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•^•itr^-MI^Atm

MAN

A Bl^

Profes

MANUAl/oF EXPLOSIVKS

A BRIEF GUIDE FOR THE USE OF
MINERS AND QUARRVMEN

Bv COURTENAY DE KALB

Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in the School

of Mining Kingston Ontar.o

ISSl'ED BY „ ...xTirc

THE ONTARIO BUREAU OF MINES
Toronto 1900

„ T r-

iq56

ANNOUNCEMENT.

The growth of tlie mining industry in Ontario, and the
number of casualties which have occurred owing to the
careless or ignorant use of explosives employed in the in-
dustry, have suggested the need of a book of instructions
on the safest methods of handling the materials, both in
transportation and at the mines. It is also desirable,
where men have not acquifed experience, that hints should
be given on the best means of using explosives to obtain
the largest economic results. Safety and efficiency are the
two chief objects aimed at in the Manual which Prof.
De Kalb has been authorized by the Commissioner of
Crown Lands to prepare. His own exi)erience in practical
mining, his training as a mining engineer, and his know-
ledge of the conditions which exist in Ontario accjuired in
the inspection of mines, have commended him for the task
of writing on the subjijct of explosives, and it is hoped
that the Manual will serve a useful purpose. It is
issued by the Bureau of Mines for presentation to all mine
managers in the Province, as well as to foremen and
others who have charge of operations with explosive
materials.

rjl HBAl! t)K MiNKw,

Toronto .June, 1900,

ARCHIBALD BLUE.

■n

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Mr. Archibald Blue,

Director of the. Jiurean oj Mines,

Toronto, Ontario.
Dear Sir :

In compliance with your instructions J have prepared,
and beg to submit, the foUowing pages on the nature and
proper methods of handling of explosives. The matter
herein presented is in part a compilation from the litera-
ture on explosives, and in part the result of direct in(^uiry
from well known authorities on the subject. To a certain
extent I have drawn from my own experience in the
practical use and testing of explosives.

I have the honor to be,

Your obedient servant.

COURT! >4Y DE KALB.

Scuooi. OK Mining,

Kingston, May 15, 1900.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TAOB
I'KKFACE 1, l„

CllAI'TKR I COMMON K\l-LoslVKS,

Classitlc.aioiis—Kxiilosiv o Mixtuies of the Nitratf ('lass : (Jiitii«)\v<ier,
masting: I'owdfi, (.'arlio-a/oliiif, "yrolithf ; I'roporties of (Jtin-
1>o\v(Ut Kxitlosivo MixtiiriM of tJiu 'hloratt- Class : Asphaliin.' ;
DaiiK'trous chanw.'U'r of »m\\ Explosives -Explosive CoinpoiuKls of
the Nitni-Siil).stitiitioM Class; Horlinetto's I'owder, IJellite, .loveite,
Securite, \'oliie.v Towdcis, AiiiiiinMitcs, Kiiiiiieiisite, (Jelhite,
Uohiirite— Kxitjosive Conipounds of the Nitric Derivative Class:
(iiincotton, Nitro','l.VL'erine, Properties of Nitro>,'lyceriiie, Blast-
iii-r I'owders made from Oimcottoii and Nitroglycerine, Tonite,
I'oteiitite, Dynamites, Dynamite doj»es, Carbodynamite, Judson
II. H. P. I'owder, Vulcanite, Stonite, Atlas i'owder, (liant I'cnvder,
liendrock, Carhonite, Dualin, Ilorsley I'owder, Vigorite, Herculea
I'owder, Charaotcristics of Dynamites, Castellanos I'owder, Blast-
inK ( Jelatine, CJelatine Dynamite, Oeli^^iite, Foreite— Explosives* of
the Si)rens,'el Class; Kack-a-nnk, HellhoflFite-Fulminates, Amides,
etc.; Mercury Fulminate, lodoamide 11.41

CHAPTKll II-FUSE, CAl'S AND METHODS OF FIRING.

Safety Fuses- t,>uick Burninj,' Fuses— Detonators or Exploders— Firing:
Attaching Fuse to Caps ; Primers ; Batteries ; Connecting and Lead-
ing Wires 42.51

CHAPTER III-THE«»UY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

Explosive Reactions, two Types— Detonation and Exi)losion Products

of CoiuLustion- Physiological Effect of Fumes [y>.(\:,

17]

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV— TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND
HANDLING.

I'AUE

Transportation in Wajj^ons— Ontario and Dominion Laws— British Rejfu-
lations— Transportation on Railroads ; Pennsylvania Railroa<i
Refifulations— Storage— in caves, tunnels, etc. ; jiroperly constructed
Magazines ; Location of Magazines ; Danger Radius : Lightning ;
Care of Exi)losives — Thawing Dynamites (Ki-^O

CHAPTER v.- BLASTING.

General Considerations -Line of Least Resistance— Forces to he Over-
come— Calculating Charges — Simultaneous Firing -Loading Holes
— Tamping— Mi.s-Fires— Adaptation of Exjjlosives to kind of Work
to he done— Chamhering — Bank Blasting— Locating Bore-holes —
Consumption of Explosives — Deep Bore-holes iKJ-llO

APPENDIX A— EXAMPLES OF CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS 111-11.')

APPENDIX B— IMPORTANT BOOKS ON EXPLOSIVES 115-11«

APPENDIX C- REGULATIONS FOR THE STORAGE AND HANDL-
ING OF EXPLOSIVES IN ONTARIO 110-118

■AGB

K5v^9

1-110
-115
i-110

i-118

PREFACE.

In spite of the enormous quantities of explosives which
are consumed in modern engineering operations, there
exists a very imperfect knowledge of their character and
qualities on the part of the general public. Not only does
this entail great risk to life and proper y from the incau-
tious use of these powerful agents of destruc ion, but
their employment by men ignorant of their proper appli-
cation for the performance of specific work under varying
conditicms leads to important waste of material. If a
charge of dynamite or other high explosive is so fired as
to produce only 75 per cent, of its possible useful effect,
there has resulted both a loss of available energy and a
waste of a certain portion of the tiuie, labor and power
expended in preparing for thi blast. The aggregate un-
productive expenditure appears as a first charge against
the ore or rock extracted.

In such a brief survey of the subject as is here contem-
plated it will be impossible to lay down rules which will
enable one to employ explosives always with safety and
to the highest economic advantage, but it may serve to
con ect many erroneous impressions and to point out the
way to a better use of blasting agents. For those who
wish to acquire further information on the characteristics
of explosives, and the proper application of them in indus-
trial work, a list of valuable treatises is given at the end
of this Manual.

[5>1

PREFACE.

The immediate cause of the preparation of this manual
has been the alarming increase in the number of fatal
accidents with explosives occurring throughout the Pro-
vince during recent years. In consequence, particular
stress will be laid on precautionary measures to insure
greater siifety. It would seem almost unnecessary to
warn intelligent human beings against the perils of warm-
ing dynamite over an open tire, of carrying it in their boot-
legs, of throwing pieces of dynamite cartridges into out-
of-the-way corners of a mine where they may be discovered
with painful results in future ; nor would it seem needful
to point out the terrible disaster that may follow from
biting a cap on to a fuse. But these and equally reckless
practices are of daily occurrence at mines and on rail-
roads, entailing risk of life not only to those who them-
selves are guilty of such criminal carelessness, but, what
is worse , to innocent parties who may chance to fall vic-
tims to the consequences of the act.

Special acknowledgment is due to Dr. Charles E.
Munroe of Washington, D.C., for valuable suggestions
and generous aid in facilitating the preparation of this
little guide, and the author desires furthermore to express
his sense of indebtedness to the late Mr. Addison C.
Rand of New York for much practical assistance.

II.

CHAPTER I.

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

The explosives in common use in America are very few.
Practically the average foreman is acquainted with only
two kinds, black powder (gunpowder and blasting pow-
der), and some of the ordinary varieties of dynamite on
the market. The number of explosive compounds recog-
nized in Europe runs high into the liundreds, but for the
most part their introduction into American practice has
been slow and financially unsuccessful. Many of these
possess great merit, and deserve a cordial reception by
mine managers and (juarrymen. To find such conserva-
tism toward improvements in blasting powders on this
side of the Atlantic is a little surprising. The only explan-
ation would seem to be that dynamite is reasonably safe,
is nearly as efficient as the best of these new compounds,
and is sold at a lower cost than is possible with the most
of its competitors. That there are explosives, however,
which are superior in point of safety to dynamite, and
which will yield better economic results in the long run
when intelligently applied, is undeniable. But so much
better results cau be obtained with our old familiar explo-
sives than are generally obtained to day, that it is chiefly
desirable to improve upon our present methods.

Accurdiug to the British Expiosives Act oi xojw, an
explosives are divided into seven classes, viz. : 1, Gun-

12 COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

powder ; 2, Nitrate Mixture ; 3, Nitro-conipound ; 4,
Chlorate Mixture ; 5, Fulaiinate ; 6, Ammunition ; 7,
Fireworks.

This is largely arbitrary, and while serviceable for ad-
ministrative purposes is not scientifically exact Among
manufacturers of explosives the following classes are gen-
erally recognized ; 1, Explosive Mixtures of the Nitrate
class ; 2, Explosive Mixtures of the Chlorate class ; 3,
Explosive Compounds of the Nitro-substitution class ; 4,
Explosive Compounds of the Nitric derivative class ; 5, Ex-
plosives of the Sprengel class ; 6, Fulminates and Amides.

1. Explosive Mixtures of the Nitrate Class.

The best known example of this class is gunpowder.
The characteristic of these explosives is that they o )nsist
of a mechanical mixture of nitrates with some base con-
taining charcoal or other substance yielding carbon. The
nitrates carry the oxygen which combines with the base
under favorable circumstances, devel>ping^a large volume
of gases at a high temperature, so that if the powder is
confined at the time of explosion there will be produced
an enormous expansive effort.

The itandard composition of gunpowder is

Fotassluin nitrate (nitre or sa tpetre) 75 parts.

Charcoal 15 "

Sulphur 10 "

100

The charcoal employed for military and sporting powder
is made commonly from dogwood, while for blasting
powder willow and alder are used. In some inferi«'r

COMMON EXPLOSIVES. 13

powders lampblack is substituted in part for charcoal, and
in a few brands of special powders lignite, coal and vari-
ous forms of carbohydrates are employed. In one inter-
esting military explosive, viz., cocoa powder, the carbo-
naceous residue remaining after extracting the soluble
matter from rye straw with superheated steam is used
instead of ordinary charcoal.

Nitre is generally superior to other nitrates, mainly on
account of its failure to deliquesce, that is, to take up
moisture from the atmosphere. In this respect barium
nitrate is superior, but it'* cost is high, and the resultant
powder is too slow in its action for ordinary purposes.
Sodium nitrate is exceedingly deliquescent, and yields a
powder which tends to deteriorate rapidly under the
influence of moisture. It is never introduced into afly
but blasting powders, and those containing it should be
used while the powder is as fresh as possible, and they
should be protected from dampness with great care. It
is claimed for them that their action is more powerful for
a given weight, on account of the larger amount of avail-
able oxygen in sodium nitrate than in an ecjual weight of
potassium nitrate (nitre). Other forms of blasting powders
which have been put on the market at various times may
be represented by the following: Carbo-azotine, containing

Potassium nitrate 70

Sulphur 12

Lampblack 5

Sawdust 13

Fei'ious sulphate 2

And Pyrolithe, claimed to produce no carbon monoxide

hli

lii

I'l

14 COMMON KXPLOSIVK.S.

during explosion, which, if true, should cause the devel-
opment of greater power. This contains

Potassium nitrate & 1 . 50

Sodium nitrate lf'"0

Sulphur • -'>*'f^

Sawdust 11 •""

Charcoal l'^"

Properties of Gunpowder. The proper color of good
gunpowder or blasting powder is a uniform dark gray or
slaty hue. A dead black or decidealy bluish color indi-
cates either the presence of too much charcoal or an
excess of moisture. It should show no difference in color
when crushed, and no sharp or angular fragments should
be visible before crushing. On pressing the powder between
the fingers it should not crack'e, nor should it crush easily by
such pressure. It should not crumble under this test, but
fall to pieces in angular fragments. The size of grains should
be quite uniform, and there should be no dust when new.
It should leave no color when poured over the hand or a
sheet of paper, which would indicate the existence of meal
powder or too much moisture. Single bright spots, or
bluish-white spots, show that th.^ powder has been damp,
causing efflorescence of the saltpetre, which destroys the
uniformity of composition of the explosive and renders
its action unreliable. As a rule powder has not suffered
materially from dampness if no efflorescence of saltpetre
has taken place. Damp powder can be restored by drying
it in the sun, or in a well ventilated room.

Good gunpowder should have a specific gravity some-
whore between 1.5 and 1.85. The value of the powder.

COMMON EXl'LOSIVK.S.

other things being equal, varies with its specific gravity;
the denser it is the more powerful. No simple test, how-
ever, as to this property can be niiide by the ordinary
consumer of blasting powder.

A blow of copper on wood rarely explodes gunpowder,
a blow of wood on wood never, but a blow of copper or
wood on stone has fre(juently exploded it, especially in
ramming it into holes with wooden rammers, when the
rammer was struck too violently by a hammer. The
ignition temperature of blasting powder is 518' F., and
of rifle powder 528.8° F. The finest grades of sporting
powder ignite at about 600'' F. Burning bodies only
ignite gunpowder when they are veiy hot This is well
shown in attempting to ignite blasting powder with a
match. As long as there is an ordinary flame the powder
will not ignite, but as soon as a narrow poin'ed flame
issues it ignites instantly. A gas flanle will only ignite
powder after it has acted upon it for a few seconds. ^
Sparks from steel or stone ignite powder easily. An elec-
tric spark ignites powder only when the discharge is
delayed by the interposition of a bad conductor. An elec
trie current will explode gunpowder only through tht
heating of a resistance wire in the circuit. Good black
powder ignited on a piece of white paper burns away
rapidly, leaving no residue. If black spots be found they
indicate excess of charcoal, or imperfect mixture of the
ingredients of the powder. Yellow spots remaining on
the paper indicate excess of sulphur ; and if any holes

iOscar Outtniarin, " The Manufac'ture of Explosives," vol. '. p. 332.

:ll

lii

16 COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

have been l)urned in the pa])or it indicates excess of
moisture, or some other imperfection in the powder.

2. Explosive Mixtures of the Chlorate Class.

In explosives of this class the oxygen for combustion is
present in the well-known compound, chlorate of potash.
A mixture of this salt with almost nny carbonaceous ma-
terihl will explode under suitable, and often unexpected,
circumstances. The tendency of chlorate mixtures to ex-
plode under slight friction, or even without any
apparent cause, is so great that they have not come
into general use except in fuse compositions and in deton-
ators. Almost none of the patented explosives of this
class have stood the test of the British Inspectors, only
three such explosives having been accepted, and only one
of these, asphalinc, having been licensed. lb consists of
thoroughly cleansed wheat or barley bran impregnated
with potassium chlorate, mixed with potassium nitrate
and sulphate. The proportions of these ingredients are
stated to be :

Potassium chlorate 54 parts

Bran 42 "

Potassium nitrate | ^ <i

PotasHimn sulphate '

The chlorate mixtures will not concern the miner or
contractor, and they may be dismissed with a quotation
from Dr. Dupre, F.R.S., who says :

"Chlorate of notassium, on account of the readiness
with which it lends itself to the production of powerful
explosives, offers a great temptation to inventors of new

COMMON EXl'LOHIVES.

explosives, and many uttenipts have been made to put it
to practical use, but 8o far with very limited success.
This is chiefly owing to two causes. In the first place
potassium chlorate is a very unstable compound, and is
liable to suffer decomposition under a variety of circum-
stances, and under comparatively slight causes, chemical
and mechanical. All chlorate mixtures are liable to what
is termed spontaneous ignition, or explosion, in the pres-
ence of a variety of materials, more particularly of such as
are acid, or are liable to generate acid ; and all chlorate
mixtures are readily exploded by percussion, such as a
glancing blow which might easily and would often occur
in charging a hole. In the second place there is some
evidence to show that the sensitiveness to percussion and
friction increases by keeping, more especially if the
explosive is exposed to the action of moist and dry air
alternately."

Its extreme sensitiveness may be illustrated by the cir-
cumstance that chlorate of potash tablets for the throat
have been exploded with great violence by replacing a
watch into a vest pocket containing a few of them.

3. Explosive Compounds of the Nitro-Substitution

Class.

The essential difference between an explosive compound
and an explosive mixture is that in the latter a number of
separately existing chemical substances capable of react-

— r> r ■ » !.»igC! rSj'iUiiiU Oi goiaco du a Higii iiiiL,I<ti

temperature, are intimately mixed by mechanical means,
while in the case of explosive compounds we are dealing

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

ill

with a single chemical substance containing oxygen and
other elements capable oi uniting therewith to form
stable gases at a high temperature. The explosion is
accomplished by a dissocirtion of the elements constitut-
ing the compound, and by their recombination into a
variety of gaseous compounds. The modern high explo-
sives consist of such explosive compounds, either used
pure, or mixed with other substances which serve to re-
duce the risk of their accidental explosion,and to so modify
their action as to adapt them to the reciuirements of dif-
ferent classes of work.

The nitro-substitution compounds are formed by ''nitrat-
ing " certain hydrocarbons of the aromatic series, which
for the most part are coal tar products. The commonest
products which are thus employed are phenols (carbolic
acid), benzenes, naphthalenes and toluene. The process
of nitration consists in introducing into the molecule of
the original hydrocarbon a certain (juantity of nitrogen
and oxygen, by treating it with nitric acid, thus making a
new chemical compound, relatively unstable, and contain-
ing the necessary elements to produce fixed gases at high
temperature as stated above

The treatment of "carbolic acid," or phenol with
nitric acid yields picric acid, a yellow crystalline com-
pound having explosive properties which under favorable
circumstances may assume violent proportions. Some of
the more recent explosives used for charging shells in
warfare, such as lyddite, are nothing more than fused
picric acid. A mixture of this substance with sodium

OOMMON EXPLOSIVES. 19

nitrate and potasHiuiu chroniate, known as Borlinetto's
powder, is an extreinely sensitive and powerful explosive.
It contains-

Picric acid lo parts

Sodium iiit rate lo "

PotosMium chromate 8.5 "

Common potassium carbonate, stirred into a boiling
solution of picric acid in water, yields crystals of potassium
picrate, one of the most sensitive explosive compounds
known. When mixed with . potassium chlorate its
explosive violence equals that of nitroglycerine, with the
disadvantage of being infinitely more unstable and sensi-
tive. A large number of explosives have been patented
consisting essentially of the nitro-substitution compounds,
many of w^hich are unsuitable for economic purposes on
account of their high cost and dangerous character, while
others are equally remarkable as being among the less
expensive high explosives, and unequalled for their extra-
ordinary freedom from accidental explosion under the
circumstances that ordinarily determine such catastrophes.
One of the most remarkable of these is bellite, invented
by Carl Lamm of Stockholm, Sweden, consisting of 5
parts of ammonium nitrate and 1 part of meta-di-nitro-
benzene, melted together, into which potassium nitrate is
then stirred. It may be molded into cartridge form, or
cooled and granulated, forming a free running powder
like gunpowder. As this explosive is not now on the
market, its price being prohibitive, it may be beat to state
its peculiar properties in connection with another explos-
ive known as joveite, which it resembles closely, tin's

illel

CUiv'^MON KXI'LOHIVKM.

Ifttter Wing nuinufactniod in the; ITiiited HtnfcH jind sold
Ht {iiii)^* compotiuj? with d^i.amite.

Joveitt*' f« m'lde in three grades, httwin^ tlio foUowing
coinpositions :

No. 1 No. -2 No. H

Nitro-iiaiihtliiiU'iit'H 8 poi- cfiit,. S i>er <i'iit. (i |)fr cent.

Nitio-plicnols 1(5

Nitrate of wxlu 7(5

(17

(i4

Of the.so gnidos No. 'A is the (luickest aiid most power-
ful, and No. 1 the slowest, being about equivalent to h)W
grade dynamites in power. It preaentH no danger in its
manufacture. It will not explode from friction, Khock or
pressure, fire, lightning, or electric 8i)arks. It can only
be exploded with detonators (" exploders") such as are
used in exploding dynamite. It undergoes i\o chemical
f?^ange from age or from atmospheric infiuonces. It is
unaffected by tropical heat, or the extreme cold of winter.
It does not freeze, but can be used at all normal temper-
atures. Its products of explosion contain no noxious
gases, so that it is peculiarly adapted to operations under-
ground. Its explosive temperature is b3ii° F. When
ignited in the open it burns vigorously, but does not
explode. It has been tested by the ablest explosive
experts and has never proven unsafe or unreliable. It
would seet'i to fulfil all the requirements of an ideal
explosive.

Securite ia an explosive very similar to bellite, having
all its advantages, with the disadvantage of the cost d-. e
to the ammonium nitrate used. A variety of seeunte
containing ammonium oxalate is said to be flameless.

CO IMON KXI'LOMIVI

I A class <.f these explosives which has hud , insiderahlo

Hccoptanoo ahromi in Kuowa as the Volney powdorn,
named after the inventor, C. W. Vohiey. They conaiat
of nitro-naphthalenes mixed with saltpetre and Hul|)hur,
The higher the degree of nitration the less of the nitrate
mixture is re quired, and the higher is the breaking power
of the explosive. The powders can thus bo graded to
meet •"he conditions of blasting in hard, or in soft and
fisBurod rocks. They are very insensitive to friction, or
all* ok, and are no more liable to accidental explosion than
gunpowder. Judging fu.a I he ingredients used it would
not seem that their cost should be prohibitive.

Ammonites, or Favier explosives, are well known
blasting agents of the nitro-substitution class, which have
been extensively used abroad, particularly in France.
While the ditterent grades vary considerably in composi-
tion, the type of the Favier explosive may be repre-
sented by the formula

Amiiioniuin nitnite IX) per cent.

Nitro-JiaplithaU'iie 10 "

The nitro-nipthalene is melted and the ammonium
nitrate then incorporated with it. Each of these sub-
stances alone is very stable, and absolutely safe. When
mixed they will still resist rough usage, and will not even
explode with the ordinary detonator, requiring a cap con-
taining 1 gramme of fulminate of mercury to effect
I vlelonation.

Other explosives of the same class are eminensito,
gelbite and roburite. The latter was the invention of

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

Dr. Carl Roth, and it ia claimed that by intro-
ducing' chlorine into the nitro-compound a more
powerful explosive was produced, exceeding dynamite in
this respect, while producing a rending instead of a shat-
tering effect. It consists essentially of nitrate of ammo-
nium with thoroughly purified chlorinated di-nitrobenzole.
Its insensitiveness is very marked, it does not freeze, and
it is claimed to be practically flameless. It requires a
powerful detonator to explode it. Roburite is manufac-
tured and extensively used in Great Britain. The nitro-
substitution powders which have attained an econoipic
importance have collectively acquired the name of " safety
explosives," on account of their peculiar properties, and
their industrial application will undoubtedly steadily
increase in future.

4. Explosive Compounds of the Nitric Derivative

Cla-ss.

The two explosives of the nitric derivative class which
are generally known are guncotton and nitroglycerine,
with special preparations made from them, such as dyna-
mite, blasting gelatine, etc. Chemically considered they
are nitric derivatives from alcohols, just as the nitro-
substitution explosives were nitric derivatives from thj
aromatic series of hydrocarbons. A marked distinction
between them is that when the nitro- substitution com-
pounds are treated with alkalies nitric acid is not repro-

, . ^ formed, and

IflfiS

duced, UUO vanwua iiivxvgbii

when subiected to the action of reducing agents the result
is the formation of amides. By treating nitric derivatives,

COMMON P^XPLOSIVE.S.

however, with reducing agents the original ingredients
may be reproduced either wholly or in part, according as
the derivative is a nitric ether or a nitric ester. - Gun-
cotton is the representative of the nitric esters, made by
the action of nitric acid on a complex alcohol, while nitro-
glycerine is the representative of a nitric ether, produced
by the action of nitric acid on a simple alcohol. For a
general discussion of the chemistry of these interesting
bodies the reader is referred to the works of Guttmann,
Walke, Berthelot, Chalon and Von Romocki.

Guncotton is made by treating suitably prepared cotton
with a mixture of 1 part by weight of nitric acid (1.5 sp.
g.) and 3 parts of sulphuric acid (1.85 sp. g.). The
immersion lasts 48 hours, the temperature being main-
tained at GO°F. The cotton is then subjected to a thorough
and prolonged washing, after which it is carried through
various processes to prepare it for use. The cellulose of
the cotton has thus been converted into tri-nitrocellulose.
By varying the strength of the acids different degrees of
nitration may be obtained. Guncotton is extensively
employed for military purposes, but not for blasting. It
constitutes however one of the ingredients, of blasting
gelatine, and is the chief constituent in most so-called
" smokeless powders, "

Properties of Guncotton. Guncotton differs but slightly
in appearance from ordinary cotton. It has a harsh feel,
and is less flexible than common cotton. It becomes
highly electrified when rubbed between the fingers, and

'i liectures on ExploMives by Willoughhy VValkc, 1897.

OOIVIMON RXI'LOSIVKS.

appears luminous when rubl)c(l in the dark. It is entirely
insoluble in hot or cold water, but dissolves in a mixture
of ether and ammonia. It will rarely take up more than
2 per cent, of moisture from the atmosphere. It is insen-
sible to pressure, percussion or friction, unless closely
contined and firmly compressed. It burns with a flash,
but without explosion, if brouglit into contact with a
burning or incandescent body. Wet guncotton will not
burn or explode. Its ignition temperature is 3G0"F.
Pure guncotton will undergo no spimtaneous decomposi-
tion, and is the safest explosive known. Although it will
not explode when wet, it may be detonated when in this
condition by a mercury fulminate detonator with a small
initial charge of dry guncotton in contact with it. Under
these circumstances it develops its maximum force in a
minimum of time. Wet guncottim when detonated produces
a more violently disruptive effect than if detonated dry.

Nitroglycerine is a nitric ether, or specifically a glyceryl
tri nitrate. Different degrees of nitration yield the
mono-, di- and tri-nitroglycerine, respectively, the latter
being the nitroglycerine of commerce, having the chemi-
cal formula C3Hr,0.j(N02).,. It is made by treating
an exceedingly pure quality of glycerine with a mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids, the proportions commonly
adopted being 3 parts of nitric acid, 5 parts of sulphuric
acid, and from 1 to 1.15 part of glycerine. The glycerine
is added very slowly, and with constant stirring. The
agitation of the mixture is now usually accomplished by
compressed air.

COMMON RXI'I-OSIVRS.

PropertleH of Nifnxjliiccrine. When made from the
purest ingredients nitroglycerine is an oily-looking fluid,
UH clear and transparent as water. When freshly made it
is whitish and opa((uo, but on standing it clears. As
usually made it has a yellowish tint, but the best makers
at the present day turn out a nearly water- white product.
The specific gravity of nitroglycerine at ordinary temi)er-
atujes is about 1.0, which increases when frozen to 1.735,
showing that it contracts 10-121 of its volui.ieon freezing.
Nitroglycerine dissolves in alcohol, ether, methyl alcohol,
benzine, etc., but is nearly insoluble in water (about
0.003 per cent.). Fresh ly made oparjue nitroglycerine
freezes at from— 2. 2^F. to— 7.6°F., while the transparent
or "cleared" product freezes at from 39.2°F. to 37.4''F.
In a frozen state nitroglycerine is less sensitive to shock
or concussion than when li(|[uid, but on breaking frozen
crystals a peculiar molecular change occurs, from which
explosions result. It may be completely evaporated at a
temperature of 15e^F.,and dynamite will lose 10 per cent,
of its nitroglycerine if exposed for several days to a tem-
perature of 104°F. It is claimed to very slowly volatilize
at normal temperatures above its freezing point. "^ Its
ignition temperature, or, more properly, firing point, is
356°F. Exposed to a temperature of ^GS^F. it boils with
the evolution of vapors. At 381. 2°F. it volatilizes slowly.
At 392°F. it evaporates rapidly. At 422. (fF. it detonates
violently. From this point its behavior changes, passing
through tem[>t-.ratu?'es i\t which it explodes v/ith con-

3 Dwijilit Hrainerd, Octioral yXifent IlaniiKon rowderCo., Montreal.

COMMON KX PLOSIVES.

stantly lessening violence until, at a dark cherry red
heat, it merely assumes the spheroidal state and fails to
explode. This is true for small quantities only. When
gradually heated it is certain to explode at 356°F. If
other nitrous compounds are present, due to faulty gly-
cerine or faulty washing, nitroglycerine will explode at
lower temperatures. These also »cart the decomposition
of the nitroglycerine itself, and are thus productive of
spontaneous explosions.

Nitroglycerine i.s rapidly decomposed by yellow am-
monium sulphide, and other alkaline sulphides, with the
separation of sulphur. It is slowly decomposed by an
alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate, by ammonia* car-
bonate of soda (sal soda), and other alkaline carbonates,
by hydrogen-sodium phosphate, hot water, ferrous chlor-
ide and sulphuric acid. All acids cause its decomposi-
tion, and traces of acids remaining in it from its manu-
facture lead to deterioration; hence the importance of an
absolutely acid-free nitroglycerine. Any acidity may be
detected by litmus paper (turning blue litmus paper red).
For its safe decomposition by inexperienced persons a
strong solution in water of sodium carbonate (sal suda) is
best. The decomposition is slow and unattended by
danger. Gentle stirring with a wooden paddle will facili-
tate the reaction.

The action of the direct rays of sunlight is known to
cause the decomposition of nitroglycerine, and may pro-
voke an explosion. VVhen decomposicion sets in it usually,
but not always, proceeds in a tranquil manner, disengag-

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

ing nitrous fumes which color tlie nitroglycerine green,
then developing nitrogen and carbon dioxide (carbonic
acid) and crystals of oxalic acid. After some n'onths the
entire mass is converted into a greenish gelatinous body
composed of oxalic acid, water and ammonia. But de-
composition is not always so quietly accomplished,
especially if the tc mperature is high, as when heated by
the sun. It is not to be trusted. If treated to a tempera-
ture of 212° F. for a "ew hours it decomposes.

In small quantities nitroglycerine will burn quietly, but
with large quantities the heat thus generated will bring
the entire mass to the explosion temperature before it has
burned away. The critical temperature for nitroglycerine
lies between 113° F. and 122° F., and its sensitiveness is
greatest just above the freezing point.

Pure nitroglycerine is not sensitive to friction or moder-
ate percussion, except when pinched between metallic
surfaces. A quantity of it has been thrown up by means
of a rocket to a height of 1000 feet, from which it fell with-
out being exploded by the impact. When impure, or in
a state of decomposition, however, it is exceedingly
sensitive and explodes violently on shock, even when un-
confined. The best nitroglycerine when confined is liable
to explosion by shock.

Nitroglycerine taken internally, except in minute medi-
cinal doses, behaves as an active poison.

In Jts pure state nitroglycerine is but little used to-day
for blasting. It is still employed to some extent for large
blasts, but its chief use is for "shooting" oil and gas wells

COMMON KXl'LOSIVKS.

to open up tho rock and increaso tlio yield of oil or gas.
The nitroglycerino is put into tin shtills from three to live
inches in diameter and from five to twenty feet in length.
A strong <letonating cap ia placed in tho cover of this
shell, which ia then lowered to the bottom of the well by
means of a wire. A perforated iron or lead weight is then
strung ',;^ the wire, and tho torpedo is exploded by allow-
ing the .V eight to run down the wire and strike tho cap.

BlaHtlng Poivderx made from Gmicotton and Nitiux/ycer-
ine. The use of guncotttm for blast'ng in any form is
not extensive. One of tho best known preparations is
tonite, now called cotton powder, made by the Tonite
Powder Co. It consists of

Uuncotton 52.5 parts

Hnriuin nitrate 47 5 pm-ts

These are thoroughly incorporated, and put up in cart-
ridge form in paraffined paper. From its composition it
would manifestly be an exceedingly safe explosive to
handle, and its power should be very great, but tho author
possesses no reliable information as to its etliciency. Re-
cent patents on cotton powder call for the addition to its
composition of charcoal, or metadi-nitrobenzol, either of
which would apparently increase its strength, and perhaps
reduce its insensitiveness. The original tonite is said to
have retiuired a special detonator, failing to explode with
even the treble or quintuple strength caps sold for other
high explosives.

(!()MMON KXI'LOHIVKH.

Potentite ro.soinbloH toiiito, Hubstituting iiitro for the

bailuni nitrate. Jts cotnpoHJt On is

(JiHicottoii m.2 partH

I,*(>tii,ssiuiii nit.nui! ;j;{,8 "

Dynamite in the most larj^ely used of any blasting ma-
terial in the world. It was invented in 1860 by Alfred
Nobel. 'J'he princij)le consisted in using an absorbent,
(U)nnnonly cullod u "dope," whicl'i would take up the
nitroglycerine and hold it somewhat after the manner of
a sponge. A suitable dope shouM possess a cellular struc-
ture, so that the nitr 'glycerine may be subdivided into
minute globules, each globule held separately in its own
cell, completely isolated from every other. In this con-
dition its sensitiveness is greatly reduced, depending of
course upon the amount of nitroglycerine absorbed.
Dyn-imites may be classified according to the nature of
the absorbent used. The following classification is given
by Walke :

I. Dynaniite with an inert base

(Kieselguhr, Magnesium Carbonate.)

II. Dynamite with an active base.

A. Combustible base, (carbodynamite).

B. Explosive base.

1. Explijsive mixture.

a. Mixture of the nitrate class.

b. Mixture of the chlorate class.

2. Explosive compound.

a. Nitro substitution compound.

b. Nitric derivative compound.

30 COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

The original dynamite of Nobel consisted of nitro-
glycerine absorbed in kieselguhr, or diatomaceous earth.
This material consists of the siliceous remains of micro
scopic plants, called infusoria or diatoms. These contain
microscopic cePs and capillary tubes, within which, when
the nitroglycerine is once absorbed, it is tenaciously held
The nitroglycerine is thus cushioned against the ^ects ot
sudden shocks, and will normally explode only under t. o
powerful impulse of a detonator. The kreselguhr is
cleansed and calcined with great care, and will then take
up 75 per cent, of nitroglycerine. According as the per-
centage of ni ro^lycerine is reduced the dynamite becomes
less sensitive, and at 40 per cent, it requires a powerful
detonator to insure explosion. With 20 per cent, of nitro-
glycerine it cannot be exploded. Magnesium carbonate,
though a valuable absorbent, will not hold the nitro-
glycerine as effectually as kieselguhr. It is used to some
extent as a mixture in other dopes. Kieselguhr dynamite
is the typical dynamite, but it is not made i" America,
since other less expensive dopes are available, which under
proper conditions afford an almost equal degree of security
Dynamite with a Combustible Base. The only well
known dynamite of this class is carbodynamite, which
consists of

Nitroglycerine ^^ 66 pari..

Carbon *^-°^ ..

Sodium carbonate ^ -^^

^, _-_u .„ ;„ .,„ ov^oofiiiiMv norous variety of charcoal
made by carbonizing cork. It does not disintegrate nor
'' leak " nitroglycerine, but its cost is prohibitive.

nitro-
earth.
micro
ontain
, when
^ held,
ects of
ier t: o
uhr is
n take
he per-
ecomes
awerful
f nitro-
bonate,
) nitro-
:o some
^namite
.merica,
;h under
tecurity.
nly well
, which

charcoal
rate nor

COMMON EXPLOSIVES. 31

Dynamite with an Explosive Base : Nitrate mixture
class. The earliest experiments of Nobel to produce
what we now know hi a dynamite consisted in making
cartridges of black jwwder and pouring nitroglycerine
into them. Similar attempts to combine the two explo-
sives have often been made, since it was expected that the
detonation of the contained nitroglycerine would also
cause the detonation of the gunpowder, thereby increas-
ing the power of the latter about four-fold. The moat
highly perfected explosive of this kind is the Judson R.R.
P. powder, which consists of a special honey-combed gun-
powder, which absorbs 5 per cent, of nitroglycerine and
remains a free running powder.* It is particularly re-
commended for seam blasting. The common Judson
powder, which also belongs to this class, contains

Nitroj^lyceriiie 5 parts.

Sodium nitrate 04 "

Sulphur l(j "

Cannel coal 15 «'

Vulcanite resembles this, replacitig the cannel coal by
charcoal and increasing the amount of nitroglycerine.
Its compositiim is

Nitroglycerine 3l).o i)arts.

Sodium nitrate 52.5 "

Sulphur 7.0 "

Charcoal 10,5 '<

Powders of this character mark a radical departure
from the original dynamite with an inert base. Attempts
were ma^e to ^aA a less expensive but reliable inert dope,

* Prof. Charles E. Munroe.

32 (.'OMMON EXI'LOSIVES

and lator tlie otfort was mudo to use a nitrate mixturo
with a certain i)io[)()itiou of an inert substance to limit its
sensitiveness. The advantage of so doing is problematical.
Sufficient care in preparing the combustible material in
the nitrate mixture is undoubtedly of more value than the
admixture of any earthy ingredient. As examples of
dynamites with nitrate mixture dopes containing mineral
deterrents may be cited the following :

(STONITK.

Nitr()j,'lycerine 08 partH.

Keiselj,'uhr 20 "

Woofliufal 4 "

I'otasHiiuii nitrate 8 "

AriiAS I'OWDKR.

Nitfojfl.vcerine 75 parts.

Wood fibre 21 "

Sofliuin nitrate 2 "

Matfnesiuni carbonate 2 "

Giant I'owdkk No. 2.

Nitro-jlycerine 4(.' parts.

Sodium nitrate 40

Sulphur <>

Resin (powdered! i>

Kie-selyuiir ^

There is no objection to be urged against the use of a
small (quantity of inert substance in the dope, but it is
not necessary. The dynamites of commerce in America
are probably about equally divided between those with
and without such an admixture. As examples of stHndard
dynamites which do not contain this ingredient the fol-
lowing are sufficiently representative :

inixturo
limit its
matical.
erial in
ihnn the
i[)loa of
minoral

ts.

use of a
jut it is
America
)se with
Jt^ndard
the fol-

COMMON EXPLOSIVES. 33

Rrndrock.

Nitrojflyccriiie 40 parts.

PotasHiiini nitrate 40 "

Woodpulp i;{ '«

Htch 7 •'

Caruositk.
Nitiojflycorine 'in.O parts.

Woodmeal 40.5 "

Smiiuin nitrate M.i) "

Soflium carbonate O.Ti "

DUAIilN.

Nitroglycerine 40 parts.

Sawdust 30 "

Potassium nitrate 20 "

Chlorate Mixture Class. The same objection which
applied to the chlorate mixture powders may be urged
with equal force against dynamites containing potassium
chlorate in the dope. Those which have given the best
results are the following :

HORSLKY POWDKR.

Nitroglycerine 72 parts.

PotftSHium chlorate 6 "

Nutgalls 1 "

Charcoal 1 "

ViOORITK.

Nitroglycerine 30 partN.

Potassium chlorate 49 "

Potassium nitrate 7 "

Woodpulp 9 "

Magnesium carbonate, moisture, etc 5 **

Hbrculbs Powokr.

Nitroglycerine 40.00 parts.

Potassium nitrate 31.00 "

Potassium chlorate 3 . 34 "

Magnesium carbonate 10.00 '■'

Sugar 15.W} "

(oMMOt^ EXPLOSIVKS.

In all the ahovo doijca, where woodpulp or HuwduHt is
employed it should consist of a porous wood, such as
basswood or spruce. Woodi>uli»s vary CiMisiderably in
the amount of nitroglycerine thuy will absorb, ranging-
from about 60 per cent, to 85 per cent. Ucfore intro-
ducing the nitroglycerine it should bo thoroughly dried,
on no account being allowed to retain more than 1 per
cent, of moisture. Nothing is more certain to cause
deterioration of dynamite, with '' leaking" of the nitro-
glycerine, than moisture, and dynamite so deteriorated is
exceedingly dangerous and sh<juld not be used.

CharJtcteristics of Counnon Dyjiamites. The character-
istics of the ordinary dynamites, which are those having
dopes of the nitrate and chlorate mixture class, may be
considered before giving an account of the more peculiar
combinations of nitroglycerine with nitro substitution and
nitric derivative compounds. There are certain require-
ments which all dynamites should fulfil, and it is the duty
of all persons using or handling them to see that they do
not fall short of the proper standard. Good dynamite
should not feel greasy. There should be no trace of free
nitroglycerine inside the wrapper of the cartridge. In
order to test this point, lay one of the suspected cartridges
on a sheet of clean brown paper in a room at from 60^ to
80° F. for a period of about 1 2 hours. If the cartridge
has begun to "leak" nitroglycerine, this will be shown
by an oily discoloration on the brown paper. Dynamite
properly made should be proof against leakincss under
normal conditions of temperature and moisture. To test

COMMON KXI'LOSIVKS.

its (|imlity in this respiMt two Heparato tleterminations
«h(»ul(l he luadu. First, free/o and thaw Hamples of the
dynauiito threo succchb! ve times, and test for Icakinees as
oxphiinud above. Srcoiid, expose sjiniples to a tempera-
ture between 85*^ and IM)'-' F. for nix coii.secutive days and
nights, and ai,'iiin test for leakineas. In neither case
should any trace of free nitroj^lycerine be seen on the
brown p;iper. If slowly heated dynamite explodes at
.%()'* F., and if rapidly heated it explodes at 44H* F.
These temperatures apply only to kieselguhr dynamite.
The American dynamites, containing woodpulp and
nitrates, will explode at somewhat lower temperatures.
Like nitroglycerine, it is most sensitive to shock or fric-
tion just above its freezing point. According to the
character of dope used it freezes at from 42° to 46'' F. It
is nearly if not quite insensitive to shock when frozen,
but not entirely so to friction. Cartridges broken while
frozen are liable to explosion from molecukr disturbance
of the nitroglycerine crystals. Ramming frozen sticks
into a hole is attended with the sime danger. Ex-
plosion of frozen dynamite may be due to long crys-
tals of nitroglycerine with films of unfrozen nitro-
glycerine, exph.ded by friction. ^ Frozen dynamite is
not incapable of being detonated, especially if very
powerful detonators be used. Any efflorescence,
whitish film, or incrustation on dynamite cartridges in-
dicates either that the dynamite itself contain»-d an excess
of moisture in the dope, or (what is most likely to be the

5 Dwijjht Brainenl,

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

cause) that it has been subjected to excess of dampness
in transportation or storage. In either case the incrus-
tation is due to the dissolving out of the nitrate of soda
or potash from the dynamite. This has consequently de-
stroyed its homogeneity, and such dynamite is almost
always leaky, or will soon become so. It is unreliable,
may fail to explode in blasting, and will produce noxious
fumts if it does explode. Its power as an explosive has
been reduced also, so that it [ ossesses the disadvantages
of being dangerous to handle, unreliable as a blasting
agent, and at best uneconomical. It should not be used,
but should be destroyed." Exposure to the rays of the
sun, especially if transmitted through window glass, is
liable to produce decomposition and explosion. A strong
electric discharge, or a flash of lightning, will usually ex-
plode dynamite. Dynimite placed in water gradually
parts with its nitroglycerine, its place in the CArtridge
being taken by the water. Attention is specially drawn
to this fact because of the popular impression that dyna-
mite is unaffected by water, an error that has probably
arisen from the fact that it can be used in wet holes or
under water. In wet situations it should be tired within
a reasonable time after preparing the charge, and under
no circumstances allowed to remain unexploded for a
period of many hours ; otherwise nitroglycerine will leak
out and find its way into crevices, where it may cause
accidents later on. The characteristics given above apply
to all those expiosivua iviivr^Tn pT^pui«rx;)^ »» •-^- »

fl See Chapter IV.

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

lampness
e incrus-
e of soda
ently de-
ls almost
nrelia^ 'le,
B noxious
osive has
Ivantages
blasting
be used,
ys of the
glass, is
A. strong
sually ex-
gradually
cartridge
lly drawn
hat dyna-
probably
holes or
ed within
,nd under
led for a
will leak
aay cause
love apply

V »

giant powder, dualin, atlas powder, hercules powder,
rendrock, etc.

Dynamite with an Explosive Base of the Nitro- substitu-
tion class. This species of dynamite is little known in
America. Its best representative is Castellanos powder,
which contains a picrate, usually picrate of ammonia, in
the dope. Its composition is

Nitroglycerine 40 parts.

Picrate 10

Sodium nitrate 25

Carbon 10

Sulphur . . 5

Some insoluble salt 10

Dynamite with an Explosive Base of the Nitric Deriva-
tive class The representative of this class of explosives
is what has been called blasting gelatine. It consists of
soluble guncotton dissolved in nitroglycerine by the aid
of heat, the resu't being a tough, jelly-like, translucent,
elastic substance, varying in color from bright yellow to
yellowish brown. It has a specific gravity of 1.6, does
not absorb water, and when plnced in it is affected only
on the surface, and no further change occurs. Uncon-
fined it burns, but does not explode. Heated slowly it
explodes at 391^° F., and heated rapidly it explodes at
404° F. At low temperatures it freezes into a hard solid
of crystalline structure. The temperature at which it
freezes is somewhat variable, but usually this occurs
hfitween 35° and 40** F. It is far more !?ensitivfi when
frozen than when unfrozen, and can be readily detonated
or exploded by the impact of bullets. It is peculiarly

38 COMMON EXl'LOSIVES.

adapted to use in warm climates It will not leak nitro-
glycerine, even after repeated freezing and thawing, nor
after prolonged exposure to a temperature of 90° F. It
is more powerful than ordinary dynamites, and requires a
stronger detonator to develop its maximum intensity.

Gelatine dynamite is an explosive in which the blasting
gelatine has been incorporated with a dope to modify its
action. The best known gelatine dynamites are the fol-
lowing :

Gelioxitk.

65 per cent, of blasting gelatine j Nitroglycerine 96^ per cent.

containing I Collodion cotton SH

. , , . f Sodium nitrate 75 per cent.

35 per cent, of absorbent, con- j l^^^ ,arbonate 1 "

taining ( Woodpulp 24 "

FORCITE.

50 per cent, of blasting gelatine / Nitroglycerine 98 per cent.

containing \ Collodion cotton '-

C Sodium nitrate 76 **

50 per cent, of absorbents, con- I Sulphur 3 "

toSnin., I Woodtar 20 "

***"'"» I Woodpulp 1 "

For these explosives a test for stability is of importance.
For this purpose repeated freezing and thawing, followed
by the test for leakiness, ws with ordinary dynamites, and
prolonged exposure to a temperature of 90° F., again test-
ing for leakiness, are requisite. Any tendency to leak
under such circumstances is due to the presence of mois-
ture in the ingredients, and the fault lies entirely with
the manufacturer, and not with exposure to unsuitable
«,.«j;f;r^»,c, \r\ i-ro"'»n'^»'*^n>i">i nTifl storacre. It uossesses
many advantages over common dynamites, and is rapidly
supplanting them in most European countries. It is not.

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

sak nitro-
sving, nor
iu° F. It
equires a
isity.
e blasting
modify its
e the fol-

er cent.

per cent.

nportance.
y, followed
,mite8, and
again test-
cy to leak
!e of mois-
tirely with
unsuitable
b possesses
i is rapidly
It is not,

however, as safe a material, being liable to spontaneous
explosion, find being entirely untrustw^orthy in coUl wea-
ther. Until these disadvantages are overcome it is not a
desirable explosive to put into the hands of inexperienced
persons.

5. Explosives of the Sprengel Class.

Dr. Hermann Sprengel in 1873 called attention to a
new class of explosives whose principle consisted in the
admixture, immediately before use, of two ingredients,
themselves inexplosive, but producing when mixed a
substnnce capable of violent detonation. The mixing of
the ingredients cannot usually with safety be done by
unskilled persons, but in the hands of a careful manipula-
tor they are of great value. This class of explosive ia
being extensively employed by the Russian government
in Siberia, and where transportation may be attended with
danger, oi where large supplies may have to be kept for a
prolonged period, the Sprengel explosives are peculiarly
desirable. The most succefcsful of these has been Rack-a-
rock, manufactured by the Rendrock Powder Co. It
consists of

Potassium chlorate 79 jnarts.

Mono-nitrobenzene 21 "

The potassium chlorate is made up into cartridge form,
being specially prepared so as to increase its absorptive
quality. The liquid mono-nitrobenzene is put up in ves-
sels containing the proper proportion to saturate the cart-
ridge. The immersion is made about ten minutes before
use. It is no more dangerous, perhaps less so, than com-

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

men dynamites, though it would develop the untrust-
worthy character of all chlorate mixtures if kept. Its
specific gravity is 1.7, and it requires a powerful detonator.
Liquid explosives of this class have been patented, and
have met with some favor abroad, but the difficulties
attendant upon the use of a liquid in blasting are so great
that it can be employed to advantage only in very special
cases. As an example of these may be given

Hblliiokfite.

Meta-di-nitrobenzene 47 parts.

Nitric acid (sp. g. 1.50) 53 "

A very powerful detonator is required to explode it. Its
intensity appears to be greater than nitroglycerine, and it
is claimed to resist explosion by a shock or an open flame.

6. Fulminates, Amides, etc.

These are the most powerful and dangerous explosives
in common use. They consist for the most part of metallic
salts of fulminic and amic acids. The formula HoCgNgOa
has been assigned to fulminic acid, though it has never
been isolated. The commonest fulminate, known as mer-
cury fulminate, is formed by dissolving mercury in nitric
acid, to which solution, when cool, is added 110 parts of
alcohol. Water is then added, causing the gray fulminate
to precipitate. This is carefully washed and air dried.
The operation is attended with groat danger. The color
of the fulminate varies from white to dirty gray. Its
specific gravity is 4.42 ; it has a sweetish taste and is
highly poisonous. It is extremely sensitive to heat and

COMMON EXPLOSIVES.

shock of every kind. Its firing point i^hen slowly heated
is 305.6° F., and when heated rapidly 368.6° F. It is less
sensitive, but not secure against explosion, when wet.
The slightest friction will provoke its explosion. It may
be destroyed safely by treating it with alkaline sulphides. ^

Fulminates of other metals are capable of being made,
such as fulminates of silver, gold, platinum, zinc and cop-
per, but these are more violently explosive, and less stable,
than mercury fulminate ; the only one which has come into
any use being the silver compound, and this not in indus-
trial operations.

The amides are still more perilous, and are of no econo-
mic importance. lodoamide, or nitrogen iodide, is so
unstable that it will exnlode on being touched with a
feather, its destructive eflFect being very great. These
latter compounds are of interest only to the chemist and
experimentalist.

7 See Chapter II,

CHAPTER II

FUSE, CAPS AND METHODS OF FIRING.

The explosion of blasting powders is accomplished
either by the direct application of a high temperature
unaccompanied by a shock, as in the firing of gunpowder
by a fuse, or by tlie application of a very powerful shock
in which :' high velocity of the explosive wave is of
more consequence than the temperature, as in the explo-
sion of dynamites by caps or detonators loaded with
fulminating compounds. The detonators may be exploded
electrically or by fuse.

Safety Fuses.

Safety Fuses, also commonly called Bickford Fuses,
after William Bickford of Cornwall, who patented them
in 1831, consist essentially of a powder thread spun
around with jute yarn, and impregnated with composi-
tions to make them waterproof. The core of powder
being tightly compressed in a thin continuous thread
within the fuse, the fire only travels along it slowly, the
rate of burning of a good fuse being about 30 seconds per
foot. In the Bickford process a number of jute threads
pass through an orifice while they are slowly rotating, a
fine current of meal gunpowder being fed into the jute
tube thus fi-rmed The cord is kept stretched in a per-
peiKticuiar position while being formed around its core of
powder. This cord is then sent to another machine,

[42]

FUSE, CAPS AND IMETHODS OF FIRING.

which spins a second layer of jute yam around it in the
opposite direction. The fuse is next drawn through a
bath of coal tar, to which a little wo jd-tar has been added.
This coats externally and partly penetrates the cord.
Subsequently it is drawn through fuller's earth, or china
clay, an(i then cut into lengths. This makes the "single
black fuse," which is moderately waterproof. The white
fuses are treated with china clay made into a paste w4th '
glue size, and red fuses are coated with bolus powder.
These are less waterproof than the black fuse. For wet
bore-holes "double" and "tape" fuses are employed.
The "double" fuses are made like ordinary black fuse,
and then rewound with another layer of yarn and again
coated with tar and clay. " Tape " fuses are wound with
waterproof tape, overlapping. For blasting under water
special gutta-percha covered fuse is manufactured. A
great variety of fuses are made, differing in the character
of the covering put around the original yarn containintf
the powder core.

Quick Burning and Detonating Fuses.
In order to accomplish simultaneous firing of a number
of holes with fuse instead of by electricity quick-burning
fuses are made by coating a wick with meal powder paste,
having yarn loosely spun over it. In order to tire a num-
ber of shots at once the several fuses, all of equal length,
are attached to a sheet iron connector, in one end of
which is a disk of powder and a perforated wooden plug
for the insertion of an ordinary safety fuse. The quick
burning fuse burns at the rate of 500 feet per second.

FUSE, CARS AND METHODS OF F1RIN(}.

A similar fuse made in Austria contains a (luick-burning
core consisting of four cotton threads filled with a paste of
equal parts of ferrocyanide of lead and potassium chlorate
mixed with alcohol. This however, is slower than the
Bickford rapid fuse.

A practically instantaneous fuse is that invented by
Col. Philip Hess, which is known as a detonating fuse.
In this a cotton thread is saturated with a paste of mer-
cury fulminate. The ends of the fuse are subjected in
the connector to the action of a detonating cap. The
rate of transmission of the explosion through this fuse is
16,400 feet per second, i

Fuse should be kept perfectly dry, preferably in canis-
ters, and care should be taken to keep it out oi contact
with oils.

Detonators or Exploders.

For use with high explosives a detonating cap is essen-
tial in order to impart a sufficient initial impulse to
devejop the full strength of the powder. These dilSer
from caps employed for sporting ammunition in that the
heat engendered in exploding the fulminate is employed
in the latter to ignite the powder, the quality of the ful-
minate used being very small and it is fired in contact
with the powder. In the case of detonators, however, the
fulminate is enclosed in a copper capsule, out of contact
with the explosive. The detonation of the fulminate
pulverizes the end of the capsule, so that the temperature
resulting from it is communicated to the explosive, but it.

1 Guttmann, The Manufacture of Explosives, vol. II. p. 300.

FUSE, C xPS AND METHODS OF FIRING. 45

is the violence of the shock that is ru^'ed upon to start
the detonatiim of the high explosive. For this purpose
considerably largar quantities of the fulminate of mercury
are employed. The (ordinary detonator, whether made
for finng by fjjise or electricity, contains usually

Mercury fuiiiiinate ' 75 parts

l'otas.siuin chlorate 25 "

Some manufacturers me potassium nitrate instead of
the chlorate. Detonators are graded according to the
amount of mercury fulminate in the composition, as
follows :

.Single .strenjjfth 3 grains of mercury fulminate

Double " 6 " " "

Treble " 9 " " •'

Quadruple strength 12 ♦' ♦' '<

And so on. The stronger the detonator used the more
powerful will be the detonation of the dynamite or other
high explosive. The treble strength should be used in
ordinary practice, and will prove to be more economical
than the lower grades.

The fulminating composition is compressed in the end
of the capsule and then covered with shellac, collodion,
celluloid, or thin copper foil or paper, to prevent the com-
position from coming out. The end of the capsule above
the composition is then left open to receive the fuse. In
electric detonators, a piece of resistance wire, usudlly
platinum, is compressed in the composition, the ends be-
ing attached to copper wires leading out through a hard
plug of sulphur and ground siass which fills the capsule.
These wires are wound with cotton insulation. The

FUSE, CAPS AND METHODS OF FIRING.

heating of the short piece of resistance wire to incandes-
cence, due to the passaije of the electric current, explodes
the fulminate. This is the most reliable form of electric
detonator, which, however, re(|uire8 currents of great in-
tensity, though of low tension, to generate which power-
ful electric machines are ret^uired to fire a large number
of detonators. Another common form is the slot deton-
ator A plug of melted sulphur and powdered glass is
molded over a U-shaped piece of brass wire. A tine slot ir
then cut through the wire at the centre of the bend. The
plug is then inserted into the capsule so that the two bent
ends of the wire project into the priming mixture of anti-
mony sulphide and potassium chlorate, which in this kind
of cap is placed on top of the fulminating composition.
The bridge detonator is similar to the slot form, except
that the terminals are filed off flush with the inside face of
the plug, along which a line is drawn from one tera)inal to
the other with a soft black lead pencil, thus forming a
path for the current with many points at which sparking
takes place. This form of detonator is very sensitive,
and great care must be taken in its manipulation and
coupling up.

Firing,

In the use of fuse for exploding gunpowder it is only
essential to see that the end of the fuse is well buried in
the charge. This applies whether the powder is poured
loose into a dry hole, or is made up in cartridge form.
When made into cartridges the ends of the paper should
be securely tied around the fuse, but not so tightly as to

FUKI5, CAPH AND MKTHODH OP FIRINO.

constrict it and interrupt the continuity of the powder
core. The cartridges may be made by using a long strip of
brown paper, folding one end around the end of a cylind-
rical wooden form, and then spirally winding the paper
upon the form, with the edges well overlapping. Before
removing the case thus made from the form it should be
dipped into melted parafhne, giving it several coats. T*
the hole is very wet another wrapping in the reverse direc-
tion, with a coating of parathne, will insure the dryness of
the charge, and after loading and attaching the fuse it
may be immersed up to the fuse in the nudten f)arattiiie,
making sure that it is not appreciably hotter than the
melting point of the paraffine, viz., 113°F. This will
make a perfectly water tight cartridge, but of course
cannot be rammed in a hole.

A detonator is employed only with high explosives.
One end of the cartridge paper is opened up and a hole ig
made by firm pressure with a hard- wood instrument, with
a rounded end, no larger in diameter than the cap to be
inserted. The hole should be driven to no greater depth
than is suitable for the cap, so that the end of the cap
shall reach the bottom of the hole and leave at least J of
an inch of the end of the copper capsule projecting above
the end of the cartridge. Otherwise the fuse coming in
contact with the dynamite may ignite and explode it be-
fore detonation can occur, thus greatly reducing the power
of the explosive, and producing deleterious fumes from
the imperfect combustion of the powder. The ends oi the
paper of the cartridge are now drawn closely around the

FUSE, CAPH ANI> METHOliS (tV FIKINO.

fuse, and tied as before. The cartridge thus prepared is
called the "primer." The Hamo method is pursued in
placing the eltctric detonator, with the difference that it
is not objectionable to bury the cap in the dynamite.
This is roconnnended by G. G. Turner as insuring success.
Under no circumstances, however, must this be done with
caps tired by fuse. Ft is of the utmost importance, in
order to realize the full force of the exploHive, that the
cap shall fit neatly and accurately in the hole made for it
in the dynamite. An air-space, even of a small fraction
of an inch below the cap, will serve as a cushion, mask-
ing the force of the detonation of the cap, and reducing
the initial violence of the explosive wave imparted to the
dynamite, upon which directly depends the violence of
the explosion which it produces.

The end of the fuse which is to be inserted into the cap
should 'te cut oflf square across, preferably with a fuse-
cutter such as is supplied by all dealers in explosives, and
then holding the fuse vertically with this end up, slip the
cap lightly over it. Do not press it on to the fuse, nor
turn it on the fuse end, as this may explode the cap by
friction. Then crimp the walls of the cap about ^ inch
from its upper end upon the fuse by means of the crimper,
which is combined with the fuse-cutter above mentioned.
No other instrument should ever be used, and under no
circumstances should the cap be bitten upon the fuse.
To do so is to run a tremendous risk. Let any one
who doubts this explode a cap held against a No.
18 iron plate, by fixing the cap in a hole bored in a block

FU8K, CAPH ANr> METIEODH OP FIUINiJ. 49

of wood Hiid fixed aj,'HinHt tho iron. After Heeing the hole
which Hti oidin.iry detonator will make through such a
piece of metal, ho would bo a f(»ol indeed who would again
bite so Bunsitivo an explonive agent with his teeth.

Tho free end of the fuse should l»o kept up out of the
water, and no two fuses nliould cross each other. A slit
should bo cut a half-inch long in the end to sufticiontly
expose tho core for prompt lighting. It is not good
l)ractico to attach wicking or other material soaked in oil
to rho end of tho fuse for igniting it, l)ut dry paper may
be twistod upon the end if desired. If properly slit, and
turno.i sideways so as to expose tho core without shatter-
ing out tho powder, the fuse can bo readily lighted with a
candle Hamo.

In firing hy battery the ends of ^q Jp

the copper wires attached to the ^'^^^

detonator are to be twisted tightly i 2° '^

upon the ends of tho heavily in- 0^----X-:::ty:^^

sulated "loading wires." The ends / 1^

should be bent over, formi? ,, '0:Z'-/ --n^

hook, so that the dotonat. wire ,^j ^^^

may by no chance become detached. / j^J^

The ends of the wires must be ^ ^y'''- yic^

scraped bright, so as to insure ample / ^^

contact between clean surfaces to V/ A I-

carry the electric t irrent. Where ^^^

more than one hole is to be f-ed kik. i.

at the same time, connecting wire k employed to connect
up the whole series of charges. The method of wiring is

FUSE, CAPS AND METHODS OP FIRINO.

.it

shown in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 1) which is
assumed to represtnt a V-cut for the " bearing-in shot* "
in a tunnel breast. Here the 8 shot-holes indicated con-
stitute the "unkeying," or "breaking in" shots. Of
these, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, being shorter than Nos. 5, 6, 7
and 8, are firad first ; hence these are connected for one
volley. In the figure, l l are the leading wires,
D D D etc., the detonator wires, and c c c the connecting
wires. The connecting wire is of larger diameter than
the detonator wires, but smaller than the leading wires,
and less heavily insulated than the latter. Care must be
observed not to allow any bare portions of one wire to
touch another, nor to come into contact with the damp
earth or rock. The leading wires should never be twisted
together, nor carried to the working face in contact with
each other, or in contact with pipes or other metallic
objects, nor should they lie in water. Disregard of the.se
precautions will lead to " short-circuiting," or grounding
of the current as soon as the insulation is a little worn,
causing either failure to explode the charges at all, or a
mis-fire m some of the holes. The hands of the operator
while connecting up the wires, and especia ly when C(m-
necting the leading wires to the battery, should be per-
fectly dry.

Firing Machines.

It is perfectly feasible to fire charges with battery cells
and an induction coil, but such an appliance is not suited
for work under the conditions of mining and (juarrying
operations. Various forms of frictional machines have

FUSE, CAPS AND METHODS OF F1RIN<}.

been designed for blasting purposes, but they are sensitive
to dampness, and require frequent testing. They are
justly beroming obsolete. The standard blasting battery
of to-day is a dynamo-electric machine, which is not
affected by moderate dampness, and is always ready for
use. In these there is an electro- magnet, between the
poles of which rotates an armature, developing the current
precisely as is done by an ordinary dynamo. The arma-
ture is driven by a rack and pinion, the current thus
generated being rectified by a commutator. The arma-
ture is short-circuited until the rack in descending breaks
the short circuit, and the current then passes into the
firing circuit through the teruiiuals or binding posts to
which the leading wires are attached on the outside of tlie
machine. Machines operated by a crv nk are more liable
toaccidents from a premature discharge than the so-called
"pull-up" batteries, worked by the rack and pinion. A
machine is rated at the full number of detonators which
it will fire under favorable conditions. To insure freedom
from mis-fires, it should never be worked up to its rated
maximum capacity. With magneto- machines the leading
wires, tor distances up to G.O feet, should be No. 10 Bir-
mingham gauge (0 065 inch), for distances of 800 feet, No.
14 (0 083 inch), and for distances of 1,000 feet, No. 13
(0.096 inch.)

J •

it I

CHAPTER III.

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

An explosion is a chemical reaction which is completed
in an exceedingly short period of time, with the evolution
of a large quantity of gas at a very high temperature. If
this reaction occurs in a body which is closely confined, the
expansive effort of the highly heated gases produces dis-
ruptive effects. If the suddenness of the reaction is very
great, disrupted action upon solid objects in contact with
the body may be obtained even when it is unconfined, be-
cause the cohesion of these objects can be overcome more
readily in an instant of time than the inertia of the sur-
rounding air. This has given rise to the popular error
that nitroglycerine and other high explosives act down-
wards. As a matter of fact they act with equal force in
all directions. It is evident, therefore, that the violence
of an explosion depends upon three things, viz. , the time
occupied in completing the reaction in the explosive body ;
the temperature produced by the reaction, upon which
directly depends the expansive force of the resultant gases;
and the quantity of gases evolved by the reaction. A
fourth consideration is whether the products^of the re-
action are the result of one set of chemical changes occur-
ring simultaneously, or whether the set of new compounds
react upon each other, producing a second set of com
pounds.

[ 62 ]

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

Explosion and Detonation.
It must be observed also that there are two general
classes of explosives : Those in which a process of oxida-
tion occurs, and those in which there is simple dissociation
of a compound without oxidation. Examples of the latter
are nitrogen chloride (trichloramide) whose formula is
NCI3. It explodes violently according to the reaction

2NCI3 =N, +3CI2.

The explosion of basic tin nitrate, SnsN.O^ may be of this
character also, although it is possible that in its disso-
ciation the tin is set free in the nascent state and then
oxidized by the excea. of oxygen present. Nitrogen
iodide and nitrogen bromide and similar compounds give
examples of simple dissociation without oxidation,
attended with pov ^f d explosive effects.

In all the con explosives, on the other hand, there

18 either simple oxidation or dissociation followed imme-
diately by oxidation of carbon, the carbon and oxygen being
contained in the explosive body. Hence such explosions
may be considered as analogous to ordinary combustion,
such as the burning of familiar combustible bodies, the
difference being only in the extreme rapidity of the re-
action.

Another distinction must now be noted between
different classes of explosives. We have observed that
explosives consist either of mechanical mixtures, such as
gunpowder, or chemical compounds, such as nitrodvoftrine
or guncotton. In the former class explosion o^ccurs by
the reaction of the particles of the different substances in

f I

f.4

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

the mixture upon each other, the explosion being propa-
gated from one group of such particles to the next, and
so on throughout the mass. An explosion so produced is
neceisarily relative); slow. A shock, unless of extreme
violence so as to provoke sufficient friction, will not
cause it to exph de. The case is otherwise with explosive
compounds. Here the elements composing the substance
are combined into detinite molecules of uniform com-
position, held together by a relatively feeble chemical
attraction, i.e., they are unstable chemical compounds.
A shock will overcome the bonds which hold these ele-
ments together, upon which they are at once free to re-
act; upon each other, producing the g-fses at a high
temperature that give an explosive effect. An explosive
wave is thus generated, which is continued through the
entire mass. If the shock be sufficiently violent, the
energy of the initial wave will be reproduced uniformly
throughout the body, perfect combustion is accomplished
in an infinitely smiU space «'f time, and an effect of
I)e«juliar violence is obtained, which has been called
"detonation." The same b )dy may thus, according to
circunistances,be exploded or detonated. Some substances,
such as the fulminates and amides, always detonate,
while others, like guncotton, nitroglycerine and the
dynamites may yield either phenomenon. The differ-
ence is apparently only one degree, but it is of great
practical importance. Prof. Munroe, commencing on
Liauibcrt s uxpcritnenti roiiitirks,

1 Naval Institute, vol. x, p. 211.

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVEN AND FUMES.

''It is essential to observe that the explosive material
dues not detonate because it transmits the movi ment, but
on the contrary because it arrests it, and because it
transforms on the spot the mechanical energy into
thermal energy, capable of suddenly raising the tempera-
ture of the substance up to the degree wliich will produce
its omposition."
xiigain, reviewing the researches of Berthelot, he says :"
"Although neither acetylene, cyanogen nor nitric
oxide can be detonated by simple heating, contact with
tlame, or the electric spark, yet it was found that the
detonation of a small (luantity of fulminate of mercury
would instantly detonate them. The study of explosive
matters presents analogous phenomena, fur while with
dynamite, for instance, timple inflammation is insufti-
cient to provoke detonation, this is effected under the
influence of special detonators, like fulminate of mercury,
which gives rise to a very violent blow. This is due, as
shown above, to th'3 development of an explosive wave
Berthelot holds that the superiority of fuhninating
mercury as a dttonator is not due solely to the rapidity
of its decomposition, but is due in a great measure to the
enormous pressure which it develops in detonating, a
pressure greater than that of any known b-dy, and which
he estimates from his experiments to be ecjual to 40.000
kg. per s(p cm," (equivalent to 284.39 avoirdupois tons
per square inch.) " The rate of propagation of the ex-
plosive wave increases with thn Annaii-v o<^ ♦•v>'i i/w/^Jr"- "«

2 N.ivnl Institute, v<i'. viii., p. 304. '

3 Berthelot, Conii)t. Keiid. IfHi, ;U4 : 1885.

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMEH.

The rate of propas;ation of the explosive wave in dynamite
upon detonation is from 7f'52 to 9030 feet per second.
Anything in a powder which interferes with the trans-
mission of the detonating impulse or wave will cause a
diminution in strength through imperfect detonation.
It requires 60 per cent, of nitroglycerine to mnke a
powder of ki.^selguhr which can be depended upon to ex-
plode at all. As the nitroglyceiine is increased the
strength increases rapidly, through better transmission of
the impulse. Even taking 75 per cent, as ihe utmost
which the powder will safely hold, the detonation is not
perfect under otdinary conditions, though it approaches
it more nearly as the impulse is concentrated by stronger
confinement.*

The effect of a rise of tempi rature is to bring all powders
nearer the point at which they wiir explode or detonate.
This heat effects a slight saving of work in explosion, so
th>it all explosives are a little stronger in warm weather.
Deliquescent ingredients in dynamite tend to elevate its
temperature to a dangerous approximation to its ignition
point, as follows : The air confined in the cartridge con-
tains a slight quantity of moisture, which in uniting with
the deliquescent salt causes a depression in temperature,
which condenses fresh moisture from the surrounding
air. This being taken up reduces the temperature still
more, bringing a fresh supply, and so on. The process
continues until arrested by an outside elevation of tem-
perature, when the action is reversed. In losing moisture

* Lieut. W. R. Quinan, cited Naval Inst., vol. i\ ., p. 66r>.

THKORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUME.S.

the heat rendered latent is given out, which causes a
fresh losH of moisture and further elevation of tempera-
ture, and soon, till a change in atmospheric conditions
arrests the proce.ss. When absorbing moisture the dyna-
mite is comparatively weak and inpensitive to blows and
compression ; when losing mijisture it is comparatively
strong and very sensitive to both. The temperature being
already elevated, a slight blow will raise it to the explod-
ing point. The compression given by the tamping rod in
compacting it in the bore-hole may be sufficient to cause
a premature explosion.

While a nitrate mixture like gunpowder will mjt deton-
ate, it has been frefjuently claimed that if combined with
nitroglycerine a much greater power will be obtained.
This has been maintained by Quinan and by Drinker,
while others oppose it. The Judson R.R.P. powder is
designed tc accomplish this. The ratij of efficiency
between gunpowder subjected to explosion and dynamite
detonated is approximately as 1: 2.26, and the ratio be-
tween dynamite and blasting gelatine, both detonated, is
as 1 : 1.41.

An interesting practical illustration of the difference in
the effect of the same explosive compound when detonated
and when merely exploded is seen in the bursting of
cast-iron shells loaded with guncotton. Where no detona-
tion takes place the shell is broken into fragments of
various sizes and of irregular shapes, but wht- n detonation
occurs the whole shell is reduced to very minute frag-
ments, ami, what is more remarkable, two-thirds of the

THEORY OF EXl'LOSIVK.S AND KU.MK.S.

total weight of the shell are found to bo in approximately
rounded particles like peas, and in the form of fine
dust. «

Products of Combustion.

It has long been recognized that primary and secondary
reactions occur in the explosion of gunpowder. Various
theories, however, have been advanced to account for the
phenomena presented. Perhaps t he best summary of the
results la that of Dr. Debus, who says : "The combustion
of gunpowder consists of two distinct stages : a process of
oxidati.n. occupying only a very small fraction of a
second, and causing the explosion, during which potassium
carbonate and sulphate, carbonic acid, some carbonic
oxide and nitrogen are produced, and a process of reduc-
tion succeeding the process of oxidation, and reciuiring a
comparatively long time for its completion. As the oxygen
of tue saltpetre is not sufficient to oxidize all the carbon
to carbonic acid, and all the sulphur and sulphuric acid,
a portion of the carbon and a portion of the sulphur are
left free at the end of the process of oxidation. The car-
bon so left free reduces, during the second stage of the
coiiibut tion, potassic sulphate, and the free sulphur de-
composes potassic carbonate. Hydrogen and marsh gas,
which are formed by the action of the heat upon the
charcoal, likewise reduce potassic sulphate, and some
hydrogen combines with sulphur forming sulphuretted
hydrogen." The principal reactions taking placu he
represents by the foilovyin<» eouati<!iif* •

» Prof, Munroe, Nav, Inst. vol.

xxii.

, p. 628,

THEOKY OF KXl'LOSIVKS AND FUMES.

First stage —

I6KNO3 +13CJ + 5.S=.SKi.lJ();, H-5K...S()4 +OCO2 +C() + 8N3

Second stage—

4K2C(),., +7.S=K.jS(),, -f^K.jS.^ +4CO3

and
4K2SO4 +7C=2KoC()„ +2KaSa +5CO ,

The possibility of dissociation is expressed by

KaCOa +KaSj +07 =2K2S04 -f COa

The combustion of guncutton and of nitroglycerine pro-
ceeds along far simpler lines, from the nature of the sub-
stances involved. The reaction with guncotton is approxi-
mately :

2(CaH702)Oy(N02)a =<)CO+3C(>2 +7IIaO+3Na

That for nitroglyceiine is written

2C3HB03(NOy )3=6C02 +5H2O+6N + O

The detonation of mercury fulminate gives

IlgCNjOa =nK+:iCO+N2

The fumes resulting from the explosion or detonation
of ordinary blasting agents then contain as gaseous pro-
ducts carbonic acid, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and
vapor of water, with some free oxygen in the case of nitro-
glycerine. There is no doubt, however, that when nitro-
glycerine or dynamites are not properly detonated con-
siderable quantities of carbon monoxide are evolved.
This goes far toward explaining its weaker explosive
energy under such circumstances, the heat of formation
being less, which proportionately reduces tiie expansive
effect of the gases.

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FITMES.

Physiological Effect of the Fumes.

The deleterious gases resulting from the explosion of com-
mon powders are carbonic acid (CO^), carbon monoxide
(CO) and nitrogen. The latter is evolved in compara-
tively small quantities, but its effect is the same as that of
carbonic acid, simple asphyxiation. A patient overcome
by carbonic acid and nitrogen, if rescued in time, will
speedily be resucitated by an ample supply of pure air.
The case is otherwise with carbon monoxide. This is a
poison. If carbon monoxide, or air containing it, be in-
spired, it gradually displaces tiie oxygen, volume for
volume, out of the red corpuscles, and death soon occurs.
A very small quantity in the air (^^^ to j^^jj) suffices in
a relatively short time to form a (juantity of carbonic-
oxide-haemoglobin. In very partial poisoning with carbon
monoxide the blood gradually gets rid of it through the
respiratory organs. It does not appear that any part is
further oxidized into COg in the organism. Carbonic-
oxide-haemoylobin, being a stable compound, circulates in
the blood vessels, but it neither gives up oxygen to the
tissues nor takes up oxygen in the lungs, hence its very
poisonous properties. The real cause of death in animals
poisoned with it is that the internal respiration is arrested.
Its effects are first stimulation, and afterwards paralysis
of the nervous system, as shown by the symptoms induced,
e.g., violent headache, great restlessness, excitement, in-
creased activity of the heart and respiration, salivation,
tremofs and spasias ; later, unconsciousness, weakness
and paralysis occur, labored respiration, diminished heart-

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

beat, and, lastly, complete loss of sensibility, cessation of
respiration and heartbeat, nnd death. At firct the tem-
perature rises several tenths of a degree, but it soon falls
one degree or more. The pulse is also increased at first,
but afterwards becomes very feeble and fre(iuent. Where
the quantity of carbon monoxide is large (as is the case
after a blast in mines where the combustion of the explo-
sive has from any cause been imperfect), there is tempor-
ary, but pronounced, pa-alysis of the limbs, followed by
violent spasms. "

Dr. Thomas Darlington, who treated 1,300 c ises of
asphyxia, or partial asphyxia, and poisoning, from the
products of the explosion of dynamite during the construe
tion of the new Croton Ac^ueduct, New York, contributed
an interesting paper on this subject to the Medical Record
(38, C61-662 ; 1890). He says :

" Two classes of cases were observed : First, where a
considerable quantity of the products was inhaled at one
time — acute cases; second, where the men constantly
breathed a small amount— chronic cases. In some cases
where the amount of dynamite used was not large, or
where, after the explosion, a considerable quantity of fresh
air has been mixed with the products of combustion, or
where the workman has after a few breaths become giddy
and is pulled away by others and sent to the surface, the
effects produced are a trembling sensation, flushing of the
face, succeeded sometimes by pallor, frequently nausea,
sometimes vomiting, with throbbmg through the temples

« Uuuian Physiolojjy. Dr. L. Laiidois, vol. i., p. 28, 1891.

ta'

THEORY OK KKI'LOHIVBH ANT> FirMEH.

Hiid fulness in the liojul jis if it would burst, followed by
an intense lieadHcho characteristic of poisoning by nitrites,
frequently lastinj,' 48 hours. The heart's action is increased
and the pulse full and round, though somewhat compres-
sible. Where, however, a man goes into the tunnel im-
mediate' after the explosion, and is brought in contact
with a large percentage" of the poisonous materials, the
effects are giddiness immediately foHowed by unconscious-
ness, and the patient presents the usual appearance of
asphyxia. Sometimes in these cases the pulse is full and
bounding, though very compressible ; but in most cases it
is alarmingly wedk Generally there is great pallor. The
comafcuse condition soon passes away, and is succeeded .y
drowsiness, languor, cold perspiration, intermittent pulse,
and generally nausea and vomiting. Sometimes the
breathing is spasmodic, and frequently there is hiccough,
and after a time a severe headache. Nearly all of these
cases no matter how serious they seem at the time,
recover, though a substitute during my absence was on
one occasion so unfortunate as to lose two cases. Death
in these cases occurred several hours after the patients
were removed from the tunnel, and v/as due to paralysis
of respiration

" In the chronic cases there are four prominent symp-
toms, headache, cough, indigestion and disturbances of
the nervous system. The cough is similar in character to
the cough of pertussis, or of malaria. In nearly all of the

cases there war a. m infinnirxr hoarlanViP AJavl- <» -r^^^^.:

come disturbances of the nervous system, such as tremb-

THKORY OK KXPLOSIVE8 AND VVMVM.

ling, irriUhility, neuralgiu, etc. Nearly if not all the
syinpt«miH wore attributable to this cause. Evi n the
cuugh, in all probability, was due to the effect produced
on the pneuiuogastric nenc. As soon as a man with these
chronic symptoms was taken from the tunnel and placed
at work on top, he steadily improved, and would finally
recover entirely. Those who had previously suffered fi-om
dyspepsia or neuralgia were made much worse by the
dynamite smoke."

Dr. Darlington attributes much of the trouble experi-
enced to the volatilization of nitro-\yc..u no, which failed
to explode. « ' The similarity of sy .i>loms fVom inhalati<m
of the products of the explosion of 4y namiU', and of those
produced by the nitroglycerine itselt =« .u well marked
that even miners themselves have noticed it. Frequently,
when dynamite is frozen, a miner will place a cartridge in
his boot to thaw it out, and the absorption of nitroglycer-
ine through the skin will produce precisely the same
symptoms as in the mild acute cases of the inhalation of
the products before described. Again, I know an instance
where a miner used his knife to cut a cartridge, and after-
ward cut and ate an apple with the same knife. In this
case the symptoms were the same as those produced by
powder smoke, only more severe. The headache persisted
3 weeks." He states that he proved the existence of free
nitroglycerine in the air after explosions of dynamite by
waving a glass plate m the fumes and condensing it there-
on, su' seijucnt tests proving it to be this substance. He
remarks rather pertinently, ♦* The use of a large cap will

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

■4

explode a greater percentage of the gloiioine^ thin a small
one, and this, to a certain extent, obviates the trouble.
In certain cases, however, a cartridge does not explode,
but burns like a candle, with considerable sputtering. In
such an instance the amount of nitroglycerine volatilized
is much greater than if exploded, and coiisetjuently the
effects far more deleterious. I have witnessed a whole
shift 'knocked out' from this cause."

Concerning the effects of nitroglycerine Dr. T. Lauder
Brunton says,** " Its action is much like that of nitrite of
amyl and other nitrites. It causes depression, with very
rapid pulse and respiration, paralysis of retiex action and
voluntary motion, loss of sensation and death by stoppage
of the respiration. It agrees with nitrites in acting as a
poison to muscle. The spinal cord appears to be para-
lyzed before the cerebral ganglia. It diminishes the
oxidizing power of the blood and communicates to it a
chocoUte color like nitrites, and like them it also lessens
the blood pressure. In some persons it produces head-
ache, even in exceedingly minute doses. The reasons
why nitroglycerine acts more powerfully than nitrites
probably are that the whole of it is absorbed without
decomposition, and the nitrous acid, being set free in the
blood in a nascent condition, is more active than it would
otherwise be."

It is evident that a mistake might easily be made in
.iagnoais between a case of poisoning by carbon monoxide

' O'.lonoine is the medinal term for nitrosjlycerine.

8 " rharmacology, Thera[ eutics and Mui .sria Medioa," 1885, p. 712.

THEORY OF EXPLOSIVES AND FUMES.

(CO) and nitroglycerine, by depending upon superficial
symptoms only, and Dr. Darlington has probably ascribed
undue importance to the possibility of inhalation of free
nitroglycerine in the fumes. Many of his acute cases
were doubtless the results of carbonic oxide poisoning,
the existence of which in the products of combustion of
dynamite, especially when imperfect, he seems to have
overlooked.

The line of treatment pursued by Dr. Darlington, the
value of which is proven by his eminently successfu'
results, is an follows : The usual procedure in cases of
asphyxia. In addition to this, the use of cold applications
to the head, and of atropine, ergotine or other vaso-motor
stimulants, administered sub-cutaneously. Acting on he
assumption that a nitrite is formed in the blood from the
decomposition of nitroglycerine, he also treats his cases
with inhalation of ammonia, and also gives the carbonate
and aromatic spirits of ammonia internally. He recom-
mends that workmen carry with them small vials of aro-
matic spirits of ammonia for immediate use in cases of
necessity.

712.

CHAPTER IV.

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

Transportation.

In the transportation of explosives by ordinary road
vehicles the points to observe are : First, the vehicle
should be inspected to make sure that it is in good condi-
tion, and not liable to breakage, and that it contains no
projecting metal parts inside the bed. Second, that the
cases containing 'the explosive are securely packed to pre-
vent movement against or upon each other, or upon the
sides and bottom of the bed. A small quantity of clean
straw on the bottom of the bed and between the cases is
a valuable precaution, especially when the explosives are
to be hauled over rough roads. After unloading, the
straw must be gathered together and burned at a safe
distance from tha explosives. Third, the cases must be
covered in damp weather with a waterproof canvas or
tarpaulin. In warm weather a white canvas cover over
the vehicle is important to prevent undue heating from
the sun. Fourth, the vehicle should always carry con-
spicuously displayed a signal flag to give warning of
danger. Fifth, where possible, always avoid passing
through a town, or the more densely populated portions
of a town or settlement. Sixth, where necessarv to pass
through a town, do so qnickly, without making any stop-

DLING.

iry road
1 vehicle
)d condi-
itains no
that the
d to pre-
jpon the
of clean
s cases is
lives are
mg, the
It a safe
must be
nvas or
^er over
ig from
rry con-
ning of
passing
jortions
to pass
y stop-

TKANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING. 67

pages for any purpose. These or similar precautions
are made obligatory by law in most counties.

For transportation of small lots of explosives around
mines and quarries, they may be sent in tramcars, or
lowered in skips, buckets or cages. Warning should
always be given of the approach of such a cargo, and
when feasible this work should be done between " shifts "
so as to expose as few men as possible to danger. Only
experienced and trusty men should be detailed for service
of this kind. The carrying of a case on the shoulder is
often the safest mode of conveyance of a small quantity.
Under no circumstances should explosives be carried up
or down ladders in a mine, except in very small quanti-
ties to working places for immediate use in the charging
of bore-holes.

The regulations governing transportation by railroads
vary with the roads themselves, more or less limited by
legislation. The Ontario regulation contained in R.S O
c. 207, s. 41, ss. 12 and 13, is as follows :

(12) No person shall be entitled to carry, or to require
the company to carry upon their railway, aqua fortis, oil of
vitriol, gunpowder lucifer matches, or any other goods
which m the judgment of the company are of a danger
ous nature ; and if any person sends by the railway rfuch
goods without at the time of so sending the said goods
distinctly marking their natuie on the outside of thJ
package containing the same, and otherwise givina notice

company with whom the same are left, he shall forfeit to
the company the sum of |20 for every offence.

TRANSPORTATION, STORAfJE AND HANDLING.

(13) The company may refuse to take any package or
parcel which they suspect to contain goods of a dangerous
nature, or may require the same to be opened to ascertain
the fact.

The Dominion Regulation, 51 \^ c. 29, ss. 253 and 2bi,
is as follows :

(253) No passenger shall carry, or require the company
to carry upon its railway, aqua fortis, or oil of vitriol, gun-
powder, nitroglycerine, or any other goods which, in the
judgment of the company, arc of a dangerous nature; and
every person wfio sends by the railway any such goods
without at the time of so sending the same, distinctly
marking their nature on the outside of the package con-
taining the same,* and otherwise giving notice in writing
to the station master or other servant of the company
with whom the same are left, or who carries or takes upon
any railway train such material as is meutiftned above,
for the purpose of having the same carried by the said
railway train, shall forfeit to the company the sum of tivc
hundred dollars for every such offence.

(254) The company may refuse to take any package or
parcel which it suspects to contain goods of a dangerous
nature, or may require the same to be opened to ascertain
the fact ; and the company shall not carry any such goods
of a dangerous nature, except in cars specially designated
for that purpose, on each side of each of which shall
plainly appear in large letters the words, " dangerous
explosives," and for each neglect to comply with the provi-
sions of this section the company shall incur a penalty
of five hundred dollars.

The British law on this subject is very elaborate and
explicit, as it is concerning the whole matter of explo-
sives. The Secretary of State is given the widest author-
ity in the making of regulations governing the transporta-

TRANSPORTATION, STORACJE AND UANDLINO. 69

tion of explosives, and every harbor authority is empow-
ered to make by-laws, with the sanction of the Board of
Trade, regulating the conveyance, loading and unloading
of gunpowder and other explosive substances. The orders
of the Secretary of State prohibit the carriage of more
than 5 lb. of any explosive in conveyances also used for
passengers, and the carriage of fulminates, ammunition
and fireworks in such conveyances is forbidden. Fulmin-
ates, ammunition and fireworks may not be carried in the
same conveyance with other explosives unless a suitable
dist ince for safety is maintained between them. Mmute
directions are given as to the packing of the cases in con-
veyances ; separation from dangerous substances and
sources of fire and heat ; avoidance of centers of con-
gested population ; reliability and behavior of men in
charge of the explosives ; unloading, etc. i

" The quantity of explosive to be conveyed in any one
carriage or boat shall not exceed 2, )00 lb., unless the
carnage be so enclosed on all sides with wood and metal
or the boat have a close deck so closed as to eflfectually
protect the explosive against accident by fire from with-
out, in which case the amount of explosive conveyed shall
not exceed the following :

In any one carriage on a private railway, whether

worked by steam or otherwise io (XX) lb

In any other carriage 4'(X»0 lb

In any one boat ',',',\\ '.''.'^'^:::. 50,000 lb".

' ' When two or more carriages or boats conveying explos-
ive exceeding in the aggregate the amount allowed by the
preceding regulation to be ccjnvpvp.d in "no Hnni. ^o*.^;.,,.^

325-330''^^ Book to the Explosives Act, 1875, 10th ed., pp. 172-180, and

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

if ■

8 '

m i I

or boat are trav.-, ig together, a space of at least 50
yards shall be \ opt between each such carriage or
boat, and every other such carriage or boat, unless
circumstances render it impracticable, or unless, in the
case of a train on a private railway, three or more vans
not containing inflammable or explosive goods intervene
between such carriage and evory other such carriage. "^

It will be found that governmental regulations touch-
ing such matters are usually more elastic thau ihe self-
imposed safeguards of the common carriers of widest ex-
perience. As an example of such voluntary regjlatiuns
by a railron;! company may be ited those which went iato
force on Koptontber '^x 1899, on the Pennsylvania lail-
road, a line which hn* (!!« .* perhapp a larger quantity of
explosive materials Ihan any ot}\Gv iu the world,and which
has consequently had tht ;o. >Kt extensive ex])erience. In
order to show the s'egred of care which this corporation
finds it advisable to take as part of its business policy, the
order is quoted nearly in full.

1. Explosives will be received for transportation over
thb .'vbove lines (P.R.R., P.W. & B. R.R., N.C.S. Ry.,
and W. J.& S R.R.) branches, and immediate connections
under their control, only under the following regulations.

2. The iiafe transportation of explosives is believed to
be largely influenced by the manner in which the explo-
sives are packed for shipment. Furthermore, informa-
tion in regard to the kind of explosive that is being trans-
ported is essential, in order that the railroad employes
may not ignorantly do anything to incur danger.

SQuide Book to the Explosives Act, 10th ed. , p. 329.

:-i'\

TRANSPORTATION, STORAUE AVD HAl^fDLlNO.

3, (-lastiijinition. For transportation [mrposea all ex-
plosives will be divided into the following groups : Cou)-
nion Black Powder, High Explosives, Smokeless Powders,
F'iiniinates, Ammunition and Fireworks,

4 Common Black Powder. When theso explosives are
p uked in packages containing less th>m 20 lb. each, these
picliHges must be enclosed in a wooden bo:it in such a way
that the filling hole is up, and the boxes when filled must
not weiijh over 100 pounds. Each box luust have sten-
ciled <m top: "Common Black Powder." The prismatic
powders must be packed in tight tin boxes, which must
he enclosed in a wooden box. The whole package must
not weigh over one hundred pounds, and must be sten-
ciled as above. When twenty pounds or over of sporting,
ritle or blasting powder are contained in one package, this
package is preferably a wooden keg or cask. If ir<m kegs
or casks are used, it is desired that they be enclosed in a
wooden jacket, but naked iron or steel kegs or casks will
be received. These naked kegs or casks must be so well
made, and the filling hole so well secured, that when filled
with the same weight of sand as they are designed to
carry of powder, and dropped in any manner a distance of
four feet on a rail, they will not be ruptured and nowe of
the sand will escape. These explosives will not be received
in packages containing over one hundred pounds each,
except for export, when larger packages will be received.
Each package must be stenciled as above.

Hi(j}i KxiAosires. 5. Under high explosives are em-
braced all explosives more powerful than ordinary black
powder, excepting smokeless powders and fulminates.
These include those known under the various trade
names of Acme, J^]tna, Atlas, Climax, Commercial, Ditt-
mar, Dynamite, Forcite, Fumeless, Giant, Hecla, Her-
cules, Joveitc, Big Cjiitf, Judson, Samson, Rend-Iloek,
Racka-Rock. etc., etc. The following regulations will
apply to explosives of this group :

UlSMl^

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

t I

6 ]So explosive of this group will be received for ship-
ment in the liquid or bulk form. Explosives like Rack-a-
Kock one constituent of which is liquid, will be received
piovided the liquid is not itself explosive, and provided
the liquid IS not packed in the same boxes with the other
constituent. High explosives must be made up into
cartridges and the cartridges must be so arranged in the

.»T-^ -n^ V " ^^\ ^°^^« *^® ^^'^ded top-side up all

cartridges will he on their sides, and never on their ends,
i^ach package must ba plainly stenciled, "High Explosive
-Dangerous, on top and one side or ends. Explosives
which consist of a liquid combined or mixed with an
absorbent material must have the ingredients uniformly
mixed and the liquid constituent thoroughly absorbed.
Ihe amount of the liquid constituent must be such that
the temperature of the hottest summer day will not occa-
sion leakage. The shells or cases consisting of pap^^^^^^^^
suorriTf ''1^ "'l^ ^" .™"^^"S the cartridges must be of
o?fL .v'r*'' ""' b.? «^<^f *ted, that the liquid constituent
of Ihe explosive will under no circumstances be absorbed
Dy the case or shell.

Sections 7 to 10 refer to smokeless powders, which, be-
ing employed solely for military and sporting purposes,
are not discussed in this Hand-book.
. f'l^j^^ntes. 11 Under fulminates for the present is

nof nt^r^^ ^^^f""''^ "^ "^^^^'^'y ^" bulk form-that is!
not made up into percussion cips, detonators, blasting
caps or exploders. Fulminate of mercury in bulk must

hi tMsV.t? ^^r'^ r ' ^r '^/'^ 25% of w'ater. and mu
m this wet condition be placed in a twelve-ounce duck
bag and securely tied. This duck bag must then be
p aced ma rubber bag, which rubber bag must thTn be
filled with water and securely tied. The Rubber ba- and
contents mnsh fhnn be -i"--^-? -^ x-_. - ^",""«5 oag ana
_ _ . .j;;. jjintcQ m ;i tiLjnc casK. tile einnt.v

spaces around the bag filled with sawdust, the cask closed

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANLLINO. 73

and filled with water, then bunged and sealed,
cask must be stenciled, 'Fulminate.' "

Each

„il';J^"'^''^''™"'"J''H""^''^ embraced cartridges to be
used in sporting or fcwling pieces, etc., etc. . Also

under ammunition are embraced detonators, blasting caps,
percussion caps, f.hmnators, exploders, track caps, fog s ig
nals and other articles of like nature. The following
regulations apply to ammunition : louowmg

13. Cartridges r,r ammunition must be packed in
pasteboard or other boxes, and these pasteboard or other
boxes must be again packed in strong wooden boxes, not
too large or heavy to be readily handled by one person
t.ach package or case of ammunition must be plainly
stenciled -Ammunition-Handle Carefully." f .

Sections 14 and 15 apply to fireworks.

Loading Explosives Together. 16. Black powder, high
\a^tfT fl"^ «"^«k«l««« powder of all kinds may be
oaded together in the same car. Fulminate, ammuni-
tion and fireworks must never be loaded with each other,
nor in the same car with common black powder, high
explosives or smoKeless powder. ... ^ *^''^' '"6"

Shipping Days. 17. Common black powder, high ex-
plosives smokeless powders and fulminates, in car-load
lots, will be received (when laws or ordinance^ permit) on
any day except Saturday, and in less than car Tad on
Mondays and Thursdays of each week. Ammunition and

wkh^'o^ir^f ^' ?r''^ '"' ""y *""^' ^^d ">-y be loaded
with other freigh, except as provided in section 16

lt!^tions. ^"''^ ^' ^' ^""^'^ '" ^' '"^ ^^''^d *'*°«^er .

Then follow regulations as to shippers' certificates and
certincates of inspection of the car containing explosives
etc. '

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

Selection ayid Preparation of Cars. 2:i. Only box
cars which have been specially selected and specially
inspected will be (ised in the transportation of the Hrat
tour groups of expL.sives, and .;, .m>,i be in first-class
condition in every respect, '-oth in.«Mc and outside. The
following points must be o.iretnlly looked after : The car
must m no case have Ioosa boards <.r crucks in the roof or
Hides, and the doors niu.^t shut so closely that no Rparks
can get m at the joints. When these explosives are
loaded in car loads the doors must be strinped, except
when the cars are equipped with \Va^( - a^v.e. whir^h
must not be strij)ped. The journal boxes and' trucks
must be examined, and so cared for as to reduce to a
minimum the prMoability of hot-l)oxes or other failure
requiring the ca-- ^9 be set off before reaching its destina-
tion. The car must be carefully swept before it is loaded
and a cartful inspection made of the inside. H..les in the
floor or linini must be repaired, and special care taken to
see that there aro no projecting nails or b.lts, or pieces of
metal which may work loose and produce holes in pack-
ages of explosives dumig transit. Short pieces of hard
wood, two-inch plank must be spiked tr the floor over
the king bolts to prevent the possibility of their wearing
through the floor and into the packages of explosives.

24. Agents and car nspectors at junction j.oints must
refuse to receive from con meeting lines cars loaded with
these explosives unless the requirements of Section 23
have been complied with.

Handl'ng of Explosives. 25. In handling packf '^os of
explosives at stations and in cars the grer est care in ust
be taken to prevent their illm^' or get ng sho( ks in
any way, and they must not oe thrown or dropped but
must as far as practicable be passed from hand to hand, or
carried by one or more r.ersorrs, :md must -ot be rol ed
on tiie platfor.n or car iioor. unloas liiey are so heavy that
this cannot be avoided. The agent must chr.se careful

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND aNDLING.

men to handle explosives, must see that the platform and
feet of the inen are as free as possible from grit, and must
take ;U1 possible precautions against lire. No unauthor-
ized person- must have access to the explosives at any time
while tney are on the i)roperty of the Conii)any. Should
any packages of high explosives when offered for ship-
iiient show outward signs of any oily stain or other indi-
cation that absori)tion of the liquid part of the explosive
in the absorbent material is not perfect, or that the
amount of the liquid part is greater than the absorbent
can carry, THE PACKAGES MUST BE REFUSED IN
EVERY INSTANCE AND MUST NOT BE ALLOWED
TO REMAIN ON THE PROPERTY OF THE COM-
PANY.

20. All the articles enumerater^ in Section 12, under
the heading Ammunition, also ..reworks and friction
matches, or other articles of like nature, must under no
circi I ms ranees be loaded in the same car with the other
kinds of explosives provided for in this circular; nor
when unloaded be put near those explosives in the freight
station.

Loxrllng in tar. When explosives are packed in boxes,
the bo s must be so loaded in the cars that they will lie
flat, top-~Me ui)permost. They must never be loaded on
their sif' , or ends. When explosives are packed in
round logs co Gaining from 20 to 100 lb., they must be
loaded on th sides in rows across the car. Larger
casks, barrels (ja armns may be loaded on their sides^or
ends as will best suit . he conditions. Whatever the kind
or form ,.f packages, it is essential that after thev are
loaded THEY SHALL BE SO STAYED THAT THEY
CANNOT CHANGE POSITION UNDER THE O'^
DINARY SHOCKS OF TRATv.SPOKTATION. Es- i-
ally must care be taken that they cannot fall to the floor
or hfvve anything fall on them during transit.

TRANHPOKrATION, STORAOR AND HANDLINO.

Suction 28 t,MveH instructions as to the marking of cara
to indicato their d^tngerous contents, and Section 29 allows
safety fuse, if propMy boxed, to be loaded with other
explosives.

Hanmu, Car Containuu, Explosives. 30. Every person
handling, explosives m car-load lots or less must eiercise
the gieatest cire to prevent ac .dents. A car c.ntahnna
explosy:es must be huvled as ,ear the middle of a train as
possible ,rnd mvst not be placed next to a car loaded with
ml or other inflammw.le material. The locomotive must
remam a. achod to the car or to the draft containin" a
IZf ^vi-L''''''!u'" ^' *»^^'"g it to or from a siding, if m.s-
8,b]e. VVhen this can not be done, a rope or pole must
be used, but a Ji,jma switch must not be made with a car
conta,nn,^ explosives^ Other cars must not be allowed to
stnKe a car loaded with explosives, and such a car must
be so plHced in a yard nr at a s'ation that it will be sub-
ject to an )ut e handling as possible, and that it will be
exposed to Hs little danger from tire as i)ossible. At every
point at which a train stops the trainmen in charge must
make a special examination of a car containing explosives
or other dangerous or inflammable articles, and must
carefully examine the journal boxes with a vi^w to locat-
ing or preventing hot boxe^. on these or adjao. nt cars. If
It should be necessary to cut off. short of 'its destination,
any car containing explosives, the conductor must advise
the agent at the station where the car i. cut oft, and must
a^o adv.se his superintendent from the first telegraph
ofhce. The a^.ent at the point at which the car is cut oft-
must use every possible precaution to prevent accident
while the car is under his control.

In Case of a Wreck. 81. Incase of a wreck involving
a car containing exph.sives, the first and most impc.rtant
precaution is to prevent fire. Althoncrh mn«f of fi^e -r—
'•high explosives " will burn in small amounts qu1etl7

TKANHI'ORTATION, HTOllAOE ANI. HANDMNO. 77

and without causing a disastrous explosion, yet it must bo
remembered that it is the characteristic of most explo-
sives to burn, and consequently everything posj ible n nst
be done to keep hre away. •» Before beginning t.. clear a
wreck in uhicli a car cntaining expl.miveH is involved, all
unbroken packages should if possible be removed to a
place of safety, and as much of the broken packages as
possihle gathered uj) and likewise removed. Further-
more it should be borne in mind that " high eM>losive8 "
are rejdily hred by a blow, and all explsivei, except
when they are wet, ]>y the spark prodl.ced when two
pieces of metal, or a piece of metal and a stone, come
violently together. In clearing a wreck, therefore, care
must be taken not to strike tire with the tools, and in
using the crane or locomotive to tear the wreckage in

sidered VVirh such explosives as "common black pow-
der smokeless powders," and '•fulminates," thorou<'h
wett,ing with water practically remove, all danger of ex-
plosion by fire, spark, or blow j^ but with the - hiirh
explosives wetting does not make them safe from blows.
With all explosives, mixing with damp earth renders them

It^' t x! "" .?'*"' ?f "^ '^^ ^^^^- ^" ^-''^^ " f"l»Hn-
mLf f^f ^^T ^""^^^T^ by a wreck, the ground involved
must, after the wreck has been cleared, be saturated with

ai ^i! 1 ii' "''S^'^"^' "^^f'' ^^^ ground and fulminate
get dry sinall exp osions will constantly occur whenever
the mixed material is trodden on or struck with any blow.

Storaob.
Local conditions have much to do with the type of
structure to be built for an explosives magazine. In

.vn,jE^'l!!!ll'"^.i:^?"^'' ^?^-^ calkd;^i^io;, to the fact that most
* l-ulnmiates are not insensible to friction when wet.

IRANSPOBTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

ge cjhI, it may be said, the lighter the construction the
b* iter. By the law of Austria all maorazines must be
built of such materials, and in such a manner, that in the
event of an explosion the building will be completely dis-
integrated, and no pieces will be thrown to a distance.
Thus the radius of danger is reduced to a minimum.
The only points in favor of more solid construction are
safety from fire and from burglars. The latter danger
has been considered important in Great Britain, so that
very substantial structures are there required. In Am-
erica this precaution is of little moment, so that, in open
country, where^a suflScient zone can be obtained free from
inflammable materials, the light construction is preferable.

Storage in caves, tunnels, earth- or stone-covered vaults
and in log structures should under no circumstances be
tolerated. The chief objection in all these cases is that
the structure will hold dampness, and any dampness in a
magazine containing any explosive into which nitrates
enter as an essential or accessory ingredient is certain to
aflect its quality and render it more or less dangerous in
subsequent use. This applies to gun-powder (common
black powder) and to practically all dynamites, especially
those made in America. It does not apply to kieselguhr
dynamite of foreign manufacture.

. A suitable building is one made of common weather-
boarding on a framework of 2 by 4 inch stuff, with a
tight flooring of tongued afnd grooved boards, blind

nailf^"- a.nr1 ■Wif.h urollo anA nniMtyr^ n^«l,»J ...:i.U iU _ ^

material. The roof should be of tarred paper. Where

iir"

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING. 79

danger of fire is apprehended the lightest steel shingles
maybe used on the roof and outer walls. The .l.m. slmuld
be heavy, and should in all cases open outwanls ()p .,,.
ings for ventilation should be pi-uvi ed »rou d the
bottom, protected by wire scrt^ens or utlicrwise against
the entrance of vermin, and so constructed that water
cannot enter. A hooded ventilating pipe should extend
from the ceiling through the roof. In regions where dan-
ger of explosion from rifle balls is to be apprehended,
safety may be insured by constructing inside the maga-
zine a wainscoting, with a space of G inches between it
and the wall, made sufliciently tight to hold fine dry
sand, with which the interspace should be closely filled.
If this is made as high as the top of the pile of cases
holdmg the explosives, and tl.e sand it. well compacted
and confined by boards covering the sand-space, no rifle
now manufactured will be able to send a ball through this
sand, even if fired as close as 25 feet from the magazine.
This has been carefully tested by the author, using all
grades of sporting rifles, and finally the Lee-Metford with
Its nickel-steel shell. In the latter case the maximum
penetration, out of a large number of shots fired into
sand confined in wooden receptacles, ac a range of
24 feet 7^ inches measured from the muzzle of the rFfle to
the outside of the box, was 5 inches. In all cases the rear of
the nickol-steel shell was found to be intact, but the point
had been completely demolished, and the lead filling of
the shell, on account of its greater momentum, had
•' spilled forward," and had been turned back by the

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

resistance of the sand like the head of a mushroom, with
the empty shell constituting the stem. The average pene-
tration of lead bullets from ordinary sporting rifles was a
little over 3^ inches at a range of 25 feet.

As a type of a suitable brick or stone structure the fol-
lowing specifications furnished by the Acadia Powder Co.,
of Halifax, N.S., are submitted :

General specifications. Brick magazine, (1.000 to 1,600
kegs of black powder or 15 to 20 tons of dynamite.)

Foundations of good ru ble masonry, 24" wide •
outside measurement, 16' 2" x 20' 2" ; height, 6" above
natural surface of ground ; depth according to location,
average 4'. i

Briokwork, 16' x 20' outside. Side walls, 16" (2 bricks)
wide up to string course for joists to rest on. Said course
to be a plank 2^" x 8", flush with inside brick work, at «uch
height above foundations that bottom of ioists may come
6" above highest average snowfall. Where there ii no
snowfall nor danger of inundation, joists may rest directly
on foundations. End walls, 1| bricks wide. Above string
course, building to be 14' x 18' inside ; 1st course, 12"
(1^ bricks wide) ; 2nd course, 10" (1| bricks) all around
building except buttresses, 12" wide and 16" (2 bricks)
face, carried up at each corner and in centre of rear and
end walls ; 3rd and following course, 8" (1 brick) wide
headers in every sixth course. Side walls to be 8' hicrh
from bottom of joists to top of plate, the two upp^'ar
courses being brought out, half each, to the line of but-
tresses, so as to form a brick cornice. End walls to be for
double pitch roof, 1 to 3, ridge 10' 8" above string course.

Door frame set in centre of one side so that top of sill
may be 9" above string course and V below floor when laid

. ^"^ vem-iiutors, 2 2 x 3" sectioii, in each end wall

in first course above the floor

outer opening 4' from cor-

TRANSPORTATION, «T0RA(;E AND HANDLING. 81

ner Of buildjn<? : inner opening 6" nearer end walls, with
rurht-angled turns connecting them to prevent possibility
of thrusting anythnig through. ^

for^ltL'lf ^''' ^^'^^ 1^"' .r^'^J^cting from wall k" to |"
or attaching upnght furring, built in around inside of
building one about 12" from the floor, another same dis-
lance below plate.

abnvi"V''''^K'^.''V"-^^'^ ^^^^^^ ^^"^^ section as those
aDove floor, but having outside opening 6" above the
inner one, instead of at one side.
^^ Rafters, 3", 4", built into each gable, flush with inside

After other rafters are in position, side walls carried up
on inside above plate until they reach the sheathing.

Al bricks to be well burnt, well laid and well pointed,
grouttd ^' "^' ""' *^^ '*^""^ course may be

Joists, 15 pieces, 3"x8".

Flooring of good second quality, 1 ; stuff, thoroughly
diy planed one side, tongued and grooved, and blind
nailed so that no nails may be exposecl.

Plate, 2|" X 4", flush with inside of wall.

Intermediate rafters, 8 pieces 3" x 6". notched over plate
so that upper side may bo flush with edge of brick cornice ;
halved and well nailed at ridge.

on'^Tat ^ ^ ^ ' ^^"^^""^^ ^^^^^^"^ *" ^*ch "*^ffer and resting

Roof sheathing of good common 1" boards, projectincr2"
on all sides of building. "^ °

Rooflng of good tin plate, well laid either with diagonal
turned or upright soldered seams, brought f!own around
and under the projected sheathing so as to cover all wood-
work of roof. Where obtainable, one layer of tarred

Furring of cheap culls 4"x 1" or 4" x f, about 6' long
and 4 apart, to be nailed on each side of the wall strips

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

not coming nearer than 6" to floor, object being onlv to
secure ventilation and prevent powder touching the brick
walls.

Door frame, 3' x 6' 6" clear. 8ill of oak, maple or birch,
3 X 9"x 4' ; planed on top and front, and top bevelled for
3'. Jambs of clear dry stuff, If' x 6", planed and rabitted
and well mortised into sill and cap flush with inside of
building. False cap, |" x 4f ' gained or mortised into
jambs. Cap of hard wood or good spruce, 8"x9"x5',
pinned to jambs and built into brickwork after wall has
reached height of latter, planed where surface is exposed.

Door opening outward, in two leaves, either double
diagonal or strong battened. May be advantageously
covered with sheet iron M6" to f' thick. Good strong
hinges. When shut, one leaf fastened to both cap and sill
by strong bolts, the other by strong and well fastened
nm lock, having two keys of unusual pattern. Brass
trimmings are desirable but not essential.

Outside of metal roof painted with one coat best white
lead and one of mineral paint ; sill, cap and door with
two coats of white lead, the second being tinted.

Considerable difference of opinion has existed regard-
ing the danger from lightning. The Swiss Committee on
the physical properties of dynamite (1870) reported that
*' thunderstorms and lightning involve no special danger
to dynamite. . . . But if well confined, and if the
temperature produced by the lightning be high enough,
an explosion may possibly take place." Prof. Munroe
severely criticises neglect of lightning protection, and sug-
gests that "a network of metal rods carried over the tops of
those magazines whose roofs are slated, and given a suf-
— -„... _...„.„, ^.v^imc^vivj^ii, vTuuiu uv a compiece protec-
tion." Guttmann also insists on protection, and advocates

2 "

s "

5 "

10 "

20 "

25 "

JLINO. ^

3eing only to
ing the brick

aple or birch,
> bevelled for
and rabitted
ith inside of
lortiaed into
>, 8"x9"x6',
fter wall has
e is exposed.

ithcr double
vantageously
Good strong
h cap and sill
yell fastened
tern. Brass

at best white
id door with
bed.

isted regard-

'ommittee on

eported that

►ecial danger

, and if the

ligh enough,

rof. Munroe

ion, and sug-

3r the tops of

given a suf-

Jiete protee-

tid advocates

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING. 83

an idea of Melsens. - It consists in surrounding the
building either completely with a network of wires or in
conducting along the roof-edges and corners of the build-
ing barbed wires which are earthed (grounded) at several

^^?/k ? ^'""'"^ '' '' ^^''^^ ^^^^ ^he earth plate
should be as large as possible and that it should be put
either into water or into permanently moist soil, or if
neither of these be available, into a pit filled with coke ' '"•
The distances allowed by the British law between
magazines and other buildings, highways, etc.. is given
somewhat abbreviated below.

Distances to be kept clear from

Amt. of explosive to

be allowed in

magazine.

Private railroad, highway,
promenade or open pla-e
of resort for the publi, ,
canal dock, etc

^ = i

.5 » o
a >

". X 5 S

TOO yards
150 "
200 "
200

200 "
200 "
250 "
400 "
475 "

Public-
Railway

Dwellinij house witb writ-
ten eoijsent of owner.

50 yards

75 "
100 "
10:> "
105 "
110 '<
120 "
140 "
150 '• 1

500 lb

215 yards
235 "
2fl5 "
330 •'
460 "

1000 "

50 \ ards

1 ton

75 "

2 "

100 "

3 "

120 "

5 •'

140 "

10 " ... .

175 "

20 "

250 '

25 "

400 '

625 " 475 i.

— — . —

The Manufacture of Explosives, vol. ii p .375
Ibid p. 373.

84 TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING.

Chicagc

In an explosion near v^mcago in mm, the magazine
containing 50 tons of black powder and 15 tons of dyna-
mite, the brick and stone were thrown a distance of 1300
feet. This explosion was caused by a stroke of lightning.
Greater safety may be obtained by either so placing a
magazine that a hill or rise of ground is interposed be-
tween it and adjoining objects that may suffer from an
explosion. If this is not possible a mound of earth or
sand from 12 to 15 feet high, with its base 20 feet from
the magazine, will deflect the force of the explosion
upwards and will materially shorten the radius of danger
in that direction.

For gunpowder the magazine should be fitted up with
racks so that the kegs may be maintained in a slightly
inclined position. Dynamite should be stored in tiers,
box on box, with battens or lath between the successive
layers of boxes to insure good ventilation and to lessen
the danger from friction.

Gunpowder in unopened cases, dynamite in unopened
boxes, and fuse securely boxed may be stored together
in the same magazine, but no fulminates in the form of
caps or otherwise, or loose coils of fuse should ever be
stored in the same building with gunpowder and high
explosives.

The building must be kept scrupulously clean, and men
with nails exposed on the soles or heels of their boots
should not enter or work in any magazine. No tire should
— ir^^miuvxx^ Ui XJ2. auuXih suuii a structure, ana smoking is
not to be tolerated in the vicinity of explosives.

DLING. '

the magazine
on 8 of dyna-
itance of 1300
3 of lightning,
so placing a
titerposed be-
uffei' from an
I of earth or
20 feet from
ihe explosion
iu8 of danger

tted up with
in a slightly
)red in tiers,
he successive
-nd to lessen

in unopened
)red together
the form of
3uld ever be
ler and high

jan, and men
' their boots
^o tire should
id smoking is
es.

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING. 85

It is advised by those having most experience in the
storage of explosives that gunpowder kegs should be rolled
over once every two or three weeks to prevent caking
and that cases of dynamite should be turned over once
every two weeks. According to Mr. G. G Turner, one
of the most experienced men in practical blasting opera-
tions in America, this is an economy, because it tends to
keep the dynamite homogeneous in composition, so that it
detonates better. This is not necessaiy while the dyna-
mite remains frozen.

No keg of gunpowder, or box containing any other
explosive, should ever be opened in the magazine. This
may be allowed only in small buildings kept for this pur-
pose, where a limited supply for immediate use is main-
tained. In such a building not over 200 lb. of any form
of explosive should be kept at a time. The kegs or canis-
ters of gunpowder should always be kept closed, after
removing that needed for use. In the case of dynamites,
It IS best to unpack the total quantity at once, wipe off
the sawdust, lay the cartridges on their sides upon planed
board shelves, and then carefully remove all fragments of
the original boxes and sawdust, which should be burned
in the open. Such sawdust usually contains more or leas
nitroglycerine, unless the dynamite is in unusually perfect
condition. Any oiiy stain on the cases indicates that
nitroglycerine had leaked from the cartridges. The
shelves must also be frequently inspected, and if any oily
stain is observed, no matter how minute, it must be^thor-
oughly washed with a saturated solution in water of

TBANhl-ORTATlON, »TOBAOE AND HANDIIMO.

om nary carbonate Of soda (sal „od», or " washing soda ").

Th.s des roys the nitroglycerine. The floor of this build-

ng should also be washed occasionally with such a solu-

tion. No fire of any kind should ever be pemntted in

rrovitrtir''"' " '""^ "^ -'"""' "^ ''-" ?p-

provided the pipes are so placed that no explosive m«;
ev. r come nito direct contact with them.

The taking „t unopened boxes of dynamite into a mine
IS a most reprehensible practice, since proper cleanliness
and the removal of the sawdust and fragments of the
boxes .s not so easy as it is from buildings 'above grou .d
Only dynannte^ cartridges from which the sawdust has
been wiped andplaced in clean boxes should be sent below

ha™ I '''""•»""'™"<=' °f g<'»'i dynamite and gunpowder
have been given in a previous chapter. It is Lays ad-
vsable on receiving a fresh consignment of such explo.
otr: T^ "■' inspeetion to ascertain that it is in good
order. The opening of one box or keg out of every ten
will usual y suffice to detect any serious deficiency If
not m good condition the manufacturers should be notified
at once. If faulty it should then not be returned (fori,«
shipmen under such circumstances, especially in the case
of nitroglycerine powders, is dangerous), but should be

s,t„.7 /r '?■' •""■'"•'^ '"'"<" « efficiently isolated
situation, and lay the dynamite cartridges on the ground,
end to end m a hne or very open spiral. Pour paraffl„;
0.1 over the entire train, or if this is not available use
Kerosene, and ianif.*» nna onH -f ^k^ ^- • •i,

f . . = ■'"*' ^^^ "^ ^"C- orain with an ordinarv

fuse (of course not using a cap). It will burn quietly and

[NO.

ing soda ").
this build-
ich H solu-
rmitted in
aam pipes,
losive may

iito a mine
cleanliness
its of the
e ground,
vdust has
nt below.

unpowder
iways ad-
ch explo-
is in good
every ten
ency. If
8 notified
id (for its

the case
^ould be
' isolated

ground,
paraffine
%ble use
ordinary
etly and

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLING. 87

safely. In cities where spent lime from gas purifiers is
available, this may be used for the destruction of the
nitroglycerine in the dynamite, though its decomposition
is most readily accomplished witL > ^llow ammonium sul-
phide.

Fuse in open coils should be stored separate from all
other explosives, as should also be done with caps, deton-
ators or exploders. They should be kept in a dry place,
where there is freedom from fire or high temperatures.
Thawing Dynamite.

Dynamite should not be thawed by direct heat from a
fire or a stove. There is also more or less peril of produc-
ing leakiness and starting decomposition by thawing it in
the sun. There is peculiar peril from thawing it in the
sun when the rays are transmitted through window glass,
as imperfections in the glass are apt to focus the heat at
certain points.

There are only two safe ways to thaw dynamite, viz.,
in a room heated by steam pipes, in which case the explo-
sive must never be laid on the pipes, and in a vessel sur-
rounded by warm water. The proper temperature of the
water is 125*' F., which is approximately the temperature
at which the bare hand can just be held without pain. The
water should be heated separately and poured into the
water-space in the thawer, and the thawer should not be
heated over a stove or other source of heat. 1 he best
material to use in making a thawer is sheet zinc, though
the best grades of galvanized iron will do. All seams
should be absolutely smooth, so as to leave no crevices for

TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND HANDLIN(i.

the lodgment of dirt and nitroglx oerine. There are two
forma of thawers made, ono resembling a glue pot, or the
farina boiler used in kitchens. The water space should
be at least two inches wide between the inner vesse con
taining the dynamite and the outer wall of the vessel
holding the water. In some, the water vessel has an ad-
ditional space in the outer wall for an asbestos lining to
conserve the heat. A better form of thawer is one con-
taining horizontal tubes large enough to receive the car-
tridges, the tubes extending through a S(|uare or rectangu-
lar water box. The water is poured in through a funnel
mouth at the top, and drawn off through a faucet below.
The advantage o^ this thawer is that the cartridges lie
flat, so that there is less tendency to disturb the hom-
ogeneity of the dynamite.

Fiff. 2.

A third form which is recommended by Mr. Brainerd
of the Hamilton Powder Co. for f.hpw,n<r !.,».„,. ^,,„„i.:^.-_
ot dynamite at a time consists of a barrel b (Fig 2)

TIUNSPORTATION, .STORAGE AND HANDLINCJ.

are two
)t, or tho
;o should
!8so con
be vessel
is an ad-
lining to
one con-
the car-
•ectangu-
a funnel
t below,
'idges lie
lie hom-

into which is fitted .i po system p, with an expunsi
pipe E, contHining wucer. Ihh j)ipe system pu s
through a wall w, and '^e water in it is heated by a i.re
or stove at i: The barrel is filled with water, which is
heated by Jie hot water circulating in the pipe system.
A zinc or galvanized receptacle, c, for the dynamite, is
suspended in the barrel.

In using any form of thawer the cartridges should be
free from sawdust, and the vessel or tubes holding tli.nn
should be kept scrupulously clean. The only w;i nuke

sure of maintaining a proper freedom from accu ions

of nitroglycerine in the thawer is to wash it out , i each
thawing with a strong solution of carbonate of soda (sal
soda, or washing soda), which is best applied warm.

T^namite is never properly thawed while it feels lumpy
at any part of the cartridge. Tt should be uniformly
pliable throughout. Its use when but partially thawed is
at tended with danger in loading, and its detonation will
.be imperfect, with the consequent disadvantages of yield-
ing a less powerful eflfect and giving off noxious fumes.

5rainerd

(Fig 2)

MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART

(ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2)

1.0

I.I

|S6

2.8

■ 10

•UUU

2.5
2.2

2.0
1.8

1.25

1.4

_J APPLIED IN/MGE Inc

^Sr 1653 East Main Street

S^S Rochester, New York 14609 USA

'■.SS (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone

^= (716) 288-5989 -Fox

CHAPTER V.

BLASTING.

The subject of blasting has been very exhaustively and
scientifically treated by Messrs. A. W. and Z. W. Daw,
in a book designed for technical men. » A simpler treatise,'
with good practical suggestions, has been prepared by
08carGuttraann.2 There are few operations in mining
where a workman can display a higher degree of dkill and
effect larger economies than in £he proper placing of
bore-holes, and in the proper adjustment of his charges to
the work to be done. Against every hole fired is charged
a number of expenses, to wit, labor, power (steam or air)
where machine drills are used, wear and tear on plant,
explosives, and also a general loss distributed among
many items in the operation of the mine, if the output
per miner falls below the estimated average^, for the
handling of which preparations have been made.

For the most part eflicient work in blasting is a matter
of experience and good j udgment . This cannot be taught
in books, but there are some general rules which are
fundamental, and in proportion as these are understood
and appreciated the work of mining will be conducted
with g reat er syat em and economy. Unsystematic effort

» The Blasting of Hock in Mines, Quarries, Tui.j^^etc. New YorlT
Spon and Chamberlain, 1898. '

[90]

BLASTING.

18 always wasteful and costly, and system implies the*
recognition of some definite principles according to which
the work is laid out and prosecuted.

A few points of prime importance which should be
observed are the following: First, the strength and
quantity of the explosive should be properly proportion-
ed to the cohesive strength or resistance of the rock.

Second, the " burden," or line of least resistance (L »:,
the shortest line that can be drawn from the charge in the
bore-hole to the outer free face of the rock,) should bear
a proper relation to the strength of the explosive and to
the resistance of the rock.

Third, if the working face of the rock is so blasted as to
leave two or more free faces instead of one for future
blasts, the power reciuired to overcome the resistance of the
rock will be reduced, and explosives can be economized.

Fourth, a seam or fissure is a valuable aid in blasting
if the hole is so located as to take advantage of this weak-
ness, and, on the other hand, the power of the explosive
may be expended along such a seam without doing useful
work if the hole is improperly located.

Fifth, breaking to regular benches and faces is more
economical than irregular breaking, because the condition
of the lock can be more carefully observed, admitting of
a more intelligent placing of subse(iuent boreholes, and it
facilitates the handling and setting up of machine drills.
It is also more convenient for wmk l»v Imnrl J-Jiiip., ;«
addition to which it keeps the mine in befter condition
for a complete and economical extraction of the ore.

BLASTING.

Sixth, simultaneous firing is more economical in most
cases than firing singly or in series, for the reason that
the adjacent charges assist each other, reducing the
amount of explosive required and the total length of holes
to be drilled for any given volume of rock.

Seventh, careful charging, so as to secure as highly
compacted a charge as possible, greatly increases the
efficiency of the explosive.

Eighth, a well prepared primer, in the case of high ex-
plosives, is the key to a successful detonation of the
charge, on which, other things being equal, its efficiency
depends.

Ninth, the efficiency of all explosives, including high
explosives, is dependent to a considerable extent upon
the kind, length and degree of compactness of the tamp-
ing.

Tenth, the object uf blasting in mines and quarries is
to rupture rock so that it may be removed, not to hurl it
to a distance, i. e., not to secure what military engineers
call "ballistic" effect. Hence only enough explosive
should be used to accomplish this. When fragments are
thrown more than a few feet by a blast it is generally an
evidence that the proper relation did not exist between
the charge and the " burden," and that too large a charge
was used for the length of the line of least resistance.

In the accompanying illustration (Fig. 3) BNio the bore-
hole ; w L, measured from the centre of the charge in the
shortest possible line to the free face, is the line" of least
resistance, or "burden;" mn is the charge in the bore-

BLASTIXO.

We, which should be about 12 times as long as the di-
ameter of the hole at its bc^ttom ; lis k is the outline of
the new face which will be
produced after the blast. The
best results are obtained when
the line of least resistance is
perpendicular to the line cf
the bore-hole. The line of
least resistance must be short-
er than the borci-hole, else
the force of the explosion will
expend itself in the direction
of the bore-hole If black
powder is used in such a case
the charge will blow out the
tamping, producing a "pop
shot. " If high explosives are
used in this case the "crater,"
or funnel of rupture, will have very steep sides and a rela-
tively small volume of rock will be ruptured.

The forces to be overcome vary with the kind of rock,
the number and position of the free faces, and the direc-
tion of the blast. The direction of the blast is determined
by the direction of the line of least resistance. If this is
upwards the explosion must overcome the cohesion of the
rock plus the weight of the volume of rock ruptured. If
downward.-;, the explo.sion has to overcome only the co-
hesive strength of the rock. A somewhat smaller charge
may conseijuently be used. For each individual shot this

BLASTING.

difference is trifling, but, in the aggregate it is an important
(juantity in practical operations. The rupture of rock in
blasting is mainly accomplished by "shearing." The shear-
ing strength of close grained granites varies from about
2,2(10 lb. to 2.900 lb. per square inch, and of marbles from
1,100 lb. to 1,600 lb. pf r square inch. As the total surface
sheared by an ordinary blast is often as much asTSscjuare
feet, or more, it will be seen how great is the difference
in the resistance to be overcome in different cases, and
that no mere "rule of thumb' method may be economi-
cally adopted for determining the charges. Tfc is wasteful,
and at best inaccurate, to continue experi^nenting unsys-
tematically with c^iffereut sizes of charges in any given
rock to ascertain approximately the light one. It is better
to go about it methodically. For this purpose it is
necessary tirst to ascertain what is known as the "rock
coetHcient." This coefticient is the quotient obtained by
dividing the weight in pounds of the charge found capable
of just rupturing the rock by the cube (or third power)
of the length of the line of least resistance used in the
experimental blast. As the resistances vary with the
number of free faces, it is best to determine the rock co-
efficient separately for the different conditions in practical
work. For example, if a tunnel is to be driven the con-
ditions will be as follows : With each new " cut " there
will be a certain number of " bearing in " shots to
*' unkey " the face. In this case the coefficient should be
determined for the rock with one free face. The ' ' enlarg-
ing shots," after unkeying, will have two, and in some

BLASTING.

f- 2 FT.

cases throe free faces. It will sutHce to determine the
co-efficient in these cases for the rock with two free faces.
The method to be pursued will bo sufficiently explained by
describing the procedure for obtaining the rock coefficient
with two free faces. 3 Select a bench of the rock in which
blasting is to be conducted, about two feet wide on top
and three feet high. In this drill four or five holes of the
diameter to be adopted in regular work in future,
three feet deep, so that
the line of least resistance
will in each case be two
feet long. The holes should
be bored as far apart as
three times the length of
the line of least resistance, I 2 pt.

so that the shots will not
influence each other by open- "*'^" fik. 4.

ing up seams. The rock must be selected where it is
homogeneous, so that all the shots will be fired under
exactly similar c -nditions. Now charge the several holes
with different weights of the explosive, beginning with a
quantity so small as not to effect rupture, and increasing
by regular amounts to a charge which will be more than
sufficient. Select the blast which has produced the de-
sired effect as the one by which to determine the coefficient.
If this hole was charged with f lb. (0.625 lb.) of dynamite^

■n

Thl«Kiv.-.>s what Daw calls the c-harKintf ooetficienl. Daw's method
IS more s.'U'iitiflr;, (ieterminini; the rock cefticient and charL'in<' coefficient
sepamtelv, but is not s.. easily api.lical)le by the common nTiner The
method here jyiven leads to sutti.iently a<-curate results in prataical work.

IJ LASTING

then the rock coefficient is

0.(12;

H, = ^'•^•'«^-

The charge to

be used in future blasts is found by multi[)lyin!^ the cube
of the length in feet of tlie line of least resistance
by this coefficient. For instance, in this rock, a
line of least resistance 2'^ feet long would require
2.753 (=20.797) X (1.0781 = i.r.'ji lb. of dynamite. As the
si)ecitic gravity of well-compacted high-grade dynamite is
about 1.0 (giving 0.057(5 lb, per cu. in.), and as the bore
hole has a diameter of li inch, the charge will occupy a
length of 1.25 feet in the hole. This is approximately cor-
rect also as to the length of charge in the borehole, which
should have been 1.5 x 12 = 18 inches. (iuttmann
recommends that ^vhen there are more than two free faces
the proper charge will be the following :

For three free sides, jj of the calculated charj,'e.

four

five

2-5

six

The economy in simultaneous firing will vary with the
strength of the rock, but on an average it may be said to
save about 25 per cent, of explosive. The economy of
boring, under the best conditions, will amount to about
24 per cent. This depends on the distance apart of the
bore-holes. For very strong compact rock the distance
between holes in sinuiltaneou.s firing should be at least
twice the length of the line of least resistance ; for aver-
age strong rock, 1| to 2 times ; for moderately strong rock,
from the same length as the line of least resistance to H

4 This la.Kl is the ciwe presented in " hlock-holiii^'," or blasting isolated
blocks needing but one charge.

BLASTING.

chiirge to

the cube
'osistance

rock, H
require
As the
nainite is
:he bore
occupy a
ately cor-
le, which
luttmann
free faces

with the
e said to
)n()my of
to about
rt of the

distance
e at least
for aver-
)iig rock,
uce to 1^

ng isolated

times that distance ; and for weak rock only the length of
the line of least resistance.

The lines of least resistance should be proportional to
the diameter of th bore-holes. The following table is
given by M. Eissler :

No.

DlAMKTRR OK BOKK-»OLK«.

11 in.

U in.

1 ; in.

Lines of Least Iti'.si8tan('e.

1
•>

3ift.

•A] ft.
f) ft.

4 ft.

5 ft.

<! ft.

5 ft.

Oft.
7 ft.

The corresponding depths of bore-holes in the above, as
stated by Eissler, are, for No. 1, equal to the line of
least resistance ; for No. 2, 1| times that length, and for
No. 3, twice that length.

Charging Holes with Dynamite.
Instructions have been given under Fulminates and Fuses
(Chap. II.) for attaching the cap and fuse, or electric
detonator, to cartridges. The cartridge thus prepared is
called the ' ' primer. " The several cartridges constituting
the charge are inserted first, and care must be taken to
have the bore-hole of such a size that they may pa«»8
freely to the bottom without binding. It should never
be necessary to force them to the bottom. In order

BLASTING.

that they may bo compressed to fill the entire width of
the hole the cartridge paper must be cut lengthwise.
This 18 best done with a copper blade. To do so with a
steel knife is not unattended with danger. The cartridges
should now be firmly compressed with a wooden rannner,
but they must never be rammed Firm pressure only
18 allowable. No steel or iron instrument must ever
he %ised in charging any kind of explosive in a bare-hole.
The cartridges must be so well compressed upon each
other thaf no air spaces may remain between them. This
would produce an air cushion, and if it did not cause a
portion of the charge to escape expJosicm, would at least
prevent perfect detonation, weakening the effect of the
explosive. The primer is inserted last. The cartridge
paper, as previously explained, should be tied firmly
above the cap with a string, one end of which should be
long enough to admit of lowering the primer into the hole
with it To lower the cartridge by the fuse or wires is apt
to loosen the cap, and thus an air cushion will be formed
below it, reducing the power of the explosion. Careless-
ness in regard to this simple detail is one of the commonest
causes of waste in the use of dynamite. The primer mmt
never be compressed or rammed upon the charge. The
*' tamping" is now put in. Many writers advocate the
use of sand or water with dynamite in holes inclining
downwards. The most experienced blasters, however,
state very positively that better results are always obtained
by using the same clay tamping as is required with black
powder. Tamping should be absolutely free from gritty

ire width of

lengthwise.
so with a
e cartridges
'en rannner,
cHHure only

rrmst ever
a bore-hole.

upon each
hem. This
not cause a
iild at least
Sect of the
B cartridge
tied firmly

should be
to the hole
vires is a[)t

be formed
Careless-
Jommoneat
rimer must
irge. The
vocate the
i inclining

however,
8 obtained
eith black
ora gritty

BLAHTINO.

particles. The best material is clay, damp enough to
merely retain its form when compressed into a ball in the
hand. Pellets of this 8h<,uld be dropped into the hole
and very lightly compressed with a wooden rammer until
about SIX niches ,>f the hole above the charge has been
hlled. From this point to the top the tamping may be
more hrmly comj.ressed, but not rammed.

Chargin(j Holes with Black Powder.
After removing the sludge, dry the hole with a wisp of
hay, or a rag, or cotton waste, fastened to the end of a
rod. Now pour in the powder through a copper or tin
unnel with a long stem, so that the powder will r-.ach the
bottoni of the hole without touching its sides above the
limit of the charge. If the hole is horizontal a long scoop
may be used, filled with powder, which at the end of the
hole IS turned round to deposit the charge. For either
horizontal holes, or those inclined upwards, the powder
may be put into small paper bags and closely pressed into
the end. For wet holes waterproof cartridges must be
made, as explained in Chapter 11. The fuse is now
put into place, and in the case of holes filled with powder in
bag. the last bag should have the fuse tied into it Dry
clay IS now pressed over the charge, followed by the
ordinary damp clay tamping, pressed firmly for three
inches, after which it may be rammed by tapping the end
of the tamping stick with a hammer. In holes one inch
m diameter the charge will not blow out 7 i.^hes of good
tamping. With a diameter of two inches, 18 inches of
tamping will not blow out. With a diameter of three

100

BLAMTINO,

inches, 2(» inches of tamping will not blow out. These
are the lowest limits adniisRablo. An excess should always
bo given, rhe amount of the charge has nothing to do
with it. The determining factor is the diameter of the
hole. " Expansicm tamping," so called, is employed with
black pcwder when it is desired to cause its action to be
retarded so as to split the rock ahmg lines of weakness
without shattering. It is conHe(|uently of value in (juarry-
ing. This consists in filling several inches of the hole
above the charge with hay, straw, or tow, after which
several inches of damp clay tamping are lightly compressed
upon it, followed by firmly compressed tamping to the
top. By ''reaming" the holes so that a V notch is cut
on each side the entire length of the hole, making the
vertices ot the angles of all the V notches lie in a straight
line, as shown in Fig. 5 , a perfectly homogenous reck
may be split with C

f-O-

extreme accur-
acy in any direc-
tion, using ex-
pansion t a m p -
ing. Very small charges,

-o o o -O'—Ib

of one to three ounces,
will do astonishingly effective work under such cir-
cumstances. This is known as the Knox system.
The use of the "needle" or "pricker" is so undesirable
that no description of it will be given. The " barrel," or
tube, may be used where the hole is wet. A copper tube
is slipped over a wire, and the two aro insRre,.r1 fnr^nfk^-
into the hole ; the tamping is compressed around the

BLAHTTNO.

101

[)ut. These
iould always
)thing to do
leter of the
ployed with
iction to ho
if weakness
B in (juarry-
)f the hole
ifter which
compressed
'ing to the
lotch is cut
iiaking the
1 a straight
enous reck

O— Jb

se ounces,
such cir-
X system,
indesirable
barrel," or
)pper tube

round the

tube and the wire is then withdrawn, being rei.laced
by the fuse. The tube is recovered after the blast
For electric firing of black powder low-power fulmin-
ating caps are employed. It is erroneously stated by
nmny that the power of the black powder is increased by
the use of the fulnnnating cap, i. e., that it is detonated.
I nder special conditions it is claimed that gunpowder can
be detonated, but it is even questionable whether true
detonation is accomplishe.l when the gunpowder has
absorbed some nitroglycerine, though apparently in the
Judson powder this result is reached. Consequently
there is no advantage in the use of strong detonator4 with
common black powder.

Double primers, that is, two primers m one charge of
high explosives, are advocated by some, when firing by
electricity. In this case the first primer is placed at the
bottom of the charge, and the subsequent cartridges care-
fully compressed upon it. This practice is not to be
recommended except when carried out by men of the best
experience.

MlS-FlKES.

A constant source of danger arises from holes which
have missed fire. Never be in a hurry to examine such a
hole under any circumstances. When the firing is done
by electricity, a half hour should be allowed ; when with
fuse, wait several hours. It is best then to loosen up the
fuse If possible, retreat quickly, and wait again a few

mini]t<>R Tf r.rs «»r^1«~: _ .. °

■ V" " "•" --F^"=^"ii wuurs, tncii proceed to with-
draw the tamping with a copper or wooden spoon. Never

102

BLASTING.

use iron or steel for this purpose. In the case of high ex-
plosives, or of black powder which had been primed with
a cap or detonator, remove the tamping to within about 3
inches of the charge, and no closer. Then recharge above
this with a large charge of dynamite, and detonate in the
ordinary way. If black powder and fuse had been used,
withdraw all the tamping, recharge above the old charge,
and fire. If dynamite is available, except in quarrying
blocks, where this procedure might entail losses of valu-
able stone, it is safer to explode such a missed hole of
black powder with a dynamite primer, which must not be
compressed before firing. In general the use of two
kinds of explosive in the same hole is a practice to be
most strenuously condemned.

Adaptation of Explosives.
Adaptation of explosives to the kind of work to be done
is of the utmost importance. DyTiamites are not suitable
for quarrying except where rubble is being obtained. Only
the lowest power (40 per cent.) should then be used. Black
powder is the best material for quarrying, although it is
claimed that the lower power of joveite develops its ex-
plosive eflfect with sufficient slowness to be adapted to
such uses. Also for certain ores, which contain galena
and other minerals which may be too highly pulverized by
high explosives, a slow acting powder is essential. High
explosives pulverize and shatter ; black powder fractures.
The higher the power of the dynamite the larger is the
sphere of pulverization. For railroad work, and for
•' dead work " in mines, such as shaft sinking and tunnel

BLASTING.

103

•f high ex-
med with
in about 3
irge above
late in the
)een used,
Id charge,
quarrying
I of valu-
d hole of
jst not be
ie of two
bice to be

be done
t suitable
led. Only
>d. Black
ugh it is
>s its ex-
iapted to
in galena
erized by
d. High
Fractures,
er is the
and for
d tunnel

driving, it is advantageous to use the higher grades of
powders, such as 60 per cent, and 75 per cent, dynamites,
and their equivalents in other forms of high explosives.

Chambering.

The bore-holes we have been considering are round, and
slightly tapering toward the bottom. These are suited to
blasting in homogeneous rock. In tough material, such
as highly kaolinized felspathic rocks, or in clay banks, and
in rocks which are extensively cross-fissured (e.^., many fel-
sites) in which latter the gas pressure from the explosion is
partly relieved by merely expanding the seams or fissures,
it is necessary to employ larger concentrated charges
instead of the " extended charge " of an ordinary bore-
hole. The commonest method of chambering • making
an enlarged cavity, is to detonate in the end of the hole
a small charge of 60 per cent, or 75 per cent, dynamite,
using a treble-force detonator, and no tamping. Into the
chamber thus produced the charge is filled in the regular
way. In the case of short fissured rocks this method
often fails. It is then necessary ta enlarge the cavity with
a special tool, called an expanding bit, made for this pur-
pose.

Bank Blasting.

Bank blasting i» practised in breaking up large masses
of more or less firmly cemented gravel in hydraulic min-
ing, so as to admit of washing it out with a monitor. For
this purpose black powder and Judson powder are most
J. commonly employed, »ilthough any slow powder will serve.

i!W

104

BLASTING.

as much as 50,000 lb. being sometimes exploded in one
blast From 10 to 20 lb. of black powder are required for
each 1 000 cubic yards of ^avel. Although the method
must be adapted to the local conditions, it may be said in
general that a drift should be run in at the bottom of the
bank, with a length equal to the height of the bank
or a shaft should be sunk at a distance from the
edge of the bank equal to its height. A cross drift is then
driven at the end of this excavation, forming a T. the
cross of the T being also of the same length as the height
of the bank Kegs of powder are then piled upon each
other in each end of the cross drift, every tenth keg hav-
ing Its head removed. A train of kegs, with the heads
off, are placed m the drift to its center, where the primer
18 located, or a dynamite primer may be inserted in each
keg in the train, all connected in series for instantaneous
electric firing When a single central primer is used, it
consists of a box into which about 200 lb. of powder are
placed with several dynamite primers inserted into it
their detonators being connected in series for firing The
space above the large primer is now tamped tightly with
debris, and the leading wires are laid to the surface The
drift or shaft is now tightly filled with clay and gravel so
as to make a firm tamping. The charge is then fired by a
powerful battery. 6 « "y »

Hydr,io'^Si!;r„^,?.tfl.T^te^"KV^?^ ;; A Practical Treatise on
"'eei New^York Julle'TsTr"""** "' "**' ^"""^"" Society orCivilEnS!

BLASTING.

105

Bd in one
jquirecl for
e method
be said in
lom of the
he bank,
from the
ift is then
: a T, the
he height
ipon each
keg hav-
he heads
le primer

in each
intaneous
1 used, it
'wder are

into it,
ig. The
ifcly with
ice. The
ravel, so
red by a

'reatise on
I Co., 1889,

3ivil Engi-

If the rock is stratified (Fig. 6),

Locating Boki, < .es.

The general principles governing the placing of shot-
holes have already been stated. It only remains to
explain the method of procedure in special cases. In
blasting to benches in homogeneous massive (i.e. unstrati-
tied) rock, the bore-hole should be exactly as long as the
intended height of the bench. If the charge, the diame-
ter of the bole and the line of least resistance are pro-
perly proportioned, the rock will break in an approximately
perfect bench form
the hole should be
bored short of the
bedding plane c d.
The force of the ex-
plosion will tend to
relieve itself along
this plane ; hence
the length of the
charge in the bore-
hole must be pro-
portioned to the
relation subsisting
between the thick-
ness of the stratum '''*'' "
and the length of line of least resistance. The diameter
of the hole, as shown before, depends upon its length.
The reduction in the length of the charge, m, calculated in
the ordinary way, is regulated as follows, t being the thick-
ness of the stratum, m the calculated length of charge, m^

106

BLASTING.

the reduced length, «„,1 w the line of least resistance « :

When t=w

t=lj w
t=2w

"»|-ini.
in =iin.
m 1=1 in.
mi=^ m.
n)i=m.

T V. r ■■'!— III.

In .haft sinking or tunnel driving, if there is a pcrsis-

i:oV:i„ to^tttTutTf/'"^'^'''''™'"»'•

advantages T„ 1.7 '^''^" "° P^'twular

eitZTf homogeneous rock the "center cut,"

either the square or the V-cut, is most commonly adopted.

cirdesirthrnr*";"' ■'■ "•"'"" -" ''■« ^' '"e .mall
circles m the plan indicating the commencement of the

hole, and the parallel lines the projection of thrho L on

a plane surface, revealing its position. To further eluc"

date this the section on the line a . is given. Hole No

polrnTs'sC'^ '^' °" *" """•»"" "» °^''«™
posit on as shown is approximately accurate. It will be

seen hat in this tunnel heading,.6 ft. wid. and 7 ft h gh

20 holes have been bored, reaching to a distance of 3 ft

" bre r;f;.'r- t^^ '^ v'^ "">«"' "' "■« -*■ tI*

breaUing in or unkeying shots are Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4
converging . , a point. It is not undesimble i tiese hole^
umte, forming one chamber at the point. Thus by means
^fthe^o^^entrado^ the charge towards and "t™

" A.W. and Z.W. Daw. ' ~ —

Bj ASTINO.

107

ance " ;

a persis-
t for the
can then
the full
This is
3re is no
irticular
er cut,"
adopted.

le small
t of the
hole on
sr eluci-
3le No.
relative
will be
i. high,
3f 3 ft.
The
and 4,
e holes
means
at the

point the large resistance of the rock is overcome, in spite
of the somewhat lengthy line of least resistance for blast-
ing to only one free a plan
face. These must be /^~"
fired simultaneously, ^u.
The "following" or
"enlarging" shots, 16
in number, are so
placed as to be fired
in either two or three
successive volleys. The
plan most economical
of powder would be to
fire 5, 7, 9 and 11 in
the second volley ; 6,
8, 10 and 12 in the
third, and 13, 14^ 15,
16, 17, 18, 19 and 20
in the fourth. Con-
di t i o n s , however,
might render it more
economical to use larg-
er charges in holes 6,
8, 10 and l2, and in-
clude them in the
same volley with 5, 7, Fig. 7.
9 and 11. All the enlarging shots are breaking to
two free faces bein" nearW the eouivsilsnt of bench
blasting, and they all have relatively short lines of

108

BLASTING,

iX" Tht,:; '""'-'' ''™'»^«""<«' '» «"> dep'h of the
volley serves " ^^^

the purpose
of "trimmiiig.
"P " shots, so
that the walls
left should be
clean and true.
In order to avoid
irregularities in
the walls it is
essential to start
these holes as
close to the walls
as possible, and
to give them
very little incli-
nation from the
perpendicular,
and then to
maintain exactly
correct propor-
tions between
the line of least
resistance, the
diameter of the
hole and the charge used.

V-Shaped Center Cut
'"«• « » -'-n the V.o„t, whioh „ffe„ t.o advant.

Fljf. 8.

BLASTING.

109

— ^

Ivant-

ages. There are fewer dry hoks to be bored, and the
key can be broken out with smaller charges, since 1,
^, .^, and 4 are short holes, as appear in the section on
A B, the line of lea.t resistance for these being cor-
respondingly short. These four constitute the first volley
and provide shorter lines of least resistance for the
remaining breaking-in shots, 5, 6, 7 and 8, which make
he second volley. The third volley comprises holes 9,
1", 11, 12. 13 and U ; and the fourth volley, which
trims up, includes 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. 2l and 22

These will serve as suggestions for economical work
under normal conditions in hard homogeneous rock
special conditions requiring suitable modifications.

The consumption of explosives in practice is found to
be approximately as follows :

For small blasts in open workings, ^ to ^ lb. of black
powder, and ,V to ^ lb. of dynamite per ton of rock

For large blasts in open workings, ^ to ^ lb. of black
powder, and ^\ to ^ lb. of dynamite per ton of rock

For headings, tunnels and shafts, | to 2 lb. of dyna-
mite per ton of rock.

The Long-hole Mbthoh.
Deep bure holes, or the long-hole method, has been
adopted in both shaft sinking and in bench blasting, in
open cuts and in large stopes. In the case of shaft sink-
ing a senes of diamond drill holes are bored to the full
depth of the shaft, and filled with sand. A sufficient
^ept« 13 left empty to receive a charge of 75 per cent
dynamite, and the holes are fired simultaneously. Then

110

BLASTING.

coincides withZlin of Ih H "''""' ™^'■''--
is oflaet by the use of f'^^^'^-^"^^' tWa disadvantage
thegreatLr„»rfH ">» h'ghpower dynamite, and by

thisUroTeLrrttxi^rT^^^^^^^^

convenient in parallel ro..,\Z Z:Z J tl" ""
and successive slices are the^, blasted ff wy, '^'

tions render thl^ .„.f. "'astea off. Where condi-

highly eoonomtirZ "'"'■"' " "''"''"' " '"^'"<»»

cut, and go
resistance
sadvantage
te, and by
n adapting
as deep as
as before,
ere condi-
it affords

APPENDIX A.

Examples of Causes of Accidents.
The following examples have been selected from the
Annual Report for 1898 of the Inspectors of wJT
of Great Britain mspectois of Explosives

Blasting Gelatine.

About 1 lb. being thawed in a tin over a
watchman's fire

A quarryman carrying 'cartridges 'and' d
tonator m the same hand

ct!Z ^^^ ^'^" charged/each 'with «
cartridge and primer, and tired in the
usual manner. ^H the shots were
heard to go off. In removing the
aebris an explosion occurred The
gelignite was properly thawed.' Sup-
posed that one of the primers failed
to detonate the charge

occn°rr«r" ^""^ ^^.^^ridge. " Expl'osion
occurred m pressing down the first
cartridge with a wooden rammer

A quarryman forced cartridge into a" ii'o'le
with an iron bar

Two cartridges put into a' hole,' and forced
down with an iron bar

Clearing away debris after a blast'. " Struck

portion of unexploded cartridge
Pressing cartridge into a hole with a
of drill steel

Kil.'ed. Injured.

piece

[111 J

112

APPENDIX,

Blastinu Q klatine. -Con.

Cartridge was exploded by ramming into
bore-hole. The weather was too cold
for this explosive, and it was probably

««nr.- ^'^^^^'"^' P"^"^' »"d heneel
Hensitive

Hamming cartridge with steeV drill

Deepenmg a hole which had be.n fired and
had not done its work

Block^holing. Charge had failed to go off
W^irkman returned to relight the fuse,'
wnen the explosion occurred

Testing the end of a hole after a bia«t witli

r\"mreS'^'°.:!^^f;^"^«^^^^«h^^^^^

Testing hole in same manner" kfter a blast
in a shaft

Killed. Injuml.

Dynamitb.

Forcing primer into hole with a wooden

rammer

Miners returned after 20minute8 to

gate cause of mis-fire
Kamming in the first ball of tamping clay

mvesti

GONPOWDBB.

A hole had missed fire. Two days later a
man started driving a wedge near the
hole when the charge explodt^d .

Using a short fuse to hasten explosion".
Ihe charge exploded before the work-
man could retreat

1
1

2
1

KlUe«l. Injured.

1
1

3
5

2
1

APPENDIX.

GuNPOWDgR.

■' v/n.

Killed.

Smoking a pipe while charginj? a hole
Firing a charge in a hole '^i •rfVar'it'of

quarry Accidentally ignited .
lUmnnng charge in hole with an iron ;;ow:

DrilHng^ out 'a miV-ii're* shot ' with 'a" biuni

Tamping a charge' wiih an imn'bar | | i

Forcing a cartridge into too small a hole '

113

Injured.
3~~

2
5

Dbtonatobs.

'^ZotfcieUirr™'^ »*-'-»"

Attaching a fuse to a detonator careiessiv

™me '.'' "^""'"^' detonator' 'i'n a ' gas

Trod on a detonator. ' " Exploded SOO' other
. detonators in the same room

wTthl piT^"'"^^" in the detonaior
Spark from miner's lam'p* 'felVinto 'box

nmg fuse and caps

con-

1
1

2
2
1

1 I

114

APPENDIX.

AociniNTS IN

«« DvNAMiri.

Homo C5artrii|g»« being i. wed on a stove

m thewe4|<h-hou8o. . .
Thawing fittridges in fronf" of a kitchen

nrfl

Thawing dygismite on a shr.v'el

Cartridges pia(.c«f? poar a fire to thaw

Cartridges placed n. a'l oven to thaw
Hot-water thawer containing dynamite

placed on blacksmith's fire .
Thawing dynamite wifh a candle

KWUhI InjiirwI.

Warming dynamite over blacksmith's fire

I hawing dynamite in water over a fire

Heating dynamite in a tin over a candle" '

Kehoatmg some water which had been used

in a dynamite thawer, 3 accidents.

ou similar explosions recorded

Rubbing cartridge in hands to'complete
tnawing '^

Thawiiig dynamite over a candie,2 accidents
Cartridge left m pocket of trousers which
w-^'^-e hung before fire to dry

All other accidents, 194
Totals

2
1

2
2
1

'^^**1 il!l!"^®^ ^^ accidents from thawing for

1898 was 81, the casualties being . . . . | 68

120

2
1

1
1

216

313

im:^

6
1

2
i

1
1

216
313

APPENDIX. |j5

ne .ccident. from ex,.Ic»ive» ropoHed ,„ ,j„urio for
J«»» are as follows :

Dtnamitb,

Killed. Iiiju.wl.

* creed cartridge into too small a hole, or] ^

used iron pipe as tamping rod . i

JJrilling m or near missed hole

Charged hole lit fuse, went »ho;t disfanco;

came back and .shoved jjiece of wood in

hole just as charge exploded
Thawing dy.uimite before open fire in!

blacksmith's forge .

TotnU

APPENDIX B.

Important Books on Explosives.
Blasting: A Handbook for the Uso of F« •

others Engaged in Mining! Tu'^ne .in^^'wvin";

lain, im ^"'^ ^'"'' ^ ^V"" »nd Chamber.

Explosives and their Power M P v d .u . .

Explosifs Modernes. P. F. Chalon Pari« • F r. ^
et Cie., 1889. A-'iHi"n. i aris . J^,. Bernard

Oeschichte der Exnlnsiv.stoff- o t ^

iwc volumes. Berhn : Hobert Oppenheim, 1895.

116

APPENDIX.

Handbook of Modern Explosives. M. Eissler. London-
Crosby, Lock wood and' Son, 1890. ^""aon.

Index to the Literature of Explosives Part I. Charles
E. Munroe. Baltimore : Isaac Friedenwald, 1886

'^ o**""* ."• Baltimore ; Deutsch Lithograph-
ing and Printing Co., 1893. ^'i-noferapn-

^"'^ Tnh?w*i''P^"'^J1.'' ^^'i"«»ghby Walke. New York :
John Wiley and Sons, 1897.

Manufacture of Explosives. Oscar Guttmann. Two
volumen. London : Whittaker and Co., 1895.

APPENDIX C.

Regulations for the Storage and Handling of
Explosives in Ontario.

From the Act to amend the Mines Act, 63 V. c, 13.

«l,fl'i f"" '"^f =line of powder, dynamite or other explosive
shall be erected or maintained at a nearer distance than
four hundred feet from the mine and works exceJ
with the written permission of the Inspector, and everv
such magazine shall bo constructed of materials and In a

cause, and shall be either so situated as to interpose a

^tL^T ""^ ^'^"?^ ^'^}''' ^^^"^ '^^ "^^^^^-^ine between
It and the mine and works, or else an artificial mound of

SO fp.rf ^'^''-r i^«,?^«*-i^e, and situated not more than
30 feet from it shall be so interposed. •

4. No powder, dynamite or other explosive shall b«

ply for 48 hours, and in no case shall more than 100
pounds be so stored on one level. It shall be ker)fc in
securely covered boxes, and located iti otherwise un^l^
par« o-f uic mine never less ihan 10 feet from lines of

APPENDIX.

117

same magazine, box or other receotacle wffh^ V

amp or candle to be i„ such a position' that the a r cur
rent may convey sparks to the explosive, and a workman
shall not approach nearer than tiv'e feet to an onen C
containing an explosive with a licrhted lamn pLX
or any other thing containing five ^' ^"'^^^' ^'^^

7. A thorough daily inspection shall be made of fhn

rttrdutlfthr' ^^^^^'^^^^ '" aminlTntit^shal
oLl r7u -^'^ manager, captain or other officer in
charge of the mine to institute an immediate invesU^ation
when an act o careless placing or handling oexplCes
IS discovered by or reported to him ; and anremDWee
who commits a careless act with an exnlos h^ or^i^^
explos ves are stored, or who having SvTred [t onf-f

:Lr£Ti7r'' t^j^^^^^- -c^tTtrin'officr n

this Act ""' '^'^^ ^^' ^""^^ ^^ ^^ -ff-'^-e -gainst

8 A proper apparatus, approved by the Insnector
shall be provided for use in every mine^ for thawW ex
plosives, and shall b« en^rJ^^^^ .,„j„^ ., ^V. ^^"8 ex-

men ' ''""''' ^' "^ '"'"^"^ ^"^ experienced wTrk-

118

APPENDIX.

'ft

^' i"v!'^f,?"'^ ^?^^^ ^"""^ blasting, no iron or steel tool
or rod shall be used, and no iron or steel shall be used in
any hole containing explosives.

10. A charge which has missed fire shall not be with-
drawn but shall be blasted ; and in case the missed hole
has not been blasted at the end of a shift, the fact shall
be reported by the foreman or shift "boss" to the next
relay of miners before work has been commenced by

Llf"* .1, , """iu^^I^t ^^.^ ^^^^^^^^ of such charge, in cases
where the depth o hole and length of charge are known,
the tamping may be removed with a opper or wooden
instrument to withm three inches of the charge in order
to insert a new primer for exploding it.

drm« i^ill k" V^^"' ^h^Jher sunk by hand or machine
drills shall be of sufecient size to admit of the free inser-
tion to the bottom bf the hole of a stick or cartridge of
powder, dynamite or other explosive without ramming,
pounding or pressure. *'

^l'^^v,P''7^*'!^' ^yn^»nite or other explosive shall be
used to blast or break up ore in roast heaps where by
reason of the heated condition of such ore or otherwise
there js any danger or risk of premature explosion of the

34 All oils and other inflammable materials shall be
stored or kept m a building erected for that purpose, and
at a safe distance from the powder magazine and from the
main buildings, and their removal from said building for
use shall be m such quantities only as are necessary to
meet the requirements of one day.

hilt

r steel tool
be used in

)t be with-
lissed hole
i fact shall
> the next
nenced by
e, in cases
re known,
3T wooden
e in order

: machine
'Tve iiiser-
rtridge of
ramming,

shall be
where by
otherwise
on of the

shall be

pose, and

from the

ilding for

essary to

INDEX.

Ab8orl)ents for dyrianiites.

Accidents, causes of

Adaptation of explosives. .
Amides

Ammonite

Asphallne, . . .
Asphyxia from fumes.
Atlas Powder

Bank blasting,'.
Barrel

Battery, firinjf by.
for firiii}?

PAOK

. . 2{}

.. Ill

. . 102

. 21

. 16

. 01

:i2, 37

103

100

P^'-i-'P 51

Bellite '^^^

115
42

Bibl:o{^iaj>hy of explosives

Bickford Fuses

Black powder— see GunjMjwder 12

Blasting, ballistic effect

bank

bearing-in shots

block-holing

books on

103

115

bore-hole.s, locating H^j^

caps— see Detonating caps

chambering ,I.j

charges ' ' ^

charging coefficient

charging holes

concentrated charges igg

crater

diameter of bore-holes

95
97.99

[ 119

i"»t«

120

Blastinjf— Con^mMerf.

double primers

enlarging shots

extended charges......

force to rupture

/unnel of rupture

gelatine

gelatine, accidents with,
general considerations

Knox system

line of least resistance .
long-hole method

magneto-machines for. .

mis-flres

powder

rock coefficient

shearing

simultaneous firing.^

square centre cut

tamping

unkeying shots [[[]

V-shaped centre cut . . . .
Klock-holing
Bore-holes, diameter. . . ......

locating

Borlinetto's powder.

Brainerd, Dwight

British Explosives Act

Burden in blasting

Caps

Carbo-azotine, composition of
Carbodynamite

Carbolic acid, nitration of

Carbonite

Castellanos powder

Chambering ...

Charfjoal for gunpowder

Chlorate mixtures

INDEX.

I'AOK

101

183

.... 94

.... 93
.. 23,37
.... Ill
.... 90
. ... KHI

92, Wh

... 109

.. 51

. .. 101

13, 5>8

... 94

.. 94

.. 96

.. 106

98,99
.. 106
. . 108
.. 96
.. 97

. 105

. 19

. 25
. 11
. 92

. 41
13
30
18
33
37
103
12
16

INDtX.

I'AOK
.... 101

.... 94
.... 10.'i
... 94
. . . . 93
. 23,37
... Ill
... 90
...100
92, lOi.
. .. 109
. . 51
.. 101
13, 5»8
.. 94
. . 94
.. 96
. . 106
98, 99
. 106
. 108
. 96
. 97
. 105
. 19
. 25

41
13
30
18
33
37
103
12
16

J21

Chlorate of potash ^^ok

Chlorine in nitro-conipotmds ^•'' ^^

Clas-vifioation of explosiven 22

Coroa powder 11,12

Coefficient, oharjfinj,' 13

Coefficient, rock SS

Combustion, product.*? of. ^

Conii)ounds-sv.e E.\i.losiv« S8

Consumption of explosives. "

Cotton powder 109

Danfe'er radius for niajrazines

Destruction of deteriorated flvr-imite **^

Deterrents " 86

Detonating- caps 32

accidents with 44

attaching to fuse 113

hridge fletonators 48

electric 46

flxinfr into cartridfje? *^

grades .. 47

slot detonators 45

stora>,'e 46

fuse 87

wave velocity 43

Detonation vg. explosion •''<'

of frozen dynamite •'54

of gunpowder 35

Dopes for dynamites. ... 31, 57

Dualin 29, 37

Diipre, Dr., on Chlorate Mixtures ^^' ^~

Dynamite 16

accidents with 22, 29

adaptation of 112, 115

characteristics of 102

cnarjring holes with.... 34

eonsiiinption ot.
oestmction of..

109

122

INJ)EX.

I>,ynainite-C«w^nM,'f/.

'lopes PAOK

eflfer;t of dampness on. 2»

efflorescence 36

freezing temperature '^^

frozen, explosion of '^^

fumes 35

gelatine />0

ignition temperature '^^

inspection 35

leakiness 86

storajf e 35, as, 85

tests 86

thawing. 35

thawing, ..ccidents 87

transportation -See Tran,sportation. "*

Electric detonators

firing _ '* " 45

firing machines ^^

Emmensite "0

Exploders ' 21

Explosion VH. detonation ^*

Explosive compounds of the nitricderivativeckss ''

of the mtro-snbstitution class ... ^^

Explosive, flamele.ss 1"

mixtures of the chlorate cla.ss "^^

mixtures of the nitrate class ^^

Explosives, adaptation ' ^^

books on 102

liquid lis

regulations in Ontario ......'. *^

of the Sprengel cla.ss ^^^

theory of ^®

transportation . ^^

^ . 66

ravier explosives

Firing by battery '^^

explosives ^®

tJiuchines .... ' ^^

PAGK

2»

.... 86
35, m, 85

.... 114

.... 45

.... 50
. . . . 21
. . . . 44
. . . . 54
. . . . 22
. . . . 17
. . , . 20
. . . 16
... 12
... 102
... 115
... 40
... 116
... 39
. . . 52
... 66

. .. 21

. .. 49

. . . 46

... 50

INDEX.

123

55
40
66
44

FlamelcsN exp!<wive ''**"'

Forcite ."*^

Fulminate of Mercury ^

power of ■***

Fulminates

transjwrtation- see Transiwrtatlon

Fulmiiiators— see Detonating,' cap.s

Fumes ■ ■ • •

physiological effect of ^^'^

Fuse 6f>

attaching detonators ... ■*""

Bickford " ^^

detonating ■**

lighting ^^

premature ignition of charge by *^

quick burning " ^"^

43
42

safety

storage

tape . . .

use in firing . *^

Oelatine, bhwting

dynamite -3, 37

Gelbiie ^^

Oelignite 21

Oiant powder **

Glonoine 32, 37

Guncotton ^

properties of ^^

Gunpowder ^^

accidents with ^^

cartridges ^^^

charging holes with. .

combustion products

composition of

detonation

explosion of

ignition temperature.

inspection

47
99
58
12

gm imm

B f '

1 f

124

INDEX.

Gmiyowfler— Continued.

properties of '''*'*^

Hpecific gravity of, ^"^

storage 1"*

tests of purity ^

transportation-see Transportation ^^

Hellhofflte ^

Hercules powder ^^

Horsley powder. . . ^'^' "^^

Ignition temperature of b'asting golatim-. . .

dynamite ^'

gunootton '^^

gunpowder -•*

mercury fulminate ^^

nitroglycerine ^^

Inspection of explosivest ^'^' "^

lodoamide. . ^^

, . 41

•'oveite

Judson R. R. p. powder

Kieselguhr

Lamm, Carl

Leading wires 1^

Leakv dynamite ^1

Lightning, ignition of explosives by ..... S^, •'«, 85

Line of least resistance '. . ^^

Literature on explosives S>2, 105

Long-hole method of blasting ^^^

Lyddite 109

.. 20
31, 57

29,30

18
77

Magazines

lightning protection

masonry 82

Magneto-machines for firing. .....''" • ^^

Mercury fulminate '^^

destruction of ' ' " ■ ^^

power of 41

Mis-flres •'><'*

101

INDEX.

J 25

PAGB

flC

3;{, 37
33

. . . . 25, 27

. . . 31, 57

. . . 29, 30

35, .'18, 85

. 02, 105

... 115

.... 109

.... 18

... 77

. . . . 82

. . . . SO

. . . . 51

.. 40

. .. 41

. . . 55
. . 101

22, 24
. . 59

Mixturf.s— see Explosive '''^"''

MiHiroe, Dr. Cha.s. E ^'

V „ 1". 31. S4

Needle

Nitrate class, explosive mixtures ot... ^^^

Nitration 12

Nitre for f,'unpo\v(ler 1**

Nitrogen chlorirle 1^

iodide f'3

Nitro},'-]yferine 41

(■onihustion products

deconi))osition of

ignition temperature of "*'

physiological effect o." ^■''' ^^

properties of 27, ft4

re.'<idiial after explosion ^''

uses of 03

Ontario regulations concerning explosives

Penetration of rifie balls ^^^

Percu.ssion caps—see Detonating Caps.

Phenol, nitration of

Physiological effects of fumes ^^

Piorate of potassium ^

Picric acid 19

Potentite 18

Pricker 29

Pritner 100

Products of combustion . 47, 48, 97

P.vroiithe, composition of ^^

Kack-a-rock

Rand, Addison C -^^

Reaming shot-holes K'

Regulations f(,r storage, etc., in Ontario ^"*^

Rendrock 116

Rifle balls, penetration tests ''^'^' '^"^

Roburitie 79

Safely explosives ~

Sawdust for dopes 19, 20, 22

79
44

41.

12(>

Ht'curite

INDEX.

NhootiriK "il wcIIh

SiinultaneouN flriiijf

S()<liiini nitrati- in hla.stiri>r powder

.Spreiijfol c'xploHive>4

Stonite

Ktoratfe, (^are of iiiaKazine

in cav«?8, tunnt'Is, etc

«l('tonatinj< cap.'*

•l.vnaniitp

of fxploHivoM

fuse

PAOR
. 2U

27
96
13
39
32
85
78
87
86
77
87

gunpowder

< )nt.ario rt-^fiiJations

nwliiis of (iantfcr -u ' ..

• . . , . la. So

NUitabIc maKazines -

Tainpin^f

Tape fiiseH

Tiiawiiijj dynamite

at'oidents

Theory of exploHives

Tin nitrate, basic

Tonite " '

Trichloraniide

Tri-nitro cellulose

Tri-nitrofflycerine

Transportation of explosives

British law

dominion of Canada regulations

in mines

Ontario rejfulations

Pennsylvania R. R. re>?ulations

by wagons

Turner, (}. " '

Velocity of detojiating wave

Vigorite

Volnej powders

Vulcanite

Woodpulp for dopes

116

. 98, 99

. . . . 43

. . . . 87

114, 115

, . . . 52

.... 6a

... 28

... 5J

... 23

... 24

... 66

... 68

... 67

. . 70

... 66

. .. 48

. .. 56

. . . 3:5

. .. 21

31
34

I'AOK

. 20

. 27

. 96

. 13

. 39

. 32

. 85

87
. . 85
.. 77
.. 87
. . J(4
.. 11«
78, 83

98, 99
. . 43

114, 115
.... 52
.... 53

.... 28
. . . . 5'{
. . . . 23

68
68
67
67
70
66
48

56
33
21
SI
34