a mistake by the voyages of Johannesen, Carlsen, and other Norwegian walrus-hunters who had circum- navigated Novaya Zemlya, sailed into the Kara Sea, and even pushed their way beyond White Island, at the mouth of the C ulf of Obi. The natural history of this sea and its shores was still completely unknown, and this Professor Nordenskiold proposed to investigate. It also formed part of his plan to penetrate to the mouth of Yenissej — thus solving a commercial problem of the first importance — and to ascend that river. The Pi'oeven, a little Norwegian sloop of only about 70 tons burden, 55 Norwegian feet long, and manned by 12 Norwegian walrus-hunters, all of whom had pre- viously taken part in voyages in the Arctic seas, had been fitted out at Tromsoe for the expedition of 1875, at the cost of Mr. Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, who OF THE Tilly CX- ntioii to north of Novaya an " ice Q shown Carlsen, circum- ara Sea, iland, at listory of u known, '•estigate. le mouth n of the ly about manned had prc- 3eas, had of 1875, urg, who • CH. vi..] OUIl STAllT FOR THE YENISSEJ. 270 defrayed all the expenses of the expedition. Professor Nordenskicild was accompanied hy two botanists, Dr. F. R. Kjellman and Dr. A. N. Luiidstroni ; and two zoologists. Dr. H. Thdel and Dr. A. Stuxberir. "After the iVoeyen had been towed out from Tromsoc free of cost by a little steamer of the same name," says Professor Nordenskiiild, " we were compelled by con- trary winds to lie at anchor for five days in the sound between Carlsoe and Renoe. At length, on the 14tl], Ave were able to weigh anchor and get to sea through Fugloe Sound. The course was then sbjiped past North Cape, which was passed on the 17th, for the southern part of Novaya Zendya. " During spring and the early part of summer the west coast of this double island is surrounded a little from the land by a compact ice-girdle, impassable at most places, which disappears later in the season, and in which, according to the experience of the walrus-hunters, two sounds are early formed, which are only covered with thinly-scattered navigable drift-ice, and through wbieh the ice-free belt of water along the coast is placed in communication with the open sea westwards. One of these open channels is commonly to be found off Matotschkin Schar, and is caused by the strono- currents which prevail in that sound ; the other is near the latitude of Severo Gusinnoi Mys (North Goose Cape.) The latter was chosen by me for the Proeveii, and passed without any special difficulty on the 22nd June. Seven clays after leaving Carlsoe the Froeven thus anchored for the first time on the coast of Novaya Zemlya, in a little ill-protected bay immediately north of North Goose Cape. I II !'li iii U80 NOHDKNSKIOLDS yVUCTIC VOVA(JKS. (( map. •' Diiriiiif tlu- voyjiod .souiidinn- 5»«"l tln'resent, it was ini])ossible to sail along the coast north- wards, as Mas the original plan of the ex[)edition. Instead, the iee in the western part of IMatotsehkin Schar being broken nj), it ajtpeared at first as if we would soon be able to sail through this sound eastwards. After having ]»enetrated into it for this purpose as far as Tsehirakina, 1 wont thenc(> in a, boat towards the in- terior to examine the state of the iee. Liindstrom at the Siime time ascended a neighbouring mountain, from which he had an extensive view, and at the top of which he placed a minimum thermometer. It now appeared < IIAP. V...I UNDEll SUKI/rKR. 281 that the cjistc^rii pnrfc of th(. hoihuI was still covered with an uiihrokcn sheet of i(!e, whieh was thoucrht Htroii«r enough to ilef}' for a eoii.si(l(>ral>le time longer tiie inllu- ence of the Polar hu turner. 1 therefore did not consider it advisal)Ie to await the possibility of a passage liore ; and as any advance in a northerly (lireetion was also for the time out of the question, I determined to try my fortune at one <»f the two sounds, the Kara and .lugor Straits, Avhieli on both sides of the Great Waygats Island lead into the Kara 8ea. " Wo deft Matosehkin Sehar on the LSth of July, and arrived alter luiving anchored on the 14th at Skoddo I'ay, wliere we made a, rich collection of Jurassic fossils ; on the l(;th at North Goose t^ajjc, on the ISth at South Goose Cai)e, on the 21st at Kostin Sehar, and during storm at the Kara Gate on the 2r)th. The strait was completely blocked with iee, and the wind was too violent for us to endeavour to anchor here. I saihid on therefore, and was fortunate enough to find, during the furious north-east storm, whi(;h raged in these reo-ions from the 2()th to the JiOth July, protection fo.- the vessel on the south-west coast of AVaygats Island, where we anchored on the 2()th of July off Cape Grebeni. The storm was now so violent, that although we lay at anchor quite close to and in lee of the land, we could not until the .'JOth July put oat a boat for the puri)ose of landing on the island. Here we made a ri(ili collection of Ui)per Silurian fossils, resembling fossils from Gotland, and therefore of special interest to Swedish geologists. Here we met for the first time with Samoyedes, who, when they saw the vessel, drove down to the beach in peculiar high sledges intended for 1 r! 282 NOnDENSKI()LI)'S AKCTIC VOYAOKS. [chap. UHo in HumiiHT as well tis in winter, juul drawn by tln'iui Of fi>ur reindeer. Tiiey let ns know imniediutely that they wiMhed to come on Ixwird, whitlior they aeconipanied ua, and where they soon after were very ho.spitably enter- tained. " During our stay on tlie west eoast of Novaya Zemlya we were of eourse eontinually cnfrjiged in examining the geology, fauna and flora, &c., of the regions visited by us, and the great number of places along tlic coast where we landed made it possible for the scientific staff of the expedition to bring together a large mass of materials relating to their natural history. On the other hand, in consequence of the high north-cast w inds which had been blowing lately, and which, as we had reason to suppose, had driven the ice down to the southern part of the Kaia 8ea, there appeared to be little probability of our being able to push forward in an easterly direction this year. Notwithstanding this, I determined as soon as possible to make an attempt in this direction, and therefore again weighed anchor on the 31st July, in order to sail into Jugor Sound. I was, however, compelled by a calm to anchor the Frocmi right in the mouth of it, in the neighbourhood of a place where a large number of Russians and Samoyedes from Pustosersk arc accustomed to live durino- summer for fishing and hunting, and which on this account is called ' the Samoycde town.' The day aftcf I rowed in a boat farther into the sound, having ordered the vessel to follow as soon as possible. On the very next day, the 2ud of August, the Froeren weighed anchor, and with the liclc of a gentle breeze and a favouring current saileu lv r f^> my cnc.'ampment on the other shore. I [(!IIAP. 3mlya vii.J SALT-WATER FISH IN I'llESH WATER, 283 immediately went on hoiird, and, mvv'wx] forwunl almost entirely by a strong south-we.sterly current, wo advanced towards tho Kara Sen. 'IMio sound was passed succchs- fully, and on our entering the Kara Sea we found it completely free of ice. The course was shaped towards the middle part of the peninsula wJdch separates the Kara Sea from tho Gulf of Obi, and which is called by tho Samoyedes Yalmal. The wind was exceedingly light, so that wo only went forward slowly, a circumst;mce which certainly tried our patience severely but had this good TQHuh, that while navigating these waters, visited for tho first time by a scientific expedition, we could daily undertake dredgings, hydrographic work, &c. The dredgings yielded an unexpectedly rich and various harvest of marine animals, among which I may here specify some colossal I.sopoda, peculiar Cumacea, masses of Amphipoda and Copcpoila, a large and beautiful Ah'cto, uncommonly large Ophhinda, finely marked Asterida, innumerable MoUiLSixi, &c. The peculiar circumstance occurs here that the water at the surface of tho sea, which, in consequence of the great rivers debouching in these regions, is nearly free of salt, forms a deadly poison for the animals which live in tho salt water at the bottom. ]\Iost of the animals brought up from the bottom therefore die in a few moments if placed in water from the surface of the sea. •'.Here also, when opportunity offered, there were made, as on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, determinations of the temperature of the sea, not only at the surface, but also at different depths under it, with thermo- meters by Negretti and Zsmibra and Casella. These researches yielded a specially interesting result, and mmm 284 NOEDEKSKIOLDS AECTIC VOYAGES. [chap. M' il ■' ! :! i ■' i may be considered as settling a number of questions much disputed of late years regarding the marine currents in these regions, the diretdion of which, in the absei cc of other data, it was sought to determine by the indications of the surface-temperature of the water. By numerous observations along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya from JMatutschkin Schar to Jugor Sound, thence past Ca]ie Grebeni to 75^° N. Lat., and 80° E. Long, and on to the mouth of Yenissej, I have obtained indisputable proofs that the temperature of the surface water of this sea is exceedingly variable and de- pendent on the temperature of the air, on the neighbour- hood of ice, on the Howiiig of warm fresh water from Obi and Yenissej, but that the temperature of the water at a depth of only ten fathoms is nearly quite constant, between — 1" and + 2° C. There are thus no dee]) marine currents here. An exception to this was observed in Matotschkin Schar itself, wh<^re the water near the bottom at a depth of seven to fifteen fathoms was about + 5° C. Possibly the southern part of an arm of the Gulf Stream here strikes Novaya Zemlya, and even passes throuoh Matotschkin into the Kara Sea. A larcje num- bar of specimens of deep water have been taken with Professor Ekman's a})paratus, which is excellently con- structed for the purpose, and I am convinced that at the bottom the salinity is also constant. " On the 8th of August we landed for a few hours on the north-west side of Yalmal to take an astronomicid observation. Traces of men, some of them barefooted, and of Samovede sledfijes, were visible on the beach. Close to the beach was found a sacrificial altar, consisting of about fifty skulls of the Polar bear placed in a heap, bones of [('i!Ar. VII ] THE MOUTH OF THE YENISSEJ. 285 walrus, reiiuleer, &c. In the mid.Uo of tlic heap of bones there stood erect two ima,ge3 roughly-hewn of driftwood roots newly besmeared on the eyes and mouth with blood and two hooked sticks, from which hung bones of the rein- deer and bear. Close by was a fireplace and a heap of rein- deer bones, the latt3r clearly the remains of a sacrificial meal. After some hours' stay at this place I sailed farther north untd unnavigable masses of large level ice-fields m 7o° 3,y N. Lat. and 79° 30' E. Long, prevented farther progress m that direction. Afterwards 1 followed the edasturms, along with some reindeer close to the shore. The bear, an aged male, however, soon after slowly departed from the reins and finally- laid himself to sleep on the beach quite near to our anchorage. Before the anchor fell Dr. Theel went out in a boat to try to kill linn. Having reached the shore, Theel approached the reclining bear, which in a few moments became aware of his approach an Wri |. '1 tc After having rested at Cape Schaitanskoi we sailed n ; t: I 11' ( ■I ill! 290 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOyAGES. chap. on with a favourable breeze to Sopotsclmaja Korga, where the high wind, and a sand-bank lying off it, — th extent of which we could not make out during the dusk of the night,— compelled us to lie to earlier than we otherwise intended. " Sopotschnaja Korga (the toe of the boot) forms a low promontory projecting far into the Yenisscj, which, as numerous remains of buildings show, was formerly in- habited, but now stands deserted. Fishermen and hunters, however, still settle here occasionally, to judge by the numerous fox-traps still in good order which are found everywhere along the banks. We found one of these traps set. The place is the least agreeable 1 have seen on the banks of the Yenissej. For a great part the promontory is occupied by masses of driftwood, immense stems with tranches and roots broken off, piled over each other in an endless chaos, among which it was only with difficulty and care that any progress could be made. The logs that lie nearest the sea are quite fresh. Others, lying farther from the strand, and cast up thither decades or centuries ago, are in all possible intermediate stages betAveen fresh and decayed wood. Between the logs are often deep holes full of black, stinking water. Similar masses of driftwood, though perhaps not so extensive, are found nearly everywhere farther down nearer the mouth of the river, but higher up there occur only scattered pieces of driftwood, and at some places even these are almost completely wanting. The promontory was strewn besides with a large number of other fresh-water pools, more or less grown up with water mosses and swarming with a small species of fish {Gaaterodeiis ocideatus), Brancliiopoda and other sweet- VII.] SHOi^LS AND "SIMOVIES." 291 water Crustacea, and yielding to the botanist various Cances not observed farther north; and water plants (Care. choMiza, nippuris vulgaris, Juncus castaneus c&c). Higher up on the drier plaees the ground was sparingly covered with Empctrum nigrum and Andromeda tetragona, and on the steep slopes mwards from the promontory there was a luxuriant vegetation of grass and herbaceous plants a couple of feet high. On the other hand, the place was exceedincrly poor in mammalia and birds, as well as in insects, and even the holes and paths of the lemming, with which the coast land of Novaya Zemlya is crossed in all directions, are found here only to a limited extent. "Hard gales and a high sea compelled us to remain at this place nearly two days. But on the afternoon of the 23rd August we were at last able to sail on. The course was shaped for Goltschika, which for the present IS the most northerly inhabited simovie on the eastern bank of the Yenissej, but as we approached the bank where we supposed the simovie was situated, under the darkness of night we came with a pretty high sea on an extensive shoal, over which we did not consider it advis- able to row forward in the darkness. I therefore shaped the course with a fresh l,reeze towards Sverevo on the west bank of the Yenissej, where a simovie is still inhabited but on arriving at the western shore, we could not distin- guish in the darkness any dwelling-houses here either. VV^e sailed therefore ag:iin across the river, in order when the day dawned, to find a more convenient laud- ing place farther up. While we thus sailed along the strand, looking for houses, in a very high and rou-h sea we found ourselves suddenly among furious breakers! u -2. 'I M III J 2V2 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGKS. [chap. After several unsuccessful attempts to row the bout back against wind and sea, during which it nearly foundered, we had no other resource left us than again to hoist the sail and shape the course rigiit through the dangerous surf. Fortune favoured us. Just at the shallowest place the boat wtis lifted over a high breaker and we found ourselves again in deep water. We soon saw a little hut on the bank which we supposed to be inhabited, without however being able, as I wished, to lie to there on account of the heavy swell. We sailed on therefore, till at last we succeeded in finding a suitable landing-place in the neighbourhood of Mesenkin, a little river falling into the Yenisscj on the right bank. " Durine: the excursions which were undertaken in all directions immediately after our landing at Mesenkin, we oliserved two persons, who, attended by a large number of dogs, searched for cloudberries on the bogs. At first they appeared to wish to avoid us, but in the end approached and informed us that they were Russians in the employment of a merchant from Yenisseisk, who had a hunting station at Goltschika. After a little conversation I proposed to the younger of them, ;•. Cossack, Feodor, who appeared to be well acquainted with the region, to accompany us to Dudinka, as guide, a proposal which he, after a little negotiation, agreed to on condition of receiving fifty silver roubles and obtain- ing the permission of his master who was settled at Goltschika, thirty versts farther north. In order to procure this permission he started immediately, promis- ing to return the following evening. " The delay was of course employed by us to the best t)f our ability in examining the natural history of the I n I] s] n hi K [ciur. lie boat ; nearly n again through it at thi; breaker \Vc soon d to be wisliecl, 3II. We inding a ^esenkin, lit bank, en in all [escnkin, a large :he bogs. At in the Russians isk, who a little them, r. quaiuted as guide, igreed to lI obtain- ettled at order to , promis- the best rv of the VII,] ALDER TIIJt^KETS, 293 plnco in taking solar o])sorvations, way in which the tundra is formed, and the nature uf the rocks which yielded the material of the masses of sand here col- lected. No errati(; blocks, comparable in size with those found in Sweden, occur here, a circumstance which I look upon as a jiroof that the sand-beds of the tundra, at least in these regions, arc not of glacial origin. I ought however to observe that on some small blocks of stone there are to be seen scratches and grooves quite like those found on moraine bloeks. But in this case these grooves must have been formed either by the slipping of the earthy layers or through the agency of river ice.^ "In the north part of the tundra I could never distinguish among the stones washed out from the sand any blocks of granite or gneiss. For the most part they consisted of different kinds of basalt with numerous cavities containing calcspar and zeolites. Besides, there occurred especially at Cape Schaitanskoi a not inconsiderable number of blocks of marl and sand- stone containing fossils, partly of marine origin, partly containing tree-stems more or less carbonised or petrified. Pieces of brown and common coal were also found here in considerable numbers. ' Nordenskiiild is of opinion that Sileria, during the European Glacial period, had about the same climate as at the present time and that the former great extension of the glaciers in "" -ope depended only on local circumstances. [chap. vn] LIFE ON THE TUNDRA. 205 '•ope On tl,c2Gtli August, early in the morning, our future pilot arrivod, acconipanied l.y five other Russians settled in that quarter. Naturally tlie guests were entertained immediately in our tent as best we could, and the eon- versation was lively. They informed me that at Goltsehika there lived a 'prikasehik' together with three labourers for hunting and fishing, and at Sverevo only an old man and his son ; the old mnovies farther to the north were now abandoned. Natives (Samoyedes, Dolganes. J^akuts,) on the other hand often come down from the tundm to the strand, but their numbers had of late years been considerably diminished by a severe small-pox ep.dc^ue, which raged especially among the Samoyedes. After talking for a while with our guests, who were friendly and exceedingly interested in our journey we went on, the weather being calm and exceedingly fine, to Cape Gostmoi, where we halted at noon. While sailing along we observed, for the first and last time during our voyage up the Yenissej, a remainder of the winter's enormous snow-covering in a deep cleft cut out of the tvndra near the strand. At our resting-place was found the first granite block among those washed from the sandy stratum of the tundra. The bush vegetation on the banks of a river debouching here was specially uxuriant. and among the bushes was found a raspberry leaf {Rubus Arcticus) and plants of Angelica, Cortusa &c., four feet high. ' " Having rested for a while at this place we sailed on and after various deviations in the darkness and fog of the night landed on a low promontory near the mouth of the Jakovieva river. A close mist compelled us to pass the night here, although the place was nearly bare of •2m NOUDENSKIULD'H AROTIO VOYA(iES. rilAi'. vegetation, and driftwood was found in so limited quantity that the wood required for cooking could scarcely be found. To judge by tiie quantity of rem- nants of fish found on the strand, an abundant catch of sturgeon appeared to have been lately made by the inha- bitants of the neighbouring aimovie .Takovieva, which was said to be inhabited by two Russians and two Snmoycdes. " We halted next at a fipeeially attractive fishing station on a small sound among the Briochovski Islands, the most northerly in the island labyrinth which occupies the channel of the Yenissej between G9^° and 70^° N.L. The fishing was, however, finished for the season, and the place accordingly deserted. But two small houses and several huts, all in good condition, stood on the bank, and, together with a number of large boats and wooden vessels intended for salting fish, gave evidence of the employment that had been carried on here. "On the 28th of August we rowed on between a number of islands, covered with a luxuriiint vegetation, and commonly ending towards the river with a bold escarpment from which large masses of peat had tumbled down here and there. At such places it could be seen that the island originally formed a sand-bank thrown up by the river, which in course of time was covered first with masses of driftwood, and afterwards with a luxuriant vegetation which gradually gave rise to a thick layer of peat not yet completely decayed, of which the part of the island lying above the surface of the water is for the most part formed. "Towards evening we lay to at the Nikandrovska Islands near a fishing-station still occupied, the itihabi- [•'IIAI'. limited ^ could of rera- catch of lio inha- , which 11 id two fishing Islands, Dccupies i^° N.L. and the ses and e bank, wooden of the ween a ctation, a bold umbled be seen thrown covered with a ae to a yed, of surface Irovska iiihabi- vn.J TITK FIHK OF TI[E YKNIHSEJ. 297 tants of whi(.h were engaged in .Irawing a net ns best they could. For a silver rouble I bought hero nine fat ")uk8un,s and tsehirs, weighing together 25 lbs., yet th(3 pnce demanded of a foreigner was naturally twice as great as the common one. The Yenissej is famous for its richness in large eata},le varieties of fish, and 1 was much 'I'sappointed that my own and my comrades' complete imacquamtanee with the art of fish culture prevent.nl ua from bringing to Sweden, as I wished, impregnated roe at least of the giant-like Njelma of the Yenissej, probably the largest and finest of its family. During our voyage "P the Yenissej I caused specimens of all the varieties of fish I could obtain to be carefully placed in a barrel filled with spirits. "Like most of tlie dwellers on the lower course of the Yenissej the inhabitants of the Nikandrovska fishincr- station kept a number of dogs, which appeared to be of the same race as those used in Greenland for draught. The dogs are used in summer to tow boats along °the banks up the river, and during winter for general traffic. The dog, however, is considered, for reasons already stated in the introduction to Middendorff's Siberisclw Reise, quite useless for long journeys over uninhabited tracts if no opportunity of fishing or hunting occurs in the course of the journey. In such cases reindeer are always employed. " Early next day we sailed, or more correctly, rowed on, the weather being'calm and very fine. We halted at noon at a now deserted simovie on the southern part of the island Sopotschnoj. Thence we proceeded first to Cape Maksuninskoj, where we vistted a Samoyede family who had here set up their skin tent in order to collect the am 298 NORDENSKIULD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. necessary winter stock of fish, then to Tolstoj Nos, a still inhabited, well built simovie, where the people re- ceived us in a very friendly manner and with great interest and surprise informed themselves regarding our journey. About two miles north of the settlement there was a beautiful chapel-like monument over one of the many who during the last century had been exiled hither for political reasons. He had, according to the inscrip- tion, first been hanged in the neighbourhood of the place where he lies buried, by the order of the authorities, but was afterwards declared innocent. This memorial was, singularly enough, the first indication which met us of a class of society which is so important in Siberia in all social respects. " We were informed here that the last steamer had passed the place five days previously, and was now lying some leagues farther up the river. I was therefore com- pelled to go on without delay, and after twenty-six hours sailing and rowing, interrupted only by short visits to land, at length on the 31st of August, at nine o'clock in the morning, we came up with the steamer, Alexander, which we had been eagerly pursuing for the previous two d.iys. Of this steamer the merchant, Ivan Michailovitsch Jar- menieff, was master, and we were received by him with all conceivable good will, as indeed we were during the whole of our Siberian journey continually by all classes, high and low alike. " We were yet for to the north of the Arctic circle, and as many perhaps imagine that the little known region we were now travelling through, the Siberian tundra, is a desert wilderness covered either by ice and snow, or by an exceedingly scanty moss vegetation, it [chap. VII.] PASTURES NEW. 299 perhaps may not be unsuitable to state that this is by no means the case. On the contrary, we saw snow, as hcis been mentioned before, during our journey up the Yenissej only at one place, in a deep valley cleft some fathoms in breadth, and the vegetation, especially on the islands which are overflowed during the sprino- floods, is distinguished by a luxuriance to which I have seldom seen anything comparable. " Already had the fertility of the soil and the immea- sural)le extent and richness in grass of the pastures drawn forth from one of our walrus-hunters, a middle-aged man, who is owner of a little patch of ground among the fells in northern Norway, a cry of envy at the splendid land our Lord had given * the Russian,' and of astonishment that no creature pastured, no scythe mowed, the grass. Daily and hourly we heard the same cry repeated, and in even louder tones, when some weeks after we came to the grand old forests between Yenisseisk and Turuchansk, or to the nearly uninhabited plains on the other side of Krasnojarsk covered with deep tcherno-sem (black earth) ; equal without doubt in fertility to the best parts of Scania, and in extent surpassing the whole Scandinavian peninsula. This judgment formed on the spot by a genuine though an illiterate agriculturist is not without interest in forming an idea of the future importance of Siberia. " In the summer of 1875 three different Russian expe- ditions traversed Siberia with the view of inquiring into the possibility of an improved river communication within the country. These expeditions have, according to unofficial commj.inications made to me in Yenisseisk, arrived at the result that it is possible for an aggregate « f |l I if! 300 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. sum of 700,000 rouLlcs to rcndor tlie Angara, a tributary of the Ycnissej, the navigation of which is rendered difficult by cataracts, or more correctly rapids, navigable to the Baikal Lake and to connect the Obi with the Ycnissej and the Yenissej with the Lena. How great an extent of territory the river communication thus pro- vided would embrace may be seen from the fact that according to the calculation of the academician von Baer tlie Obi-Irtisch and the Yenissej drain an area larger than the combined river territories of the Danube, the Don, the Dneiper, the Dneister, the Nile, the Po, the Ebro, the Rhone, and all the rivers which flow into the Black Sea, the Sea of ]\Iarniora and the Mediterranean. Part of the territory in question indeed lies to the north of the Arctic circle, but here too there are to be found the most extensive and the finest forests on the globe ; south of the forest region proper, level, stone-free plains covered with the most fertile soil stretch away for hundreds of leagues which only wait for the plough of the cultivator to yield the most abundant harvests, and farther south the Yenissej and its tributaries flow through regions where the grape ripens in the open air. As I write this, I have before me a bunch of splendid Siberian grapes. "The steamer Alexander was neither a passenger nor a cargo boat, but formed a movable warehouse pro- pelled by steam, the master of which was not a seaman, but a friendly merchant, who clearly did not take much concern with navigation, but more occupied hin elf with goods and trade, and was also seldom styled by the crew captain (kapitan), but generally master {Jio. ing. Dr. Lundstrcim's main object, on the contrary, was exclusively botanical (he had pre- viously made himself familiar with the Arctic plant world by tours in Lapland, and in his native district Norrland), and as during the journey up the river he came from the northerly regions, poor in species, to the southerly, rich in species, it was easier for him than for one who travelled in an opposite direction to fix the limits of a large number of species of general occur- rence, common to Siberia and Scandinavia. Abundant botanical and climatological material has been collected in this way, and when it is worked out it is easy to 1 ■iP«! 304 NORDENSKIOLD S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [CHAI'< ' tl< SCO what new light a com[)arisoii of the distribution of phints towards the north within our own cultivated land and the desert regions of Siberia will spread over the question of the possibility of cultivating the latter country. I may here be permitted to state that, con- trary to what might have been supposed beforehand, the northern limit of many p'r':'; m Siberia is situated farther to the north than tn M'li. To a certain extent this may indeed depend on the transport of seeds with the great river from more southerly regions ; but it shows too that the severe winter of Siberia has by no means any specially unfavourable influence on the summer's growth. *' Immediately after we came on board, the stenmer weisfhed anchor and steamed to the church village Dudino, situated some leagues farther up the river at the mouth of the tributary Dudinka. The village con- sists of some few houses, inhabited by an influential merchant, Sotnikoff, two priests, a magistrate {smotritcl), a couple of exiles, some labourers, and natives. Sotni- koff carries on an extensive and profitable trade with the natives in the whole of tlie surrounding district, bartering grain, cloth, tea, sugar, iron goods, powder, lead, brandy, &c., for furs, fish, and mammoth tusks, &c., which are afterwards sent by steamer first up the Yenissej and afterwards, by different means of com- munication, to China, Moscow, Petersburg, &c. He is much praised by the academician Schmidt in his well- known account of his expedition for the exhumation of a mammoth found near the mouth of the Yenissej, for the liberal and energetic way in which he furthered the work of the expedition. Even to us the simple, ition of ;ecl land iver the 8 latter at, coii- )rehaiul, situated certain jport of regions ; aria has eucc on steamer village river at ige con- fluential lotritel), Sotni- ide with district, powder, li tusks, ; lip the of com- He is his well- lation of issej, for iirthered simple, Vi..] YKNISHK./ JNTKiauUS. 305 straightforward merchant was particulaily acconuno- dating and hosi)ilable, and I must add liuit we met with the same rec(>.ption from all the otiicr notabilities of the place. Tlie friendly clergyman, who was much interested in our journey, even performed a short thanksgiving service on Ijoard the steamer for the successful issue of our expedition, without accepting any sjjecial lionorarium. "As in the slmomes situated farther to the north, tlie houses in :dl the villages on the Yenisscj are laiilt of logs in much the same style jis the dwellings of the well-to-do peasants in Russiii, pretty close together, with the richly-carved gable to the street, or lane. Except for the cockroaches tliat crawled round everywhere, the interiors of the; liouses were very clean, and the walls were adorned witli numerous, if not very ai-tistic, i>hotographs and engravings, for the most part of the imperial family, remarkable Jiussian notabilities, often in generals' uniform, scenes from Russian history, &c. Richly decorated sacred pictures were alwnys found phu^ed in a corner, and before these there hung some small oil-lamps or little wax-lights, which were lighted on festivals. Sometimes the floor, at least in the i)rincipal room, was covered with furs. 'J'he bedstead was generally formed of a couch near the roof, so large that it occupied a third part or a half of tile room, and so high from the Hoor that a man could go upright under it. Food was cooked in large ovens which were fired for that purpose daily, and at the same time warmed the houses. Fresh bread was to be had every day, and even for the household of the poor a large brass tea-urn was a necessary house- 306 NOIIDENSKIOLDS AKOTIC VOYAGES. [ciiAi'. hold article. One was certain to meet with u hearty and friendly reception Avhercver he stepped over the threshold, and if he stayed a short time he generally had to drink a glass of tea with his hosts, whatever time of day it might happen to l)e. The dress was everywhere somewhat similar to the common Eussian dress; for the well-to-do, for instance, wide velvet trousers stuck into the boots, a shirt grandly em- broidered with silver in the breast and a wide caftan often trimmed with fur ; for the poor, provided they were not too ragged, the same cut, but inferior, dirty, and torn materials. In winter, however, we w^ere informed that for going out of doors the Samoyede pesk was common to high and low, Russian and native, settled and nomad. " At present there are only very few in these regions who have been exiled thither for political reasons, but there are many exiled criminals, and among them also some few Finns and even a Ssvede, or at least one who, according to his own statement in broken Swedish, had formerly served in the King's Guard at Stockholm. Security of person and property was in all cases complete, and it was remarkable that there appeared to be no proper distinction of caste between the Kussian-Siberian natives and those who had been exiled to these regions for breaches of the law. Little interest appeared to be taken in finding out what crimes had caused the exile. On making inquiry on this point I commonly got the sufficiently elastic reply, 'for bad behaviour.' " I have already stated that mammoth tusks here form an important article of commerce. They appear vu.] MAMMOTir FINDS. 307 a so to occur in great mmil.ers on tlic tundra, tbourrh tbe badness of the communications often renders tlie^ir removal impossible. Tbougb tliis is the proper mam- motn region, it is believed that large pieces of the skeleton are very uncommon, especially such as still licivc the Hc..sh, bide, and bair upon them. It was for uistance on the peninsula l)et\veen tbc Obi and the Yenissej that tlie fonious Trofimoff mammotb fual was made, and in the neighbourbood of tbe same place was found tbe mammotb whicb gave occasion to Schmidt's expedition. It is besides probable that tbe nomad native here has the same indisposid.m to inform the Tchinownik (official) of a large m.mmotb find as the Swedisb peasant bad in former times, and still bas in certain districts, to give information of tbe discovery of a supposed vein of ore. " On the 4tb September, the weather being splendid, tbe Alexander again weighed anchor and steamed southwards. "The landscape now began by degrees completely to alter its character. On most maps indeed the limit of trees is drawn at that considerable bend which the Yenissej makes immediately west or north-west of Dudino, and here for the first time are found numerous pines, seldom more than twenty feet big]]. They covered the heights with a scattered and by^no means specially striking vegetation whicli completely lacked the luxuriant character which marked the willow and alder thickets farther to the north. Some few leagues to the south of Dudino, however, tbe pine-forest was already magnificent, although the place is north of the Arctic circle. It is her^that the forest proper X 2 t i ! 308 N«)1{|)KNSKI()|.I)S AIUTIC VOVAdKS. tllAI". I'OjnnicnccH, th(> iiu»Ht i'xti'iisivc forest in the world, Btivteliiiii:: with I'cw iiit('rnii)tioiis ncntsH the uliolc of 8iboriii, in one direction from Und totlu^ iSea of ()eiiolsi<, in the other south of thi' r)8th or r)!)th degree of latitude and north of tlio Aretie eintle ; indeed at neveral i)laeen, for instance at the rivers Chatanga and liCna, heyond it or to liie neigliltourhood of 72" N. I.at., tiiat is, to tlic moutha of the Chatanga and Lena, more tiian sixty miles to the north of the North Cape. "During our boat and st(>amor jotuMiey U[) tlio Yenissej wo had hitluTto oidy landed eilher on the eastern hank of the river, which was everywhere high, or on some of the numerous islands which at certain places occur in the river wlu>re it widens almost to a lake. On the 7lh September we had an o)>i»ortunity of landing on the western baidv of the river which, like the Avcstorh bank of most of the rivers running from south to north, consists of ground almost on a level with the water, and of low-lying tracts overilowed in spring. This meadow land was now covered partly with an extraordinarily luxuriant cari)et of grass, of coui'se un- touched by the scythe, })artly by an exceedingly j)(>culiar bush vegetatioii of (>qual luMght, among which we found a great number of herbaceous })lants known in Sweden, here from six to eight feet high. dose thickets of a beautiful straight-stemmed willow often alternated with even turf of a lively green, and one small stream of -water fell into the Yeuissej in such a way that tlic ■wliole had the appearance of a very beautiful pai-k carefully kept and watered. On the eastern bank again the ancient forest proper commenced at the river bank. Here nature had a cpiitc different character — grand and \ tllAI'. \ VII l>AN(.'|.;i{S OK TIIK I-'OIIKST. 300 « hnnny. The IoithI, rojiHiMlnl nuiiiily ..f pinrn iilivii.ly, ''■"'" '■' I'"'"'' "<"•"' of "'<• l'.'lar,-iivli., ori,.|M,r Iho mu«t <'ol.)M,s;il (limcuHi.ms hill in mii.-Ii riiHcs nmiiy l.imcH ^nvy .•ind Imir Nvilliciv.l l,y ...jr,.. llHwccii (licso tliii ^n-OUIld WilH HO .M.VClvd Willi r;,l|,.„ I ,nill<-|, i |,m- .stcillH, Hoino of (linn JVcsli, o(li,.rH |i..,ir n,i,(,.„ or wholly Humeral '>'l""ioiil.l, Iirl.l (o^rHhrr only hy ( |„. |,.,rk" Wuilmw. <*<>nl.l only lonr, a w.iy will. .lillJciKy, .•iiid with (,|„, ihiw^vv of l.iv;.kin,i^r |,i,s l,.os, i„ (|,o "thL^k-ot, of io^rs. IJcHidcs, (li,. fall,. I, stciiis were (>v(-i-ywli(-r(' covered, nmuy tunes even eoiic,..i|,M|, |)y jni uiKtommoiily liixuiiant, iuosh vc^oetaMoii, while lieheiis oeeiimid only very ,s|)iii-in<,dy, in (ujn.se(]nc>nee of whi(tli lho pines w;inl,ed the .slnirr^ry coverinnj eoninion in Sweden, and Mk; bark on the birduia" wliieh were visil)l(>. Ii.mv, and there among (,|,(, pjnos liad ;in uneoininon hlindiiig wliitenens. When one goea into this unvaried forest n, litlh^ w.iy from tlu; river ho ought to see that he liii.s a eorroet knowledge of tlio points of tiie eonipaHs— a, mistake here might carry liini in a direction where lor a distance of a hundred, perhaps two Imndred le:igiics, there i.s no clia,iu;e of meeting with an iidiabited phice. In speaking of tlio vegetiition of those regions it may be mentioned that in the north forest region along the river bank there is great abundance of wild currants, both red and wJiitc, exceedingly well-tasted and of diuKuisions exceeding even the; largest varieties of cultivated fruit I have had the op[)ortunity of secung. " Ever since we left Jevremov K;i,men, near the mouth of the Yenissej, we h;i,d seen no solid rock, but on the 8th we saw, on the eastern bank, rocks in situ. Ifere, as at a number of the other places wh(^re we landed, 810 NOIIDKNSKIOI.IVS AIUTIC VOVAUKS. [(„a.'. we luiulf u rich collection of luml Molluscn. By these collections, which have been handed over to l)e worked out by our skilful molluHcolonrist Dr. V. A. Westerlund, at Rouneby, the known .Mollusc-fuuna of northern Siberia will be eousidenibly iiiereas-d, and many erroneous views concerning the geographical distribution of this interest- ing animal group rectified. The same holds good of various other land or frc.sli-water vertebrates, of which considerable collections were made, whi«'h have been handed over to specialists to Ix' worked out. " vVfter halting nt about ten ditl'erent stmovics, or fishing-places, for a longer or shorter time, wj came, on the 12th September, to a s///ct themselves to a self-mutilation, in consequence of which the sect can only exist by new proselytes ; and remarkably enough can v...] TIIK SKOPT SKTTIJOWKNT, these fuiiiitics, in .spite of nil perMerution, or pcrhiips just on amnmt of it, .still, in fact, fiii.l follovvera. A number of the SIv(.p(zi jiro niitivoM of fiifr,.nu;inl;iii.|, and ho I could, without dilliculty, converse with them. They infonn.-.l m.- tliJit they had, 'for ricrJiteouHne.sH' .sake,' been torn from (hcirhomivs, impri.soiicd, flo«,r^r,!d, and hv.uI to Siberia. I Icre they had, by industry and perseverance, succeeded in attaining a, certain decri-o of prosperity,' were Iiospitable and friendly, and bon; their liard fate with r(-ignati(m, assured that, in another life, they would have a rich compensation for all their .sacrifices, suller- ings, and misfortunes here below. They did not them- selves kill any warm-blooded animal, 'for it was a sin to kill what the Lord had created;' but tliis did not prevent them fmm killing and eating fish, nor from selling to us— who in any case were lost beings— for eighteen roubles a fine fat ox, on condition that our own people .should slaughter it. Their dislike to animal food had, besides, the good result of inducing them to cultivate the soil. Round iho hut.s, therefore, were to be found i)atches of land with potatoes, turnip.s, and cabbages, although the settlement was situated in the latitude of Avasaxa, that is to say under the Arctic circle. " Later in the day we came to the Troit monastery, in former times renowned and rich, but now inhabited by a single monk, the i>rior himself. He was an aged and venerable man, and received us in a hospitable and friendly manner. The guest-hou.sc was ad-rned with many paintings of Siberian bishops. There was a portrait of a Russian czar in powdered hair and scanty military uniform, with blue grand-cross riband. It was I 312 NOEDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciuiv a likeness of Czar Paul, but, by some mistake, the Skoptzi Lad got it in their heads that the picture repre- sented their holy prophet, Czar Peter III., whose histoiy the Skoptzi had completely altered in accordance with their idea of the world. An educated man, who bclonc;ed to this sect, ami was on this account banished to North Yenissej, informed me in all seriousness, that Czar Peter III. was not murdered, but was knouted, and sent to Siberia, all on account of his holiness ; and it happens as a result of all this that the portrait of Czar Paul in the Troit monastery has ])ecome a sacred picture to whicli prayer is offered. " I have already referred to the rich abundance which the Yenissej yields of uncommonly fine varieties of fish, and stated that we made as complete a collection of them as possible during our river journey. The slow voyage of the steamer in search of fish was besides utilised by me in collecting statements regarding the names, selling price to the steamer, and size of the most important varieties of fish. Tlicse are to be found in the followinsx table : — Muksun / Salmon (Taimen) Sterlet Sturgeon Silj (young of Coregonus) Com moil Circatost Piido. Wfi^'ht. Weight. 13 lb. 50 lb. 80 kop. per pood. „ K) „ each. 1^ .' 3 „ 4 „ li^ „ i» „ „ 10 „ 80 „ ••5 ,. •'50 „ 1 l(i „ -'80 „ / 150 kop. per pood. — -to „ „ VII.] THE SAMOYEDES. 313 " The trade is carried on so that the jroods which are to be bought are valued in money, but payment is made in goods after the merchant's valuation, on which account the true price is perhaps considerably lower than that hero given. "After the numerous crew of tlie Alexander and the lodje had witli great devoutness attended divine service in the churcli of the monasteiy and iu a noighbourino- chapel, where the holy founder's dust is preserved, after we had seen various remarkable things belojiging to the monastery, among them an exce(Hlingly well in'cservcd Slavonic Bible from the sixteenth century, and after 1 had paid a visit, along witli the captain, to an old cripi)le, who in his youth had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, wi^ steamed on. As was usual, we went ahead only slowly in consequence of the strong current and the frequent delays, which of course were taken advantage of by us for making excursions, talking with the natives, &c. These consisted partly of lUissian settlers, partly of natives, 'Asiatics,' who, some on their own account, others in the service of Russians, had settled here for the summer to fish in the rivers! In such cases they lived in tents of quite the same form as the Lapp Kota. The Samoyede tent is commonly covered with reindeer skins, the Ostiak tent with birch bark. There is always to be found in the neighbourhood of the tent a large number of dogs, which are employed in winter for general purposes, and in summer for tracking boats against the current, a means of pro- pulsion on water which highly surprised our walrus- hunters. For this purpose a sufficient number of dorrs are harnessed to a long line, one end of which is 31t NOKDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES [ciur. fastened to the stem of tlie boat. The cWs then jro forward on the level strand, where veritable dog-patha arc formed in this way, and the boat, whieli is not deep in the water, is kept afloat at a siiffieicnt distance from the bank, and is managed by a person sitting in the stern. The boats are often hollowed out of a single tree-stem, and mny bo nevertheless, thanks to the dimensions of the wood in those regions, of very beautiful form and very large. The dogs have a strong resemblance to the Eskimo doo;s in Greeidand, which are also employed as draught animals. The fact perhaps may be regarded as a proof that tiic same climatic relations and similar ways of employing a species of animal produce similar races. AVe are informed that at the present time most of the natives who come in contact with the Russians profess Christianity. That many heathenish customs still survive is shown for instance by the following incident. At a simovie, where we landed for several hours on the 16th September, we found as usual a burying-place in the wood near the houses. The bodies were placed in large coffins above ground, with a cross nearly always erected beside them. At one of the graves a sacred picture was affixed to the cross, which must be regarded as a further proof that a Christian reposed in the coffin. Notwithstanding this, some clothes which had belonged to the deceased ivere found hanging on a hush at the grave, together with a bundle containing food, ^^i^i'^cipaUg dried Jish. At the graves of the well-to-do natives we learn that the survivor even places some rouble notes beside the food, that the departed may not be altogether devoid of ready money on his entrance into the other world. But that vn.J lUVER S0UN1)1N(JS. 315 the grand clotlics arc not looked upon a» any special recom- mendation hy St. Peter is evidenced by the exceedingly dirty, ragged, and mended condition of the garments hung up at the grave. "Hitherto during our voyage np the river from Dudino we liad liad very fine, often warm, autumn weather. Tiic first frost south of Saostrovskoj occurred on the niglit before the 20th September, and from tliat day the temi)era,turc of the niglits was generally under the freezing-point. ^J^iie days, liowever, were still warm and fine. 'J^lic fall of rain was sliirht. " On the 20th we anchored at the mouth of one of the largest tributari(\s which the Yenissej receives from the east, namely the Podkammenaja Tunguska. Im- mediately below a welcome oi)i)ortunity offered of making soundings right across the river which was here somewhat over a kilometre in breadth. A short distance from the western bank the lead gave four fathoms, the depth then diminished to two and a half fathoms, but afterwards increas(Ml to seven fathoms. At many other places soundings were made which, appear to confirm the statement of the pilots, that the depth of the river up to Yenisseisk is sufficient even for vessels of con- siderable draught. In order to establish this with full certainty, however, and to ascertain the most suitable course for navigation, there arc wanted far more compre- hensive' hydrognipLical surveys than those which we had the opportunity of making in passing. "As I have already stated, luxuriant patches of potatoes and cabbage were met with at the Skopt colony north of the Arctic circle, and the farther south we came the more did such patches increase in number and size. 31G NORDENSKIOr.D'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. There is no proper cultivation of grain at present until wc come to Sykobatka, situated in tlie sixtieth degree of latitude, but without doubt in the future, ivhen the woods and mosses are diminished, a profitable agricul- ture may be carried on much ftirthcr to the north. Already from this point, where cultivation is now carried on to the soutliern boundary of Siberia, or more correctly to the steppe lands of Central Asia, we have at most places more than six hundred miles, and if \yc consider that a belt of land of this breadth, for the most part covered with splendid, easily cultivable soil, stretches right across the whole of Asia from Ural to the Pacific, we may form an idea of the extensive field of conquest for the plough to be found in these regions, and the future which, some time, ought to open for them. "Immediately south of Sykobatka we passed the church village of Nasimovskoj and a now deserted gold washing ' residence ' situated right opposite to it, called after the first conqueror of Siberia, Jermakova. It ori- ginated from the discovery of sand-beds rich in gold in a pretty extensive territory situated on an eastern tribu- tary of the Yenissej, which before the discovery of Cali- fornia w\as said for a short time to be the richest o-old country in the v>'orld. Here, within a limited period many colossal fortunes were made, and the stories of the hundreds of poods which were washed one year or an- other, and the fast, reckless life led by those to whom the great prizes of the gold- washing lottery fell, still form a favourite topic of conversation in the region. Many of the once rich gold-w\ashers have been ruined in the struggle to win more, and others who succeeded in retaining their gohl ' pood,' — that is the mint unit sold- [OITAP. Vll.] INLAND NAVKJATION. 317 the wasliers prefer to use in conversation— have rcmovcil to Paris, Petersburg, Moscow, Omsk, Knusnojarsk, &c. All the ' residences,' therefore, are now deserted, and on the eastern bank of the river form a row of half-decayed wooden edifices surrounded with young trees, after which, soon enough, only the tradition of the former period of prosperity will be left standing. In one respect, however, these gold-washers have exerted a powerful in- fluence on the future of the country. For it is by them that the first pioneers have been scattered in the wilder- ness, the first seeds sown of the cultivation of the region. " At many places along the river there is to be seen besides another peculiar memorial, dating chiefly from the time when workmen by thousands were yearly assem- bled at the gold-washing places— colossal flat-bottomed boxes formed of logs, here called 'barks,' which lie drawn up on the banks in a state more or less decayed. They have been employed for the transport along the river of the necessaries of life from southern Siberia— and one may get an idea of the quiet flow of the Siberian rivers so suitable for water communication, from goods havin^r been carried in this way as fiir as to the most northerly simovies on the Yenissej along the main river from re- gions lying south of Minusinsk, near the Chines3 frontier, and along its tributary the Angara from the Baikal Lake— indeed from beyond it, for even the river Selenga, which falls into it from the south, is navigable for a good part of its course. In order to render the river navigable from Yenisseisk there are required, however, as I have already stated, some operations, inconsiderable in com- parison with the importance of the object, for clearing the channel. ' Barks ' uf medium size, built in Minusinsk I 318 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [ciup. for the transport of grain, cost 300 roubles, load 130 tons, and are managed during their j^assage down the river by fifteen men. After reaching their destina- tion they are sold, if a buyer can be found, for a few- roubles. Notwithstanding their awlcAvard form they are very suitable for the river traffic in question — and they would be still more so if twenty or thirty such craft were formed into a train and towed by a small tug like those employed in the archipelago of Stockholm. In this way the number of the crew on each ' bark ' might be dimi- nished one-third — and the cost of transport, already low, be further reduced. "Since the 20th September night frosts had often occurred, which naturally diminished the collections made during excursions from the halting-places. We were therefore more impatient than before to reach our nearest destination. The rapid current and the frequent halts, however, still delayed cur journey, so that the anchor could not be let go at the town, Yenisseisk, until the 31st September. Here we stayed several days for the purpose of getting news from Europe, inspecting some fine collections in natural history made in the neighbourhood by an exile, Herr M. Marks, settling our affairs, &c., in connection with which I ought to mention Herr Balangin, the owner of the Alexander, who declined to receive any fare for our long voyage in his steamer, so that I, instead, handed over to him and the excellent captain, Herr Jarmenieff, as a memorial of it, the Nord- land boat in which we had begun our river journey and which had afterwards been brought along in tow. " Our home journey was afterwards continued over land by Krasnojarsk, Tomsk, Omsk, Tjumen, Ekaterine- VII.] HOME BY THE YENISSEJ. 319 burg, Tagilsk, Perm, Kasan, Nischni-Novgorod, Moscow Petersburg, and Helsingfors to Abo, and thence by steamer to Stockholm." For this voyage, from Norway to the mouth of the renisscj whereby a sea route to Siberia was inaugurated Nordenskiold received in January, 1876, the thanks of tne Kussian Government. CHAPTEll VIII. SFOOND VOYAGE TO THE YENLSSK.I IN IS7G. The success of Nonlenskiiild's expedition to the Yeiiissej in 1875 was complete, but there were some who urged that it was dependent on an unusually ftivourable state of the ice. Nordenskiold endeavoured to meet this objection by a reference to the voyages of the Norwegian walrus- hunters, of the brothers PaUiser in 18{)9 and of Wiffffins in 1874 in the Kara Sea. As it was the case however that the Ycnisscj had only been reached by a single vessel, and as besides it was desirable to carry on the scientific researches which had been commenced both in the Kara Sea and in the valley of the Yenissej, it was resolved to send out in 187G two expeditions, one by sea and the other by land, the latter to descend the Yenissej and meet the former near the mouth of the river. Nordenskiold gave the charge of the land expedition to Dr. Iljalmar Thdel, who was accompanied by two botanists, Rector M. Brenner of Hclsingfors and Docent H. W. Arnell of Upsala, and by two zoologists, Dr. J. Sahlberg of Hclsingfors and Candidate F. Trybom of Upsala. For the sea voyage the Ymer, a strong cargo steamer, built of oak, of 40 horse-power and 400 tons burden, was chartered. In order practically to open this now oil. VIII.] THE yj/A'A' SETS SAIL. 321 commercial rout«, some goods were tulam on hoard, chiefly samples of Swedish muiiufacture, suitable lor North Siberia. The expenses of the expeditions were defrayed by I\rr. Oscar .Dickson of Gothenburg, and Mr. Alexander Sibiriakoff, a wealthy Siberian. Nordenskiold was accompnnied in tlie Ymer by Decent F. Kjellman and Dr. A. Stuxberg, both members oi the expeditions of 1875, and the former of that of 1872-3. The Ymn- left Tromsoc on the 25th July going within the archipelago past Hammerfest to ]\lasoe, a coimnercial settlement situated some few leagues to the south-west of North Cape. Besides the merchants and some half- score of fisher families, there is here a church, au hospital chaplain, and a medical man, and the pla.^e thus forms the farthest outpost of European civilisation towards the north. Here Dr. Kjellman was landed, in order that during the voyage of the Fmer to Yenissej h..- might commence an examination of the marine algju of north-eastern Norway, which had become highly desimble on account of the similar work which the same observer previously (-arried out in 1872-3 on Spitzberg(ui and in 1875 on the coast of Novaya Zemlya. The Ymer remained here only as long as was necessary to land Dr. Kjellman, his travelling ellects and scien- tific equipment, and then steamed on through Macreroe Sound towards the east. The course was shaped for Pervoussmotrennajti Gora, a mountain two to three thousand feet high, situated on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 73° KL., visible far out at sea. lly tlie hunters from the plains of Northern Russia it was con- sidered for some centuries back, and perhaps is still Y 322 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. considererl, tlic foropost of tlic world's liiglicat mountain- chain, and itol)tainod its distinctive n.imo, "the first seen mountain," more tlian hidf a century ago, from the famous Russian Pohir traveller, Are a V 2 . 324 NOHDKNSKIOLD'S AUCTIO VOYAdKS. |riui'. ji niinnd Russian hut, uiul the pUice, is iniiikt'd on the map an Hossniyslov'H vvintor station 1708-61). *' The aea is here ridi in varying animal types, the land bleak and poor. The mountains for tlu; most part consist of black clay-slates, probably pre-Silurian, and grey dolomite buds, in which [ searched for fossils with- out success. The slates, on the other hand, were full of quartz veitis with numerous drusy cavities whose gUtter- inrr ciystalline contents gave occasion to the statement of the unfortunate Tschirakin, that he had found here a ])lock of stone set full of the most beautiful and valuable precious stones— an account for which after his death he was bitterly reproached by his chief Kossmyslov, wlio sought in vain for the supposed treasure. •' In one respect this part of Novaya Zemlya is of .5tli August at 4 a.m. we again weighed VIII.] ICE AND FOG. 826 nnelior to stoam into the Kaiii Sea. As tliorc liad been no stronnr westerly or aoutli-wcsterly winds (liiriii^r Jho days i)r(^C(Hling our tlepartuiv, there was still no i)rospect of finding open water right eastward. A broad ice-free belt of water had in the meantime been formed along the east coast. I determined to make use of this in order to cn(h>avour to find a way farther south over the sea, which this year was thought to be fuller of ice than usu(d. Most of the ice-fields were, however, already quite wasted away, and it was clear that they would be entirely melted during the remaining part of the summer. "Favoured by splendid calm weather the Ymer steamed rai)idly forward along the coast, so that on the O'th August the latitude of the Kara Gate was reached. A new attempt was made to sail right across the sea ; but this time loo our advance was soon hinderi^d, partly by ice, partly by a thick mist which rendered naviga- tion among the ice-fields exceedingly difficult. I was often compelled to let the Ymer lie still in the fog several hours on end, and these delays aflbrded excellent opportunities for carrying on the zoological and liydro- graphical work. When the fog lightened a little, We steamed on, following the edge of the ice as far as possible. This soon drew to the east, and if the weather had been clear we would probably have been able to reach the opposite shore the following day. Now four days were required for this, so that we first sighted Cape Bjeluscha on the west side of Yalmal on the 10th August. " The sea along the coast was covered with ice-fields very much wasted, which at first were so scattered that they did not hinder our progress in any noteworthy . 326 NOKDENSKlOLD'tS AKCTIC VOYACJES. [cuai-. (looivo. At i\i;my places, Iiowovcm-, inori> ('oni]»act bunds of ice cxtcnilctl from the coast, and the navigation was still rendered dillicnlt by a fog- more or less dense, which made it impossible to distingnish the extent and distri- bution of the Hoes from the vessel. In the attempt to force a passage through such a belt of only a few hun- dred fathoms' breadth, the V^ncr, at noon of the 10th, Avas beset among some •|)ieces of thick ohl 'uv, which lay among the thin rotten year's ice. After being beset about twenty-four hours, we again got frcH', not on the north, but the south side of the ice-belt, however, which therefore still formed an obstacle to our progress. A mist, besides, made it impossible to judge of the extent of the belt from the ship, and thus to sail round it, which would not, ])robabl\', otherwise have been attended with any diiliculty or great loss of time. " At uoon of the liJth the ice-belt lying before us had at last broken up— so much that we could steam on. The sea became more and moi'c ice-fr(>e, so that we could continue our course without any deviations caused by ice, round White Ishuid, ])ast the Gulf of Obi, to the mouth of the Yenissej. " AVe sighted land here on the lath, tlius exactly a year from the time when the rocks at Dickson Harbour were first seen from the Proeven. It was some hours earlier than the dead reckoning promised which at first was ascribed to the infiuence of an easterly current in the part of the Kara Sea in which we had been sailing during the previous days. When we came nearer I was surprised to see before me a })lain uninterrupted by any ridiies <'osar), though I knew, from tlie former year's experience, that an elevated ridge (bergos), low indeed, villi AN ISLAND AT TIIK IllVKIl MOUTH, .•{27 bill, (listinc.dy iiiarkcd, runs jicross the. (uiidnf (owards Ji'Vivniov IvanKMi. NcitlMU- (toiild we (liscovcr ;uiy ul' ||io Humorous rocky ishuuls lliut disiiiitrnisli Dickson ll;ir- l)our. In l.lu' nicautinic wo continued our courxc u|) tlic, river ;d()ii,n- jIk; wliorc, iind uCler the la])se of four or live liouns, ol)l;iincd ;i highly unoxj)ectcd cx])l;iii;il,ioii of the circunisliincesjusl, meiilioned; lor it, appeared tli;it, tlu^ gulf at the nioutii of the Yeni,s.scj, which is about seventy mi h's wide, is divi(h'd in t,wo by an island above thirty niilcH long, wiiieh apix'ared to have been unknown both to the Russian luap-makei's and to the natives, 'j'hat it Jias not hitherto been observed probably arise,; from tlu; fact that it is not visible from t he i-iver bank, ah)ng which tlu; i\i\v boat.s which traverse this part of the v'wv.v ap|)ear always to have ke^jt. 'J'he navigable water on both sides is i»rotection from iioj-th- westerly winds and sea, for th(^ vessels in the mouth of the river. 1 int(^nd to name' it Sibiriakors Island, after the zealous and generous i)atron of all the Hibei'ian expeditions of the present year. " During our voyage up the river we stiiamed in the forenoon of the 10th between Sverevo and Sopotschnaja where the mouth of the rivei-, for the first time, narrows Korga, to a breadth of about thirteen miles. Soon after we anchored at (Joltschika, the northernmost simovie at present inhabited on the eastern bank of the Yenissej. TliG coinmercial agent settled there immediately (;a,mo on board. He informed us tiial during the course of the summer the place had Ix^en visited by three; river steamers which hatl taken away the wares collected durino- .^28 NOIIDENSKIOLPB ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. suininor, niul had furiiislied his modest store witli a new stock. Ill", had been told that SidorolY had fitted out a vessel to convey a, cargo of gra})hito to J<]uro])e, and that some foreigners had Ixhmi in Venisseisk, whence they intended to undertal<(> a, joiu'iiey down the river to its mouth. Nothing more, lunvever, had heen lieard of this journey. " Impatient to meet with my comrades as soon as possible. 1 again weighed anchor and steamed to Me- seiddn, in the near neighbourhood, the place which, for the reasons stated below, had been aj>pointed a ren- dezvous wilh Theel's party. " When I travelled up the river the year before T was incidinitally informed by the natives that parts of the skin of a mannnoth had l)een washed out of the tundra near our halting place at the mouth of the iMesenkin, which I had left some days before. Unfortunately, however, it was too late to make an examination, as the season was so far advanced, and it was only by the utmost exertion that I could get up with the last steamer that left Dudino for Yenisscisk in the autumn of 1875. But of course I wished instead to avail myself of the opportunity which this year's expedition ofl^rcd to gain some addition to our knowledge regarding one of the most interesting questions of geology, and to obtain for our museums one of those much talked-of remains of a former period preserved from destruction in the frozen soil of Siberia. It was accordingly included in the plan of the expe- dition that Theel should endeavour to reach Mescnkin in time enough to make excavations at the place indi- cated. A further reason for fixing the rendezvous so far to the north was the uncertainty of finding water vin.] WE SAIL UP THE RIVER. 320 sufficiently deep for Die Ymer farther soutli without soundins,s,w]iicliTliee]'8 party w(>re to carry out during tiieir boat joui-ney down iho i-iver. " A coupl(> of liours a,ft«>r loavin.<,^ OoltHchika J ancho, d at M(>.sonkin, where sonic Russians— anion crtlieni Fcodo my attendant from the previous year— and a number ol natives liappened to be asseml)h-d. We, however, did not meet with our comrades, and none of tlie inhabitants liad heard any thino- of them." N(n-d(>nski()]d made an excursion to tiie phice where tiie mammoth liide was said to have been found, and succeeded in digging out of a newly-formed sand-bank a couple of hiToo and a number of small pieces of hide which appeared to have been recently washed by the spring floods to the place where they were found from some point higher up the valley. Ho also got from the natives some pieces of hide and two fragments of bone, the ordy parts of the skeleton that had l)een discovered.' On the morning of the 17th August the Ymer started in order to proceed farther up the river. In the neigh- bourhood of Jakovieva the depth, which up to this point had been from five to twelve flithoms, began to diminish. A dense fog rendered navigation very difficult, and after running aground several times in the search for a deeper channel, and being warped off again without damage, the Ymer returned to the former anchorage off the Mesenkin. Nordenskiold now determined to await the arrival of Theel's party at the appointed rendezvous, and to em- ploy the time in discharging the Ymers cargo at the simovie Korcpovskoj, sifuntcd a little to the south of the Mesenkin, and to leave them under charge of the guide xw NOIJDKNSKIUI-D'S Aia'TlC' VOYACIKS. jrHAi-. Foodor, wilt) lived llicrc, ;ind was t'onsidi'it'd (nistworlliy. It. was nocessaiy U) do this ln'iMUse tlif last, stcanioi- ("or tlu' season had already i>;ouo 14) llu> river. The laiidiiijjf of the ffoods was comineiiced on theillst and linisiiedon the ovenini<; of the -2:h\\ Au^uust . Tlu're lu'lng no return cargo to be had, the Yiiicr was again ready to sail on the )ll!')li\, and dro[)]>ed down the river to the mouth ol' the Mesen- kin. Not llnding the overland party there ]S'ordenski()ld made another attenijU to aseend tln^ river hut did not get 80 far south as l)e{ore, anehoriiig between Orlovskoj and Oostinoi. " 1 ehose this place," he writes, " on aceount of some honvJiinl'<, which during a preceding excursion had been made in a valley on the tiuulru near by. 'IMie following days were devoted to excursions which yielded interest- ing information regarding the geology of the tundra, and an exccedin«i;lv rich collection of sub-lbssil shells which were founu in the tumhri sand. "By the word tiiinh-a are denoted, as is well known, the imuKRse plains in Russia and Siberia lying between tlie limit of trees and tlu' Polar sea. The ground at least in the luirthern portions of the Siberian tundra is constantly frozen at a linuted de])lh, but it bears during sumnu'r a vegetation of low bushes, nu)sses, and grass, which yields summer pasture to numerous herds of rein- deer, some wild, others tame, which wander about here. " On the eastern bank of the Yenissej the tundra forms a level or slightly-rolling plain sk)ini)g towards tlie river with an esearpment 50 to 100 feet high. In the interior tlie [)laiu is not interrupted by any considei-able heights, but on the contrary is intersected at numy places by deep river valleys, \\hose precipitous sides oiler beautiful MMT'-- VI 11. oUKilN UK THI-; TUN|)I{,\, .•t:{| H H III tioni(uscvHK..il llmt, Mu.y.oii.sisi In,- (1.,. ,„„«( ,,„•(, .,( oijormous nu.s.scs „r san.l aiul nm.l w.slu.l ,l<,wn Uy ||„. nv.T,s„CSilH.ria. 'n... /.../.vris, houvvn- hy no ,„<■,„. a (HMMinoil ,|,.|(,,, roi,,KUio„. NllMHT.,U,S inMliu. .sh.'li. iml)C(lcl,.,l in Mm. .mjuhI ,s|i„w timl, lli,. nnu/ra ph.in i.. lornuu- Mni.'s l.y nn.l.i' (lie .siul-uv of (1... .sen, ,n.l MimI, t i(-ivion> a .•onsidcniM,. .Irvalion ,.l (I,,. l,n!.-1 climates.^ ''^''i- ^'vident eontrariely has iiwlee.l ob- t=""^'e(er»bin^aeadenii,.ians Hut there still n-mains nuu-h to elearup, an.l collections ti-om those regions have a peculiar interest from the re- markable circumstance that in tlu. frozen soil of the tundra .•TO found, not only skeletons, but also tin, Hc.sh hide iKur, and entrails of animal-forms wliieli died out' many ' Tlu, luummotl., Ibi. insluiu.,, is boliovc.l t.. ].. ll.o i,r«^ro,ut„r of tho the doaoudant, ,.nd provided witl. an abundant covering <.C hair. 332 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTTC VOYAGIOS. [chap. tliousaiul f'onturios Jifro. I" tluM-cforc iiv!»il(>(l inysolf with delight of the opportunitios which oHercd thoinsolvoa for oxoiirsions in tlio noiglibourliood of tho places whoro the vessel was anchorcHl. Amoiief our colleetions may be mentioned large pieces of maninioth liide found along with some few fragments of bone where the Mesenkin falls into the Yenissej, the skull of a, musk ox, remark- able for its size, found along with fragments of mammoth bones in another tiiiuira valley south of Oj'lovskoj, a very rich collection of sub-fossil shells found i)rincipally betweeti Orlovskoj and Gostinoi. Various interestiriff observations n^garding the geological formation of the tuiiJra were also made. " During our stay on the Yenissej a close mist with rain was often prevailing, hut otherwise wewcre favoured, asthc following table shows, wirl; warm, summer-like weather: — Table shoivingthe temperature of tlic, air and ihe direction of the wind at the northerh) simovies of the Yenissej from lf) S.E. 1'2 11-9 U-0 S.E. 23 10-3 18-7 Calm, N.N.W. 2t 7 9 ]()•() N.W. 25 9 3 11-8 N. 2(5 9-0 KM: N. 27 11-3 12-9 Calm. 28 11 -8 12-5 S. 29 2-2 7-G sw. 30 5-2 58 N.W. 31 1-3 5-,-) N. b^ 3pt. 1 3-0 7-0 N.N.E. VIII.] i)UR CX)MUAI)KH, " Tlu^ nrround wan quite hvv .,f snow, un.l in many plac(.-8, i)ai-ti('ularly in tlie fumlra vallcy.s, a«l„ni...l with a vari,.n;atc.,l ..arpet cf llowci-s. Tho nativo.s Mtatod liovvcver, that tho fir.st part of the .su.nuier had not been 80 iine in llioso rcm and their eollcH-tions farther down the river. Wheel's ]iarly accordingly n^turned overland. The Ymer started on her return voyage on the lat September at seven o'clock a.m., reached Dickson Harbour on the 2Kd, and the weather being favourable proceeded without stopping in the direction of Capo MiddendorlF. The sea was at first comidctely free of ice, but as Novaya Zendya was approached in 7^)}/ N.T^. a very compact belt of ice was met with which extended, along the coast towards Matotschkin, which was reache purjiose of lilling the coal bunkers and takinij on boarvl water and ballast. The weather being fine, Nordkyn was sighted on the KJtli, and Tromsoe reached on tlu^ I22nd Septend)er. " Of all the expeditions," writes Nordenski()ld, " which have gone to Novaya Zendva and the surroundijig sea there were only three, before the two last Swedish ones, that concerned themselves with researches in natural history. These were von Baer's expedition in t' ' [chap. VIII. MfSCONCKl'TlON AH TO TIIK KARA SKA. 'm 1837, llciialiM's in lH71,!ui(l tlic AuslTo-Uuii^arian in 187-J-74. " Willi ivfcrcnco, to zooloori,.;,] roHo.'irclioH H.-ut broufrht lionio IVom liis journey aboul, Hcvcnly invcrtcbrato iinini.iJs, Hcuirlin |i;is incroiisod oni- knowlodjTo of lli(> immhcr of specioa in som(3 groupH, juid llic Aii.slro-IIiin-arijin (>x- l)odition ill oiluM-H. IJnl, ;ill IIioho collcclions were from the soutli-woal:, west, und norlli-wcst, coiiHlH of Novayji Zonilya. OF llic iialinv. of (lie ;mini:il life in tlic Kjira S(«a Mi(>r(! wiis no iv;il knowlcdnc, niitil the Hiiiniucr of 1875. Tlicro \v;i,s jilso a, ciinvnl, (ividilion ainon^ zoo- locristH, irroniidcd on (lie ivnowicdr in species I h.-m their pivdecessors. Ihit in any ease the collcclions m;i(le during ;i, sin_ir|e summer could not be supposed to yield a complete idea of animal lif(; in those renrions such ;is is requisite not only for a com- parison with the exist in.oj fauna of other Arctic lands, but also for a complete exhibition of its relation to the fnuiia in the d(\posits of the Sibeii.in fnndra. it w;i,s for this re.-ison that I jriive Dr. Stuxberg, a, zoologist, fin opportunity of ;icc<)ni|);inyiiig the expedition for the purpose of continuing the zoological researches. His success has been very great, as will appear from the following short sketch communicated by him : — " During the voyages to the K;ir;i Sen nnd Kn.-k in f I 336 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. 1875 and 1876 drcdgiugs have been carried on ut fifty places and at dift'erent depths from the beacli down to 200 fathoms, and good and comprehensive collections of animals have I'cp'i Truiclc in this way. A very large number of apeci.^s occur locally and in quite incredible numbers. Others again are found at nearly every dredg- ing, but in far smaller numbers. The occurrence of the latter is more uniform, consequentlv distinctive for the fauna area in its entirety. To these belong first of all two species of the family Idothea {Id. Sahinei and Id. Entomon), both strongly developed, and it may with reason be said that this family is characteristic of the Kara Sea. It is the province of the Idothese. To the animal types, again, which are local in their occurrence, belong various species of Mollusea, Hydromedusw, and Bnjozoa, but in the first place all the known representa- tives of Eclmiodermata from the Kara Sea. Their abundance is often truly surprising, and, what is more singular, when a species occurs in any considerable number it lives almost alone — almost to the exclusion of all others. This is the case, for instance, with, species of the families CribeUa, Stiehaster, Ctenodiscus, «fec., which are found here in largo and well-developed tj^pes. Not unfrequently the swab brought up at the same time hundreds of individuals of the same species. Of the beautiful crinoid Alecto Enchrichtii there were obtained many very fine specimens. " But rich as is the Kara Scu in Asterida and Ophiu- rida, it is equally poor in Echini. These are there sought for every\/here in vain, except possibly close to the east coast of Novaya Zenilya. This is so much the more surprising, as along the whole west coast a species of the VIII.] TWO NKVV CaKATlJllE.-^?. 337 family Echinus is one of tlio most alnnulant and most Jrcquuitly occurrinnr animal forms. *'In two respects th,3 .oal„^ri,;a ,,ork of this summc-r luts been very profitable for our museums. First of aJl, It has add.Hl something new in all groups to the exceahngly rich collections of the previous summer. It las, tor example, increased the collection of Crustacea by twenty per cent, new species, and a huge number of orms of hclunodennata has, by oft-repeated swabl)ino- been obtnu.ed in an extraordinary nundx-r of individuals, inu-ther, the swab has brouglit up from the depths of the Kara hea two animals specially remarkable and important m a systematic respect, one belonging to the EcJdnoder- mata, the other to the Pemmtulidw. The former was swabbed up during the expedition of the previous sum- mer not far from the eastern mouth of Abitotschkin Schar Only a few specimens were then found; now we have brought together a considerable numbc-r. It is a hitherto unknown holothurioid, which is distinguished from most others of the same group by its exceedingly perfec.t bdateral symmetry, but differs from all in its habit and anatomical formation and is unic^ue in its kind, as it combines in itself characteristies from different classes of animals. It has of late been exhaustivcl) described and delineated in detail by Dr. Theel, its first discoverer. Ihe other remarkable animal is one of the greatest rarities wifVin the animal world. It is an Urnhdluh,' ' Two speciirrens of the family nnbelMaria, the first c.f wliich we have any knowledge, are said to have beeu found on the coast of Greenland before the nxiddle of last century. The animal was under he applation fs>s encrinns, after a description first given hy KlU. and Myhu.. What bec.ae of the original .peo^n.ous is 1^ i (. ir; H tit nsft N()HI»KNSKI()lil)'H AHCrrC VOYAdKS. | oruovtli Ijililiidc ** Im'oui III!" (•(tllcclioiiM niMi>r;irs ihiit (lie Kara Scit, far IVoin lioinn: so ^>()or as was siipiKtscd, is really tlislingiiislicd l>y an animal lil'i' very rich Ixitli in individuals anosi- tioiu>f animal life at the bottom of this Polar sea. " rntil the various oroups have heiMi worked out l»y S]H'cialists it is dillicult to state for certain tho mnnber of the lower animal typ(\s of the Kara Sea, but it may be approximately reckoned at nearly five hundred species — unknowji. Tlu> " jroat-liko nninial foiui " of tho doscriptions was iho subject of iiiiiny intorprotntions until Pr. J. Lindalil, during tho Swedish oxiicdition to (iroonhmd, sncccodod in dredging up in ]?aHiu's Hay two sjiocinions of it, and described its inner forniation in tho Tntiii^iiclloiis of t/ic Academi/ of ^Sciences (Votonskaps Acado- miens liandlingar). Aftor this time individuals of tlio same family were found lirst by tho English Challentjrr expedition of 1S7.'5 botwi en rortugal and Aladeiri, and by tho sanio expedition between Prince Kdwaid's Island and Kerguolou's Land, and possibly at sonio other places in tho Antarctic Ocean, afterwards by tho Austrian- Hungarian expedition of 1873 betwron Novaya Zonilya and Franz •loseph's Land, also during the present summer (1S7()) by the Norwegian Atlantic expedition oiV the west coast of Norway, and now last of all by us in the Kara Sea. It is thus an animal typo extensivolv distributed but of very infrequent occurrence. ri' |*'IIAI*. V....I TIIK WKAl/ni OK SI|{|.;|{I.\. 3.31) n very (•onHi,l..|Ml.|.. mmiluT lor a nva w|,i,.|, was lonn.-rly n.nsi,U>iv.| JIM |.,)or ill s|Mri,',s JIM ||,r Uallir. Tlii.s ruct, Willi til." luldilioll (.r )ll.„u(, U IIIIIKlml ,s|....-irs <.r i||HC(-lM IVom Noviiyji, Z.'inyhi, IVom whi.-l, ,„ily seven w.iv pi,.- Known, iiikI :in <-.\lemlc(l knowle.lnv nf |1„. vcilel.iai,, world of lli,> Hiiiiic IiiimIh, is Hie nniin xoolo^i,.,,! resiiK, ol" (lie surveys of tl„. lAvolule.st S\ve.ii«li e.xi....litions in llio> oHu regions. r tl i'.y (liese voy.'ioes of Nonh-nskiuM (,, (|„. \ t'llisse K'lv was inaiMHi rated a, destined to lie ,,f incalciilal.l seii-roiite from the Atlaiitii »' ini|»ortanee for tin; de velopnieiit, of tin- ivsoiiives of Norlliern Asia and 1 . t lie eonini(.|vo of ||,o worl.l. Siberia, lias Imvi, deejaiv.l l)y 1\I. b'erdinan.l de Lvsm.'i.h to I.e the riehesi, eonnlry of the wlioio wo I'ld III respect of the produce of |1 K' animal veoetal)le,and mineral kinodoms. Nor will I Ids estimate nj.ix'ar much overdrawn when we (Consider the ai.iind ind II1C(! variety of the wares which Si! supplving- i>o|,l^ .sil >eria, is capahle of fossil vriii l)y sea. ITc ascoiidod the Yonissoj :iH far as tlio Kurcjka, wIum-o lie laid liia vessel iij) for tlio winter and returned dverland. Ooinji; back in spring lie found liis steamer coniidelely covered witli ice and snow. After jrctting l»er in in'oper trim l)y the expenditure of a o-reat deal of labour, he had the mis- fortune ti) run auround on a, shoal, and was in eonse- (juenee obli<>'ed to abandon his vessel, llerr l)ojlinp' had undertaken to transi)ort the r sti^anu'rs, had built a peeuliai- vessel — river-boat or lio'hter — for the purpose of getting; th(> goods up the river, but coming tgrai)hical Society. S(;hvan- aid)erg sailed from Yeniseisk, where his schooner had been built, but, meeting with sevei-al delays, he was compelled to leave his vessel at the Briochovski Islands under charge of his mate and four men. lie then travelled overland to 8t. Petersburg to make arrangements for next year's voyage. In his absence the schooner was wrecked and the cargo of graphite lost. V.M.J ESCAPK OK A IJEUKF I'AKTV 341 Tlio, five iiicii wciv, Hiived, nud look u[) iIkmi- residence in u lull on (lie rivur-hiuik, wliero they died of wcurvy, one idtvr the oilier, witli Mie exeepi ion (»f tlie mute. In tlie .s])rin.ir, Schviinjinliersr sent a relief party to lii.s ve.s.sid, who ionnd it Avreeked, and took up tiieir quarterH in the liut with the .survivor, waiting an o|)port unity of re- turning to Yeni.seisk. The .spring inundatioii.s now cauu) on, and the party in tlie iiiit were coniju'lhid to take to the roof, where tiiey .spent eight days, .surrounded l)y the river now wich'iied to a ,sea. In th;', ineanlinu! AViggin.s and Seehohni with their men had betaken themselve.s to the river-boat wliieli Secihohm had l)()uglit from Hojling; and Wiggins, wlio is a brave .seaman, pro- posed that in this craft, unlit, as it was to encounter the dangers of the sea and of navigation among ice, tlu-y should .sail down the river, across the Kara ^va, and endeavour to roacli some .]*]uropean i)ort. The sailors, liowever, refused to accompany their ca])tain on sucth a voyage, and Schvananberg making his a.i)])(!arance at tliis juncture the river-boat was sold to liim. IJndi.s- mayed hy his invvioua failure, Sclivananberg named his pureha.se the Zan'tt {Dairti), and thougli it was a mere Jigliter, fifty feet long hy fourteen feet wide, llat-bottomeurned after wintering on Novaya Zemlya with his object unaccom- plished. It was natural that, when the Kara Sea had been explored, and the possibility of reaching the mouths of the great Siberian rivers placed beyond a doubt by the voyages of 1875 and 1876, Nordenskiiild should turn a longing eye to the vast expanse of unexplored sea that skirts the northern coast of Asia, and that the old enter- prise of effecting the north-east passage, which in past centuries had so uniformly ended in failure, should bo again entertained. The new expedition was planned on a larger scale than an> of the preceding. It was to cost £20,000, of which sum Mr. Oscar Dickson contributed £12,000, the King of Sweden £2,200, and Mr. Alexander Sibiriakoff" a similar sum. Mr. Dickson bought for the expedition the steam-whaler Vega, built in the years 1872-1873 at Bremen, of oak, with an ice-skin of gieenheart. The Vcya measures 299 register tons, and loads about 500 tons, has a length of keel of 130 Bremen feet, overdeck of 150 feet, the greatest breadth is 29 feet, and the depth in the hold 16 feet. The engine is of 60 horse- power. The Vega is fully rigged as a bark, and is con- sidered a grid sailer. The Swedish Diet, on the pro- position of [he government and of Herr Wtern, the president of ihe Swedish Merchant Navy Society, voted grants for equippii g and provisioning the Vega, and for the pay of the medical officer. The opvenimeut also rPi •n.; NonDKNSKlOLD'S AIUTIC VOVAOKS. |.ha... promisoil lliosc ofHcer.s and men of tlic Swodisli navy who should vohintoor for service on board the Vega iho s:nnc pay and other advantages as they arc entitled to 111 tlie ease of man-of-Avar expeditions to distant waters. With this new ex]»edition in view Nord(MiskioUl had made ail e.xliaiistive study of ;ill the attempts that had ))eeii made to sail alono- tiie coast of iSiberia from tlic iiiouth of the Yenissej to JJehring's Straits. The results of this study ho embodied in a memorial addressed to the Swedish goverhmeiit. An J^iiolish translation of this memorial has iu'cii printed, from which we extract} the following statement of the conclusions iit which Nordenskiold arrived. " From what 1 have thus stated it follows :— "That the ocean lying north of the Siberian coast from the mouth of th.' Yenissej to ^Kschaun llay has never been ploughed by the keel of any i)rop.'r sea- going vessel, still less has been traversed by any steamer specially e<|uipped for navigation among ice. "That the small vessels with which it has been attempted to navigate this part of the ocean never ventured very far from the coast. " That an ope.n sea with a fresh breeze was as destruc- tive for them, indeed more destructive, than a sea covered with drift-ice. " That they almost always sought some convenient winter harbour just at the season of the year when the sea is freest of ice, namely late summer or autumn. "'That although the sea from Cape Chelyuskin to Behring's Straits has been repeat ^dly traversed, none has yet succeeded in traversing the whole extent at once. IIAl'. ix.j russiniiJTv ok .makini; tiik i-assaok. ;!I7 " That till! {!()V(u-iii(r of ice I'onncd (liiriii,i<- winlcr iiloii^i^ the const, hut ju-ohahly not in llie opci, .sea, is every suniiner ])r()keii up, oivinn- ,„.inin to extensive IJelds of (Inft-iee, wliich arc driven, now hy a northerly wind to- wards tlic coast, now hy a southerly wind out to sea, yet not so far hut that it (ionics l)aek to tlie coast after souk; days of nortiierly wind, whence it appears prohahlc- tiiat the Sil)eriaii 8ea, is, so to sjiealc, shut olf from tlie Polar .Sea proper hy a series of islands, of which h.r tlio present we know only Wranovl's Land and the ishmds which form New Siheria. " I consider it prohahh; lliat a weli-ecpiipped steajner wouhl ))e ahle, without mectin^ir with too many ohstju-les from ice, to foire a passage tliis way i:nskioi.i)h akctic vovaui h'liM'. ;in-;ini;v.l in its ciiliivly. il ouohl n,.( |o !»,« loi.Ki'»l upon Jis havins; failed. In siu-l> a case tli(> (>\p(>tliiioM will HMuain for a consitliM-ahh" linu> a( places on tln> north I'nast of Siberia. suitabN* for seientilie research. Mvery mile heyonU llu> mouth o\' tlu> Veniss(>j is a step forward to a eonipl(>te luuiwlcd^v o[' our o|o1h>. au ohjcct which some lime »)r other must he altaiiie.l. and Imvanls which it is an atl'air of honour for every civilis(>tl nation to contriliute in its pr«>portion. •' Men t)f siience will have an opportunitv in thes«^ hitherto unvisited waters of answerinL"' a ninnher of (piest ions regard ino- the former and prest«nt slate of the Polar countries, of which nuu-o than oiu' is o\' suHici(>nt, weiohl and importance to lead to such an e,\p(;i which ha,H been surv(\vod by tlu> two last, Swedish expeditions, wo luive for tlu> present no knowledo'e of the. ven'clable and animal lil'e in the sea. that waslu«s the n(»rth coast, of Siberia. We shall c«'rlainly here, in oppt)sition to what, hjus been hitherto supposed, meet, with the. same abund- ance of animals and plants as in the sea, round Spit/- bero-en. In lh(> Siberian i'olar Sea. the animal and veo'ctable ty[»es, so far as we can jud^v beforehand, exclusively consist, of survivals from tlu (llacial period which next, precedetl \]h\ present, which is not. the cas(> in the i'olar Sea where the (Julf Stream distributes its waters and whither il, thus carries types from more Houtherly regions. Ihit a complete and exact knowledge of which animal types are of ( Jlacial and which of At- lantic origin is of the greatest importance no| (,nly for f k('*l ll|M)|| ilioi) will ll(> lUU'tll I'lvcrv > rorwjiitl '('( wliicli \U which latioii (o in iIh'so iimIxt of Ic of lll(« sullicicnt ipodilioii I' to only liich h.'iH ion.s, wo :il)l(> .'ind »'l)!l,s|. of (o wlijil. > .'iliniid' I S|.i(/,- ii.-il ,'ni(l >r('li!iii(l, I jiciiod the ('jiM(> nl(vs ilH n luoro >wl('<|^(> of A(,. >idy for ,vl Till", MAMNhM'll ri:iJUM>. aiu f /.ooloivy .'Hid llic u(«.ii;iii|»hy of jiniiUids. Ixil ',\ho lor lh(> gcolojiv of Si'jiiidiniwi.i. :iiid «>,M|M'ti;dly lor ihc Knowlcdj^o of our loosi< ««;u'lliy Mlrjiln. *■ l'\'\v sti(>Mlilic di.sco\tM'ir,s havt" mo |ut\\i-iruil\ c'lpli Vfilcd I he inlcn-Ml Itoih of iho IcjirniMl and nidrjirni^d iim lliiil of (ho «'(»lo,ssid roni.'iinM of (>lt'|ilunils. .Moiuoliini'M well pn>s.Mv.'d wiih llt-Hh and hair in lh.> lV.>/,i«n noil of Silicria. Siirh distoviMii'M have tnorc lhanon<'i« roinn-d llu< «»l>j('r|H of Mcirnlillr o\|ii>dil ioiiM and raivlid iv Mn. ImiI Ihnv i.i ;>hll much that is (>ni.«niali.'al wilh n's|.,v( lo a nninhcr ol' . iivnni:ilan.v,s •MMUHvIrd with lh(« Maniniolh ik'h.mI of SiluMia. whirh />i'r/i(if>s waM conlcniiioiiinroii,; wilh nnr (lla« iai peri. id. S|i('('ially is onr Ivnowlrdnc (.r the animal and vr;vlaMi' lypcM, which lived al lh(> Hanii> lime a.t the mammolh, cxcccdiiioly inconiplcic, allhmivh \\c Know llial in I he norlh(>rnmo,sr parlM of Sdtciia. which arc alio moil in ncccsHildc from land. I here arc ..ma II lidli covered wilh (he lioncs of Ihe manunolh and olhci' eonleiii|)oranconM JinimalM. and Ihal Ihere i.i found in llial regitui mo called Noah'.s wood, Ihal i.i lo nay, half pel rilled or carhoniMcd venciiil,!,. ivmaiiiH I'nun Mcveral dillcrenl eo|o<-iral •'pocliH. In (hi.s licld, (o,t, an c.sprdilion lo I he north til 360 NOUDKNHKIOLDS AIUTIC VOYAOKS. fiiAP. i rnnst of Sihcria mny expect to ivnp alumdimt liarvcHts. Tliciv iiiv toltp ioiiml, in Sihmji, Hinihi wliicli liavu been (l(>lt()sitc(l almost t'oiih-inpoivmcously witli tlic coal-bear- ing fonnalioiis of south Sweden, and which thciclMi-o contain animal aid vc(r,>tal)lc petrifactions, which just now arc of (piito special interest for uvologiciil scnence in our own country witii reference to the discoveries of sjtlendiil fossil ])]ants, wliieh have of late years been made at se\"ral i)laccs in Sweden, and give us so lively an idea of the subtropical vegotatiou which in former times covered the Scandinavian ]»eniiisula. "Few sciences perhaps will yii-ld such im[)ortant prac- tical I'csults as met(>oroIogy is likely to do at some future date; a fact, or rath(>r an already partially realised ex[)ec- tation wliich lias won genei-al recognition, as is shown by the eonsideral)le sums which in all civilised countries have been set apart f..r establishing meteorological ofHces, and ior caiiying on meteorological researches. -But the state of the W(\itlier in a, country is so dc[)endeiit on the temperature, wind, j-ressure of the air, &c., in very remote regions, that the laws of the meteorology of a couiitry can only be ascertained by com})aring obserN-ations from the most distant countrii's. Several international meteorological entei-prises have already been started, and we may almost consider the meteor- ological institutions of the ditlerent countries as separate departments of one and the same ofliee distributed over the whole world, by wJiose harmonious co-operation the object in view is one day to be reached. Bat besides the places from which dail}^ series of observations may be obtained, there are rc^gions, hundreds of siiuare miles in extent, from which no observations, or only scattered rilAP. IX X.J H( IKNTIFM' (hJKCTS Ul-' TIIK K\ PKMTION. im ones, !iroitiince for our own country. "To a certnin cxteiii the saiu(^ miy be said of the contributions which inny be obtained from those ren-ions to our knowledge (.f terrestriii! magnetism, of the aurora, &e. There are, besides, the examination of the flora and fauna of those countries hitherto unknown in this respect, ctluK.gi-aphieal reseaiches, hydrographical work, &c. *' I liavc of course only been able to notice shortly the scientific (juestions wliicli will meet the expedition (birino- a stay of some length on the north coast of Siberia; but Avhat has been said will perhaps be sutHeient to show that the expedition, even if its geographical object be not attained, ouglit to form a worthy continuation of similar enterprises which have been set on foot in this country, and which have brought gain to science and honour to Sweden. "Should the expedition however l)c able to reach Behring's Straits with little hindrance and in a com- paratively short time, in that case, the time on the way I! #. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ J^4^^ i.O !f «^ tt I.I 1.25 L2i u lU 12.2 Its ■UUb. 2.0 U III 1.6 Photographic Sdences Corporation f\ 4 ?u i s^ :\ \ '<^ V ;\ .^,f^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^~.^ * 4 tA i 352 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. which can be devoted to researches in natural history will be quite too short for solving many of Ihe scientific questions I have mentioned. But without reckoning the world-historical navigation problem which will then be solved, extensive contributions of immense importance ought also to be obtainable regarding the geography, hydrography, zoology, and botany of the Siberian Polar Sea; and beyond Behring's Straits the expedition will meet with other countries Laving a more luxuriant and varied nature, where other questions which perhaps con- cern us less, but are not on that account of less importance for science in its entirety, will claim the attention of the observer, and yield him a rich reward for his labour and pains." AVith such motives and views was the plan of the expedition that was to achieve the North-east Passaes arranged. In this memorable expedition Nordenskiold is accompanied by Lieutenant A. A. L. Palander, com- mander of the Vega, Lieutenant E. C. Brusewitz, second in command. Dr. F. E. Kjellman, botanist, Dr. Ant. Stuxberg, zoologist, Dr. Ernst Almquist, medical officer and botanist. Lieutenant Giacomo Bove, of the Italian navy, acting as sailing master, having charge of the chronometers and taking the necessary astronomical observations. Lieutenant Andreas Hovgaard, of the Danish navy, and Lieutenant Oscar Nordquist, of the Imperial Russian fomily's battalion of sharpshooters, acting as interpreter and zoologist. The crew consists of eighteen seamen of the Swedish navy, selected from 200 who volunteered their services, and three Norwegian walrus-hunters. The Vega was provisioned for two years, and provided with a plentiful supply of anti- •.x;] THE START. 3o3 scorbutics, including crariberiy juice, preserved cloud- berries, horse-radish, pickles, and lime-juice. During winter a cubic inch of the last-named article entered into the daily ration. The Vega was accompanied part of her course by three other vessels; as far as the mouth of the Yenissej by the steamer Fraser, Captain Nilsson, and the sailing vessel Express, Captain Gundersen ; and as far as the mouth of the Lena by a small steamer of the same name, of 100 tons, built at Motala of Bessemer steel, commanded by Captain Johannesen. Tlie Express had taken on board in an English port 350 tons of coal for the use of the expedition, and along with the Eraser was to carry on Herr Sibiriakoif's account about 40,000 pood wheat, 500 pood tallow, and some oats from the Yenissej, where they were laid up at a simovie near the mouth of the river. Besides coal the Express had on board a small quantity of salt, intended for the fisheries on the Yenissej. The Lena's cargo con- sisted of sixteen months' provisions and coal. The Eraser, laden with tobacco and iron, and having the Express in tow, sailed from Vadsoe on the 13th July, and arrived at Jugor Straits on the 20th of the same month, having towed the Express the whole way, as there was no wind. The Vega sailed from Gothenburg on the 4th, and from Tromsoe on the 21st July, accompanied from the latter port, wdiere Nordenskiold joined the expedition, by the Lena. The vessels were delayed by a storm and head wind at Masoe until the 25th, when they weighed anchor, shaping their course through Mageroe Sound, pa.st Nordkyn, for Goose Cape. By this detour It was A A 354 NORDENSKIOLD'S AKCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. intended to avoid the drift ice which is generally to be encountered far into the summer in the bay between the west coast of Waigatz Island and the mainland. On this occasion the precaution was unnecessary, as Jugor Straits were reached without a trace of ice being seen. Novaya Zemlya was sighted on the 29th July, and on the 30th tbe Vega, having steamed along the coast to Jugor Straits, anchored at a Samoyede village called Chabarova, in the neighbourliood of which the Fraser and Express had been lying at anchor since the 20th. On the 31st the Lena came in sight, and the little squadron was complete. The stay at Chabarova, while the Vega and the Lena replenished their stocks of coal from the cargo of the Express, was turned to account by the naturalists of the expedition. Lieutenant Palander took photographs and Lieutenant Hovgaard magnetical observations. Lieu- tenant Nordquist endeavoured to collect contributions to the exceedingly scanty insect fauna of the region, and Dr. Almquist tested by Holmgren's method the colour sense of the Samoyedes, which was found to be in general well developed. Solar altitudes were taken by Lieutenant Bove and Nordenskiold. The latter pur- chased dresses, household articles, &c., of the Samoyedes, and succeeded, after some difficulty, in persuading an old woman to sell him some of the idols which are still worshipped by the tribe, although they are professedly Christians, and take part in Christian worship. The idols were all different in appearance. One consisted of a stone, which by the help of brightly-coloured patches had been made into a sort of doll ; another was a similar doll with a piece of copper plate for a face ; and a third IX.] SAMOYEDE IDOLS. 355 was a little skin doll ornamented with earrings and pearls. These idols, which are still regarded witli reverence by the Samoyedes, in general resemble the rag dolls which peasant children make for themselves without the help of the toy-shops of towns. On the 31st July Nordenskiold, accompanied by Dr. Almquist, Lieutenant Hovgaard, Captain Nilsson of the Fraser, and a Russian who had entertained them to tea the preceding afternoon, visited a sacrificial altar on which were placed, among a number of reindeer horns still fast to the skulls, a newly-killed bear's skull and paws, and alongside upon a stone two lead bullets which had been used, and with which probably the animal had been killed. The following day the vessels of the expedition weighed anchor and g I'/od or steamed through Jugor Straits into the Kara Sea. The weather being still calm the Fraser towed the Express, and the Lena steamed in advance to White Island, where Dr. Almquist and Lieutenants Hovgaard and Nordquist landed and remained thirty-six hours, and then pro- ceeded to Dickson Harbour. Till now no ice had been seen, but on reaching the latitude of White Island an extensive field of drift ice was encountered, which, however, was so rotten and so open as not to obstruct navigation. East of White Island the ice entirely dis- appeared, and on the 6th of August all the vessels with the exception of the Lena were anchored in Dickson Harbour. On the following day that small steamer joined her comrades. On the morning of the 9 th August the Fraser and Express proceeded up the river to Saostrovskoj, arriving there on the 20th and discharging their cargoes. A A 2 twfm 356 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [c'HAr. ,^\ The Express remained there to load, and tlie Fras&r ascended the river to Dudinskoj, aboiib 500 miles from its mouth, where a full cargo of wheat, rye, and tallow was taken on board, returning to Saostrovskoj on the 2nd September. After some days' delay here both vessels started on their homeward voyage, and arrived on the 9th September at Tolstonosovski where they fell in with the steamer Moshwa, Captain Dahlman, from Bremen. On board the Moskwa the Swedes were in- formed that her consort, the Norweerian steamer Zarltza, had stranded at the mouth of the river on the 2nd September, and had been abandoned on the 4th by her crew who had gone on board the Moshva. The Fraser and Express took the Zaritza's crew on board and proceeded down the river where they found the vessel afloat but with six and a half feet of water in the hold. Men were put on board to pump her dry, and put the engine in repair, which they succeeded in doing so that the Zarltza could go to sea under the Fraser a escort. In the Kara Sea very little ice was seen during the return voyage. North of North Cape the vessels parted, the Express sailing southwards, and the Fraser calling at Hammerfest and Tromsoe, arriving at tlie latter port on the 29th September, After a day spent in surveying Dickson Harbour the Vega and the Lena on the 10th August resumed their eastward voyage, shaping their course for the Kamenni Islands, lying off the mouth of the river Pjasina, and on the 11th fell in with ice which, however, as it }noderated the high sea which had before prevailed, was not unfavourabl(3 to navigation. The ice consisted almost exclusivfly of bay ice, so n>tten that it was ,x.] FAUNA OF THE COAST. 357 rather a sort of continuous slusli tlian veritable ice. It was evident that in a few days it would have entirely disappeared. Notwithstanding the frequent fogs and the numerous islands along the coast that were not laid down on the chart, the Vega did not once run aground. As the distance from the Yenissej increased tlie salinity, which had at first been inconsiderable, becran to increase and the temperature to fall. Organic life at the sea- bottom became simultaneously more plentiful. On the night between the IHtli and 14th of Auoust Avliilc the Vega lay tied to a floe, Dr. Stuxbei'g brought up a large number of fine purely marine types, for instance, large specimens of the remarkable Crinoid Alecto Kschrichtlt, a number of Asterids {Astenas Linckii and 2ianopla), Pycnogonids, &c. Dredging near land also began to yield to Dr. Kjellman several of the larger marine algae. On the other hand the higher plant and animal life on land was still so poor that the coast here forms a complete desert in comparison witli the rocl.y shores of Spitz- bergen and West Novaya Zemlya. Sea fowl were few in number. Only snow-buntings, six or seven species of waders, and some varieties of geese were found on land in any considerable numbers. If there be added a l)tarmigan or two, an Arctic owl, and a species of falcon, the whole bird fauna of the region is enumerated, as far at least as it could be investigated on this occasion. Two walruses and some seals (P/ioca harhata and Impida) were seen, and fish appeared to be al)undant. While the Vega lay anchored to one of the few pieces of ice which were large and strong enough to carry half a score of men, Nordenskiold went on the ice, accom- panied by Lieut. Nordtpiist, to search for traces of the 358 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. cosmic (lust wliicli lie had found in 1872 on the north coast of Spit.zLergcn. His search was not attended with success, but his attention was drawn by Nordquist • to some yellow specks on the snow, which Nordenskiold at first supposed to consist of diatoms, and handed over to the botanists, but which on exami)iation proved to be a coarse-grained sand, formed exclusively of very l)eau- tiful crystals up to two millimetres in tliameter. These Nordenskiold witli the limited time at his disposal could not identify with any common terrestrial mineral, but ■thought they might perhaps consist of matter crystal- lised from the sea-water during the severe cold of winter. From the 14 th to the 18 th August the Vega and the Lena lay at anchor, waiting for clear weather, in a splendid harbour, situated in the strait between Taimyr Island and the mainland, which Nordenskiold named Actinia Haven from the number of Actinia which the dredge brought up from the bottom. The land was free of snow and covered with a grey- green vegetation, consisting of grasses, mosses, and lichens. The number of species of phanerogamous plants was exceedingly small, that of mosses and lichens on the other hand was abundant enough. The reindeer pasture was much better than in the valleys where these animals are numerous on Bell Sound, Ice Fjord, and Stor Fjord on Spitzbcrgen, but here they w^ere both scarce and shy, which Captain Johannesen ascribed to the presence of wolves, having fallen in with the carcase of a reindeer that had been killed by a wolf. Nordenskiold recommends Actinia Haven as a suitable place for a meteorological station, if such a station can- IX.] ACTINIA HAVEN. 369 not be estuljlislicd at Cape Cliulyuskin itself. 1'lic liavcu is well sheltered from all winds and possesses good anehorage. Although the fog still continued, the Vega and the Lena weighed anchor on tlio 18th to prosecute their voyage towards Capo Chelyuskin, and steamed along the western shore of Taimyr Island, the northern extremity of which was found not to he so far north as shown in the charts. The ice that was met with was only bay ice so broken up that scarcely a piece could be seen strong enough to carry a coui^le of men. Taimyr Bay was nearly ice-free. On the 19th the vessels continued their course along the coast of the Chelyuskin Peninsula, the fog being still exceedingly close, though occasionally lightening so that the contours of the land could be distinjruished. In the course of the day they steamed past an extensive field of unl)roken ice occu{)ying a bay on the western side of the Chelyuskin Peninsula. It apj)eared, however, on close inspection that this fast ice was nearly as rotten as that which they had met with at sea. The fog was so dense that Nordenskiold feared -that Cape Chelyuskin would be so closely enveloped in it that it would be impossible to land. Soon, however, an ice-free promontory again glinted out in the north-east, and the Veya and Lena soon after anchored in a little bay, open to the north and ice-free, that cuts the pro- montory in two. Flags were hoisted, and a salute fired from one of the small cannon carried by the Veya. The liist object of the voyage had been attained — the northernmost point of the old world, variously called Cape Chelyuskin, Cape Severo, and North East Cape. I ClI. IX ] CAPE CHELYUSKIN. 361 M m. o •A 5 s H o The air had cleared and the cape lay before them lighted up by the sun and free from snow. A large Polar bear was seen parading the beach with eyes and nose turned towards the bay to inspect the new arrivals. Frightened by their salute it took to flight and escaped the balls- of the Swedes. The Vega and the Lena remained here until noon of the 20th in order to fix the position of the cape by an astronomical observation and to give the naturalists an opportunity of making ex- cursions. Cape Chelyuskin forms a low promontory, divided into two parts by the bay in which the vessels had anchored. More elevated land with gentle slopes runs parallel with the coast from the eastern shore towards the south. The western promontory was found to be 77° 36' 37" N. Lat, and 103° 25' 30" E. Long, from Greenwich. The eastern is a little forther to the north, viz., 77° 4V N. and 104° 1' E. Inland the mountains appear to rise gradually to a height of 1,000 feet. Both the plains and the high land were nearly free of snow, but the icefoot still remained at the beach in most places. The plains consist of clay-fields, of which some are nearly bare and split up into more or less regular six- sided figi.res ; some are covered with a mixture of frrass. moss, and lichens, resembling that found at the places where landings had previously been effected. Tiie rock here was not granite, but upright unfossiliferous strata of slate, full of pyrites, and crossed at the outer pro- montory by thick quartz veins. Of phanerogamous plants Dr. Kj oilman could only discover twenty-four species, most of them marked by a disposition to form compact, half-globular tufts. Dr. Almquist found the 302 NOIIDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. 11(^1011 vcgotatioii monotonouH, though luxuriant. It nhnost appeared as if the phuits of the Clielyuskin Peninsula had tried to migrate fartlu'r north, and when they encountered the sea had stood still on the outer- most promontory. For here in very small compass were found nearly all the plants, both phanerogamous and cryptogamouB, which the land had to offer, and many of tliem wore sought for without success farther up the plain. Animal life on land was equally meagre. Of birds there were seen only a number of sand-pipers some species of Trimja, a large flock of brent geese, a few eider ducks, and the remains of an Arctic owl. In the sea, now nearly ice-free, a single walrus, two shoals of white Avhales, and a few seals were observed— and it was evidently poor in warm-blooded animals. On the other hand the dredge brought up various large Algae {Laminaria Agardhi, &c.) and a number of minute animals, among them very large specimens of Idothea entomon. At noon on the 20th the Vega and Lena left their anchorage and steered in an eastward direction in the hope of meeting with a continuation of the new Siberian islands. Drift-ice was soon met with which was at first very open, but consisted of larger floes than had been previously encountered. Navigation was rendered difiicult by a dense fog. After having sailed through a pretty compact ice-field during the previous night, the Swedes found on the 22nd that no further progress could be made. The course was accordingly altered to a more southerly one, but without better success. After lying-to for some time anchored to ice-floes, and searching in vain for a navigable channel leading to the [ci/AP. IX.] MOUNTAIN SCENERY. ses t south or east, tlio Vega and ...na woikcd thom-sclvcs out of the ico by the way tiiey entered. This occupied a whole day, and by the evening of the 2:3rd they were again in open water. The depth, whicli had varied be- tween 33 and 35 fathoms, now began to diniini.sh, and tho north-eastern extremity of the Taimyr Peninsuhi, situated in 7G° 30' N. and 130° E., was sighted the same evening. The air had cleared, and a fresh breeze carried the vessel rapidly along without the aid of steam over a perfectly smooth sea. Soon the cliffs along the shore became high and of that peculiar split-cone f-^rmation which marks the eastern bank of the Yenissej between Mesenkin and Jakovieva. Picturesque mountains, at least 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, wqi'c seen a short distance inland. These were free of snow to tlieir hio-hcst summits, though some small collections of ice and what were thought to be small glaciers could be observed. Animal life now became very rich. While the vessels lay anchored to the floes Dr. Stuxberg had dredged up from a depth of thirty-five fathoms an unexpected variety of marine animal types, among which were three specimens of a crinoid, probably young individuals of Alecto EsvhrlcUil, which besides was found full grown in excessive abundance, masses of sea-stars, the extremely rare Molpadia horealis, two cuttle-fish, a colossal Pycnogonid of 180 m.m. diameter, &c. At a less depth the lower animal life was not less rich, though the types were partly different. All the animals found here were clearly of pure Arctic types, without imy migration whatever from southern seas, as is doubtless the case with the fauna of Spitzber- gen. The collections will therefore be of great scientific 364 NORDE.VSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. interest in connection with the researches which have for a long time back been carried on by the naturalists of the North concerning the glacial animal forms, living and fossil, found on the shores of Scandinavia, and which touch questions of great importance for a know- ledge of the latest era of the history of our globe. Often now no trace of ice could be seen from the vessels and, as they before encountered land where sea was shown on the ma,ps, they now sailed over regions marked as land on the maps. At 11 a.m. on the 24th August land was sighted, which was identified with Preobraschenski Island, It the mouth of the Chatanga. Landing here, Nordenskiold found the island to belong to the chalk formation, and its strat- were shown by the only fossil discovered (a belemnite) to be contemporaneous with tho^e which occupy extensive portions of the plains of north-western Siberia. After the 23rd the weatiiei was magnificent, and the sea completely ice-free. The depth °of water during the rest of the voyage to the mouth of the Lena was from five to eight fathoms. The temperature of the water at the surface was ascertained six times a day, and the temperature and salinity at different depths once or twice daily. It was found that if the depth reaches thirty metres the temperature at the bottom varies between - 1° and - V-i C. The specific gravity of the water amounts there to from r026 to 1*027, the salinity being little less than that of the Atlantic. ' At the surfice the temperature was exceedingly variable. Thus for instance it was -)-io°aat Dickson Harbour, + 5°-4 a little south of Taimyr Straits, +0°-8 among the drift-ice immediately off this strait, +3' off Taimyi°Bay, S, [chap. ^hich liave naturalists L*ms, living lavia, and V a know- lobe. from the where sea er regions 5 sighted, nd, at the •denskiold ation, and overed (a •^e which h-western Lgnificent, of water the Lena ire of the !S a day, it depths he depth ! bottom I gravity •027, the itic. At variable. Elarbour, long the iijr Bay, IX.] A WARM SURFACE CURRENT. 366 -OM at Cape Chelyuskin, +4' off Chatanga Bay, and 4 r-2 to o'-8 between the Chatanga and the Lena. The salinity of the surface water in a broad channel along this i3art of the coast never exceeded 1-023, and was generally below 1-01. The latter figure corresponds to a mixture of one part of sea water with two parts of river water. These figures show incontesfcably that a warm and only slightly salt surface-current runs from the mouths of the Obi and the Yenissej along the coast in a north- easterly direction, and afterwards, uader the influence of the earth's rotation, in a more easterly course. Other similar cuirents proceed from the Olenek, Lena, Jana, Indigirka, and Kolyma, which all pour their waters, more or less warmed during the hot summer of Siberia, into the Polar Sea, and make it, during a short season of the year, nearly ice-free along the coast. It was a correct apprehension of these facts which led Norden- skiold to draw up the programme of this expedition. It was his intention to anchor off the mouth of the Lena, but a favourable wind and an open sea offered so splendid an opportunity of continuing his voyage that he did not consider himself justified in neglecting it. The Vega and the Lena accordingly parted on the night between the 27th and 28th August, the former to sail direct to Fadeyev, one of the New Siberian Islands, where Nordenskiold intended to remain some days, the latter to ascend the river of the same name. A pilot had been engaged to descend the Lena and wait th(> arrival of the small steamer of the same name, but Captain Johannesen could discover no flao-- o staff or signal-tower, which, according to the contract 366 NORDENSKIOLD'S ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. that had been entered into, ought to have been visible from Cape Olenek. Left to his own resources, Captain Johannesen, after considerable difficulty, from the shal- lowness of the water, made his way through the delta of the Lena, and on the 7 th September entered the river, where navigation was less difficult. Yakutsk was safely reached on the 21st September. Despatches from the Vega were sent on to Irkutsk, and a telegram from that town on the 16th October announced to the civi- lised world the successful accomplishment of the first part of the programme of the expedition — the rounding of Cape Chelyuskin and the navigation of the Lena by a steamer from the Atlantic. Nordcnskiold, when parting from the Lena, hoped, if he should meet with no extraordinary delay from ice, to reach Behring's Straits by the end of September. He was then to make his way to Yokohama. Weeks and months passed, however, without further news, and it became probable that he had been caught in the ice, the rather because American whalers reported 1878 a bad ice year north of Behring's Straits. At length, on the 11th December, the Neio York Herald published a telegram from San Francisco, dated the previous day, in which it was stated that two American whalers, who had newly returned from St. Lawrence Bay, in the neighbourhood of Behring's Straits, had been informed by two trustworthy natives that they had seen a Kussian war- ship frozen in north of East Cape, at a distance of forty English miles from land.^ This vessel, ^ Other accounts placed the vessel at a distance of only ten miles from the coast in a bay between an i&land and the mainland west of [chap. m visible ;, Captain the shal- the delta bered the cutsk was ehes from ram from the civi- the first rounding J Lena by a, hoped, from ice, eptembcr. . Weeks news, and n the ice, i 1878 a ength, on iblished a ious day, ilers, who y, in the informed L seen a ape, at a bis vessel. ly ten miles and west of IX.] THE VJSGA FROZEN 3GV supposed by the natives to be Russian as immediately identified as the Vef/a, and a lively concern for the safety of the expedition, without any proper justifica- tion from the facts of the case, was generally felt. Again months passed without further intelligence, and the trustworthiness of the native reports began to be doubted, when, in the middle of May, after Mr. Alex- ander Sibiriakoft' had despatched a steamer, named after Nordenskiold, and built expressly for the purpose, to his relief, despatches were received from the expedition, from which it appeared that the Vega was lying frozcii in near Serdze Kamen, a cape situated at a distance of only 100 nautical miles from Behring's Straits, and visited almost yearly by whalers from the Pacific. Later despatches enable us to give the following details. After parting from the Lena, the Vega steered in a North-Easterly direction towards the most Southerly of the New Siberian Islan.ls. These islands are very remark- able in a scientific 2)oint of view, being very rich in the remains of the mammoth and other animals of the same period, which are found in greater abundance among them than in the tundra of the mainland. Some of the sand-banks on their shores are so full of the bones and tusks of the mammoth that the ivory collectors who for a series of years travelled nearly every year from the mainland to the islands in dog-sledges, used to return in autumn, when the sea was again covered with ice, with a rich harvest. According to Iledenstrom, the only educated person who has examined these islands in East Cape, and in tho neighbourhood of a native village, which in case of need, wonld afford shelter and subsi-stence to the members of the expedition. 368 NORDENSKIOLDS ARCTIC VOYAGES. [chap. summer, tliere are besides in the interior hills which are covered with the remains of the mammoth, the rhino- ceros, horse, aurochs, bison, sheep, &c. In consequence of the inaccessibility of the region, no thorough scientific examination of these remains has yet been undertaken. Nordenskiold, knowing the importance of even a super- ficial inspection, wished to lie-to at one of the islands or at least to cruise between them. The air was calm, but the sky for the most part over- cast ; the temperature as high as + 4° C, and the sea free of ice. Kapid progress accordingly was made. But after Semenoff'ski and Stolbovoj, the most westerly of the New Siberian Islands, had been sighted on the 28th August, the shallowness of the sea, which was for long stretches only three and a half to four fathoms deep, and some very rotten ice, or rather sludge, that was met with, prevented the Vega from going at full speed. On the 30th Liachoff's Island was reached, and Norden- skiold wished to land, but had to give up the idea on account of the rotten ice which surrounded the island and the danger to which the vessel would have been exposed in such shallow water if a sudden storm had come on. In order to ascertain the distribution of the land at the close of the Tertiary Period, to obtain a knowledge of the mammalia that were coeval with the appearance of man on the globe, to collect new contributions to a solution of the diflicult problem — how it w^as possible for the progenitors of the Indian elephant to live in the ice- deserts of Siberia, to get some 'more extended knowledge of the nature of the Siberian Polar sea — a point which now appears to be of great importance for navigation — [chap. i^hicli are lie rliino- isequence scientific dertaken. a super- islands or art over- l the sea tde. But isterly of the 28th for long deep, and was met eed. On Norden- s idea on lie island ave been torm had ! land at nowledge )pearance ons to a (Gsible for 1 the ice- nowledo[e nt which igation — IX.] AN IMPOSSIBILITY OVERCOME. 309 a thorough scientific survey of all the islands which lie to the north of the Siberian mainland ought, re-marks the Professor, to be carried out as soon as possible. And for such a survey he considers the little steamer Lena the most suitable vessel, on account of its light draught of water, the tough Swedish Bessemer metal of whiclfit IS built, and the steam-saw with which it is i)rovided. The sound which separates the most southerly of the New Siberian Islands from the mainland is only 3(/ broad. On the south side it is bounded bv a promontory which, like many other points on the north coast of Bussia which are rounded with difficulty, is called Svjatoi Nos (the Sacred Point). In ] 73G the undaunted Arctic explorer Laptjeff" declared that it was impossible to sail round this promontory, because a«xording to the unanimous averment of all the Yakuts who lived in that quarter the masses of ice which surround it never melt. Three years after, however, it Avas rounded by Laptjcfi' himself— one of the many instances, says Nordenskiold, of how possible many "impossibilities" arc, in fact^ found to be. The same feat was performed in 17(,-1 in what appears to have been pretty ice-free water, by the Siberian merchant Schalavroff-. Nordenskiold believes that the sea here is navigable every year not only by a steamer, but also by a common fishing sloop provided it be manned by able seamen. On the 31st August the weather was calm and fine, and th.o Vega sailed "through the sound, which was free of ice, without difficulty. tL; land in the neighbourhood was also free of snow. Eastward from this point there vas an open channel along the coast. The water was si ghtly salt, and had a tenii.erature rising to + 4° C. Up to 1st September n B ,-^'™*- ■■ ''^•^^tt^mimmrmm^ 370 NOr.DENSKIOLD'S AllCTLC VOYAGP]S. [l'IIAl>. tliG weather continued fine with the wind in the south, the temperature of the air in the shade at noon being + 5°'G. On the following night the wind became northerly and the temperature fell to - 1°, Next night there was a heavy fall of snow, so that the deck and the Bear Islands, which wc.tc reached at noon of the 3rd, were covered with snow. These are several rocky islands lying off the coast in 71° hit. and UJO° long. E. from Greenwich, about 300' from the southern extremity of Liachoff's Island. This distance was traversed in three days, at the rate accordingly of 120' pei* diem, a fact which, if the time which was lost in dredcjinQ;, takinKNSKI(")I,|VS A1!(TI(' VOVAOKS. |riivi'. iVoiii iill dllicr cmpIoN lucnl so ;im Io (>ii;iI)1(> liini to Vwo its luufli jis |utssilili> jiiHOMi;- the ii.ilivivs ;iii«l lo iu'i'omc ;i('iiii;iiiil('(l wltli (heir ciistoins iuid I;mioii;ij;v. The Tclmktclic still p.irlly uses iiiiplcmciils of sloiic jiiul lu)ii(\ ;iii(| his l\';iliii\'s iijivti Jill iiiimis|;il<;iM(> i-csciiiMiiiict' both to llu)S(> of (lie !\loiio(.li;ms of {\h\ old world, iiiid those of the I'^skiino ami Inditms of iIk' iu«\v. Hojoiid V:\i)o. SchclMoskoj (he \',ya sf.wiincd oil duriiio' tlu> Clh jiiid 7th Sc'i>t(>iul>t>r in ;i iuhtow open chiinucl idoiii;- llic coast, and on the followin"' ni«di|, was anchored as iisnal io a oround-icc-ll'»(>. The Jicin[>en tansies and the Irawl-ncI wow nsed with good ellect. Next, morning tiiti j)rogress was found lo he inipossiM(>, and NordensUioId and his comrades landed af the invitation of the natives. 'I'hc, beach is low and sandy, rniniing between a, small lagoon and the si-a. ; fartiier from the sea, the land gradually rose to bare hills free of snow, or only thinly covered with it from the snow-fall of the last few days. Lagoon lormations of tiie same kind as were hei-e met. with for the iirst time are distinctive of the coast of north-eastern yibtaia. The villages of llu Tchuklchcs are commonly situated on the beach which se[»arates llu; lagoon fi-om lh(> sea,. Tli(> dwellings consist, of large roomy tents, which inclose ouo or two sleeping-places. These form as it were ;i special inner toit of warm reindeer-skin, which is heated and lighted by u train-oil Iam|). In summer, but not in winter, a wood lire is kept up in tlui middle oi" the exterior tent, an opening being made in the to]) of it, for the (>seai)(^ of the smoke. The Swedes were received in a, Acry friendly marmer, and olfered whatever the dwelling contained, the auj>[>lies |ti,U'ii;ij;('. one iiiul •rid, iiiid ncd (III >W ()|»('ll 'A nio-lit, >. The 'd with niiiid to onir.'idcM n lu'iicli liii:;()(Hi radiiiilly covered villi Jul- -('MnIciii miMonly • 11 IVolll / ieiils, ■ ill ilio ii;i(lo ill iiiiniior, DUj>[tli(;s i\ AllSKNCK Oh' MIJIJA'I'M' ni,(M'Ks|. am <•'" •'"<"l iM'ilin- llieii .Mlilllldillil. Ill , I,. I, I, iviiid.vr llesh Wiis lu.iliiin iit i, |;,,.MV fn>t (>/■ ,;i.sf{roj,. Ill MMollier It'iil. ;iii old w (.111,111 was eiiiidoyetl in eslrarl iiio' |Vom •li«' I>iiiiii(li of newly killed ivindcrr, (li,- oiven, s|.iimel|. Iik«' contents, jui.l .sliillin;;' I hem into a HcalMkin .s.iek, evidenlly to he |>iv.serve(| diiriiin' (he winter an ii, stock ol" vcMvliihlo matter. Other sacks of sc.d.skin were seen ''•'»''' ^vd'i train oil. These sacks are hoth air and wa(er-l,iu!,(,. They consist, of |,ji,. whole skin uitli the »".\ceptioii of that, of the lie.id, which is cut. (.!]" at the neck, ('hildreii were met. with in nreat iiiimhers. They were well treated. They all appeared to he verv healthy. They were often carried on llio shoiilder hoth hv men and w(.meii, and were so wra|ti.e(| np that, they jiimo.l, resemhhd skin halls. In the interior of t he tent, ,,1, the. other hand, they were, completely naked, and they mi,L;ht he seen sonKiliincs to run out. anioii;^' the tents on the iVosl, coverc<| gr<»iind, at, a lempcratiirc heh.w the rree/ino-poiiit, without, shoes (»r other clolhimjj. l*o. Iwivc not northern I absence! )C8 thcro h gluciul ;lie coast ect high, nioro or Lun from ; contain rous con- II lichen ulvanccd ;tc(l were for liigsxi the sea hind no s of the Among In the "ga was ngs, but itions of i mouth number lad been L-agmcnts 3 human. 1 tlie ash irst with U.J BAllTKR WITH TlIK NATIV^ES. 878 This was tlio fir.st time a veHsel liad lain off ihi.s coast. The arrival of the Vc piprs aro exceo.lin^rly .sniiill. The material cinployod lor ..inokiiiir in soiuefimes to- biieco, at other tiinoa sonic Hukstitutc, of whidi .samjilos wero takon. For producMii^r fire there were used steel, .'igiite, and tinder ibrnied of w.x.dy fil„v, I,y eliewinc^ .s..n,e suitable kind of tree or bu.sh. Tobaoeo and it^ subshtuloH arc also chewed. Tlie chewed t..baeeo is placed behind the ear to dry, and is then use.l for .siuoknig. S;dt is not in use, but all are very fond of sugar. They do not c.-ire for eottee unless with .1 very large quantity of sugnr, but tliey are fond of tea. Br. Almqnist examined the colour-sense of a largo number of tlie m.tives, and found that nearly all had normal vision. In order to induce them to submit themselves to this test, he olfere.! the cxammed at the close of the examination a little bran.ly, amounting nt first to a cubic inch and a half. Tiiis made many of them slightly intoxicated, cheerful, merry, unsteady on their legs, but not quarrelsome. Some bore small amulets on the nock, which they would not part with. One carried a Greek cross on the neck. He appeared to have been baptized, but 1)18 Christianity did not como, to much. He crossed himself to the sun with much zeal in our presence This was the only trace of religion or religious obser- vance that we could discover. The men's dress consists of one or more " pesks " of reindeer-skin, resembling, those of the Lapps. Upon the "pesk" is worn in rainy or snowy xveather a shirt of gut, or for show [( 1IA1>. ,X] NATrVK LMfHTOMS. 377 of fiutton dutli, wliioh is culled l»y llic iiutivt'a "calico." The iiiiiiii hciid-dnvsH (ionsistH of ti clo.sc-fittiiig pearl- ornanujiitod cap, but both moii niid women geiuTally go barcdioadcd. Tho shoos ccismt of mocas.siiKs with Holes of walras-slda, in winter sometimes of boar-Hkin, in tho Utter caso with the liair outwards. The dress of tho women consists of " pe.sks " which are very wide, not open below, but sewed to;i w;is covt'rcd with it, viMy tliick crnsl, of newly lonned ie(>. The, drift-iee ;i|)|ic;ired (o h;ive, hroheii lip somewhat.. The I'ci/d ihiM-efore |)roeeeded on hei- voya.^-e, hu! was soon hrv)nght up by a l)elt, of ohl ice. so lirndy bound to,t;etlier by l.lie ice tha,l, liad been formed (birini; thc^ (',()nrs(> of the ni<';ht, thai, a. channel had to b(< cut. t.Iiron<;h it. I'.eyond tliis belt lht> sea, was ]»r(>tt.y open, but th(! log becanic so (Kmisc ll»a,t tlic Vi'(/(< ha.d to iie-t.o l)esidc a ground-ice. On the I 1th the \'c;/(i continued liur voyage, a.nd on the 12th luiving passed !rkia.[)i or North ('a[)c a good way, tell in with ice st) coni])act liiat; it, was inipo.ssible to ])cnctra,tc further. Jt. was oidy wilh great dilliculty that she could force her way towards land, She was at length anchored on the iniu-i- side of a, o-round- ice stranded near the extreme point of the pro- montory. Close to the ])romontory the sea is very deep, but a violent storm drove the ico-lloes in the; neioji- bourhood backwards and forwards witli such force that it became necessary to remove the Vr newly 'c hrolvi'ii 'le were railed Oidw Yomi's Diiy W(>rc cdeln-atcd with tlio iisiuil foc;tivitirs, tlie tcmpi'vaturo outside, bciiift- — .Sr)" V. Tlio colli was very disaoivoablo, especially when it was aceoiiipanied by a strong wind. The wind con- tinued to blow between N.W. and N.E. except on two occasions, when a southerly and a south-westerly stoi-ni brouiiht warm air alonn' with them. On the ;JOth December tht> temperature for several hours was as hioh as + 2" C. I)urin<:!; both these storms the ice opened at a distance of several JMiglish miles. The averaoe t(>nii)era- ture of October was - 5-2" C, of Novend»er - IC'd", of December - 22\S°, and of -lanuary -2;Vr. The minimum temperature to the end of January was During theii- im])ris(mment the members of tlio expe- dition enjoyed good health and spirits. The time was s[)ent in Inisy scientific work and in intercourse with the friendly IVhuktches, who supjilied tlic i)arty with bears and reindeer. (Janie was al)un(h(nt and spring brought nund)ers of wild fowl. The drcaih'd scurvy was absent, thanks to the thorough })recautions taken for its prevention, and in some di'gree no doubt to the circumstance that there was no dark period, the upper limb of the sun beino: visible on the shortest day. There was little sickness and no death among the members of the expedition. At length after 2(M days' detenth»n in the ice the Vega was released on tlu; 1 Sth July and passed East Cape, liehring's Straits, on the 20th, having thus been the first to accomplish the North-J^]ast passage. Skirting the Asiatic coast the Vrgtt entered St. fiaw- rence Ba\', then crossinu' to the American shore visited >,. [clIAl'. rated with udc l>('ini>; iiilly wlicii \\\m\ con- »t on two erly stoi-ni the 'M)t\\ as as hi<>h ipoiiod at a e t('m[)ora- "V -!(;<, l;Vr. Tlio luary was tlie cxpe- timo was nu'so, with )arty with uid spring led scurvy ions taken id)t to the. the upper ay. 'I'here leuibers of he ice the asscd East thus been il St. Law- lore visited IX.] Tort Clai A KHIVA L AT YOKOHAMA, vnce, and reerossed to Koniian Vmy, divd 38; ;-.-.refulIy all the while, the sea-hottoni being partieuhni; interesting on account of the meeting of ..urn-nts (Vo.u the Arctic an.l l>Mci(ic oceans. Afler tou.-I.ing at St .awreiice hslaiul Nonlenski.ijd next, visited llehrincr's I-sland, and discovered there ti.o fossil remains of n,o gigantic marine animal m>^ti,a .sfe/lrri. LeaviiK. 1],,. ■Hlandon the IDth August, the Vnja JumI a pldsant voyage till the 21st, when she encountered a severe gale during which lightning struck the vessel, splittin<. the maintop and slightly injuring several persons, a'^ length at 10.:U) p.m. on the 2nd September she cast Huchor in the harbour of Yokohama, and in a short space of time the teh.graph spread the news of her arrival over the civilised world. Professor Nordenskiold considers the voya-e froni Europe to the east coast of Asia certain (,f acc^,mplish- ment and safe with a little more experien.-c. Tfe beli,.v..s that all the northern seas from Japan to the J.eiia present no difhciilty to skilful navigators, and looks forward to a large prospective trade with Central Siberia. ^''- a fortnight's stay at Yokohama the Ve>/n pro- -'ccu memorable voyagv, in the course and at the concius; hieh the illustrious leader of the expedi- tion and ,i..s distinguished comrades will be welcomed with universal acclamations as worthy sons of the old Vikings, and as men who have made their names im- mortal by breaking the line of innumerable defeats by a splendid and bloodless victory, achieved by human skill and daring over th.- powers of Nature and the rigours of the ley Seas. ^i if; I I ■( i i C <• 2 ■•MM ■MWi Arj>ENDICES. •^••mmmmK* mmmmmmm AL>PENDICES. APPENDIX I. orKUIAl, KKI'OHT TO THK (hWKDISII) UOVAt, IlOAIll) oK IIKAI.TIf ON TUK HY(;iKNE AND CAHK OK TlIK HIC'IC DUIlINd TIIK .SWKDISII I'OI.AU KXI'EDITION, 1872-;3, HY 1)11. A. KNVALL, MKDICAL Ol'KICKIl. Appointed, as a volunteer niodieal otlicop on the steiuaor Polhem diiriny tlie Arctic Expedition, 1H72 1«7;5, I now proceed to report to tho Royal Hoard of Health concerning the hygiene and care of the sick during tho expedition. For this expedition the (Jovornin'nt had granted tho use of two vessels, the mail stranicr I'ollinin, and the brig (llaiUin as tender, the latter only for tho sinnuier months, though from unfore^een o(!cur- n nces it had to winter. The Volhcm is, as is well known, quite a small iron steamer, only 110 feet long. For this voyage the vessel had been completely covered in by building over the deck from fore to aft, which was of extra- ordinary utility, particularly in bad weather. No other arrange- ments had been made, as it was not intended that we should pass the winter on board, but should live on land in a house made in (Jothenburg. The brig (Jladan, as has been already mentioned, also stood at the disposal of the expedition, for the purpose of con- veying, to the place whero it was to winter, the house and other necessaries. Besides these two vessels, the expedition was oblig;'d to charter a third, the Oiihd Adam, which brought us coal, forty reindeer, and reindeer moss for them. The Pvlhein's crew consisted in all of twenty-nine persons, count- ing in the chief, the medical officer, .and three sc'ontifie men. but it "mtm iWi Wl AIM'KNDIX I. wns iiitciiiloil lliJil (hiriiifj; \viiili>r tliis minilicr sluuilil l»(> rtMluccd to twtMitv two, iiiiisiuuili iiH (iiic of llit> scioiililic nicii imil six of the or(«\v wt-ro (o ri'tiini willi tin* l)riL,' (.'/tulmi. Ma crew coiisistcil of two siiiu'riiir lunl two inferior ollic»>rs, ami twt>nty oiu* Mien, in all iw»>iity tivo. Oil iiio (hiM A(> wiu) winl.t'i-t'il tliroii^^'li tln» sliiiltini,' in of both iUo ollitT vtv.scls ill tlio i('(> was sixty scmmi, in phu't" of twenty two as liiul liiH'ii ori-j;iiiiilly inlciulcil. Of tliost* ,si\ty sovcn, twenty niiu! lived in llu> lioiisr oieetetl on land, twiMity live on hoard the (Uinhui, and Ihirlceii on hoard the Oiihl Ai/mii. On hoiird the (llmlaii, which was not intended to winter, as has jll^t het>n stMied, various lu ia.n;.,'(>- nients weri> iiiad«i for protrction a.;j;ainst the iiiiich dreaded Arctii! winter, and to endeavour to maintain ii f^ootl siinilary st,i.t(>. Tho whole deck from fore to aft was covered with a tent of sails, so that one conld very coinl'orl;ili!y take exercise in tho opon air, prot-ected from liul W(ather and eiittiiii^ winds. It was iinfortnnato that this tent iixjiiired sevi>ral times to lii> moved, in order that tho vessid uii^ht he n;ivii,'ale. which ri'|ieatedly ha|)iu'iu>d durin;;' had wi>atlier. Tiie ollicers and an inferior ollicer lived aft in IxMtlis wliicli were warmed liy a. <^M)od stove in tho littlo cahin. Thoy prolocted theiiiselves from diaiij^hts from the colder hold liolow them, by reiiuleer hides I.'iid on the cabin lloor, and tho walls wiM-e made pretty tij^dit- by f(r of inhabitant.s, namidy, twenty two, and under these circiiiiislaiK es must Ix* C( n- hiderod too coiitined. inasmmli as for evory man there wert) only ^SO — ;>() cubic fei't of spa(i>. It was wurnicd partly by a stovo, partl\ by t h(> "galley which stood there, and a, c(niiparativoly vory good ventilation was obtained, partly by tho ojieninj,' downwards, and partly by tho o] cnin-,' abovo the {;alley. In order to avoid draughts and damp, and make tho '• trossbotteii " as healthy us pos- sible, the tross d(ck was cov(>rcd witli felt, th(« dca'k with boards between the beams of the deck, the (loor with tarpaulins and roindeor skins over them, and all iron was covered over with oaknni and yreaso ; one of tho stort> cabins was ananged as an excellent sick cabin, and aft tht> f:alli>y a lar<,'(> and roomy washing cabin was litted njv, tho latter, in my ojiinion, a very good arvangonient whereby u great dt al of damp and iliit was avoided in tho lost cd' tiio AIM'KNIHX I. ;i!t;{ iMjiiccd to six (if Iho n.si.stt'il (>r u'li, in all 11^' in (lio lo luiiiiltcr lli(t r VI) IIS IiikI uiiui livinl 'id/dii, ivnd /((//, wliicli IS iiv in.ii^'(>- ilcd Arctic (ale. Tint ils, so that , pi'titct^tt'd If tliai this t\u\ vi'ss(d r('|toat('dIy >rior ollict'i' u the litth> tlio oohh'i' or, and tlio Tim crow 'or so littlo idiahitaiits, 1st 1)0 a n woro only ly a stovo, iivoly very lownwards, ■r to avoid thy us pos- r'ith hoaids nd rclndoor oaliiun and •client side n was littod at whcroby lost of tlio " trosshdtli II." licsidcs tlirsc in ran/:t'iii( iits, I'or which the olliccrs of the vessel dcsci'vo all pniifo, a. slovo was also, on my |)ro|i()sal, placed in the hold, whei'c lire was kept up day and ni^dit. 'I'ho tciiipcraluro «'ould there in ^'cn(>ral lie maintained without dillinilty many de;,M<'es aliove the i'ri>c/inj,' point, and (>ven up to lO'C. and hij,'Iker, 'I'ho advaiitiifjfe of litis was that the crew, whether employed, or in their leisnro momenls. did not l'e(pl^^^ to live in th<( eonliimd " trosshotten," but (ionld ri>iiiain in that lar;^'o and airy apart ment, whereby the del(ry dark and coiilined fort^casl l(<. i'lxt i-a,ordinary arraii^'ements, siniilnr to those on the (llct the saiiK* retfulations wero in forego as durin;^ the expedition of ISI'kS, namely, that the ordinary rules for nusn of war bcnn^' set aside, the chief, in consult/ation with tia* medical ollicer, was entitled to make suiliililo ai raii^^'emciils for the dietary. In the lif^hli of the experience obtained durinj,' precidini^' exjieditions, both !'ai;,dish and Swedish, two such dietaries wero framiMl, one for Humnuir, the other for winter. I anncix these to^'etluu- with the dietary with retliicoil rations, whicdi re(piired to be drawn up in <'onsc(pieiice of I lie unforeseen incrcise of (he y'cy.s'o////(7, and for the Kako of comparison, the dietary thnt was in fonie for the Sojia in ISliS. |''rom 1st October, IH7-', to 1st duly, 1S7;{, we lived on rations reduced almost to two thirds, a <:ircuiiistiinco which corM not ha\(3 othi>r than an injurious inllutMice on (he slate of lasiith, of whi(!h more below. 'J'he 1\)IIii'ih was |(iovisioii(^d for twenty two men for eighteen months, and the (llndaii for twiaity live men for HMHii i i .'50i APPKNDIX I. six months. The stoainer Onkel Aildni, wliicli arrivod iit Spilzbergen on the 13th August, liad thou only provisions for some few weeks, but, with (! praiseworthy foresiglit, the master pureliased from the Ice Fjord Company, then in course of being broken up. about six montlis' provisions. The provisions for the Pullinn and tho (lladan had been bought in (^oponhagen from tlie well-known purveyor, 13eauvais, and taken overhead ; the provisions w(M'e of excellent quality. Some remarks, however, I must make, which perluips will iifl'ect the dietaries as much as the purveyors. The preserved meat, — that of Beauvais consisted of meat and soup together, —like all preserved foods, docs not, in my opinion, fully replace the fresh, though from a theoretical point of view the meat at least ought to do tliat. It soon becomes (piite tasteless, so that one gets disgusted with it, and this effect on tlie taste probably has an inlluence on the nutrition, and thereby indirectly on the nutritive value of the food. This may appear a somewhat Ijold liypothesis, but according to my experience, and as far as I have been able to form an impartial judgment, fresh and preserved meat do not appear to me to have quite the sanu^ nutritive value. Tlie soup which accompanied tho meat was, on tho contrfvry, jialatable in a liigli degree, but I will not say on that account that its nutritive value was particularly great. I have tested preserved pi'ovisions from several firms, and to a certain extent this holds good of them all. Such meat as has not had soup made with it is of course much better, nnd for such journeys rod from London for the ice journeys, and of only middling lla,vour. l<'or tlie ice journt^ya which were projected, and which also were carried out, there had been provided 1000 lb. penniucan— artificially dried meat, mixed with fat, sojrio currants and sugar, i.nd placed in hermeti(;ally sealed tins. ( )f the excel- lence of this food for such journeys there cannot bo two opinions. Some, however, have a dislike to it. We weie unable to obtain any great increase to the stock of pro- visions during tiie first summer, because we lay for a long time at a place quite unsuitable for hunting, and during the remainder of the season were too much engaged with preparations for the winter. Two reindeer that were shot in Septeni'«er had uncommonly fine and savoury liesli. They were, however, at tliat time rather fat, having under the skin a layer of fat nine to ten centimetres in thickness. Those that we obtained earlier in tho summer from the walrus- hunters were not so fat, and therefore better. In October were shot about 1")0 ptarmigan, which formed a welcome delicacy. Sevt al seals were also killed and their flesh eaten under the form of beef- steaks, by most with relish and appetite. The same was the case with the llesh of a bear that wasi shot during winter under our windows. Of the many sea-fowl that visit S])itzborgen during summer, it is without doubt t\w A/cft llriinnidil. which has tho most savoury flesh. Next in order, perhaps, comes Merfjvhis Alle, though it is exceedingly small, so that a great number of them are required to make a meal for the crew of a vessel. IJesides the rest —as black guillemots and eiders — were not neglected, esjx'cially both in .spriiu' when we were quite tired of j. -eserved meat, and in winter when we had no sujierabundance of provisions. We had not taken any great stock of beer because we did not think it could bo kept fresh and good any great length of time. Experience, however, showed that this was not the case, for in tho gunroom there was a little private stock, of which there remained some in April which was then excellent. ^'ome other little luxuries, as preserved whortleberries, and other AITKNDIX I. ;i!)7 ind T con- I though it tlio tasto I believe ito (|Manti- ise of the rum, the ,'.s, and of [Ji-ojoctGil, I 1000 lb. currants /ho excel- opiuions. 'k of pro- tiuio at a laiiulor of le winter y tinoaud it, liaving thickness. .0 walruH- ivere shot Sevt al I of beof- the case luler our u during the most 'e, though required -as black in spring ter when ! did not of time. or in the remained ind other preserves of dilTcM-cni kinds, fiuit juice, dried njijiles, ]iiiiiies, and so called " drops," had been taken along by private niendnrs, and wore all in great request. (l.d'I'IIlNO. The expedition was as well provided in ilie way of clothing its in that of provisions, partly from llio stores of the Crown, partly through purchase, although the abinidiint stock was also in this ease reduced by Hio unfoi^cseeu (iccurrcnces. On l)o;ird the (ihuldii, underclothing was made from felt taken from the naval stores, and it answered the purpose very well, thougli it was not very strung in wear. Besides, as much of th(! stock inteiuled for the J'ollicin. was hiinded over as could be sjjai'ed. 1 indievo none of the man of- war's men had leasou to complain that they needed to fiee/e. The case perhaps was dilTerent with the crew of the Otikcl Adam, of whom I found some very poorly clad ; but after my remarks on this point to the master, the ni.atter was ameiuled in one way or other. In summer other clothes are not recjuired on Spitzbcrgen than what are commoidy woin in Sweden in sjjririg and autumn. In winter hoivo increase is of course lequired. With complete woollen underclothing, and the common thick sailor's clothes, sea- boots, and skin-cap, the men got on commonly veiy w(01. J)uiing the coldest time there were dealt out to tlu; ci'ew so-called "skallar," a sort of shoes, ninde of the skin of the reindeer's head, in whicli was placed a certain kind of dri( d glass. These shoes are exceed- ingly warm, and with them a nii.n can defy the severest cold. I'or the cold season the men hiid a soit of overcoat of canvas, lined with wool. Under ordinary circum.stances, and with constant exercise, no furs were required. There were mittens both of wool and skin in quantity. Besides, for the ice journeys weie used '* peskar," reindec r-skins with the hair outwards, sewn together both behind and before, so that when jiut oif or on they lequired to be drawn over the head like a shirt, " ))iillingar," a sort of over- trousers, also of reindeer-skin, canvas boots, and " komager," or line boots of soft leather, also with hay inside. Next the foot, over the stocking, were used, during tlu? ice journeys, foot cloths, about two feet in length, with which the foot was draped above the stocking before it was in.serted into cither the " skallar " or "komager" above described. The excellence of this foot covering .398 APPENDIX I. is beat evidenced by tlie fact tluit not a single case of frost-bite occurred in the cas^e of those who used thoiii. During the ice journeys too, gutta porclia mattresses, wlilch could bo inflated with air, formed part of the equipment. In this way tho damp, which otherwise would have arisen from the action of the heat of the body on the snow and ice, was wholly avoided. ROUTIXK AND DISOIPMNr:. A well-arranged routine and proper discii)lint jihout doubt, of tho very greatest importance for tho hygiene, during a winter in the Arctic regions. Besides tho sorrowful fact that seventeen Norwegian walrus-hunters at one ])lace, and two at another, who at tho same time with us biaved the dangers of the Arctic winter succumbed, and without doubt just through this want of discipline, the difference in tho state of health that prevailed on the two Government vessels on the one hand, and the commercial ship on the other, showed, in my opinion, the effect of this uniform routine and discipline. On board tho Polhem, or more correctly on land, the time was divided in the following way :— 6.30 a.m., general awakening; 8, muster, after which free gymnastics for ten to fifteen minutes, and breakfast; from 9 to 12, work; from 12 to J, mid-day rest; from 1 to 5, work, after which the men had leave to employ themselves as they had a mind; 7.30, supjoor, and 10, to bed. None was allowed to sleep by day without special reason or permission. On the Gladan the ordinary routine of a man-of-war was observed. On the Onkel Adam, on the contrary, the ma.ster was less strict in maintaining proper discipline, and as he himself n glected or trans- gressed what was useful in this way, the crew also fell into habits of indifference and laziness, and on board great disorder prevailed • and, notwithstanding my injunctions, the men were not kept to cleanliness and neatness. MEDICAL STOUES. These consisted of the common complete equipment of vessels belonging to the navy, consisting of bandages and instruments, linen, itc. With attention specially directed to tho supposed severity of the winter, there were bought in Gothenburg thirteen resi)irat(.rs, wiiii-h however did not come much into use. AIMMONDIX I. 399 frost-bite hich could I this way action of ided. ")ut doubt, ■ a winter seventeen er, who at iic winter, discipline, I the two il ship on m routine time was cning; 8, lutes, and est ; from beraselves !fone was sion. On rved. On strict in or trans- ito habits )revailed ; ; kept to if vessels truments, ty of the irs, \vlii(-h There were also purchased twonty-four so called " <,'ogj;l« s," and they wore not only of great use, but absolutely indispensable. As the stock of them was not sullicient, the ciirpenlors had to make such spectacles as the Eskimo and Greenlanders use. They were of wood, and were not so good nor so convenient to go with as the proiior spectacles. Of the latter, the soot-coloured are the best, the blue do not diminish the intensity of the light, only chang(3 the colour, iuul are therefore not so I'cliable for th" prevention of snow- blindness. Neither are green or blue veils, which were tried during the English Arctic expeditions, and by several during our expedition, so much to b(^ relied on. Those who use the soot coloured .spectacles certainly escape snow-blindness. The stock of medicines was specially large, because we were to be coni])let(dy shut out from the rest of the world, and thus, if any- thing had been wanting, there would have bei'n no possibility of procuring it. From Medical Councillor Herr Dr. Edholm, I obtained a collec- tion of Professor Alnien's Gelatincv medicata'. in lameiiis, which he wished to have tested for their practical utility ; I had also bought a quantity as medical stores for the projt!cted ice-journey, when the weight and bulk of the equijjiuent wer(^ of so great importanc e, and the ydatiuw therefore appeared to me to be of great utility. Through a very extensive employment of them, I have had opportunities of making observations of their practical utility, during sea expeditions esjieeially, and of their gi'eat practical value in general. Excepting that .some, as Gd. acettUis plutabici, and Gel. tartratis slibicokalici, had a line crystalline powder on the surface, they all, after the fifteen months the expedition lasted, showed themselves unaltered both in their outwaid appearance and in their therapeutic! action. In order to a.scertain if dillerent ways of keep- ing theui would affect them differently, they were kept in dry and moist, cold ( - 30" to - :3c .I(>pcndent on these germ.s. U D '2 404 APPENDIX 1. Tlio lifo-coudition.s t»l" thf>;o ilisoiist'iinHlucin^' organitims muat thoro be very unfavoiiniblo ou iiowmnt of th>) low toiiipoiuturi', but wherijver men Bottlo ami dwoll tlioy may bring with tl\«tm giu-ms, and favourable conditions for their dcvidupnicnt may aKo ari-rienci) to aottlo the question regarding' germs, but I naturally had my attention always lixed on all cireumstanctos whii'h might have a bearing on it. Jiomarkablo indeed is the small number of i-atarrhs in the respi- ratory passa^'es which occurred, and of how mild a natm-e the cases wei-e, and how one mi^'lit expose himself to chills without bad (»ffects. There was scarcely a single individual who did not during the cold season make acquaintance to a greater or less extent with cold water, and in no single case did any injurious consecjuencea follow the cold bath. Only two ciises of l)ronchitis have been regis- tered in the sick journal, and even these were not of any speyial intensity. Very many excedingly mild attacks of catarrh in the respiratory passages indeed occurred b>'side8 these. Coryza oc- curred in not so few cases, but oidy one or two were of a fully- developod nature. I believ(>, however, there is no good ground for the proposal to Bt>nd consumptive patients, and persons liable to repeated catarrhs, to Spitzbergeu. A hired Norwi'gian with chronic bronchitis had, both during summer and winter, several very acute attacks of it, and returned no ways improved in health. One case, of course, does not prove much. The state of things was quite dilTerent with disturbances of the digestive organs; acute and chionic gastric catarrhs, iiuligesticm, and occasional diarrlueas were exceedingly common. During the ice journeys, when Lieutenant Palander had the care of the sick on his hands, equipped principally with gelatine capsules, it was diarrluea that gave most trouble —scarccdy any one escaped. They were relieved with case by a capsule or two of opium or Dover's pjwder ; but it recurred after a day or two, to be again removed in the same way. Dining thesis laborious marches the men were very thirsty, and dra)ik eageily, and Palander, in his notes, is in- clined to believe that this was the cause of the diarrluea. But during a couple of dnys when Palander and his men were obliged to halt on the inland ice on account of a snowstorm — and it is mentioned in his notes that a vei'y small quantity of water was drunk — diarrhu'a occurred. I am iiu'lined to believe that the APPENDIX r. 405 (ilit.s inii»t ii|ioiutufit, vith tlit'iu iiitiy al>o to sottlii attontiou the roHpi- > iho ciisi'H Lliuut bad lot iluriiiy ctont with iMCciut'iU'ea >oen rer ohiitted its use. Lieutenant Palander also valued the use of calabar in tlio attacks of snow-blindness which occurred during the ice-journeys. I had ahv.ays considered snow blindness as a hyperesthesia of the nerves of the eye, and a blinding wlioieby the patient lost the power of vision, and hom this puiul of view I lonki.l np,.n calal)ar as APPENDIX I. •109 tei* of day,H amounted >7 days for junctivitis, cases, nl.'-o a, some of >ccuned in obstinacy, ith. None ther hand n working has not a m ; to the iblo to go very sud- )st intenno sing much le patient as feeling nd in the iary tratit, ititis with lose cases le e3elids examined fundus of d, in thi> ihe treat- of wh.it is certain as sooner " omitted arin tlio jouinoys. ia of the ho power ilabur as useful, and this turned out to be the case. Except in the accounts of the Knglishn,on'8 and Americans' journeys in the Arctic regions I had nowhere .^een snow blindness described in d,tail. They how' ever, api,ear to have registered under this name various ,lisoa' es of the eye. Their treatment was very simple, consisting in dronnin^ m "wine of opium." This I have also tried in two ca^Il cannot deny that it was attended with very good results-calabar however, shortened the treatment. In two cases the pains were so uitonso that it was only by the use of atropine and injections of morphia,, and an artificial leech, that I could arrest them In the general sick list I hav(, placed them under the heud of kerato- conjunctivitis, though that perhaps is not quite exact. Of external injuries there have only occurred some trifling in- cised wounds and contusions. During the summer, and so long as we wore on board, every injury, even the most inconsiderable, the east scratch in the skin, showed a .lisposition to go on to suppura- tion, which, however, I do not ascribe as any peculiarity to Spitz- bevgon ; but it occurs, in my experience, also in common sea- voyages in cold weather, and perhaps is caused by contact with salt water. Of injuri, s by frost there were some quite mild cases on the ears and nose, and above all around the palms of tho hands. I cannot omit to state here the ccm.position of tho salvo I used in such c-ases with great success, and tho value of which I learned n>ai.y ycurs .'.go, how I do not lemember. I consider it deserving of rccom- iiK ndatioii. Kc. Chlorct. hydrargyric, corrosiv, . . gjni. ] ^^^- ^^'«'"i •• . . gtt." 40.' Aetherol. terebinth, depur. . . . external ailments- ..m.-ng thes. a case of indan.mation in a finger from a ncghctcd panaritium-- also 410 APPENDIX 1. tlio only f occurred. The fingor was amputated, and this was operation during the whole period. Two persons with gunshot wounds, one on an English vessel, the other on a Norwegian, sought my assistance. In the former case a riflo-ball had passed through the muscular part of tlio forearm without damage either to the bone or to any large blood-vessel ; in the latter the gun had exploded, and the pieces had badly wounded the man's left hand, from the muscles of the thumb of which a small splinter of iron was extracted. Both these wounds were dressed with carbolic acid without ^lermanent injury. That none of the Norwegians who wintered in Ice Fiord survived may appear wonderful, as they were as well provided with food as the Swedes, in other respects even better, and in no respect worse. Put when one is informed how they passed the time in the most complete inactivity, lived like brutes in the most abominable filth and disorder, and that there was none to exercise authority over tliem or warn them of the danger of such inactivity and such a way of living, there is no gi'ound for surprise that the scurvy took the upper hand, and that all succumbed to it. The advice and information they obtained from me during my visit to them, partly for some occasional ailments that then occurred among them, partly for possibly impending attacks of scurvy, they appear completely to have forgotten. The corpses of two men who wintered at Grey Hook were examined by me, and showed evident and strong signs of scurvy. Those it Ice Fiord were already buried at the time of our visit, but that they too fell a saciitice to scurvy I believe cannot bo doubted. For <^'irther particulars I refer to the sick list. Note. — In a communication addressed to the writer. Professor NordenskiiJld draws special attention to the fact that during the journey over the inland ice (see pages 220— 2G3) no lime juice was used, the whole stock having been thrown away when it was found necessary to reduce the equipment of the exploring party. APPENDIX I. 411 the only ressel, the aer case a J forearm s^essel ; in ' wounded ■ which a inds were at none of ly appear 3 Swedes, when one nactivity, , and that tliem of ere is no and that obtained )ccasional possibly to have lok weie icnrvy. )iir visit, ^nnot bo *rofessor ring the nice was IS found Dietary adopted till the 1st October, 187: Morning. No. 1. Grm. Butter . . .25-5 Coffee. . . . 31-875 Sugar. . . . 31-875 No. 2. Same as No. 1 . No. 3. Butter . Chocolate Sugar Grm. , 25 -o , 32-0 , 32-0 No. 4. Same as No. 1. No. 5. Grin. Buttor .... 25-5 Cheese .... 51-0 Bread . . . .212 5 Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 .. Noon. Smoked bacon or dried tish 3 Sourkrout .... 3 Preserved potatoes . Preserved vegetables Exti'act of meat . . Brandy or rum 00 cub. or beer . 350 „ Grm. 21-0 21-0 510 2G'4 6-35 cm, Preserved meat . . Preserved potatoes . Preserved vegetables Extract of meat , . Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or beer . 350 Grm. 4'Jl-O 51-0 20-4 G-35 Grm. Salt pork .... 425 Beas lor-o Barley 40() Brandy or rum GO c.c.m. or beer . 350 ., Salt meat , . . Peas .... Extract of meat . Barley .... Brandy or rum GO c.c.m. or beer . 350 .. Grm. 425-0 107-0 6-35 40-6 Evening. Grm. Butter 25-5 Sugar. 32-0 Tea . G-35 Same as No. 1 Same as No. 1 Same as No. 1 Same as No. 2. Butter Cheese Grin. 25-5 51-0 Per day : Bread 531-0, tobacco 106 grm. Per week : Salt 90-0, mustard 30*0, pepper 12-5 grm., vinegar fiO Of the different dietaries. No. 1 was in force 1 day ; No. 2, 3 No. :>, 2 days ; No. t, 1 dny ; No. 5, fin extniordiiiiii-y occasions. c.c.m. days ; 412 APPENDIX I. Dietary intended to he adopted from ]st October, 1872. MoniinL'. No. 1. Butter Coffee Grni. 25-5 32 -0 320 No. 2. Same as No. 1. No. 3. riutter . Chocolate Sugai' . , Grin. 25-5 32-() 32-0 No. 4. Same as No. 3. Noon Eveniiiit. a , , Grm. omoked bacon or drif d fi'^h 321-0 Soiu'krout , . . .321-0 Preserved potatoes . 51-0 Preserved vegetables 26-4 ! Extract of meat . . 6 '35 Rice 2100 Raisins or currants . 210 Brandy or rum GO c.c.m. or beer . 350 .. Butter Sugar Tea . Grm. 25-5 321 0-35 Preserved meat . . Preserved potatoes . Preserved vegetables Extract of meat . . Brandy or • n 60 c.c.m. or beei .350 .. Grni. 292-0 51-0 2G-4 6-35 Same as No. 1. Grm. Salt pork . . . .425-0 Peas 19G-6 Extract of meat . . 6-3.'' Brandy or rum GO c.c.m. or beer . 350 .. Grn). Salt pork .... 425 Fruit soup ... 1 portion Brandy or rum 60 c.c.m. or brer . 350 „ Same as No. 1. Same as No. 1. Per day : Bread 531-0, tobacco 106 grm., lime-juice 15 c c m Per week: Flour 425-0 butter 1250, salt UOO, mustard 30, pepper 12-5 grm., vinegar GO c.cm. Of the different rations No. 1 ia in force 1 day; No. 2, 4 dav.s • No. 3, 1 day; ;ind No. 4, 1 day a week. 1872. Eveniiifi. Gnu. er . . 2.')-5 r . . 321 c-3; 9 as No. 1. I as No. 1. as No. 1. c.c.m. stard 30, !, 4 days ; APPENDIX I. Dietari, adojited durhiy the Whiter 1872-73. 413 A[oniin<,'. Noon. Hveuiuf,'. (liin. Butter . . 210 Sugar . . 27-6 Tea . . . 4-25 No. 1. Giin. Butter. . .21-0 Sugar . . . 25 '5 Cottee . . . 210 Ginj. Smoked bacon or dried fish 300 Sourkrout . . . .210 Pre-erved potatoes . 42*5 Extract of meat . . 6-35 Rice 1420 Currants .... 4 '25 Brandy or rum GO c.c.m, or be; r . 350 ,, No. 2. Same as No. 1 . Gnu. Preserved meat . . 1 94-6 Preserved vegetables 26-4 Extract of meat . . G'35 Brandy or rum 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 „ Same as No. 1. No. 3. Same as No. 1. Gnu. Salt meat .... 2G5-6 Preserved jjotatoes . 42'5 Sago 8-5 Barley 20-3 llaisins 17'0 Prunes 4-25 Dried fruit . . . 12-5 Brandy or rum 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 „ Same as No. 1. No. 4. Gnu. Butter. . .21-0 Chocolate. .21-0 Sugar . . . 25-5 Gini. Salt pork . . . .265-6 Preserved potatoes . 425 Peas 145-2 Brandy or nun 30 c.c.m. or beer . 350 ,, Same as No 1. Per day : Bre.id 425 grm. (two-thirds wheat, one-third rye), Tobacco 5-95 grm. Per week: mustard 191 grm., vinegar GO c.c.m, pepper 8'5 grm., salt 38 '0 grm. No. 1 Sundays, No. 2 ^Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, No, 3 Saturdays, No. 4 Tuesdays and Thursdays. From 1st January to 1st May 15 c.c.m. lime juice. From 1st Fel)ruary S5 grm. cheese per week, and 51 ^rm. Hour per day. 414 APPENDIX r. D'mtary on hoard Jtc Sofia, I8fi8. Moriiiiifj. No. 1. Siiyar 111.' 05 0-07 0075 Noon. Smoked bacon . . 75 K.xtrnct of moiifc . ()()013 Pro.soivcd potatoes 012 Prescrvotl \ o^ji'lablt's 0-0r)5 l^'it'o 5 Hai.sins or currants. 005 Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. Kvoiii "«• No. 2. Same as No. 1 . No. 3. 11.. llnttor . , 0-05 Chooolato . {)-{){\i Sugar . . 0'075 No. 4. Same a.s No. 3. r.uttor . 0(«5 'I'oa . . OOU Sugar . . 0-075 II.. Preserved moat . . 05!)() Preserved potatoes. 0-12 K.xtract of moat. . 00013 Preserved vegetal)los 0()55 Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. Salt pork . . 075 lb. Peas . . , 7-5 cub. in. Extract of uu at 0.0013 ib. Brandy or rum 2 cub. in. Same as No. Same ms No. I. Salt meat . ,10 lb. Pi eserved potatoes -12 Ib. Croats .... 2 cub. in. Pre>erved voi^etables O.Ooolb Brandy or rum . 2 cub. in. Same as No, 1. Per day: Bre:id 1-25 (half rye, half wheat), 015 cub. in limo- juico. Per week: Butter 0-3, mustard 0-03, pepper 00- 1, salt Ol" vinegar 1 cub. in., wlioat-tlour 1-0, tobacco 0-135. Sourkrout when it is given out, 0-5. No. 1 Sundays No. 2 Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, No o luosdays and Thursdays, No. 1 Saturday.'?. J > ■ 1 1 Swodi.h 11.. = <»:37i33 n,, avoinliiiiois. -\. Kvciiiiig. or r . 111. . 0(«r» . oou . ()()75 an No. 1 . 3 MS No. 1. iis No. 1. ill. limo- lalt ()•]:>, lays, No. ATPRNDIX I. nr. Table s/iowintj the Mean lleUjhl of tlie Jlaronieter, and the Afean, Maxiinuin and Miniiunvt Tnmperatures duriiiy the 6'wcdiiih I'ular J'Jx.jMidUiun liS72-lS7;5. MdiiUiH. Au},'ii8t, 1872 S('|)ti>iiil)c>i' ,, Octolicr ,, NoV(!Illl)(T ,, Dcci'inlicM' „ .lamiMiy, hS7;i J'\'l)riiaiy „ Mh.v,1, • „ Aiinl „ .IllIK! Menu lli'lKlitof tlid Iliu'uiiii'U-'r. 7(iO-40'' 755-44 7r)(;-7o 75(lMl!) 7r>7-2H 75i)(i:5 7.'');j-(KS 7r)()-72 7(\-2-\-2 770-77 7r.r.-()i Menu TciiiiKiiitiiru. + + 2'1" (i-7 12(i H-2 14 5 !»•!) I7(i;) IS' 1 2 H-2 111 Miixiiiiiuii Mliiliiiinii IViiiiHH'iiliirn. 'IViii|ii!i'iiliiro. 4- 7-5" - 3'0" + H-7 - 2!>-(i - ()(i 27-2 + 2-(i - l!»-5 ;{-4 - 2(i-(t + :<-(; ;j2-4 - ()•(» - :{H-2 - 0-4 - ;{«•() + 0-2 ;52(j + :{•(; I'M -f !) 4 ;5-!) 7\if)f(i of the Nulrlliee Vahis of various Nations durimj various Expeditions} i 1 Albiiiiii'li. Cicl.-ltilll'. I'lit. f)avl)0- liyilrutcH. I'',stni<'tiv(! Mutter. C! Ill 111. (illllll. (iriiin. (.il'.'llll. (ii'iiiii. Swedish Man-(if-\viir l(i2-4:5 87-1 431-57 4.57 Swedish IMcicliant-shii)... 1!)(5-81 52-42 00403 101 Enj^lisli Arctic Kx[icui- tioiis 144-();j — 27-43 422-72 5-57 McChirt>'H rcihiced ni- lilillH frj) !)()-42 18-28 281-81 3-7 .V()//((, ISCH i;57-2:5 5-:55 70 -.•{5 414-7 5-1 I'ulhan, 1872 till 1 Oct. 13U-20 5-87 05 -()5 3S0-ii!) 5 1:1) „ the intended win- ter ration 134-49 7-21 77-38 414-02 5-83 „ from 1 Oct., 1872, till 1 May, 1H7;J 81)-7i) 2.37 4()-25 305-13 2-8 „ 187:5, from 1 May to 1 July 01.54 4-1!) 50-13 358-83 4-02 Oiilcl Adam, from Oct., 1872 -. ... 11 7 --'J^ 0-.5!) 3(1-03 205-!) (;-!)8 1 All pi r iiiiin I'll' (liiy. •1 1 f. APPENDIX 1. l'/« I ; Sick Lint of the Swedish J'olar K>!j)editum, 1872 -1S73. Officers and Staff of tlic Expedition Inferior Oilicers, &c. Carpenters Sailors and Apprentices Boatmen Cooks (one female) . . . Private and Hired Total I 2:ii; 2 2 4 2 - 2 38 33' 9 82 1 4 2 4 1,13 .!- 1130 loiwil. -I I 7iG 4 1 I 4^- -' 1 1 9 3 1 16 4 14 28 2jj 2 15'll5 - 1 10 4 14 30 2 15 S2 80 2'82 There were on board the Fo^hem : officers and staff of tlie expe- dition, 1 ; inferior officers, iV'c, 4 ; carpenter, 1 ; sailors and hoat- men, Vl ; hired men, 6 : total, 29. Vhulan : officers, 2; inferior officers, ti ; carpenter, 1 ; sailors and boatmen, 20 : total, 25, Oiikel Adam : master and inferior officers, 4 ; cook, 1 • crew 8 • total, 13. Total of the whole, 07. > . . • Number of days of treatment.— For the Polhe)a, 5l3 ; Oladan, 9G9; OnhelAdiun, 1,051. Average of sick per day.— On board the Polhem, M3: Ghidun, 2-23; OnM Adam, 3-1. ' Cost of medicines. —For the I'vlhem and Gladan, 443-85 rix- dollars rixmynt (about .£24 12s.). 1S73. I loiwil. n a, t 1 IG 4 14 28 2lj 2 5 1 15 12' 80 1 1(> 4 14 ;jt) 2 - 16 2'82i APPENlvrX I. 417 the expe- aiid hoat- ! ; inferior total, 25. ; crew, 8 : J ; (,''''i'l(in, J ; Ghiildii, 43-85 rix- List of flio Diseases, 1 i 1 1 1 i I nnif,. 1 I'oiwil. 1 »l •» 1 1 i J If 5 i Ji, a t DiH 'nneii i. b ja 9 a 1 ii i i 11 II •5 f 1 1 1 s ■-8 1 1 It 1^ ■a J ScDrbiitns 2 14 8 4 28^ 9 13 I G 2S 1 ' 28,-28 (Jliloro-MiKfiuiii — 1— _ i; — — i — — 1 1 1 -: 1 AklaiR'liolia — - 1 - 11 -l-l 1 1 1-1 Neunil'^ia siipraorljitalis ... — 1 1 - 2 — 2 2 '2-2 Coiijiiiietivitis simplex — 1 3; 1 5 1 2- 1 1 f. 5 - ■'' Kpi'atoc'onjuuutiviiid ' __ :j 4- 7; 7i- 7 7 Otitis fxtorna — 1 _ — Ij li- 1 1 - 1 Angina t )nsill;vnu' — 2 1 1 4! 1 -; 1 _ 2 4 • 4I-I 4 Pcrioanlitia — — 1 - l! — -, 1 — 1 ] - 1 nroiicliitis acutii -- 1 1 - 2 1 — 1 — _ 1 2 2 - 2 I'lU'umonia -1 1 1 - 2 _ ' — -. 2 2 2'~\ 2 Pleiu-itia exsiKJativa - 2 — 2 1 - 1 '., 1 ! li 2 C'atanli, ventric. aciiUis ... - 4 2 — G 1 i;-' 2 2 fi Gj-I G „ voiitric. elirou. ... _| 2 3 — 5' — 2' — 3 5 5'-! 5 „ tiastro-iiitcstiiial... -i 2 1- 3 — 2 — ■- 1 3 3 -: 3 Typhlitis stc'ivova lis - 1 -- 11 — — _'_ 1 ] 1 -1 1 Plieiim. iiiiisciilai'is •1 2 i)\ ] — 1 - 3 f) 5 — 5 Ivlicuiii. aiiimlaris aciitiis... .._ 2 _ "i 1 — 1 - 1 3 3 - 3 Synovitis m'lm — ; 1 1 ..1 "i — 1 — — 2 3 3 - 3 Distiirsio — ,_ — 11 1 _ ■1 1 — 1 ('oiitusio _ 1 : — ii 1 1 1 1 — 1 Viilmis coiitusum — •2 1 - — — 3|- 3 3|- 3 CoiiuL'latio el poniioiics -' ] ■2 1 1 3 1 — 4 4!- 4 Ulcus _ _ ij- _ — : 1!- — J 11- 1 Panaritium -1 2 — — 2 — _ 2 2>- 2 Cailniuculus — ! — "^\- — _ 1 _ _ 1 1 1 Furunculus -, 1 1 ! _ — — _ 1 1 - 1 Accident- [ 3: - 1 — _ — ] — 1 1| Totals t i 1 47 •38 10 i 1 1)7 K) 34 13 3|31 97 95 2 97 1 ' Suow-bliiulnu.sa. 8 l.o.st In a snowstorm ilmiiig the ioo-journey. * ■« E E V < AITKNDI.K II. LIST OV IIOOKS AND MK.MnlltS IlKI.VTlNil TO THK MWGDISIt AlUTIf KXI'KUITIONS. h" I GEOGRAPHY. 1, Torell, O. — Href oiii Isliiiitl. (I.i'ttoi" on Ifolaiid.) K.V.A. Of vers, lM.-)7, pp. .•5l>5 H;5-J. 2. C'hyilouiiH, l\. Svonska oxpi'Jitioii on till Spotabergon itr 18()1, uiulcr li'dnii;,' :if Otto ToroU. (Tlio Swoclish KxpoJition to Si»'(7.1)(>r^'ou in ilio your ISOl, under tlu* (litci-tion of Otto Torell.) Stockliolni, ISC),"), Svo, pp. IS'.), 1 niiij), !(» pi, Triuislatod, see No. K l^. Svon.ska expodition(>n till Sixitsber^'ou och Jan IVraycn, ut- fiirda under urou \S(u\ ocli ISHI, af N. J)nnir, A, J. Miilnigron, A, E. Nordouskiiild, ocli A. Qiicnriorstedt. (Tlio Swedish Expedi- tion to S[)itzl)prj,'en and Jan JNlayen, carried out diirinf;; tlie years ISi;;') iiiid ISiU by N. Duni'r, A. J. Maluigren, A. E, Nordenskiold, and A. (^liuMiui'rstedt.) Htoekholni, ISiu. Sv^), pp. 'JOS, 1 luiip, 7 pi. Transln-tod, sec> No. 1. 4. D'e scliwcdischon lv\})oditionon naeh Spitzberpen und "Reren- Eiland, ausgcfiihrt in den Jalirt'ii lS(il, l.Siil und I SOS, unter Loitung von O. Torell und A. E. Nordenskilijd, Aus dom Schwe- disc'hen iiber.setzt von L. rass.irgo. Jena, 18(19. 5. Grad, Oh. A. — Esquisse pliysiqne des ilos tSpitzbergen et du Pole Arctiqne. Paris, 18()(j. Svo, pp. IGl, 1 map. fi. Fries, Th. "M. — Resultaterna af do Svcnska expeditionorna till Spotsbergen, af o . (Ilesults of tlie Swedish Kxpedi- tions to Spitzbergon.) Svensk littenitur-t'dskrift, edited by C. 11. Nybloni. 180S, pp. 21(; 2 40. WEUISIl AI'I'KNDIX ir. ■no Lsbergon iir poilition to )tto ToroU.) Miiyoii, ut- Miilin»:jron, isli Expodi- j; tlie years )rcleuskiuld, uml ■Reren- 1 sns, imter lem Schue- ii'gen et da )oditioiiorna I isli Mxpedi- 18GS, pp. M II n II 7. Nord.'i.skii.l.l, A. K. I,s(;,s „i-,h SvciiMka rolan-xpcditioiiPu under lodiiliig iif A. 10. Noidoiiskii.Id ncli Kr. v. Ottor. (Tlio Swedish Polar Kxpcditioii of \SM umlor tho k-udor^hip of A. E. Nordoii.skiiild and Vv. von Ot.lcr.) i'Vaiutid.'n, I'.liliMl liy ('. V. lU-r-cn. 1869, pp. 012-657. Translated, koo No. I. rotcrniinm, Miltli«(il,, iSdS, pp. 1>1)8 ;5()|. l-i>n.lon, It. (Itv.gr. Soc. I'ror., Vol. ];», pp. 1.11-1(55. London, U. (Jofigr. Ho(!. Journal, V(d. .T.l, pp. i;U-146. Paris, Soi!. do la (i/ogr. Hidlotin, IHlii), pp. .'Jn? :)7«. 8. l''rio.s, Th. M. and Nystri.ni, 0.- Svonska Polarcxpoditionc-n ftr iSdS mod Kronoangfartygt^t ,S',;/m. l^o.scskizzor. (Tho Swedish Polar Kxpedition of I, SOS with tho lloyal stoiiiner .Sojia. Hkotchos of the Voyng(<.) Stockholm, 1 8(111. Svo, pp. 2:57, 1 map, i pi. !». lleor, Ohw.— Ilehordienouestoii Kntdeckungen in hohon Nordon. Vol trag gi hnltcn dS Januar, 18(;!), auf dt-ni Kathhau.s in Ziirieh. Ziirich, JHC't. Svo, pj). '.8. A Swrdish translation was pub- lisliid at Slockiiolm in ISfi'.l. 10. Nordonskiiild, A. K. — INtdogi.r.l.so filr on expedition till (iriinland ar 1S7(I. (Narrative of an Expedition to Greenland in the year IS7(».) K.V.A. (UVcrs, 1S7(), pp. !»7.'r lOSi', I pi. Translated, see No. IJl, .') I . (Jeol iM.ig., Vol. JX. IS72. Paris, Soc. do la (Jrogr. JUillctin, 1S7.T, pp. 318-32"). 11. Fries, Th. M. — fjlriiiiland, dess natur ooh innoviinare ; eftor iildre oeh n^ait^ furfattaies skildringar sanit egen crfaranhet tcek- nade. ((irecnland, its nature and inhabitants; delin(>atod after tlio sketches of old and recent writers and tho author's own expe- rience.) LTj)sa]a, 1S72. Svo, pp. iSd, U pi. 12. lleor, Oswald. Dio schwedisclien Exjieditionen zu Erforsch- nng des hohen Nordens vom .lalir 1870 und 1S72 auf 1873. Ziirieh, 1871. Svo, pp. 11. 13. Xordeuskiuld, A. E.— Kcdogilrelso lor dtm Svenska Polar- expeditionon iU> 1872-1873. (Narrative of tho Swedish Polar Expedition, 1872-1873.) K.V.A, Trans. App., Part 2, No. IS, pp. 1]8, 1 map, 1 pi. E K -J, )i i» m ! i i 1 4l>0 APPENDIX II. TninslatoJ, Petermanu, Mittheil., 1S7.">, 2)p. lH-irjS. 14. Kjc'lliuau, I'V. — Sveiiska Polaroxpoilitionon, 1872-1873. (The Swedish Polur Expoditlon, 1S7'J-187;5.) Stockholm, 1875. 8vo, pp. 055, 1 map, 1 j)!. 15. Liiulha^'en, D, C4. — Ooografiska oitbostiimmelser pfi Spets- bergon af Prof. A. E. Nordeuskiiild ; berakiiado ooh .simmanstiiUda. (Geographical doterminatioiis of j)hico.s on Spitzburgcu, by Prof. A. E. Nordeuskiiild : calculated and collected. ) K.V.A. Ilaudlingar, Part I (I8()l-18f)2), No. 5, pp. 47. Transl, Petermann, Mittheil, 18(54, pp. 127-135. 16. Nordenskiiild, A. E. — Gcogralisk och geognostisk beskrif- ning rifver iioriUistra dolarne af Spet.sbergeii och llinloopeu Strait. (G'oograpliical and geognostic description of the north-eastern parts of Spitzbevgen and Hinloopen Stra't.) K.V.A. IL-indlingar, Part 4 (18(51-1802), No. 7, pp. 25, 1 map. Transl., Petfrmann, INIittheil., 18(54, pj). 127-135, 208-215. 17. Duncr, N., and Nordcnskiidd, A. E. — Antockningar till Spetsborgcns gpograli. (Notes on tlio Gcograpliy of Spitzbt>rgen.) K.V.A. Handlingar, Pait (5 (1 805-1 8G()), No. 5, pp. 15, 1 map. Transl, Explanatory Eemarks in ilhistratiou of a map of Spitzbergen. Translat;'d from the Transactions of tlie Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Stockholm, 1805. 18. Nordenskiohl, A. E., and v. Ottrv, F. W. -Karta Ufver hafvet eniollan Spetsb;'rgen och Grilnland utvisande ftngfartyget Sojias kurser niuh'r den Svonska Polircxpcdition, 1808, iifvensom drilisens liigo under i)lika tidcr af aret, lochiingar m.m. (Map of the sea between Spitzberg( n and Greenland, showing the courses of tlie steamer AVy/ft during the Swedish Polir Expedition of 1808, also the position of tlie drift ice at diiterfut seasons of tlie year, soundings, ike.) Stockhohn, 180U. Fol. 19. Petermann, A. — Das licllef des Eisineor. Bodens bei Spitz- bergen. Nach den Tiofsct'-Messungen dei' Schwedischen Expedi- tion unt,'r Norden.skiiiUl und v. Otter, 18(')8. Petermann, Mittheil., 1870, pp. 142-111, 1 map. 20. Nordonskiold, A. E. — Astronomiska ortbestiimningar under Svonska Polarexpe litionen, 1808. (Astronomical drterminations of places during the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1808.) K.V.A. (")f\-ers, 1870, pp. 5011 -580. appi<;ni)ix II. 421 1872-1873. ir pit Spets- imanstiilKlii. u, by Prof. 47. isk beskrif- )02ien Sti'Jiifc. -istern parts J5, 1 map. 8-215. mi agar till itzbt'i'gon.) , pp. 15, 1 a map of tlie Royal varta cifver :\ngfait\'<,'et ^, ufvoiisoiii a. (Map of e courwL's of m of 18(58, if the year, IS bei Spitz- len ExpeJi- ngar unJor orminations ) 21. Daa, L. K.— Om Spitsbcrgons Ihi.ssiskc nava Grumant. (On Gniiiiant, the Ihi.^siiiii nairio of Spilzliorgcii.) K.V.A. (")fvers, 1S70, pp. S'J'J -;i()7. 22. Jjidi-rin, E.— Go )grafi.ska ortbestamningar umlor Svonska oxpoditioiien till Griinland, 1870. (Geographical determinations of places during the Swcdi.sh Exprdition to Greenland in 1870.) K.V.A. Ufvors, 1871, pp. Ii2.')-'J40. 2?). Wijkander, A. — Astronomi.ska ob.servationer under den Svcuska aicti.ska expcditionen, 1872-1873, 1. Tidsoch ortbe- stiininingar. K.V.A. Handlingar, Vol. }:\ (1871), No. <). 21. t.'hyd('mu.s, K.— Oni den Sven.ska oxpeditionen till Spets- bergcn ar 18(51 fiii-etagna undcrsiikning af en gradmiitnings iitfurbarjiot dcr-stiides. (On the exjdorations undertaken during the Swedish Expedition to Hpitzbei-gcn in the year I^Ol, with the view of ascertaining the practicability of meaKuring an arc ol meridian there.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1802, pp. 89-111, 1 map. Transl., Pctermann, Mitthcil., 18(;3, pp. 21-27. 25. Torell, O. — Explorations in Spit/.bergen, undertaken by (ho Swedish Expedition in I8(;], with the view of ascertaining tho practicability of tlie mea.siU'ement of an •avc of meridian. London, Pvoyal Society's Proce; dings. Vol. 12 (18(32-1863), pp. 058 G(;2. 20. Torell, O.— Extract of a L< tti r to General Sabine, dated from Gopcnhagen, Dec. 12, 1803. London, Eoyal Society's Proceedings, Vol. 13 (1803-1804), pp. 83-84. 27. Skogman, C— Complet'on of th(* preliminary survey of Spitzbergcn, undertaken by the Swedish (government with tho view of ascirtaining tho practicability of the measm-cnunt of an arc of the meridian. In a letter addressed to Major-General Subnie, dated Stockholm, Nov. 21, 1804. London, Royal Society's Proceedings, Vol. 13 (1-803-1804), ])p. 551-553. 28. ])un('r, N., and Nordenskirdd, A. E,— Filrberedande nnder- sokningar rLirande utfurbi'rheten af en gradmiitning pa Spets- bergen. (Preliminary sui'veys with a view to ascertain the practicability of measuring an arc of meridian on Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Handl., Vol. (1805-1800). No. 8, pp. Ui. 1 map. H Hf K'il mi .rr" 422 APPENDIX ir. 1 1 .1")!.' Aniell, W.--Joiimo3- to Sibeiia. Eeviie bryologiquc, 1877, pp. 32-41, 152. Borggren, SV.— Ett isbotiiekt land i hoga norden. (An ico- covered land in tlie liigh north.) Lasning for folket, 1872, Nos. HO, 52. 153. Fries, Th. ]\r.— De ^enaste polar-fardenia. (The latest Polar Expeditious.) Svensk Tidskr. f. literatui', politik och ekonomi, 1876, nn 60- 104,132-162. 154. Jiiderin, E.— Geografiska orthestiiinningai- under Svenska expeditionen till Novaja. Smilja och Kariska liafvet iir 1875. (Geographical determinations of plac(>s during the Swedit^h Expe- dition to Novaya Zeiulya and tlie Kara Sea in the year 1875.) Ofvers, af K.A^.A. Ilandlingar, 1876, No. 2, pp.'3'J-56. 155. Kjellman, F. E.— Eedogiirelse iov Proven's iiivd fran Dick- sons hamn till Norge sanit filr Kariska hafvets viixt och djurverld. (Narrative of t!io voyage of tlie Proren from Dickson's Harbour to Norway, witli an account of the vegetable and animal world of the Kara Sea.) Reprinted from No. 158. 156. Lundstrcim, A. Is. -Expedition Polaire Sucdoi.^e, sous la direction de M. Je Piof. A. E. NordenskiUld, 1875. De Dickson's Hamn k Stockholm a travors la Siburie. Le Tour du Monde, No. 848, i>p. 20U-224. Paris, 1877. 157. Nordenskiold, A. E.-On the former Climate of the Polar Eegions. The Geological Mag., Nov., 1875, jip. 525-532. 158. Nordenskiilld, A. E.— Svenska fiirden till Novaja Semlia och mynningen af Jonissej, sommann 1875. ('I he Swedish Ex pedition to Novaya Zemlya and the mouth of the Yenissei in the summer of 1875.) Gothenburg, 1875 (,.,Tor of tlic press f.u- 1870). 8vo, pp. 58. 159. Nordenskirdd, A. E.--Eesplan fiirni expedition till Jenissei 8r 18/6 utrustad af Uev^nr (). Dickson o.;, Alex. Sil,inakoiT (Plan of an Expedition to the Yeuis.cj in the y.'ar 1876, fitted out by Me.ssrs. U. Dickson and Alex. SibiiiakolT.) Gothenburg, 1876. 8vo, pp. 3. Tliis ami thu I'ollow ill- iiui„l,i.r>, air taken from a later li.it. n. (An ICO- (The latest !76, jip. 60- ler Svenska 't &r 1875. Bdi.sh Expe- 1875.) fran Dick- li djurverld. Harbour to 'Olid of the li.'e, SOUS la 77. ■ the Polar aja Semlja ivedish Ex- isspj ill tlie pp. 58. ill Jeiiissej koff. (Plan ted out ]>y APPENDIX II. 423 KiO. KordnK-kiuld, A. E.~ P( rjiitclse om Jenii-sej-Exjic'ditionen hr 1870. (Pvcpoit of the YeiuVK'j Expedition in the yi ar 1876.) Gothenburg, 1870. 8vo, 2'p. 0. 1(51. Norden.-kiiild, A. E.— Itcdogdrel.-e f(ir en expedition till mynningen af J(nis.sej ooh Sibciicn 1875. (Narrative of an expe- dition to the mouth of the Ytni.-sej and Siberia, 1875.) ApiunidixtoK.V.A. Tran.sat'tions, Stockholm, 1877. 8vo, pp. 11-1. 102. Nordenskiold, A. E, — Programme de IVxpudition dc I'anntJo prochaine (Juillct, 1878) a la mer glaciale dc Siburie. Comptes IJendns, 1877, pp. 058-~0():J. 10;5. Xordonskiilld, A. E. — Framstiillning rlirando 1878 ars Is- haf.-jfiird. Inlagd till 11. jM. Konungcn. Gothenburg, 1877. 8vo, p2>. -3. (Memorial conci-rning the Arctic Expedition of 1878.) Gothenburg, 1878. Ti'anslated into JJanisJi in Geogr. Tidskrift, 1878, into German in Petermann's Geogr. Mitthei^ , 1878, and into French in Bull. Soc, Geogr. 1878. 104. Nordouiskiold, A. E., and Thcel, Hj. — Exjji'ditions Suedoises de 1870 au Yenis.-ei. Upsala, 1877. 8v(), pp. 100, 105. Xordenskiuld, A. E., and Tiu'el, Hj. — Eedogijrelser for de Svenska expeditionerna till mynningen af Jeni.ssej ar 1870. (Nar- ratives of the Swedish Expeditions to the mouth of the Yenissej in the year 1876.) Appendix to K.Y.A. Ilandlingar. Stockholm, 1878. 8vo, pp. 81, 1 map. 166. Parent, Eugenio. — Breve Rapporto sui procedimenti della Spedizione polaire articn svedese dall' agosto 1872. Estratto dalla Rivista Marittima del mese di Agosto. Anno VI. Fasc. VIII., 1873. 8vo, pp. 48, 167. Stuxl)erg, A. — Eriniingar fnin Svenska expeditionerna till Novaja Semlja och Jeui.ssej 1875 och 187(;. PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 29. Agardh, J. O.— Qni don Spetsbci-slca drif-vedens urspriing. (On the origin of tlio Hpitzborgon drift-wood.) K.V.A. (UVeiy, 180i), pp. i»7-lll). .'U). V. Otter, V. W.— Finnos dot iijipet vatton vid TVordpoIon 1 af. F. V. O. (Is O|,on water to Lo foinul .it (he Xorth Polo? ) CarL^krona, K. Orlog«nianna-Sallsk. Tidskrift, 1870, pp 47- 58, li'l-l;!7. .'51. Johanneson, E. IT.— Oh.'-orvationer, Isforholde og Dybdo under Fangstreisen pa Novasendia i .soninieren, 180!). Uddragen af Joumalou ombord i Skonnerteu Xordla.ul. (Observations, state of tlio ice and soundings during a walrus-luniting excursion on Xovaya Zondya in llie sunnuev of 1809. Extracted from the Log of the schooner .Xord/toid.) K.Y.A. Ofver.s, 1870, pp. 111-11.5. Trans], Potei'nianr., .AliUlieil, jip. 870, 19-1-199, map. 32. Johivnnosen, E. TL— Ilydrografiske iaktagelser under en Fangsttour, 1870, rundt om Novaja-i-'ondia. (Hydro.i'raphical observations during a Avalrns-hunting tour round Novava Zeudya in 1870.) " ^ K.V.A, ()fvers, 1871, pp. l.'')7-lfi8, map. Triin,sl Petermann, :MiUli(>il., 1871, jip. .'{o-.^n, 2.'i0-2.32. ^ 33. Meteorologiska^ iaktagol.^er austiillda pii Beeren-Eiland vintern 18t)5-(5, af skeppaien Siovert Tobiesen, och in om Norra Pohuhafvet sommaven 1868 af Ivaplonen Friherre Fr. von Otter och Liijtnant L. Palandor. ^lo.hhdado af A. E. Nordenskiuld. (IVIeteorological ob.^ervations made on Pear Island in tlie winter of 18i;.-)-1806, by skipi)er 8ievert Tobiesen, and in tlu; North Polar Sea in the summer of 1868 by Captain Baron Fr. von Otter and Lieut. I,. Pal.uuler. fommunicatod by A. E. Noidenskiiild.) w '**- APPENDIX ir. 425 ^o. 8 to iind ■ioj iir 187(5. 11 tlio year s ursprimg. N'ordpolon ? 'do?) 0, pp. 47- )jb(lo under ;ldrjigen af tioiis, state :c;ursi()u on )m the Log under en ro,^ra2^1lical - Zemlya iu 3ien-Eiland oni Norra von Otter rden.skiold. :) winter of 1 Polar Sea and Lieut. K.V.A. Trans., Vol. 8(18(10), No. 11. pp. 28. Transl. Poter- niann, Mitthoil., 1870, pp. L'l!) i'.')l. .'51. NordonskiuM, A. 10.- Toinpcratur von Onieuak, We.stfitri in- land. Wien, O.stovn'icli. (Jos. f. Moteorol. Zoitschr., rod. v. Jolinok u. J. llann. 1872, pp. 111112. 'Ml. Wijkaiidor, A. — Oh.scrvation.s nirti'orologique.s do Texprdition an^tiipic Sui' dans la Hcaudinavie soptontiionale. Liinds Univ. Arsskrift, Tom. xii. pp. ID. 172. Wijkand(>Tv A. — Observations nia,i,'n('tiq!ies, faites pendant Texpi'dition aietiquo smdoisi' en 1(S72~1S7;3, II. K.V.A. Trans., Vol. 14 (1S74), No. 15 173. Wijkander, A. Didra,!,' till kiinnodoni oni vindforliiillen- dena i de Spetsbergcn onigifvande dol;inio nf Noija Lsbafvet. (Contributions to a knowledge of the i-elatious of tln' winds in the parts of the North Polar sea snrrouncli.'g Spil/.bergen.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1875, No. 8. GEOLOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY. 44. Torell, O. — Pidrag till Spitsb(Mgons nniUuskfanna. Jeinte en allman ofversigt af arktiska regionens naturfi) hallundcna och forntida utbredning. (Contributions to the niolluse-fauna. of Spitz- bergen. Together with a gtneral vii'w of the natural relations and former extent of the Arctic Kegions.) Stockholm, 1851). 8vo, 154 pp. :! jil. Transl. Petermann, Mittheil., 18(!1, pp. 4!»-()7. 45. Nordenskiuld, A. E. — Gcografisk och geognostisk be.skrifning cifver nordi-istra delarne af Spetsbergen och Hinloopen-Strait. (Geographical and geognostic description of the north-eastern parts of Spitzbergen and lliuloopeu Strait.) See No. 10. 46. Blomstrand, C. W. — Geognostika, iakttagolsor under on resa till Spetsbergen ar 1861 . (Geognostic observations during a j.>urney to Spitzbergen in the year ISGl.) On the spec- )1, pp. 25-30. laut rcxpcdi- igen nnd ilire II. No. 11. lations de la uile. Linuls ites pendant iiidfoiliiillcn- lii I.sliafvet. winds in the ma. Jeinte lundena och ina of Sp!tz- elation.s and beakrifning )open-Strait. astern paits ider (>n rosa \g a journey APPKNDIX II. 427 K.V.A. Trims., Vol. 4 (18(il-(i2), No. (i. pp. 10, 2 pi. Tninsl. IVtcrniiinn, iMittlicil, ISd."), p. I'.U-l'.i."). 47. Noidciiskiiild, A. E.- I'lkast liil Spotsborgena goologi. (Sk(>tcrli of tlic (Jcology of Spitzbcrgcn.) K.y.A. Vol. (i (]S(;:)-(;(i), No. 7. jip. ;?.'>, 2 maps, English 'rr.insliition. Stocklioha, ISO?. 48. Lindstruui, (}. -Analy.-or pa borgarter fran Spetsbergen. (AniiU>es of rocks from S])itzborg.m "l \. I W I I) fi 4L'8 AprENDix jr. 57. Daubri'e, G. A. - EAaiiipii dps im't.'nrKosd'Ovifnlc (Oroi^nland), an point do vuo dw cfubono ft ties sols .k(i1ii1>1(s qu'ils iciiformcnt. PiuiH, Acad, des Sc, (.'ompt. IJciul., T. 75 (lS7i'), i)p, L' l()-L>M). 58. Wiihlcr, F.— Aiialyso des Mfteoioi.sens vonOvifak iu Oiuiiland. Nachtriigliclu" Beinerkiiu^'cn. Guttingdi, K. Ges. d. Wiss., Naohric-liten, 1872, pp. 197-204, 4[)l)-5(ll. 51). Nordi'uskiold, A. E.— Filrodrag pa K. Vot. Akad. liilgtids- dag. 5 April, 1872 (Om lueteoijornet fraii Ovifak). (Addr.'ss at tlie Aiinivemuy Aloeting of the Royal [S\v( disli] Acadoiiiy of Sciences, .•)tli April, 1872.) (On the metooric iron from Uvii'akl) Stockholuis Dagblad, 1872, No. 107. Transl. Eevue scicntiliqiie do Li Franco et de I'ltranger 1872 pp. 128-131. 00. Stecnstrnp, J.-— Oi)lysningor oni de Grr.nlandskc Jcrninasser (Information about tlio Gieenland iron nja.sses.) Copenhf gen, Naturliist. Foren. Videnskab. Meddelelser, 1872, p. 11. 01. Das gcdiogeno Eisen von Ovil'ak in Gronland. (Tho n.ativo Iron at Ovifak in Greenland.) Der Natuiforscher. Ifeg. v. W. Sklaek, 1874, i)p. 473-475. 02. FKglit, W.— A chapter in the history of meteorites.— ]\[ete- oric irons found August, 1870.— Ovifak (or Uigfak) near Godhavn, Ivekert.arssuak or island of Disko, Gi-eenland. Geol. Mag., 1805, pp. 115-123. 03. Tsehermak, G.— Der IMetooritenfund bei Ovifak in Griinland. Tschermak, Mineralog. Mitthcil, 1874, pp. 1()5-174. 04. Nordenskiiild, A, E.— (Lettre contenant des observations b.i.r les poussieres oharbonneuses, avec fer mctalliquo, qu'il a observe dans la neige; connnuniquih par M. Daubrre.) Paris, Acad, des Sc, Con)pt. Eend., T. 77 (1873), pp. 403-405. 05. NordenskiJild, A. E.— Om kosmiskt stoft, som vid nedcr- bilrden faller till jordytan. (On cosmic dust wliicli falls with rain [or snow] to tho surfiice of the eartli.) K.Y.A. Ofvers, 1874, No. 1, pp. 3-12. Transl. Poggendorf, Annalen, 1874, pp. ir)4-105. Archiv. des. Sc. pliys. et nat. Nonv., 1874., pp. 282-284. Philos. Mag., Ser. 4, Vol. 48 (1875), pp. 4.-)0-457. 60. Eindstriim, G.— Om Trias och JurafiJr.stenningar friin Spet.s- bergen. (On Triassic and Jurassic fossils from Spitzljergen.) k irfrolulnnd), cnfcrnitiit. p. 2I()-L'1(). V iu Gioiiland. pp. 197-204, katl. liligtids- (Aildnjss iit Acadoiny of 111 Uvifak.) •aiigei-, 1872, ' J( rnniasser, r, 1872, p. 11. (Tho nativo 473-175. •ites. — ]\[oto- 'ar Ciodhavn, in Gri inland. M'vationa b.i.r il a observe 4r,.'?-405. 1 vid nodcr- 1 falls with ip. 282-284. -4.-) 7. t" friln Spcts- •gen.) ArnONDIX II. 429 K.Y.A. Ti-nns., Vol, (\ (18C).^-r)^)), No. fi. pp. 2(1, 3 pi. Transl. (!col. INIag., 18(;s, p. 21) .'50. (17. Hulko, J. \V. — IMciiioraudum on .some fos.sil vcrtelirato roinaius colloetod by tho Swedish oxpoditions to Spitzborgon iu 18G4 and 18(18, K.V.A. Haudl. Appendix, Vol. 1 (187:5), No. !), pp. 11. Hoer, Osw. — Flora fosnilis avctica. Dio fossile Flora dor Polarlundor. Bd. l-.*?, Zurich, 18G8-75. 08. r.d. 1. — Dio iu Nordgri'iuland, auf di>r Mtdvillo Insol, ini Banksland, am !Mac'k(>nzie, in Island nnd in Spitzljcrgcn ontdookten fossilou Pflaiizen. i\lit oinoin Anliang iibor vorstfinorto llijlzor der arctischon Zono. Yon Carl Craiuor. pp. lUU, 1 map, a(J pi. (iU. J'.d. 2 : 1. — Fossilo Flora dor Hiiren Insel. Enthaltond die Besehroibung der von don llorrn A. J']. Nordonskiiild und A. J. Malnigron im Sonnuor 18(18 dort gofiuideiion. Pllanzon. K.V.A. Handl., 15d. i) (1S7()), No. f), pp. .51, l.") pi. 70. Ed. 2 :2. — l<'lora fossilis Alaskana. Fossilo Flora von Alaska. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 8 (18(;i)), No. 4, pp. 41, 10 pi. 71. 15(1.2: .3. — Dio miocono Flora und Fauna Spitzbergons. Mit oincni Anliang iibcr die diluvialon Ablagerungen Spitzborgens. K.V.A. Handl., Vol, 8 (l.sfil)), No. 7, pp. 1)8, K; pi, 72. ]')d. 2 : 4. — Contribution.s to the Fossil Flora of North Greenland. 73. Bd. 3 ; I. — Beitriige zur Steiukohleu Flora dor arctisohon Zono. K.V.A. Handl, Vol. 12 (1873), No. 3, pp. 11, (] pi. 74. Bd. 3 : 2. — Dio Knndo-Flora der arctisohon Zono, gegrun- det auf dio von den Sch\vedi.>^chen Expoditionen von 1870 and 1872 in Gri'inland und Spitzbergen gcsammelton Pllamnzen. K.V.A. llandl., Y^ol. 13 (1874), No. 2, pp. 138, 38 pi, 7.5. Bd. 3 ; 3. — Nachtriige zur niioccnen Flora Griinlands, enfc- haltend dio von der Schwedischen Expedition im Sonnuer 1870 ge.samniolton miocenou PM.inzen. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 13 (1874), pp. 29, 5 pi. 7(). Bd. 3 : 4. — Uebersicht der mioeenen Flora der arctischen Zone. Ziirich, 1874, pp. 24. ■U M i 'iJ III ''•\ 430 APPENDIX II. I, i 77. ITeer, Ohw. ■ O.n do af A. E. Nonk-nHki..!.! ooh (J W lUom- stmn.l pu Sp«tshoi-on upptic-kt.i f,..ssil,t viixtor. (0,i tl.o Fosnil Plants chscov,.re.l l.y A. E. Nonlon,ski,il,l ,,,,.1 C. W. Ulonustnuul, on Smtz- liergen.) ' K.V.A. Ofvers, ISOC, .,, i :).l5r,. 78. Ui'ov, (Xsw.-Utdi-a- m- .'Lfc bref af Pr,.f. 0.sw„ld Ifeer rorandc f,.s.s,la vitxt.-r Uun n<.nlvostra A.nm-ik., insanilade af IWu- mastare Jlj. h'urul.j..h„. m.hl.huh ni A. E. N.mUmskiold. (hxfnu.t trom n MUn- fn.m Pn.f. Oswald iro.-r. ..,„a-or,.in- fossil p ai-.ts tro.u north-westei-u An.erioa,, ...lio.-ted by Alinin. Inspo.t.r Hj. iMirul.jnhn. ('(.Mummioatod by A. E. Norueuskiiild.) K.V.A. Ofvers, IMS, pp. (;;{-(;,s. 71> Ifoer, 0.w.-.On tho .ui.u'ono (l,„u of tho Polar Ko^'ions 1 wo lectures g.von at tl.o arnual mc-tin- of tl... Natural History Society of Switzerland, on the !)th and lltb Hopten.ber, I8(i7, at Jvheinfoldrn. (Trausl. by E.l\v,.r7;5- -'80, 80. ITeer. OHw.-Uobor die nieioeiine Flora der Polarregionen .Das Aiusland, 18(18, pp. i'77-i>,S(). 81. Stur, O. ITeor.— Floni fossil is arctica. Wien. k.k. geol. lieii'hsanstalt, Verliandl., 18(58, pp. 17i)-18l. 82. Heer, Osw.-Die miocei.o Flora von 8i)itzbergen. Vor-etra- gen den L'.-J August, 18(;.), Un der A^u.saunulung der scbweiz. naturf. Gesellscliaft in Wolollmrn. Sohweiz. Naturf. Gea. Verliandl, 1801), j^p. 15(5-168. • 83. Ilcor, Osw. — La floro niioc.'no du Spitzbcrg. Arch. dt>s Sc. phys. et nat. Nouv. per., 18(;!>, pp. 289-300. 84. HecOsw.-Furutskickade anmiivkningar iifver Nord-ron. ands krrtHora, gr.,ndade pd den Svonska expedition. ns upptucktor, 1870. (Prd.mautry jon.arks on tho Cretaceous Flora of North Greenhnid, founded on the discoveries of tho Swedish Expedition oi 1870.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 117.J--118L 85. Heer, Osw.-On the Carboniferous Flora of J^eav Island London, Geol. Soc. Quart. Jouru., 1872, pp. 1G1-1G9. 86 Dawson, J. W.-Note on tho relations of tlie supposed Car- boniferous plants of Lear Island, with the Palaeozoic Flora of North America. Geol. Alag., 187:^, p. 13. > APPKNDIX IT. 431 C. W. Blom- FoHsil Plants ml, on Hpitz- swnld Ifeer liitle at' 15er^- Ordonskilild. •riling' foNNil 1^ Inspoctor ■) ar Ro^'ions. irul History )er, 18()7, at I'ei'ionen. 17!) -181. V'or<,'etm- iv schvveiz. -300. Nordgriiji- ip])tiic'kt(»r, of North lixpoditiou Island. )osod Car- i of North Hi. lI(or, OHW. — Oni di' mioren/i viixtor, soni den KvcUMka oxpo- tlltioiieii 1870, lionifiirt fr.in (Jriinland. (On tho Miocono plants which tho Swedish Kxprdition of 1870 brought homo from Groen- lund.) K.V.A. Ofvcrs, 187;?, No. 10, pp. ."i |J, 88. Hct-r, Osw. -Aniiiiirknlngur I'.fvor do uf .Svonska Polaroxpe- ditioncn 1872 7'\ upptaekto fo,ssila viixtrr. (liruiarks on tho fos.sil plants di,soovortil by tlie Hwodish Polar Kxpodition of l87:i-73.) K.V.A. Ufvors, 1871, No. 1, pp. 2.-.-;i-J. 171. Chydcniiis, .1, L. -Uiidersokiiin-,' af fos.silt liartz friin Oron- land. (Examination of fossil rosin from (.'i voniand.) Gcologiska Foreningcns Stockholm Forhandl., 187o, pp. 549- 551. 175, Daubn'c, G. A. — O])s('rvations siir la struoturo inti'rieux'e d'lnio dcH masses do fcr nalif d'Ovifak, Coniptcs K( ndns, T, 74 (1877), pp. (;r>-70. 170. 11,, ,r, Osw.—Flora fossllis arctica. Dio fossile flora der Polarliuulor. Bd. IV., Ziirich, 1877. 1. Bcitriigo zur fossilon Flora Spetsborgens. Gegriindrt auf die Sainmlinigon der Schwedischcn Expoditif)nen vom Jahre 1872 auf 187.S. IMit oincm Anh.ing : Ihh: r.sicht der Gcologie des Eisfjordes und des Bollsundcs von Prof. A. E. Nordcn.skiuld. K.V.A. llandl., Bd. It, No. 5 (187G), pp. 141, 32 pi, 177. Obcrg, P.— ()m Trias- fiirsteningar fran Spotsborgen. O&n Triassic fossils from Spitzbcrgon.) K.V.A. Ilandl., Bd. If, No. 11 (1877), pp. 19, 5 pi, ZOOLOGY. 89. Qiicnnerstcdt, A.— Nagra anteckningar cm Spetsbergens dJiggdjur och foglar (Akad. afJiandl.). Some notices of the Mam- malia and Birds of .Si)i< bergcn (Academic treatise). Lund, 18G2. pp. 3; 90. Andersen, C. II.— Om Spetsbergsrcnen, Cervus tarandus, forma Spetsborgensis. (On tlie Spitzbergen reindeer, Cervun tarand'x.'i, forma Spetsborgensis.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1803, pyx 457-101, 91. Mr.lmgrfn, A. J. J;ikttagelser oeh antechningar till 432 t I 1 1'! I' I li »i I APPENDIX II. Fimimrkons <.ch ai)et.sl)or','ons (liig^'djiirNfaiuia. (OI).s(>rviitions imd notoH ro<,'anlinsf tho Mamumlia Kaiui.i of Fininaikaiid Spitzbor-on.) K.V.A. Otvors, ISO.'l, |,p. 127-ir)r). Transl. Zeit.schr. f. d. ^.'sainint. Nut. wis.s. von CJiobol u. Siowart Bd. 24 (1804), pp. 454-4:)8. Petermami, MitLlioil., ISOT), pp. 11:»-1U. 92. ^[alingroii, A. J. -Oiu taiulby^'f^nadou lion ItvalroH.sen (Odohanns ro.vnaniii, L.) ocli t.MHloml.ytot ho.s liiins of iklcla migo. (On tho fonnatiou of tho tooth of tlu> Wah-iis [OUo/xf.uus ro»murus, L.J, and on tlie chani,'o in tho tooth in its unborn youn^'.) K.V.A. (")fvors, IHO.'J, pp. DO.'i-.jJ^. 93. Malnigren, A. J.— Antodcningar till Spotsberyena fogel fauna. (Notes on the Bird Fauna of Spitzburgon.) K.V.A. Ofvors, I8fi;5, pp. 87-1 iMi. 94. Malmgron, A. J.— Nya antei-kningar till Spetsbergons fogel fauna. (Now notes on the Bird Fauna of Spitzbirgen.) K.V.A. (ifvors, 18(34, pp. ;577-41i>. 95. Newton, A.— Notea on tho Hirds of S])itzbergou. The Ibis, 1865, pp. 199-219, 49G-525. 96. Malmgrcn, A. J.— Zur Vogelfauna Spitzbergen.s. Auf Anlas-s von Mr. Alfred Ncwton'.s '• Not.vs on tho Birds of Spitzbertfens " in "The Ibis," 1865. ^ Journal fur Ornithologio, 1865, pp. 385-400. 97. Nowton, A.-Zur Vogrlfauna Spitzborgens. Auf Anlass von Dr. A. J. Mulmgren's Aufsatz iui Journal fur Ornithologle, 1865. Journal f iir Ornithologie, 1867, j)p. 207-211. 98. Sund.vall, C. J.-Spotsborgens foghir ined hufvudsakli-t avseende pa deux som blifvit funna und-r Prof. Nord.'nskililds rosor dit aren 1868 och 1872-73. (The B.irds of Spitzborgen with special reference to those found during Prof. Norden.skiUld's journeys thither m the years 1868 and 1872-3.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1874, No. 3, pp. 11-25. 99. Malragren, A. J.~Om Spetsbergens fisk-fauna. (On the Fish Fauna of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1861, pp. 489-539. Transl. Petermann., Mittheil., Ergiinz., 1865, pp. 3-1-39. 100. Boheman, 0. H.-Bidrag till kiinnedomen om Spetsborgeiis in.sekt-fauna. (Contributions to the knowledge of the Insect Fauna of Spitzbergen.) i»rvatlons and ol u, iSiowart. IFvalrossen pecitbus norvegicis aliiscpie vicinis, enumerat A. Goes. K.V.A. Civers, 1863, pp. 161-180. 107. GiJes, A. — Crustacea amphipoda maris Spttsbergiam alluenti?, cum speciobus aliis arctci.s, enumerat A. GiJcs. K.V.A. Ufvers, 1865, pp. 517-536. 108. Sar.';, G. O. — Cumace^r fra de .-tore Dybder i Nord shavet, iusamlode ved den Sveuske Arktisko Expeditioner Aarene 1861 o" 1868. (C'umacea from great depths in the North Polar Sea, col- lested l)y the Swedisli Arctic Expeditions in the years 1861 and 1868.) K.V.A. (")fvirs, 1871, pp. 71)7-802. 10!). Lilljeborg, \V.— Do under Svtuska vetenskapliga expedi- ti(men till Spetsbergen 1872-1873 derstUdes samlade Ilafs- Entomostraceer. (The Marine Entomostratea collected durinix t' o Swedish Scimtitic Expedition to Spitzbergen in 1872- 7o.) K.V.A. Ofvers. 1875, No. -i. F F ) : ■ I 431 APPENDIX ir. ! t I 110. Lovc'n, S.— Om Mollusksliigtet Pilidiuin MidJ. (On tho Mollusc Tribe, Pilidium Midd.) K.V.A. Of vers, 1859, pp. 119-120. ^ Toreli, O.— Bidrag till Hpotsbergens mollusk-fauna.' (Contribu- tions to the Mollusc-Fauna of Spitzbergen.) See No. 44. 111. Murch, O. A, L.— Catalogue des mollu.sques du Spitzberg recu3illis par ]e Dr. H. Kroyer, pendant le voyag(, de la corvette La Hecherche en juin 1838. (Contains matter relating to the moUusca collected by the Swedish Expedition.) Bruxellts Soc. Malacol. de Belgique, Annale^, T. 4 (1869). 112. Lindahl, J.— Om Pennatulid-slagtet Umbellula, Cnv. (On the Pennatulid tribe, Umbellula, Cnv.) K.V.A. Hand., Bd. 13 (1874), No. 3, pp. 22, 3 pi. 113. Smith, F. A.—Kritisk fc.rtei-kn'ng iifvor Skandinavions Hafs-Bryozocr 1-5. (Critical List of the lAIarine Bryozoa of Scandinavia.) K.V.A. Ofverfi, 1805, pp. 116-142, 1 i± ; 1866, jip, 395-533, 11 pi.; 1867, pp. 279-429, 5 pi.; 1867, appendix, pp. 230, 5 pi. ; 1871, pp. 111.5-1134 2 pi. ir , F , 114. Smith, F. A.- -Bryozoa marina in reglonibns ar;-ticis et borealibns viventia recensuit F. A. 8. K.V.A. 1867, pp. 443-487. 115. Malmgren, A. J.— Nordiska Hafs-Annulator. (]\larine Annulata of the North.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1805, pp. 51-110, 181-192, 3.-').3-410, 20 pi. 116. Malmgren, A. J.— Annulata polyclia^ta Spetsbei-giie, Grlin- landiai, Islandii« et Scandinaviaj hactonus cofnitaj. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1867, pp. 127-235, 14°pl. Also published in Swedish at Helsingfors, 1867. 11/. Thi'el, H. — Borst- och Stjernmaskar, tagna i grannskapet af 80 degraden under Svenska expoditionen 1872-73. (Annolids taken in the neighbourhood of 80° N.L., during the Swedish expedition in 1872-73.) . 118. Ljung]nan, A.--Opliiuroidoa vivcnt'a hue usque oognita enumcrat A — L — . ^ K.V.A. Ofvers, 1866, pp. 303-336. 119. Lov('n, S.— Till fragan om Tshafs faunans fordna utstviick- nitig Jifver en del af Norden fast land. (On the .piestion of the IJ. (On tho . (Contribu- U. lu Spitzberg I corvette La the mollusca 1809). I, Cuv. (On kandinfivions IJryozoii of ip, ,')95-533, ). -'30, 5 pi. ; ! ai';'ticis et L'. (jNlaxune I, 20 p]. ergiiB, Griin- publishcd in grannskapet (Annolid.s he Swedish que cognita la utstviick- stion of the APPENDIX 11. 435 former extension of the fauna of tlie Polar So.i over a part of the mainland of the North.) K.V.A. Ofvers, pp. 463-468. 120. Loven S.— Ora re.^ultaten af do af den Svenska Spetsbems- expeditionen 1861 utforda djupdraggningar. (On tho results of the deep dredgings carried out by the Swedish expedition to Snit?- bergen in 1861.) ^ ' Forh. vid de Skand. Naturf. niondo mijto, Stockholm 1863 pn. 384-386. 121. Malmgren, A. J.-Om forekomstea af djurlif pR stora hafsdjup. (On the occurrence of animal life at gieat depths in the fea.) Helsingfors, Fin.ska Vet. Soc. Ofvers, 12 (1869-70), pp. 40_49. 122. Quennerstedt, A.— Anteckningar om djurlifvet i Isliafvet mellan Spetsbergen och GrunL-nid. (Notes on animal life in the Polar Sea betwc en Spitzbergen and Greenland.) K.V.A, Ilandl., Bd. (1867) No. 3, pp. 35, 3 pi. 123. v. Gues.--Om Tardigrader, Anguillul* m.m. fran Spets- bergen. (On Tardigrada, Anguillul*, &c. from Spitzbergen ) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1862, 2ip. 18. ^ ^ •/ 178. Eisen, G.— On the Oligochotre collected by the Swedish expeditions to the Arctic Eegions, under the diiection of Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold. K.V.A. Handl., 1877, Bd. 15. 179. Eisen, G.— Eedogiiieli-e for Obligocha-ter samlade under de Svcnka expeditionem till arktiska tiakter. (See No. 178 ) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1878, No. 3. 180. Holmgren, A. E.— Novaja Semljas insckt fauna. (In preparation.) 181. Koch, L.— Arachnider friin Novnja Semlja och Sibcritn. (Arachnida from Novaya Zemlya and Siberia.) (In preparation.) 182. Leche. V.— Ofversigt ofver de af (:e Svenska expeditioneiiia till Novaja Zemlja och Jenissej 1875 och 1876 insamlade Hafs- Mollu.sker. (Review of the IVlarine Mollusca collected by the SwtxbVh expeditions to Novaya Zemlya and Yeuisfcj in 1^75 ami 1876 ) K.V.A. Handl., 1877, Bd. 16. 183. Lilljeborg, W.- Synopsis crustaceoniui siiecicoium Oidinis Br.inchiopodoruiii ot Subordinis Phyllopodornin. !■ I' 2 ■i, J' : t WM ¥ i illG APPKNDIX If. 10. So, Ups. Ser. HI. vol. ext ordinem Nova Acta Reg. So editum. Ul>«ila, 1877, pp. 20, Ho. ^ m Miildin, Fr. W.-Diagnoser i3fvor nSgra nya siberiska in«ekt-arter. (Descriptions of several new Siberian .species of insects.) ^ 185. Sars, G. 0.— Orn Cumaceer fra de store Dybder i Nordis- ftavet. (On Cuniacea from great depths in the North Polar Sea ) K.V.A. Handl., Bd. II., No. 6, pp. 12, 4 pi. 186. Smitt, P. A.— Recensio systematica animaliura Bryozoorum qua^initmeribus ad insulas Novaja Semlja et ad ostium fluminis Jen.ssej duoe Professore A. E. Nordenskicild, invenerunt Doctores A. Stuxberg et H. Thcel. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1878, No. 3. 187 Stuxberg, A.-Myriopoder frSn Sibirien och Waigatsch on samlade under Nordenskiiildska expeditioneu, 1875 K.V.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 2, pp. 11-38, 2 pi. On the Myriopoda, from Siberia and Waigatsch Island, collected dining the expedition of Prof. Nordenskiijld, 1875. Ann. and Magazine of Natural History, 4th series Vol 17 pp. 306-318, London, 1876. ' ' 188^ Stuxberg, A.— Crustacea malacostraca frun Murmanska och Kariska Hufven. (Crustacea malacostraca from the Murman and Ivaia Seas.) K.V.A. Handl., Appendix, Bd. 5. 189 Stuxberg, A.-Echinodermer frSn Novaja Semlias haf samlade under Nordenskicild.ka expedionema 1875 och 1876 (Echmodermata from the sea of Novaya Zemlya collected during JrTot. Nordenskiold's expeditions in 1875 and 1876 ) K.V.A. Ofvers, lo78, No. 3. Ju<' ^^^'^' ^J'7^^,"^^«^ «"^- 1«« G'phyriens inermes des Mers ae la bcandinavie, du Spitzberg et du GrlPidand K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 3, No. 6, pp. 30, 4 pi. Conpare Journal de Zoologie, 1875, pp. 366-390, 475-488. 191. Tlu'el Hj.-Nagra bidrag till Novaja Semljas fogel-fauna. (Son.e contributions to the Bird Fauna of Novaya Zemlya ) K.V.A. Ofvers, 18<6^ No. 5, pp. 43-53. Note vur les oisfaux de la Nouvelle Zemble. tra ordinem '■a siberiska 1 species of ler i Nordis- 1 Polar Sea.) Bryozooi-um, um fiuminis int Doctores ''aigatseh on ul, collected Js, Vol. 17, manska och 'urman and emljas haf och 1876. ited during i des Mers 488. ogel- fauna, ■a.) APPENDIX ir. 437 Ann. Sci. naturelles, 6me Ser. (zoologie), Tome IV., Art No 6 pp. 1-7. 192. Thc'el, Hj.— Note sur I'EIpidia, g.nire nouveau du groupe des Holothuries. K.V.A. Hand!., App., Bd. 4, No. 4, pp. 7. 193. Th^el, Hj. — Memoire sur I'EIpidia, nouveau genre d'Holo- thuries. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 14, No. 8. Stockholm, 1877. pp. 30, 5 pi., 4to. 194. Theel, Hj.— Note sur quelques Holothuries des Mers de la Nouvelle Zemble. Nova Acta Peg. Soc. Sc. Ups., Ser. [II. Vol. extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877, pp. 18, 2 pi., 4to. 195. Theel, Hj.— Les Annolides Polychetes des Mers de la Nouvelle Zemble. (In preparation.) 196. Trybom, R— Dagfjiivilar insamlade af Svenska exp3di- tionen till Jenissej 1876. (Diurnal Lepidoptera collected by the Swedish Expedition to the Yenis.sej in 1876.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 6, pp. 35-51. 197. TuUberg, T.— Collembola borealia. Nordiska Collembola. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1876, No. 5, pp. 23-47, pi. 8 to 11. 198. Westerlund, C. A.— Sibiriens Land- och Scitvatten-Mol- lusker. (The Land and Fresh-water Molhisca of Siberia.) K.V.A. Handl, Bd. 14, No. 12. Stockholm, 1877, pp. Ill, 1 pi., tto. BOTANY. 124. Mahngrcn, A. J.—Ofvoisigt af Spet.sbejgens fauerogam- flora. (Keview of the Phanerogamous Floia of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1862, pp. 229-268. Translated, Petermann, Mittheil., jip, 47-53. 125. Anderson, N. J.— Bidrag till den nordiska flomn. 1. E, 1871, fol., pp. 2. 129. Berggren, S._Bidrag till kiinnedoin om fanerogmafloran vid Diskobngten och Auleit«ivik-fjorden pA Gninlands vestkust. (Contributions to a knowledge of the Phanerogamous Flora at Disko Rxy am: Auleitsivik Fjord on the West Coast of Greenkuid.) K.V.A. Ofvors, 1871, pp. 853-807. 130. Kjellman, F. E.-Nf.gra tilHigg till kiinnedomen om Spots- bergens Planta, vasculaies. (Some contributions to the kuowled-e of the Plantre vasculares of Spitzbergen.) K.V.A. Ofvera, 1874, No. 3, pp. 31-42. 131 Lindberg S O.-Mossor flr 1858 pa Spetsbevgen insamlade f«rlT'f • i'- ^«^-^«"«^^^'ld. (Mosses collected on Spitzbergen in 1858, by Professor A. E. Nordenskiiild.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1861, pp. 189-190. 132. Lindberg, S. O.-Forteckning ufver mossor, insamhide under de bvenska expeditionerna till Spetsbergen 1858 och 1861 K.V.A. Ofvers, 18G6, pp. 535-561. 133. Berggren, S.— Musci et Ilepatic-e Spetsbergenses K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 13 (1874), No. 7. 134. Berggren, S.-Undersukning af mossfloran vid Diskobu-ton och Auleitsivikfjorden. (Examination of the Moss Flora at Disko Bay and Auleitsivik Fjord.) K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 13 (1874), No. 8. 135. Agardh, J. G.-Om Spetsbergens alger. (On the A]ga> of Spitzbergen.) * Univ. Piogr. Lund, 18G2, fol.. j^p. 4. 136._Agardh, J. G.-Bidrag tii: kannedomen af Spetsb.rgens a ger, jemte Tilliigg. (Contributions to the knowle.lge of the \]iskobugten a at Disko 16 AlgcT of )etsl)i'rgens f the Algaj APl'ENDIX 11. 4:v.) K.V.A. llandl., Bd. 7 (1867-18(58), No. 8, pp. 4'J, 3 pi. 137. Clevo, P. T. — Diatoniaceer friiu Spotsborgen. (Diatoms from Spitzbergen. ) K.V.A. Of vers, 18G7, pp. G6 1-669, 1 pi. 138. Eorggren, S. — Alger from Grunlands inlandsis. (Algtu from the Inland Ice of Greenland.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1871, pp. 293-296, 1 pi. 139. Agardh, J. G. — Bidrag till kiinncdomen af Gronlonds La- niinareer otdi Fucaceer. (Contributions to the kuowb-'dge of the Laminaria and Fucacea of Greenland.) K.V.A. Ilaudl., Bd. 10 (1871), No. 8, pp. 31. 110. Nordstedt, O.— Desniidiacete ex insulis Spetsbergensibns ot Becren Eiland in cxpeditionibus 1868 ot 1870 suecanis collectic. K.V.A. Ofvers, 1872, No. 6, pp. 23-21, 2 pi. 111. Lagerstcdt, N. G. W. — Slitvattens-diatomaceer fran Spets- bergon ooli Beeren Eiland. (Ficshwatcr Diatoms from Spitzbergen and Bear Island.) K.V.A. Ilandl., Bih., Bd. 1 (1873), No. l4, pp. 52, 2 pi. 112. Cleve, P. T.— On Diatoms from the Ar«!tie Sea. K.V.A. Handl., Bih., Bd..l (1873), No. 13, pp. 28, 1 pi. 113. Kjellmaii, F. E. — Om Spotsbcrgens maiina klorofyllforando Tkallophyter. (On tho Marine Chlorophyll-bearing Thallophytes c f Spitzbergen.) 1. Floridcio. K.V.A. Ilandl., Bih., r,d. 3. 111. Fries, Th. M. — Lichenes Arctoi Europe GroenlandiaTiue hactenus cogniti. Collegit, examinavit, disposuit Th. M. F. Upsala, 11. Soc. Sc. Ups., Nova Acta Str. III., Vol. III. (1861), pp. 103-398. 14.'), Fries, Th. M. — Lichenes Spctsbergenses deteiminavit Th. M. F. K.V.A. Handl., Bd. 7 (1867), No. 2, pp. 53. Translated, Petermann, Mittheil, 1868, pp. 62-64. 146. Karsten, P. A. —Fungi in insulis Spotsbergen et Bcercn Eiland collecti. Examinavit, enumerat P. A. K. K.V.A. Ofvers, 187:' 1 . :', pp. 91-108. 199. Kjellman, F. ■,'. Om Spetsbergens marinn, klorophyll- forando Thallophyter. il. (On the INIarine Chlorophyll-bearing Thallophytes of Spitzbeigen.) i If H lili I 4 to APPENDIX 11. \ \ k \\i \m • I i K.V.A. Haudl. Bill., Pd. 4, No. G. Stockholm, 1877, pp. Gl, 5 pi. 200. Kjellman, F. R.-Bidmg till kiinnedomen i,f K.-uiyka hafvets algvegetation. (Contributions to the knowle I'o of the A-lgse of the Kara Sea.) K.V.A. Ofvers, 1877, No. 2, pp. 3-:K), 1 p[. 201. Kjellman, F. R. — Ueber die Algenveget.tion des Mur- manschen Meeres an der West Kii.te von Novaja Semlja und Wajgatsch. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sc. U^.s. , Ser. 111., Vol. extra ordinem editnm. Upsala, 1877, pp. 86, 1 pi, 4to. 202. Lundstrom, A. N. -■ Kritische Bemerkungen iiber die Weiden Nowaja Semljas und ihren genetischen Zusammenhang Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Hv.. IJps , Ser. III., Vol. extra ordinem editum. Upsala, 1877. pp. 14, 1 pi., 4to. HYGIENE. 147. NystKim, C— Om den sista Svenska Spet.sbergs-expedi^ tionens utrustning och hygien. (On the equipment and hygiene of the last Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen.) Upsala, Liik-Fiiren. Farhandl., Bd. 4 (1868-69), pp. 419-430. 148. Ny.'^trbm, C.-Om jasnings- ooh forrnttnelseproce.sserna pi Spet.<;bergen. (On the processes of fermentation and putrefaction on Spitzbei'gen.) Upsala, LUk.-Foren Forhandl., Bd. 4 (1868-69), pp. 551-571. 149. FrSn Spetsbergs-expeditionen.— Bvef frftn Axel Envall (Vinterquarteref /W/^m i Mos.^el Bay d. 16 Juni 1873.) (From the Spitzbergen expedition.— A letter from Axell Envi-Il.) (The V'inter-quarters Folhem in Mussel Bay, 16th Jiine, 1873.) Hygeia, Bd. 35 (1873), pp. 408-412. 150. Envall, A,~Rapport till kongl. Sundhetskollegium ofver hygienen och sjukvaiden under den Svenska Polaroxpeditionen 1872-73. (Report to the Royal [Swedish] Board of Health on the hygiene and care of the sick during the Swedish Polar Fxne ditionof 1872-73.) '^ Stockholm, Sv. Liikaie SiilLsk., Nva Hand] Ser II D "'' "i pp. 87 122. " ' ' ■' I m on iif K.u'iaka lowie ]^j[n of the ttion (los Mur- ija Semlja und •rdineni editmn. igen iiber die sammenhang. oxtia ordiuem tHl)e]-gs-expedi- it and hygiene )p. 419-430. processei'na pii id putrefivtion pp. 551-571. Axel Envall. 873.) (From Rnvi.Il.) (Tho ^73.) :)]legium ufver aroxpeditioneii of Health on h Polar Expe- II., I), r., .i, ^ ^1 Danrjffl ^ -^ .(ft) '-*«;« iilamiice'^^ -A^- (Si.g'h, inland. ^} ■Joi •'»1 ;i^. Thif*', 1676 ♦ WjTjf''irnu(»i/ 'haiprvaturt^ ly Jfcjrderuihd)H to C'.o 100 Pefit/i in. ibuihjnnM o Dndgifi^ 'n ths Xaru-^SfAj Batumi ^ Rocky c (Xcj-^ s yiiuufy CBdoifyrixh liorfont cs iJiw t C SanJi nuavd with { V^tf s^!!!}7!i^T«^n'f^W^^^I!^^^^7S!!^7T^' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) sr A^ c?. & 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■ BO _ Hi 25 2.2 1.4 1.6 P^ * w^ m /% ^' % ^) *: ■<1^ <^^^ > & w %' m o}m» Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 % .1 .<*. ^ 30 iU A MAJ> TO ILLUSTRATE TWO VOYAGES TO THE YENISSEI 8. BACK LN 1875 & 1876. BY A. E. Nordenskiold. 60 -'»IK Beta ^^'"'^'iiu.st *«.._.-■■ .^H^n 'Vvi -- -s*^, ,<^ ,---■ -«vr ~""' _^.- --- Jf 6^ R £ M A A N ^ «^vm 40 E Lonit from Circeiiwich Loud.ui: MdU'iiiillaii &('». S.-rt^-'^Tflt* ^S^Tsra^^.Oiann.) ^.-Jt SI? Luudui: MtU'iiullaii &(o. / ""■""■nni '«i ,11 "ill^ illiii ] r •*•• I 1 ( i^iili I' , ,. If i I If tf 76 gLon t- I2(> lao A MAP OF NORDENSKIOLD'S VOYAGE OISSI'J TO THE lENA I87fl. — ^ — .-- Cburae. of the/ Vega,. O IS -tji DepOh in Fulhcms. - I*osU4on of Cbtuil iitAUircUrttj 1(1 l/tf Vtc/d Krpedxiitm L futewumt lapUlT. ,' n-yacJu^wiii /. ^ d ^ '"\.'4c Harbour/^ — ^ 'X.sl ■ y (A* Vena" -" 7 "Sr^J''k.w.,c;t ,v ^«^.»^ ^r'^^'-ti^e. 75 Sta^/hrda Seoy'^ l»ui''5f. Cka'^na Ct^is 5W 90 100 '-=T IIU 75' eZonefy I, c ^ riop/a/I'^ u j/ '•; ." >.. Kraiznyr jf ; T A I M ^^^ H /;• }tt»^^YJ^T N S U L -^ f' /..... --,^ c? I ^ "'•■. » £' >.Sni>i7iu/i(./ilv.i Dic*.l<"i j . ^: ^ A. lialHQhaiH^uitkoy !)0 K Loiii; Uoiii (liPfMWHh. 1(10 I.oikIoii MiicmilliUi S Co. .=^-. uo IJO i;i» A MAP OF A.E.NORDENSKIOLD'S VOYAGE TllK YOISSKI TO THE LKNA I a 7ft. -.-. ^ Cuiirse of ttu, Vega. m. a Di'fitii m Hilhrnm. I'nniivii vf Cciu.! iUi--orUinij ii< ihf Vetjii E.rpeUUxvTi. ?f f ^^V#^f N S IT L A--- - .^-^rh .-■■' no wiSia j.«f ui .'."At'. rnmmanUjfJ PrtMtbiuyiK'luHtski I. l*-/^ ('»f>r /V('()/)r«» .vc/iiWLvfci 75 ''III /1a4^»^r#lA# "rtju. odJ IStaticn l^uiidtiii MacmiiliUi i^ ('<». t;,;,.l; 11 ul mi Hlf 1 1 m I' I'M i-W.- INDEX I N D E X. A. AcAitiiiAi, 287 Actinia Haven, 358 Advent Bay, 40, !)8, 99 JEolux, 48, 92, 93, 102 Airn, 98 Aldert Dircks's Bay, 93 Alecto, 283 Aledo cschrlcJdii, 336, 357, 303 Alectoria, 95 Al<;a on inland ieo, 163 AInua frudicofia, 293 Alopecurus, 76, 98 Alsine, 94 Aiiiphipoda, 283 Amsterdam Lslnnd, 40, 53 Andromeda, 99 Andromedd letragona, 291 Anf^eliea, 295 An{,'('lin's Mount, 09 Annelids, 61, 102 Anscr hcrnida, 53 Anser hrachyrhynchus, 109 Appendicularia, 287 Apseudes, 102 Arabis, 94 Arctic current, 118 Arctic fox, 68 Arctic willow, 94 Arnell, Doeent H. W., 320 Astarte, 100 Astcrida, 236, 357 Auks, 51, 53, 109 Aulacoranium,-76 Aurora, 208 B Beau pasturinj:^, 285 Ikar Island, 51, 104, 128, 133 Hear Itilands, 370 Bears, 235 Tx-avcr tkins, 375 B(dl sound, 45, 40, 52, 100, 114 BdiKja ciitodmi, 87 Berg, Governor- general Count von, 0, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 Berfgren, Dr. Sveu, 31, 131, 155 Beroe, 100 Bcroidie, 287 Biloeulina, 102 Birch, dwarf discovered on Spitzbcrgcn, 180 Bird Ray, 74 Birkbeek, Mr E., 113 Blomstrand, 49, 97 IJove, I.ieut. G., 352 Braeliiopoda, 290 Brand vwino Bay, 58, 84, 88, 141, 233 Brenner, linetor M., 320 Brookes' apjiaratus, 51 ]?ro\vn, Dr. 1{., 157 I'.ruzewitz, E. C, 352 I'.rya', 95 Bryopngon, 95 ]!ryozoa, 336 Uuccinum glaclalc, 04 Buolian, Captain, 44 "Bulldog" machine, 51, 101, 146 Calamaguostis, 98 Calamites, 136 Canals in the Inland Ice of Spitzbergen, 253 Cape Boheman, 109 Ca])e Chelyuskin passed, 359 Caj)e Crozier, 59 Capo Fanshawc, 70 Cape Mitre, 95 Cape Platen, 241 Cape Selielagskoj, 371 ' Cape Severo, 359 Cape Thordsen, 33, 274 ■lU INDKX. Cape Wriili', s'l ('nrlniiiinc, (irj, (IS, 77, iijt, Jgo ('uriliiiiii, loo Tinvflr chnrilnrrhixn, 'J01 Cnstivn's Isiiinds, 77, 70, 83 ('ntalii'dsn, 77 rnllmriiio, (Vmi'iit, (3 (Vinsliiiii), f)8, «:], 6f), 70, HI (Vtrarin, TiS, l)/» Cliabiirovii, 3r>l Clinriulriiis liiuticiilii, "8 ClmiicH XII.'m IsImikI, 8-J ('Iiy.li'iiius, K., 411, U, 84, f)'.', 104 ('liryNi)s|i|riiiiiiii, 09 f'irnitiiliiH, 102 Cliuloiiin, ST) CluvPiiiij,', 14 Clio, '2S7 ClDUillipriics, 2S0 <'l()vi'n Cliir, 4(1, .13 C'onl, 0(i, 30'_> ^'odilcnriii, .IS, flU, 76, i)4, f»8 Coi^'podn, 14!), 283 Cortnsa, 2!'.') Cosniic (hist, ,3(3, 187 Cottiis, 100 Crt'iK'lIn, ino Crcviisscs, -JTil Ciiliclln, 3;!ti Cross Hay, .IS, IK'S Croziir, I-ioiit., .'i!' Cnista(MM,102, .337 • Ctpiiodiscus, 33(1 Cuiim, 102, 140 Cimiai'ca, 283 Cydipiio, 100 Cyliclina, 102 Cpiirina Miuulicn, 130 Cystoiiti'iis, 2 Diantliiis, 201 niatoninpe.T, .'>2, 102 Dickson, i^Ir. Oscar, 20, 3o, 3fi, 37. 177, 27S, 34.5 ' . . '. Dickson Hay, 140 Dickson Harbour, 28(), 32(i, 356 Dicranum, 58, 95 Diptcra, 63 Down Islands, 11.1 Dral.a, 6;{, e.i, 77, 04, 00, 134 Drcpaiio))se(ta, 100 Dryas, 77, i)!t Diuider Hay, 114 Hiinrr, 40. 104, 112, 114, IJI Unpiinlia, 70 Dyin Toint, 70 K. KnitNt, 330 KcliinodcrniatH, 336, 337 Klirpiisviinl, Count A., 123 Kidcr, 94, 109, 11.'), 201 J-Jinhi'rha vira/is, 51 /•Jnijirfniiii niijrnm, 201 Kncalypta, 05 KngliMli Hay, 4(! A'li/aila piijii/uliiiim, lican of, 72 Knvnll, Dr A., 183; report on liygicno of expedition of 1872.3, 301 Kriffcron, 04 Krio])horuin, 09 Krnilic Mocks, absetioo of, on LSibcrian coast, 373 ExtrcniP Hook, 80, 233 P. FF.onoii, 202, 329 "Finncrs," 51, 52 Forests, Silicriau, 308 Foster's Islanils, 68 Franklin, Sir.lolin, 44, 14(5 Fries, Th. M., 131 Friif-i.rd, 2, 6, 7, 16, 23 GAnl^s, 100 Cialinni, 201 (tnntrro.stciifi aciiIm/iiH, 200 Gppliyrpa, 102 Giles, Cuniniander, 123 Giles' Land, 150, 215 Olixdaiii 175 Glnucotis K'"11'S 216 (flobigerina, 102 (iiies, 40 Gold difrp;in','s on tlip Yenisscj, 316 Green Harbour, 07, 137 Gicenlaiid, Nordenskidld's lournrv to. 30, 153 J J . Grey Hook, 03 Guiileniots, 202 Gulf stream, 51, 118, 131 Gyninoniitriun,, 58, 95 H. Hai,os, 224 Harpalus, 287 Hecla Cove, 59 Hecla Jlount, 60, 65 Hedysarum, 203 Hct'r, Fiof. U&wald, 151 >t s_ INDEX. 4^5 IK, IJI .137 L. 129 liOl ll»l ii'iiii of, 72 rnport on hygiejio 72.3, 3DI CO of, on Silipi'inn 13 I 4, H(i 23 200 ^'enisHCJ, 316 (7 old's journry to, 131 3r.2 HellHaonna, 122, 12 » lliiilui>i>vn Strait, tlH, H;l, 84 llipiiarii L-ulijurin, 2U1 lliihn^K'n, A. V.., 131 lliilotliiiiiii, .Ol, 102 llopu Isluml, ll'J Horn SuuikI, 100 Horn Sdunils 'i'iniliT, IIoof{iuinl, Liuut. A., Ilydidnii'duMii', 3.')(J ilyimuni, 68, 7(1 I. IcF.niinnH, fonnntion of, 122 Ico-ciystiilH, liuf^i', 210 Ice, the crystidliiio I'omi of, 82i! sliowc'i'B of, 255 Jdollua Suhinei iind cnlvihoii, 330, 30'J Inland Ice of Uruinlaud, li')t>, \ii Iikiapi, 378 Isopodii, 283 Ivory K'.ill, 202 J. JOHANNBaKN, Caitain, 358, 305 J uncus, HI) ; J. ciisliiiiiiis, 21tl K. Kaua Gatk, 281 Kara .Sua, 37, 38, 323 Keillmu, I'rof., 41, 135 King Carl's Land, 2-l(> Kiiij,' of Swollen, 47, 345 Kiii«'a iJay, 52, 90, 140 Kjellnian, Dr., 3(i, 37, 183, 186, 27!\ 321, 352, 357 Kobbe Bay, 68, 94 Kryokonite, 103 Kuyleiistjernu, Cuiitain, 49 Laminauia, go Lamiiuiria Aganlhi, 362 Lnmont, Mr., 124 Lapi)s, games of the, 204 Lujitjcir, 309 Larus cburncus, 56 Larus (jlaucm, 50, 56 Larus tridadi/liis, 50, 65 Leo's Foreland, 120 Leigh Smith, Mr., 189, 209, 274 Lemstrbm, S,, 131 Lena, voyage of the, '^65 Lepidodeuiira, 136 Lestris parasitica, 50 liiaeholf'H Island, 308 Libfde Hay, 142 Liliiidiook, 4U Litniunna, 05 Lovvn, I'loffdNor, 44 I.uuilirieuM, 2M7 Lumpenus, loo Lundstriini, Doeent, 37, 279, 303 Liiziilu, 77, 91, 99 M. Mack Fhitz, 272 MeClintock, Sir l,('o|)(ild, 47 Magdalena ll.iy, 45, iO Miigdalcna Hook, 62 Maijdalena, the, 48, 92, !'.'!, 97, 100, 102 Malmgren, A. .1., 49, 75, 104, 110, 114, 121, l"! Maninjotli tusks, .".iiO " Marked " nindccr, 81 Mi'.rten's Island, 79 iMatotsehkin Schar, 279, 280, 281, 823 MaltihiH, 53, 73, 97, 126, li)5 ; de«lli of, 268, 272 Medusif, 287 Mrrgiilus albe, 52 Meleorie iron, diseovery of, 171 Aliddlu Hook, 40, 114 Alollusea, 102 Mulpadia hurcalis, 363 MornwnanticKs, 117, 148 Mosander, I'lofessor, lU, 20 Mount iMiixM-y, 100, 133 JMulhn Island, 88 Murehison Hay, 67, 72 Murchison, Sir Uoderick, 47 Murder ilis-eovered and jiunislieil, 117 JIussel Hay, 35, 80, 191 Myriotruchus Itiiiki, Stkkxstuup, 102 JUi/tilus nlulis, 139 N. Nathoust, Docknt H., visits Spitz- bergen, 32 Natiea, 100 Nnuckholi; G., 131 Neratrum, 293 ^'e\v Siberian Islands sighted, 363 Niew Vriesland, 60 Nonionina, lo2 Nord Fjord, 109 Nordentkibld, Adolf Erik, his lirtli and parentage, 1 ; educatioji, 5 ; • university studies, 7 ; lirst publi-died Woiki', 8 ; dismissal iVuni his ulli. es, 12 ; visit to lieilin, 12 ; Icuvea . >' V ^; -^^^ 446 INDEX. f-:'i: «•' Fiiiliuid, IG ; rcfiisnl pcnnishion to rovisit riiilaiid, 18 ; nppVws lor the lirofussorsliip of minoralof^v niid {^('olo^'y ill tho Univorsity o'C Ud- KiiiKfors, ]8; takes jiart in Torcll's first Expeilitioii to Spitzbiu'scMi, 20 ; appointed successor to Mosaiider, '20 ; makes a tour tlirougli Jenitlaiul and Dalecarlia, 22 ; takes part in Torell's second exjiedition, 22; visits Fin- land, 28; jiroposes a new Anlio Kxpedition, 27 ; readies the liigliest latitude attained by a vessel in tlio

North Cape, 378 North-Kast fajie, 350 Norlh-Kast Land, 58, 74, 75, 2i3, 248 Norways, the, 40, 53, 93 A'osluc cu)niiuiiu', 05 O. i')i!Ki:(:, Doi ;;nt P., 32, 1,35 Obiik, Mr.. 157 Dnkil.-n race, the, 379 Ophiurida, 283, 330 Osborne, (.'ai)taiii Sherard, 47 Otter, liarou Fr. von, 37, 145 Oxy.ia, 70 O.v'vtropi.s, 2!»3 P. Pai.andkh, Likut., 30, 138, 183, 352, 3S2, 384 l'alli.s(!r, tho b'-others, 138 I'apaver, 77 I'aiviit, Lieut., 30, 183 I'a'iy, 44, 58, 04, 05 Parry Island, 78, 150, 235 Peat iiio.ss, 139 Pedicnlaiis, 94 Pennatulida', 357 Permian fo.ssii.s, 08 Petermann, 245 Peterson, Carl, 47, 49, 08, G.I, 7j, 79, Pn^J.iropii.s, 05, 94 Phipi>.s, Constantino John, 44 Philips' .siand, 78 ]'lio'a(froi;nlii)idim, 84 Plios; horescent enistacea, 2o9 Pliysa, 289 i'oa, 70, 9", 98 Podnw, 03, 144 Podiirida!, 287 Polar bear, 80, 144; its (l,.sh, 124 I'olar Kxpedition of 1808, 1872-3, 175 Polar night, 207 Polar wiUow, 03, 133 I'ole, routes to the, 153 Polygonum, 99 Polythalair.ia, 51, 102 Polytricha, .''vS, 95, 99 Potentilla, 70, 99 Pottia, 77 Prince (Jiiarles' Foreland, 52 Productu.s, 40 Pi-onrn, the, 279 I'teropoda, 149 I'tilidiuin, r>i>, I'yL'Uogonid.s, 357, 303 E 128; of P.VDIOLAnj', 102 liaised beaches, 324 lianunculu.s, 70, 94, 99, 133 lied Hay, 04 li'eindeer as a draught animal, <|uantity cf IJesii yielded bv, killed, 222 lieini.eer nuns as food, 203 Keindeer Valley, 139 l!hiicomitriuni,"58, 95 Hink, Mr., 157 liockfolii.s, 247 1{otge, 116 lidhiis inr/iciiK, 295 I'llliebcig, .1. L., 0. 1 70 182 t»> »■ < WfmmS^mmmiBiiiirm'ili u , 30, 138, 183, 35:i, IS, l;)S 183 15 50, 235 4!), GS, G.\ 7i, 70, i John, H 84 tiict'ii, 2(1!) 'Is (Irsli, 124 )!' iSU8, 12,S ; of 3 153 l:ill(l, 52 }0, ];!3 flit .■lliiiiial, 17»i ; yielilcil liy, lis'j ; I, 203 INDEX. 447 «. Sabink, Sill KiiwAiu), '11, 187 Sal'o Jliivcn, 108, 111 Sudani, 131 Siiiillicrf,', Dr. J., 320 Siilix, 58, HI) Siiinoyr'dcs, 281, 313, 351 Sasscii I'jiiy, 110 Saurian jMoiuitaiiis, 139 Sauric llocik, Id'.) Sfi.i'ifrtKja npposii:/ol/if, 27<^ Sd.iifndin r/'ru/aris, 2(>6 .SaxiiVa^i's, (i3, 94, 99, 134 Scliiilavidir, 3t)9 Sclivaiiaubi'ijf, 340 Seorcsliy, 145 Scorcshy's Island, 80, 82 KScurvy, an attack nl', 211 Sea, Icniprintiire of, 'Mi Seals lliiatini,', 125 Si'oImiIiui, Mr., 340 Suvon Ic(lnT!:,'s, 52 Si>\.'n Island's, 74, 77, 111, 14:;, ir,0 Sliark lisliini,', 1;I2 Sil)c'ria, its rcrtiiity, 299 Slliiriakdir, licrr'Al.'X., 33, 39, 321, 345, 353, 307 Siliiriakoir's Island, 3'27 SidorolV, Ihir M., 340 Sif^illarla, 13(j Silcnc, 94 Sipunciilus, 102 Sko]ilzi, 310 Sniecrcnbi'rr;, 91 Sniitt, V. A., 49, 131 Snow I'lintiiij.', 218 Hojia, 130 ; siiriiif,'s a leak, 151 Soloriiia, 95 Sotnikoli; 304 Sonth('a|ic, lis, 119, 13G South Oat, 94, 149 .-iplia'ropiioron, 95 Sjiidcrs, (i:! Spirilcr, 4(i, 109 S[ii(.'li('ri;cn, 41; land nortli of, 5;'.; idianjjii i^\' its clinialc, 139 Slans Kcircland, 48 Siaphviiinda', 287 Starat'schin, 112, 137 Stcllaria, 77, 98 Sticliastcr, 33(! Slor Kjord, 74, 84, 10.5, lOS, 119 Stuxlicr- Dr., 37, 279, 321, 352 Snimnci', a]iiiroMi'ii of, 205 Sutton, .Mr. 'tirihiiin .Manncns, 11:! Svjatoi, Kos, 3\..J T. TnirKTrin-.s ^^2 ; l.artor with, 375: dress aMle iMonnt, 111 'renis, ;»4, 114 'I'luel, Dr. IIj., 279, 28.', 320, 337 Tiiousaiid Islands, tho, 47, 118 Tliunih Toint, 12:'. Thymus, 293 TiijifhUii, hiircifli^, 277 'I'orcll, Otto, 40, 45, 47, 4^, 49, 100 'I'rcurenherf,' I'.ay, 58, 00 Tri.issio stratji, 110, 13;t Trini/(i •iiiarilinui, 05, 94 Tritoriuni, 100 Trylioni, F., 320 Tundra, tlu', 294, 320 IT. TTMnF,r,i,T7.A, 337 I'nibilicaria, 58, 95 I 'rill iiriillr, 52, 53 UsMca, 77 I'lisiniaa, 55 Van Kki-i.kn- T5ay, 114 Van Jlcj.'n I'.ay, 114 I'lijit, tlic, 345; Irozcn in, 383; rv leased, 380 ; jia.sses l!ehriii^fs Straits, 3.S3 ; arrives at Yokolmma, 3M Von Yhlen, 49, 97 "\V. WAciiTAiEisrr.u, (\)iTvr, 33 AVa,i;;stalIe, Dr. W. W., 113 AValiienlierj,' I'.ay, 08, 201, 2G2 Walden Island, 74 Walirushunt, 54 ; hnntin>,', 89 "Walter, Tlivnien's Strait, 120 AVav^'at/, Islands, 84 ^V hides I'.av, 118 Whales Head, 120 Whales roint, 118, 119, 120 AN'liite Island vi-ited, 355 White iMouut, 122 AVhile whale, 87, 137 Whortleberry, 289 Whyinper, ,\lr., 157, 379 Wi.;f;ii}s, Captain .lo.sepli, 339 Wijdo liay, ii3 Wijkande'r, Dr., 30, i.'^3, ISO Wilaiider, IIJ., visits Spilzhergen, 32 W'oiin, 03 VAi,:.tAi,, 2S3, 293 Veni-.sej, t!ie 37, 38; reached hy son, 285 ; a.seent of, 280 ; the (isli of, 2;i7, 312; a steamer on, ;;oi; coal seams near, 3o2 ]'//(•/•, the, :>2() I jlH ' ^ ii^t uwiii i ^ i --^mim mf wm ^•■■Mi^PI W |l ' II, C't.AY, SON", ASH TAVI.'Mi, I'R'NTEl: I iu;i:ai) stukk': imi i.. Hi ^I'l il h i I' I !■ • Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C. Attgust, 1879. Macmillam 5r Co:s Catalogue of Works in the Departments of History, Biography, Travels, Critical and Literary Essays, Politics, Political and Social Economy^ Law, etc.; and Works connected with Lan- guage. HISTORY. BIOGRAPHY. TRAVELS, &c. Albemarle.— FIFTY years of my life. By Gforge Thomas, Earl of Albemarle. With Steel Portrait of the first Earl of Albemarle, engraved by Jeens. Third and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. is. 6d. "The book is one of the most amnsins of its class. . . . The^e remi- niscmces have the e/tarm and flavour of personal experience, and they i^ing us into direct contact with the persons they describe "—V.\n\\\\n\v,n Review. Anderson.— MANDAL AY to MOMIEN; a Nnnaiive of the Two Ex]). iitions to Western China, of 1868 and iSys, under Colonel E. B. Sladen and Colonel Horace Hiownc l!y Dr Anderson, F.R.S.E., Medical and Scientific Officer lo the Exl ^ peditions. With numerous Maps and Ilhislrations. Svo. 21.'. " A handsome^ well-timed, entertaining, and instructive volume "— Academy. "A pleasant, useful, carefully-wrillen^ and important '.uork^' ATHENiEUM. Appleton. — Works by T. G. Appleton :— A NILE JOURNAL, Illustrated by Eugene Benson. Crown Svo. 6s. SYRIAN SUNSHINE. Crown Svo. 6s. Arnold.— ESSAYS in criticism. By Matthew Arnold. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown Svo. qj. Atkinson. — an ART TOUR to NORTHERN CAPITALS OF EUROPE, including Descriptions of the Towns, the Museums, and other Art Treasures of Copenhagen, Christiania, Stockholm, $,000.8.79. A .1 A .'.'ll m\ MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN A1.<), HcIsiiiKiors, VVil)()rjr, St. rclor.sl)iiif;, Moscow, ami Kiof. Ijyj. ItKAViNr.TDN Atkinson. Svo. i2.r. " Allltow^h the main f'ur-hosrof' thf hook is stridlv k,ft in riav, and we *^''"' J;'''X/t for long that ■;<■<■ „,<■ inm/Zim; icil/t a stiiMnt and connoisseur, Mr. Atkinson f^ivcs variety to /its nv i^liiii^sfs of scem-rv and brtej allusions to history and mannas which arc ahvays welcome when thev occur, and are tir.'cr wordy or iirerdone. IVe have seldom met with a I'ooh in which what is /Principal and what is accessory have ken kept in better proportion to each oMr/-."— SAl'URnAY Ukvikw. Bailey, -Till', succi:ssion tothk KNfCMsir crown A llisloiical Sketch. \\y A. Haii.kv, M.A., Uanistor-iU-l .-iw' Crown Svi), 7,r. 6d. ^^\?\ ^^A"".^^.^"*^* W.)- Works by Sir Samuel Baker, racha, M.A., F.K.G.S.:— ' ISMATLIA : A Narrative of the Expedition to Centml Africa for the Supiircssiou of the Slave Trade, or^^'anised by Ismail, Khedive of I'.gypt. With Portraits, Map, ami lifty fuU-paKC Illustrations by ZWKCKER and Durand. New and Cheaper Edition. With New I'rc'lace. Crown Svo. 6^. "\A book which will be read with very threat interest." — Times. " IVcll wnttetf and full of remarkable advtn'tnres:'-~VK\.\. Mali, C.a/.httk '".■idds ana her thrilling chapter to the history of African adventure.''— Daily Nkw.s. "Reads more like a romance. . . . incomparably mort tntertaining than books of African travel «.r«(///)/rt.v."— Mt)RNiN(i Tost. THE ALBERT N'YANZA Great l^.asin of the Nile, and Explora- tion of the Nile Sources. Fifth Edition. Maps and Illustrations. Crown Svo. 6^. •' Charmingly loritten ;" says the Spectator, "full, as mii;ht be expected, of incident, and free from that wearisome reiteration of' useless facts -which is the drawback to almost all books of African travel." THE NILE TRIBUTARIES OF ABYSSINIA, and the Sword Hunters of the ILimran Arabs. With Maps and Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Crown Svo. 6/. 7/;<' Times says: "It adds much to our information respecting Egyptian A'jyssniia and the diprent races that spread (wr it. It contains, more- truer, some notable instances of English daring and enterprising skill • tt abounds in animated tales of exploits dear to the ficart of the Britisfi sportsman ; and it rvill attract even the hast studious reader, as tfie author tells a story well, and can describe nature with uncommon poiver." Bancroft.— THE HISTORY of the united STATES OF AMERICA, FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE CON- IINENT. By George Bancroet. Ncat and thoroughly Re- vised Edition. Six Yuls. >"rown Svo. 54,?. '^*iik. HfiMinMS 'A'.9 IN vv, and Kiif. vine, and we d connoisseur, f scenery and welcome when \loin met with le been kept in ir CROWN. iistor-iU-I,a\v. UEL Baker, il Africa for lail, Khedive lllusiratioiis itioii. With MES. " Well \. (Iazktte. dventuie. "— '>py and hijt^h-spirited girl, and that even to the very last she had the faculty of overcoming her sor.'ows by means of that steadfast courage which ruas her most precious Possession, and to which she was indebted for her successive victories over trials and disappointments of no ordinary character." The book is illustrated by a Portrait of the Rev. Patrick Bronte, several Views of Ilaworth and its neighbourhood, and a facsimile of one of the most characteristic of Charlotte's letters, A 2 f ,: 'I ill u 4 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Brooke.— THE RAJA OF SARAWAK: an Account of Sir .anies Brooke, K.C.B., LL.D. Given chiefly through Letters or Journals. By Gertrude L, Jacob. With Portrait and Maps, Two Vols. 8vo. 25^. " They 7vho read Miss Jacob's book— and all should read it: all who are under the delusion that in our time there is no scope for heroism, and no place for romantic adventure, ond no place for enterprise and ambition - -ivitl see how incident is crowded upon incident, and struggle upon iiruggle, till in the very abundance of materials that come to her hand the iiuthorrss can scarcely stop to give sufficient distinctness to her vjonderjtil narrative. " — ACADEMY. Brooke.— RECOLLECTIONS OF THE IRISH CHURCH. By Richard S. Brooke, D.D., late Rector of Wyton, Hunts. Crown 8vo. 4f. 6d, Bryce. — Works by James Bryce, D.C.L., Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford : — THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, Crown 8vo, Js, 6d. "It exactly supplies a want: it affords a key to much ivhich men read of in their books as isolated facts, but of which they have hitherto had no connected exposition set before them."— Satvrva.'! Review. TKANSCAUCASIA AND ARARAT: being Notes of a Vacation Tour in the Autumn of 1876. With an Illustration and Map. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. gs. "Mr. Bryce has written a lively and at the same time an instructive description nf the tour he made last year in and about the Caucasus. When well-informed a jurist travels into regions seldom visited, and even walks tip a mountain so rarely scaled as Ararat, he is justified in think- ing that the impressions he brings home are worthy of being communicated to the world at large, especially when a terrible war is casting a lurid glow over the countries he has lately surveyed." — AxHENitUM. Burgoyne. — POLITICAL AND MILITARY EPISODES DURING tHE FIRST HALF OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. Derived from the Life and Correspondence of the Right Hon. J. Burgoyne, Lieut. -General in his Majesty's Army, and M.P. for Preston. By E. B. de Fonblanque. With Portrait, Heliotype Plate, and Maps. 8vo. ids. Burke. — EDMUND BURKE, a Historical Study. By JOHN M(>RLEY, B.A., Oxon. Crown 8vo. "Js. dJ. •' The style is terse and incisive, and brilliant with epigram and foint. Its sustained power of reasoning, its wide sweep of observation and reflection, its elei^ated ethical and social tone, stamp it as a work of high excellence."— ?>tLivvcDA.-i Review. n \\ S IN oiint of Sir ugh Letters Portrait and ' it: all who heroism, and md ambition 'ruggle upon to her hand 'ness to her CHURCH. ton, Hunts. Professor of Revised and which men have hitherto EVIEW. f a Vacation \ £ind Map. n instructive ■asus. When '(/, and even led in think- vjimunicated a lurid glow EPISODES .EIGN OF pondence of lis Majesty's [QUE. With By John figram and f observation as a work of HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. S ^"?'°7.^';rY^^'^?F^ °'^ ^LL SOULS : Four Centuries cf Enghsh History. Illustrated from the College Archives. liy Montagu Burrows, Chichele Professor of Modern History at Oxford, Fellow of All SouJs. 8vo. 14J. "A most amusing as well as a most instructive (Joo^-.— Guardian. Campbell.— LOG-LETTERS FROM THE "CHALLENGER " By Lord George Campbell. With Ma^). Fifth and cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. ''A delightful book, which we heartily commend to the general reader " —Saturday Review. " ^1 '^^If"^, ^'"'''^'' ^0 say that anything so fresh, so picturesque, so generally delightful, as these log-letters has not appeared amon^ books of travel for along time."— 'Exxnim.VL. ^ J "A more lively and amusing record of travel we have not had the fortune to read for some time. Tfie xvftole book is ptrvaded by a spirit of life, animation, andfun."—STAl}DJiRD. y jt j Campbell.— MY circular notes : Extracts from Journals ; Letters sent Home; Geological and other Notes, written while 1 ravelling Westwards round the World, from July 6th. 1874. to Mv 6th, 1875. By J. F. Campbell, Author of "Frost and I' ire. Cheaper Is>ue. Crown 8vo. ds. " We fiave read numbers of books of travel, but we can call to mind few that have given us more genuine pleasure than this. A more a^ree^ able style of narrative tlian his it is Jiardly possible to conceive. We seem to be accompanying liim in liis trip round the world, so life-like is his description of the countries fie visited."— Lh^X) AND WATER. Campbell.— TURKS and greeks. Notes of a recent Ex- cursion. By the Hon. Dudley Campbell, M.A. With Coloured Map. Crown 8vo. ^s. 6d. Carstares William CARSTARES : a character and Career of the Revolutionary Epoch (1649—1715). By Robert Story, Minister of Rosneath. 8vo. 12s. Chatterton : a biographical study. By daniel Wilson, LL.D,, Professor of Histor>' and English Literature in University College, Toronto. Crown &vo. 6s. 6d. Chatterton : a story of the year 1770. By Professor Massun, LL.D. Crown 8vo. S^. Clark. — MEMORIALS FROM JOURNALS AND LETTERS OF SAMUEL CLARK, M.A., formerly Principal of the National Society's Training College, liattersea. liiiited will} Introduction b^ iiis \Vi1'-e. With I'ortrait. Crown Svo. p. 6J, m ^ 1.1, 'i m W ii 1; I it n n Mil 6 AfACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Combe.— THE LTFF, of GEORGE combe, Author of "The Constitution of Man." By Charles Gihbon, With Three • Portraits engraved by Jeens. Two Vols. 8vo. 32J. *' A graphic and ititiresthig accotmt of the long life andindefatigable labours of a very remarkable man." — Scotsman. Cooper. — ATHENE CANTABRIGIENSES. By Charles Henry Cooper, F.S.A., and Thompson Cooper, F.S.A. Vol. I. 8vo., 1500—85, i&f. ; Vol. II., 1586—1609, 18/. CorreggiO.— ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA CORREGGIO. From the German of Dr. Julius Meyer, Director of the Royal Gallery, Berlin. Edited, with an Introduction, by Mrs. IIeaton. Con- taining Twenty Woodbury-type Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Cloth elegant. 3IJ. 6cople what is best worth knowiii" ?? ';? /'I':, ^""«-'> <^l>^'-;»i;ter, and Works of same of the I'rca't ii.ii<;li.h W ritcrs. lu crown 8vo. I'rioe 2s. dd. each. I. DR. JOHNSON. l!y Lkslhj Stkimikn. " The mw sous o/i./is iv.ll wilh Air. Leslie Stephen's sketch of Dr Johnson. It coiiLi haraiy have been done better ; and it wili coui'ev to the readers Jor -^.'/win it is intended a jiuter estimate of Johnson than either oj the two nsays of Lord Macanlay"—V\v.K. Mai.l Gazetti;. II. SIR WAI.TKk SCOTT. llyR. II. IIijtton. " The tone of the volume is excellent th} oiighoitt ." — \\n\:.tijE\n\, " ire could not ',vish for a more suggestive introduction to Scott and nis poems and novels. — Exa.minkr. III. GIISBON. ByJ. C. MoRisoN. "As a clear, thoiiiihtfnl, and attnutive record of the life and worh of the greatest among the world's historians, it deserves the highest Praise "— LXAMINKR. "^ ^ IV. SHELLEY. By J. A. Symonds. " The lowers of this s'cat poet are to be congratulated on havin' ^'''f'^ l"V'S' "f'tc sympathy and taste to bear in his criticism 0/ Goldsmith s writings as well as in his sketch of the incidents of his life " ATHE.N/I-UM. ' J I • . yil. DEFOE. By W. MiNTO. /■ •'.Vy'^' /'''"'''"'/ ''"""'^' '■' <^'"''M «'"^ accurate in all that is stated, and iadhful ui oil that It sugg.'sts. It will repay reading more than once " VIII. liURXS. By rnncipal Siiairp, Professor of Poetry in the Uiiivfrsiiy of Oxford. ^ "///j- iMfssible to desire fairer criticism than Prin ipal Shairfi's m hums s pod. y Now. of the series ha, given a truer estimate cMtr ot ctiar.utcr or oJ genius than this little volume . . . and all who read tt will be thoroughly grateful to the author for this monument to the genius of Scotland's greatest poet."— Spectatoh. IX. SPENSER. By the Very Rev. the Dean of St. Paul's "Br. Church is master of his subject, and writes always with irood taste. — Academy. ^ X. THACKERAY. By Anthony Trollope. "Mr. Trollope' s sketch is excellently adapted to fufil Xlit imrtose of the strics in which it appears,"— h-XW^-^j^VM. ^S IN ORI.F.Y. A rill knowing if the gicai ^c-tch of Dr. Mill convey to o/tnson ihan JAZtTTli. to iicutt and nd works of 'St praise." — '« havitiq' at yf the subject, :UM. 'C expounded IliiN/ICUM. /lis criticism s of his life." r slated, and • than once.'^ oetry in the t>al S/iairp's liter estimate . . and all '■s monument 'aul's. 's with good e purpose of HISTOR Y, niOGRAP/lV, TRAVELS, ETC. 9 English Men of Letters.— .w///////,./. HURKI':. l;y JdiiN MuKi,i;v. ) , ,, , MILIOX. JiyMAUK l-AiiisoN. \^[N(arljf rcadjf. (itfiin in preparation, Eton College, History of. ijy ir. c. MAxwr.i.i, Lvte, M./.. Willi iiuiiiLToiis llliislraiioiis l)y I'lD'cssor Dia.AMoirK, Coloured I'latfs, ami a Sled I'Drtrait of the l''i)iiiiili:i-, Cll^;lave(l by C. H. |i;i;.\.s. New ami clie.ipcr Issue, wiili Coiieciions. Mciliuni Svo. Clolli el'.i^ant. 21s. " Jlith.vto no ncroiiiit if ihe Collide, -iuilh all its associations, has appeared which can compare either in contrleteness or in interest vith this. . , . Jt IS intlctd a b.'al; worthy of Ihe ancitnt rtno-iVn 0/ Jung Ilenrv's Col.'ixe."-]),ui.y Nkus. " H'eareat tent^'/h f-reseulcd with n work on En'^land's greatest public school, worthy of the iiihjcct of which it treats. . . . A really valiiaole and authentic history of Ktoii CW/c.^c"— Guakdian. European History, Narrated in a Scries of Historical Selections from the host Aulhorilies. Edited and arranjjed by K. M. Skwki.l and C. M. Y<)N(;k. First Series, crown 8vo, f)S. ; Second Series, 10S8-1228, crown Svo. 6.r. 'I'hird Edilion. " We know of scarcely anything" says the (iUAUDIAN, oj this volume, "which is so likely to raise to a higher level the avejage standard of English education." Faraday.— MICHAF.T, FARADAY. Tly J. n. Gi.ADSTONK, I'h.I)., F. U.S. Second Edition, wilh rorlrait engraved by Jekns from a photofjraph by J. Watkins. Crown Svo. 4?. 6d. PORTRAl'i". Artist's I'roof. 5^. Forbes.— LIFE and letters of James david FOKliES, F.Jv.S., late Principal of the United College in the University of St. Andrcus. By J. C. Siiaikt, LL-.D. I'rincipal of the United Colle^'e in the University of St. Andic.vs ; V. G. Taii', M.A., l'rofet;sor of Natural I'hilosophy in the University of Edinburgh; and A. Ar)A.MS-KKiLl.V, F.R.G.S. Svo. with I'ortrails, iM.ip, and Illustrations, i6j'. Freeman. — Works bv Edwarh a. Fukeman, D.C.L.LL.D. :— inSTORICAL essays. Tliird Edition. 8vo. 10^. dd. CoNTENis :— /. " 7/;c Mythical and /Romantic Elements in Early English History;" II. "■'Ihe Continuity of Eni;lish History;" III. *'7'he delations between the Crowns of Em^land and Scotland :" IV. "St. Thomas of Cantirburv and his Bioi^rabheis ;" V. " The Rci^n oJ Edward the Third:" VI.' " The Holy Roman Empire;" VII. ''The Franks and the Gauls;" VIII. ''The Early Sieges of Paris;" IX. "Erednick the lirst. Kins; of Italy ;" X. " The Emperor Frederick the Second:" XI. " Charles the Bold ;" XII. " Presidential Govonment. \mi ■ . •I lO AIACM/L LAJ\PS CATALOGUE OF WORKS iN OF HISTORICAL ESSAYS. 8vo. Freeman — cunthtuej. A SECOND SERIES lOt. 6(/. » Aft' rf7i^'''' ^//"-'" "'■'••r",'^'"-''-'" C,r„f and JiMLnal Italy:" ^Tr^Z .■ ,/\'/''*/"""' ,M( want of a good foundation for historical ttach- ing. The scfutnt is an excellent one, and this instalment has been arcepti-d in a way that promises much for the volumes that are yet to appear." — Kuucationai. Timks. THE OTTOMAN I'OWKK iN EUROPE : its Nature, its Growth, and its Decline. With Three Coloured Maps. Crown 8vo. fs. bd, Galileo.— THE private life of IALILEO. Compiled principally from his Correspondence and that of his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, Nun in the Franciscon Convent of S. Matthew in Arcetri. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. "js. bd. Geddes.— THE pkomlem of the homekic poems. Uy VV. I). Geddks, LI..1)., Professor of Greek in the University of Aberdeen, bvo. 14J. Gladstone — Works by the Rif;ht Ilon.W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. :— JUVENTUS MUNDI. The Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. Crown 8vo. cloth. With Map. io.r. bd. Second Edition, "Seldom," says the Arwzuj&VM, " out of the great poems themselves, have these Divinities looked so majestic and respectable. To read these brilliant details is like standing on the Olympian threshold and gazing at the ineffable brightness within." An inquiry into the Time and 6s. HOMERIC SYNCHRONISM. Place of Homer. Crown 8vo. " // is impossible not to admire the immense range of thought and inquiry which the author has displayed." — Bkitish Quarterly Rkview. Goethe and Mendelssohn (1821— 1831). Translated from the (iernian of Dr. Karl MenuelssoHN, Son of the Composer, by M. E. Von Gleiin. From the Private Diaries and Home Letters of Mendelssohn, with Poems and Letters of Goethe never before printed. Also with two New and Original Portraits, Fac- similes, and Appendix of Twenty Letters hitherto unpublished. Crown 8vo. 5^. Second Edition, enlarged. " . . . Every page is full of interest, not merely to the musi- cian, but to the general reader. The book is a very charming one, on a topic of deep and lasting interest." — Standard. Ill ' 12 MACMIU.AN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Goldsmid.— TKI.ElIKAPII AND TRAVia.. A Narrative of I'le Kornmtion nnd Dovclopnicnl of Ttlojjrapliic Communication lietwfin I'JiHhiiul aiui InUiii, uiidi-r llie iinlias of llcr Majesty's (JoveniuK'ut, with iiici(k;iiliil Notices of the Lounlrios traversed by the Lines, liy Colonel Sir Kkkdkkk: (ioi.DsMli), C.U., K.C.S.I., late Director of the Covernnient IndoF.uropcan Teiegrajjh. With numerous IJlustriUions and Maps. Svo. 2l,r. " The tun it of the work is a loinl ixbsnue of exagi^eration, which does not, hinvei'cr, fuecliuie a vivii/ness ami x'igour of style not always character- istic of similar Manati7res." — St ANVAMh Gordon.— LAST LKTI'J'.RS from LCYPT, to which are added Letters from tlie Cane. By Ladv Dukk Ookoon. With a Memoir hy her naniditcr, Mrs. Ross, and Portrait engraved by Jki.ns. .Second I'.d it ion. Crown Svo. 9.?. " '/'he intending' tourist who vishes to aa/iKiint himself with the country he ts rtliout to visit, s/duils cmlarrassed amitist the riches presented for his choice, and in the end probably rests contented with the sol>er usefulness of Murray. He will not, hoivc-Mr, if he is well advised, grudge a place in his portmanteau to this l/ook."~'Vi\iv.s. Gray. — CIIINA. a History of the Laws, Manner.s, nnd Customs o( the People, liy the Vkniuaiu.k John IIknkv Cray. LL.D., Archdeacon of Hon}; Kong, formerly H. B, ^L Consular Chapl.iiil at Canton. I'.diied hy W. Gow Gre),'or. With 150 ]'"ull-page Illustra- tions, being Facsimiles of Drawings liy a Chinese Artist. 2 Vols. Demy Svo. t,2s. "Its pa^^cs contain the most truth ful and vivid picture of Chinese life which has ez'cr iwn published." — ATiiKN.iiUM. " 'J'hc only elaborate and valuable book we have had for many years treating generally of the people of the Celestial /iinpire."— Academy. Green. — Works by John RicilAiiD Grekn : — , IILSrORY OF TIIF. ENGLLSH PEOPLE. Vol. I.-Early F:«gl.-\nd— Foreign Kings— 'Hie Charter— The Parliament. With 8 Coloured Mnp.s. Svo. ifw. Vol. H.— The Monarchy, 14^)1— 1540 ; the Kcstoralion, I ■;40—i6o^. Svo. lOs. Vol.111. — Puritan England, 1603—1660; thcj Revolution, 1660— 16SS, With 4 -Maps. Svo. ibs. [Vol. IF. in the press. "Mr. Green has done a work -which probably no one but himself could have done. lie has read and assimilated the results of all the labours of students during the last half century in the field oj /inglish history, and /iasj;iz'en them a fresh meanin!; by his own independent study, fte has fused together by the force of sympathetic imagination all that he has so collected, and has aiven us a vivid and forcible sketch of the march of English histoiy. His book, both in its aiois and its accomplishments, rises far beyond any of a similar kind, and it will i;ive the colourini; to the popular Z'tcW to English hntuiy for some time to come." — EXAMINER. i IHIIIl » IUl il JlJ!K; ' j \YS IN Narrative of tmmunicatiun lur Majesty's traversed by i, K.C.S.I., ;r:ii)li. With *, which does lys character' eh are added N. With a engraved by // the country cnted for his iisfjulness 0/ le a place in nd Ciistoins AY. I, L.I),, ar Chaplain age 11 hist ra- it. 2 Vols. Chinese life many years lADEMy. I.— Early ent. With Monarchy, Vol. III. G60— 16SS. n the press, mselj could • labours of istory, and V. Pe has ' he has so e via7rh of filishtnents, irini; to the MINER. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC, 13 Green. — coiiiiniicd. A SHORT HISTORY OF TIIK ENOLISH TF-OrLK With Coloured Majis, (;enealoi;ical 'I'aiiles, and Clnoiiologicul Annals. I , Crown 8vo. Kr. (yd. .Sixty- (ir^l Tliousand. " 7'o say that Mr. (Iricn's hook is belter than those which have pre- ceded it, would be to convey a very iiiadcijualc inifression of its merits. It stands alone as the one i^encral history of the eonnlry, for the sake of which all others, ifyouni; and old are wise, wdt be speeddy and surely set aside." STRAY STUDIES FROM ENGLAND AND ITALY. Crown 8vo. 8.f. Gd. Containing; : Lanihctii and the Arcliliishops — The Florence of Dante— Venice and Rome — Early History of Oxford — The District Visitor— Capri— Hotels in the Clouds— Skstches in Sunshine, &c. " One and all of the papers are eminently readable.''^ — Atiien/EUM. Guest.— LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Hy M. J. GtJi''.ST. With Maps. Crown 8vo. Os. Hamerton. — Worl •.. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 15 Hughes. — continued. MEMOIR OF A BROTHER, With Portra-'t of George Hughes, after Watts. Engraved by Jeens. Crown 8vo. 5^. Sixth Edition. " The boy who can read this book without deriving from it some addi- tional impulse towards honourable, manly, and independent conduct, has no good stuff in him." — Daily News. Hunt.— HISTORY OF ITALY. By the Rev. W. Hunt, M.A. Being the Fourth Volume of the Historical Course for Schools. Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. i8mo. 3^. " Mr. Hunt gives us a most compact but very readable little book, con- taining in small compass a very complete outline of a complicated and perplexing subject. It is a book which may be safely recommended to others besides schoolboys." — ^John Bull. Irving.— THE ANNALS OF OUR TIME. A Diurnal of Events, Social and Political, Home and Foreign, from the Accession of Queen Victoria to the Peace of Versailles. By Joseph Irving. Fourth Edition. 8vo. half-bound. 16^. ANNALS OF OUR TIME. Supplement. to March 19, 1874. 8vo. 4^. 6d. From Feb. 28, 1871, ANNALS OF OUR TIME. Second Supplement. From March, 1874, to the Occupation of Cyprus, 8vo. 4.S. 6d. " IVe have be/ore us a trusty and ready guide to the evettts of the past thirty years, available equally for the statesman, the politician, the public writer, and the general reader." — Times. James. — Works by Henry James, Jun. FRENCH POETS AND NOVELISTS. Crown 8vo. %s. 6d Contents -.—Alfred de Musset ; Thcophile Gautier ; Baudelaire ; Honori de Balzac ; George Sand ; The Two Ampires ; Turgenieff,&^c. Johnson's Lives of the Poets.— The Six Chief Lives— Milton, Dryden, Swift, Addison, Pope, Gray. With Macaulay's " Life of Johnson." Edited, with Preface, by Matthew Arnold. Crown Svo. 6j. Killen.— ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF IRELAND, from the Earliest Date to the Present Time. By W. D. Killen, D.D., President of Assembly's College, Belfast, and Professor of Eccle- siastical History. Two Vols. Svo. 2^s. •' Those who have the leisure will do well to read these trvo volumes. They are full of interest, and are the result of great research. ... ^Ve have no hesitation in recammending the work to all who wish to improve their acquaintance 7uith Irish history." — Spectator. \^ I6 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN 1(0]' Hi! JJh^/'wmL 1 " , ^^^'^^''^y "="' Canon of Westminster. (Fo; °^he'^FRFt5!P\?^ ^^^^^^^ "^,11 "'^'^'^ °" the Continent before r1,w ,. •^'^''°''""'''i- ^'^'■^^ Lectures delivered at the Koyal Institution. Crown Svo. bs. ^T-^^nT •■ ^ CHRISTMAS in the WEST INDIES. With nearly Fifty Illustrations. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. 6j "'» "early ,tn.f'':i ^"*'^'J'y'' "''''•«^' of forty years iva, at last fulfilled, when he sta,te,tonaChn,tmas expedition to the West Indies, for the fiJZe of beccmmo perso.^Uly acjnaintcd with the scenes whi^/heha/^Sl VoZt 7' ^?"'r''^ ^^' ■'" ^''"' '''"" ^"^"'"^ '"-^ i/'ejournar^Z onJLn^ ■ "/""i'"-"^ /">'"':>'. sketches of tropical landscape, chapters that Mr a"' T"' "^"^'"'y^ "" ^'"^ ""'' ^'"''- " '^^ can only say that Mr. Kmgsleys account of a 'Christmas in the IVest Indies' is in S^^ndT^.'""^^ '" ^' ''""""^ '"'"'"^ ^" ^"V>^«^ productions."! THE ROMAN AND THE TEUTON. A Series of Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge. New and Cheaper Edition, with Preface by Professor Max Muller. Crown Svo. 6^ PLAYS AND PURITANS, and other Historical Essays. With Portrait ofSir Walter Raleigh. New Edition. Crown 8vo 6. /« addUton to the Essay mentioned in the title, this volume contains other huo-one on " S,r IValter Raleigh and his Time," and one on Fronde's "History of England." "^ one on Kingsley (Henry)._TALES OF OLD TRAVEL. Re- narrated by Henry Kingsley, F.R.G.S. With Eight Illus- Jrattonshyn^Kr^n. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo. Ct. We know no bcUer book for those 2vho want kncrwledge or seek to re/re./i u. As for the sensational,' most novels are tame compared with these narratives."— Athenjevm. Lang.— CYPRUS : Its History, its Present Resources and Future Prospects By K Hamilton Lang, late H.M. Consul for the .< ^f "5^ .°f Cyprus. With Two Ilkistrations and Four Mips. Svo. jas The fair and impartial account of her past and present to be found in these pages has an undoubted claim on the attention of all intelligent readtrs.' —MoKH IK G Post. "^ Laocoon.— Translated from the Text of Lessing, with Preface and Notes by the Right Hon. Sir RoBiiRxJ. Phillimore, D.C.L. With Photographs. Svo. i2s. li fCS IN > KiNGSI.EY, lister. (For and Belles tin en t before ered at the With nearly :d, uifien he e purpose of 's so vividly unial of his Jpe, chapters an only say miles ' is in ihctions." — if Lectures nd Cheaper .vn 8vo. 6s, ays. With m 8vo. 6^. >ie contains xnd one on EL, Re. 'ight Illus- or seek to pared with nd Future "1 for the . 8vo. 14J. 'e found in intelligent reface and , D.C.L. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TRAVELS, ETC. 17 Leonardo da Vinci and his Works.-consisting of a Life of Leonardo Da V.nci, by Mrs. Charles W. Heaton, tli5lrf;°^ ^^'v^'^"'?r,°^ NUrnberg," &c., an Essay on his 1^!^^ ^/a"^ ^'i^'^^'y ^""'^^ ^y Charles Christopher iJLACK, M.A., and an account of his mure important Paintines and Drawmgs. Illustrated with Permanent Photographs. Royal 8vo, cloth, extra gilt. 3U, 6d. ^ " A beautiful volume, both without and within. Messrs. MacmiUan are conspicuous among publishers for the choice binding and printing of their books, and this IS got up in their best style. . . . No English publication that we know of has so thoroughly and attractively collected together all that ts known of Leonardo. "—Times. Liechtenstein.— HOLLAND house. By Princess Marie Liechtenstein With Five Steel Engravings by C. H. Teens! after Paintings by Watts and other celebrated Artists, and numerous Illustrations drawn by Professor P. H. Delamotte. and engraved on Wood by J. D. Cooper, W. Palmer, and Jewitt & Co. Ihird and Cheaper Edition. Medium 8vo. cloth elegant. Also, an Edition containing, in addition to the above, about 40 Illustrations by the Woodbury-type process, and India Proofs of the Steel Engravings, Two vols, medium 4to. half morocco elegant, 4/. 4^'. " When every strictly just exception shall have been taken, she may be conscientiously congratulated by the most scrupulous critic on the produc- tion of a useful, agreeable, beautifully-illustrated, and attractive book."— Times, " It would take up mon room than we can spare to enumerate all the interesting suggestions and notes which are to be found in these volumes. . . . . The woodcuts are admirable, and some of the autographs are very interesting."— Vwx.yiKiA.GKve.i'xn. Lloyd.— THE AGE OF PERICLFS. A History of the Arts and Politics of Greece from the Persian to the Peloponnesian War By W, Wat kiss Lloyd. Two Vols. 8vo. 2\s. " No such account of Greek art of the best period has yet been brought together in an English work. , , , , Mr. Lloyd has produced a book of unusual excellence and interest."— VM^h Mall Gazette. Macarthur — history of Scotland, By Margaret Macarthur, Being the Third Volume of the Historical Course for Schools, Edited by Edward A, Freeman, D.C.L. Second Edition. i8mo, 2s. "It is an excellent summary, unimpeachable as to facts, and putting them in t/ie clearest and most impartial light attaitMble."—Gv akvian. " No previous History of Scotland of the same bulk is anything like so trustworthy, or deserves to be so extensively used as a text-book."— Globe. f -T iv V' 18 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN Macmillan (Rev. Hugh) For other Works by same Author, see Theological and Scikntific Catalogues. HOLIDAYS ON HIGH LANDS ; or, Rambles and Incidents in search of Alpine Plants. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Globe 8vo. cloth. 6s. '* Botanical kn umjuestiouably and immeasurably the best that has been produa-d. It is injact the only work to ^ohich wt can turnjoranaccuyateand Irusttvorthy narrative i\f that extraordinary ^f'l^\ ', ■ ■ \''.'',,'' '/ ^'" '"'^ «""' '■'"'"•'^ fh' ""'y trustworthy history 0/ Napoleon whuh has been written." J' " y ^'''ufi^Tr.T.^^^'''^ ^^' EUROPEAN LITERATURE AND if r ?^ ; "■''• ='°°-'?76. HyJ. Nic.oi., LL.D., Professor TABLES OE ANCHuVT LITERATURE AND HLSTORY B.C. 1500- A.I). 200. 15y the same Author. 410. t^. f>d. Oliphant (Mrs.).— the makers of FLORENCE: Dante Oiotto, Savonarola, and their City. By Mrs. Olii'Hant With numerous. Illustrations from drawings by Professor Dei.amottk and portrait of Savonarola, enfjr.u-ed by Jekns, Second Edition. Medium 8vo. Lluth extra, 2\s. " Mrs. Oliphant has made a beautiful addition to the mass of literature already piled round the records of the Tuscan capital."— Tmh il , ''' "/'^''''/'y "> ^^"- Oliphant for her eloquent and beautiful sketches of Dante, I-ra Ani^cluo, and Savonarola. They are picturesque, full oj It e, and rich v, detail, and they are charmingly illustrated bv the art of the engraver." —^v^crxvoK. Oliphant— THE duke and the scholar; and other Essays. By 'I. L. Kington Olii-iiant. 8vo. ^s. ()d. " 7 his volume contains one of the most beauliftil biographical essays we have seen since Macaulay's days." — Standard. Otte.— SCANDINAVIAN I1IST0R\' Maps. Extra fcap. Svo. 6/. "We have fcniliar pleasure in recommending; this intelligent rfsnmS of Northern history as a book essential to avry Englishman who interests himself tn Scandinavia. — SvKcrA'roR. Owens College Essays and Addresses— By Pro FF.SSORS and Lecturkks ol' Owens Colleck, Manchester. i ulJlished in Commemoration of the Openinij of the New Colleee Kuildmgs, October 7th, 1873. Svo. 14s. Palgrave (R. F. D.)-tiie hou.'-e of commons ; Jlhistrations of its Histoid and Piactice. By Reginald F. D. PAi.r.RAVE, Clerk Assistant of the House of Commons. New and Revised Edition. Crown Svo. 2s. bd. By E. C. Otte. With '^s^i'^'^^ Mm^M frs IN I. By P. thor. Vok in the press, tost strikinq •t," and the 'ork on every nmeasurably to zvhich wt traordinary rthy history RE AND '., Professor 6a 6rf, IISTORY, . 6a'. -E : Dante NT. With KI.AMOTTK, lid Edition. if literature ES. 'd beautiful ticturesqnt, HISTORY, PIOGRAPHV, TRAVELS, ETC. 2$ By about Routledge.— CIIAPTEKS in TJIK history of POI'ULAR 1 KOCKESS IN ENGLAND, diiedy in Relation to the Ficedom or tlie Tress and Trial by Jury, 1660—1820. With ui)plication to ^ later years. IJy J. R()Uii.kih;k. 8vo. \6s. The volume abounds in /acts and information, almost always useful and often curious."—riMii.s. ■' Rumford.— COUNT rumford's complete works, with Memoir, and Notices of his Daughter. By George Elus. Five Vols. 8vo. 4/. 14^. dd. Seeley (Professor). — lectures and essays. By T. R. Seeley, M.A, Professor of Modem History in the University of Cambridjje. 8vo. lor. td, CoNTENis i—A'oman Itnperialism: i. The Great Roman Revolu- tion; 2. The Proximate Cause of the Fall of the Roman Empire; The Later Emf>tre. — Milton's Political Ofinions — Milton's Poetry —Elementary Principles in Art— Liberal Education in Universitus ■- hngltsh in Schools— The Church as a Teacher of Morality —The Teaching of Politics: an Inaugural Lecture delivered at Cambridge, Shelburne.— LIFE OF William, earl of siielburne. AFTERWARDS FIRST MARQUIS OF LANSDOWNe! With Extracts from his Papers and Corresjiondence. By Lord Edmonu Fitzmaurice. In Three Vols. 8vo. Vol. I. 1737— ^^ i;66, \2s. ; Vol.iII. 1766-1776, lis. ; Vol, IH. 1776— 1805. ids. Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice has succeeded in placinc^ before us a wealth of new matter, which, while casting valuable and much-needed light on sez'eral obscure passages in tlif political history of a hundred years ago, has enabled us for the first time to form a clear and consistent idea of his ancestor.''' — Spectator. Sime.— HISTORY of Germany. By james simk, m.a. l8mo. y. Being Vol. V. of the Historical Course for Schools Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. " This is a remarkablv clear and impressive History of drmany. Its great events are wisely kept as central fissures, and the smaller events are carefully kept not only subordinate and subservient, but most skilfully woven into the texture of the historical tapestry presented to the eye."— Standard. Squier PERU: INCIDENTS OF TRAVEL AND EX- PLORATION IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS. By E. G. Squier, M.A., F.S.A., late U.S. Commissioner to Peru. With 300 Illustrations. Second Edition. 8vo. 2\s. The Times says : — " Pvo more solid and trustworthy contribution haa been made to an accurate kno7vledge of what are among the most wonderful ruins in the world. The work is really what its title implies. While of the greatest importance as a contribution to Pet uvian archaology, it is also a thoroughly entertaining and instructive narrative of travel. Not the least important featuremustbeconsideredthenumerottswellexecuted illustrations." I\ 26 MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE OF WORKS IN ^'^!l"|f°r4-— ^PYPTIAN SHRINES AND SYRIAN SEP JL- CHRES, including a Visit to Palmyra. By Emily A. Bkaufort (Viscountess Strangford), Author of "The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic." New Edition. Crown 8vo. 7^. dd. Tait.-AN ANALYSIS OE ENGLISH HISTORY, based upon Greens "Short History of the English People." By C W A Tait, M.A., Assistant Master, Clifton College. Crown 8vo" 3^. 6(/. '^^?.'?^^'7;J"^ LIFE OF JOHN THOMAS, Surgeon of the Eari of Oxford East Indiaman, and First Baptist Missionary to Bengal. By C. B. Lewis, Baptist xMissionary. 8vo. los. 6d. Thompson.— HISTORY of ENGLAND. By Edith Thomp- SON Being Vol. II. of the Historical Course for Schools, Edited by Edward A. Freeman, D.C.L. New Edition, revised and enlarged, with Maps. i8mo. 2s. 6if. "Freedom from prejudice, simplicity of style, and accuracy of state- ment, are the characteristics of this volume. It is a trustworthy text-book, and likely to be generally serviceable in schools."— Vk-l\. Mall Gazette In Us great accuracy and correctness of detail it stands far ahead of the general run of school manuals. Its arrangement, too, is clear, and its style simple and straightjorward."—'sKTVKDX\ Review. Todhunter.— THE conflict of studies • and gSSrATrnM^^^I ^^ SUBJECTS CONNECTED w1?S education. By Isaac Todhunter, M.A., F.R.S., late Pellowand Principal Mathematical Lecturer 01 St. Tohn's CoUeee Cambridge. 8vo. los. 6d. ' Contents :--/. The Confict of Studies. II. Competitive Exa. mtfuitions. Ill Private Study of Mathematics. IV. Academical Reform. V. Elementary Geometry. VI. The Mathematical Tripos. Trench (Archbishop).-For other Works by the same Author. see Theological ar.d Belles Lettres Catalogues, and page 30 of this Catalogue. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS IN GERMANY, and other Lectures on the Thirty Years" War, Second Edition, revised and enlarged, Fcap. 8vo. 4^, " PLUTARCH, HIS LIFE, HIS LIVES, AND HIS MORALS J- ive Lectures. Second Edition, enlarged. Fcap. 8vo Is (id LECTURES ON MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. Being the substance of Lectures delivered in Queen's College, LondonT second Edition, revised. 8vo. \2s. Trench (Maria).— the life of st. teresa. By Maria Trench. With Portrait engraved by Jeens. Crown 8vo. cloth extra. &f. 6a'. *^ A book of rare interest."- John Bull. inSTOR V, B10GRAPH V, TRAVELS, ETC. 27 '^^^^^^i^I^' J^-)— REMAINS OF THE LATE MRS. RICHARD TRENCH. Being Selections from her Journals, xvetters, and other Papers. Edited by Archbishop Trench. New and Cheaper Issue, with Portrait. 8vo. 6^. Trollope.— A history of the commonwealth of FLORENCE FKOM THE EARLIEST INDEPENDENCE OF THE COMMUNE TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC IN i83£. By T. Adolphus Trollope. 4 Vols. 8vo. Half morocco. 21s, Uppingham by the Sea.— a narrative OF the YEARATBORTH. ByJ. H. S. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6ci. Victor Emmanuel II., First King of Italy.—ms ^ LIFE. By G. S. Goi)Ki.\. 2 vols,, crown 8vo. \6s. "An extremely clear ami iii/crestinL;- history 0/ otte of the most important changes of later times." — Examiner. Wallace the Malay archipelago : the Land of the Orang Utan and the Bird of Paradise. By Alfred Russel Wallace. A Narrative of Travel with Studies of Man and Nature. With Maps and numerous Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo. 7^. 6a'. '• The result is a vivid picture of tropical life, which may be read with unflagging interest, and a sufficient account of his scientific conclusions to stimulate our appjetite without wearying us by detail. In short, we may safely say that we have never read a more agreeable book of its kind." Saturday Review. Ward.— A HISTORY of ENGLISH DRAMATIC LITERA- TURE TO THE DEATH OF QUEEN ANNE. By A. W. Ward, M.A., Professor of History and English Literature ii\ Owens College, Manchester. Two Vols. 8vo. 32^. _ " As full of interest as of information. To students of dramatic literature invaluable, and may be equally recommended to readers for mere pastime."— ? MA. Mall' Gazette. Ward (J.)— EXPERIENCES OF A DIPLOMATIST. Being recollections of Germany founded on Diaries kept during the years 1840—1870. By John Ward, C.B., late H.M. Minister- Resident to the Ilanse Towns. 8vo. loj. bd. Waterton (C.)— WANDERINGS IN SOUTH AMERICA, THE NORTH-WEST OF THE UNITED STATES, AND THE ANTILLES IN 1812, 1S16, 1820, and 1824. With Original Instructions for the perfect Preservation of Birds, etc., for Cabinets of Natural llist«H\. By CHARLES Wai ERTON, New Edition, edited with liiogiapliicnl Introduction and Explana- tory Inciex by the Kev. ]. G. Wood, M.A. With 100 Illustrations. 8vo. Cloth eleyant. 2\s. h I ri rf ■ IS N a« .n.H'.yffff .iX'S (•.7/Vf/.f>(,77.; <>/." Ilc'A'AW /A- ^*1m**a^^'?''' 1"Hn wksik.v anu tiik kvanoiu hai. KlvA< llnN <.| ilio KinhtivntlUVudiiy. 1Iv|imi,\ WkduWuoO. « iMWn .Sv», Hi. (v»'. Whrwrll. \\iin\M win.wm,, n i»,, i,.i.. M,„(n ..f Itnnly ( oll,',«,>. rm\«l.iil IiIm \Viil(nc«, willi S<'l«M\>vt>H \um lUx I iiiMinv nnil Sii.'iililir ri.iivMp.nuU'na', lly 1, l\>l>miNri.K, M.A., I'.U.S. !'«,. \..U, Hvo, ay., White. t'UK NATl'KAr HISTOUV AN1> AN I'MUMriKS »M'' SM lUM^NK, Hv liiiUMii Wiuin. K.lii.-.l. wiili M.^oic M\\\ Nu(<>'<, l>V I'liANK Urcivl AND, A « llrlUlOl on Alllii|llilU'>« l>V > OKI* Smiiounk. Mi\|>. ,Sc., intit nimuioim lllimluttliMm \\y W \\. nilAMlMlU, U>io, ill, AIhh rt l.rtim' rnncr I'Milion. <'.intniiiii»t;. iit i\it,l|ii,iii |,i ||ii> rttmvis \il>\\i«\>U »l ri>nlv \V.«i.ll'iiivi\|'.> lIlM'.hiili.in* lnm« iMiuvinni liy r>\>l. Ih.i \M«u II.. I'wo Vvik. .|i,.. Mull Mi.MOM.i, t'loumil. aK 4.V. " .U*\ /\y\>^,^i;\f , »,»» ¥i(tti; »7/wiy.)»i'i't'Wf tMv .» «ii<»/»)' ,f,\,-h»ft,>H . ,i".);«»Ci ,» Av^^', ;\\- ,».»Nx '.v.y'.Sv^,' Ar,-»y m, ,>H,i nwfVc /^rt'/* #»«■ /.• hh,i>m\ih„' tt'kv lihf/s A< Pn'li'«.<.M ot IV.Inni|.n;v in |lu> I'niviMnKv ol Kvin»l>urj;h. Hy his Si;.l hk. Now I'Milinn. V'lown .Sv», O.i. Wilson (Daniel. LI..I).) \\\^u i>v PANiin. Wilson. M..l>., I'lMlosMn ol lUstoiy niul l.nghsli lilrnUuio in lliiivci< t rUI'lUsriM^U" ANNAIS of SI'OII.ANO. Nrw l;,llii,.n, \\\\\\ mnncuxw UlusluUiiMis. Two Vols, >ii'niv .Svo. .\(>f. .«>V»» /,<» ,> ;,'v^' i'MV/," WHSIMINMXK KltVIKW, rUKIUS roKIO M,\N : K.-.fni.tu's ii.l.« Iho Oiii^m vif rivili;rt(i..ii in tl\o OU\ ;\n,l Now W.nKl. Ni-w Idilion, iovi'.oil iiml rnlnic.oil tliiMuohoni, Willi ininiciviis lllusti«ll*uis tmvl (wo Coiouu'vl rinicii. Two Vol,".. J\v». j(Vf. ^V+ >(• .«rt(.l',W<',i r»*(,i'_(;«-*».f ,1/ #vM,jW,i'," AvAlMvMY. t'HA rri'.K TON ! a Hi.imiii>liiortl Slmly, lly DanikI. WllSUN, 1.1- 1>., I'lMlown «>( lli>u«iv rtiul l'.nj;iisli Liicirttuif in Uiiivro ly tollojjf, rvtuniuv l'i\)wn {»v«>, (w. (>./. /ff\/i)/n; /.7('(,A',//7/l'. th'WIf.S, A7V Wy«lt (Sir M. Dlnby). mnh; akt , n Slu-i.l Vi lll^liiiv, TIli'iilV. I'lili (in., mill il|>|i|lriiliiii| III liiiliinllV. A ( ,.,..,. Ill liMltni'q (Ifllvi'inl |ioliiii< (lio lliilvi'i'illy iiii /,>t t>i^ \tu,i,iit ,\' /.'fyrr •>/ ,m/." iMii V Niuvn, YonRc (Churtoltc M.) Wniim i Altitun nl "'I'lii* I It'll III Ki'ili lyllc." .Sm'., .V A I'AUAI.M'I. IIISIOKY (»!'' rUANCK AND li.Ndl.ANDi riiii'ilHlliij) nil >illliiii'a iiml Diilrq. ( )|i|iin(i ,||(,, p. 6,/. CAMKDM KKOM KNCI.ISII IllSroUV. Vum K..II,. l.. ICIwni.l II. luiru l(ii|i, 8vit. Ttihil I'jIIiIhii. ijr. HinoNi. SnitiP'i, 'I'lIK, WAKM IN I'KANCIt;. Kutm rinp, Mvt). Thiiil I'Mlliuii. >;r. •I'liim. SiniiitM, VWY, VVAUM ol-' lllli; U(»M|.,S, ICxIm Iciip. iSvii, lif. " tiiUe,iJ ,tm^ ( XfUtrly I i-ihiy. y//iy/,'ti,,il (\'iitii> fid. POLITICAL ESSAYS. 8vo. los. 6Y Riciiakd Cohdicn. Edited by the Right Hon. Jolin nriglit, M.P., and J. E. Thorold Rogers. Popular Ediliou. 8vo. y. Od. Fawcett. — Works by Henry Fawcett, M.A., M.P., Fellow of Trinity IL-ill, and Professor of Political Economy in the University of Cambridge : — ' '^t\^^.^,^',P,m.°^!.^^ POSITION OF THE BRITISH LABOURER. I'.xtra fcap. 8va 5j-. MANUAL OF I'OLITICAL ECONOMY. Fifth Edition, with ^ew Chapters 011 the Depreciation of Silver, etc. Crown 8vo \2S. The Daily News says: "Lt forms one of the best introductions to the fnnapies of the science, and to its practical applications in the problems of modern, and especially of English, government and society." PAUPERISM : ITS CAUSES AND REMEDIES. Crown 8vo. S^. dd. r/4) on the National Debt^ (7) on the Declaration of Paris, (S) on Marine Insurances, (9) on the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, and (10) on Egypt. Macdonell.— THE land question, with special REFERENCE TO ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. By John Macdonell, Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. los. Od. Martin the statesman's YEAR-BOOK: a statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the Civilized World, for the year 1879. By Frederick Martin. Sixteenth Annual Publication. Revised after Official Returns. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. The Statesman's Year-Book is the only work in the English langua(,e which furnishes a clear and concise account of the actual condition of all th4 States of Europe, the civilized countries of America, Asia, and WORKS IX POLITICS, ETC. . . 35 n-^f./' "tI. ^'" ^'-'■'"^'/f "'•« «*utd and corrected on tZ Z f """''^' *" '''^'^ '" ''"''' '"" '" 'hem l.y the Editor T/TrZeh the valuable assntame thus given, it has been possible to coZt an amount f/'*^V''f'on, political, statistical, and comlrcia^^ t-nT;!"^'"'^'f' ''"J^^'0'-M"-'ss, such as no p^Jca on o} 'same Times ^^' '" ^'"'""^- "^^^ ^"'^i'A'sabU as BridshawTl ^°?tSrnrV'/ ^^P'T"OD OF LAW: an Es.ay on the ^y^'^;pni-^^^^ t^^iiT/ '"''^""""' '^"^ ^""'•■' " •^''-'^•"-iii^insu Quarterly ^^*fIws"'(^''KiSM\\^^\'V.?^^ SUBJECT AND THE OF Tin? i/r^om^^^/-^ RErATING TO THE SECURITY MA n ^V ?^- ^-""'"''-■"ta'-ies on. IJy James Paterson. frk^'l.- t • '"' '^ f .7' •'^""^<^t""e Commissioner for English and In h lMs^,cne.s. etc Cheaper issue. Two Vols. Crown 8vo. 21.. ff,. J. r- ''T- ,'^'f^"''^ "'" "'''' '•"'umes, not' to say reading them ofT^^-^'^fi" ^'■^"^"f'''!''"f -^''*"'f orators a hnotvled^e o/the^CZ 0fau,zen of their country, mils principles. Us fulness, and its modi. -SCOTSMAN."' "''y^'-''"'^''y '■« "'■"' ■'■'"'■^- out often nJuer hadbejore'" ^^Sr'"f>*"T^f^^^'^? ^^^^ A^^ON^' THE ROMANS, from the Pandects. By John George Phillimore, Q.C. 8vo. Rogers.— COBDEN AND POLITICAL OPINION ^^ I itoROLi) Rogers. 8vo. los. bd. " Will be found tnostusejul by politicians of every school, as it forms a sort of handbook to Cobden's teaching. "— Atiien.e U M. ^^J<»'"^' « Stephen (C. E.)— the service of the poor- iiemg an Inquiry into the Reasons for and against the Establish-' ment of Religious Sisterhoods for Charitable Purposes. Bv „ .J^^'^Yl'^^' I'^MILIA Stephen. Crown 8vo. 6j. (>d I he ablest advocate oj a better lint of work in this direction that wt have ever «««."— Examiner. Stephen. — Works by Sir James F. Stephen, K.C.S.I., O.C. "^-.Pl^^^n ?^ "^^J? ^^^'^^ ^^ EVIDENCE. Third Edition wjth New Preface. Crown 8vo. 6j. By J. E. 36 MACMir.LAN'S CATALOGUE OF ;» n I Stephen.— ,v«//«w,-./. A niCKS-r OF TIFF, CRIMINAT, LAW. (Crime, and riinislinu-iits.) 8v(). ifw. " ;/ V /„■/ .r«;r thai fifiy t^rson of ordhuvy intdli^,»ce «-//<' had mftr IM u,to a hivhok in hh life mi^ht, h a f.-xv days' earcfid study of t/tis volume, o/itaitt a vton- acf urate utidnstandint,' of t/ie criminal law a more perjeet ,on,ef>tion of its different />eari),fis a more thorough and tntethaent tnsti^ht into its snares and fitfatls, than an ordinary fraelitioner ran boast of after years of study of the ordinary text- fiooij and />raet,<:,l e.xyerienee of the Courts unassisted hy any comMcnt i«/./f.'— Satukday Kkvikw. ' A (JKNFKAI, VIKW OF TIIF CRIMINAT, LAW OF ENG- '-'^Nl). 1 wo Vols. Crown 8vo. \Nnv e,iition in the press. 5tubbS.--VlLi.A(;i!: I-OMTICS. Ad.lrcsscs nn.l Sermons on the Lalmur gueslion. IJy C. W. Stiii.hs, M.A., Vicar of (.r;inl)()roui;li, Hucks. Extra fcap. 8vi). J,s. bd. '^^'pTr^u-'T^^'^'''^' ''y ^- '^- THORNTON, t;.lJ., Secretary for 1 iililic W orks m ilie Imlia OITice :— ON LAl!Ol/R: Its Wron{vful Claims and Rijrhtful Dues ; Its Actual 1 resent and Possible Future. Second Edition, revised. Svi). i4f. ' ' A PLEA FOR PEASANT PROPRIETORS : With the Outlines ol a llan lor their Estahlishnient in Ireland. New Edition revised. Crown Svo. 7^. 61/. ^^.V'^^. ,''L"^f'^<^ WORKS AND COGNATE INDIAN lOI'ICS. With Map of Indian Railw.iys. Crown Svo, 8j. 6(/. ^^,!^^''-7;>^'"'''''' '^y ^'- ^- Walker, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of 1 olitical Economy and History, Vale College :— Tlir: WAClvS QUESTION. A Treatise on Wages and the \\agos Class. Svo. I4J. MONEY. Svo, i6j. '• It is fainstakint,-, laborious, and states tJu question in a char and vep^t„tcU,^i^d>lejo,m. . . . The volume possesses a great value as a sort 0} encycloffdia of {-niwlcdge on //;<■ j///V ''<'">o'i- Crown Svo. Ilalf-iunind. 6s. A OoH-'H'/nr/i any stmh-nt, wh.itavr may he the (hxree of his ad- vam-anct w the lan^^iui^c, '.cnmU r. J. 11. ScHMinr. Translated from the Clerman by T W. Whitk, D.D. 8vo. loj.Od. Taylor. — Works by tlie Rev. Isaac Taylor, RLA.:— ETRUSCAN RESEARCHES. With Woodcuts. 8vo. 14s. The Timi-.s says :~" 77ie learning and industry dis/ilayed in this volume dcsenie the most cordial rccoi-nition. The ultimate V'rdict of science 7ve shall not attempt to anticipate ; but we can sajelv say this, that U ts a learned book xuhich the unlearned can enfy, and that in the de- scriptions of the tomb-builders, as well as in the mamellous coincidences and unexpected analogies brought together by the author, readers of every grade may take delight as well as philosophers and scholars." WORDS AND PLACES ; or, Etymological Illustrations of .Iistory, Ethnology, and Geography. IJythcRcv. Isaac Tayi.ou. Third Edition, revised and compressed. With Maps. Globe 8vo. 6^. GREEKS AND GOTHS : a Study on the Runes. Svo. gx. w MACMILLAN'S CATALOGUE, ^'c. Trench. — Works by R, Chenevix Trench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. (For other Works by the same Author, see Theological Catalogue.) SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Eighth Edition, enlarged. 8vo, cloth. \2s. *^He is" the Athenaeum says, "a guide in this department of knowledge to whom his readers may entrust themselves with confidence. " ON THE STUDY OF WORDS. Lectures Addressed (originally) to the Pupils at the Diocesan Training Scnool, Winchester. Seventeenth Edition, enlarged. Fcap. 8vo. Sj. ENGLISH PAST AND PRESENT. Tenth Edition, revised and improved. Fcap, 8vo. ^s. A SELECT GLOSSARY OF ENGLISH WORDS USED FORMERLY IN SENSES DIFFERENT FROM THEIR PRESENT. Fourth Edition, enlarged. Fcap. Svo. 4J. Whitney. — a compendious gerivIan grammar. By W. D. Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and Instructor in Modem Languages in Yale College. Crown Svo. 6s. ^'^ After careful examination we are inclined to pronounce it the best grammar of modern language we have ever seeti." — Scotsman. Whitney and Edgren. — a compendious GERMAN and ENGLISH DICTIONARY, with Notation of Correspon- dences and Brief Etymologies. By Professor W. D. Whitney, assisted by A. H. Edgren. Crown Svo. ^s, 6d. The GERMAN-ENGLISH Part may be had separately. Price ^s. Yonge— HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. By Char- lotte M, Yonge, Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe." Cheaper Edition, Two Vols, Crown Svo. 12s. B. CLAV, SONS, AND TAVLOK, FHINTRHSi, LONKOM, chbishop of EOLOGICAI, Lth Edition, artment of nfidence. " (originally) A^inchester. an, revised )S USED I THEIR MAR. By in Modem it the best JERMAN Z^orrespon- Vhitney, Price 5j. Jy Char. ledclyffe."