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'-r THE " CANADIAN AGSICULTUilAL HEIBEK, DESIGNED I'KINCIPALLY FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS C0:\IP1LED FIIOM THE MOST APPROVED AND PRACTICAL AUTHORS, BY A VICE PREyUJEXT OF THE AND TOWNSHIP SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS. PUBi-a>;»as::D nut tui: s*Hi«i»i2ai:'i-«us. 4/^ ^k^ «/V %/« -V%. «/%, VV«>. V %/«.«/% %/W% V^V^ V^ V%^% %>%'%'% «^ VX «/% VX V%V%%% «/%«/%^V^ NIAGARA: PRINTED BY JOHN SIMPSON. 1845. •■^ » V [Gnt.orod, accor.linq to Act of Uie Provincinl Loj-'islalurc, in the voar Ono Tii<")ii^Tmd l^iiftiit lumdiN'd ;in;l Fortv-llvo, by John 8iMrHO\ A: Co., in tho OUicc ot' tiio iicgi.stnr ofliic l*roYinco of Cruindn.] ^'/3Z0 \ ? •^'wrr'iJsaK P R E F A C E TO THE CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. When tlie Ir^p'irtrui King wis askfd, WInt lliinrrs lio thought mojJt pro[u>r for bins to Icu'ii I his answer was tliis : — " Tho^c things they c.\[)fH't to do v.hf'U iiifn."" Tlic principle iiivohod in that wise answor has cilh-"! n)rtli this litth) work. Tho cDinpih'r has seen the yoiitli of this ctuntry — soven-oigliths of v.huni hocoinr>, in the course of time, ciig lo-fii in the noblest (^f innre earthly eniploynionts, llic ca!liva''»n of the soil — pass tiin/iinh our schools without receiving the slightest in- struction in ilial ])rofession, to which tlicy liope to cievoto the remainder oi" their davs. Not one of the ho; )ks, in \\ Inch thev learn to spell ov to read, tells them of things which they cnn turn to profit in tlieir future avcjcrttio!! ; not one of them tt-lls them of the im- proved modes of agricultui'e adoi)ted by experienced farnK-rs. or of the chnnges which the application of science to this arlhao eirocted since the time their parents first set out in life. They are obliged to pick up instructi(»n in these matters rm they best can, ?ind, not untrequently, to envy the nior^ 'dglily fa- vored lot of bettor instructed agriculturists, wlio, settling in. their neighbourhood, with no belter land and no harder labour, invaria- bly secure better crops and raise better aiumab, 'hnn they can. Incoi-rohorntion of this statement the compiler v/oidd rri">r tothe farms of scoi-es of scientitic English nm] Scotch firmcrs, scattered over the country, comparoil with the funurj of their si iTounding neigh!)ours. Il'he I'higli.sli and the Scotch farmer generally bring to bear' upon our l.mds that improved system of agriculture, Vv'it'iout which the farmr!-s of I'higland and Scotl uid c-iuld never livo ; a^id if the' farmers of ibis country wish to tlu'ive they must ndoptth'' Improv- ed systeu'. '"u* their virgin soil is gone, and nil the L'ibi"inr th'^-y can put upon t'.5''^ir farms, without knowledge and julgnjciirar;'! sciencf^ will not enable th?m to raLso tlie crops their laLberd iraJ--^-:«L .-4B^^r f WfcyA'Mi-i ^*nfci,. * TREFACB. To give thoTi, whilst fit scliool, a ninss of usofiil infl)nnati()n on wliat is lobe tlio business of their future lives, mid at the same time a little insight into the improved system of af]^ri(;ulture, adopted by all scientiru' lai"mei"s, is the ohjeet of this work. And if it begets in the yomig Ihrmers of tliis c<'untry an anxiety to become better ac(|uainted with wli.'it belongs to tlu ir noble pro- fession, fuid induces them to peruse ngricultur.-il journals and more scicntilic works on the .subject, the compil(>r will feel liiniself well repfiid for his labours by iho consciousness of being, in some measure, at lenst, a, j)ublic henei'acto?'. The writers from whoso woiks this com})llation has been made (to whom the compiler here wishes toe.\j)rcss his obligations), and whoso names must commend it to every one acquainted with their ivritings, are n'on who Imve carried their science ou.t into practice, vi/ : the late Judges ihiel and Ur.-idh-, th.c late T. (t. Fcssenden, Willis Griylord, J. .T. Thomrjs, David Thomas, K. S. llnndall,' A. li. Allen and John flrtro iNiwell, of the I'uilod States; the ])resent cnter].rising rmd scientific ilditor of the i^.riti^h American Cultiva- tor, \\\ (1. Elmundson, l'iS(|., of Toronto; i"\ Fnlkener, Esy not cuiling them tooelo:-;cly. A stuni]) or projection should, at tho same time, he avoided. 153. As tho stumps of Ifirge branches nre npt to crp.-k, r.dmit water ami rot, or breed insects, tliey should be covered v.itli thick paint, or a coat (>rtnr and brick dust. 14. During mild wcfitherin this month, will also be a good time to ])runc hai'dy grape vines, if not idiefidy done. Mfiny persons, liaving but few grapes, and those hfirdy, arc opt to neglect them, nnd let them grow loo thick ; the (piality of the fruit would be greatly improved if they were kept jjropcrly pruned, which would be but a few minutes' woi'k. 15. By performing the operntion now, tho wounds would have timo to dry find conlrrict, and the sap-vessels to become closed be- fore spring, and ijreclude the danger of bleeding. 10. The only cfire needed in this operation is to cut ofTnll the small- er and lerist thrifty branches, and the ends of tho kirger, sothfit the buds left mny be those which arc Inrgcst and most vigorous, and that tliey mny hfive suflicient light and fiir for he;illliy growth. 17. 7\s fruit trees are ajittobe iiijuredby mice whenevcrthereare a few inches of snow to conceal them in their depredations — espe- cially if grass has been suffered to grow round the trees — it will be proper, ^\ hencver snow ffills, to tread it fn-mly about them, by which the evil may lie prcv-.nted. 18. ]\lany other operations may be performed during v»inter, which *^ ■\:»-A:i9WliPP»«wi*."--v.v-:'.v."««a?« *.•:« ;sk f CAVADIAN AOnirCLTI'BAL REAHEA. a little fih5?rrvnti<)n or reflection will jxiinl out — micli na procuring nnri sclpctiiig socds, rrriKiviiiu; iiinnuro to its pinco of (icstiriutiuii, procuring I'licl, collecting scions for grnlling, nmking grnUiiig pl.'us- tcrf^, &:c. Grrrit cnre sliould ho taken to g»'t genuine seeds, nnd to olitnin the best vnrieties (if iVuit lor gr.'iiiing — l(>r it is h(tt<'r not \.ij> plant a gnnK ii than to plant it with sjiurioiis secils, unti to (;niit grallijig II tree than lo gralt it with u poor varirty. Skction II. 1. Brief Hints for Pkhklaky. — J'iVery thing relating to the winter-keeping (tt'catlle must he considered hy larniersatthe present time as ol" the llrst interest. A great leto mri^-lication (jf its I'ood, and of course contributing t-'lhe more complete extraction of the nutriment it contains. ',]. If corn-stalk Ibdder is cut up about a brandirs must be thinned, by cutting olf rrookod, sluntcd, fi!)il useless ours, ?iud leaving tho str.iightest and most tln'ifty, and adiniltijig lighl nnd air. H. To prevent too much hurry early in spring, hot bed frames should now be ni'ido wlwre they are needed. If pro|)er caro is taken of them thcv inn V be preserved mnnv venrs. They should be well ])riint'^d niid kept undc-r shelter wiifii not in actual use. 1). They should be so made llint the plnnk of the frame m'ly be tnken a])art, to admit of their being cnsily pricked away. This may beed'ccted by nailing tiiem at tho ends to comer posts by largo wrought nnils, cleiu'hingthem /iruily. They nre connected together, when ur'Oi], by h'on bolls pnssing through thocoi'ner posts, ant' keyed on the inside. liy w ithdrawiiig the key<, thoy are readily tnkf-n apart. 10. During winter a supply of fuel should bej)rocu/ed and cut up sutTicient to lest through the yenr. This not only prevents inter- ruption during other business, in summer, but it admits of its he- coming (Irii, by whi.'h one cord will produce often more than twice as much he'it, as one cord of f^^vccn wood. 11. W'ooH, driei in a wood house, is found t(^ yield much more heat than that dried in the open air, on account oi'thc process being more etrcctually ])erll)rme(i. Whenever wood is inteniled for such thor- ough drying, (as all wood sb.ould be,) it should not be split finely, because, if done so, it is consumed loo r.iiii Ily, nnd li;. nee has arisen the erroneous belief that dry wood docs not alwa^-.s yield so much lieat as that v luch is in a gfcen state. SvicTio:, IfT. 1. P)Rii:^' lliXT'^ ron TtlAii' !r. — ]>;;bre sprir.;-: opens, the farmer should attend to tlse ]!erroriii.'i:.).\' of ^v!•^,!.:vcr c:;!i be clv.no nou\ and which may prevent inlcrn;])!.;on i:i lli-^ i:rsy !•'>'•«•:>;■) of tlio year. Wood should be drawn, cut an-l corded ; rails sp*i; ant! dir.wn where needed, corn seie':.cd rnd sheileG, ai\i t'-i'ls repaiced. •2. W'liere liiere v.-ill ])robr.]):y he a dr'V'ei •-y oftcols, it may be now conveniently supplied ; w. \ in ])i\';;in'i.:vii;.w;o;->]scaro should be ulwjiys taken to get the be-ot, even ticr.'-;h liiey nu.y ( :>t a little 1 ' • .. \ . .k ^»HI|i**l#s^" '■*•■ OL. •-. *'•**. CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKAUER. ' > inoro. Whoro a man can do orn^ third nioro work by using a good tool, ho will soon pay tor th«» additional rxponso. iJ. A common Imt oxpojisjvo modo of niisirii; calves, is to siiflor them to suck lluMMiw. Tlie practice wliich ii'»t writVetpiently oc- curs, of sutlbriiii' c.ilves to run constantly willi the cow, should ho strongly repnihatf d, as the milk is drawn irre<;ularly, nnd not ol'ten clean, and tli«^ ctiw is conserpjently soon spoiled. W lierf» the calf sucks rcguhirly, find the milk is ('rawn completely from the udder, the fxy^'j/AVj shi'uld deter from the j)rnctice, as the milk will he woitli more durini;; tlu' s(>'isrjrK th:iu thi cnif in the auliimn. Jhit if tlu^ calf is soitn wo.'incd to oht.'un the milk, a good animal {.'jinnot ijo ohtained, hut poor, stimted, ill-shnped cnlvos will he prothiccd. 4. A g')od w.'iy to I'.'ii.'Ci'nlvcs, is to let thepi suck the cow a few days, then let th^'in suck the linger in a p; il i>\' new miiik until tliey Icfirn to cirlidi, then mix a small (pinntily of writer with tho milk, at the s.-ime limo ndiling meal and mixing it, nnd then grndu- ally suhstiiiitiie.c v/.'iter and me.'".l for milk, mitll the milk iscniirdy disconlinufMl. 'j'hus sn;i.!en chrmgos are avoided, which arc nhvays injurious to c ilvcs. \\ ru'ined skim milk may bo used in place of now mil!;, filler the first few days. 5. Cfilvcs, a« w*-ll as other animals, should have a good supply of clean litter. G. MHa yourcov/s cler.n, if yon do not wi^h to spoil them. Horc teats ntfiy ho j)revcnted by washing them each timo before milking Avith writer. 7. Working cnttln and horses must be kejit in good order, tliattliey mriy perlona labor crfieicnlly in the sprii.g. It is !)etter to give aninifils extra feeding, if by doing so they » .'in do twice as nmch work, and conse(|UCiilly enable the man who drives the in to do twice as much. 8. Cli)verse'"'di'inv])e sownanv time during this montli. and when the soc'son of freci'.ing and thnwing the soil arrives, they will be gra- dually worked into tho 'iroanii by tho onerrstion. 'IMiisis found bv lopeated cxp-eriujenl, to bo belter tlinn to defer it till the ground be- comes settled iii sj.ilng. 9. I'runipf,- i 'lo r.'i'v.Lrrrv should be performed ris soon asthcsnow is otr tho gi'o;md in 1 ho sj)ring. Clear fiw; y tiie (dd sterns, cut fiway the small shoois, rwvl kave f )iir or iivo of tho largest airl flronc;- est of last scson's sliools m each huufdi, for the next crop. '1 heso should be cut oirio t!n-eo or four feet high, ;.nd tied to st:.kes driven into the ground lo krr^]) them erect. Kariy in the spring the ground slioidd bo cleared oi' grass and weeds, ai5d loosened about them. 10. Grafiiiig plasters may be now made, and wc have found the .:mtm!^f^^*'ii- •"■'"'•"■••'- «•». >4'"**. 10 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ohcnppst nnd by far most convenient matcrjal to spread the wax upon, to 1)0 brown pMj)er. A sbeet moy be covered by sj)rea(jing the wax wiiii a kniie, and tbcn cut by scissors into plasters of the required si/c. 11. Grafting wax maybe made by melting togctlier the following substances : two parts tallow, two beeswax, four rosin ; or, three rosin, tiireo beeswax, one tallow; or, four parts pitch, four rosin, two beesw.'ix, one hog's lard, one turpentine. 12. Farmers often suflbr much at this season from wet feet, we therefore, roqursi leave to recommend them to the following India rubber apj)licati()n : — 113. Moll one pound of tallow in an iron kettle, add from four to six ounces of India rubber cut small, and heat the melted tallow until the India rubber in it is dissolved. It will tiion bo fit for greasing boots nnd shoes, and will render the n j)crfccl]y impervi- ous to Water, thougli in it all day. During the prepitration of this mixture it wili boil up in foam, and send oif copious jiungent fumes, but this docs not injure it. One-twentieth part of beeswax improve-^ it. Old worn outlndia rubber over-shoes maybe used in the manufacture. 14. As svstom and looking ahead is indispensable to success in farming, we WDuld urge upon every farmer a recommcndalion lor making a memorandum book. Provide a small blank book with a flexible lo .ther cover, that it may be cotiveniently carried in the pocL'ct, riiid appropriate one pnge to each week in the season ; sot down every thing on its proper page, v/hich is to bo done at the time denoted. 1."). B\- li.)vi:)g this book constantly in tlie pocket, many things may be noted down the moment they occur to the mind, cither dur- ing ren(h"i,g or otherwise, which without this would he fiu-gotten and negiecto'l. iMiriiier. provide another similar book, ai:d note down in it briefly, during 'he progress of the season, wlintever work is done at the time, with hinis of such improvcmmts as may occur. This will form :\w excellent momorandum book ibr the next [--oason. Thus the f'rmer has everv ihinG; in black and v.-hitc belbro him : he sees lii^- 'ousinoss at one view, and he mruvcs liis arraiigemcnts accordingly, wiiliout unforeseen and unexpected interruptions. i ■ Secth:>x IV. 1. BaTi^pIIrxTSFOR AriiiL. — During the present month, farmers should eii^leaviir as much as possible to gel their land into the best condition for planting, for on this will depend in a great measure the success of the crop. •.»,i I. •**««• jij«*f- ,^^ '.^■^ CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. U 2. No pains sliould bo ?:poni the same quantity of land. Drilling, instead of sowing the seed, greatly lessens the labor of homing. Section V. 1. Brief TTtxts for May. — As regards the application of time with the farmer, there is not a month in the year lliat demands more attention than the month of May. If the farmer does not plani he will not reap, and if he does plant his grounds before they are . ^««ii.*v**!:- n CANADIAN AGRICULTITRAL READER. properly prepared, the labor required for their after culture is greatly increased. 2. It is also essential that crops should he put in in season, as well as that the ground should he well prepared. Oats should always bo sown before the time for planting Indian corn, other- wise, although there may be a great growth of straw, the grain will be light. 3. Peas, when intended as a preparntory crop for wheat, should be sown as soon as tiic ground can be prepared, as tlicy are not subject to be injiirfd by the frost, and by sowing early, there is a greater opportunity for preparing the ground after they are olF for wheat. 4. Early potatoes may be plnnted as soon as the frost will admit; and although they niay bo plrintod at almost any time, from the middle of April to llie middle of July, yet, we ihink, they produce best when "planted from the middle of April to tlie middle of May, or when left uiitil from the midiile to the last of June. 5. In the first case, the tidjcrs make their growth before the mid-summer droughl ; and in the latter, after the fall rains have set in ; in eilber case the pot-itoos will bo boUcr in qualily than when grown in the heat of mid-summer, allowing the soil to be suffici- entlv miost. (). One mistake universnlly prevails in selecting soil for pota- toes, and we often hear farmers recommending tlicm as fme in quality because tb.ey grew on dry, sandy soil. Potatoes growing on a dry, sandy soil are never as good r-.s those which grow upon a deep soil, rather damp ihan dry, in whicli tliere is a Inrge pro- portion of vegetable matter, which has a tendency to prevent such soils from becoming heated l)y the sun. 7. We think tb.rit our farmers are becoming more and more con- vinced of the iniportrince of a-tonJing to this crop, and of selecling seed with reference to tiie u.-^e for which thoy arc i;. tended. — Those varieties which are considered best for the tal'lc aro not always found to be the most abundant bearers, and of cour.;e could not be raised at iho same pi'ico |)or iMisliel as some of t'le larger varieties, whicIi may answer equally well ior feeding stock. — 8. Until the j)rcsci."t season we have known but little diilerencc in the price of potatoes in tiie market — a busliel of potatoes has been considered a bushel of polritnes, without regnrd to quality, and all sold at the snme price. Put this sprii^g we have known some varieties sell at from 2s. (kl. to 8.v. 9(/. by the loud, at tlie same time that others were selh'ng for Is. M. This diiference ought to stimulate farmers to be select in their seed. >;-i«p»N*)!»». aw^wjBt.-- r-i.*. CANADIAN AfiRICULTUIlAL READER. 18 9. For the table wo have recommended the Mercer, the Pink- eye, and the ^Saiilt St. Marie, and we might add the Foxito; tor Btock the large, '"^-und, yellow and flesh colored potatoefj, as being valuable for " ivntion. In addition to the common farming operations, tlio :, '.rdcns and orclinrds retiiiiro sonje attention during the early [lartofthis month. No n^an (>ught to be calK^d a good farmer v>ho d )os not cultivate a good garden fnd orchard, both of which wo f'.avo renfon to believe have required much attention from the c-.lier ages. 10. At. tills sca;-;on, stock generally requires as much attention an; at any 5^ca^-on in the year; and ];erliri|is tb.ere are as many cattle die in il;e last half of April ?ind fin-t half of May, as in all tiio remain lOr oi'tlie year; therefore, much attention is re([u;rcd in this department. 11. TUk i-:the nion:!i in whirh eeonond-'il farmers make addi- tions to tlioir flocks b}' llie purrlirsse of i.tui iinimals. There are always to be found tlieso //('///^/''■r/v.v'^/-.^'v.bo vv-i!l .-:i iltlicir lean cattle in thesnrlns; fu- lcj-:s mouev than ibn ha',' woidd l;c v/ortli which they have consumed ; and, as gnod bargain^s are not to bo overlook- ed l)y tliorough bred Ihriner^, tho-^e wlio hnve money to spare, may in moyt f f;"i:-.)ns make adv.'iu;,rii;-'-^-):is' piuvdr'r'.es. 12. F; .iM-yards should bo thorong'.dy elcr.jird tills month, so that <^ nr.\y 1)0 mixed v/ilii tli^^ snd for sumrncr crops. — i-n";cr v/ill allv.i{ 14 CANADIAN AGEICULTUHAL EKADEft. Slction VT. 1. Brief Hints for Junk. — As early in this month as possible,, ground should bo got ready iur Hutu Baga. Any soil will answer well if it is not wol., and is deep, niellovv and rich. Too much manure can. scarcely beapplicdjcspeciallyitit bo line and well rotted. 2. The most economical nioihod, is to prepare the ground in the very best mnuncr, and plant the seed in drills about 15 inche^a af)art, so that they may be thinned to 8 or 10 inches in the drill. The manure may thus be spread broadcast, and the ellect ot' none of it is lost by l>iiig between reniote rows. The cleaning is all done with a hoe, which is quite as economical for the amount of the crop^ as whore a cultivator is used. 3. The only advantago of ridging, is where the soil is not suffi- ciently deep or tortile, and rcipiiresto be accumulated in ridges for this j)urj)o.se. W here this is the case, it is best to plough the land into ridges and furrows about tv.o and a halt feet apart, till the furrows with manure, split tbo '"Jgos with a plough and throw them upon the manure, thus loi-mi' ; new drills, on which theseed are planted. This is i)(\st adapted to heavy soils sullbring from wetness. 4. The seed shouhi be j)lanted an inch dcop if tbe soil is moist, but dee[)cr if inclining to bo dry. About one pound to the acrt. is, in ordinary cases, sulliciont. If no drilling n r^chme is at hand, drills mav be made with an instrument rcsembliii"; a lars^e coarse rake with short teeth, each tooth for a drill ; the seed may be rripidly and cveidy dropped, by inefins of a tin cup fastened to the lower end of a rod, with a small hole in the bottom, holding the cup by the rod and walking with an even pace and shaking it constantly. 5. 'J'he average crop to the acre is about 500 or 000 bushels — 900 and 10(H) li;nc iVetjuently been obtained, and in one instance they produced at the rate of 'i'iOO busliels to the acre. 6. Crop.sof Mangel Wurtzcl planted last month, sliould be thinned W'hen tl.» plants are '1 or :} inches high, leaving ibfin from inches to a foot in the drill, in fertile soil rcijuiring more room than other- wise. 7. Too much pains cannot he taken to have root crops early cleared of weeds ; a chief cause of lailure is owing to a neglect of this care. 8. l;i all cases keep ahead of weeds. This is cheaper, ami savea , a part of th.e crop. 9. It is a good ti.ne now to clear grain fields of weeds which may injure t:io crop or render the seed foul. 10. l^laslering corn soon after it is up is often beneficial, and ia Roaie inijiaiicei) }.\a>s increased tiie crop •'.:■ per cent>. •aw; »sT>?--'«v'.* CANADIAN AGRICILTI'RAL READEE. 16. 11. Mnniim should l)ctnkpn cnreof toprovont its wn<=ting])y f(.r- mcntnti<»n or evnpor.ilion. To ihi-s end it should bo j)iU d \n hcnps, and covorrd a I'ew iiichrs with f?nrth or a coating of lime. Tho qunljtv of liiiio in rcl.'iiniii,£,' thcr.xhalation of fortnenliii'.rsuSstnncos, was .slrikii!(=:ly i»ruvod l»y covering th^ cnrcnss of a < nw inches with onrth (■ontriining about ou'^-tbird liiur. No ii.w]] was por- ccivrd during tho |)utrofaction, nnd tliecro[) to which the limo was aftTwanls .'ii)[:lin;j, was far nioro bejiefitted than the. idjoining crop, whoro ibi^ sanio rpiantity ol linio was applied, ^liacivcd and old linio is quifn ns honoiicial lor manure, a.s fresh lin.e. 1:2. Save your own seed. I'armersare neglecli'uJ ii' this respect, and rolv too uiuch on the seed box of tho luerclianr, or a supj)ly from a seed stoi'o. when they might, in mix«t ca>:s, produce all they requir'Tit homo, lloginwith tho earliest that ripm, and savo tliosp of good (p'.ality of all the kinds you generally nerd. It takes but litlle li:iie, and amounts to a luindsomo sum in saving expense. It^. 'j'ho dilD^rent varieties of turnip ripen ilifir .^ocd early, and tho srod should he saved soon. IC you have uk-io than you nf fd, di 'ifiliute your rutabaga among your nei^Miors ; it may confer a great benefit on them, fnr there are some li t would plant will i.iot \:-e at the trouble to procure seed, and he \ uo has raised roots (Uico will generally do so again. Section' YII. 1. P>ni7.F Hints FOR .TrLv. — A subject too much rrgiocted during the mid.'llo ot'siiuimer is the extirpation of weeds. I 'the nourish- ment which goes to support the weeds on some far.;,,-, were applied to the crop, the owners wouM soon get rich. U - ods are as inju- rious to iiio croj) as a herd of intruding cattle, and ^'ioukI therelore be removed with as much detei'minatioii. "'* •2. 'i'h'.'i'e is one rule wiii ii willa])j)lyin de^i.Tovjpg n\\ weeds of whatever kinr's ; that is, that they c'lnnot live ifthpy c-umot have acces.'^^ to the air. ITence weeds, the mt)st diif!' ult of extirpation, are soon routed by cr.aing tl;cm olF as fast as i!iev ."ppcar above ground, or by burying tliem repe,ato:!y witli n ploug; . 53. l^»epeated ploughing for destroying weeds is Ik st whenever they haNo obtained i)Osses.>ion of tho grouud, .is in casr' nf Cmiada Tliistlos, St .lolmswort, and some others; audi iu 'r-(-<] ii is much- bett.-^r to devote the ground a ycur oi- two to clen.rinfr. vvh.ore thov have spre-.d extensively, than to lose two-thirds of (he use of ii; by th'^ui perpetually. 4. Snvne weeds are easilv removed with a common hoe, as, for iiistftnce.ra,ulliens, thirties, &.C., which inleyt nasturcs; cutting iheiiii -««/*,»*?--'«»-v,»- ,/ 16 CANADIAN AGRlcrLTURAJ. READER. off at the surface of the ground gGncrally dc:;troys ib.cm rit oiico. Docks fire very easily removed whcu llie ground i.s sui'Loncd wiili niiiijby pulling them up. 5. In order lo T)reveiit iho trouble of destroying a field of wood's, they pliould ho watched and rooted out at their lirst appo"irr)nce, when it will not cost a thou-sandiii jiart of the labor. Canada thistles, milk weeds, ox-cyc daisy, couch gras;.;, cli.'u-lock or lield inustanl, and others, whenever they first oj;poar, s^huuld he imme- diately destroyed. Vk Whole ilelds are frequently sconctn'crolwi'h n luxuriant crop of tho largo Hold thistlo ; if tiioy M-ere cut and rabod with a horse rake ii:to i;irg3 heaps they would make exccdlout mai.ure. 7. r'armors ;• hould u^;c every mcaiis j)racticable toob'ain and pro- serve all the manure that crin be done — ihoy !^;hoidd recolloc; that a goodloadof luanuro prop-i^rly ap[)lio;!, is l;f iicrtiian a.silvcr dtdlar. 8. What rno.-;.t needs ■••.tlontion now, is l) i)!tsc:-vo t!ie manure which remains unspi-ciid during sumi:ier, lo ur.-voi;' i: ; wasting by fermenling and ovajrirnting. Tk.is is oH''Clc! by oveiijjg ii wiih a coating of earth mixed With aJjout one-'pj: r;er /hue. 9. Tho ad\nntngos of [Ve(|ucnt ;-tirri.;g{d"tl'.e (r.ii'i c.mong crops have boon sufii'.jioutly ])rovc;d ; — "r: i-uAv Iim.-j in -rL^rncr is a sign VI a poor \:;r crop S, IS injurious •r." I'Ut lliO pracliccio! ////.'„•• f ;m c:i!:iv;:,iing ho d and it is ib.nid by e.\prrjon.!o -i.at in nil ''om- mon cases, proscrviug the surlaco of tho gior.r.fi r.n, or noarly so is muc!\ |)r5icrablo. ror tliis reason the cii/limfo^- sliould he u:-;ed in prefcronco to tho or.o-iiorso phjugh ; and if iho rows have bnen planted strnight and even, all the weeds may be cut up by it withia two or throe inches of tho plants. 10. Mowing should not bo commenced n.ntil the t talks of grass herin to (diangc a lililo to a brown color, or when the seeds are rpnroaching maturity. A greater quantity of nutriment is then contained, tiie hay is swo'^tor to the taste and is not so tough ua otherwise, and the hay is more easily drie;l. (trass beaten down hv rain, should however bo cut before it becomes injured in this way while uncut. 11. A "■reat defect in curing hny, and more especially clover, is drying it too much inthc sun. The more improved plan is to dry it partially in the sv/ath and finish by what is terincd tho sweating process, or drying in small cocks, the heat of a very slight fer- mentation assisting. The labor of spreading is thus saved, t ere is little injury from exposure to dew, and the thin leaves and suc- culent stalks* become equally dried together. 12. Where this plan has been tried, many successive day of * ; *.'»W0f'*>iH^*'»^i Lt once* od wiili ' woe(l*5, nrnnce, CLiiKifla or Hold i imme- intcTOp a horse and prr- cct t!u;t r dollar, mriiiuro i\U\\f.\ !)>' 5 ii Willi ng crops is asi<~ri hu d ill i'!)]U- arjv so )0 liijcd Willi i a of grass eds aro IS til pii ough ft.i >!i tiowri lis way n-er, is to dry wcati.vg 7M1 ter- , t ere iiid suc- day of CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. rainy weather have not prevented the making of excellent hay : and indeed while the outside of the cock is wt;t by the falling rain, the interior has been constantly drying by the slight heat generated. Hvery tnrmer should at least try this method ; and every one who tries it fairly, adopts it. Hi We still see, in many places, the common hand rako em- ployed to collect the hay on the meadow. 'J'his should bo no iouger tolerated. When it can he raked by a horse witii one-fifth the expense, it is surprising that so many adhere to the old prneti(;e. If farmers are unwilling to j»rocure a revolving rake, let them at least provide themselves with the conmion horse rake. 11. The cost is only two dollars, and it will pay for itself in les.* than halfaday, and in half an hour if a shower of rain is coming upon a crop of new hay. Attach the draught ropes to the outer teeth cut to about one-third the length of the others, and no difii- culty will 1)0 found in managing it. 15. V\'e last year saw a meadow of fifteen acres raked with a com- mon horse rnke, in about six hours of time actually employed, a part of which yielded throe tons ; and the whole of the hay was drawn to the stack, chie/ly from the winrow, l)y the horse and rake, suf- •liciently fast to keep a strong active man (who had previously laughed at the plan) ha.d at work all day to j)itch it on the stack. 1(). \\y regulating properly, by mean* of the handles, the pitch of the teeth, loads were collected which were a good load for one horse to draw. One man only (without any rider) was sullicient to mnnagc it. It abridged the labor so much, that cutting the grass was more than two-thirds of the work done on the meadow. 17. On extensive and smooth meadows, v/e would by all means recommend the revolving rake in prefeience to any other, and the hay sweep to collect and draw it to the stack or place of de- posit. But the common horse rake may be used on any meadow, if not intolerably rougl- 18. Mowers should commence work by four o'clock in the morn- ing, when the air is cool and tho grass moist, and then they may rest in the heat of the day. 19. In harvesting grain, ii is much better to cut it a few days be- fore it is j)erfectly ripe, than to allow it to stand too long. If cut when not entirely ripe, and bound up before the stalk hccomcs drp, it will derive nourishment from the stalk sufficient to ripen it he- fore the sheaves become thoroughly dry. 20. The great advantages of cutting early are, the grain is not wasted by shelling, the straw is worth more and it enabletj the .»»s«,i .*.'»■;;■•'« rita*««i - tLJmtt^ lb CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. farmer to drive business and prevent losses from bad weatlier ;uid oilier delays. •21. Lodged and rusty grain should, in all cases, bo cut as soon as adinissibk', as little is gained by sutibring it to stand too long. ti2. Whenever it is necessary to leave grain upon the field alter it is cut, it should be put so as to withstand any rain without injury. This may bo easily cllected by placing about six sheaves closely toguther, pressing their heads to a poim, and capping t!ie whole with a sijvenlh. The cap is made by !.»in(hng a shouf firndy near the lower end and spreading the straw on all sides by breaking it down over the band. •213. At this busy season of the year, the garden must by no means be neglected — the ground must be kept clear of weeds, — plants which need il watered in dry weather, always in the evening to allow the water to [)enetrato the soil before evaporating ; — herbs, as ilicy come in llovver, must be cut and dried for future use ; they must be cut in dry warm weather, and always dried in the shade : — fruit trees which bear too thick must have their fruit thinned, if it is wislied to have it of any value as to flavor. 24. In ti;e flower garden, seeds must be gathered, la!)eried, and preserved as they ripen, and the roots of bulljous j)lants taken up as the tops wither and die ; they are best preserved by drying them somewhat, in small henj)S. covered with sand or dry soil to protect them from the rays "1" the >un. As soon as taken up they should be labelled to prev .t nnxing. 2^t. Clover hay sIm' ' never be scattered out of the swnth, because in addition 1 ic labor in scattering and again raking up, the hay is thereby g. atly injured. 20. indeed, if tho weather be favorable for curing, neither timothy nor any other kind of hay should be scattered, because ihe kiss any green grass is exposed to the sun and air in the process of curing, the greater will be th ; value of the hay, and liie less labor retpiired. 27. Let the clover lay in the swath untouched, until about two- thirds of the upj.er part be sullicien'dy cured, which in good weather will, if tiie swath be tolerably heavy, be effected in eight or ten hours ; if the swath be light, in a proportionably shorter time. 25. When thus far cured, turn the swath bottom upwards with th'e fork, an operation speedily performed.. Let it then lie ex- j^aed to the suu,unti!.the under side be cured, which will be, SGCopding.taahe thiclmess af,the swath, .in from Ibur tosix hours j f-til«iiitVL.roi5«k ibiTreo swejJisj togetber» ini M^i^lraws,^; andj camiiien.c&-: CANADIAN AGRirULTlUAL HEADER: V6 soon •U|), ither the and with ex- 1 be, urs;. sncaj iinulin,!]; in, the waggon running between two winrows and loading i'ro!n '■ ich. vJ'i>, ii can hardlv bo nonessnrv to ohHcrve, that all these must be performed after the dew lias dried od'. It is to be recollocted thai clover will keep with less dry in;;' tlian almost any other grass. A common test is, to take up a bunch of grass and twist it, if no laice oxiiilcs, the h.-iy may bo Inulfd in with sai^.ty. iiO. We have often hauled in clover cut in tiic morning in the 'evening, an^i always tlic succpoding day, uidess prevented by bad • weather. Spriidiling '^vory layer of iiay with salt, at the rate of twelve or hftoen pounds to the ton, oc interposing a layer of dry straw, from six it twelve inches thick, between every two layers ol chner of the same thickness, we found a great prcser- valive ; and esoociallv the latter mnde will enal)!e the farmer to put up the hay in a greener stale than could otherwise be done with safety. yi. Besides this advantage, the straw interposed between the layers of hay, by absorbing its juices, will bo rendered much more valuable as provfudcr, and if salt bo sj)rinklod on the hay will be greedily consuni'^d bolii by cattle and horsos. '^j-l,. From tli(! great (juantity of this grass produced en an arre. ■ its highly nutritive quality, the ease with which it is cut and cured,, farmers will find that clover hay is the cheapest iont] on which they can keep their stock in good order during the winter. If put up in g >o:l order in the fall, sheltered from bad weather, and salted, both horses and cattle will keep fat on it alone tltrough the- winter, without the aid of gi-ain, unless wlu-n v/orked. lil). The prevalent notion of the dilhculty of curing clover hay, is entirely erroneous. In a climate like ours, there will seldom be found any ; in a wet and cool climate, like that of Englano, the dillicidty may exist to some extent, as clover when put in cocks v/ill not resist rain as well as timothy and some other grasses; but in the course of fifteen years' experience v/ehave' seldom lost an ^' or had it much injured by the weather, 134. Indeed v/e have found it comparatively easier to save clore?- hay than corn blades, and as three or four tons of the former; > with the aid of piaster, can be made at less expense than one tcr..' of the latter, the farmer must bo blind indeed to his >>vm interest,, who does not take care to provide himself with at kast as m/jcb* olover as will furnish an abundant supjdy of provender fo?i" bint ^ stock. 3;'). Clover should be cut for hay when abo^Ji 'rme half of the"! heads have^b«c^n\e.of"'u^bj?own -eoi^Dr;- I CicJirisieiVri 'er. sitds Jjftlio**»f them; the conse<[uonco was, that tho crop this season (Jield hoot) which grew on tho latterpicce, was literally hid with adeiisc growth of weeds, while the other was comparatively free. 4. Canada thistles, must, in no instance whatever, bo allowed to ripen their seed. 5. Thistles, mulleins, burdocks, &c., in pastures and t'ence cor- ners must bo destroyed without fail. 6. Root crops, as ruta baga, and mangel wurtzel, are liable to be too much neglected after one or two hoeings; they should be ke])t all the season perfectly clear from weeds, and tho bcnctit they derive fi'om this, and from stirring the earth around them, amply repays the exi)enso of the labor. 7. With a little pains, it is as cheap to raise a good crop, as a crop of noxious weeds ; and seed now selected should bo therefore us perfectly freed Irorn foul stutf as possible. If clean wheat is always Bowed, we may expect, on clean ground, a clean crop: but land will become more and more infested with weeds so long as we sow the seeds with the grain. 8. Chess being almost universally the worst weed among wheat, no pains should be spared to separate it. It may be done by means of krine, first mode strong, and then weakened till the wheat will just ,|^. CANADIAN AOmCULTVUAL RBADim. 2l ti'mk in it, whon the chess, bring ligliter, floats, and is skimmed from the surlucff. 9. A haskot should ho used, to let the l»rine run oil' the moro freely. Tho wiu'fit should then he spread on a l)ani (lo )r, two or tliree iuchos thiek, and about one-lirteeiilh part of air slaked lime sifted over it anil well stirred. This assists the drying, and destroys llie smut. 10. A f^'ood Innningmlll will clonr most of the ehess from wheat by pnssiiig it throu<^h a \'v\v times. 11. No seed wheat should be considered clean, until, by repeat- edly sj»rentiing handfuls of if ou n l.;l»U\ no chess cnn be I'ound. — There is not, much of what is termeil very clean seed that will endurr- tin;; te.^t. Iv!. Un(k'r draininci; should be j)erfornu'd durinu,' the dry season, and tliosc t'-uincrs \\hohn\t: wet spots of ground in cultivated liulds should no longer delay this siiuph.' mode of rendering such land j)roductive. Oj)en drains should never be made but to carry oil'surfice water. 1)}. iNo dr.''in for any otiier purjiosn sliould be much less than tlireo feet dci p. hut an open one this depth must be nine feet wide to ])revent the l>.iid:s sli(iing, anil this is an ouormous waste of land. 14. Jjut a covered drain occu|)ies no grounil. The ex])ense of digging, I'vnn this cause, is also mucli greater in case of open drains. I.'"). Covered drains may be iillcil with stone or brusli. T!ie stone may be la.id so as b) leave a suiall o|)en channel at bottom ; or if they fire rpiito small, and the quantity of water passhigoif Jiot large, such chauiif 1 is not necessary. 1(). i irusii (U-ains are filled by placing the branches of trees, fresh- ly cut and with the leaves on, in a sloj)iiig direction in the ditch, the leaves upwards, and then covering them with earth. The spaces between the branches below allow the water to How off. — Thismelliod orHlling is best in sandy ground where stones arc scarce. 17. In cutring off under ground channels of water, ])articularly those whi<.'h ooze out of the surface of sloping ground, by means of covered drains, the mode of operating should be adaj)ted to circum- stances. The common error is tt) cut in at the wet spot ; whereas the proper jdace is a little above, before the current reaches the surface. The judgment and close examination alone can direct the proper course and situation for the drain in such cases. 18. Horses often suffer from slobbering during the latter part of summer, especially when they feed in succulent pastures. The best remedy is drier food. ' Ill 2« CANADIAN AORKMLTI'RAL READER. i w 19. Fruit trops nro frrqijontly ijijiirrd \r\ coWcrA'infr tho fruit, by resting ladders rig-iinst tho braiiclios, nnd thus bruisini^ tho bark. A|iricuts, plutus and ponchos, conveiueiit on iho sanio dny, it is gathorr'd nnd pniporly socurod. 7. If tlie t^l.M/inc; process h.is commenced on tho onr, f!io nour- ishmoiit olituiiuMl froi.i tho slowly dryiiiji; stalks will ripen it sufli* ciently, and tho fod lor will ho well preserved. 8. Seed corn should alvvnys ho cnrotuUy solocfed ; if tho crop stands long enough in the field, it shoidd ho taken froefore tiiey aro cut, in order thiit tho sclcclion inay ho more |)orfect. 0. Look for thos'C new stalks which su|)port two or morocars, nnd take tho upper ono only. This inothod practised for suc(^ossive years, has grcaUy improved the variety and increased its produc- tiveness. 10. As strnw is alwnys v.'iluahle, eith'^r for fodder wlien cut, oi for the mnnul'ncturc of manure, it should he carol ully preserved. 11. When from tho thrashing machine, it is most conveniently secured hy hinding it in largo hundles hy means of hay ropes, as fast as it is thrown out from tho machine. A suHicient numhcr of hay ropes for this purpose may be previously twisted from a stack and placed in readines?. 12. Farmers who imve hogs to fatton, will find if they will hut try it, that common apples aro as good 'or the purpose as any thing they can obtain, and far cheaper. If tho number of hogs he large, it may bo advisable to cook them, as this process gK.atly improves iheir quality. V^. Wiienevcr grain is fed to hogs, it should alwnys be ground, and not only ground but cooked. The advantages of iliese two pro- cesses combined is indeed great. An excellc!;t v\-ay of preparing Indian meal, is to boil about one peck in a live pail kettle of water; this will furnish five pails of most excellent and nutritious feed. 14. Unlike fattening swine, very little advantage is derived from cooking food for cattle, — not suflicient to pay the labour and expense. 15. In all the experiments with feeding and fattening animals, accurate accounts should be constantly kept, the animals should .he. frequently weighed, and the best and cheapest food thus deter- 1^ f , «« ..-♦?*>.)» i.^'jsasjaisfcfjw. -jSUNi^i ; M CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. i I ii< mined. The farmer will then know what he is about, instead of working in tlio dariv. Section X. 1. Brtkf Hints for Octohkr. — Tliis month will be mostly occupied with the securing of crop.s, and it is importcint for their preservation tiiat this be done in the best manner. 'i. llool crops especially, should be placed beyon(v thedanger of injury ; it is botte" to take some additional pains than to lose one half the amount by carelessness. -). Potatoes siiotdd be packed awny in such a mrinner that they may keep well, even if the winter should be much severer than com- mon. 4. Their preservation depends on securing tiiem from frost nnd from moisture. Ilonce these re([uisites should b:; particularly ob- served, both in placing them in cellars, and in heaps in the open field. r). The i>est molliod of preserving ruta bngn in open ground, is the following : — They are to be placed in long hcnps, three or lour feel wide, and of any desirable length, in a roof-like form, and terminating in a ridge at the top. They are tiien covered, first with straw, and afterwards with earth. Ihoy need not be covered to so great a depth as potatoes require, as they are not so easily injured by tVost. 0. But .■ s they are liable without precaution to ferment and rot, in largo lie ;ps, iioles should be made with a crow-brir throu^rh the earth into the heap, at intervals of a {cw feet, to sullcr the warm air which may be caused, to escape; and these holes mny bo par- tially closed by straw. Where the soil is such that tiiere is no danger from moisture, these heaps may be placed in broad trenches made for the purpose. 7. Mangel Wurt/el require nearly the same treatment in pre- serving as the potato — they are more easily injured by frost than ruta baga, and should consequently be sooner secured. As a general rule, they should never be left out later than the latter part of this month. 8. A dry, warm cellar, which will admit of some circulation of air, is the most convenient place forkeepin^^ both mangel wurtzel and ruta baga, when they are to be ted out daily during the winter. 0. All ground intended for spring crops next season, should be ploughed before winter without fail. Teams are strong in fiutumn, the weather is cool and favorable for their labour, and the operation greatly assists in destroying grass and weeds. The diminished CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 20 labour in hoeing next season, from this alone, will in many cases compensate for all the expense. 10. In tiic ( larden, seeds are to be gathered as thoy ripen, careful- ly labelled, and secured; where they donot ripen simultfinoously, and the ripe seed cannot be collected witliout too much Labour, tho whole plant sliould bo takon u]) l)y tlic roots and sutU'rod gradually to dry in the iiuuse, during wiiich time niostof tbe seeds will beconio ripe. 11. All hardy porennial aromatic and modicinal herbs may be conveniently transplanted — strawberry plants sliould bo romoved earlv in this monlh, if not already done, fur forming now beds — onions for seed next year should now be set out, selocling tho hardest and best shaped roots, and placing them in drills a foot apart and six or eight inches in tho (h-ill. 12. Asparagus \haU should be cleared when the stocks turn yel- low and begin to die. IM. Weedis ripening their seeds are to be removed mid oarriod oir the ground lo jtrcvont seeding ; — and nil vacnut spaces made sobv the remov.'il of crops should bospadod for theaction of winter, and ibr destroying youug weeds. Skc'pion XI. 1. Brief Hints for Novkmbkr. — As the farmor's W(M'k is now generally comi)lotod, i)Hplomo!its should bo clormod, dri(>d rind laid aside. Every larmcr should have a building for his (;nrts, ploughs, harrows, hoes, rakes, &c. 2. There should be a place for every thing and every thing in its place, in order to prevent looking halt" a day at a time for lost tools. Tools will last much longer if so used, and now is a good time to do the work. li. Wherever practicable, })lough the ground for spring crops. — Look nhe;id for next s[)ring, or you will got in your soo;.l too late. 4. l.'hujdoy leisure time in rcj)airing i'cnces, to prevent hurry next season. f). Preserve all your refuse apples for feeding hogs and cattle dur- ing winter. They are worth more than potatoes, as has been [troved by experiment in weighing. 0. To salt pork properly, it is essential only to immerse pieces completely in salt. Place a layer of salt at the bottom, then a layer of pork in tbe usual manner, filling the interstices, and so on till the barrel is filled. Use plenty of salt, it will not be lost. Salt- petre, when used should be in very small quantities, say a 400th part^ Some add a small quantity of sugar. - — ■■'^ni-jfmtii.A^Xt*miif\>, 26 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. >l i I' i i i 1 1 7. To cure hams, mix a busliol of good salt with a pound of nitro. rub the hams well with the mixture, and put them down. Huh thejTi aojaln in a lew days that ihev mav absorb the salt more evenly. In ab(jut fiiu" weeks, (st);)nor, if the piocesare small) wash them and bang tlif'iu up in the smoke house. H The toll(nving mixture has been recommended ns good for ham. One pound salt, one ounce nitre, pidverized nnd mixeil, added to two quarts of molasses ; the pieces are to bo thoroughly rubbe'l with this and laid flesh side up, andsutl'crcd to remain three weeks. 0. In the (Janlen, a few vetjetrddes remain tol)e j^-athered ; cab- bages should be taken up on a warm dry day, drained in an invert- ed iposition of such water as they contain, and properly protected fi'om water and too o;reat drynes?, niid from fjost. TIiov may be thus })rotected in various ways. One is to place them in a cellar with tlie roots bui'ied in a box of earth. 10. Anoil. 'r is to place tliem in a row in a dry part of ilie gar- ilen, in an U[)right position, the roots and stems buried, and then covering them v*ilh two broad boards or slabs in 'he form of a roof, and burying these with earth. Another is to separate the loose leaves, and l)my them in a conical pile, precisely as turnips and potatoes are treaterl. When put in the cellar, they should be dry and clean, otherwise in warm weather they will cause un- wholesou'.o air. 11. iNcar the rev nencement of winter, lay down tender exotic grrj)C vines, first ^ i dng a few stones on them to keep them down until two or three inches of earth are thrown on the vines, when the stones are removed and the vacancies sup])lied with earth. I'i. All tender shrui)s n^ei protection before winter. Flexible stems may be laid d(nvn ; sliff upright ones may be protected by incasing them well with the branches of evergreens. All trans- planted bulbous roots will .dso need protection. 13. Asparagus beds when the tops are dead, should be cleared off. and a layer of dung one or two inches thick spread evenly over. 14. Seeds of prirsnips, carrots, onions, &c. may be sown in au- tumn to advantage, if done so lote that they will not vegetate before cold weather. Early peas maybe sown to great advantage, if there is no danger irom mice. 15. A writer on ganl^ning says : "To cultivate parsnips, 'sow the seed in autumn soon after they are ripe, by which means the seed will come up early the following spring, and let ihe plants get strong before the weeds will grow to injure them." 16. All vacant ground should be ploughed or spaded, to be sub- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 27 tic VI) IC )fr. src cet jGctcd to the action of winter frosts, and to be in readiness as early as possible in spring. Section XII. 1. Brief Hints for Dkcemheh. — Domestic animals sbould al- ways commence winter in good condition, and tli's sbould i)e pre- served through till spring. To do this, never attempt to winter more than you ha\o abundant means of providing for. •2. All animrilssb not much superior to the primitive one, though :i piece of iron i> sometimes tied to the under Ijranch that penetrates the ground, ana hullocks are in some phices used to draw it ; the plough used by tho Polish J cnsantry is of this kind, and in Africa, a sharpened sticiv, or a woodc-u paddle, constitutes the implement used for stirring the earth ])re[~,aratory to a crop. 10. V\'edo not intimate that the plough, even the best kind, can be considered as having reached its limits of perfection. With that im'plemcnt, as with other things, one decided im!)rovement serves (.)nly to su,^gest another. 11. The changes in material ])oint to changes in structure ; and instead of the blunt, wedgelike form of the old plough, a tripering lifting firm has been given, which, ]>enetrating the earth easily, and rcversnig it readily, dispenses with much of the force former! v re(piired to move it, while at the same time the work is done in a manner to which tho old plough could make but faint appro;iches. It*. T'le ei'j^^ct of early habits is still to he seen in our j)loughs, though not 'o the extent it formerly was. In the early settlement , of any woe 'on country, knolls made by the turning up of the for- mer forest ;rees, will abound, giving an uncveimess to the surface, requiring several ploughings to remove. 13. On such lands, none but ploughs with short bcnms and nearly ui>right handles, can be used to advantage; and such is the char- acter of the j)lough in nil new countries. 14. PI') tghsof this description do not run as easy, and require more lab( lU- in the holding, than those made with Inrge beams, and a corresponding increase in the length of the share and point. IT), A well constructed plough has its under surface running parallel with the surface of the soil, no matter what may bathe depth ploughed ; but when constructed in such a way that the plough is continually on its heel, or its point, the ploughman finds ■ hardiHork,.and the- work Jts-elf must be imperfectly performed,. CANADIAN AGRICl LTURAL READER. 31 16. Every one who ploughs, is nwnrc ihnt on the snme soils, one plough will run so true and steady ns to rc(}uiro scarce an eflbrt to guide it while another demands constant attention and el- fort ; and he also knows that in in(vst cases, the easiest running jdough will he the one witlithe l(»ngest exposed suri'ice, and handles ol'tlio greatest inclination; and the reasons lor this are so evident, as not to re([uii'e elucidati(»n. 17. Farmers have hecn consideraldy divided in opinior. on two points connected with ploughs, or rather with plou;>hing; one ot' these regarding the manner in which the furrow slice siiould he turned over ; and the other, the depth to which land should ho plougiied. IH. Some have contended that the furrow si'ce should never br laid flat, but always in such an inclined position, that the edge of one slice should just rest on the next one, leaving under the ciigc so raised, a vacancy nearly as deep as the tliickness of the furrow slice. ID. This, it is contended, is advantageous, by hastenir.g decom- position, and by allowing water to pass freely oil" without injury to young plants. '2l». Other i'arraers maintain as strenuously that the furrow slice should in . ;1 ciises be laid perfectly Hat, or reversed in such a rmmner that a field after ploughing should be ds 1- vel as before, the piough simply reversing the suriace of the slice. 21. In this, as in a majority of controverted points, our expe- rience and observation lead us to conclude that both sides are partly right, and b(jth })ai-tly wrong. •2«. We ha^ e found that, if on lands stron? and v/iti: a tenaci- ous or impervious s'jbsoil, "-vhicii retained for sometime wl.'il water fe.ll upon it, the furrow slice was slightly lapped, so as to leave a space below, young plants suifered le.vs fr(jm a wet ,- jisor, or an undue accumulation of water, than they would iftho furrow slice was fullv inverted, and the surface made smooth and even. 2',). Un the contrary, we have been bd to believe that on a light soil, or one inclining to be dry or })orous, it was better to invert the surface completely, and by rolling render the surface smooth, and its particles as compact as possible. 24. A surface so treated, will retain its moisture longer than if left in a state more loose and friable, ami the conducting j)owcr will be increased by the particles being ' i ought more closely in contact. 25. Let the farmer, then, wliosesubsoj; :s impermeable to water, • lay his furrows as dipping;^,as he pjeaseifci ; the laor " space, belowj; n CANADIAN AGHICULTURAL HEADER. V . I' 'i tho better for him ; l)ut on a liglit porous soil, lay the surface flat, and make it as dense as it well can be. 26. The benefit which compressing sand soils confers, is well understood in Norfolk, in England, whore tho treading of sheep in feeding tho turnips in the hold, is (Considered nottiie least beneficial part of the culture rcqiiirod for the j)roduction of wheat. "11. Nearly the same remarks may be a|)|)lied to the other con- troverted point, viz: that wliich relates to the d''{)tii of ploughing. The propriety or impropriety (^f deep ploughing must be determined by the soil itsolf; by its condition, in ref'^rence toa suj)ply of vege- table matter in the soil, and the depth to which it has been formerly ploughed. 2h. Where the stratum of fertile soil is thin, and the subsoil, no matter from what cause, incapable of promoting vegetation, it is bad jiolicy to bring this infertile subsoil to the surface, as a stratum in which seeds are to o'crminnto. 29. And v.liere the s<:il is pemT^a])le to the depth of twelve or eighteen inches, or as low as the plough can penetrate, and is filled with foi'tilising mnterinls, doposited by the processes of nature, or by manure ap|)lind to the service in cultivation, then the plough may run deej) without fear of injury to the present crop, and tlie certainty of benefit to the future ones. "M). We think the true method of rendering anv soil deep and fertile, is to])lough no deeper, and bring uj) no more of the infertile earth at a time to the surfa.ce, than can be thoroughly corrected by maniH'es, to be incorporated with it, and thus made friable and pro- ductive. JU. At each successive ploughing, if this course be followed, the soil will be gradually deepened and rendered productive to any de- sired dej)th. IV2. By pursuing this course of manuring and ploughing, Judge Powell rendered his soils fertile to the depth of fourteen inches, and where the roots of plants have this depth of good earth to range in and seek their food, the farmer can hardly tail of securing first rate crops. 33. Every part of a soil so prepared, is fit for the germination of seeds to the lowest depth to which the plough cnn reach ; and the more thorough the ploughing is given, the greater will be the sur- face exposed to the benefits of deration, or the ameliorating influ- ences of the atmosphere. 34. One of the greatest differences between the old and the new husbandry, depends on this question of ploughing. S&. In the old mode, the plough was used year after year to thd CAVADIAN AOmCtJLTVRAL READKB. ds s-ame deptli, nnd the mnnuro npplied witti roferonoo to ilio cr«i|» .solely, while the iinjjrovemcjit oi' tiie soil was wholly lelt out oi* ^ight. 'M'). As a nntural consequence, "there was no depth of soil.'' nnd when manure faileu, the I'ertility ot the l.'uul was g« wiih scarcely a pn.-siMllly ol" renovation under .such a process. 37. in the new husbandry, the jjernianont inipiovpinent oftlic soil, hy gradual manuring and deepening, i.s kept stf^adily in view ; and hence the accumulation anduseoi nianures hasreceiv cd an additional importance. *5o. The garden is usually far llio most fertile part of the larni, and this is brought aijout by the gradual incorporali<»n of manures with the .sii!)Soil raiseil at each successive ploughing, until iho requisite de])th and fertility is gained. oi). On lards long ploughed to a uniform dejjth, as they wert^ under the old s}'stem, the ])ressure ol the jdough c>n the samo surface gi'adually formed an impen''tr.able strain, thus fv)rming a fatal obj:iruction to the roots of plriuts, where it did not naiurriily exist. 4.i). In Englnni], on soils inclining to clay, and which hnvo 1)po)i under tiie {)lougli occasionally, or almost perpetually for conturK.-, tills iujpcrmoable pan is common, .'lud one ol' tlir )iiosi docidt.'U advantages found to result irom the sul>soil |dough, is the breakir.ic up and demolition of this artifitdal obstruction to the spread ah'i dc['th of the roots of plants. 41. On the old cultivated (ields of some parts of this provin''-"'. the same dilliculty exists more or less, and canbe r'-ninvcMl, and lii.- soil rendered fertile, by tiio srmie moans so succcssfid abroad. 4*2. The too frc(|uent j)loughing of land is not to be rocoirunond- cl in any case, and unless absol uoly re(]uired to destroy f(Mii \ver(!>. it should receive no iurther moving than is re(]uisito to lit it for acr"j', 'fhe great mistake of Tull, wf.s, that ploughing or pulvcri/atioii would supersede the use of manuring. 4t^. But experience shows \vii?it indeed philosophy incMilcate-. that beyond a certain point, ploughing is injurious ; atid thatthoug'i cssentird Ijenefits are derived t(; 'I'.e soil from the action of ,nlm(-- pheric agents, manuring in som? form is indispensable to succe>>- ful farming. 44. It mav be snid that an ;V';);!(;ation of manure should U\ki- place every time land is ploualr^d .''.n 1 cropped. On land that h.vs i>ecn brought to a hif^h *>* 'o -if i' riility, the decomposition of th<- rich sward will usu 'ily y" ',\ ' .>. swH: '"ent dressing for a single crop ; ;bat iV.. a repf>titi(;n .)>■ :•.»* .i;Mi ofc.rojjs, manures cannot be with- ,s CA:TN\i>I.VN AGRICULTURAL READERi ^ . ho\(\ witliout a certain dotcriorntion of the soil, and a probuhlo Ins- SOAilu^ ol" ihn crojj. 4r>. I'hnigliing nn<\ manuring must go togothor, and williout this combination, oach will bo found doioctivcand incnpahleofjjroducin^; WK'li results as are certain to cnsuo when both scpamto processes firo Kkillully unitod. 40. VVearo tlinreforo disj)osed to consider every decided improve • uienl ill the ])Ii>iiti;h, as a sure indicafion ol' progi-o.-s in aijricuhure, a proof tli'it another slop in the correction and dissipntioii ofaii<'ioni c-rrorhas hfon g'^ned ; and the wayo|)CiK'd and the means provided fur siill fartiier and more important advances. Skctiox it. 1. ]*i-oro/')>'s' rcijiiirc ■parlkvlar altmCion in]H > :gh- rnif ; 1st, The brofidth of the slice t(j be cut ; 'ind, its depth; and lird, tljo degree in which it is to bo turned over; whicli last cir- (Mjmstance dej)ends both upon the construction of the ])lough, par- ticularly the nioidd-board, and tho care of the ploughman. 4. Tftc hrcadtli and deiiik (^f i't.e j'urrow-slicG ai'e regulated by judiciously placing' tho draughts on the nozzle or bridle of the plough ; setting it so as to go more or less dccp^ and to take more or less land or bi-eadth of slice, according as may be desired. ;"). In general the plough is so regulated that, if left to itself and merely ke[)t from falling over,. it would cut, a little broader and a little deeper than is required. The coulter is also placed with some inclination towards the left or land side, and the point of the rit)c or sharedias a slight tendency downwards. (J. 'Vlw. degree to w kick the furrouy- dice iurns over is in a gre.it measure determined by: the proportion between its breadth and depth, which for general purposes is usually as three is to two, or when, tlie furrow, is nine inchea broad. it ought to be six.inciies in denth... ^1 CANADIAN AORiriTLTrUAL It'FADFIl-. i .'I 7. Whon tlio slico is cut in this |-)ro})rofion it will 1.. '-"nrly ha"' tiUTiOiJ (tvcr or recline at an an^lc ol" lurty or iorty-liN c tu^gret'j* ; will a Hold so ploughed will liave ily ridges luugiiudiiiully ribbed into angular drills or ridglets. H. [ha if the slice is rnucli hroadrr in prof)ortion to its depth, it will bo almost completely overturned, or leltnenrly flat, wilh its origin.'il surliice downwards; and end) successive slice will Ivo sonjewliat overlapped by that v/hich was turned over inwnediatcly before it. 0. And finally, wiion the depth materially exceeds the width, otich furrow-slic3 will iall over on ils siiic, leavingalltho original suriaco bare, and only laid somewluit oblifjuely to tlie liori/on. 10. Plou^hiiiif with the breaiHk e absorbed !)y a given surface ofearth, if liiiit eai-ili is frequently .stirred, tbn u ! fit was r; ] iowed to remain with a single saturated surface. T). Ploughing, by ex})Osiiig new surfaces to the action of the r.tmosj)here, must be jU'oductive of essential bonetit ; and as fall uloULdiin!]^ JTcnorallv takes i)lace after crous whicdi liave nartiallv ♦exhausted the smf vee of some of its nutridve ai]d absorbent quali- ties, its service in aid of spring crops is greatly enhanced. (J. There is a,lwa}"s (^n land moi-e or loss grass, weeds, stubble, or other ve2:cta!)le matters convertible into mould by fermentation and decomposition, n process u'hich is greatly aidcal)y being turned under the surface of the earth. 7. Fall plougliing renders such siil'stances much sooner availa- f.le in advancing the growth of crops, than they would be if left uncovered during the winter ; independent of the great lossneces- sarilv sustained bv tb.e washiner away of the liditer materials and their dispersion by the winds. H. Nothii^g acts more eiliciently on moist soils in promoting vegetation, than high pulverization ; and fall ploughing aids this operation most essentia.My. Lands that if jdoughed in the sju-ing ovdy will rem-, in in large cakes or lumps, defying the efforts oflhe farmej- to reduce them suitably, will if ploughed in the fall be found loosened in texture, and fitted for early operations in the spring of the year. 0. Frost is the most efficient disintegrator of the soil with which the agriculturist is acquainted, and he should avail himself of its valuable labors in all practicable cases. CANADIAN AGRICUI/rURAL READER. 39 Iv). Tlie earlier the ground can be prepared for the suitable re- ception of spring crops, such as corn, spring wheat, and barley, fho better it will bo found for the cultivator ; and in nine cases out often, early sov/n crops are the heaviest, and most productive. 11. Ploughing land acts more efreclually in destroying insects than any other mode of treatment, and fall ploughing for this pur- pose is preferable to any other. 12. Those insects which produce tlie most mischief to th e farmer, Hich as tJio ily, cut worm, grub, &c. cannot resist the frost of our ninters, if promalurcly exposed to its action by a fall ploughing. Vnc cut worm, which accinnulatesin such numbers in old meadows nni {lasturrs, is tbus destroyed, and crops pl'intxni on thorn saved. n Lastly — Oiu' Bummers are so limited in duration, that unless (he t'mo allotted to vegetation is lully ttccupied by the growth nnd ripening of plants, the certain failure of crops )nriy be anticipateci. I ienco the farmer usunllv ismoreliurried bv his ^\>M•k in tho sprinsr than brought to be, in order to avoid having liiscrujts caught by the frosr and snow. 14. r. sliould bo tlie objo(;t of the tanner to have, ids necossary labour as nearly e([unlized tlirough the season as possible, and thus avoid all pressures at inconvenient sonsr.ns of the yvvA'. IT). Experience shows tbnt the farjuer in most cr.:-es bris more •eisuro hours in the fall of the year than at any otiier time, and he who would Avork it right, should employ this lime in advancing ids next spring's work, tor such fall ])lougning emphatically is. and thus preventing the pressure of business then usurdly fell. 10. Tliese reasons we think suflicient to justify tiic practice ot fall ploughing ; and unless in cases where the (irrp silicious or porous nature of the soil seems to Ibrbid its u.-e, we cannot d;>ubr. 'hat our larmers will lind their account in adoplin^^ tlio practice. Section IV. 1. Fallov, h'. — "'here is no process in agriculture more imj)ortant .o the farmer, or tiiat contributes more to tlio durability and I'cv- 'jlity of the soil, than fallowing, when skill'ully pertbrmed ; and probably there are few processes, the reasons for which are more imperlectly understood, or the principles that rendr r the o[)eratioa lecessary more completely ovei-looked, than in this case. 2. With most farmers, it is suthcientto know, that by fallowing tie ground is made fine, and thus fit for the reception of the seed, while the more important changes the soil undergoes by contact wth the atmospheric agents, and which are indispensable to insure ■fenility, oxe unheeded. f — '-*'''-'»'> *M«^^*'':.*mmm.: I ID CANAD-IAN AGRICULTURAL RKADEK. I '^. The mechanical part of the process ot' fallowing is very sii!i|)lo. In OLir country it usually commences in the fore part of sinniuer, and consists of two or more ploughings and harrowings, ;is tirno wdl admit, or the earth seems to rei]uirc, until the seed is s'»uii ill autunm. This mode. lIiouA-h obviouslv defective, as not nllovvin;^ sulllcient time for the action of the nir and other ngonts, is still jjotter than simply ploughing; up the land and sowing the seed immediately Uj)on it, as is practised by many. 4. ii\ Ein-Oj)e, with tlio best iarmers, the process commences it autumn, and the land thus rendered uneven by the plough is Idt In tlie eilbcts ol" frost, which most materially aids in pulverizing tiio soil, find rendering it lit to commence opcnitions upon earner in ;lio spring than wouKi otiierwise be prfictical)le. .■")- iiate i.i the season, or enrly in the spring, there is nuch land that cannot be j)loughed with benefit, .-is it will kneai, or sni'iotb over, wliicli will shut out nir, and obviate the end tn fnl- 1-Avijig. ^nch soils ntust be drained, or only ploughed whiie dry. i Voin live to six j)lou hings, and as many harrowings or d'cssingj iy the scarifier, arc u ially considered proper, before the ;equisiio iin^'ncss and trj'ation of the soil is obtained. (i. Si)ils naturally good and friable require but a com];arativo]y little labor to !)ring them into a proper state for the seed, or restore tlicir fcriiiity when j)arlially exhausted by cropping; but those in which tiio oriii'inal earths are less favornblv bdended, and are tough and stui^born, require a longer time for [lulverizalion, anil t.j' conse([uent atmospbei'ic action on the particles. 7. The particles ot" matter, or the earths, when at rest, grai^ual- ly assume an equilibrium in their |)Osition and afllnities, unfavora- l)Io to tiie action of fertilizing: ai^ents. This balance of afiinities; 111 is broken up by the plough, the particles ai-e separated and exposed I > I he action of water and air, fei'iucntation is essentially promoted, and the earth rendered permeable to the tender roots of young plants. iS. As asoil in its quiescent state has formed its chemical changes, ^ujd its particles may be considered as filled with the substances oi whit.di their position would ? dnut the combination, it is evident thai to give greater fertility, new particles mnst be ex{)0sed, and ncv chenncal changes produced, until the whole mass is saturated. 0. To show how the changing the position of the particles rf matter promotes fermentation, we have only to look at the manuiB in a heap or yard, part of which has been so pressed as to exclure aii-, and i)art has been moved by the trampling of animals, ♦i' otherwise, so as to be exposed to the moisture and the air.. CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 41 (!rv. jind IVdlTl- hiitics X posed )niotcti, voiin" I I 10. It will be found that tl ^ ferrnentfition in the last is much iiiore fuivfinced than in the tlr.st ; and that by moving tho hard pressed, by admitting the t'')rmation ot" new chemical changes, is much hastened in its decay, So with soils ; when broken up and pulverized, this important end, Icrmcnt.'ition, is gained, whicdi in those compact and unmoved is impossible, as the free action of tho atmospheric agents, nudslure and air, arooxcluded. ]joth air and water undergo decomposition when lirought in contact witiuicwiy turned soils, and act an im-portant part in the fertilization of tho earth. 11. In all soils there is always more cr less water and air, but in the unmoved soil tlieyare in a state of comparative rest ; they have parted with all tlie v.ihi.'ihlo gases or sails theycontam to tho crirths with wluch they have come in contact, and can, ol course, contribute no further to chemical changes ; now if this soil is dis- turbed, new surfaces are exposed to tiio water and air as they aro renewed, and a continuation of the beneiicial results is certain. 1'-. The chemical combination of water with soils, is on much the s.une })rinciples as water with lime, th» ntftmm * 42 CANADIAN AGEICULTUKAL READDE. h ii: ^ I ii .4 I ■■ I ' ,: II 16. That pulverization increases the chemical powers of the soil is evident from tiie iact, that manure of any kind will produce a more lasting ellect on fallows, than when applied to lands not cultivated or moved : — Mr. Bland says — *' The best remedy, when in the process of fallowing it is neces- sary to plougli lands too wet, is to plough the furrows upon edge as much as possible, tliat the water nuiy drain away the easier, wiJi a greater suface being thus left for the action of the frosts, sun, air, &c., to 0j)crate upon." 17. It is thy custom with many farmers wjien they plough their sunimor i'allows, to have them harrowed down as smooth as may be, between the times of ploughing. This practice is wrong; as the ground sljould be lei't in that manner tliat gives tlie largest sur- face to the air. The harrowing, thci'cfore, after the first breaking up, should precede the plough, until by their combined operatioii tlic soil is )iiadc line enough for the reception of the seed. 18. Tlierc can be no doubt that the leration, and consequent fer- tilization of soils, goes on more rapidly when the tenijyjrature isthe highest, or during tlie suinmcj' months, or when vegetation is most vigorous, as tiie chemical cluuigcs dependent on Ibi'mentation and combinatiiin f;.re tiien the nu.st active ; and one ploughing at that season, ibr bonelicial pu]"pt>scs, may l)e considered rdmost C(|ual to two at anolhor ; yet plougiiing at other times, when the soil is lit for it, cannot be neglected witiiout injury. SncTiox Y. 1. As decoinposition goes on more rnpiuly and bcnencially in most substances when covered, but exposed to moisture rind warmth, there is a decided advantngo gained l>y fall ploughing, in covering the weeds, stubble, eing all that is recp.iired of manure. 5. Tlie Canada tliistlc is the great enemy that the wheat grower in a largo part of our country has to contend against, and this pest can be mot no other way 5:ucccssfullv than bv thorou' I according to convenience or the purposes for which it is used. In'. Canadian husbandry, wo Imvc yet no reason to expect, or pcriiaps desire, any but tliose made of wood, and such as any larnior, who has a moderate degree of mechanical skill, and the carpenter's tools which every farmer ought to keep, may readily construct himself. 'J. A good sound oak log, with the frame and shafts appended, makes a good njUer. They are made ofdillerciit lengths, and sizes v.'irving from 15 to J30 inchrs in diauioter. 'J'hc ligutcr kinds are niado in one piece, but the larg'^r nud heavier kinds are advan- tageously made in two j)ioces, witli an iron rod passing through the centre of both, ai;*' upon which tiiey revolve. a. English iarmers construct llie irame so ns to rise above the roller, upon which a box is fixed, either to contain stones to add to the pressure of the roller, or to receive snirill stones and rubbish, collected on the field while at work, which firo to be carried oil". 4. Their shafts, wben at work, are generally horizontal. We think the roller is more easily drawn when the dr:.!t is on a right line from the collar or yoke of the team to the point ot' resistance. This may l)e done and the advantages of the box retained. .5. 'J'lic uses and advantages of the roller are many and impor- tant, and no farmer should be without one. Tbey are})nrticularly important in the seeding process, to break dnvn the clods, pulver- ize and smcjoth the surface, and to press the earth to the smaller seeds, which othersvise oi'tcn fail to germinate lor lack of moisture. (5. This is particularly the case with oats, barley, and the grass seeds. In autumn the roller is sometimes pai^sod over winter grain witb a view lo counteract the eflbcts of frost the following winter. Jns[)ring it is advantageously passed over winter grain, as soon ai? the ground is so solid and dry that the feet of the cattle will not . poach the sm-face. 7. 1l renders light ground more compact ; presses the soil to the roots of tbe gmin and thus ])romotes their growth ; and upon all soils cbisos the imuniiorable cracks and fissures whicli abound on the appearance of dry v."eatber in spring, and Ijy partially burying the crown, cauyes grain to tiller better, that is, send up more seed stalks. 8. Finallv, the roller is of great advantage to grass grounds in the spring, by reducing inequalities of surface, and pressing down' the i)lants or earth wbich have been thrown u|) by the iVost. 9. There are also rollers for otber purposes, viz : the spiked roller, which is used for pulverizing stilF soils, preparatory ior' wheat. This is formed by inserting several rows of spikes, or* sastoi' wrought iron darts, in a common hard wood roller.- TkfdJ CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER; 49r concave or scalloped roller is adapted to the form of ridges, and is oftori atfachod to tlic turnij) roller. 10. In sowing or planting on turf land, the roller is indispensa- hlo, asbv prosjiiig down the turned sward it pronidtos decomposi- tion, and causes the crop to feel at an early period of its growth the invigor.'itin;^;- cllbct of the mar"..^ r,o produced. 11. A farmer in the New-l'^ngland Farmer, describing his me- thod ofcultivalingcorn, ascribes much of his success to the use of tho roller. Last year, in ))laiiting a hold of 14 acres, one half w.'is rolled and the otherhalf harrowed. Tiio soil of tho harrowa.l part was the best, tho manure the same in bolh. IM, ''On the first day ofJidy the corn where the land wns i*ollcd \\.'is one <|uarter heavier tlinn on tho harrowed [)art, and so it continue.! through the season until the hfuvest." i:?. Numberless instances, where the superiority of rolled crops has been mauiiested, miglit be adduced, but the reasons of tho ben- ♦"tfit are so obvious, that they need ojily to be mentioned, to com- mend themselves to the attention of every good farmer, and inu'uco him to proviile himself at once with this miplement, if it is not al- ready numbered among his tools rcfjuired for succosst'ul iarming. ^KCTIO.V YII. 1. On* tue kffects of sTiiinixt; tui: sirfack of tfik FARrif .\s A UKLiKF A(;ai\st uRorouT. — I'his is a trite subject, and one which we are av/are has been long since settled by intelligent cul- , tivators, in all countries. It is very familiar to gardiners, and the cause of the very superior production of gardens over field culture may be attributed in part to tho moi'3 frequent application of tho hoe and spade. 2. Vet it \?> true, that a very great number of farmers deny tho proposition, and disapprove the j)racticc. They think it danger- ous to {)lou5ih and hoe in the time of extreme drouglit and lieat, while our own experience of twenty years has convinced us, that it is much superior as a remedy against drought, than watering in tiio limited manner in which that must always be aj)j)licd. -S. There hns never been a season in our memory in which there was a greater necessity for the npplication of all remedies against di-ought than the iTrcsent. The drought was not only of longer "durali(jn, but it took plncr, when plants were the least able-- to resist ii, not having sent their roots in quest of nuurishnment far, wide and deep. 4. The early foliage, also, is more tender, and more liable to wilt, under a scorching sun and a dryings wind.. fi ^r 1 1 f i I':' 11 4 4S CANADIAN ACSBirULTXraAL RFADER. 5. In this extraordinary scnson, 1 hod a small patcli of early j);»tatoes planted in a warm and sandy soil purposely to procure an early crop ; the soil was, at least three quarters pure sand, mixed with sumo food for plants nmong t)io sfind. (3. The severe drought threatened a total loss of the crop 'J'ho })0tato stnlks were feeble, drawn up, scnrcely largnr than gooso (juills, andl ex])cctcd every day to see llicni witiier; allh(jp';s of a crop were abandoned. 7. 1 thought tliat they were the fair subjects of a desperate ex- }>criment. Un one of the hottest and driest days 1 gave them a thorough ploughing, j)assing the plougji four times through each row; first [iloughing two furrows from tlie hills, as nerir the roots as possible, without throwing out the seed potatoes and then return- ing the loom, or earth, instantly brn.-k bv two other furrows. r*. No rain intervened for tt-n days. In threo days after, the ])Olatoes changed tficir color, they started alresh, as 'f they had received the benefit of ainj^le showers, while not a dro]) of rain had fallen. U. The ^Icwfi, which wore nbutidant, settled uj)ori the new turned cai'th, while, bet'oretho ploughing, no nioisUn-e had been rip[)ai'ont. 10. Tlie last fact, though it cannot have escaped the n(Jtice of ihc most careless cultivator, h'ls not as yet been explained. Wo can easily see, that a soil, rendered porous, would mm-e readily and easily convey its moisture to the roots. 11. It becomes like a s!>ongc, and is readily permeahle, or ra- ther readily jiermits the moisture to pass between its particles. — lUit it IS not yet understood why it attracts the moisture. Perluips, however, it may be owing to its presenting a much greater surface to the moist ose now to examine the theory. IH. Every man who feels an interest in the rpjestion, can satisfy himself at once, by stirring a small piece of earth in a time of severe drought, and if he doesT.ot (itid it in the morning more filled with moisture than the undist ibed ground in its vicinity, let him continue a disbeliever. 14. But there is anothc i-.i ■;;■% ;uid it is ore which I have never seen suggested, by wliich I rip: .hendthn stirring of the surface, Rnd making it light and pni;.t. •;, )« '-oncticinl in great drosights. It is this : light porous bodies -.tr, bud c aiduc <>i-s of heat ; perhaps .1 11 MM CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READKIl. 49 for the ronsnn that they havo moro air hetwcon thnir intrrsticcs-. 15. Tiic facts nrc faiiiiliar t') us. Meinllic hodies acquire a:i intonse lu'at under the rays of the sun, so cio stones in |)r(>[»ortiuii to their density. Tiio earth, when very compact, will het^omo exceedingly hot, hut garden loani, which is very porous, remains cool at noon day, two inches below the surface. H). I helicvo, therefore, that moving tho surface, keeping it in a light and porous state, enal)les it to res'st the heat of tiie ;-uii's rays, thai the air herween the jjarticles of earth communicates ilio heat more slowly than the particles tl»eniselves do, when in (;loso contact. IT. Such is my theory ; hut 1 am an enemy of theories. 1 al- ways tlistrust tliem,afit, it must ho pi-o.liiccd hy drrrning. d. A moist cool cllmato is lound not to ho unfavorrd)lo to wheat, i'tho roots are preserved iVoin stagnant water, aini nro all', is a [uonr ihnf, Inri^o (|iifiii!iiics or(;r>CHn)- fhistd in.'iiiui':' mny Ij'' s;ii'(.'ly iiH'd, while u iiiucli l» ss «iiirintiiy oi' tVt>li or uri(ircoso(i wotild l)o fatnl. ( )no of tl'.o grrnlcsf cvih of direct iiianurii!!.!; tor tho wlicnt crop nr'scs from the liribility of iho prain so niaiiurrd to linjir'\ 11. Tho i'f.pid .i^njuth of tho stoin rondors it imahh^ to suppr.rt its own woif^ht, il is soft nnd lloxiblc, contnins iniicli loss .-ilex rhriii lh')sc i;;ro\VM in ti p'^orr-r soil ; the wlicnt dops not. usiinlly j)crfert i's brrry, find nt nil tinu'S, from lljo thinness niiii wcnhnnss of its sicin or culiclr, is ni irc. liMb|t3 to ii.ild' w or I'.ist. '^Il(■^" ihinu:s render it ccrtftiniy nniidvi-fililo, nnbvr< th'> Inni is very jioor an 1 reaid to bo established insomeoftho best wheat cou!itrics of (vn-opc, tlie crop of corn would cease to be o!);ectionable, and might bo •considered as nearly clear gain. 15. There is a practice which has prevailed to a considerable extent in our wheat producing districts, oi' growing wheat alter wheat several times in succession. Such a Bvstein of farnnng de- serves the severest reprehension, and will never be adopted, ex- cept by those who are in a haste to be rich, and in defiance of :«:- Jmc^wledged consequences. . i • S , 1 I Mi— f : ! 3 .: i (! Il:'^ «2 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 16. F.irmcrs may have succeeded in raising good crops in this way, wliere tlie soil was of the fine quality and excellent adapta- tion to wheat of much of our western land, but nothing fihortof the most imperious necessity can justify this procedure, or tolerate such a dopjirturo iVom the correct principles of cropping. Lnnd, which lirs once jjnxluccd good crops of any kind of grain, may again be made to prt-duce llieiii ; and under skilful treatment kinds never cease to yield good crops, where their first cultivation proved the ada|;!uliun of tlie soil to that particular one. 17. It is unhap[)ily too true, that on a large portion of our best cultivated wheal lands, the soil has become so infested with a va- riety of foul and noxious plants, that a course of naked summer fallow, thoroughly performed, has become necessary to counter- act them, and prevent their increase and spread. On clean soils this would not be required, but some valuable crop might take its place, and thus add essentially to the ])rofits, while it lessens th(i labor of the husbandman, so far as the operation of f^ummer ploughing was concorurd. lb. The only alternative of such fallows is hoed crops, and these must uf necessity for the reasons before given, be too limited to seriously aii'ect the ju-opriety of tallows on weedy land. Spring crops, such as barlov, oats, spring wheat, or even peas, do not al- low of sudk'ient cultivation to check the spread of weeds. Tho sowing of such croj)s on land where the Canada thistle for in- stance aboimds, is precisely the treatment to make it si)read and ilourish. The thistle, stein krout, charlock, &c. will succumb only to ploughings and hoeings so oft repeated that the mutilater sowing in the sruue fieM ; but those that ripen imccpirdly shonlrl l)Ocareluliy ke])t separate. Some varieties ss by shelling would ani'iunt to no Muall portion of* the crop. Th.c first may stand a,lmost to sint the convenience of the husbandman, while ihe l:ist iviust be cut as soon a,, its maturity will admit, or certain loss \\ ill he incurred ; and nearly the same remarks \\\]\ ap]dy to some otlier kinds. 4. There are some farmers who seem to think that nny thing that is in the shape of wlicat, however imperfect or defective the berry, if it will onlv s;row, mav be used as seed. This is vcrv mistaken policy. It is impossible that the young plant should be as vigorous and as perfect, when s})ringing tVom defective and shrunk- en seed, j'svt lien growing from that in which the peculiar principles oi the [)lant are lully developed, and the germination c'immence.s without check or iundrance. Tlic seed that ripens first in the ear, and is sej)arated with the greatest ease, is the most proper for seed, as these circnmstances sliow it is the most mnture. 5. A tarmer inone of our Districts, a few vears since, was in the 7 ^ habit of selling large quantities of seed wheat annually and at high prices, as his wheat was of a superior quality, very heavy and pro- ductive, and Fup})osed to be a new variety. It appeared, however, that he had brought his wheat to that degree of perfection, by se- lecting some of the finest ears from a field in the first place, and ^r 54 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ( ■< 1 1* lli.>" i ■' m llii M llien instead of threshing the whole crop grown and using the seed jiroiniscuously, be goiitly bent ihe sheaves over a hari-el, bv wliich i^nly the best and most jierfoct grains were separated, and bv rc*- peated sowings had rendered the qualities so desirable permanent. 0. The (juaiility of seed sown diillrs much in dillbrent parts of this counlry and in lluropc. Pcriiaps the iMiglish use a greater ai.^ountot'secd than any other ]>r'>plo, rnid their crops .-tre rertaiidv not ofien excelled. From two and a hnlf to four busjiols per acre arc there used ; while here the (|urintity vr.ries (Vom one to two and a half liushels per acre. Tlie general quantity is about a bushel and a hnlf. 7. Whei'c wheat is sown late, more seed is required, rs tho vrlieat does not tiHor or spi'cad as much as when sown early • nnd when the beri'v is unusu-illy })luinp and full, i:i^>re is required thnn when ^he kernel i^ lighter. As on soils, too, that are not rich, a single l)lant will not throw out as many stalks as where the land is very jich and Icrtile, it would seem that en such lands more seeds would I'G necessary to seed it projjerly ; as it is clear that where but one or two .stalks shoot from a root, these must be more numei-ous than when fi root }>rodnces half a dozen. 8. Opinions among farmers have l)ecn somev.-hat varied on the subject of changing seed ; but wethink unless more pains arc taken to originate and ])rcserve good seed on a farm, than nov/ usually are, there is essential benefit derived from such changes. Wheat is cerl;(in to succeed better on lands not naturally adapted to its })roduc(.ion, when the seed is brouglit from a good wheat soil or district. 1). J^'or many years the farmers of large sections of the western district of iSew-York, v.diere tlie wheat crop at that time was apt to fail or smut, found a prolit in sending some twenty or forty miles 10 j)r()cure seed from the best grain districts, and the crop from such wheat rarel}^ failed in producing grain of good quality. 10. There is also a decided advantnge secured in bringing seed from lower land and a nnldcr climate, to elevated lands, or a cold moist climate. Such a change of seed renders the mountain crop earlier and better than it would be if seed from the same neighbor- hood was used. 11. Professor Brown has on this subject the following remarks, which are undoubteiily correct, as they are founded on the experi- ence of husbandmen in the high and low lands of Scotland : — 12. " We are convinced that the cultivator of a mountainous district, if he always used seed from his own crops, would reap later and later harvests, so that at last they would with difficulty CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 55 les Irom ?eecl old •ron Ibor- Irka, peri- lous feap Illy be brought to maturity; a circumstance easily explained by the c'oiUj)arativc shorlne^s of summers in mountain districts. If, on the other liand, tlie cultivator of a tlat country, the climate of Avhi-;!i is mild, aiul tlio soil dry and light, continually made use of ids cwn seed, it Mould head every year sooner, the stalks \v(.)uld l.ccnie sh :>rter, an.l the heads and grain smaller and smaller, and in thie there \voul c.'^cape the lle.s>ian lly which in some parts of the country is the greatest ' nemy wheat h^ ti encounter. It would seem, tiien, tli-M wi.ei'e \vlieat is liable t< winter-le are iouid to agi'eo. 20. W^c have lately had the pleasure of seeing beautiful fi^ds of grain growing on lands, from which, a few year.s since, the j/oduc- 1 ion of wheat would have been imj>ossible. Thoroii<^;h dfiining iiad removed the water that formerly saturated the .sui], and by iVeczitig the surface, prevented the lilting out j)rocess thatalways accompanies tlie freezing of wet grounds. Mi. It is usually the case that such wet grounds contaii a largo sup[)ly of vegetable matter, and draining renders them 9 pruduc- ti^■o, that tlio prolit of a single cro]) not unfreqiently repays all the expense incurred in tlie improvement, lerain^:; tiie Ian i which in its lormcr stale was nearly worthless, a clear gain to tb husuajid- lil'Ul. 2;2. If on common farms the means of trench or thoough drain- ing are not at hand, suri'ace drains made in such a nanner as to carry oil' the water that falls on the lands, should b constructed iniuicdirUely aficr sowing is completed. l)y prevent iig such water romainiijg in, aiid ccaisolidating tlie land, grain is les liable to be thrown out; and though far less beneficial, or j)i"manent in its eilects, than thorough draining, surface drains shoul not be omitted \\lirre there is the least danger from excess of wrci'- Section HI. 1. Sprixo WnrAT. — One ol the earliest ohjft^ which demaiul the at'.cntion and labor of the husbandman in .ho spring of the year, in those sections of the country in whic'the cultivation of spring wheat 1ms become a matter of importat'o, is tae j)rfpara- i,ion ol" the ground tor t!io seed ; which shoul he got in as early as the nature of the soil raid the weather wi^f^'hint. It is but a tow years since the cultivation of spring v/cat began to attract notice. 'i. Though a valuable grain, we do not'^^vise our farmers to attempt making it a substitute for winter wVat, unless in situations where the latter is liable to fail from beig winter killed, or in cases where a ci-op of this wheat as a sprig gi'ain, would bo better than oats or barley. r>. Spring wheat requires a rich soiUut one not made so by heavy dressings of manure applied tothat crop. Pastures on .•'("« / CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RIlADER. W to m.- in Iter by Ion which sheep have heen fed or folded, fields tlmt have been heavily iiKuiured for corn or roots, and from which such crops have been taken, arc found to l)e the best for wheat; as manure applioil fresh to tlic wheat crop, is apt to produce too great a growth of straw, and by lodi'ing the grain endanger the iilling of the ])crry. 4. VV'c have known excellent crops of spring wheat raised on sheep pastures, the gntund being carefully and completely turned over in the fnll, and in the spring the surlace enrth is loosoned by repeated harrowiiigs fir the reception of the seed, without distur!)- ing the turf in the lenst. ;'). One of the greatest dilfioulties attending the cultivation of spring wheat, (mid the same remark will apply to barley, which should also be put Into the earth in good serisun) is found iu tl'.e uenei ;1 weln L'.>S of lands suica!)le for tins wheat, earlv in the >pr intr, and which too freuuentlv causes the rottins^j of the seed, or '^1 it su •C'.'dcd bv drv weather, bnkiiiir the surface io such a dec{rc that the young ])lant 's unn!)lo to force its way tlnvjugh the obstruction, and of course ])er;shes. Thoi'ough draining is the ciTectual remedy f )r this evil, fuid wdioro this is not done, every precaution siiou!;] be taken to conduct tlic water from the ficM and prevent all accumulation on tlie surface. G. The kinds of wlicrd most in estinn.tioii at the j)re;;enL time appear to be the Italian, Siberian, and 'I'ca wheats : but there are numberless other varieties, either original In tiiis country or im- ported iVom abroad, which have their advtjcates, and whicii prol)ably possess their peculiar good qualities. 7. The fact that winter wdieats can readily bo converted into spring wheats, leads to the hope, that new and superior varieties may thus be introduced to the farming puiblic ; kinds which sh.all combine the excellencies of winter wheat for (louring, witli the certainty of growth which belongs to spring wdieat, in a greater degree than any kind now known. 8. In those districts of our country in Vvdiich the worm has proved destructive to the crops, it has i)een found that late sowing, by i^tarding the ap[)earance of the ear until the season of the fly, which f )rtunately seems short, is over, has exempted the crop from attack. 9. Ex])erJments in the central and northern parts of Canada prove that spring wheat sown from the first of A])ril to the first of May, was almost wholly destroyed ; that sown from the first of May to the 2()th, escaped with little injury ; rind that sown after, or at this time, was free from w^orms. In districts, therefore, where the worm is feared, it would seem to be advisable to delay 1',.' J- \ f 1 i i i( ' ,'1; 58 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. OS latG ns may bo consistent with the safety of the crop, and its arrival at .maturity. 10. t^j)rL:g wheat may 1)C considered more liable to smut than winter whcr t, and it sliould always be brincfi and limed ])revious to hovving. Tne juivantngos of tins cours-.i will 1)0 found not onlv in freedom from smut, but in a more heavy and vigorous growth of tliG plant, than without such prc})aration. Section IV. 1. UrsT on Wheat. — Tiio great banc to successful wheat- growing if. rust ; and although it is now ])retty generrUly ad- mitted that tii3 disease is caused by the bursting of ihe sap-vessels of the ])l'ints, while the sap is in a state of rapid circulation, being jtroduce;] I'rom a close, warm, or Innuid state (;f the atmosphere ; or hv showers of rain, followed in cIjso succession tjvhot !;-uu:ddnv weather ; still the movle of cultivating tiie land, to ju-cvent the r^ivagos oi'this enemy to the farmer, is not so generally well nn- derslood as it ought to bo. 2. In treating upon this, as upon all other Agricultural tojucs, it is ({uito impracticable to lay down any set of rules that could be upj)lioab]y carried out in every instance; but wo vviud'i wish to l>c understood to assert, that, in the grent majority of cases where rust is most Irecpient upon the wheat jdant, it might almost, if n'lt solely be prevented, by a judicious system of management. 3. The best wheat land in the world is that description of soil v/hero calcareous matter constitutes tlie |>rlncipal proportion. On a farm in one of the southern counties of England, where seventy- live per cent, of the soil was composed of carbonate of lime or marl and only a small j-roportion of the remaining 25 vegetable matter, an average crop of wheat equalling forty bushels per ac]-e has been harvested lor the past twenty yejirs, on the f)ur-shi ft system, without any perceptible deterioration of the fertilizing quality of the soil. 4. It does not necessarily follow, because a soil containing such a large proportion of lime scarcely ever fails of yielding a good return of wheat crops, that a soil containing a less quantity, v/ith skilful and scientific management, might not be equally productive. The exact amount of lime in the soil, to constitute it good wheat land, depends greatly upon circumstances. 5. A soil coniaining equal parts of carbonate of lime, clay, sand and vegetable matter is probably, when all things are considered, the most productive and profitable land cultivated. 6. Any farmer, when once acquainted with the true science and % CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 5» practice of husbandry may, in a few years, change the texture of l.'issoil, lie its original qu-iliiies what tliey may ; find thus, in pro- (.•■e«s of time, convert thr most Ijarren into tlic most j»roductive soils. 7. A soil naturally deep with vegetable matter, to produce a crop of winter wheat, of a superior qurdity, should be ploughed deep, in order to give a proper consistency to the soil ; and, unless the land is previously made very sterile indeed by consta^it croj)ping, a dres?:ing of b.-irnyard mriuure would bo likely to bo prejudicial to the crop. y>. As evidence of this opini'-n, the circumstance is v.'('rlhy of notice, that, on all soils where there is the least vegetable substafico, the crops, although con.- a- ely short in the f": '•••, are seldom, if ever injured by rust. t l^; o a notorious laci, t:iat, on all deep black soils, winter w heat seldom comes to perfection : the rust is aim :)St sure to catch it ; and the owner of such a en. p is almost sure to calculate hugely upon the yield, if ordy it escijio the rust. *.). iMucii of th(i l.'.nd thfit is sown with auiumn wheat is not at all adapted to this c\r.'^>, inasmuch as it contains too great an aujount of vegetable or })Utresccni, and too small an amount ot mineral matters. Ut. A soil of the rjunlity just mentioned, averaging the depth of six in3lies, would, if sown \Nith fall wheat, in nine crisej;out often prove to bo a failure, if {)loughcd only to the depth of the surface mould ; but if it were practicai:le to mix about six inches of the sub-soil with the surface soil, the two would become so closely blended together, that it v.ould be most easily mannged, and become a j)art of tiie most profitable land under cultivation. 11. On soils composed of nearly pure elny, or sand, the appk- catiou of a liberal dressing ol" raw unfermented barn-yard man-ure would be of great advantage to the wheat crop ; btit when vegeta- ble matter is the princi[tal ingredient, in order to insure a good re- turn, the addition of barn ynr;l manure is not only unnecessary, but the sub-soil should bo litteral'y mixed with the surface soil, as a means of imparting the {)roper food to the plant, to produce a hard outer coat to the straw, v.nd also to lessen the chance of be- ing removed and destroyed by the freezing and thawing which takes place at the opening of spring. 12. As the bursting of the sap-vessels of the plant is clearly the cause of the rust, any operation that would have for its (jbject the eifect of hardening tlie straw would lessen the chance of the wheat crop being attacked with this direful enemy to the successful and jrrofitable cultivation of wheat. 13. Depositing the seed in rows, either by a drill or ribbing plough, 60 CANADIAN AQJIICVLTUJLAL BEAOER. it f ) i * Vi .:' "li \ > 'I I * would Imvo a tendency to impart this result inasmuch ns the air would have a free circulation among the ])lants. 11. Dcc|) plongiiing, wiierc the sub-soil contains any consider- able amount of liino and potash, would also have a lavorahlo in- fluence upon iho crop, as l)oth lime and alkrdi will dissolve and sep- arate the sand and the soil, even so minutely that the small parti- cles may be conveyed to the stem of the plant, and thus form a liardcr outer surface to the straw than if putrescent manures jilono were usf;!. If). Tt) si;m up tho nvitter, in conclusion, we would say, ])lough doe[) ; apply tiie manure to tiio crop whic^ii imnioHiately precedes tho wheat crnp ; dra.ii tho land, eitiier by the j)lough or spade, in such an olliciunt jurtiiner t!iat llie ])lants would not bo apt to receive iijj;iry fronj excessively liot woathc]- ; sow early, and let it l>e done deep and in rows, when practicable, and top dress the crop, witli ashes or salt, in tho spring, to cause the plants to ripen early. vSrctiox V. 1. CiiK3s o\ VVuKAT. — ll is wroug to form hasty conclusions upon mrittei's tliat have either doubt or mystery involved in their solution ; and, from this conviction, we made tlie following oxperi- monl, iive suininors since, which resulted in a clear demonstration, that tiio laws of n.ilaro, in this instance, as in all other, v.'cre uni- form and stal)]e : — 2. We selected t'AO acres of the best wheat on the farm, from which, after iiestowiiig much time and trouble, we carefully sepa- rated every j)lnnt other than wheat, at the period whilst the wheat plants were in (lower. Jj. 'i'iie ])ro:iuce from these two acres was thoroughly cleaned with a fanning machine, and afterwards ])assed through a hand sieve, and steeped in brine suiiicicntly strong to buoy up an eg^, the whole of which process thoroughly cleaned the seed, which re- sulted in a croj) the tbllowing year equally free from disease and impurity. 4. About three bushels of seed, which had undergone no prepa- ration, were sown, however, for experiment, the produce from which had an abundance of both chess and smut. 5. To rejicat what has been elsewhere stated, we have every confidence that both smut and chess may become comparatively unknown, unless it be as a matter of history ; and that rust, in a majority of cases, may be obviated by the introduction of a ration- al system of cultivation. Such a system of culiivation will be found to consist in sowing good and properly prepared seed, so far CANADIAN AORICUUTRAL READKB. «l ns the two former arc concerned ; nnd as it regards tho latter, the iollowiiig will 1)0 found to have a considerable inlluonce in lessen- ing the clinnce of its baneful etfccts : — 0. Manuring for llie crop which iinmrdintejy precedes tho wheat crop ; deep ploughing; enrly sowing; libornl seeding, and depositing tlic seed in rows ; find horse hoeing, are, according to our judgment, neccs.-ary steps to insure a good wheat crop, upon much of the worn-out wheat lands of tho country. 7. The confidence which we express upon these disputed points may, in some instances, beget ridicule from those <>f our readers who may have been more regardless in examining into causes nnd effects than we have benn ; but to such we would sriy, try for yourselves, nnd travel no longer the blind rorui of tradiri.n, but re(!ollect that only slovenly and improvident farmers are above adopting tho improved methods that men of science and deep re- search have pointed out. Skction VI. 1. Sruton Wheat. — ^ ari(.»us opinions are er.fprtainrd regrin!- ing this disease, so conmion to the wheat crop. Some suppose it to be a fungous producti(m ; others, that it is the work of an insect : others, that it is propagated by inoculation, in a similar manner that iufcctious diseases are communicated to tho animal creation ; but the real nature, origin, and habits of the disorder have hitherto elu- ded tho researches of the most scientific inti'.urers of all nations ; and, therefore, it would be presumptuous in us to be j)0sitive upon a matter in which there nppears so mucli mystery involved. •2. On one point, however, we feel certnin, luimely, that the remedy is most easy, and if it were generally ridojjted, a single smut-ball would not bo raised where there are bushels grown un- der the old slovenly system of prejiaringthe seed 8. In every neighborhood there are moi-e or less careful far- mers, who seldom, if ever, have their wheat crops infected with this disease ; from such farmers seed should be procured ; and indc- ))©ndent of its being good, and free froia disease, it should be stee})ed in a solution of salt and water, sufhciently strong to buoy up an egff. 4. The liquid in the tub should be a few inches higher than rhe grain, so as to allow it to be stirred, in order to bring all iho light grains to the surface, from thence they are to be skimmed off, so long as they continue to rise. If baskets vith handles were tiaed, to immerse the wheat in the tubs, it could be conveniently iaki^ out and drained. 03 CANADIAX AORICCLTUEAL READER. I 1 5. Tlio seed sljould 1)0 loft in ilio sleop about two liours, nfter whicli it slirjiild 1)0 dmiiiod, and spread thinly on the lluur ol' iho granary, uhicli should l»o well sprinkled with silted (|uick-linio, Ircsh iVoui the kiln, and which had been recently slaked with a small j)orlion of the liciuor. (J. Al)out hah* a po<;k of lirno is suiriciont for a hu.sliel of whoat and it shouM be caroi'uliy inixt'd, in order that every grain may bo romidctidy coafed. It may scmotinies happen thatsced entirely free from smut (tannot bo j)r')eured, but when instances (jf t'lis kiiul oc- cur, a solution of one ponmlof blue viirid Id ei^^it quarts of water should bo applied, when (piitolmt, to three bushels of wheat, and the whole should bo fr(^([uently stirred, and dried with lime, 7. Sulphiit** ofcoj)por, in the p'opOiiion of live pouads to tiirec bushels of whoat, is fre((ueutly used with good success ; it should bo dissolved in a sullicient ([uantify of writer to cover the seed. — After being repeatedly stirred, and cleared of light grains, it shouki bo suflbred to remain in the li(iuid about four hours, niid then drie« why this instruinciit has nut boon moro generally introduced, is because it cannot be used to fo great ad- vantage on new lands where thero arc stunijts and roots ; hut as Htnm as th^se disappear, the roller should be considered as impor- tant an instrument as the idough or harn»w and .-houM always bo an accompaniment. ;"). Munv prrass lands are materiallv beni^fited 1)V bcini' rolled as 5!(>in as the frost is out of the ground, while they are yet wet ani.i soft. I>y this operation, the surface is made more even and smoothilian it wnjuld oiherwiso be, and the roots of grasses ary iTioro closely presse-l in the eajlh, which iacilitates iheir early growth, hi some cases, when the grounds have l)ccn long in grass, tlie use of the harrow before the roller will be luund very advantru^cous. ^lany garden plant.-; rc(iuirc atlcniien as soon aw the sn(nv Icfives tlicni. (]. I.ettuco plants which were sown in the Ihll, gener-illy appear lirst when the sn<>\v first leaves lliem, but many of them perish afterwards by night frosts ; such plants should bo covered up wilfi straw or mats. Strawberry plants which were set in the fall, arc often thrown out of ground in the spring. 7. The gromiii ab((l in a shaded situation, vviiich was perfectly Imsti, while some otiieni n a sunny situation, in the same garden, were ''winter killed,"' from which it might be inferred that it was not the severe cold which caused their death, but the too frequent freezing and tliawing. We have noticed also tbat European grape vines, which lay upon the ground without being covered with any thing but snow, were in better condition than those which were left upon irejlises. . . 1^: i I I i ■ M t Hi i%l ei CANADIAN AOniCULTlRAL READER. RFfTioN VI I r. 1. Baulky. — 'J'ho soil for Imrley sliould he siu-li ns wil! frrow good turnips, or oiIkt groon crops, incliKlitig clover, nnd wliicli f'liibraco the varieties of loams and sriruls that are not wet, or rcrtf dry and pcjor. Indeed, I have taken ni\ crops, juid Uicy have hecn jii'etty pood, from my lightest turnip soils. llarley cnnnot he cultivated to advantnge upon still!, heavy, and wot grounds, or on such as are of a c(tld ten/iciotis (iiialitv. '2. 'J'his crop occupies tlie ground hut a!)out thne months ; nnd it is only in a dry, light, mellow soil, that its roots can extend with facility, and suj)ply the food necessary to hring the grain to rapid and pcufect maturity. f^. Previous ('/op. — Cro])s that ju'eeotle this grrdn should ho such as leave the ground mellow, and I'reo from weeds; and for tfii«i renson hoed crops arc to he preferred, such as turnijis, j)otatoes, j)ca8, berms, &c. 4. Smnll grains should not. precede it. Tliey impoverish fho soil, leave it foul, and besides, it is contravening one ol'tlie most sal- utary maxims olhu-bruidry, to grow two dry croj)s in sut^ccssion. It may lollow clover; but if the soil is heavy, the ky should bo ])louglu'd in autu: n. 5. J Parley is successfully sown upon the fallows in I'.ngland, (not summer, but autunni tallows,) and is sf)wn sometimes after vvlieat : bul; in the latter case tur..iips are pulle;!, and previously fed upon the stubble; a practice which I think is not likely to ob- tain here. 1 have generally sown barley after ruta br.ga, or po- tatoes, these crops having received a good dressing of long yard, or stable manure. 0. Manure should not be applied to the luirley, hut the preceding crop. The short period that this grain occupies the ground, does not afford time for the manure to decompose and yield its food to the plants ; and if api)licd to excess, it causes a too rank vegetation, and the straw lodges before the grain is mntured. — AVhere a fallow or clover-ley is employed and ploughed in autumn, dung n)ay be previously employed and ploughed under. 7. Preparation of the groimd. — Where barley follows a re-ot or hoed crop, one ploughing will generally sufllce ; b>it in all cases, a complete pulverization of the soil is necessary ; and tn eflect this a roller is of material benefit. If sown upon grass leys, ploughed in autumn, the spring ploughing should be shallow, so as to leave the sod reversed. But the preferable way may he to harrow the fallow, plough in the seed with a light furrow, and sniooth off with the harrow. CANADIAN AGRICULTUHAL READK&. (U> gland, OS al'tor iotisly to oh- or po yari], ceding ounrl. old Its ^ rank •cd. — UtUlJlll, a root in all and ti s levs, 8. The s,cd and .smrhirf. — Loudon oniirnoratos six sj>ocios niM! siih-specio.i of tlio Uarlfv. Tlio kinds uniformly cultivalc'd liojo are tlio two, four, anci six rowt'il spring, {hordcum vuliiarr and h. distickon). 'riiin-skinncd, pale, plump s(!cd, sjjould l»n stdocUnl. 1 sow as sooii as tlw grourwl is j-uiluntaitly dry in spring. 0. Tlio young gnuu is not hurt by tlio ordinary frosts of the latter part of April and May. 1 how from six to eight pocks per ucro, according to tho richnossof tho soil, anil the forwardness of tlio season; the poorest gr(»und and the latest sowing re(|ulring the niostsoi'd. In l:^nglaijd, the c.jnunon (piantity of seed is iVoni eiglii to sixtcrn pecks. 1'.). Our ciim-ito hoing n)uch wanner than that of (Ireat I'ritain, barlev and oilier urains till heller witli us, find couseouontlv W'.> roi|Uire less seed. W'c luiifcnnly s-jw hroad-cnst, generally on iho fro.'ti furrow, ami harrow in bjlh ways ; .'mhI iho.-o who navo a roll-M* use ii iuil.c (Inl^.lung operation. It gi" es a smooth siir- face, breaks u tv/n the lumps, brings iheearlh in contael, willithe bcod, and if grass seeds htivcbeen sown, its use lsd»)u!.ly bc.'eliei.';.l. 11. 1 .stof.;) mv seeds twentv-four hours in a v. oak sei it.lr.n • ." nitre, the crude kind of which costs me oidy eight cents per pou' • by the 'piantity. J^'rom the analysis and observations oi ( Irisc ali- waite, th^ro is r(>ason to believe that this salt is peenlifi,'-; benefi- cial to tlie barley crop, the gr.iin yielding il ow anf;ly-;^. l:i. 1 have uiade no comparntive experiments, but I think this step &erviceab)G. I have applied to this grnin, as a t.>p d rf ssing, with singular success, tho po\\de""d ihtng of pigeons anddurighiil fowls, at the rate of iwnntv or ihirtv bushels to \.\\r. acre. 113. Tiie crop admits of no after culture v/hen sown oroad-cas't. Yet the a[>plication of the roller, when the plants nrc two or throe inches high, is wo d(jn!>l salutary, especially if there has l.T'on no consider?i,ble rains. Uolling gives a stilutary compressit/o to thfl soil, which in tho spring is apt to be loo.>e and jKjrous, anrl full of cracks, by the alternation offreeziiig and th. ''ng, or oi wet and dry weather ; it destroys many insects; anu a: ove all, it partirdly buries the crowns of the j)iauts, and introduces a lunhiplication of the sood stalks. 11. f can recommend the practice from experience. When grass seeds are sown with barley, the luxuriance of the younsr grass sometimes cliokes the grain, robs it of nutriment, and aensibiy diminishes the prod'ict. 15. To obviate this evil, it has been recommended to sow the grass seed after the barley has come up, and to cover them with a light harrow and a roller ; and it is said, and 1 think with truth, .•^v 'CJ !! f 11^ -. ' I i i i ,i! 111. 60 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. that this operation will not materially injure the grain. In dry seasons, the crop is sometimes attacked by worms, while young. — In this ca5:c, the roller should be applied, and sufficiciit weight ad- ded to rc'piire the draught of two or thi'ee cattle. IG. Time and me/hod of /larvestimr — When the soil is rich and the season propitious, this grain is very liable to lojgo. If this hai»pci)s after it has blossomed, no material injury is sust.-iined in the product. If before, tJic crop is greatly (h'minishrd. This shows the danger lo be apprehended from making the soil too ricli, and of applying fiY;sh manure. 17. riarley is knowii to be ripe by the disappearonce f)f the red- cast on the ear, or what the biiiglisli farmervS term red roan; by the ears beiriningto droop, and bend themselves rounii against the stems; and i)y the stfilks becoming brittle, an;! of yell;nvi- Thi.s iniiy be done wilh flai is. a iter It assed once through the fuming mill. And where it is in grerU; quanti- ties, it may bo spread fr.jni four to six inches-., a Lht! b: irn floor, and troiid.n with horsos. '1\. l*rodnce and profit,'^. — The average |)roi]uct in Kngland is stated l)y Donaldsmi at thirty-two bnslicls |ier acre. The pi-oduct in this province varies froniiifteen to seventy b'jshcls, according to sea.-un nnd soil ; and 1 think the average is somewhrii short of that in (-Jreat ]»r!iain. Compared with wherit, its j)roduct is a« two or two and .'i. half to one ; comj)ared wilii oats, abo it equal, provided the soil is adapted to tiiis grain. 22. It is, however, to be reme»iibered, that neither wheat nor ocis i'iit3 .'uiap!cd to a barley soil : t)ie first reiiuiring a more stiff f 'j':i 3 <;anadian agricultural reader. 67 OS, or but rake DC fore !i the irid it lasscd lanti- |fli)ur, Ind IS duct •liing |)ft ot' rL8 qu al. nor stiff . Si and tenacious, and the latter a more cold and moist location. The average price of barley is at Icnst two-thirds that of wheat — sup- posiniij wheat then, to be ")•?. l^d. the busiiel, and the prodiu-t fifteen bushels per acre, and barley to be '^s. \)(l. and the product of an acre thirty b'ishols, and the expense of cultivation (ujual, the profits of the barley will be nearly as three to two, compared with the wheat. Uarloy, besides, is a less jirecarious cro;>, is subject to fewer diseases, and has fewer insect enemies to euouuter than wheat. '2,'). A corrcsp. >ii(Ient of tlie r>ath Agricultural Snci'^ty wrilna — "The last sMrinsr boins' reuiarkablv (\v\\ I soake.l mv seed harlev in the black water. Lakfu iV^ia a rescrvoji-, v,-'ii;di co.'Ht.iurly rrv ceives t!ie th'aiiiing "or, in f;om])ari- .son of other parts of the liold." SkcttoxTX. 1. Srmxo CROPS — Oats. — Oats are u.ually c^nsidr^red an 1 tro-atod as if of socondai'v import-mco on the farm, and ris lik'^ wlinnt ')r corn th'>y canu')'. readily \>'^ cn;i\ort''d into bread, per- haps thoy are so in certain S'^ii^' ; : stil! v/e b-diev'^ o'lts are w>»r- t!iy of iii'i'h !'e*t'>r tro-i.iiuent thin ib.i'V receive, and can be iiial»3 i!i()re i)r;)!ita!do tfi.ui is u-in .,o.r v2. ii'aman has a ])io .^^! :'>f i •.•i<;;:n;' , I 1 ] ho cinnot :-,r:nure for .anotl^^r croj) he consoles himself witli thn thou'cht that it wl'd \h tor oats ; if S) wot that any thing oNe wouM drown, ho ua'-; oa of.t^ ; if ?io poor tint p-innvroyal w )u! I nn :?row, Ir^ puts on oats ; if oticr crops f;id he pu;so:i oats; r.ni ii'Ii'^ is hurrio ! with his wo'-k hi the spri". >:, his oats arn V,\o. i;ijt thin;^ that ^^ c^s into the ground, and a-< a matter of c >urse about the I-ist that is socur^d in the i*'.il. 'K Is it ri v/ mderthen that some should think oats are not pro- fitabb'" ? It m i,v in g-^aeril :)o cousi;:lf>red as cer-iiii t*nt land in f!::oo 1 heart en )uc:th to yi'''I I twr-nty-tive bush.els of v/ii^at to tht* acre, would giv3 sevoaty ofoaty if properly and seasonably p Jt in , :'J ;! 1, ,» f'^ f , '^ ( ,1i' J 'I ; II: M lii 1 ^-ili it!s 1, :!'{ .!*«. ':;i CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. and as oats will in the course of the winter or spring command from 25. JkZ. to *2*. Od. a bushel, the farmer may make his own calculations on the companitivo i)rofit.s. 4. Oats are \(j>is delicfite in tiieir choice of soils than either wheat or barley, and in many cases will grow where either of these would l)0 a failure, yet oats require a good soil, and perhaps nocrop inoro abundantly re])n.ys early and careful ^^elting in. 5. There are sevonil varieties of oats cultivated, sucli as the white or cominon o'lt, the bl.'ick, liie horsomane oat, t!io ])Otatoo (jat, and th" skiidcss oat. All oi'thcj-c do well, and have j»rodu- ced large ci'ops with the exception of the skinless kind, of which we have many doubts whether they will be found adnptcd to our country and climate. (J. With oats as with most other crops change of seed has pro- ved bcnolicinl, and new varietios arc usually heavier th.ui those that have been longer cultivatoil in any place. Care, however, in the selcctmu (jf seed, and early sowing, must prevent the deter- ioration of any plant wlu'ch has been fou!id as well adapted to our country as the o-it ; and if firmers wish the best and heaviest qualities tlsey can easily jiroduce tlicni. 7. There v/as last yotir a dillercnce in weight and consequently in value, in many cases, of jifteon or twpjity percent, between early and late snwn oats ; a decisive proof that oaro will benefit this crop as woA] as othci's. Oatsreipiire two and a h;:If or three bushels of seed to the acre ; and it may in genernl be renirirked that the man v.ho is covetous of his seed when putting in his s[)ring «iro})s, be they wlioat, barley, or r»rits, will iind a \-erJiicati(jn of the scripture declaration, that he who sowetli sparingly shall reap also sparingly. Section X. 1. Pkask. — The Pea crop is of great importance to the Cana- dian farmer — the climate of the coimtry being remarkably well adapted for the growth of pease. The soils to which pease are the most ai)propriate, are sandy loam mixed witli calcareous particles, and these soils are abundant throughout all British North America. 2. It is a subject worthy of remark, that some varieties of peaso re*]uire one description of soil, and others require a soil of a very dilferent character, — for instance, the grey species are best adap- ted to the strong soils, and the white to the drier and lighter ones. Wherever calcareous earths abound, large crops of the best quali- ties of pease are grown. 8. A light dressing of shell marl or lime, is ever found to for- n crop. The best preparation for land for this crop, on those 4 'a -.jr I I .:J CANADIAN AOmCULTUKAL READEK. Mt ? pro- those uently Uveen jcnefrt throe ; irked spring of the |) also Canri- wcll iro tlie •liolcs, icrica. poaso very adfip- ■ ones. quali- Ito for- . those soils suitable for their culture, is thorough deep ploughing in autumn, and without any further labour, the seed should be sown the latter part of Ajiril, or first of May, at the rate of three butih- ds i)er acre, then harrowed in and rolled. 4. No seed is more dilHcult to cover than pease ; in all cases where it is doubtful that the seed cannot be completely covered with the harrow and roUor alone, we would rocommend that they should be ploughed in liglitly, and afterwards harrowed singly, and rolled. In most cases, whore the land has been ploughod in the autumn, to a much greater depth than usual, tliat is to sny, when two or three inches of the subsoil have been brought up to the sur- face and exposed to the action of tlio winter frosts and snows, the plongiiing in of tiie seed will ije found to pay lOU per cent. fut their entire wheat croj), would do well to try the i)!an we iiave rcconimended, or soivio other eciurdly ;'s good, and ju the sju'lng of the year, top-dress the young jdants v.ith fresh house ashes, at the rate of eight or ten liushelsper acre, and whicli should be h.'.rrowed in ^\ilh a pair of light seed harrows. V.l. li' the harrow teeth be very long, or are likely to injure the plants, line branches of trees, or brush may ])0 inter'.vovcn in the liarrow. The object to l)e gained l)y harrowing is, ti»e pulveriza- tion of the crust that is formed on the surface, and tlus crust may be as readily broken ijy liarrowiiig the ground to the depth of two inches as four. 13. ^V'e do not wish it to be understood tiiat we would j-refer the culture of pease to that of clover, as a preparative crop for wheat, but at the same time we are persuaded, that it requires less care than the latter in the management, and may be on strong clay lands much more efiicacious, especially as the clover ley sys- tem requires the greatest nicety in the laying down the land wuh seeds, and also, in the ploughing of the sward, and depositing the seed wheat. ' 14. It might, however, be observed, that so soon as the ridicu- ■if: ^.; CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER* n to try , gOO(], ; V, ith oriza- fcil uuiy )l' two j, refer i[) for ?s less strung y sys- ' with lug the lidicu- I lo'is notion of naked fallows can be cxj)lodcd, both the sowing of r iicat alter pease, and on clover ley, may be introduceil on llie same larm, without interfering with a judicious system of rotation, or a well grounded method of tarm management. 15. For fear that it might be tliought by Lioine, that we wcro opposed to the j)lnn of making naked summer-falhnvs in every instance, we would observe, that tliere are cases where the practice is absolutely necessary, — those cases, however, are rare. '"^F.CTION XI. 1. Ci'LTURE OF THK PoTATOK. — liy common consent the potato has been placed at the head of all the edible roots, wherever it has been introduced, and llie climate wouhl admit of its cultivnlion. < )rigiuatii!g iVom an o!)sc'iii'e and worthh>ss root among the Cordil- leras of t>outh America, in spite of prejudice and opposition, it has sj)read with a rapidity unknown to any other >egf 'table, and Is doubtless destined to make tiie circuit of the gloJje, adding in an in- calcul.'ihle (iegreo to the means of subsistence. 2. There are few, il any, vegetables grown in the temperate zone that yield so great an amount of food per aero as the potato. Wheat, according to Sir II. Davy, contains '.J5i) parts of nutritious matter in 1(HH» ; and the potato '2iA) ; but when it is rememl>creJ that tl.je yield of the }jotato, on an average, is from ten to iifleen limes as much i)cr acre as wiieat, the advantage in favor of the potato is manifest. Besides, such is the luiman organization that pure nutritive matter is injurious to its healthy funeiioiis, and tlie stomach requires to be more or less distended with other matter before the excitement necessary to nutrition takes place. li. W'e are, therefore, justified in supposing that good potatoes used Lxclusively as an article of food, would be less injurious than pure wheat ilour. lie this ns it may, the potato in most civilized countries now ranks next as an article of ibod to the i-ice of the tropics ; and the wheat and maize of the more temperate regions. To Kurope is America indebted for the (iraminu;, and had we re- turned tiiem nothing more than the potato and maize, the debt must have been considered as cancelled. 4. 'I'iie potato is usually proi)agated by the tubers or roots, but new v.'U'icties are obtained or old ones that have partially degene- rated restored, by cultivating them from seed. There are few plants that sliow more decisively the improvement that may be made by cultivation than the potato. 5. In 18;38, a quantity of the original roots were taken from South America to England, and carefully planted. The result I I I I".. 3 >\ ;i If (!! % if 72 CANADIAN AOBICULTUBAL RBADEIU wns a small inferior root, more resembling the ground nut than the potato, and not widely difFering in appearance from those of the iirst year's growth from seeds. (). There is an idea ])revalcnt among many farmers that pota- bles arc mixed, or what by the breeder of animals would bo called crossed, by having several kinds planted in the vicinity of each other. This is an erroneous opinion. The crossing takes place in tlie /lowers or seeds and not in the roots ; and hence there is the Willie uncertainty that the seeds of anv given variety of this root will produce potatoes of the parent kind, that tiicre is that the ap- ple soeds will give apples like those from which they arc taken, a thing ol' very rare occurrence. 7. Every farmer who has paid attention to the manner of growth in the ])Otato, is aware that the tubers are not produced from the roots j)roper, these being, as in ollior [)lnni>:, used solely for the [>iir{)0se of nutrition, but on shoots thrown out above these, and nearer the surface ol" the earth. s. [t was the opinion of Decandoll'^ that by repeated coverings of the stem such shoots, and of course potatoes, could be produced the whole length of the stalk, nnd some experiments that he made seemed to favor such a supposition ; still no must be permitted to s.'iy, that having in part repeated his experinionts, we have found notliing to justify tb.o opinion that sucli a result would be ellected by tills treatmeiit of the stem. 0. The propriety of cutting the tubers or planting tlioin whole has been much discussed, and the multitufie of experimeuls on re- cord would seem to show by their conflicting results, tiiat nt least ns much is depending on other circumstances, as on the root being panted in a whole or cut state. 10. If an acre of gi-ound be planted in hill or drills with whole potatoes, and another acre be planted with sets or cuttings at e([ual distances with the other, the exneriments made bv the London Horticultural Society would go to prove that the acre planted with whole j)Otatoes would yield the most, but nst much, if any, more than i\\-3 additional fpnntity of seed rerpiircrl in planting. 11. If whole j)Otntoes are used, frf)m twrnty-jive to thirty bush- els will be needed ; if cut, not more than lialf that quantity will be recpured. In both cases, however, much will be depending on the .size of the whole potatoes, and the number of eyes in those cut. The distance between the rows must be determined by the length of stem produced by the potato, and the several varieties vary much in this res|)ect. 1'^. In cultivating the potato a climate rather cool and moist is i I \\ CANADIAN AORICCLTURAL RKADKR. n a I ISt IS fjund most preferable to any other. Of course the root succeeds much better in the northern states and in these Provinces than ill the southern parts of the United States. The potato will succeed well on almost any kind of land provided it is rich, and is not wet and clayoy ; but for this, as for most other croj)s, a friahle loam of suflicicnt consistence to prevent drought will bo found su{)Ciior to any other. l*.l Swnmp.s contnining l-irgo quanties of vcgetal)lo matter, whon suHici'-'ntJy drained, have produced great crops, and wliat m new eountriesis termed muck land, is also favornblo to their growth. Two things in a potato soil seem to be indispensrddo ; it must bo rich, or a crop cannot be expected ; and if )nust be sutliciently loose to allow the shoots that form the tul.ers to spread and enlarge freely. 14. In Europe the Britisli i>]ands are justly fnmed for their root culture, and the introduction of the potrito into Ireland has en.ibled that country to douhlc its ])opuJPtion ; if it has not bnnished want and distress, tiiese evils .ire not of as frequent rt^currCnce now a.s formerly, notwithstruuling the incj'e.'iso of consumers. (Jol)bett, indeed, charged upon the potato nil the evils of Irelaii'.! ; and Dr. Tissot has demonstrated to his own sntisfnction, that no potato eat- ing nation has ever produced a great man. 15. The greatest crop of potatoes on record are tliose grown by rJenei'al liarnum of Vermont, which reached from 1, .')()() to 1.800 busliels p>er r.ci'c ; and ho gives it as h.is o:)inion, tliat in a good soil, and with his mode of culture, from ^>()0 to 1000 bushels per acre may he safely calculnted upon. 1(). The reports of the agricultural societies of tlie Unite 1 State^i show t;iat Inin 500 In 700 bushels per aci-e arc not uncommon. Mr. I^ache, of Wclisborongh, Pa., inlS:^0, raised 000 bushels lr,tho acre, and the crop of Mr. IMorris, of Cattaraugus, N. Y.. fell l.>ut liUle short. The average crop in this country cannot, wo think, be estimated at more than fi-oju 175'"to 1!50 hu'>hcls, the inllucncc of the seasons being moro felt on this crop than many others. 17. The metho'.is of planting are various. (nMioral Uarnum's mode, after a careful and thorough preparation of liis land, is to plant m drills 22 inches ai>art, and the sets in the drills 10 inches from each other. The drills are kept clean, but the earth is hilled around the plants only once in the season ; as he cnsiders there is much danger of disturbing the young tubers by removing the Gttrth, or causing the formation of new shoots for tubers by repeated hoeings or hillings. 18. The secret of his great crops appears to consist, in his bring- III ( r ! ' J ii. ' : '1 i .'If ^ , " '■' i 74 CANAPIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. jng ricli fresh earths, tlic scraping of the diU^hes or streets, or earth I'roin the bani-ynnl, or the mould {lcj)osited in swamps, and giving each liiii a shovol full, as a top dressing. lie docs this with the aid of a horso and cart, the horse and the wheels passing between the rows. 19. We have seen very good potatoes grown by simply drop- ping the seed on a clean turf, and sj)readiMg over them a covering of straw six or eight inches in thickness. The straw must bo evenly pl;i(;ed, and if moved by the wind before it gets settled to- gether, which it will soon do, it must bo carefully rephiced. 20. This covering of straw keeps the surface moist, the grass cannot spring uj) through it, and in the fall the potatoes are found on tho sui'facn of the turf, and perfectly clean when the straw is removed. The danger in this mode of jdanting would seem to Ho in a(h-y season which is frf(|Uontly fatal to tho crop j and n. heavy crop is larely in this way proihiced. 21. In the Monlldy Visitor, for February, 1810, is nn aciiount of an experiment with potatoes, v>hich was eininer.lly successful, and deserving of notice. In the spring of IbJJO, Mr. Whitney, of Craflsbury, \'t., " broke up a piece of green sward, harrowed it thoroughly, carted upon it manure from the yard at the rate of iVi loads to the aci'C, cro.;s |)louo:hed it, harrov/ed it again, nnd planted it in the usual manner in hill;i. 22. " At the proper ploughing between the rows, the [uece was well lioed, and at the proper time was repeated. In the frdl he dug from this piece at the rate of 000 bushels to the acre, which for this year, on account of the rust, was considered a good yield. 2:3. '• By the side of this j)ieco, on precisely the same ([uality of soil, mruuu'o was carted and spread at tho rate of 32 loads to tho acre ; the sward was then carefully turned over, and the furrows laid ihd with a roller. l)etween every other furrow, whore they came together, (that is between the first and second, and between the thii-d .and i'ourth, and so on) holes two feet apart were made with a sharpened stick, about three inches deep, large enough to receive the seed. 21. "Into each hole one piece ofpotatoewas put, and the holes filled UJ) with mellow soil, even with the general surface of the field. There was no further labour bestowed upon the crop till the digging, when the quantity produced was a little over 400 bushels per acre. Although never hoed not a weed was seen in it. Before digging, the field had the appearance of having been well hoed, tlie potatoes having raised up the ground above them." S5. In all cases the value of the early potatoes is great j and ^ CANADIAN AORICULTURAL READER. 7ft the rows ley rcen lado to lioles the till 1 400 In in )een im 5» land particuhirly so in the vicinity of cities, wiiorc a constant (icmand anil roady »iiarket for such vogolablos always exist. Kxperience has taiigiit iho growers ofjxjtatoes for the London n)ariil ; of good tirptji, fis the roots ])enetratc to considerable distances; dry, or at h .'ist iVee from all st.'uidiug moisture; and kept clean and iVcc from weeiis by i^equent stirring with the hoc, or still better with liic cuitiv.'iitir. iU.vix will luA grow on wet land, or on soils wliero the siiij-soil is so retentive as to r-jtain stagnant water within rcacli of tlie roots. ti. Such soils are of neces5;ir.y cold, rind corn, the n;i.live of a warm climate, is more retarded by cold and moisture in our coun- try than by all otlier causes combined. In England corn cannot be grown ; the low temperature of their summers con:p:ired with ours, though excellent un* the wheat croj), is fatal to corn, which, though soiuutnncs attempted tliere, rarely or never i caches perfect matu.'ily. 3. Land, on which corn is to be grown, must be drained if too wet, and without this pre{)aratory j)rocess, in ordinary se.'isons, corn must j)rove a failure. Some of the best ci'ops of corn wo have ever known, were grown on turf or clover leys, well man- ured in the spring with stable njtinure, and then carefully and com- {dotely turned under a few days |)revious to })lanting. 4. If coarse conjmon barn-yard manure is used, we liave known it advantageously applied in the fall, the lurf turned over and allowed to remain through the winter. in the s|)ring it is rolled down, a light harrow applied, and a loose surtace of earth is rea- dily pi'epared for the corn, while the decomposed manure below is ready toallbrd the nourishment required by the young plant. 5. Wh '-' fine manure is at hand, manuring in the hill may be advantageously adopted, and some of the great crops of the few past years have been produced in this way. For this purpose we have found the manure from the piggery fa- superior to any other, A i'.| I kc' ^ I ■ ll ' ■I i ■;' ' ill' 7& CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL ftBADBR. ' W the (Jifferenro in a hot dry season in favor of this manuro beimr equal to 'ii) or 80 por cent, yiieep manure is the next best, and for wheat crops, particularly spring vvlieats, we think it unrivalled. G. S(ivoral kinris of corn have been introducnd to the notice of the public within a few ynars, soino of which are doubtless great acquisitions to tlio fanning pul)lic, while others roquiro to bo more fully tested hofure their adaptation to our latitude can be dc(;ided. Asa geiK.'ral rule it may bo pm narked that corn is always improved by bnngitii>; thosorid from the north, and that it deteriorates by in- trodu'*iiii;' souf.horn varieties. 7. 'I'lie reason of this is perfectly obvious, and exists in the nature of the plant itself. No species o( the Dent, or gourd seed corn, will bo found to succeed well, north of the 40th degree of latitud". unless in some favored situation, while in a suitable cli- mate those varieties are indispensable. Thus the Baden corn, thouglj an excellent variety in a proper cli.n'ite, must in all the northern, an 1 most of the middle states, give ])laco to tho earlier kinds, such as the Dutlon, red blaze, white flint, or early Canada corn. 8. In selecting a corn for seed in a district where it is sometimes liable to failure from early or late frosts, several things should be taken into consideration as desirable re piisites. The first is, it slxjidd bo early, have a rapid growth, and arrive at nntnrlty with the lo'ist delay. Another rerpiisite is tint tho cob should be small, and tha car of good length ; since if the cob is too large, it does not become so completelv dried as not to endanger t!ie corn by m')ulding when cribbed, and il'tho cob is sjurill and not long enough, there will not bo a good crop, however m-^.ture it may be. 9. 'i'hc , )utton corn is somewhat liable to the first objection, thesuall early varieties, sonoof them at least, to the last. To have a corn yield well, tho kernels should bo large, close set, and tho cob sinall. Some ears of corn have been noticed, from which the Corn shelled and poured into a pnper envelope of tho ear, would precisely fill it. Such corn, when grown, cannot be other- wise than ))roductive. 10. It is .'1 gooil plan tosui)mIt seed corn to some p'-eparation that will give it vigor and quickness of growth at the outset, and aid as far as possible, in ipreventing the attacks of those insect ene- mies beneath, and the winded enemies above the surface, to which experience shows it is exposed. A solution of saltpetre is good, and sovne propose that the solution be made in chamber lye, this producing, it is contended, as favorable ai; uiicct on corn, as it is well known to lo on wheat. ^fm CANADIAN AORICULTCRAL READER. 77 IP, •iry ho it urn oa^ lift. ii»n, To i.nd lich ^ar, ler- ich lod, this t is 11. Whero thore is any danger thnt the corn will he nssnile^l by crows, tnrring it is noccssary, niui it is porhaps prochiciivo of iiijurv iu no case. it is oUbclpd hy wetting the c<»rii in warm wator and letting it (h'ain, ihfii lurning a small quantity ofcurn, fuiii stirring it until every kernel is coated with the lar. It is then dried with pl/ister lor planting, and the addition of this latter arti- cle '-anil 'I l)Ut he Keiieijeial. VI. '1 hero hhould filuays ho as many as iivo or six korncls of corn put in a hill, and they shoidd not he thrown in a cluster, hut spread so as to allow room lor gr()\>lli without the stems crowd- ing (Mcli oiher. \\\\i n the c(jrn is ihreo or lour inches hi^'h, it si.ould hehoed, an< nil the stalks over four in nuiuher pulled out, loavii!!.; of course tliuso ha\Ing the he»sl and most vigorous growth. 13. {''omo ))refer only three stalks in a hill, and wIktc the soil is not of tlio host ((ualiiy, that number is sullicient. 'J'iiere is not seed enre tliesoil is ccjual, IJiecrcj) of corn will always be in proportion to the coni|deten(\ss oi' iho after cul- ture. Every slight that it receives in the spring, every weed that is allowed to remain to ciiokc the corn, will be felt in the fall when the corn is placed in the half bnvhel. IG. Well conducted e.\perime!iiy have shown heyond contradic- tion, that the conunon i)racticc of topping ci^rn has a direct ten- dency to decrease the (juantity of the croj). Allowmg the ear to ripen without molestation produced as might be expected (rom the well understood law of nature in this respect, the best and heaviest grain. 17. Cutting up hy the bottom, and allowing tho cars to ripen in stocks gives the next best grain for quality and quantity, and l)0- «des gives the best fodder, which, whero corn is grown, is of no small consequence. If topped very early, the weight of the corn, and of couise the quantity, is greatly diminished ; if left till a later period the injury is less, hut in all cases where experiments have been tried, the loss is sensihle, and good policy demands thai the practice should be abandoned. '¥i € hi 78 CANADIAN AORICULTURAL READER. Skction XIII, 1. niiooMcoRM. — or tho frnnnsi sor)*hum (broom j^rriss) thoro aro loiJiM)!* (ivo spncins. S(>r'l of l*/(iiifin<^'. — Tho broonicorn is planted in rows, about 2ii or I) I'eet aj)art, so thnt a horse may |)ass bet\vo(>n thorn with a plorgjj, or cidliv.-.tor, or harrow, 'i'hc hills in e;M'h row aro i'roni 1^^ inclios n> 2 loi't apart, or larther, nccordinj;- to thf> (juuliiy of the soil. 'J'he <|iian!ity ofsced to be planted is cs! imatM very 'litrorently by diHoi'ont Irrmers — some say t'.K't halt a |)Ock is enough per acre, while others plant half a bushel, and some a bushel, in order to niaUe it sure that the land yball bo woll stock- ed. The rule with some is to cast, a tea spooni'iil. or ;M> or 40 seoiis, in a hill ; liie juaiiure at the iniie of j)lanting should be put into tho hill, and til manure or compost is preferred, as being most free irom worn is. 4. Cultiv.alion — 'I'ho broomcorn should bo plougiied and lioeii three times — the last time when al)Out three feethigii, tliouf^hswrne iioe it when it is six foot hi^^h, and when they aro ('oiicoaled by it as they aro loilinii: in the licld. The number of stalks iu a hill t^iiould be from seven lo ten. If tliere tii? only live or s'x stalks, they will be larger and coarser ; if there are about eight, the brush will be liner and more valuable. In ihc first booing, the super- nu]i)orary stalks should bo j)ulled up. f). ILiri'dsliit^. — As the frost kills the peed, the broonu'orn is harvested atthe (.••.'n'.mence;>ieiit of the first frc'St. Tlie lon.'.rstalkij are bout novvn at two or two ajKl a half feet from the :,n-ound ; and by laying those oi'two rov.s across each oilier ol)liquely, a kind of table is made hv everv two rows, witii a passage i)etween each table, for the convenience of harvesting. (>. After drying for a tew days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to twelve inches. The longer it is cut, o!" course, the more it will weigh ; and, if the purchaser dons not objoct, the benciil will accrue to the fanner. However, the dry stalks weijgh CANADIAN AORICULTt'RAL RRADKR. 70 y i^ till rush jer- 1 is ilka l ■ «■ i CANADIAN AGRICUfcTUKAL READER. a scafTold, so ns to bo exposed to a circulation of the air, that it iriay dry, and not mould. For all the purposes of use, a hnn^m made with twine is equnl to one made with wire j and a man can make several more ol' them in a day. Section XIV. 1. Sflkction and CuANtiK oi' Skkd. — It is an opinion held by mail}, ihat in culiivatiiig !"arui ci'ops, every ihim^ (irponds on a change ol" seed ; riid that seed continunlly r'Jsed o.i llie srinm larni or in llioscinic region of country, will constantly deteriorate, and that it is tiris which renders a chnnge imcessary. •2. Others, on tiio contrary, consiiior a cliaiigo ns of no advan- tage whatever, and mainiain that by rdways selecting th*^ i>ost sccci.s I'r. ;ui anuMig the best crops, the isced, instend of deterioi'atint^, will ac^tu'dly become inioruvel in quality, even tiiough tliesecrt.ps be always raised on tlio same farm, llolh of these opini'ins, without «jualiilcatio;is, arc erroneuiis ; but under ju-oper liijiita- lioiiSj they are botli to a certain (icgree strictly ciirreet. 3. A chaiige of seed, however, as it is most (^on.i>ionly practi- sed, is of little advantrg.;, and ircfiuently of none wha.Lovcr. W'hc.n liiC place ireu which the seel is procured, resembles very nearly in soil and climate th.at v.h.ere it is sown, litllc beaelit is derivencc 111 . is fis il \vi;h 71; 1 oii'.cr (•ir.x:t } ^ jUO.gO i4 end ca- "T ■' 1; me c'li- to li:e reino- .1 er and ICG to JBj as the .'it^jfl unl of '.] warm " 1 ish in ;*i luxnrlancc of growtli, their season of growing becomes shorter, and they proiluce a greater aiuount of seed. Hence, genenilh. when scf.il is ihe pi'incipal ohjoct of a ci-op, it is more advantr^gcous to oblfjin the varitity from a cooler climate, liidirin corn, ahhough suj)j)(»m.m1 to he a tropical plant, produces the heaviest crops in the nuriht'rii . 7. Farmers, !l!f>rrf )ro, in the middle and sou'hi'^rn states would probably lind a great adv.'intrt^e in [)rociiri!ig occasionally their seed c(U'!i from iho north. There must however be a limit to tlii^-, as varietif's fr(»i!i cold countries ma\ he so diminished in the growlli <»fsialk, .".s not to pr(»duceev''n so groat a ipiantllv ofsocd as migut result from the «!uliivat;on ol' larger jnanis. « liut \A\L'\\ the growth of Icdvcs jukI s!t is the princijjnl objec}, as in fodder, it will often be oj' u>o to procuie tlie s-eed from w.'i.riM'M- clim,;ic-, jirovided tlie plants are sutiii-icully iiarJy, anvi adv.'ince to jti-o-por nrtturity belore the season is o\er. i). The eii'ff of c!iu)alo is strikingly exemjdified hi the case of In.li.'r.i corn. In the West Indies the stalk S'Muetiuics risc-s to th'.' lieigiit i)i ihirlij jcrl, but it pi'oiluces only a lew grain> at the bot- tom of a suoncrv cob, and is (vusidered as routrh nroMudcr. In the southern pans of the IJniKnl Slates, it rises Jlffccn feci higu, and produces nbout ihirhj hnshi h to tlie fu'rn in the rich lajius of Kentucky and the middle states, it producesy/,/'?// or sixlij bushcis to the acre. 1(». lint, it i-"'. only in New York and New England, where ih'^ stalks arc but .seven fetl high, ihnt iine hundred and fij'li; husk, li to llie acre have been obtained. Wheat does better in the nortii- crn and nuddle slates, and in tlie Ihaltic regions of h^uMpe, than in either the southern parts of Europe or ol America. 11. Where crops wdl not di;t(>i'iorato in dr . -ddc qualities bv beconiing adapted to the ciimrtte where they ; ■> grov.ing, a con- tinued selection of the best seed willalvvav' moduce certain im- provement. Even this deterioration may \y: irequenlly prevented by judicious selection. Thus, ifwewishto pieserve the quality' of ea.'ly maiurity in corn, the seed of which has been ohtnin- ed from the nck, the sui^ar beet socms destined to l)oconie the ni »st exteusivolv cultiva- le(i throughout North America. It is (iuor graineri, sweeter, more delicate .'mkI agreeable to the taste than mangel wurt/el, at the srune ti'uo it is ui'ii-c nutritious, and gives as large a yif^M, and is equally thrit'ty, hard}', and as susceptible of an extended culiiva- lion iii th" various latitudes. 2. Fed raw, it is preferred alike by the horse, the ox, the cow, the she(>p, and tht' hog, t<3 evet-y other root, with j)'"i"haps the e.\ce|)tionofthe parsu'^p ; and cooked, it is only inferior to tlio most iarinnceous kinds of the potato. It makes the I'ni'^'-i of wool, the most juiry and delicate of meat, the largest fpiantities and richest of milk and butter in winter, not inferior to that produced from the iiweetest pastures in summer. o. When not grown too large, it also ranks high an\ong the table edibles ; and is perhaps the most luscious and palatable of roots to the taste of man. Pieing then the largest of yielders, the most certain ')fcrops, the easiest handled, s'-^cured, and fed, ?nd, above all, a great ameliura'or of the soil on whiom thin gravels and sands, and the hardest clay, but in these casesthey had undergijue a jxitato cropi)ing, thereby manuring the preceding year, and a slight covering of compost, ashes, plaster or lime, the .>«pring- they were planted in beets. A very rich soil, such as the de^.p alluvial bottoms of the west, is not so proper : the roots gvnw too large aud rank in it, and are consequently coaler and CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. Ipvs.'s nufritious, and do not nbound with no:ir iho saccharine matter thfitis io !i)(i with thoso on jxioror gnuintl. T). PlMiigli (leoj) and roll and harrow lino, and hnvo tlw^ [ground in land> of about one roti wido, with the Ihrrou-s hotwnen th -in well hoed o;i', so as to drain the lallin'x water oil" rs|)Oi.drilly ii'the sub- s-dl br" fit all (rnac'itm-:, as most of the wesi(>rn lands usually are. a. ^r/c i<('rd anil its Preparation. — The wiiiti^ Silcsian su,t;ar ber-l is the best viriety, ns sweetf^sf, lin'\st ^rriined nnd growing largr'st. S-iak the seed at Icrist two days (tri'viniis to |d,'in:.ing, in soit tojiid w.'ii"r, fiini then roll it in jdastoror asb"s so ms i.o prevent its sfirkinf,' toL>-ether, nnd rfH'.jlJiatr' th'"' sowiu^^ l! is indisjxnisablo tti-U. tb(» N.'ed be we'd soakcii, otherwise, owiiit;' t<» its outward coat- inr^, the peri<'ar[» !)r^in«r very liard. it may not sci^^otaLc at (ill, or so late a-- to make a lair croiKJut ol" the qu(>stio!i. 7. I hive tVeijuenily ha(i it m soak a w!i dn \v^p\-, and sowed tip"* sofMh f Irf'adv wrdl sprouted, an;l thouy loicj; lieavy rain^, tli'V were the (piickest up, anri gav-' the largest produce.— The (ii'st rmd second weeks in May fre liio most pr<»per limes to plrMit in ibis latitude ; further north or south, of course later or earlier, according to climnte. y. L^'tntinix. — It can be sown broadcast like tlie turnip, but as weeds ar<' likely to spring up in n)o.st s(»ils an I prevent its growth, and tb*^ labor oi'e.vterminating th'>ni much greater in this way, it is prelV'rable to sow in drills. For this j)urp((.-'e, the drilbbarrow »nay be used tlie same as in planting the ruta bag a, but the beet seed is mui'h morn ditlicult to delivi^r eveulv through a small aper- turet ban tho turni]) is, and though I linve u>ed a great variety ot' barrows t''i' tli's purpose, [ liave never yet had o.ie tlirit wfjrkeil Avell and ciiuid be depended upon, especially in tei>':tdous or heavy loamy sods. 9. It is preferable, therefore, to tMkf a pii- 'cof , dee lour in^ding vSquare, or a round stick of the same diameter liall"or just as long as the lamis are wide, lill this with iron or \voden teeth in wedge shape, as far apart as you wish to have the rows, put a prur of nils to this, and hitcli on a stout man or steae[). Then tbllow immediately with the seed, dropjdng it by hand, or tVom a long necked bottle, or tin cup with a hole in the bottom, and a stick handle attached to it, shrdcing the cup or bottle as you walk along, and following sharp with the eye to .scu that the seeds are evenly dropped. 10. Faithful children of ten years old can do this with more ease and facility than grown persons. As ta.st as dropped cover n- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. with tliR hoc ; in honvv soils nhout half to thrco-fourllis of on inch dcf^p, ill Kund or light, grrivcl twice tliis (Irj)th, The rows inny be ironi Olio to thrco loot np.irt lor a liold crop — two and a half to three I'col jh the best. This (h'slancc cn.'iblcs one to u."--,-" the culti- vator for vvoo(iing, without driiigor of cutting or covering' the plnnts by the dirt being thrown up as it prisses througli the rows. The product is not so gic-.t per acre iVom wide rows, bm l.md being che.'i() and Inbor dcur in Canada, we must study to facilitate man- ual oper.'iti(»ns, at the same time tiiat we have some calcui I'jon for a gootl yield. II. F(jur pount's of seed per acre is generally considered (>nough, but it is better to have a o^-zow extra i)lants to thin our, than to be obliged to transplnnt one. Those trnnsplnnted do not thnve h'llf as well as those t!i;it remain where they vegetrtte ; besides, tiie labor of so doing is more expensive than extra seed an, I time of thinning. 1 there lore iiican in sowing to Iiaveagood seed dropped as near as every two or three inches in Uie (h'ill.s 1*2. AJ'lcr Cvllure. — As soon as the weeds begin to ap'pear, run the cultivator through tbf; row and follow with the hoc;. It is very essential that the ground be kept clenr of v.eeds, especi.dly lor the two first monlhs, aiii) three hocings wilh the use ofthe ( idtivator ifi generally sullicient i'"r the season. As the |)lnn1s att.'.in a height of about three inclios iliey should be thinned to a distan'-e of about four inches, leaving she strongest and healthiest; then, during the season as they gro>v, gradually thin out the remainder, leaving the roots in the rows nt If ist about nine or ten inches aj/art. l;^. If lelt too ill ck, tlioy shade and chokecach otlier in giowth, and the product isiKJt so great as when well thinned. These thin- nings are valuable to feed to stock during the summer, and are iie- quently considered equal to lialf the exjicnsc of cultivation of the wh(!: hooks ; taking up the root with one hand, top off the leaves with the ollior, and toss ilie roots into small heaps to dry through the day, and if left out over night and there be danger of frost, lei them l>c lightly covered over with lerives or straw ; a hard frost injures ihe roots and »iinkos them more liable to decay. They may then )e taken :o a well ventilated cellar, or be pitted in hcnps of 100 to ^00 bushels. 10. 'i'he boot is rnther rpt to heat and comnionoc sj)routing if thrown inU) large heaps, or packed awny in ihe collar. If j)ut in [he latter ploce, any other roots except the turnip may be j)l<'iced it the liollom, ,'iu(l the beets on the top, and if in pits the same roots tr straw in the centre. Al! the beets then have a good ventilation, md an n|)|iortuiiity of ihi'owing off the impure air ; and to facili- ate this, alter covering the heaps with dii1, h(»les should be made 3very low iVet on the top of them, and v/isps of straw be placed in .uch hole-;. 17. Fct'fJin^. — Throw thorn on to the ground floor, and take a iiay knile or spade, and a man will slice up a bushel a minute sufli- jien'ilv line to prevent cattle cboaking on them. Tiie best way to .:ook ibein for slock is by steaming, l)ut they cannot bo kept so over two davs in warm weather and a week in cold, without under, going a lermentalion, and losing the saccharine matter so gi-ateful to llie taste and so essential to nulrifiOnt. IS. Either raw or cooked, cattle iVequontly ])refert!iem to meal or corn. Raw, I liiink them as nutritious as any root whatever, and as i'nr as my limited experience extends, tin-ec busliels of beets with neat st<*ck is eipial to one of Indian meal. Hogs demand \csii buHv to fill tliemsclves than cattle, and pchaps their value to i'aem Wv)ul;i be about as four to one. 19. Product — l-c»ur hundred bushels is a fair yield in field cul- ure, but six and oigl)t hundred per aero is about as ommon. The .vriter grew at the rale )n a hard clay soil, and his average field product was about 000 bushels i.n the same soil. He has. heard of 3,000 bushels being produced to the acre on rich loams, ir^everal of his roots tlie past season wei<;hed 10 lbs each, and 10 lbs. is not unfrequent ; now admitting t!iis last weight to each root, and that seven rows stood in the width of a rod, which would make them about two feet apart and the ro' its one foot apart in the rows, and allow 00 lbs to the bushel, wo should have the enormous product of 3,000 bushels to the acre. 20. 11 ul roots so large are coarse, stringy and not un frequently hollo w and have much less saccharine in proportion to their bulk, ■^'^^ 86 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ■ijil'i! than smaller ones. Those of about 5 lbs. weight are far superior ; and these standing one foot apart in the rows and five rows in the width of a rod, making ihem about three feet apart, gives the large yield of 1,100 bushels per acre, which is quite as great as it in desirable to strive for, and u|)on the whole perhaps the most pro- fitable. 21. I sec by most writers on beet cultivation, that the leaves are considci'rd highly nutritious, and are recommended to be cut and fed to slock. 1 suspect that persons tliiis \vrii,iM!.>" had more theory thfui experience u\)()\\ the subject, when thoy made sucli recommeud;iti''.n.s. 1 have iinivei'sajly found that they jjadly scour- ed all kinds or.'iMiinrils. ovr-n when taken Uj) iVoin grecji pjisiure to feed on ihom, and if pcrslsl.-d in, created disease. 1 have tried all sorts of ways to prevent tlxir scouring, by salting the loivca and mi.ving litem with othf r food, hut the result was the saine. 22. 'l'i)ey }v\\f n .-weetish hitter i)U!i:i;ent taste, aud I lound upon chewing ilic k'aves, that th.o ellcf.'t on man v.as the samo a-- ou beasts. 1 kii'Vv of no hi ttr>r use for thrm than to he Iril ;>:i the ground 1;- K'riili. '^ an.] assist in giving it hrart for anoliior crop. IJut it w '1 !,"; se n that the roots alone make it a very vaiuahie crop, far ai'TO so than corn, or any of the suiallcr grains. 'J Ijo eslimal{(l co;-: :• •. i-oducing it. ranges fiom \.\\roc to eight cents per bu sl)eL ilioav lUMii'ddv nve to sjx cr'Hi::;, 23. Jidisin:^ liic iSvct-. — 'J ln.'re is a:-; much in choosinr^^ proper roots lur I his purpose, as in seleciing aninvils to breed I'.'im, and the sau)e troneral rido iiok's Good iji l»i*ih ca;-cs — a meiduiii Mze and fuK^ true fci-m. Roots weighing four to six j^wunds a.nd of four *o six inches diruneicr at the toj) f.iid nine to thirteen inches long, and s!::ooiiily and evenly laj^r-fing to a ].oii.L without strug- gling branclies, and of a creamy white color and smooth grain, are the mosi rk'sirahle. 24. " j^iko produces like,"' and with such selections i'ollowcd up, the croi) will soon run evenlv of the same sliajso and size as the roots fiom which the seed was grown. IMant the seed n.ots, and in \\m laiiiudo about tlio 1st of Mav, three feet apart, and as tho stalks grow, stake rouiul them in a cii'c i-^ ai ' tic a small cord from stake to stake, for their support. VV i^en tho seed ;>hells easily, whicli, if planted in iMay, will he in Sef.tember, is the Line logalher it. 25. Two or three dozen roots will grow seed enough for acres, and at one-tenth the cost usually asked for it at the seed stores. When grown at home one knows what he gets, and as it comes to hira abundantly and cheap, he can without grudging give to hi» ■ i'.-t- i % f CANADIAN AORICULTURAL RBADER. e7 ■; a> oil !v>a t'lo 1- croj). akmbie '1 l-e )io{)or and 11 fciizo vvA of mclies sr rug- acres. neighljours, and tiiereby greatly promote tke culture of this most valuable of roots. Skction XVI. 1. UiTA I)V(;a, or Swedish Turnip. — Bushel for busliol, we ilo not think the turnip i.sns v.'iluable as the carrt»t, and it is besides lia- ble to tbo (jb|pcti<)n ol' giving an un[d('asant (lavi)ur to the milk and butler of cows i'ed unon it extensively, or niostlv tollio exclusion of other things : but the comparative ease wiih wiuch it r-nn bo cul- tivated ; liie cert'iinty with which it is gntwn, when ordinary steps lo ensure success are taken ; the great product per t.cre ; and the un- dod heart, a dressing (jl".-t,able maniiro before ploughing will be use.'ul. Well turjicd over an! rolled dov, u, ilio Im-f .-bould n«>t be disiurbed by any fartber plougbings, but a light barrow used until the su'rl'ace is rendered perl'ecily line, loose, and fi'i.ibleforlherece[)tio;ioftbes;'eds. 13. \\ iiere the land is not in tin-i", and re(|uires maiiuring for such a croj), tbo l.icst way Is to lay it (JUt in furrows of the proj)er dis- tance iioiii each other, say 28 or J.b> indies, and into iheso place the manure intended for the cro|). ]»y splitting the ridges between these furrows with the plough, liew one:5 will be formed over ibo manure, on the tops of which, when sligntly sinoijtbed and levelled, the secii-; .o-e to be sown. 4. A lirill is certainly the most ex])rdii!(His arvl best way of sowing ihi turnip, an;] drills are to be lual at ijio.^t of the yoed stores for the Iriiiing sum of tliree dollars, wbicli will sow them in the best manner. lUit wlierc a di'ill is woi to ls pack more closely when freed front it. If pitted earlv, we have found it necessary to make a small openinc: at the crown of the heap, that the warm air generfited may escape readily. 9. When tiie severe frosts ensue, the opening may be closed, though if neglected, the turnips are rarely injured in consequence. When taken out in the spring, as wanted, tliey are fresh and solid, and like the potato so kept, better than if deposited uncovered in the cellar. 10. All animals are fond of the turnip, or if disposed to reject it when first ollered, soon learn to feed on it readily. Horses, cattle, sheep and swine, have been fed on them ; and so far as our own experience has gone, they have been equally riccej)tahle and beneficial to each. We have repeatedly seen pigs accustomed to them, reject go.id sound corn for the turnip, when both were given at a time, and horses seem as much })leased with them as with oats. 11. No better apparatus for cutting them is required than a smooth floor, a good shovel, and a willing arm ; but for cattle, there is little necessity for cutting at all, as they will find their way into tlie interior of a plump ruta baga with as much certainty and as little difficulty as a Kentucky horse into a pumpkin. When fed to animals, it is a good plan to sp»*inkle salt over the pieces occa- sionally, or otherwise see that a supply is provided for the stock j CANADIAN AOB.ICULTURAL READKR. 89 and for horses, cattle, or sheop, a small qaantiiy of dry ri)od, Rudi as hav or cut straw, should be given with them, or pLued witiiin rea<'li cf the animals. 12. Lastsunniier the drought was unfavorable to root crops gen- erally ; not i)if)rf' pcrhn[)S to [\\e turnij) t'.u:; tin- potato, and we hope iliosc ulu) atleiMpUM] the cullurc and I'aih-d tlieu, will not be diseoui'.'iued tiorn a renew.'il oftho etll»ri this seas<. (nt.trlv 1200 biisluds to the acre,) vfl the fnct ol'so many cattle b.-inj l>d, and well led from so snnll a (|u;inlity of land, is u!os; c<»ncl:i^.iVo cvidoticc ol ihe abil- ity to greatly increase the number of; ui\\ : kept 1)\ our firiuers, by the iutroduciion of the rootcidture. An u\ or cow will consume in live months not less than two tons of common hay, fed upon it ex- clusively. Hut alhnving that the twenty tons would liavo kept fifteen head, there remains forty-one bend of grown cattle, kept througi) the winter, on the product of three acres of land. 15. J'jvery f?irmer can calcidate for himself the number of acres of grass he must have mown, to have furnished hay for this forty hend ; not lossthan thirty or thirty-five certainly; as we think there are more ncrrs mown that do not come up to two tons [)er acre than there is that exceed that amount. Our wheat growers, who would like i) keep more stock, without lessening their main crop, should consider this subject well. Section XVIT. 1. Carrot. — Duiiciis. — This plant is said to be a native of Great Britain, vviiore it is still f()und growing wild. Tlioi'e are many varieties of the carrot; and llie follov^inr^ are the finest sorts : — Lemon, Long Orange, liltjod red. Altrln^ham, (a superior sort,) Early horn, Cicmer, (fine for the table,) 2. jS'o//.--The carrot requires a light, mellow soil, mixed with sand, and should be dug or trenched one or two spades deep, break- ing well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a porous bed, and an I CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. li'il V ' '.; even surfnco. The orange nnd red sorts, on ncrount of tlieir Ion 'or roots, rctjiiirc a soil propurl oriahjy doc|irr than llio horn. 3. . Til. St i,'.'. il. — riimt son.o L'lrgesl, be;.t rijots onrly in the f^priiig, tv.o [. f| , p;irt: iiiscrl them a few iiielw > ovd i-o Towns. They will \!.i>' ij|csefd in aiitumn, ofwiiich gallcr only from tljc priiic'; •! i.iuLel, which is lik('ly h-l or.ly to alluru ihe. rij(ut of carrot aJ.'ij.ted to Held cul- 1 11, is tlio loiig reii, or field carr(;t. ?«>. n- seed is ' it will iii>t vegettit' the second \\'av. 'lUc best ' is a (jeep ric', .''uidy loam ; such a s lil ought to ■rO] , 'iiri n!l equr lly good from toui a fo. might or three wcei •, "', .lire tl;o time 1 in'.cnd sowing ; t.nking care to have the heaps in; r,» d every day, sprfidvling the outside of l.icm with water e.-icli limo of turning over, tiiat every part of the s.i^id heaps may bo equally moist, and that vegetation may take pl;:ice alike throughout. 8. I hrive great advantage in preparing the seed so long before hand ; it is by this means in a state of forward vegetation, there- turo, sriy^ r most e^sr I i; 1, : soil f .1 1' 1 ! . : ( :: ; r be at le;.: i . ' 1 '■ On any o, ' el' il 7. J ];. If. i;:'i with cnrti w • •'^ws 1 1 \::.< r !•] lai '■ ■'» ' US il. i; ..'Ctcd s •;i . o lo an ocrf , i M .1 CANADIAN AORICCLTURAL RKADCB. •I foro lios but a short time in the ground, nnd l)y quickly npponring abov ground, is more nhlo to contend with thoso inuiionMjs triboa flrt' weeds in tiie soil, whose seeds nro of (juickcr vegotntiun. 9. Tho (juantity ofsopd when carrots Tiie Miwn in rtiws, is two pountis per acr? ; and, for broad-cast sowiuff, live pounds. The rows tor tiie larger or proper field carrois, should be from 14 to 10 or IH inches nparl ; and the crirrots thinned in hoein,i;, to Ji or 4 inches np.'irt in lb'' I'ows. The seed will behest when sown by hand, as ibr-ir siiape dues not well adinil ul'llieir being sown by innchines. 1(1. Low. Ion s.'iys, it has been advised, by nn intelligent cultiva- tor, to i.epo.sit the .seeii lo the dep'h of one irich in iho rows, leav- ing tlio spices of I'ourteen inches between 'hcni .'u-; iii'tr\;ils; tho seed, in t!ie>o ca." where tlipy .-ire i.Mvit ciiki.a!(<]. i! t cnrroKs which t;row;,l m\'-\ dj.stances aiway,'; j.r • e :> i.,(.i.' nbuud lUt crop than when the plu ; are allow- ed to si'ind ( l'r.?r to<;etJiei'. ] )e iiie oi,served, it isiiot ;u ,i.-s if tliey grow bug' .-.ud rank. w!iet! tbr-y are cliiedy ticsigiK i . .-; loud for cuttie, till hiv'i -Um-iIi : i/.ed (.i;es ars prcferreo' for the t.-iik;. I'-l. Tlic i'., ouinu !■• as!: '. iiietit of ihe modeo|\'ubo;(iuL^ carrots by some, i'l pre.i ixnco to all o'ber> : — I'loughas iej^piu iI'.m fall or Fpring as ilie si'ilc ofibo land will peruut. (.'ro-.N-p!oii<.h in tho epring, and barrow level. Put (Mi liiieen, tweiay, <.r tWMity-five buck-loai's of iiie most rotten compot '.o tho ae-re. as l!:-' heart of the land n, ly be. .Spread and harrow it fine; then, \vi;,ii a horse- plough, strike it into two-l)out ridqes, as near fogntber a- i-.ur back furrows will n.ake them, riii.i if the two first hack furrow, nronar. row, tho other Iwo being defp, the ridge will be nearlv to a pointy and should be eighteen or twenty inches from the bijitom of the furrow, if it be widl cleared out. 13. To do which, make anoth'--r bout in the furrow, if nooossary. Then, with the head of a rake, strike oif the crown of the ridge, i I *> ^>. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ^^^^'V "> 1.0 I.I 11.25 M 2.0 JA Hill 1.6 Photographic Sciences Coiporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ■■^^ iV iV s> c!^ ,<"'* *% v 4. "^A o\ '<^5? #^ >^' '^ 9 .^ (/j ^ c5^ "3^ 6^ 92 CANADIAN AOBICULTURAL READER. I > n f;t]f MM till it is three or four inches wide, and with it or a hoe, open a drill in the usual manner. Sow the seed pretty thick, cover and press down a little with a hoe or shovel. VVhen the weeds appear, run a small plougn through the furrows. Hand weed the crop, and hoe the wcorls iVoin ttie sides of the ridge. The orange carrot is best 14. In harvesting, a plough should be run near the side of the range of carrots, and as deep vh possible. This loosens the dirt, and clears one side ofihe carrels almost entirely from the earth. Thelnboufers then, wiili great facility, take thorn by their K)ps out of the bods. ;!.n'! liirow them into carts, with only an occasicinal use of the ln'f; lO plants which the plough has not loosened. 15. I liavo no question that, conducted in this mode, a carrot crop may be m-ide more productive, and less expensive than the potato crop usually is. In sowing, I use a small hand-drill, which lays the seed with great regularity — a circumstance very impor- tant both to I'icilitate weeding and harvesting ; since, if the carrots stand strngfiling, and not in a line, the plough, when harvesting, leaves tlie more to be loosened by the hoe or fork. 16. Horses are remarkably fond of carrots, and it is even said, that when oats and carrots are given together, the horses leave the oats, and eat the carrots. The ordinary allowance is about forty or fifty pounds a day to each horse. Carrots, when mixed withchafT, that is, cut straw, and a little hay, without corn, keep horses in excellent condition for performing all kinds of ordinary labour. 17. In comparing the carrot with the potato, an additional cir- cumstaiK^e greatly in favor of the former is, that it does not require to be steomed or boiled, and it is not more difiicult to wash than the potato. Tiieso and other circumstances considered, it appears to be the most valuable of all roots for working horses. 18. The u>o of the carrot in domestic economy is well known. Their pn/dnco of nutritive matter, as ascertained by Sir H. Davy, is ninety-oighr parts in one thousand, of whir-h three are starch, and ninety-iive sugru". They are used in the dairy in winter and spring to give colour and Havour lo butter. In the distillery, owing to the great proportion of sugar in i heir composition, they yield more spirit than the polato ; the usual qu.antity is twelve gallons per ton. — They are excellent in soups, stews, and haricots, and boiled whole with salt i)eef. 19. 'I'lie diseases of carrots are only such as are common to most plants, such as mildew, insects, &c. The mildew and worms at the root frequently injure crops, and are to be guarded against, as far as practicable, by proper choice, soil, season of sowing, and after- culture. CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RCADSR. 93 rf J y .4^' Sfxtion XVlIf. 1. IlriMPS. — Tl.e best soil for Heinp is a rich VPtrrtnble mould, with a clay sub.siratiim, cither iVesli, or which hn?? I)cen long in j»asturo. Any stable or ordinnry ninniiro is good, il it be ncce.ssary to use nny, which dopoiiHs upon the degree ot' the t'itiln\ of the soil. ilc'm[) exhausts very little, aiid 1 have kimuii it ( idtivated for successive years in the same field without any diniinutitni of the crop 2. The ground should bo prepiared oxnctly ns you would make the best j)re[)ar;ition fur whe.'it. A bushel aiid a pe<*kofseed, or, it the land s uncouiiuouly rich, a bushel nnd a lirdf, to tiie acre, should be sowed, bi'oad cast, from the first to the 'il^th of May. All the plants, male and female, are gathered, by pulling or cutting close to the ground by a cutting ktiife reseaibiing a reaji liO(»k, but shorter. 1 he plants intendeii to produce seed ar<' sowed by them- selves in drills, and cultivated with the plough and hoe, so as to keep them clean. 53. The Crop Hemp is pulled or cut (for there is tiot much dif- ference between tlie two methods, although I preler cutting) about the 20th or 25th of August ; nnd the proj)cr time is indicated by the Hemp leaves turning a little yellow, and the lariiia escaping when the stalks ore agitated. Wlien cut or pulled, ;|je : talks are suiiered to remain on the ground a few days until ihey are cured, and if a rain falls on them so much the better, as it will render the separation of the leaves from the stalks easier. 4. After being cured, the hemp is tied up with a lirmp stalk in small bundles, convenient to handle, and shocked in the held. The best farmers, in a week or two afterwards, stack them on the field, throwing the tops inside and the roots out-^ide. Late in November or in December the stacks are broken, ami the Hemp spread down on the field, or on the sod, to ret. The length o!' lime it should remain depends upon whether the season is wet or dry, but it will not be less than seven or eight weeks, and may be longer. It is spread as you would spread flax regularly, and avoiding its beir>g tangled. 5. You cannot judge whether it is sufficiently retted or not but by taking up a handful and ascertaining if the lint will separate easily. VVhen sufiiciently tlius retted it is taken up, and again shocked, and broken out, in the months of February, March, April, &c., as convenient, by a large hand brake. 1 task my hands 80 lbs. per day, and allow them a cent per lb. for every [)Ound beyond that. I have known, in some instances, as much as 2r)0 pounds per day broken out. As each handful is broken out, the shoee, » :-l H CANADIAN AOaiCULTURAI ECADBR. f^ .:■^. r i f. i that Is tho liltln pnrticlcs of the stalk which adhere to the lint, are carefully benten olT, so as to mnko it clenn, and ihe homp is laid away, an;) at night tied up in a bale or bales, and carried to the Hemp hourfo. All attempts to substitute horse, water or steam jiowerlbr the hand l)rako, and there have been many, have hitherto iailo the present custom of our country prevails with regard to tho division of labor, or so long as tho males do all the out-noor work, the task of the females cannot be considered over-burden-^ome, if thev conlir'.ue the j^-ood old custom of household manufactures. VVe always believed the music of a s[)inning-wheel to be better adapted to a farmer's hoi'- 'ban a piano, and the sound of a loom indicates more economy tb. aat of a guitar. Skction XIX. 1. CiJLTfvATiov OF GiiAssEs. — In the modern and improved system of husbandry, tho cultivation of a farm may be considered under two heads ; the grass and the arable land. The convertible system of iiusbandry, is where land i^ converted from tillage to grass, and then again from grass to tillage, and so on, alternately. The advantages to be derived from this practice, says a writer of authority (Sinclair,) cannot be too much dwell on. By the grain y res- ))ectivcly thrive. lie divides them as tidi'nss : — 1. Grassf^s b'\st suited to arable lands, and desimied to nlter'inte with crain and roots, ti. Tliose br^st ad.'n)ted for \v\\ or nvadows ; and 3. Grasses which are most prolitably sown f -r perennial pastures. 4. There are several descriptionsof land, which are much more profitably em-ployed in tillage than in grass, particularly those that are dry or liglit, and wliich have little tendency to produce good lierbage. Yet constant cropping with gi'nin would soon e\h;uLst iheiQ of fertility, without an e.\[»ense tor manure which few can ailbrd. The system of introducing artificial or sown grasses after two, three, or lour ycirs' tillage is hapj)i]y calculated to avert the evil, and coustiiute the basis of most of the late improvements in arable husbandry, as well as iarm stock. 5. Tlio grasses best cdculated fir this purpose, are red and white clovers, lucern, sanfoin and the orchard, tall oat, timothy, nnd ryo grasses. Clover is the ju'imary dependence on all soils ^\hi(dl will grow it, and particularly where gypsum can exercise its powers. As vegetal)Ies are said to exhaust the soil, m proportion to the smailness of their leaves, clovers are entitled t') the Idgh commen- dation th^y have obtained among Canadian fnrmers. llut as these plants are liable to premature destruction by the frosts of winter, it is prudeht and wise to intermix with their seeds, those of some other grass more to be depended on. 6. On sands, light hams, and gravels, (and these constitute the soils usually employed in convertible husbandry,) the orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass, appear best calculated for this purpose. They grow early, delight in a clover soil, and are fit for the scythe when clover is in bloom, the period at which it ought to be made into hay. The hay from this mixture, may be made before the lli ■^ 96 CAVADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 13: i :l i '^ »<■■ I ) hnrver-t r^"n.T. :«nccs ; nnd if the soil is good, a second crop may bo cut alrx.ost, equnl to the first. 7. ii intended for |)asture the second or third ycnr, eilh':'r of thoso grasses will nilbrd more abundnnt herbago tiinn tiin<»lhy. Luceru may he sown on deep sand loatos ; and sanfoin on dry soils, natur- ally calcareous, or on those which have been rendered so by marl or lime On clfn/.s, and hearu loams, timothy may \)o. sown alone, or those jn'nsses named in the preceding paragraph, separal':' or mixed. 8. On wel soils, and reclaimed swamps, as llie only object of lilhige oufflit to he to prepare the ground to be laid down in grass, tlie kinds indicated in the i)roceding renrirks as suilable for sncli soils, and intended for meadow grasses, siiould i)e selected ; yet so scanty is our assortment that we can only name timothy and herdsgrass, y. Mcailoms. — These may be classed under three bends, viz : — low, or alluvial lands, on the banks of rivers, creeks, and brooks ; upland, naturally moist, or of clay, or heavy loam ; ;iiid reclaimed bogs and swamps. These soils, to ddoj)t a common term, are aat- vral to grt lands not al)solu:oiy wet. Stable tn:inur(; should be fi;)|»lied oaiy v.licn it can lie s'jared from the more nrv- fitabi ntable uses oi"til!ago, ami is far luorc beiioiicial niixc! willi thesoil, th.'in Sjirc a;i upon iis siiri'ace. i i. Us iii;»»t economic.d application is in die form (d' compost, made ijy mixinf^ it wiih bog e.irtli, I'ivi'r sr.nd, the uash from tb« higlnvay.s, or oilier ricii earth, at the rate oi'one lorul ot'dung to five or six of o'li'tli. if turned and mixed well, litis eon.siituies a valiK'.Ido top-dressinc^ for grass grounds, and is best, apjilied in thr. autumn. Wjicn tlieso means fail to insure a gof)d crop of hay, it is time to resort to the ph^igh, a course of crop's, ami rf> sccding. 15. The nur;d;cr of grasses is very great. It is snid that -l^i properly soca.b'J. ai'e capable of being cultivated in d'reat Hrit- uin. JuJgo lUiel has given an account of twenty-five, I'oreign a.nd domestic, an(i exhibiievi in a tabular view their comparative valuo, as indicated by tiieir produc*, find the quantify of nutritive mrittfr wnich they severally atiord, together with tiie time of their flower- ing and seeding. 10. Anollier paper in the Memoirs, by S. PeWitt, Esq , siys : Inlaying down grounds for pasture lands, the i^higlish select iIk* seeds of such grasses as will come to maturity in buccession ; but 1 think ihey car.y this scdieino to excess, an(i that iherc is no ne- cessity for a mixture of such a variety of sef)ds to be used for tlie-^ purjjoses. Ill our country, tiie most esteemed grns-"es fire, white find red clover, timotiiy, or hcrdsgrass, the red toj), and foul mead- ow. 17. VVifh these some other indigenous grasses intermix, the merits of which deserve to he investigatnij. Our best grfixsfts for meadows, are unquestionably the timothy, the red top, and llie foul meadow. The merits of this last are not generally known. There can bono better hay than that which is made from it. On a ric^ moist soil, it will grow uncommonly dense, and I should think, would yield as much from an acre, as any other oT the beat culti- v^Hod grasses. o 96 (UiNADTAM AOaiCULTURAL READER. iiv- '. . i 1 I . Skction XIX. 1. SowiNr: oi.'GaAf9 Sf.kds.— Such Fnrmcnnnri plr\nt,orf!riH nir\y nof, put ill ilirir (n'?iss scedM iii auturnn fdiould do so asHoon fw tho IVd.sL is out oftlio <,n'oii!i(l. For cloi'cr, tlifi-o ia but ono opinion fia to the siijjoriority of spriiiir sowing, ami nlthougli many giv^ tho preforcnco to sowing timothy scod in August, still thore arc those whoi'O opinions are worthy ofconsidorrition, t!i'it advocate theprar- tico of sfittingit in spring on tho growing whr'ator rye : so also, indeed, wiih iT:=poct to almost every otiier of tho artificial grasses, "2. If vou intend to sow c/o/yt seed alone on vour j^rain fields, you should not think of seeding less than Loni twelve to sixteen jjounds to the acre. Timol/n/, if sown alone, should he in the pi-o- ])ortion of from two to two and a half gallons of sped to the norn. liijc Grass, alone, two Ijushels to the acre. If Clavar and Tlmotky 1)0 sown together, iVom ten to twelve pounds of the former seed and a peck of the latter would not he found too much. J}. If you piu-poso carrying your mixture still further, sow ton pounds of clover yeed, six quarts of timothy, and half a bushel of ];ords grass to the acre, — or, of c/oirr eight pounds, orc/uird grass one bushel, /nil mcdow oat one bushel, and herds grassh^Xi a bushel. \x\ Europe the following is in many districts a popular mixture, two bushels of n/c grass i'^,ed^ r\m\ from twelve to twenty pounds of clover seed to tiie acre. It is usual to sow the orchard and tall meadow oat in early autuv^in, but there is no question that thev would succeed in spring. The orchard grass should be moistened with water and {)ermitted to remain so ibr a day before sowing. 4. Whatever grass seeds you sow on your winter grain, be suno to pass a light harrow, and roller over them. You need not appre- hend any injury lo your gram, for although some roots may be dragged out, you will be more than remunerated by the addition you will receive from the tillering of the branches ol tho plants which will be imbedded in the soil during the process. That tho grass seed will derive advantage from being thus securely placed beneath the soil, common sense and reason both concur in affirming. 'i. Thev will be much more likelv to escape destruction from birds than if left upon tho surface ; they will vegetate with greater certainty, and with being well fixed in the earth, their roots will be much better able to withstand the droughts of sunnner and the frosts of winter. VVe need not say that the opei^ ations of harrowing and rolling should be performed when the ground isin a state to bear the treading of the horses without injury, as il will strike the intelligent reader that if done when tho grounti ja welj much injury will result to the grain. CANADIAN AOaiCULTUlAI, RKADKR, 99 4 6. Jiucerne. — Tlioso who mnv foel disnosr.' to trv their fiiituno with this vnluriblo gra.'-s, cnii do so as soon as ih^ (^r'>unil »s reliov- oflfruiii thcfn>tJi!iil dninpii.rs.s. It shuulii lie - sowti. it \w\y 1,-" pii: in witii iho spring bfj'loy and onts. In i'irighiud and ricoilaml it iss iVeqiiently cut lour tiniOH In a scrison. 7. lie wiio sows 5r(7/?/;7// must rxpoct to vo.u\) in a prf^portitin- ato degree, or to gather iiiorc weojs than hay. In every soil therw oj'o ample tmpplies ol' the seed of every variety of v.ild and noviouy horbas^e, and if the-iO are not supplanted by a ulioiosoiiio covorinf; of arlihejal gnissfs, thjy will ir.cvitably gcrminaro, and sliow their pestilent frouls to t!ie annoyance of p!"oj>i';;-tors, an;! the disco:nfoi"l of thoir stock : for the eartii will be busy in despite of all the inai- ti-oatincnt it receives at human hands. linjury, 'TOUDii Section XXI. 1. Mowing. — They who have not boon in their youth ac^cus- torned to do this work, are seldom found to bo al)le to do it witK ease or expedition. But when the art is once learnt, it will not b<3 lost. As this is one of the most laborious j>irts of the hus))and- man's calling, and the more faliguing as it must b(> performed in llie hottest season of tiie year, every precaution ought to bo used which tends to lighten the labor. 2. To this it will conduce not a little, for tho mower to ri'^e very early, and be at his work before the rising of the sun. lie may easily perform half tho usual day's work before nine in the moru- ing. iiis work will not only bo made easier by tlie coolness of tho morning air, . -si also by tlie dew on tho grass, wdiich is cut the moro easily for being wet. II By this means he may lie still and rest himself during ail tho hottest of the day, while othefj who b'^giu late are swo ii- ing themselves exces-sively, and hurling their health, probably, by taking down large draughts of cold drink to slake thoir ragii.'f^ thirst. The other half of his work may be performed after ihroii or four o'clock, and at night he will find himself free from i'atiguo. If the mower would husband his strength to advaiit'igo, he should take care to have his scythe, and all the apparatus ior m.nving, in the best order. 4. His scythe ought to be adapted to tho surface on which h« mows. If the surface be level and free from obstacles, the scytho maybe long and ahiiost straight and he will perform his wjrkwith loss labor, and grstt'w&xpsdi.tion. Bat if t!io surf.'.ce bo ua^yeu, A* 100 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READKH. t; rii ii f ' 11 >•. '! if I • 1 1 .• ! ' cradloy, or oliorjuorod with stonos, or stumps oftroos, his f5r tiio jeast degree of loosoness will <»lili,i,'e Irrn to n.;o the morn violence fi.t overv sLroke. Mauv worry ti:cn.sol\ o.-) needlessly l>y not nUcndirit^ to this circumstance. (5. Mowiiij^; wilh u c(jinj)any (Ught to ho avoided hy those who arc not voi-y strong, or who arc litilo used to the iiusiiio.ss, or wfio liave not tlieir to'ils i,i ilio bc^t order. Young lads, v/hoaroamhi- tious to he thouglit good mowers, often find tliems-dves much hurt by mow'iig in conijinny. Mowers shouki liot iollow Vm) closely ailer ea(di o'!,"r. icr tlds has keen the occasion ol' latal woinids. And v^hen the dangerous tool is carried tVom place to place, it should ho liuund U[) wilh a rope oi'gra^;-, or otherwise carefully secured. 7. lI(!ij-?,Lif:hig. — Tlie first tlfng to ho considered idjout liay- making is the time of cu'.ting the grays, it .vhoidd not he cut t(»(j early, or before it has got its growtii, for tiiis will cause it to shrink loo mutdi in drying On the contrary, it sliould not stand tooiate, or till the seed l)0 quit? ripo. It is not only harder to cut, but the rij.oncjs of liio seed will cause it to shatter out whiledrying, which will be a considerable loss, as the seed is the most rich and n(»ur- ishing part ; and the soil will be the morn exhausted by nourish- ing the seed iiil it cuaios to niaturit}', and iho next succeeding crop will be the ptjorer. 8. Tljore never can be any advantage in mowing late unless it bo tliickcidng llie grass roots by scattering some of tho seed where they weie before too thin. IJe that mows early has the advantag-ri of longer days for drying his hay ; and of shorter niglils, when the dews are less detrimental to hay-making, iJut tlie fanner who has many acrcsof the same kind of grass, cannot always expect to cut the wiiolo cf it in exactly the right season. That he may ap- proacli as neai' to riglit as possible, he should cut the thickest grass first of all ; esj)ecially if it be in danger of lodging, or so thick wtjat tho lowest leaves perish, or the bottoms of the stalks turn yelr low. 9. The thinnest of his grass should be cut next, which is apt to twripe soonest ; and last of all, the middling sized grass, or thai whicli is on a medium between thick and thin. Where a secuod CANADIAN AORICULTimAL RFADKU. 101 h ur- h- h !S It ere "lien 'ho btto rass nick CTved, f-:lir It ofton, cock it the same (kiy it is inowid, open it in the next fair day wlien l!:e dew is oil* let it sweat a little in cock, and housj it us scon as it is dry enough. It will boar to bo laid greener on a sca/lold, than in a ground mow ; jind in a narri)W mow greorif r than ill a bro:id one. And that whiidi is the luast of all madti, Bhould be jut on u scaliold. SECTION XXI. 1. Paftuhe. — It is an injury to pastures to turn in cattle too fiarly in the spring ; and mo.st hurtful to those lots in which the. grasa springs carliesf, as in thouc wliich are low and wet, in wh'ch the grass comes forward soonest. The feel o( the cattle early in the spring destroy the young grass, and cut up the sward in such a manner as to produce a grout amount of injury, wiihout any bene- fit to tho caltlo , as tho little food they can obtain from the gra^ss just sprouting, serves scarcely any other puiposo than to cauBa tiicm to scour. •2. The grass In pastures should be so far grown before cattle are admitted, that they can fill themselves without rambling over the whole ground. The 2Uth of May is quite early enough in conv mon seasons to turn cattle into almost any of the Canadian pastures. Out of some, they should bo kept still later. The driest pastures should bo used first, though in them the grass is shortest, tJiat tho breaking of tho sward by tho cattle's feet may not take place to any great extent. 3. It is recommended not to turn all sorts of cattle into pastures at once. Milcli cows, working oxen and tatting beasts should be indulged with tho first feeding of a pasture ; afterwards, sheep and horses may take their turn. When a lot is thus fed ofl', it should be shut up, and the dung which has been dropped should he beaten to pieces and well scattered. Afterwards a second lot may be opened and treated in the same manner, and so on in rotation, from one inclosure to another, giving each inclosure some tini© CANADIAN AORlCULTrBAL RHADH&, 103 la re Ithe )rD- lian licst ike ires be land it bfi ^nay lion, tini© to recruit ; tnking caro, so fjirns posNihlo. to focd iliodriost pnstiiroB first, so that till! swfird may l)0 tlio h«« injured by ibe trcfuiing ol' the cattlo. 4. fcsomotbing considerublo is saved by letting ilitiereiit sorts of prnziiig niiiinals take their turn in a |)n.sturo. \\y tins ineniits nearly all tlio berlingo will bo eaton, much ofwhicli would o'.lier- wisG bo lost, llorsc.s will cat the leavings ot' horned cattle ; and fthcep will eat eomc tliin;:!;s which both llio others Icmvo. 5. If swiue are turned into a pasture, tlw^y should have rings on their noses, unless it is anobj''cl to employ those animals in root- ing out luvd^cs and otiier weeds whirh they consume lor foiul. If tlioy are nllowcd lii'^ rn\st of tho I'cetj, thoy will delilo the grass, 80 that tho iiorscs and cnltle will reject it. G. Let the stock of a farmer be greater or lens, he should have at least lour iriclosures of jjastnro land. One inclosure may feed two weelcs, and being then idiut up to grow, o|)en another. Ivich one will recruit well in six weeks, and each will have that lime to recruit. lUil in the latter jfrt of October, the cattle may rang© Uirough all tho lots, unless some one may become too wot and Roft. In this case it ought to bo shut u[), and kej)t till feeding limo tho next year. 7. So dillbrcnt is the appetite of different animals, that there is scarcely any plant which is not eaten by some, and rejected by others. The tbllowing ajo ."^aid to be facts, which have been ascer- tained in Holland : — vVhen eighi cows have been in a j)asturo and can no longer obtain nourishment, two horses will do very well there for some days, and when nothing is left for tho horses, four fihoep will live upon it ; this not only proceeds from their differing in the choice of plants, 'mt from the formation of their moulbs, which are not equally adapted to lay hold of the grass. 8. Although small pastures are recommended for pasturing nonl cattle and horses, yol Mr. Loudon observes that " Largo inclosures are in general best adapted for sheep. These animals are not only impatient of heat, and liable to be much injured by flies, in email pastures, often surrounded by trees and high hedges, but they are naturally, with the exception, perhaps, of the Leicester variety, much more restless and easily disturbed, than any other species of live stock." 9. ' Sheep,' says Lord Kaimes, ' love a wider range, and ought to have it, because they delight in short grass ; give thorn eiglity or ninety acres, and any fence will keep them in ; confine them to Q field of seven or eight acres, and it must be a very strong fence that keeps them in.' Though fields so large os 80 or 9U acres, can 1 r "I t 104 (UKADIAIf AOBICULTURAL READER. ';-;■<• ,' m m m Ml be advisable only in hilly districts, yot the general rule is neverthe- less consistent with experience. Section XXTI. 1. Raising Sekds. — Acting on the principlo, that every farm should i)r()duco as far as possible all that is recjuircd for usr- upon it, we adviro farmers to pay more attention to raising seeds. There Will always be soino which it will be necessary jjorbajis to pur- chase, and there are many of which exchanges will produce a good eflbct, bui. far tlic greater jjartof the seeds wanted by t!ic common farmer may be as well produced by himself, as by aiMther. Some little care and attention is, however, necessary ; else, however good the seeds may be, so far as germination is concerned, the plants produced may not be of tiie kind desired or expected. 2. Nearly all are aware that when plants arc so situated, that the i)o]len or I'ecundatinG: dust of tlie blossom of one variety i;3 con- veycd to the flower of another variety of the same species, a cros.s will be the result, and the new vegetable or plant will ho u hybrid, having a ndxtiu-e of the (jualities of bulb, ])orliaps, but unlike eith- er. It is owing to this easily understood cause, that the seeds (^f the "jjplo, [)each, cherry, potato, and other fruits and plants so rare- ly produce trees or plants like the original ones. o. It is this disposition to mix vrhich is to be guarded against, and a i'ew simple rules will enable anv fnrmer to do so eubctualiy. Beets are a pl/mt frequently injured l)y planting diiTorcnt kinds tor seed near each other. Thus, the red and white will produce plants neither red no:' wliile, and frequently of an inferior quality. Rad- ishes of diilbren.t kinds sho^-ild never bo planted near each other, when intended for seed. Nothing shows the etfoct of ' amalgama- tion' quicker, than the planting of squashes and p>umpkins near each other. 4. The squashes will be mis-shapen and watery, and the pump- kins wartyana hard-skinned, and destitute of thoswectness belong- ing to the pure article. Nearly the same deteriorating results ensue from planting gourds in the vicinity of squashes. The shell ofthe gourd is injured, and the squashes are rendered biiter and unpalatable. C'orn of the several kinds cannot be preserved in jjurity, if planted where the dust of the blossoms of one kind come in contact readily with the silks of another. r>. Cabbages of diiferent varieties are very sure to crosj with each other when planted together, producing plants like neither of the original kinds. One of the most serious injuries resulting from this tendency, is foimd to arise when cabbages and turnips intended CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 106 for seed are planted near each other. The cnbbnges produced fro.Ti suc^ seed will not head well ; and the turnijis, instead of fine round bulhswith small tufts of leaves, will be surmounted wilh a cabbage-like stem, an inmiense quantity of leaves, and the roots themselves will be more or less tough and woody in their structure. 7. Potatoes of several kinds may be planted wilh impunity near each other, as they are not usually grown from the seeds, but al- most alwriys from the tubers, and these nre not nllectcd l)y the fecundating j)rocess. VV^e not unfrcqucntly honr complriints from farnicrs and others about their seed changing into a diiVeront and a worse kind. ]'>y a little attention to the above suggcsti-'iis, tliis dilUcuiLV might be avoided, and good seeds grown by every one. The most [)ei'fect plants should always be selected for plantijig out for seed ; and where this is done, and a mixture wilh other kinds is avoided, a change for the worse need not be feared. CHAPTER lY. it t gainst, ally, dri for (lants Rad- olhor, o-ima- pump- )elong- results e shell or and ved in como with tther of [igfrom itended Section' I. 1. Houses. — By the general consent of mnnkind it seems to bo agreed that the burse is the most no!)le, useful, and beautiful of animals. Kind docile, and even ailbctionate in their dispositions, there is no animal, the dog jiorhaps excepted, that is so closely at- tached to his master, and appears so veil to umicrstand even his wishes, as the horse. We never felt dispose;! to blame or ridicule tlie expressions of fondness an Arab will bestow upon his favorite mare ; one that has been an inmate of his tent, as it were, for per- luijjs twenty or thirty years ; one that has carried liim safe through all his exploits oi'thicviiig and robbing without iaitering or stumb- ling , one that knows his voice among a thousand, and in any situ- ation will com:j at his bidding, always meeting grncefully his ca- resses, or bearing him oli'in (light j)roudly and safely. 2. A Ui.ui who loves a good horse, and who does not ? has Ids feelings sadly trie i by the droves of "villainous, spavined, foundered, narragunset |)'icers" or trotters, that he is couipelled to meet, let him go where he Vvili ; animals utterly worthless, excoj^t perhaps to drag a plough or a waggon about the i'arm for a few da\s in a year, and the remainder of lue timeadead weiglit upon the hands oftr.eowner. A good horse will always sell well. Perhaps there is no species of property less liable to lluctuation or depreciation in value, than a good liorse. 3. But what in this respect are horses in general ? Take one huftdred of tlie first horses you meet on our farms, old and young 106 CANADIAN AOniCULTU&AL READEA. ? i-;?: a.id what think you they would bring a head, if sold under tho ham- iTiiir for cash I and they will bring cash in no other way. Ten, fifteen, or twenty dollars on an average, perhaps ; and yet those Bcapc-goats have cost their owners, in rearing, nearly a.', much as horses that would average one hundred dollars each. 4. The plain truth is, we have too many horses by one-third, and those we have arc too poor by one-half ; and when we undertake to make sales of thcni wo fitid such to be the fact. Huch horses run the tanner in debt ; they do not pay the expense of raising, or any thing near it, and the sooner this truth is realized, the l>etter for all. Now let no farmer who is burdened with old or worth- less horses aay to himself on reading this — '• It is true 1 have more horses than I want, or than is j)rofitable to keep over the winter, and 1 must get rid of two or three of the oldest. 5. There are neighbors A and B, they have no horses, and they sometimes come to mo lor one ; to prevent lending thorn one fit for service 1 will give old Spilftre to A and liorod to B." If a man has a particle of honor in his constitution, or carries such a thing as a conscience in his bosom, he will go to his neigh- bor and steal from him his last ten dollars, his only bushel of wheat, or his children's loaf of bread, before he will iniiict upon him such a curse as the gift of an old horse. 6. We know there are multitudes of poor men, wdio can with great difficulty provide bread, who have a great j)enchant for a horse, and will accept of one as old and helpless as their grancU £iather, to keep the breath of life in it through the winter, when they should be better employed, and finally before spring comes be obliged to consign the animal to the crows. If you have an old horse who is past service, the good he has done you deserves a better recompense than the tender mercies of a drunken raggcfc- DQuffin, or the starvation of a man's lot. 6. Kill him, but do not give him away to be abused or starved. Kill him and make a mound over him of lime, vegetable matter and earth, which will prevent all ofiensive smell, and furnish a few loads of the very best manure ; or cut him into small pieces and bury him in the ground where most wanted, certain that his flesh will produce an immediate, and his bones a lasting benefit to the soil. A pig is worth more to a poor man than a horse ; and a good cow is worth a dozen. Let every man who is tempted to ob- tain or keep superannuated horse flesh, remember this. Section II. 1. Treatment op the Hokse. — Horses in their natural state CANIDIAN AGEICULTCmAL RHADBR. 107 ) ■< irved. natter a few and flesh o the nd a to ob- staXB are by no mcnns ferocious ; they arc only wild and fiery ; and it udiay bo added with equal truth, that they are not naturally vicious; for their ill tempers, as well as ninnners, originate generally from defective educaiion, and rough h"'>dling. liar, h usage and j)un- ifcilirncnt are of no avail as corrections ; for, under cruel discipline Che horse l)cconies more ohstinnlc, morose, and irritable, and is very soon rendered dangerous of ap|)roacii. 2. If, on the contrary, you use him kindly, and he finds that in- stead of a tyrant, he has a friend about him, he vvill be under your hands as tracinbio as a lamb ; in fact so subservient tliat you may do any tiling with him — tor it is well knov/n to tho-c ac(]uaintod with the nature of the horse, that no animal is more susceptible of soothing, nor more docile and grateful lor gentle usage, as he in- variably evinces cheerfulness on the approach of the person from whom he receives kind treatment. 3. An occu[)raion l"or which I have always felt a peculiar par- tiality, has been, the study of the temper and dispor.ition of the horse ; and, irum the obsei'vations I have in consequence mado, oni convinced, that a multiplicity of errors are committed from ig- norance of his true character in the rearing and tuition of that noble animal, which afterwards fall heavily and very unjustly on hliu. 4. Many horses have been intrusted to my care for correction, under the supposition that tliey were bad tempered, or viciously dis- posed, which, in other iiands, would, without doubt, have been acted Ujjon accordingly, i. e. rendered more faulty by harsh proceeding. On acquaintance with tliem, I generally found the poor animals to be only nervous and irritable from ill treatment, rather than vi- cious by nature ; in short, ' more sinned against than sinning ;' for no sooner had 1 gained their confidence, than the tremulous awe and timidity they evinced on being approached disappeared. 5. After a short trial, 1 have returned them to their owners, di- vested of the alledged complaints, with this simple injunction, or Bomething tantamount to it, ' Use him kindly, for vicious conduct makes vicious horses ;' at the same time urging them to bear in mind, ' that the horse is naturally of a gentle disposition, and much disposed to associate with man.' 6. This may be exemplified by any gentleman recollecting the pleasure a horse seems to feel when noticed and caressed by hirn- flelf ; yet, on scrutiny, the same demonstrations of joy will not take place on the approach of the attendant. Education generally Imparts humanity and feeling to its possessor ; and a gentleman QQjoying these qualities more eminently than his domestics, the m 1' 1, 5 ■» r r-, ,■ j' IVJ, ittur Pi: ■i ■ 1^: ■ .t.r It li:' 'H" ■'i' h 108 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ' ffl 1:1 onimal's discrimination causes him to recognize a difTcrence in tho behavior of eacli towards liim. 7. Grooms are too prone to be harsli and hasty towards the horse ; whereas, if they would only study to make a plcnsure of their duty, lliey would considerably abbreviate the roulino of their labor. In conso(juence of erroneous conduct, horses will occasion- ally acquire a character I'or viciousness among strdde mer, which cannot be substantiated on rensonable grounds, llio ]>rr>sence < f the owner being fi-equonlly a complete refutation of the asscrlion. 8. Uorsps usually evince Jtttachn)cnt towards tliose who iisR them kindly. Mis lato Minjosty, George 111., had a fivoritc char- ger naiiiod Adonis. Whenever the k;i}g, on visiting his stablr"?, chnnccd to pass near enough for Adonis io hear his voice, the ani- mal would commence whining with joy, and his recognition of his master was always accompanicil with so much noise, that, to quiet him, his m.'ijosty would invarinbly command bim to bo saddled ;trui led ibrlli. Having rodo bim for a few minutes round the premises the graliiied animal would return to );is qu:ir1ers ; but had the king not himioi-ed iiis wish, the animal would have become U[)roariou3. 9. Till williiu a very short period, I was not av/are any person ha(i publicly treated on the suiiject of humanity to horses with the same views entertained by myself ; bnl I j)erccivc with pleasure, in a review o( a work printed on the continent, that theauthor jui*> tifiesmy opinion, and corroborates the truth of my remarks. One extract I have preserved, which I cannot do better than quote. 10. It is justly asserted, in the best works of rural econom}'- and t!ie veterinary art, that no horsa are naluralhj vicious. When they become vicious, the reason is, because \vc pay too little attend tion to tlie horse. In a word, we know liow to make ourselves intelligible to the horso. It seems truly astonishing, that horses in general arc not more obstinate ; and that, in the consciousness of their strength, they do not strive more to rid themselves of their slaver}', when we consider how severely, crucll}', and barbarously tiiese generous beasts are treated. 11. How often are they beaten an;l ill used, frequently without any cause ! and how seldom, on the other band, are they address^- Oil in terms of conuncndation and encouragement, and still less rewarded! and yet attentive observers have ascertained, that tliD horse, like the elephant and dog, possessess a sensibility of nerves which might be termed a sense of honor, and which is equally susceptible of j^raiso and blame. 12. Vicious habits may likewise be ascribed to imperfect traift* ing. For instance ] a horse is entrusted for that purpose to a pej> ^M CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADEB. 108 M' tho the ) of heir ;i()n- hich LlbB usn ?.lin.T- 3 ani- quiet d {ind ■mises ^ king •ious. ' )GrsoQ til the asuvo, or ins*" One e. y and When ntten?- Irselves rses in ess of r their rously kvithoul Iddresa- till less iiat tliD [ nerves equally It traiC» son totally unncqiiainted with the manner of treating liim, cons:o- quently iiicnpahlc of judging whether the horso be qualified hy nature to fiil.il tho intentions of tlio owner. The age and strength uf tiie animal liave not been taken mlo cnnsiderati^)n ; and iiis in- capaeitv to undergo tlie fatigue allotted to him, ahliongh proceeding from weakness, lias very incorrectly been ascribed to stidjluirn- ncss aiiaralively little consfw quence, were it not indicative of the breeding and blood, and of course, m a great measure, of constitution and temper, it has been said that a good horse could not be of a bad colour ; and in manv I'QSpects the position is true ; still, for the reasons given, there are aonie colours which experience shov/s should be preferred. 2. Fashions, however, are mutable, and in no respect are they ksa permanent than in thecolour of horses. Thecolour of his hair, and that of the skin, is depending on the mucous tissue or network itnmediately beneath the cuticle, the outer or scarf skin being oolou^. less, and only serving to protect the true skin and its appendages from friction or injury. The pure white horse is a very rare ani^ irral, the majority of those that appear so having once been grejjt, «nd growing white after reaching the age of four or five yeasa. V ■S'l [f I* 110 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READBR. J; '><• ''f ' II Is '*' wn t Kin it li i 3. Among the Arabians, a pure white marc is considorod alnxifit priceless ; as in ilmt case the jujrity of hor hlood, and lier direct descent from the celebrated stee CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RBADKH. Ill well liked as groys or roan.s, hut when well matched, they som©- timos npnear well as carri;igo horses. 8. Their vnliio, of course, (iepcnils on their breed. The crean> coloured, or IJanoverinn horse, is lemnrkahle f)r the iris and red pupil of his eye, and is appropriated to the use of the royal family in ljhi<.;la!id. lie has a lioavy, yet perfectly formed h')fly, and is a su[)erh aiiimal ; l»ut there is no e.\j)erionco to shy jirn (.'.oMijtarativtdy (io.-trso animals ; and tbou^li tlioro aro soino oxofdlcnt hla'd< lijrsf.' has alvvavs been a great Invorilc, and witb him more pains have been taken in breeding tiian with many others. The heavy black Lincolnsliiie hoisc, principally used in London as a druy horse, is a n:)b!e animal in tlio harness, and could he be ren- dered more active, woidd be invaluable, where power and endi»- rancc aro retpiired. With the exception of liio best shade ofl).iys, the black hoiscs, next in size to tho Lincolnshire breed, cimsldtulG the best horses for the farmer, or the ordinary uses of the carriage or road. IT). The good qualities of these horses have been established hv breeding ; j)ut ol" the other varieties of the black horse, there are multitudes of worthless ones all over the country. Owing t;) the common i>lack horse being so often a poor cre.iture, some have asserted that animals of this cohjur were more vicious, and more subject tw disease and blindness than other horses. lo. Every woidcer, or breeder of horses, must be, however, aware, thit all conclusions derived from the colour of a horse, aro liable to be overthrown by i'lvA, so far as individuals arc concerned; g')'td horsf-'s i)oing fomj;! in all the classes enumerated ; still, as a whole, tuoro can be no doubt that colour forms no inconsiderablo criterion by v/hich to judge of the capabilities and value of the horae. With the exception of the pure wiiite, the lighter shades of each variety apj)ear to have loss breeding, and be more liable to disease, than the d irker ones. 17. They are also more tender, and not so capable of enduring fatigue, or hard labor, or usage. It may be remarked, that white legs and white hoofs are always a suspicious sign, usually indlcatinaf a poor constitution, animals that aro tender-footed, or very liablo to become so. Horses with white feet suffer more scratches or chapped skin, than horses with darker coloured feet or legs ; and a white nose will frequently have the white part a mere scab, from feeding among plants having acrid or irritating juices, such oetbo ■vor, Irncu; MS J>. ilo uring I white gating I liable ics or and ), from oetbd CANADIAN AURICULTCftAL EKADRB. 119 Johnswort, whilo the other parts remain perfectly smooth and boalthv. Section IV. 1. TiiK Hackney Horsk is the horse of nil-work, hut in Kn- gland is principally uaed f('->r the saddle, and is much more dif- ficult to meet with in porfoiuion tlum even the hunter or courser. There nre many ffiults' can bo overlooked in the hunter, ^vhich the road horse must not have. The hunter may stnrt, may bo awkward in his walk, or evfn in his trot; he m.'iy h.'ive thrusixii or corns, and yet wn may prize liim ; but tlio hackney, if he be worth havini(, must hdvojour good lepfs ; ho must be sound on his feet, even tcmport d, no starter, quiet in wliMtover situation ho may be placed, not lioavy in band, and never disposed to say his prayers. 2. The baoktioy should be a iiunter in miniature, with thes« exceptions : ili.s iu'i<^lit should rurely exceed (il'tceu hands and an inch. Mo will i)e yullioii'nily stnuig and more pleasant for gen- eml work below that standard, lie should be of a more compucf form than the hunier, and more bulk according to height. It is of essential consequence tiint the bones beneath the knee should bo deep and flat, and the Icudon n'jt tied in. The pastern should bu sliort, and obliquity enough to give pleasant action, but not enough to render the hor«e incapable of hard work. 3. The foot is a matter of the greatest consequence. It should Ik) of a size corresponding with the bulk of th(! animal — neither too hollow nor too flat — ojien at the heels, and IVce from corns and thrushes. The fore legs should be perfectly straight. The hack bone should be straight and short, yet sufliciently long to leave com- fortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the huck without pressing either. Some persons prefer a hollow backed horse, it is generally an easy one to ride. It will canter well with a lady, but it will not carry a heavy weight, or stand hard work. 4. The fijad. horse should bo high in the fore-head, round in lh« barrel, and deep in the chest ; the saddle will not then press Uvi forward, but the girths will remain without cruj)per in their place. A hackney is iar more valuable for the pleasantness of hia paces and his safety, good temper and endurance, than for hu* speed. VVe rarely want to go more than eight or ten miles in an hour, and on a journey not more than six or seven. Tlie fa«t borses and especially the fast trotters, are not often easy in thoir paces, and although f'ley may perform great foat^, are dif-jablexi (t)>4 ivQrtbleos when the biower borBe is in hk prime. 1' i »-'^;|.,«ji" I •s Hi OANADIAN AOEICULTHAAL BBADHR. w 5. If thcro rs ono thing nx>re than any other in wiii<;h the po*. HffHsor, niKJ, ill liis own e.stimntion nl loast, the tolorahio ju(Jgo of the horso, is in error, it {«* the aclion of th''* horse. Ld him lil'thi* lot^ well, it is said, nnd ho will never (;t)ino down, hi j)ro|)orlion, however, as ho lifis his logs well, will bo the force with which b^ I>iitsthoni down ngriin — tiio jar and con<:us.sion to llio rider, and tlie haltering and wear and tear of the foel. A hor^n with too great knee aclion will not always i)c speedy ; he will rnruly be pleasant, nnd he will not in the long run hi; safer than others. 0. It is a rule not oflnn understood, and son)etinies dis])uted, but vvfii'jh experience will I'ully confirm, that iho safety of the hors<* depends a gi'eat deal more on the iiuinner in wliicli ho puis his teet down than on that in which ho lifts ihcm up ; more on the foot bcij;g placed at once flat on the ground or j)orhaps the heel echo- ing first in contact with ii, than on the highest lujd most splcndi*! action, 7. When the toe touches the ground first, it may be easily sup- pOHod that the horvso will occasionally toi)j)leover. An une.\pecieooes wnHig wno consiruitly piilis niighl and main ; he wiT 90k«ri spoil his horse's mouth and give hinii-rlf the arin-ache. Abvays fed the vimUh li.<:/Uli/ ; you will thus be auii© to give the animal immediate assistance, and will al«o induce him to c-nrry his head well, than which, few things are more conduciva to tha beutiiul, safe and easy going of the horse. Skctto\ V. 1. Tiir. Farmer's Horsk. — ^The farmer's horse is also n hors« oft/,// n'orLy to be ridden occasionally to market for pleasure, bii4: to be principally employed for draught. He should be higher thafi li>e road-horso; about fifteen hands and two inches, may be taken a« the host standard. A hi>rse with a shoulder thicker, lower, aiul^ less slanting than would be chosen in a hackney, will better suit the collar, and collar-work will be chiefiy required of him. 2. A stout compact horse is preferable, yet not cloddy. Som» Mood vf'iW be desirable, but the halfrbred horse will generally suit, *JtxQ farmer's purpose host. He shou.d have weight enough to throwr'. CANADIAN AOBTrrLTUBAL ftKADKB* Ul lift lira biu, lian ken atul suU )ni« Isuit'i rowrl into the collar, nmi sulTiciont nr.tivity to ^ot over the ground, h bas often been said, that a horse iisod much for draught in neitltor pleasant nor safe for the sad(]le. 'i'he common farmer docs i*ot want for his own use a sfufwij, cornylfte hackney. y. lie must, liovvever, be cariiCul that he is well carried : find ?f ho has taken a little caro in the ehoice of his hoisc ; lias seloctfxJ auo will) sound ft-et, shoulders not too thick, and |c«;s not too much under him; and if lie keeps iiim in good condition, and does not overwork hiin, the five days carting or plougfiing will not untit hita fxir the sandio, especially if the rider hear in mmd the golden rul« ©f horsomanshi[», '• rdways to feel the mouth of the horse." 4. Since tiio ititrwluction of the small ouo horse waggon, riding em horseback has been almost al>an:loned by our coutitry people, and iiidoed by ;ill classes, unless for pleasure a s'if)rt distance. Tha g-,iit of a farmer's horse is, therefore, not of so uui •!! importance «.H formerly. As so much of the farmer's work is waggoning, it vill be no disadvantago to him to keep the most improvrid. 5. Co.ich er Carriage Horse. — There is a great do;il ot' deception, however, even in the best of these. Many of tliom will j)rani>e Dobly through the streets and present a showy appe.-i ranee, but have not much endurance. The kneoaction, and high iifling of the feet ill the carriage-horse is deemed an o.\ccllenco, because it adds to the grandeur of his api)earance ; but, as already stated in a former section, it is necessarily acconipaniod by much wear and tear of the legs and feet. G. The principal points in the coach-horse are, substance well placed, a deep and well proportioned body, bone und.-'r the kne>t^, aiid sound, open, tough feet. As the coach or carriaga-horse is tho one principally in use in this country, it is very desirable that speeil should be with every breeder an espocal quality. The rage for nipid travelling is quite as extensive in this country as in Europe^ and it is therefore of mnSn iuiportanco that our cDach-h'trses should have as much natural speed as ])ossihlo. 7. The following extract will bring to mind the cruel e^xactiont which are made upon the power of coach-horses as well in thi» country as in England : — -'There is no truth s«) aasily proved or »■> painfully felt by the stage proprietors, as that it is the pace tnat kills. A horse at a dead pull, or at tho beginning of his pull, \x cwiabled l^y the force of his muscles, to throw a certain wreight iau» tlie collar. ' ' ■• ' ' ' "' 8, " If he walks four miles in the hour, some partofthat nuasc^v lar energy must be expended in the act of walking, and consequor^^ \y tiia power of drawing mast be proportionally diminiahGd. If )^ V i'i-'f 116 CAMAOIAN AOEICULTVftlL KBADBR* trot olght milofl in the hour, moro power is expended in the tmt, and leus remains for the draught ; but the draught continues tha tamo, and to enable him to accuniplish his woriv, ho must tax hhi eiiorgios to a degree that is cruel in itself, and thaf must tpeedily wear him out. 0. "Lot it ho supposed, what every horse cannot aeconiplish, he •hall be able, by lair exertion and without distress, to ibmw, at a dead pull, a weight into his collar, or exoit a loice ecjual to tw«» hundred and sixteen pounds ; or in other words, let birii bo able fc> draw a load which recjuires n force of two hunched and sixteen pounds to move. Let hifn next walk at the rate of four miles in au hour, what force will he then bo able to employ 1 10. "We have taken away some to assist in walkinr^, and we have left him only ninely-six j)ounds, bcin<( not half of tlial which \uit could exert when ho began his pull, lie shall quicken ids pace fc> six miles an hour ; more energy must be exerted to carry him over this adilitionnl ground. How much has he remaining to apply tii the weight behind bim I Only fifty-four poumls. VVe will malvB the six miles an hour ten ; for it seems now to be the iadiion for ilioj'asf coacli to attempt this pace. How stands the account v-ith tlio poor beast? We have left him only n ibruoequal to ihirlj/'tuHt youuds to be employed for draught. 11. "The load which a horse (;an draw is about fifteen timt« greater than the power exerted, supposing the road to be hard and level, and the carriage to run with little iViclion ; and the hortw which at .starting can throw into tiie collar a weight or force ecjuj.l to two huiidn d and bixteen pounds, will draw a load of three thou- sand two hundred. 12. "Let him, however, be urged on at the rate of ten miles in the hour — deduct the power used m swiftness of pace from the sum total of that which he possesses, and what remains'? Not a sixth part — not that which is equal to a quarter of a ton ; or if it bo a stage coach, the energy exerted in draught by four horses will liot be equal to a ton. 13. "The coach and its passengers and its luggage weigh rnooe then this, and the whole is still drawn on, and must be so. Whentw comes the power '? From the overstrained exertion, the injury, tJio torture, the destruction of the horse. That which is true of this coach-horse is equally true of every other. Let each reader applj it to his own animal, and act os humanity and interest dictates. 14. " Many a horse used on our public roads is unable to thro«r mil his natural power or weight into the collar. He is tender footed •laine ; but he is bought at a little price, and he is worked ojq tbe f CANADIAK lOmCVLTIJRAL &BADBR. IIT Ics in sr.ja IsixtU bo a 11 not |moB» ijury, >rthiB [hrow rooted |jQtb« brutfil and ahominablo prlnriplo, that ho may ho ''whipped xound.* At first, ho s.'idly halts ; hut urgod hy torturo of tho la^•h, ho n(H|uiros n peculiar liriMl of going. Tho faulty liinh nppoars to koop j)aco with tho olliors, but no stross or labor is ihrowti upon it, and ha gradually c.oiitrivos to mako tho souud linib.s jiorfonn anion*; tliorn all iIk> duties of tho nnyound one; and thus ho is hnrbarously ' wliippcd sound.' IT). '• After all, what ha.s l)r>on donol Thrro Icl's aro niado to do that which was nhnost too bard for four. Thus tlioy must f)e most injuriously strained, and soon worn out, and tho goncral power oj'tb.M (luiiuil mast bo rnpidly oxbaustrd, and at no throat distance fjl' tuno, exhaustion and death reloaso him from his merc.ilet?s pcr- IKXMJlorS." Skctiov VI. I. Tuv: DaAr<.nr ITorsk. — It will readily bo perceived that tho qnalilieations, structure and movements of u. drauglit-horse, mu.st necessnrilv liiilor essentially from thosf) of a raco-horso, and indeed from every other. Ann ye* the drrmght-liorse, for souio pur- pose or other, is more con-^tantly in dem;i:id than all < ihers, especi- ally in our larger cities and along all our canals and rail-roads. It i.s therci'oro of tho greatest importance that an improved breed of largo draught, as well as dray-horses, should be reared in our coun- try. •i. To oxiiibit fully tho rofjuisitos of n first rate draught-horsT'., would re(]uire a more particular examin."tion of the subject of "draught," and of tho " anatomy" of the horse, tlinn would ))o practicable at the present time. 1 will therefore, barely remark, that a " dray-horse should have a broad breast and thick upright ehouldors, (the more upright the collnr stands the better,) a low forehead, deep and round barrel, loins broad and high, ample quar- ters, thick fore arms and thighs, short legs, round hoofs, broad at tlio heels, and soles not too flat." 8. The horse which can throw the greatest weight into the collar, with suiTicient activity to do it eflectually, and with hardihood in proportion, will doubtless constitute the best draught-horse. But these are qualities ditlicult to combine. An ai)proxiiiirit]on to this standard can only be obtained by a judicious selection in the out-set, and then by crossing with the best of such breeds as exhibit the requisite qualities. Generally, the greatest fault with large horsea is their slowness, and in such cases it would be essential to cross with the strongest, the largest and most compact blood horses. 4. Or if you have a mare with some blood, and with decided marli;3 of strength and power, let her be covered by a superioT . ' .■'•'1 }18 CANADIAN AGftlCULTUAAL KBAOEB. y .fi <• r. rJray-horse, and the result will probably be the animal you want. It is very iicces.sary that dray-horses should be large ns well a» compact, tlint weight may be oj)posed to weight. Otlierv, ise the ^mmenKC iofids ihov have often behind them, and the Hhakinj; and battering of the tliills, will so thr(»w them from side to side as U> ctfidangcr tlirir burdens or injure themselves. 5. And this is the only advantnge in size and weight, for doubtlass much of his foicc must be expended in transporting his overgrown mass, in ]''iiglnnd ihny have crossed some of tiicir best native breeds with liio heavy Flanders horse, and have tl)erol)v much im- jjroved their draught. These heavy horses are bred in the highest perfection as to si/e, in the fens of Lincohisiiire, .'Mid few of theia are less tlnn seventeen hands at two and a half years. G. Neither tlie soil nor the produce of the soil is l;eltcr thnn in other countries ; on the contrary, much of the lower pnrt of Lin- colnshire is a cold, hungi-y cmy. Tiie true explanation of the matter is, tl)at there arc certain situations better suited than others to ditlbrent kinds of fai-niing, and the breeding of d!iici-entnniinrili«i, and that not depending on richness of soil or pasture. The prin- cipal art of ihc I'armcr is, to find out 7chat lo'dl beat suil. his soil and the 'produce of it. 7. Connected witli the subject of draught liorses is rail-roada, and I will just relate a fiict, showing the innnensc power gnined by the use of rails. The Surrey iron raihvay being conjpleted, a wager was laid by two gentlemen, that a common horse could draw thirty-siA tons for six miles along the road, — th.-st he should draw his weight from a dead pull, as well as turn it round the cccssional windings of the road. A numerous j)arty of gentlemen assembled near Merstham to sec this extraordinr^ry triumjdi of art. 8. Twelve wagg.jns loaded with st;jnes, each w.'iggon weighing above three tons, were chained together, and a horse taken promis- cuously from a timber cart was yt)ked to the train. He started from Fox public house, near Merstham, and drew the immense chain of waggons, with apparent ease, almost to Crogdon, a dis- tance of six miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four miles and hour. In the course of th© journey he stopped four times, to show that it was not by any ad- vantage of descent that this power was acquired, and alter such stoppage he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease. 9. A gentleman, who had wagered on the power oi' the horso, then desired that four more loaded waggons should be added to tho cavalcade, with which the same horse set off again with undimin- ished pace. Still further to ehow the effect of the rail-way in %- '•I CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL KEADBB. 1111 [ling ni»- |rte(i jnse dis- til is th« ad. kich |se« thd lin- dlitating motion, ho directed the attending workmen, tothonunrjber of fifty, to mount oh the waggons, and the horse proceeded without the least distress ; nnrl in truth, there nppenredto he scarcely any limitation to the power of ids draught. After this trial the w.ig- gons were weighed, and it api)oared the whole weight was as loU lows : t.ced. The siiank, hock nnd thigh should be broad and Hat, something like that of an ox ; and if so when in motion will operaic like a j)lank sprung edge- wise and then lot fly. If the hind legs wiieu at good speed open nml spread a little, no oI)jcction, providing tliere is a go(jd free ao tion in the hock joint. t>. Fkkding iloRSKs. — In feeding horses irif.h grcihi, the proper quaMtity of the rcsj)ectivo kinds is regidatcd by weight, for in this proportion are the diiferent kinds considered nulritioas. W'e give »o a horse per day half a busliel of oat:i, the weight of which is seventeen j)ounds, and if we wish to change to other grain, as barley, ryo, or Indian corn, tlie same weight will sutlice ; and as tiiese grains are much heavier than oats, a proportionate less quan- tity, by measure, M'ili sullice. Another rule, deemed important, is this, that whenever heavier grain is substirute i ior oats, a quanti- ty of fine cut stiaw should be added, as a substitute for the husk of the oats. This induces a more perfect digestion of the grain. 7. The practice of giving dry grain to horses when pastured, or fed with green cut grass, is condemned ; for the grain thus given is never periectly digested on account of the etlectofthe watery juices of the grasses upon digestion. Wlien dry grain and green toodare given, as much interval should be allowed between the dry nnd green food as circumstances will permit. 8. V^on Thacr considers eight pounds of meadow hay equal in nourishment to three pounds of oats ; that hay improves by age if well kept, and is most nutritious for horses when a year old ; that the second growth is not equally nourishing ; and that hay should not be unnecessarily exposed in making, the freshness of iti» scent being peculiarly gratifying to horses and cattle. 9. In Holland and Flanders, farm-horses are uniformly soiled during summer. A horse is supposed to consume from eighty-tour to one Imndred pounds of green food per day with occasional grain. An acre of clover, at two cuttings, will give twelve tons of green food ; and hence half an acre of clover, fed green, will suffice for a horse tour months. 10. It ia also a general practioe in Flanders, and is extensively CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RGADER, I2t ed lur in. len tor adopted in Great Britain, to convert the entire food into manger- meat, that is, to mix the cut straw and hay, the grain and the roots, or whatever is to constitute the provender for the day, and to fee • • j •' * ■«n CANADIAN AOftlCULTU&AL EIADNB, IM 10. Malandert.'-h consists of chops, or cracks, on the intfide of the foreleg against the knee, discharging a red sharp humor. To •ore this disease, wash the crack with warm soap suds or old urine ; then rub them twice a day with an ointment of hogs' lard mixed with two drachms of sublimate of mercury. Or apply a poultio* of the roots of marsh mallows flax-seed, softened with linseed oil, tying it on with a roller. Continue that till the seeds fall off and die sores become clean. Afterwards a mixture of turpentine ood qaickfiilver will be a proper application. Section IX. M V: THE WAGGONER. 1 I've often thought, if I were asked, What lot I envied most — "What one I ihouglit most lightly tasked. Of man's unnuiTibcred host, — I'd say I'd be u inoimlain hoy ; And drive a noblo team — wo hoy ! Wo lioy ! I'd cry ; And liglitly fly Into my saudlo seat ; My roign Vd slack, My whip I'd crack — What music is so sweet ? \.h .'■5' hi-<; Six blacks I'd drive of ample chest, All carrying high the head — All harness'd light, and gaily drest, In winkers lip[)ed with r'?d, O yes, I'd be a rnoimiain boy, And such a team I'd drive — wo hoy ! Wo hoy ! I'd cry — The lint would fly — Wo hoy ! Dobbm— Ball ? Their feet should ring — And I would sing — • I'd eing my fal-de-ral ! • ' My belle would tinkle, tingle-!in^ iljjr f .vi 11*1 n fc ..^ ' ,;< ; }■ \l. And as 1 Naw them swing and swing, I'd be the merriest chap ; Yes, then I'd be a mountain boy, And drive a gingling team — wo hoy ! Wo hoy, I'd cry — My words should fly — Each horse should prick his ear ! i With tightened chain, My lumbering wain Would move in its career. 4. The golden sparks — you'd see tliem spring; Beneath my horse's tread ; Each tail — I'd braid it up with string Of blue or flaunting red ; So does, you know, the mountain boy, Who drives a dashing team — wo hoy ! Wo hoy ! I'd cry — Each horse's eye With fire would seem to burn, With lifted head. And nostrils spread. They'd seem the earth to spurn. 5. Tliey'd champ the bit and fling the foam, As they dragged on my load — Aud I would tlunk of that distant hoir)e. And whistle on the road, Oh, would I were a mountain boy, — I'd drive a six horse team wo hov ; Wo hov ! I'd crv. Now, by yon sky, < I'd sooner drive those steeds, Than win renown, Or wear a crown Won by victorious deeds : For crowns oft press the languid head, And health the wearer shuna — And victory, trampling on the dead, May do for Goths and tluns ! % CAKADIAir AOBICULTVRAL BEADK». WT ,1 It*) '• Seek them who will — they have no joya J. For inountui'^ lads and waggon boys. Sfxtion X. . I 1. Farm Stock. — It is a pitiable sight to go about the country and see the multitudes oi' poor cattle, which /ill almost every forro- er's yards in tiie spring of the year. Farmers almost universally, in this wheat growing district, keep too much stock. Many aie the farmers whose whole stock of cattle and young horses would not pay for the hay they have eaten during the last winter. Of thi» fact very many are now sensible, and are determined to diminish their stock at all hazards, and eome arc even now selling their cows, the only part which will avail them any thing the coming season, to drovers for S'I'i to -$16, a less sum than the cost of their keeping during the winter. 2. "\ et many of these farmers who have been so pinched this epring, will most likely, as soon as grass comes, forget their lroi>. bles and their resolves, and as their calves are dropped will say, "Well, it is a pity to knock in the head such a pretty calf )s that ; I can't S])are the milk to fat him, but I can bring him up on skira milk," — and thus he is suiTered to live, a skim-miik calf sun© enough — and the next, and next, and so on lo the last, are sufTerod to live in the same way. 3. They pnss the summer very well, but the firrA snow squall in November, fetches them up under the windvvnrd .side of the fence^ bleating and moaning most piteously. Then the wants, the trials, and privations of the Inst winter come up beiure our farmers in full view. He remembers his determination of re;lucing his stock ; but uhat is to be done? — it is too late now to sell. His three yenn old steers might have been sold peiiiaps two months ago, but no drovers are seen this time of the year, 4. 'VVell, I have got a plenty of straw, and I guess they'll do ;' and on he goes the same round, annually feeding out moroworthof hay, than iiis whole stock will amount to, and if he sells any it is in the spring, in the very last pinch; when sure enough, twelve dollars is a fair price for the best he bus in his yard. This is in- deed a sad picture, but is it not a true one of at least half of all ths farmers in this wheat growing section I Hay is high, always high, aiid so are corn and oats. 5. Good cattle tpo are high : a prime yoke of oxen, or a Hrgft rate cow, that has been stabled through the winter, and fed on ruta baga, mangle wurtzel and meal, morning and night, will fetch q good price. So does young caltlo of the improved breed. But ;J ill ■ij ivrri* ,» i . m '' ' -.1 196 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL SKADIR. who among us farmers is willing lo pay five dollars for the scrvicMi of an imported improved Durham bull 1 Scarcely one in fifty will do it. 6. They had rather breed in-and-in^ as' the English brccderi term it, that is, from a bull of their own raising, whose only re- ■commendation may be, that ho was forgotten at the time he ought to have been castrated, and was too w''-^ and unmanageable to sub- mit to it afterwards. Our farms are many of them overstocked with young horses, very many of us keep more than we keep w^ll. Many farmers have an old mare, and four or five colts, which en- dure the severity of the winter with no other shelter than the leo- ward side of a hay -stank, and which in the f?j»ring bear a strong resemblance to the Florida cattle, of which it takes three to make d shadow. 7. Thesoof course no one expecis to dispose of until they are t)roken and fit for service. It might seein t.at the severe lesson of the last winter would have some abiding ey attending to tiie /iindlincsi, (tf ilieir skin, lie becnioe |>oss.s:-cd of a race which was morcensil) Ted and fuien'd than any other, lov niaiiy yejus, the prMclicew.\s to juvlgc by ibeeyeonh, without r,'gnr;Iii:g the oilier tpialities tjf the aniniiil. lUil, in tho jirc'.eiit improve.! age, a more rational nu-de of firmii:g the judg- iiu nt has been adopted. The sense of toucli io now brought in uid of the siglit. 4. I'.y repeated practice, the art o{ ju'fging of tho kiisdliness to fatten has b'X'ii hrouglit to such i)erfection, mai, any W'di intormed brccUcr will tell almost instantaneously, in wli.it points or pai'tst t.'iey will or will not fatten. In the selection, therefore, of li\o- tlock in general, tho young farmer will lind it ntcessary alientively to consider tiio loilowing [)nrticuhir.s ; Ijcuuti/, j' s'uij.f : in widch the form is so compact, that every prut of th 'uni- cial bears an exact consistency, while tho carcass .should be deep an i: ,j- <> ' \ 1 n! v:'i 'C * : ' 'a "ii ISO CANADIAN AOBIGULTURAL BKAOKE. ,11 li 1 1 1 '■^mk 1 ,1 H j 1 it K is a fnct, tliril tcnne beasts require less food to rear, sup-port, atul fatten them ; conscf)Moiiily every attention ought to be j)fiid early to accustom thrin to l)e(iOcile f.nd faniiliur. 7. Iliirdinrss of const itvtioiiy ])nrticulnrly in blmk and exposed diKtrii^ts, is inderd a most irn|)ortant re(|uisito. in o\ery case it is highly essential U) a Irirtnci-'s interest to have a breed that is liable neitlu r to diserise nor to any horeditfiry disioinjier. ConnectwJ with hardiness of constitution is enrln maturitij. This, however, c#»n only be attained by Iceding cattle in such a manner as to keep ihem constnntly in a growing state, lly an observaiice of thia principle, it has been found that bensts and shpe|) thrive more in three years, th.'in tlicy n?,u.-illy do in live when they li/ive not suffi- cient hiod during iho winter. In the common mode oi' rearing, their growth is cliecked. 8. Workiv^^ or an aptitude for la])or. Whether kino be pur- cliased lor the jdough, or lor the purpose of Oittening, it will bene>- cessnry to sco that they are young, in jterfect lierLllh, luU-moutli- ed, and not broken in any pari ; tb.'it the hair stare not, and thai they are not hide-bound, or they will not feed kindly. The same roniark is true in aj)|)lication to cows intended for the ])ail. — Their horns should be fair and smooth, the forehead broad, uddere white, yet not lleshy, but thin and loose when em})ty, (to hold tlw* greatest qunntity of milk,) but large when lull. 9. J)csides the rules above stated, there are some p.irticulai's with regard to tho age of cattle and sheep, which merit the farn^- ei's consideration. Neat cattle cast no tee'.h until turned two years ohl, when ihoy get two new teeth ; at three they get two more ; and in every succeeciing year get two until live years old, when tliey are crxWe'] full-moulked. Though they arc not properly full-mouthed until six years old, because the two corner teeth, which are last in renewing, are not j)erfcclly up until they are six. 10. The horns of neat cattle also supp:y another criterion by which the judgment may be assisted, after tlio signs ali'orded by the t.>eth become uncertain. When three years ohi, their horns are smooth and handsome ; after which period there appears a circle, or wrinkle, which is annually increased as long as the horn re- mains ; so that, according to the number of these circles or rings, the age of a becust may be ascertained with tolerable precision. 11. Sometimes the wrinkles are defaced, or artilicially removed, by scraping or filing. This is a fraudulent practice, too frequent- ly adopted, in order to deceive the ignorant or inexperienced {)ur- diaaor, as to the real age of the animal. These circles, however, mom uot be confounded with those ringlets which are somelimet ■•11 CANADIAN AnairULTirRAL RKADBR. Ul ir- Let fojH I at tho root of t\\o. horn, and which nro a prolly suro indica- tum Utat the (iaiiii.il hud boon ill-led during; lis growth. Skction XII. 1. FiSSAY ov Cattht. — Tho dotnesiic ox, Im not, ns i.^ woll knowr), iir.li^'Muiis to Aiiiorica ; h'it was iiifri»diii:i'l l»y tho first ruli»iii-.Ls in iho b";^iiiiuiii; of tliM I7lh cMviiurv. An attoin|)l ha-s boon Ml idn to tiMCi^ th'M)rigin of tiie ooniMion cattlo, and ojpecialiy tiioso of the noi'f.hoiii slnte.s, oxolnsivoly to tho Hnglish Dpvou ; and it is jM'obahlo that it did inlnglo jiir^oly in tho ea''iy imp >rtriti<>n9, from ihi! fact tiiat a largo j)orlion ofllie colonisis worn from r ho 8.)ULh nf Mii^laiid, or ciMl)arlvi"'d from p.»ris in ih' ' di- .lieni UiO Devon at that period was tho provailing brtv/ •2. Tho characf eristics of this varirtv also, a. etc., havo ahvax'H been thn favorite ones anionjr ' "" United Slatf^s. IJut at tho lime of the sottlomen: of Aini^-nc-a, "olor, .1 tho littlo nuention, coaip iralivcly speaking, was paisl t > hrooiis, oi purity of blood, and it is altogoihcr incrodil)lo that tiio i ungrnnts. to whoso uumixM* ahnost every port in JMigland and pro!)ai)i\' ii tlio Unittxi Kingdom, furnished its quota, should Imvo been at the paina to j)roo,ure tho Devt)ns. :i. To say nothing of tho preferences wliicli each would naturally have felt for tho catiio of his own disr-trict, it would ari^uo a degroo of care aiids.dicitudo on a subject, tlien doemod of littlo importance, aUogoibor incojupatiblo with tho charactca'and motives ol tho men who colonize 1 tho now world. Many of them probabl v were scarce- ly aware that there was such a brood in oxistenco ! I^cside.s, liio Dutch in Nov/ York, and tho Swedes on tho Delaware, inin> ducod the cattle of ihoir resjtcctive countries, which were subso- quontly incorporated with the common stock. 4. Although, as we havo before remarked, the Devon character- istics prov;i,il, iho practised eye will readdy d;toct trat^cs of this varied lineage. Few or none of our common slock equal the North Devon in tiio finish and beauty oftheir proportions, more gonerally {Kjrlmps resembling tho coarser Sussex ox ; and our cows aro bettor ini'kers Oar black polled cattle give in licationd of their Wols'a and Gillu'.vay extraction, and it is but a few years since, on tho Mohawk and lluilson rivers, there existed undo.foted rem- oants of the stock imported by the Dutch settlers from Holland. 5. To speak of the merits of a race so varied, would evidently be preposterous. Selections may be readily made from our com- mon cattle, combining very considerable excellence for the dairy, the yoke, ofid the shambles ; while anotlier aiid a larg3r portion oca J 7'^ Ii m CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RBADSR. if'-' *»• m deetiluto in a part or the whole of these aualifications. Their value to cross with the improved breeds, will be hereafter adverted to. 6. Wo shall proceed now to consider the broeds of later intro- duction, imported with the view of improving ihc cominon stock. These are the Devons, iJcrefords, New Leicesters, Ayrshires, Al- derneys, und the Short Horn I'amily, consisting of the "Improved Short Horn," or Durh.tm, t\\o. 'I'eesuater, Holdori.c.-s, and a thick, heavy buttocked vaiit.ty of Yorkshire cattle, which have proviiicial- ly obtained the name of "Dovonshircs." 7. The Devon. — In symmetry and proportion, the high bred Devon scan/rly ricknowledges an equal. Ills delicate limbs, deep red colour, beautilul tiij)erir;g horns, high aiid spiiited action, united with docility in the yoke, and a si ow i){ blood, fulling little short of that of the thorough bred horse, have always rendered him a favor- ite with breeders of taste, in his native country. Favorable speci- mens of them were introduced into the United States in 1S17, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester (then Mr. Coke). 8. Notwithstanding his many excellencies, it cannot be sriid that the introduction of the Devon was attended with niiy striking ben- efits. Singul;iily suited, by his rapid gait, ibr the plough on tlie light lands '>f Norfolk, and some other parts of Englmd, his pecu- liar cxcelle:ice, his activity, has been founii to avail him little on the more generally tenacious soils of this countiy. In slrengtli the Devon ranks only in the tburlh or litth class of FirJtksh oxtn. The cross with our common cattle produced an animal somevvliat improved from the latter in the points, but with no great adcitionai value for the yoke, and decidedly inferior lor the dairy. 9. Yet the slight admixture of Devon l.dood, has been thought advantageous in modifying the coarseness of heavy, bony breeds, like the Holderness, and it has ever been strenuously advocated as a cross with the improved Short Morn, by distinguished English breeders. Hut others o'uject that the Durham gains nothing by the cdmixture in his propensity to take on flesh and fat ; while size and milking properties are senr^ibly diminished. 10. This was decidedly the opinion of Col. Powell, who institute eJ numerous exi)eriments. 'J'lie variety thus produced wouUl doubtless be cajiable of enduring a shortness of keep, incompatible with the superior size of the jjure Short Horn, and thus be better adapted to high and less fertile lands ; but there are other breeds which as a cross witli the Short Horn, would be as well calculated to attain this end, without so great a sacrifice as milking properties* 1 1. TAe Hereford. — The Hereford ox is supposed to be descei> . 4«d from the same stock with the Devon, but is larger, heavier i& ^■Uiv CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL EBADER. Idi It I ■ • tfW )le ler ?8» in the bono, usually ofa darker red or brown color, with a white faco, throat and belly. Tliey arc shorter legged llum the Devon, har- dier, and kindlier feeders, but loss docile in teniper, and even worse milkers. Indeed, a Hereford cow is rarely seen in an Knglisb dairy. Their hardihood and great muscular power give them the first rank among working cattle. T'l'M, together with their supe- rior grazing qualities, has led to their introduction into the Unitcxl States, by t'ie 11 m. Mr. Clay, of Kentucky, and several other individuals, liut it is prol^able that their deiicicncy in milking pro- porties will always j)rovont their very general adoption, cither as a cross, or in a j.aire stale. Vi. The Ncio Leicester. — This breed, spoke into existence as it were, by the coninanLling genius of Bakewcll, were derived from the originiil Long ll(»rns, of the mid-land and north-western coun- tio:?. 'I'he L'.ncasliiro or Craven, as this originril variety is gen- erally denominated, were characterized, at least the l)ottcr [)ortion of thorn, by their lengtii and roundness of carcass, and by giving peculiarly rich milk', thnugli in moderate quantities. Tliey were large, coarse boned, but possessing a considerable, and some'ime^ a marked tendency to fatten. A smaller variety of tlio same breed, generally ininbiting mountain and moor lands, according to Mr. Youatt, g ive milk as superior in quantity as quality. 13. Out of ihcsc materials Bakewcll formed the Now Leiccsters, which for aptitude to acquire external frit and early maturity, bo- came almost unrivalled. He reduced the size, and especially the bone of the old Long Horns, and under his moulding hand, the new variety reached a tinish and beauty unknown in any other breed of the day. Unfortun-itely, however, milking properties were to a considerable extent sacrificed by him. The Leicesters, or 'Shak- spoares,' as they are more usually styled in the United States, were ofdillerent colors, more generally red, with fmch or 'lined' backs, as they are termed in this country. 14. Long, slim, taporim; horns, projecting forward rnd down- ward, and turning U[) at the points — sometimes falling iiown the aides of the head in a curve, the points nearly meeting in front, is also characteristic of the race. The New Leicesiers, owingtothaX cardinal defect in Ijakewell's system, breeding from too close affin- ities, and to the appearance ofa rival in the improved Short Horns, destined to sweep away all opposition, have nearly disappeared ; but grades between them and the old Long Horns are still cher- islied by many of ihe mid-land dairies of England. 15. A cross between them and the Short Horns are still more common, and answer excellently for the purposes of the battel I i \:l ,.V ^■ V: /. % .#" hA,f] if. If: li'V; 1' 184 CANADIAN AOftlCULTUKAL BXADER. 10 dairy. The milk of the Short Horn is improved in quality, though diminished considerably in amount, and the cross bred animals are supposed to be poculiarly hardy and unsubjcct to disease. Long Horns of w'lrious grades between the old Lancnsjiirc and the im- proved Leicester, have at various periods been introduced into tho United Stales, r.nd specimens of them cjos.scd uilli the Durliarn, (with no adniiAturc of oilier blood,) exist in this and one or two other counties. 10. They are a beautiful breed, possessing miiclj of tho sub- stance of the ►Siiort iJorn, with the peculiar iini-neiiS in the forond, characteristic oi' the New Leicester. vSome of ilicm aro exccect- ingly delicate handlers, with thick, silky coats, and are rich though not uncommonly deep milkers. 17. The A un>/iirt'. — It is but a little more than fifiv vears since, according to l\lr. Alton, (the best authority on tho subject,) tiis Ayrshire cows were " of diminutive size, ill-fed, ill-hhai e(i,and they yielded but a scanty retui-n oi"milk ; the chine of their hacks stood up high and nariow, their sides were lank and sliorl, their iiidea thick and adhering to their bones, aud their pile coat^se and open." In shoit there can he but litlle doubt that they \\o'Lt]d gain nothing by coujparison with th.e most ordinary Canadian cows. 18. \V'e ha\e adverted particularly to ihcir then condition, h^ cause in following Uiem up to their present high degree of excel- lence, v/c linda lesson fraught with |jccuiiar vaiue to ilie Canadian farmer. Our breeders have certainly as good, or a belter breed on which to commence their improvements, and the ameliorating crosses wliith made tho xVyrshirc cow what she is, are equally within our reach. 10. Tliougli from the length of time which has elapsed, and tha imperfect record, or rather the absence of all record, which is too generally kep'tof such transactions, little is known of tlie j)rogres- sive steps attending the cross, and there are some who seem di»- posed to call in question tho Ibct whether it ever took place, it i$ generally conceded that the present celebra.ied race were produced by a judicious admixture between the original cow of Cunningham, Kyle, and Ayr.-hire, (Mr. Alton's description of which we have already quoted,) and some of the earlier tShort Horns, from tli© banks of the Tees. •20. The benefits attending the cross wj;e accelerated, and no doubt much heightened by the moist, mild climate, nnu rich herbago of that district of Scotland where the Ayrshires principally prevail; pronounced by j\Ir. Youatl, 'the hnest dairy county in Scotland, and equal perhaps to any in Great Britain." This improved race V CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL KEADBEL 190 ^1 is of red and white colour, beautifully mottled, short in the leg, tlw horns small and fine, the head and neck delicate, the latter thick- ening properly towards the shoulders, the carcass deep but inclin-* ing to be fat, and tiie loin and hunch, compared with the Short Horn, narrow. 21. Five gillons of milk daily, for two or three months, after calving, tiiree g?ilions for tlie next three mouths, and one gallon and a iialf f>r tuc remaining four months, in which she is milked, is stated as tlio arcra^e amount given jjy the Ayrsliire cow. As a milker, she of courso yields to the larger Short Horn, nor will she take on an ecjual amount of llesh and fat, on the richer soils of Eng- land ; and on the bleak and heathery hills of Scotland, the various breeds of black cattle would thrive and fatten where the Ayrshire would scarcely obtain a subsistence. 22. 13ut on moJiiuii soils, there is periiaps no breed, size and the consumption of ibod being considered, which presents a niuch bet- ter combination of milking and grazing quuliiies. Of their value as working oxen, oai auuiorities are silent, and we do not know that any cxpcriuicnts have been instituted am.ong the few imported into Canada, li'they are good in this repcct, such a breed would be a disideratum in many porlions of our country. I'lit as before hinted, we believe tiiis desideratum can be suij[died more easily and ctiea[)ly by materials within reach. This point will be discussod in its proper place. Section XIII. 1. The Aldernnj, — This small breed of French cattle, is fashionable in the parks and pleasure grounds of FiUglish gentltv men, on account of their dnninulive size, nndthe peculiar richness oi their milk. Col. Fowell, after fifieen years experience with them, pronounces them, in his somewhat summary wny, "an un- ihritty, dwariish, savage breed ;" and Parkinson remarks, " thov are of as bad a form as can possibly be described." Their appe- tite is voracious ; an Alderney cow consuming nearly as much as a Short Horn, which is three times her size. 2. Tke Jloldernt'ss. — Sometime during the 18th centurv Short Horned Cattle were introduced into the north-eastern counties of England, from the adjacent continent. They are indiscriminately termed Yorkskire or llo/derncss cattle, by the earlier writers ; the former name is derived from that of the county where thev first began extensively to prevail ; the latter from a town in the same county, where either they were originally introduced, or where, as tradition runs, certain improvements in the breed were first at- tempted. J '- r. ■ » *•' '■■•' 'i h<' V • ■? % * ^1 fe. 1S6 CANADIAN AORICVLTCrRAL KKADXB. 3. They subsoquontl y, as we shall see, attained the name oC Teeswater, and finally of Durham, or " Iini)rovefl Short Horn." Marshall describes the original Holderness as" thin quartered, to^:) light behind and too coarse before, large shoulders, coarse necks and deep dewlaps." Lawrence, after passing a high encomium on a se- leciion which might be made from them, describes the remainder as " long, gaunt, deep carcasses, without addquate substance, placed on hjg!i stilts, of the coarsest timber, slow fce(jers," &cc. 'I hey were also, by t!iG consent of all the English writers on the subject, fhin skinneil, nudined to bo tender constitutioned, bad provers, their flesh coarse an(i often dark or " liery." 4. In one particular, however, they were from the first pre-em- inent, namely, in tlio amount of milk given by tliom, though itwaa not of so ric!i a quality as that yielded by some other breed-:. In York, Durham, and the adjacent counties, over wiiich this bmcd rapidly spread ilself, early attempts were made V^ improve the form, without sacrificitig their milking properties. Marshall gives a singular account of one of these elTorls. 5. Atier describing the Holderness, as we have already quoted, he says : — "This, from being found disadvantngeous to the butch- er, * * * the brooder attemjjted to enlarge the hind quarters ; and had he stopped when he got to the happy medium, he would have wrouglu a good work ; but the fashion was .set — cloddy bul- locks were in estimntion. The first variety of this species of cat- tle, which I can recollect, was a thick, large boned, coarse, clumsy animal ; remarkably largo behind, with thick, gummy thighs ; always fleshy, but never fat, and the flesh being of a bad quality. This, however, was not tlie worst ; the monstrous size of the but- tocks of the calf iVequently proved fatal to the cow. * * * They were probably the worst breed the vale ever knew." 6. We have here an exact description of a variety existing in many parts of our own country, known popularly in this, andsomo of the adjacent counties, as " Devonshires," though their horns, to say nothing of their posteriul deformity, prove this to be an entire misnomer. 7. lyie Tcesioaier. — In more judicious hands the Short Ilorns^ rapidly improved. Among the spirited breeders, on the banks ot the Tees, (which divides York and Durham,) they rapidly assumed a distinctive character ; shorter legged, more compact, the milk but slightly diminished, and this more than counterbalanced by it3 increased good quality, — better feeders, hardier, carrying more fat, and then' flesh mru-e marbled and finer in grain. S. This signal improvement was effected, it is generally suppo- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 137 ild IV. of t3 sed, by a system of judicious crosses. An importation of cows from Holland, is usually reforrcd to as one of those, and Mr. Horry con- jecturcs the wild white breed of England to hnvo funiibhed anothor. Hence the strong admixture of while in the Tcoswater and tho Durham. The improved variety, denominated iixiiscriminately, Tceswator or Holderness, immediately became the general favorito in the large metropolitan dairies and milk cstablisiiments. For milking proj)erlies, i;iu\ Nvhcn no Imgor used lor that purpose, apti- tude to take on flcth, England had never possessed so valuable a breed. 9. T/ie Durham, vr Improved Short Horn. — At tliis epoch, and with such materials, Mr. Charles Colling co)iuneticcd his career as a breeder, 'lis won.lerful success hns been ns: it the result of "a deliberate and well considered plan." Mr. Colling found the Tees. water yet possessing some of the faults of the old Short llorns. 10. From their overgrown sizo, they were too fre(|uently coarse- ly and loosely formod, and they were vet entirely inferior to what the Durhanis bocrane, in aptitude to fatten and early maturity — Mr. Collinsr was remarkably favored in his elll)rt.s to counteract these defects, by the possession of the bull "Ilubbuck," tho great ancestor of the improved race. lie was smaller thi.n the Teeswa- ter, while " his Uesh, hide and hair," Mr. I'erry remarks, " wore seldom e;]ualle.l." 11. On account of his remarkable disposition to take on flesh- he soon became useless. The same quali'ies mai'kcd his dam. It is unnecessary fur us to foUow the |)rogressive steps which marked the onward career of the Improved Short Morns. While it is ad- mitted that in the hands of some breedeis wh'so attention has been turned exclusively to the carcass, their milk,..g jjropertics have de- teriorated, it is well known that in other hands, thoy have fully maintained their equality with the Teeswaters as milkers, while in early maturity, kindly feeding, proof and quality of flesh, they de- cidedly surpass them. 12. In early maturity they have, confessedly, no rivals, being ready for the butcher from two to four years earlier than the other English breeds. It is not won proved family, liave been repeatedly imported into the Province, The miserable, heavy buUocked variety, known here provincially, as " Dcvonshiieri," we have already adverted to. 14. There are also an)ong us, large and not unsightly Short Horns, probably a mudilicatiun of the above, poor milkers and bad provors, which arc popularly known as " English cat;lc,'' — though tiioy suiiiotimcs borrow tlic nrune of Teeswaier or iJurliam, to suit Uio purposes oftbe seller. They are usually red or brown, with dark muzzles, thcii- ho!-n& short, fine and tip|)ed with black. A Ilolder- ness bull fj'om >iv)ilh Allerton, on tho Arve, was iniporled from England a lew years since, and finally was driven to Oneida coun- ty in the State of Now York, where lie remained uiuii bo died. 15. Though a monster in slzo, and marked witli the chriractei^ istic dofccib of tho earlier Stiort Horns in his forni, his get, with the best common cows, were valuable as milkers, and not deficient in symmetry. Animals of various degees of merit, bearing the name ol' Durhanis, but not of j,ure blood, have ah'O been introdu- ced at various tines, on speculation. And finally, pure Improved Short Horns, in considerable numbers, hnyc been imporlod by spir- ited breeders in dilibj'cnt districts of the Province. 16. The j\I'>s/. J*roJl'ablf. Dreed. — Having thus given a hasty summary of the principal facts which tend to throw light on the main question beibro us, viz : 7v/uU breed of caltk is most prnJllahlSy we proceed to state our convictions on the subject. That the com- mon cattle of the country do not possess the greatest attainable combination of excellencies, will readily be admitted. A seleo- lion of them present very desirable qualities for tho dairy and the yoke ; but in feeding properties, and especially in early maturity, they are delicierit. 17. A full blooded Durham bullock will go profitably to the butcher, at least two years earlier than the American, a decisive consideration to the grazier ; and although the former is the greater consumer, the extra food required by him, will weigh but little against the two or even one year's additional keep of the latter. — But notwithstanding all that may be said for or against them, it ia to the best cross with selected animals of the common race, feasi. CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. \z» bflity and expense being taken into consideration, that the common Canadian farmer must looit for the most profitable brood of cattle. 18. In this proposition we wish to be distinctly uiuierstood. Wo do not intend to nssert that the produce of any cosswo might thus make, wou'd surjjass in value breeds already in existence ; but the entire substitution of a foreign variety for our own, presupposed an oxpendiiure of time and funds utterly out of the (piestion. Tha question then is, with what breed is this ameliorating change to be otTectcd ? 19. On a careful comparison of the characteristic merits and defects of our own c.iUl!-', with the corresponding ones of other varieties, we arrive unhcsltaliiigly at the coriclusion, that to tha pure improved Durham, we must look for the basis of the desires! improvement. A cross wilh the Devon or lierctord, would sacri^ fice milking j)roj)erties ; the dwarfish and ijl-shripod Aldorney, la not to be tnought (>[': llio Ayrshire or the Long Horn, possesses no ascellencios i!i.;t the Durham docs not po^sc.^s in a grnatcr degree: and the lioldcrnoss, Mid the Tecswatcr tSliort lloriiS, compared with the improved race, areas the crude ore to the nidnufuctured and polished metal. 20. The first cro&s between choice native cows nnd the improved Short [lorn, hns ^c^el•ally resulted equnlly favorably ; indeed, the vory beauty of the produ .;o has tended to prevent lurtlier attempts at improve;nent, by encoiiragiiig farmers to breed dire tly from half and thre' -quarter bred buils. I'hey frequently lack little of tha beauty of their sires, and their services are to be more cheaply procured. 21. iiut the characteristics of a variety tlius obtained, are not oufficienlly stamped uj)on them in the first, second, or even tiiird or fourth cross, to be perpetuated wilh any great degree of certainty in their offspring. In the language of the Rev. lienry Berry, "to breed from the produce of a cross direclly umovg l/icnisclccs, will lead to the results which have induced many persons, without duo consideration, to believe conclusive against crossing ; but to tako one cross, and then return and adhere to one breed, will, in the course of a few generations, be found to stamp a variety with suf- ficient certainty." 22. Repeated experiments have amply demonstrated, that inter- breeding between the Durham and our common i-ace, if conducted on the principles advocated by Mr. Berr}-, viz : by a constant resort to the pure blooded bull, is attended with a decided and manifest tmprovement of the produce in every successive generation. The bull selected, should be small of his kind ; fine in the bone ; uq- I IN I* if ■ ' i i ■ 11 % \ 5^ 1 V \ (40 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. usually full in tho crops nnd bosom, and wide in the loin ami haunch — joints in which the common breed are defective, lie siiould be dioscn loo, from a family of decidedly good milkers. 23. If the bull is large of his kind, the |)roduce are generally coarse, and irnrkcd with the defects which attend great disparity in the size of the sire nnd dam. The dam should bo as good in tho points indicated in the bull, as our means of selection atimit of; «hort legged, (tomjjact, deep in the girth, and a j>lcntiful and steady milker. Wo have already alluded to the change ellbcted by tho (nrinnrs o^ Ay ri^U'wc on a poorer breed, by a k^hort Horn cross; and there can be no good reason why the Canadian farmer, with the same skill and perseverance, may not be equally successful. Mi. Indeed there rire grade [)urhams already among us, which, there can be no doubt, equal or excel the AyrMhire in every dcsira- able j)oint. 'I'he Durham, as we have before remarked, requires more feed than our small native cattle. This, his sujjcrior siza, would load to expect. But though a greater, he is a more promiiv ctious consumer, tb.^ coarsest quality of hay or straw being readily devoured by him. In England, straw, witn a very small allowance of turnips, constituLos his exclusive store keep in winter. 25. l)Ut to bring this matter to its true test, will the Durham yield as great a return in flesh, fat, or milk, for tho amount of food consumed, as cny given breed 1 That he will, repeated experi- ment, as well as his daily advancing popularity, in a country where there are varieties greatly excelling our own in aptitude to fatten, nnd at least equalling them in milking pro])eities, fully attest. — Tho amount of food required by him, therefore, forms no objection to the improved Short Ilorn, on good soils, either in his pure stale, or as a cross with others. 26. The only question now to be considered is, will tlie recom- mended cross supply us with working cattle ? It is asserted on the best authority, that the pure blooded Durhamox, will "work adnu'rably ;" and the reason assigned for his not being oftener used for that purpose in his native countr}'', is, that his early ma- turity renders him too valuable for the butcher, to be retained with profit until four or five, for the yoke. 27. There can be but little doubt, that united with our smaller, but vigorous and active race, a heavy and powerful variety of working cattle will be produced. Those especially fed on upland and less nutritious pastures, whose labour ought to compensate for their tardier maturity, w/:n siztj, feeding properties, and docility, increased by the cross, will lose little, and probably nothing of the activity and hardihood of the common race. To what precise ex- -, ,4 .■■ CANADIAN AO&ICULTUUAL BKADKB. 141 rork ?ner |ma- 'ith her, of land for |ity, Ithe ex- tent interbreeding should bo carried, to produce the most vnlunblo breed of working catUc, cxi>criencocnn alone determine, * Sec TION XIV. 1. Training OxKN. — Tiie fretiuent abuse of our lrilK>ring ani- mals by those who receive the boucfits of tjjcir labors, an(i who ought in return to treat them mcrciluliy, iias often given me grc^t pa in. indeed, it ii a me perlcctly surprising, now any mailer intelligent being can so wantonly nnd unliiinkingly abuse dumb animals as many nro in the daily habit (jf doini^ 1 venture to sav from my own oLsrrvation, and that lias not Lccn limited in this particular, ihat nine-tenths of ilic|)crvcrscness of laboiinpj animals uriocs fn^m the misiuaiiagoment, at sumo period or other, of those who train or use them. *i. It aj)poars to mo the rules of manogf^mcnt, in all these cases, arc extremoly simple. You have only to study the natural disjK)- eition and hi.st.orv of the animals to know how to rnanat'C them, iiv your own feelings, you can easily perceive that they can have little heart or dispobiium to lahur if scantily fed ; of couisc good feet'ing is the first step in obtaining good labor. 8. The next is to have ycjur teams properly trained so ns to knnw you, and also to be fond of you, and to love the sound of your voice, for animals are capable of much aflbcticm. 1 have known numer- ous instances ofihe kind, and in all caacs with which 1 have been fandliar, those who treated iheir cattle or horses witii kindness, always obtained iroiu them the most work, and that too in the eai«i- eet way. 4. Breaking of Steers. — Yoke them carefully, nnd let them re- innin quiet until they will eat their food, which generally takos place in the course of one day. Yoke them again the next day, and put them behind a pair of old steady cattle, and let them e-taad till they become familiar with them. ThisgoMcrally tidvcs but ori« day. The duy following yoke them again, and put them b'hiud tlie oxen as bet'ore, upon the tongue of a cart or sled, 'i'htjy being now accustomed to the oxen before, will readily follovr without Wiiippingor beating. Th«y will soon become kind ai»d gentle. 5. I have employed, in tlie course of my business, a great many men with teams, both of oxen and horses, and 1 never yet knew a bawling, noisv, whipping teamster who did a great day's work ; Dor have 1 scarcely known such an one who kept a fat team. Tha l)est man who ever did me any labor was a good substantial (armes. tii« oxen were always fat, and spry as colis. lie would never ii > •! # i ,1" i ^\ t C; i- , . r . r: '^■^b ■>\%^ i ^ i=l r.-'fy*. ■ -^-i ^ 1 i"-:-' tj v,J-^ f' .'k>:? 143 CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL READEB. r^lH r--t- hitch them to nny tiling which ho knew they could not draw ; — of course ihoy wore not discourngod ; ond lie hardly ever spoks k)udcr to his oxen ihun in a low tone ol' cotiirnon conversation. 6. Mo would tVecjueutly speak to ihoin soothingly, and cncour- ngethcni when he had a hard job on hand, which was often the cascv After making a heavy pull he would sometimes pat ihemon the hackj hut I rarely ever knew him strike or worry his team. lie carried a slender goad with a short lash to guide them with, and a mero Bwirig of the whip wa'o suOicient lor his pur|)ose. 7. 1 have known several such i)ersons in my life, and I do not hesitate to say, that any person who so manngos his teams, will get more labor at less expense, and with more ease to lumself than by the ordinary bawling, whipping method so much practised in our country. All the dillerence with tlioso people is, that the orio understands and siudies the nature and disposition of his animals, and the other does not. "An even tempor and a steady hand," ought to bo the teumsier's motto, the world over. Skction XV. 1. Treatment of Milcu Cows. — There is, perhaps, no part of the husbandry of our country so much neglected as that which relates to the |)roviding of provender (or milch cows on our farms. On many estates, even those of magnitude, the chief part of the food, if not the entire, which they get, are the blades, the tops and the husks of the corn, with an occasional gratuity of nubbins by way of a holiday feast. 2. The consequence is, that if the winter be severe and jirotracted, there is nine chances out ot ten, that every cow long before spring arrives, is either dry, or so near it, that the milk slie will give ifl not worth the trouble and cost of s1ri|)ping, .so that many farmers with half a dozen or more cows have neither milk nor butter sufl> cient for the domestic uses of their tables, during the Inlter part of each winter, and by the time that the cold and blenk winds of March arrive, many of the cattle are on the lift. How is it possible it can be otherwise ? 3. There is little or no succulent in the food we have described in its dry slate, and consequently cows fed upon it, must, for the want of matter convertible into milk, cease to yield it. In every other country snve our own, it lorms a part of the business of every farmer or planter, to provide full supplies of nutritious food for his stock of every kind, and for those which comjirise the dairy cows, ©special pains and care are taken to provide a suflicient quantity of 8U .b roots as are heartening and succulent, so that by thus pa>- CANADIAN AOBICULTUBAL READBA. H8 riding a substitute for tho grasses of tlio pasture, or i\\o soiling stnlls or yards, liis dairy, even through tho dr<^ary and iucleniont poriivd of llio winter, may contiiuio to contribute largely to tho coiuf«»rt of i lib fainily, and to tho increase of his fortuno. 4. No guod fanner, then, will kcrp more (^ows than ho can well keep, and m so keeping them ho finds his troiibh; rcwardetl, and has besides the satisfaction of knowing, that in thus ncting he hn.s fuU iillcd an obligation imposed on him by every humane considoratiofi, njid discharged a duty rcipiired by ilitn, who, in placing tlio boasta of tho fit'ld m subjiuitiun to man, enjoined that \\r should extend U>- wards thoin his kindest protection and caro. We fro(p.iently hear gonllemon C(^mplniuing of the dilli'ully of procuring such cowa aa will make proliiublo returns, and of the impossibility of keeping tiuiuj to their milk during the winter. The reason is obvious. "). No cow. and we caro not what her breed may be, whether siio be of imj)rovod Durham short horn, tho Ucvon, the Aldorney, tho common cow of tho countrv, or any other— we sav no cow can be kcnt in tho nail, unless vou {jrivo her some'hinacli cow will give her two gallons of milk per day, and make from four to seven pounds of butter per week, which latter should be sot down as the profit, as the milk and cream consumed by the family will more than compensate for the feed. 8. In addition to this, animals thus fed mrdce three times th6 quantity of manure, and arc always in condition to command goixi priced. We have engaged in no speculative theories in what w« p 1 ii ' h - 144 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. I ' I M »f * liavo sail), but Ijrivo addrcssod ourselves to the common sense trftho iigricullural coiniuuiiity in the hope that tliey will see thoin-opriety of adopting some [diUi by which our objoct can be ubtaiiicKl. Skction XVI. 1. IJuTTKR Maki\(;. — livory dcalor in the articlo knows tliat tlie nioHt decisive tt'st which can be ollbrcd ot tlio skill and neatncisd of tlio housowise, or the dairy womriii, is furnishoJ by the qu'iiity oftho butter otlbrcd by iior in the inrukrt. It' it is lirm, ricli, marrowy, «nd of proper coiisisloiico throii^'Ijout ; (Voo from ail sj)pcks and im- pnriln-s ; purl'uniy (iivostc 1 ofilic thilii, anil givin^ijoni ihai pr>cijliar iVagranco bclongiig lu swcot and well maclo battnr — tho voiidf'r rnay bo set down as one that undcrsiands her busino.ss, and the prt>- duco of whoso dairy will always command tho (irot price in the market. 2. '.>n the contrary, if the binter slionld bo wliitc, llglit and pf>- rous ; full of partiides of dirt, ilios' legs, cows' h.iirs, and olher namolt's? abominalions ', wiiluuit being Iroed lVo:n tho miik, and abounding in parlicdos of tho curdled milk from wluch tho creairi was taken — tluui tiio character of the dairv lor no itnoss mav be marked as su.spicii>u-!, and prices must bo arranged accordingly. 3. 'i'lic olor of huUer is no ihl'iliiblo test of goodi.ess, aUhough that w'lich is m>d irately yellow will, othiM- thiiiirs boiiig equal, bo generally prefcn-ed ; but where the (pialities above named are j)ro- siuit, be the butter white or yellow, its excellence may be relierfi:iiuiii fro;:) rho •Soci:-f}", m !y he :ltuii I ifi the 'liihr'uy of Af:j:''(;!i!tui'-tl iii:d lioi'ti- cuiliiimI Ki;(c,vI(!!.^ •.' and is pivjunljly the !)'\>t p.-ijier on thesuhj-xt of iiirikiii!; hn'l.i r whir'j has \cl ap[)erir''d. 7. I'V'n *•';•. I'.ilhmtino's rxpenmcnts, it r^ppears that the tlior- niorneiii.ri! r.'in;.'0 nt u'hi(.'h hMMcr can bo ••ht;un'"'d, exti'iitls from 4.) U) 7.) '!-:^.':cei.'.> ;> (!'.';;:•'' :•, ::.i llie tc';nper;tnre at whieh lUc greitrst r-;uni!i y «.»i'huit."'r iM'ilfi :i." [ •.v;;!iieod iVtMi n j[^iven (junmity oi cre'ur; nnd ."^rj dej^rofvs of fenip'M- iMi!»^ in ihe churn just t)''^fi)''e the butt-T comes, ns iliat V iii.ii :;i:"».f;'< I'ho best qnnlity, giving a tCMnpouaiure of ."il 10 the cream .'vr it; introduction into the churn. 8. Hep? ifvl cliuriu"?!;^ at this d'-'j.n'co of herit. gave bulter of tlie f:nest ^n :,l'tv -Mid v dour, the milk bcini' coninlelelv .s'^naraled tVorrj tne bui;.: i\ v.!:;c..'i wIkhi vra.she.l and niido Uji int.* r/lls kept fir a i'TtniL^li! \v!lhoiir .-'rtjuiiirig (M'thcr smell or tas'e. Mr. i.-d'aniiuQ s ',\'A — "iwi;.'. r i;;t 'iidcd to be ^ent to the market sweet, shoulJ bo (.•ircfully '^'.thered Cvyn the nnlk with the h.iMd, and iho niil'c Jrt :ui*o/ed o ;t of ir. It fdioul;! then L'O put into cold spring^ water, and after b'ing wci! wa^-hed, ii sh^ndd he mitie up iiilo pmIs wiih wooden li.!pp".s, nnd j)ut into cold water to firm, but should n"t be adowed to r •inain Ioniser than is noce;'sarv lo linn it, as the water will hurl h'^tli i.s co]ovn'r;n;i Havo'-." I). Th" [,r ctieo -m' !i'f!s/ij}i!r huifcr, aspirting the newly churned article into cloar c d 1 w itru* i.s called, has we b:licve n -vu' \>vq- vailed to any consid^-rable extent in the dairies ot this CMUuLrv, whereas in lj!etely 10 ii 1 \i-'t ii I in P'.' p IIG CANADIAN AGttlCULTURAL READER. freed from the pfirticlcs ofinilk and of water, it is salLo(i according 10 the notion of tin dairy \von:an, and carefully put av/ay fjr use or the inarkc!:. iJ. Jutigo ])uel condemns the use of water in the inrinulacturG of huttcr, believing thai, it dissipates much of the fine n.'iv(jr that gives to goo4J butter its high v.alue ; yet in Orange county, wliich furnishes the best butter dairies in the state, and probably in tho United States, it is a common ren^irl: ami>ng the dairy womnn, '•give us cold hard water, a)id we will not lail in makini? "'x^d butter." 11. Wo do not think tho washing of butter has been j)roperly tested in this i;ountry, or at least the result has not been rej)oi-ted ; and that dairyman who should institute a series of expcrimcnls with regard to the making of butter in this and other methods, and the eifect on its equalities for table use and keeping, mid shoidd faiLin'ui- ly record find report the same for some of our agi-icnltnral journals, would confer a great favour on a largo j)ortion of the con)n;unity. Some experiments made on a small scale by Judge Burl certainly go far to prove the excellence of unwashed butter for keeping ; and iiad he at the same time put down one or two pots of waslied butter in the same wa\-, ii would have gone far towards determining the course to be jjreforred in its preservation. IvJ. For srdting butter, experience has shown that in butter in- tended to be kept any time, one ounce of good tine salt to a pound of butter is the proper proportion ; where it is not intended to be kept, jess may be used, according to the taste oi'the maker. Some persons have rcconnnended that to a pound of salt sliould be added four ounces of pulverized loaf sugar. We have tried this metiiod, and found the butter admirable. 13. Dr. AnniM-son says — "In Ireland, (and few countries equal some parts of Iieland in the fine qualities of the butter,) the use of salt and salipetre is recommended in the jjroportion of one ounce of fine rock srdt, and one-fiftli of an ounce of saltpetre, to twenty- eight o nices of butter." None but the finest and purest salt should be used lor butter, as every extraneous matter found in tho snlt in- jures its qualitv, and produces a corresponding elfect on the butter. 14. For preserving butter nothing more seems to be necessary than that tho butter should be put down perfectly sweet an(^ solid, in some vessel thn.t is air tight, and then kept at a temperature be- tween fifty-five and sixty or sixty-five degrees, 'i'he great secret consists in a low temj)erature, and the entire exclusi(jn of air. — W})ere considerable quantities of butter are to be j)ut down, or packed, <'.asks containing from 60 to lOU pounds may be used. 1^. TLeso ihonld be made of white oak or ash, the wood to be CANADIAN AORICULTrRAL READER. 14- boilcd roriliri'>o or f'ur hours Is^fore worki'.ip;, nnd thoroughly sonkeii in cold h.'ird wntor IxMoi'o fiilinii" w'.'.}'. hiiM'-r. hilolhis ihc butter in good onirsr should ho well j Minrdrd. rujd if )>i)ssi!)lo tho (•;i.;hould be filk.'d at a single opcrr'tion. At any rate huttor of dillhreut qiialiiics or ctdnurs >p.ould not ho mixed tognthor ; in onn case the b-id will certainly injure the pood, and in the other tho mixing of dilibrent colours produces that niultled nppcaranco bo nboininalile to the lov':-r ofgi^oii hu;!er. if). If there is nni Initor enough to fill the firkin at once. nia!:o a strong hriiiC, clear and pMU'e. arid covering the butter with this, let it stand initil you have more to put (V-wn, when t!io brine may be turned olt' a lid t}\e addition made. 'inhere should ho a small sp^ace leftl)etwe^n the horidofthe cask, w!ien filled, and the butter ; this space ■-iiouid be hlled v/ith strong well boiled brine, intnxiiiced through a hoie in t!io head, stopped with a vcg^ which may be tnk«3fi out occasionallv for a i'cw davs, as sometimes the slirinkaji^e of the butter iVoiii the cask \\'iil re(^uire ihe aiidition of moi'e l)rine. 17. \\ (icn observation shows no more is rc([uired, the cask should be placed where the temperature will remain low, and the butter will he found of a good quality. Hut where the butter is intended ibr fannly use, the best way we know of kecj)ing it sweet, is to put it down in stv.'iie crocks or jars which will hold from thirty to lorty poun.'s. Tl:e butter shoi-.ld be pa(d\eri cj.jso and solid as direttted tor litkins, leaving a spaci^ iif 0!ie or two inchesatthe moutli unfnled. Then make; a strong brine, carefully boiling and scumming it, and fill the jar willi it. 18. Place the jars in a cool sweet cellar ; cover them carcfullv and securely to j>rcvent any dirt getting in ; examine them oc(%'> sionallv to see tliat the b\Jlter is covered with brine, and that tho brine remains sweet anr managenient tiiey are certain of an abundant reward ior their l-.!)or. 2. Th(Me sureiy can be no reason whj' chee.'^e inny not be man ufacturoil in Canada c;{Ual to any in the world; yet as a who!»< there cmi be no doul)t that Amoi-ican cheeses are fir inferior to tiiose pi'OLliiced in Englitnd, and some parts ol Holland, (Germany and Italy. Tiu; causi.s oi' this ijiferiority niusi. I>e sought in tht* dilierehi ;.nil ;,ctective n)odes of making practised in our country. Wc somoiimcs meet uith a cheese equal in quality to any thatcaii be projaicoii in any quarter oi'ihe globe, butlhat perha[)S is llieonl/ one tljj >iairy tliat iuriiislied it enn si;o\v of asiiniiar quality. 13- K-udi N.tiiild n ..t be the rosali, if the business of the dairy was carried on upon fi\eil and coi'rect })i'Jncij)les ; as cmre Uiiiformity in the ll,i\or iiiiil quality of ilie cheese, is a niMrkril c!Kii'cM:teristic of the l)est ibre'gn dairies. As tiie result of some oL'.servation and experience, we give it as our opinion, that the reason why theru is so much ontinary cheese made in this couniry is, tiint little or noatteniion is priid to the quality of the rennet; ainl the tempera- ture cf the mi'k behig letc to chance, is constantly vr vying from (Jay to day, necessarily alfecling the cjunlitks of the curds. 4. It is evident the rennet must have a great eifccl in determin- ing the good or bad tpialities of a cheese, yet in many if not the most of ourdui^ries, it is prepared in the most careless, not to say lilovenly maniierimagjn.able. Everything relatingto chees'^shoulJ be kept perfectly clean, yet rennet is sometimes used, the odor of wliich IS any thi'iig butambrosial, and it is well if a close examination does not show living prooi", that the invitation sent abroad on the »aiiUed air has not been in vain. C-ANADIAN AGRICULTURAL BKADER. 149 rt»i 5. Some of our dairy women maintain, th.'U the qunlity or fla- vor of the rennet is nf no consequence, as it |.nsses (,lY\n tliowhe}'; but tins is a great mistake, ns is well understood by tlioso who hfive paid the necessarv attention to the jireparation of rennet. At the celebrated dairy iarm of Mcyward in I^iUcrland, the rennet is pre- pared by putting two gallons of brine to six crilvrs' ftonri'.dis, at least one \ ear (d;l, to which is added two or thi'ee slic>'^d lemons, and ailoi- standing a few weeks the liquor is bottled f )r use. It is not used till two mnnths old, and the < drier it is, the better it is con- sidered. 6. In some dairies, cloves, sago, and other aro.nn tic-, . 'ire adde/1 to the rennet wlih the lemon. A stone jug th.-it will coil- I'liht is the best t')' the pi-e-ervation of rennet, as the iiir shi'ii'd be caro- full}' excluded after it is once jirepared. To ])rnd!i('o uni! >inuty in the quality of tlio cheese of a dairy, the milk at thr' application of the renii'i-t should be of a uniform tomperature. This in most cases is it a lo cliance, the hrind of thed'iiry wom'in being tlie only guide, whereas a tlicrmometer ought always to bo used, and what- ever rai3 be ado;)ted as the standard, the milk of each day should be ma;io to conform to the rule. 7. At the I Icy ward (arm, and in others where double ('louces- ter is produced, the stnndard is 85 c . .Fr')m I'nnt it rangcsto US '-' . which is the highest admissible in the manufacture of clicese, as a grerUer degree of heat renders the curd too hnrd and linn. — Should the milk wlien brougiit from the cows and phu\?d in a tub or vat for being converted into curd, be found to have si.nk below the proper teaqierature, a quantify must bo M'arnicd suiiicient to raise t!ie whole to the desired point. 8. 'i'o a negloot of these two thi'i2:s, quality of roiin^t nnd pro- per temperature of the milk, we br^licve most of tlie deiVcis in our cheese arc ov/ing ; and if these difliculties were o!)viritc;l, we liavQ no doubt that nnny of our dairies would producecliccse of uiiilbrm good quality. Now, in purchasing a lot of chee.se, the buyer is pretty cctain of getting so?)ie that will be first rale, some tint are middling, ;;nd sfMiie that would choke a dog, so hard and tough are they. y. \V c read not long since, in some of the scientlnc journals. that the (Jermans l:ad succeeded in converting a pine borwd into very palatabl'' six penny loaves ; and had they nssertnd ihat the same persons had converted a white oak jdank into cheese, wo should have been equally ready to credit them, as we have our- selves seen some that a|)proximated marvellously near to that same wood in outward apj)earanco and inward quality, so far as hard- ness and toughness were concerned. 150 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 10. Tliere arc but two kinds of Englit^li cliecsc, t];c luannfac- ture of wliicli could be introduced into our driiries with much [irud- pc'ct of success or rcujuncralion ; these are tne Gioucc\-,ier and the iStiUon, nud in some of our driirios at pre.seiit chco.-o neruly ap- proaeiiii-y those iu quality is produced, in mailing both the^.e kinds of cheese, tliere are some peculiarities Mhici) must have a decided elfecton ihe (juality, yet vvhicii hive been iiitroducod iufuU in very few it" any dairies m this country. 11. The double Gloucester is made i'rom tlse night and morning milk, tlio cream taken Iromtiie fwrmer. fcmgie ( ii(juccster ismaJe ontirely from the skhumed njilk. In making (jlioucester, tlie milk is sot at the temperatLU'e of b;> ^ . After tiie i'ennct is applied and thecar-.i is !iard enougiito break Uj), it is very slcwly ana gently cut up with a three bladed knife, tlie blades reaching to the botluni of the tub and one inch apart, both ways, that tiie whey njay come out as cle;ir or greenish as possible. 12. As the curd settles, some of the whey is dipp^ed (^ii', and the curd is again cut U[). This operation is re}»erited until the wiiey is ontirely t;eparated, and no lumps remain in the card. 'Lb.o curd is now put iiiuj the \ats or hoops, and pressed down with tlic hand. The huops covered with line cloth are put in the press i'or half an hour ; when the curd is taken out, cut into thin slices, and put into a wooden mill, which tears it into pieces not larger than small j>eas. 13. This process of grinding is preferahle to l)reaking up tj hand, as the butler is not forced out, and ihe cunt unites better than when made line by chopping as is gericrally practised in this country. In some instances a second similar breaking u[) or grind- ing of the curd is performed, and after being made as line as possi- ble, the curd is again put into the cloths and hoops, a little hot whey or water being tlirown on tiie cloths, to harden the outoide of the cheese and prevent it from cracking. 14. Alter bring in the j)reSi5 two hours, the cheeses ore taken out and dry cloltis applied, and the same operation of turning and dry cloths is rejieated during tiie day. A strildng p.cculiarity in the Gloucester cheese is the manner of salting. iNone is used un- til the cheese has been made and in the press twenty-four iiours ; and even then is not begun unless the cheese is all closed, since if there be any crack in the cheese at the time of salting it will never close afterwards. The salting is performed by rubbing the cheese over with llnely powdered salt. The cheese is then returned to the press. 15. The salting is repeated three times with the single, and four CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 1.51 iO n > if o limes with liie doublo Gloucester, twonty-finr hours hoing nllowfx.l to inlorvenc bctweon each salting. Tiio double CtJDiK'cstcr re- mains in the ])i'cs.s(\s live dnys, the single four, when they nre iiut on fi shelf or floor of the dairy, and turn.'d twice in twenfy-four hours. ( I loucester cheese is distitiguished tor its smooth, close, and waxliko texture, and its very rich and mild flavor. If the curd is salted bi-fore being put into the hoops, tiic salt has the elfoct of giving a skin to each of the particles of the curd it conies in con- tact with, which i>revcnis them from intitnaloly uniting. 10. It may be j)resscd together and become good checs"', yet it never becomes a smooth clo.se mass, like that wliitdi is sailed nftsr it is made, being always liable to crumble wli^'U cut, a prevailing fault wilii American cheese. The cheese called Stilton cheese, is princi|)ally made in Leicestershire, near Melton Mowbray, andth« adjacent villag'^'s. It is a vei'v rich chee^■e, rarely ul)ing tlicrn, until it is vory strongly impregnated, and applied to the defective places, will have a tendency to prevent flie« and hugs from hecoming nn'schievous, and producing injury. Ma- ny dairies Milhin a lew years have iniroduerd tlie pnicfice of put- ting into their diet so a small (juantity of s'lltnetie, Nvhieli it is ima- gined re)i(jors the cheese more tender, while it dnosnoi detract from its flavor. We iiavc douhts, however, whether the addition of ajjy such ingredients has a real tendency to in^prove ihe j»ro(incts of the dairy, and in tome instances they have proved positively inju- jious. Sf.ction- XVIII. 1. RKAni.N(j Calvk^?. — It is a very general practice in many places, to j)rrnn't calves to run with, or at lenst to f.uc.k tl.e cows durin^Mhe fn'st season, and a prevalent opinion is ih.it th's is the best wa \' of raiding tlifMii. 'i'he former practice, — that <>" rllowiiig iho calf to run coiistantly with tlie cow. — is always iiijiirious to a milker, for unle;-s n cnw lias the v/io/c of her milk ref'idarlv drawn from i'.ej-, which i-arely hr)|)pcns where it is left 'litirciy to the will of tlie calf, unless the ud.der is completely emptied, the lactic se- cretions are constantly diminished, and the cow would conse- quently hccume eventually dry. 2. Dut where the calf is turned to the cow only at stated intcr- va!o, — Id morning and e\oning. — and pains are t-tkon that ail the milk is withdrawn, although this does not injuro the cow, yet it is found to bn a very expensive practice; for a calculation will readi- ly show that tlie milk (tf a cow during the season, if a])propriated to dairy use, would bring more than the whole value of tlie calf in autunuT. I}, (living the calf hut a part of the millcMof tlie cow, and wean- ing it erirly in summer and turiiing it to i-iasture, is no improve, raent ; for unless it has a good supply of nutritious food, and un- less this is continued through the season, there can ho no hope of raising a valuable animal. The frequent raw-boued, stunted, ill shajied ones, which v.o see, are a sulucient comment on the truth ofthi.^ 4. K.\])ericnce has s!iov/n, both in England and in this country, that the ilnest aninials may be raised in great numbers, without allowing them to suck the cow after tlie first three or four days. — One of the best practices is the following. The calf is allowed to suck a few days, till it has increased in strength and appetite suffi- cient to enable it to swallow readily, during which time care should 1^13 tftlvori to milk the cow while it is sucking, in order to draw off CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 158 .:ii^ tlie wliolo of tlie milk ; it slionl(l then l>c sei).'ir.itcd from llic cow. 8onie ix'comniond even to reiiiuve it wlien it is nut niuie tliun twelve liours old. 5. It may l)0 lonrnod to drink hy allowing it to suck the finger placed ill ilio vessel. It shoijid nt first he fed entirely on new milk. in two or three days, u very small nuaiititv of v.nler, of tlio saino •^ ' • I • 111 tomiieraluio with il.c milk, i;s added, and increa.^rd very j::ra;.iKilly day aficr (i;iy ; at the sanio time a smnll qinnfity en meal is to bo added with it, and this also is to he pradually iii"i'.^ris''.i, rjnd at tho same rate, ia e , to supply the deficiency Oi" nom ;.-i:moiit occr.- siouod by liio acluition of ilie water, (i. At tho bamGthi^.e, skimmed milk may ho frradi;r.;ly sni)Stitu- led for new milk. 'iMiis shiidd at first ho boiled, nnd afterwards couleJ t(j tbo proi)er tomperalnre, as o!lierwise it would be linbieto cause purging. Tbo tcmperr;iurp mav then i)e jn-? dunllv diminish- ed till it is given cold. Thus in a feu- v. eeks the cjilf will have learned grauu.illy, but almost imperceptibly, to subsist entirely on water or old milk mixed willi meril. 7. Tbo meal at first s!u)u!d be lino, but coarser mny subsequent- ly be substituted ; and tin-iliy shorts or bran nny be given if ne- cessary, by l\\n^ - tember to December they run in my orchard, or are full fed with apples in the \)Qn. 1 prefer their running at large in tl;e orchard unless the a|)ples are so abundant that tliey will waste and destroy them, for they will then never go hungry ; they will lie very quiet and never run so as to waste their flesh. 5. I am aware that most of those wiio have written upon the subject, iccommend picking up the apples and boiling them ; but this costs too inucli in labor and fuel, and I have doubts whether there is much benefit derived from it. The stomach of tlie hog was made to digest the raw material, and no doubt is adequate to that purpose. . 6. I see no more need of boiling the apples for the hog, than the spnn^. to CANADIAN AOnrcULTURAL RKADER. 155 grass (or llio u\ ; I linvc in a few casios boiled llicm, but Unmd tlic ULiimals pre lerrci thuiu uiicnolvcil, aiid I supposo tiioy were ibo most suitable juuges oL uha' was best lor tboiii ; at .-my laii.', in ilie way 1 have tecoimneiideii, I liavu niauovery good pork, with very little trouble; and 1 run certain that to pick Um^ iVuit mid boil it lor 15 or 2D h(-><^s, I'cr llueo nioiitlis, woidcl Ijc a very serious ticduction I'rom Uiu pro'ils ci' tlic conciTii. 7. On Liu: managtiaciil oj J^ire ^locL — in onl-r to guai i figainst tho evils refilling irom having niorostocdc tlinii liio nieaiis of koop- ing arc .^ufllciv nt to sustain, much good judgment and |>rudent foro cu^i siiouid bo exorcised in apportioning the am(junt of slock to tiio means provided for keeping the animals. In the spring, the hus- . mdman who keeps stock should con^i(jor and ii.{|uire Ikjw many acres of grdzing ground Ik- has at his (Hsiuj.sal, and what number of such anitnals as he intends to keep that will be likely to supply with pasture. ^. Jn liie fall, lie shoidd make similar inquiries relative to iho (pmn- tily of hay and other [odder which lie has provided lor wintering hj.-; stock. How many tons (d' hay he h.".s in sLore, ll' roots, straw, atalks, and oilier articles of coarse lodder are to be used, then let him imiuiro how great is tho qurintiiy of these articles, and to what quanlily <.u" hay may tney be siipposcd to i)e cquiv.iltMit. These stiould be the lii'st iiujuiries, and iiien another should lollow : W hat amount of stock is it likely these [)rovisions wdi besutUcientttj keej> through tiio win:.er ? 9. \v hen these <[uestions are settled, the rule ahvays should be, to keep a smaller numijor of ruiimals thnn it is supposed the means of keeping mighl, under favorable circumstances, i)e sufficient to sustain, 'i'he remark which 1 run now about to m.ake is, in my view, of mf-re than ordinary importance, and 1 desire you to regard it accordingly. Tiie remark is, that from being under-^^t^'cked in- juries rarely result ; and if the)- do, they are generally small and trilling ; Liit h) be ovor-stoekcd is always disastrous. 10. It is far belter lo be able to sell half a dozen tons of hay in tho spring ihaii to starve your stock through tlie winter, nmi after all, be obliged to buy even the smallest (|uai..Ity. It .should be con- sidered too, that close grazing in the summer injures pasture, and samty fee !ig, either in summer or wiulor, ruii:s Ihe stock. 11. In order to be able to make jud'cious a|;»portionmonts, accord- ing to the preceding suggestions, it is very necessary to know, as nearly as practicable, how much pasture, and what quantity of hay and other keeping, will be re(juired to keej) any given amount of stock through a year. tShould it be inquired how much pasti'T-e, t * 5 I ■!••? « ) H 15C CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADKR. and vvlifit (junntity of hay are usually re(|iilrf>'l f) kopp n horso, or on ox, or a cow, llirou<^li a ynnr, if is b'.'iioved v^rv iVw IHrinors \voul(J !)(• fihlo to answer llm question, 12. If would 1)C well lor iViruiers to nc*fMi,<5toin tli'^in-rlve:^, much more th iii tiiey do, to lU'iko.Mccurato oI)Siirv.'il.i');is, in ro:i nd to tlieso and ninny other tilings. 1 do not (daini t'> i)e innster oi" t!io suhj"Ct to which I :i;u now (r:illin«]f your a'teiiii'*;!, noi'cui 1 sm|);)Oso that llio idr"i. nl" inl'illihijity should he attaclujd to the ev.ii;int"s which i am about to submit. I'i. ['fiKW the best lii,dif.s tint have b'-en suro'id b'-'fjre mo, I firn led to cciiflin'e that wlifu ir'V alone is dep-'udci on, it usuallv rtv quires two tons of hav t') winter a hor-;e — loi* oh'mix .-I'loiit as mu.'h — for a cow one ni.d a iialf I'^.ns—lbr iWo!v> ,s:i<'e[) t'c^ >.r.ne ns lor a cow. li is believed, thai for sununerinc citluT n !imiv,. .>]• un ox, at least three acres of good |>asture, or nn (Njiiivii >;ii !h*'rel.o, will he re(|uire;l. For siirnnieri;><;f ri cow, fwi .anl a half u;;rcs niav bullico — iho same for sununeriiig twelve sheej». SlXTION XX. 1. Fattf'Aivcj Cattlk. — 'i'hv' lattening of c.'iMl'^ dc innd-! con* eidorablo an I constant attention, and the g ea« o!«'pc* i.; to f'ltten qm'ckly. An animal wh''n in a st.'ite of re-iriiig. may h;; consider- rd as a vessel open at h;)fh eu;ls, in whi(di the sup;.] v and the waste bning nearly cuual, it can never be filled ; fa'tevii.'<4 the ani- mal may be consiilered as an attcnipt to iljj ibe vessfl, an;! this can only he done by an excess of sui)ply. 'ihe \v;;s!f! b.- in;; Mio same as before, the excess must he great ; if ii is not •.), the vrssel may be fillet! to a gi-eater height than bef )re, will. out ever becoming full. '2. An iijporlant hint mny be taken from this ^'Imile, by manv farujcrs, who know liillo of the tlilferenco betw.- fti f -e h'ng and fattening. Cattle, sheep and swine, mny be kept fn- m>nths, and fo:] with the view to fattening them, without lli'-'ir g'o.sii.g a j)Ound of mc;if. The nge at which cattle are fittened dep'^nd-i upon the mnnner in whicii they have been reared ; up mi the properties, of the breed in regud to the propensity to I'atten e.irlier or later in life, audi) u th:3 circumstances of their b-ing ompl^vel in breeding, in labor, tijr the dairy, or reared solely for the biif(.dK'r. y. In ihe latter c:uje the most improved breeds are fit for the market when about tlu'ee vcars old, and verv i'cw of nnv larsce breed should he kept more than a year long^^r. As to the cows and working oxen, the age ot fattening must necessarily be very iudofinito ; in most instances the latter should be i)ut up to feed CANADIAN AGRICrLTVEAL READER. 157 or inunv and ;. ami )c»imd L the PS. o^ icr in ding, r tlie lfirs:e cows very I feed nttor woikinL,' tliroo yr^ars, or in tlio seventh or ciglith year of their age. '1 hi; lowil on wlrch catilo arc liiltonod in summer is gr/uss, commonly »»(» p isinrcs, hut in some instances cut ami consumed \u tho y:ii(l. tnuinlci", h.-iy and mots, and licrht'j.s Indian corii, meal, vV i., m v ustti. 4. V\ Ik II callli; nro fattene*! on grass, tho hest w.'iy is t-t take young cai'i., ().'ir;iculariy ijuoe or lour yt ;ir old sicciv;, in iS'ovom- Lcr, H) l\ct',) ilitin ii' ilio \aid jill wiiiicr, iV-d partly with straw and partly wiiii h;:\, l»ul, S'» tisto havelhem in go(jj,lil the lour (|iirn ters when latUiiiod. 'i i.cy mu^^^t h.avc good pastuie lor Uww months. Hut as wc caniio! conirol iho j-cas-oiis. in cftso a ^:i'\twc dro>(.;ht t.vkcs place, the only icnicdy is a, liitlo gr;.in, or ratlior meal, given daily. 5. i'i()\i 1 u '.li.'-y arc thus I'cd, they v/dl he rcauy lor sale hy the midiHe (d". > j/lon.iHsr, ?ind gciiCivilly at this time cal!lo of the ahovo fci/o arc in ;_o..d i;oi.i'.nu ; it" kept |.;tor the n.aikets rre glutted, nnd the p! ii.e aiA.i^s iower. ►^l.'dl-l''<.din^;(, however, is coaun<;n, and judici'U.vlv c iiducte(i, prohahly the most f li^ihle n;(tliod ; hut the praclic;.' ^i' . ;. Ihieoding wiiii grnss and uil-cnko i.s lo ho con- dtnnncd, hecau c it is the most expensive method oi' su.simning aai- iiials. 0. \v halcsrr . iiperiluou.s grain is raises] ahovo ti»o (|uantities necoesary .or ariu.il oomcsiic consumption and seed, slK»uld ho sold and thfj moiu'v l.iid hv to dcir.iv tiie charges ot' hushandrv ; but feeding U[. i;. (J gi' in, and puivhrislng oil cake and s.tlt mlo ilw bargain, l'>i- ;t cu tingency which is altog,;thcr S[)eculative, is, we think, vr'i_\ iiiju !ciou8; lor the average j)ricco[' bed' in the spring ol'tho year laiCiy v.arit'Uii.-i such an expensive meihod oi" keeping it up. 7. Witii rf;.';ia'ct to feeding, the first rule is, a littlo at a time and orien; hoc. i.;..n experience has shown that animrdsthjit eatnuicii in a sliort lime, ;;o not latton .so well as those which eat less, hut more frequently. J iie two great jxdnls in leeding ludmalsttj jjroiit are, regularity, a:i>i .i. panicuiar care of the weaker iiuiiviiiuaU. (.in 1)k' 1 .tier jte .(yu.ii, there ought always to he plenty of ti-<:)Ugh or rack room, thru, loo many may not teed together, in \\hich very common ca^elhc weaker are not onlv trampled «'(.\\n hy the stronger, bul. ;ii y are v orried and become cowed and spiritless, than which l!.; lu c.innoi be a more unfavorable state for thriving ; besides, tlieso are ever compelled to shiit with the worst part of tho food. y. Tliis domineeriig spirit is so remarkably prevalcat among it % \. If- 1 . i> % V. ■ iy\ 158 CANAOIA.V Ar,Rir;l'LTrilAL rkadkh. I ahout nrnt rihsolntcly iM'^l«'<'tii)'^ their uun nioNontirT, I'ur tlio s'lltu of (iriviiif]^ ilif iiiloriur iVoiii tlicirs. '1 liis i.> mii'Mi (il'ifnor llirui is suspected, iho clucf iTMson of tliiit dilleronco HO visil)I(3 in ii lot of cnltlo mIVm- m winter's Ir«dore an unfailing crop. Cnrrots, when fed with mangel wurt/.el, in the proportion of one-third of tho former to twf) thirds of tlio latter, with .a little clover or other hay, were founri to be as one to five in fattr'ning entile, when conij)ared with Indian corn, fiu'l a proportional quantity of hay. 11. Tur))im.-'('n\\\o are fed with turnips, either hy being tifxl to up.right posts within doors, or they nrc suHcred to go at lars^a in tho straw vard Tliis last is greatlv the hotter mode of feed- iug, the turnips hoAn<> supplied from troughs or olherwise, and a shed for shelter bring always at hand, and open to tho cnttle to repose in. It is well, Ixuvever. that too njanv animrils of strotic'lh and size he not put t(\g.'iIior, ](':<\ they disturb each other's feeding. 12. When cittlo are of value and ])ut up for quick fatteinng, it is common to cut oil'ihe le.'vves and tails of th.c turnips, giving tte leaves to llir" younger and loss vnhiablc stock, and tlio bi;li>s only to tho^e which are to he fed. Young cattle not intended to he in> medialely fattened, receive only a limited portion of turnips, th'^ir princii>al provender being siraw. I*»y receiving a portion o[ tur- nips with their drier provender, these animals are kept in a much more healthy condition thnn if confiiiod to the latter lood, nnd con- tinue to grcAv throughout the w'lole season, instead of pining away at the time when green herbnge can no longer bo found for them. 13. Cattle tatten much faster with clean turnips than with such as are dirty, and thereibre they sliould never be given without bo in^ previously washed. Dirty turnips ore also apt to scour tli^m. CANADIAN AOBICIILTCRAL RKADKR. IRO A? turnips nrf gcnornlly topprd wlion In id up, tlicso tops may ha fc'«l as l said f<» niako hi'Woy l)('»'f tlriM wiicii iV'd on oi! cako, it Ijoiiig u>ualiy rather ran- cid wlion made up into tliis nrli'lo. 14. Calvos firo easily taught to cat tlioni, hy tenipiiupj tljom with small pieces at In'Nt, and t^oon br-conie fond ot' thfin : and il'l'oii abundantly with thcni will hold their condition and continun to grow the whole wintor, whieh insures tho de iinhle point ol' early niaturitv. Anininls who havc^ plenty of turnips scarcely <'ver wish to driidv. Cows have been kopt u wholo wniter within doors, on turnios, rind never wanted v/ator. 15. Tlic r3sult of foodinyj two steers twonty-fivo weeks upon turnips and straw, tho tu' nips half Swedes or rul/i bfiga, is 2;iven in the t^iarterly Journr'l of Ars wert> half and two-thirds s.hort horned blood. One gained 40(5 pounds and tho other l?r)(i. The consr iption of turnips was fd>out !il>0 pounds per day to cnch. !'' f bulhjcks ['ei\ seventy days upon rutri baga, at the rate of two busiiel.s per «^ ly each, eating scarcely any thiii2 else, and refus ;;<, -dl cake, prouuced lor the turnips thus fed |;75. 'I'iicy rei|uireu no drink. 10. J'ata'ofs. — In tho ajiplif^ation of potatoes as food for live stock, thry are often jiincd with hay, straw, cliall", and other sifiv ilar matters, and liavo been fouml useful in many cases^ in the latter winter months. They are mucii more nutritive wlien boiled than in their raw state. Thev were fonnerlv cook-ed in this way, but arc now very generally steamed. W'a.shiu!? was formerly a tedious disagreeable businos<:, but it is now renin Inr* pastures, it di;. or iwo indivi- duals; in iliis cnso I cvise giving it to these lor one or l^vo days, and when put to it a;;; an, it has always agreed with theni ^ery well." 3. IiKii'iii C. /'//, I;id/.fiii, Gotland Barleij Mea!^ are all employed in lattenii!g cattle. i'»;iirin ctirn is sonidinuvs s-own to bo used as fodder in its grcon sta:o. In this case it is cut and led out when the cars are in tiio milk. An acre of ground perfectly nuinagcd will, in this wriy, yiel I L-.v^ive tons o( green fodder, probably a richer and more noaiishing fo .o tiianany yet known. 4. Some prrs')n.s are in liie habit of taking th.e tops from the corn at a proper scasoi!. Thes'' should l)c imniodialr^lv conveved to a suitable pi.h'e, .-in i two ;, t\>i sun v.'ill convert them into the best fodJer th:' i?«rm proMiv-e,-;. 'i Ul; n*. no body of the stalks, too, wiiri the blades, after llic cars arc harw, ted, should be cut close to ihe ground.^'iipo I and taken to V\e sheds. Tlh-y should b;' cntor chaf- i'ed with th.' straw-eu'ier, and when given alone or vvilIi other I'oiyJ, will be a mucii nio;o nourJshinsc aliment. 5. lie.sid \s the vii.'Kn-; ry modo of feeding Indian meal, it hasl)een suggested, (/u tiie ;iu! .'.ray oi"a piv\ctico which [)rcvails in Fi'ance, whether thev nnirhi not. be ;;eneliciailv fed in a fermented striie. A writer asserts tint o\(>n made Imlf f.it, oi in good plight, on grass or tuftiij-.s, are then nni.shcd in I-'ranco upon a soar lood prepared as follo*v,> : (). it//" mciJ.. ffor which liidian or buckwheat may be substituted) v»'ith water, is mii • into p ivte, which in a fevv days ferments and becomes ::.>ur ; tiiis is tho;i dihiied with water and thickened wiih //.«//, cut ii;;o cliM.li ^snii'h Tin; oxen sometimes rcfu'-je the iii'st ciay ; but when liry, thev drink and prefer it. All the husl)andmen ai^ deciditnily oi" opinion that the/ fntfm much better because of tl>e acidity. They give it tin-ee times a day, and a large ox eais 'Z'l lbs. a d,ay. 7. The practice of grinding ln(]ian corn and cobs togethei, has been successfully adop-ted in s(^me places, as furnisiiing a superior provender. This is stated to bo the case in the west ; and a gentlo- man in Shrewsbury, Mass., has tor seven or eight years used corn CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER, 161 4 r It '0 nnJ colis cracked pjkI ground together, and says it is the best louu lio has o\':r used tor laltening Ciitilc. 8. A iiitii'! town near Frankfort in Germany, is noted for its ro- inarkably line cat!lc. They are ted in the Ibllowing ninnnor : — JStraw is cui ^liort by monns ot' a straw-cutter ; it is liien [>ut into i aiiihh'on, witii the addition of potatoes and carrots, and h(^l!r:d till ii forms a kind of jelly ; tliis, mixed witli a sulFicient qiiaiuity of W(it''r, js Hcrvodto tiio beasis. \f. Til :^ animals so k^A require no water, nndso well dothey thrivo on this moss, tlirit :hey are, noiwithstandingibosumiiior labor, ready for the buiclior at ih.c end of the year. All sorts ot grain, which is intended to ho given to cattle or horses, is bf.st ground. In order lo obtain ?ho greiite.-.t bctiellt from it, boil it in water, and while hot add cut t;traw, stirring it well, and when cool it will bo fit to feed out. it). Mr. I.'o.v.ion, (^f lyitchtield, Conn., found that by boiling two quarts of Jl'ix soc.l, which was sprinkled on cut straw that hod been previously sr-'ihii.-d a:id sonsoned with salt, together with oil cake and oatmo.'d, aiid those materials worked together in a tub, with a short pr:yng:"i fork, he {;roduced a mash on v, hich he fatteiU'd a heilV'.r and ox, which netted him more tium he h;;d cleared before in fattem'ng oxen ann>- vender by its orderly distribution, but frequently saves the lives of auimals, ttroyJiQ' t!io living j)rincij)k', is by the n]»j>lication oi' heat; ftud if vegelablo f)od of every kind could he stefmied or boiled be- fore it is given to animals {at least in W inter, and in Ihltining for the market or feeding for milk,) it is rendered ])rohal)le, by analogy nnd experiment, that mucli more nourishment would be derived from it. 10. An apparatus for steammg food for cattle shoui'l be consi- dered as a necessary appendage to every arable and dairy farm, of a moderate si/e. It has been long known that ma'iy sorts of root^, and particularly the potato, become much mor(^ v.dnnble by undergoing tliis sort o'' operation. And it is equally well known li»at wljoii llnis prepared they have been employed alcne vs a sub- si itute ibr hay, and with cut straw hoih for hay and corn, in the feedinc; oi' horses as well as other animals. 17 . To a farmer who keeps many horses or cattb'. or even sv/ine or poultry, the practice of !)oi!ing their f)od in sterun i-' ro great a saving aiid advantnge, that it deserves the most pan cular attention. Though p.olatoes have often been given raw t'» both ■ liteam pass- ing off, but tlirough the bottom of Uie hogshead or vat, a pipe or CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 103 '' I) tubo must bo sot in onesMe, through whicli, with ihn aid Ta tunnel, the walur i,s jiuuied into tlio Ivottlo, as oiien as <;ci,7i.- ion ni.'iy re- quire. Wlicn |)ourcdin, the tube is to be stopped wiih a plug for tho purpose. Uraiii of all kinds may ho .^te.'ini-boilcd to great ad- vuDlage, ior feeding and taliening cattle ; 1)Ul in t!i:U case, it ia requi.-«ito to have the boitoin of the hog>l)i'ad covered with a cloth to prevoat the gr:iin running- d jwn througli tho h"d(.>s. '20. []y experiments which Irivo been accurately luadc upon Indian corn and potatoes, used for taticning swine, it was linuid that llKiV inoreasod in wehclit one-third fast">r 0:1 the boil d tliiii on the uni)i>iled f)od ; orinDi'ier words, they g lined throe pdunus when 'LvA an tho loriner, whc:'(; tiioy oidy gained two pounds v.hen fed on the latter. We are I'uUy of opinion that steam l)oilii.g food, for feeding oi- tattening ali sons (jf cattle, gener/dly increases the yalua oi' ine food as much as forty or hfiy [ler cuiit. C 11 A P T E 11 X. Pkctio.v I. 1. UcLF.s Foii SF,LF:rTi\(; Catti.k and ."'nr.EP. — Mr. A. Young, ia a tour through some of tho agricultural counties, visiLod \lr. l^akcwel!, and explains the goijvr.d {irinciides wh:< h guided Wr. liakewell in breeding beasis or .shc.(:[» tor tlie l^utcher, and at the sann time ex[)lains Ins own stock, which is in tho highest per- fection, w!ien examined with nn eye to those principles. In all l]ia exertions, his aim was tooblain thai breed, which wii.h a given amount of food will give the nio;;t proiitrd.le me:it, lint in which the jiro- portion ol'tho useful moat to tho quantity ofoljal is the greatest. 2, I'oiiili! Of the Beast. — On this [)]aji the points arctiiose where the valuable joints lie, t!ie rump, tho liip, the back, tho ribs, and after thoso the Hank ; but the belly, shoulders, nock, legs and head Fliould i>e light, for if a l)east has tir.Qly Willi Mr. Bake^vcil in this circu.nstance, and when with him I i\ m 1G4 CANADIAN AGRICULTUEAL READER. H , in Norfolk niid Suil()lk, was surprised lo finci lean bullocks nnd a/iecj) \v (;io fil\v.'!y.s bougiit there by the ei/c only, t^o dlisulutcii/ necct:,s(irij is the hand ni ckoosing cilhcr^ tliatthey both tigiecd tli.nt if tlicy iiiU.^t trust t) the eye in lite Ig/it, or to the hand in tUe dark^ they would not hesitate a niouieut in prcfcriiug the latter. 4. 'I'be Ibrui of tho bono in s/iccp is «(uitti hludcn ; it is the hund f'.loue th.it vvw lell wbttiier the back is i]id and broad, and free from ridge in the back bono ; or can exandno correctly, if the other j.oinl.s fire cis they should lie. Tho dispoiiiUun io J alien is discovered onhi vijjceiing. S|;eaking ofshcop jiaidculitrly, the points to examine are the s,?me as in t!ie o\. Flatness, broralihof back, a siMcruiing barrel carcass, with Hat holly, and Uy no means curved and han^ring. Tho essential is the carcass, and a disposi- tion to t'attcn in the carcass, and perhaps to have the least lallow on tho si les. 5. lS!icl!crfor Sheep — Though it is not best to confine sheep to a close slvVjier even in very cold weather, yet they should, dur- ing the cold season, liavc a shelter where they can go in very ae- vero w( atirr, and where they can find a protection from storms. When sheei) lie (uU in cold storms, their fleeces i-ecome wet, cold, and often i'rozen, aifd they sudor greatly by su(di e.\[)"sure, as lr»- qviently taking cold either destroys them or I'educcsthem to a very feeble state, so tnat they are of little or no profit to the owner ; he loses the advantage of an increase in his llock, and I'rcquently io- Hcs the lleece. G. A feeble sheep seldom raises lamb, for whi'e the mother is in poor he. lib, she c.'-.n l.-arely get supjiort for berseli', nnd of course she c'lnnot sustain her otlspring. A poor sheep has a j)(.(.'r fUoce, and nuich of it is otun k'St oil' l;efore shearing time. iSome iarm- ers pay but little attention to protecting their sheep from storms, supposing that as they have a warm fleece they may be safely ex- posed to all kinds td" weather. And theyccn endure a great degree of cold while dry, but when wet their fleeces allbrd but little pro- tection ; en the cor.tra.ry they are frequently an annoyance, being a cold wet mass in contact with their tender skins. 7. It even causes a shudder as wo think how much tho poor in- nocent animals sulier from cold storms. Clothe a man in good thick garments, nnd while dry they will enable him lo endure se- vere cold, but wet tliem thoroughly and tiien let him feel tho rigop- ous coM of a northern winter and he will shrink from a touch ol these garments which instead of protecting him, produce a deadly chill, and this course would soon destroy the strongest constitutign. 'S. Every one should consider that poor " Nanny," with a wel CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 16a 'r IS ir»e m- COP- ol |QI>. jacket in cold weatlier, is like a man with wet garments, in a siif- tbrincr condition, and should be protected. I'iVcn uhcnslioo|) have a sheltor to which they can repair in stormy weuthcr, il is neces- sary that thoy should be driven under their ^^liclti'r, .'oi-l coiiUnod there during rain storms or snow storms that will be. likely to pro- duce wetness in the fleece. 9. Til is suhjOv'.t is fru- more importnnt thr-n il is generally sup- posed. 'I'here is danger of kee|)ing sheej> too warm in wiiiior by having a l.-irge number sheltered in a small spac^. They should have a |)lonty ol' roum and fresh air. t-^hcop fuul InuiMs arc much better for going out and taking exercise in the open air. Shctiox II. 1. S.VX0V AND I\[i;niNO Sni:i:p.-- We can well remember that a strong projudice obtrtii.'cd against ihe Sjjanish mciiiris on their first introducti >n, and it was not until within a [\:\v yonrs that their roput'itioii for usefulness became well established n.iMug us. 'i'his prejudico v/ns in some meai; ure owing to a want of kiunvledgri of the proper moilc of treating them, and to ll'.eir cliango of climate, wliicli caused the h^ss of many, and the detei'ior;ition ofclhors. '^ Thr* same pn^judice has had to bo com"/;ited in other duntries, on the in'roluction of merino sheep, asin Pru.-sia, ^3ilesi^, Hun- gary nnd Fraiire, and it has rpquii'el the perserverir.g exertions of distinguished individuals, and t!io patronrige of tlie g'Verntnonts, to overcome it Ihit it has been overcome, and the moriiios have obtained a fooling rjid a rej)Ut;ilion in most of the countries of Eu- roj)e ; and by cireful attrnlion to improvement, in sevei'al they have been in'idr^ to excel, in Int.insic vnlue, the parent fiend's of Spriin. 3. I'ro'.ch iMe!'iivv>, rit tno public sales at iIamboui!!<"t, in is34, gold, rams at a';out -SUiO an'i ewes at 8o'), They were of course Rolect animais. The writer on sheep in the Farmer',-, r'.-rjo?!, v/hich has just coMT^ to hand, speaking of the relative merils of the Snxon and Sj/artish merinos, says in strojig language, ''■f/u' ^^:;r,)UJJ sheep are drri\ !>>>! ihr/r t iiiMiufaclure.-;. 7. In 17')."), fit ilin doss of the ^~even years' war, the Elector imjior'oj (.i,,-; Inmdred rams and two hun(h-ed ewc^ from tho n)ost improved Spani-h /loeks, and jdnccai a pjirl of iticm on ono of hi.-j owi! f^rms in the neighborhood of J)resfion ; ll.is portion he kejd uinn'.-.- d. j'o endeavored lo ascertain how l;ir. the pnro .Spani.Mi brocd co;ild bo nritm'alizeJ in Saxony. The other |)rii't of tho tiocdc werr^ distributed on other larms, and devutcd to the im- provement of t!ie Saxon sheep. 8. It was soon ."rufhciently evident to the enliglilencd ngrirulturist thit iho merinos did not degenerate in Saxony ; many parceli of their wo(d were not inierior to the choicest fleece •; of Leon. — Tlie Ijost breed of the native Saxons was also materially im'.-roved. The prejutlicc against every innovation, on the practice of their unces1«'ir<, was, however, as strong in Saxony as eNewhcre, and the mrtjority of sheep-masters were still averse to the iini)rovement, but the J'^lectvM' wns determined to accomplish his object ; ho im- ported an additional number of the Spanit^h sheep, and ilien, adopt- ing a measure ui, worthy of such a cause, he coo'pollcd those who occupied land under him, tobuy a certain number jfthemerino sheep. IJ. Jt v/as not ne;.'essarv ]*>ns to i)ursue this comi.Uisor\' svsfem : the most prejudice-i were soon brought to j;erceive tlieir true inter- est. The pure merino breed rapidly increased in Saxony : it b€>- came perfectly naturalized; nay, after a considerable la]\se of years, tho fleece of the Saxon sheep began not only to equal the S])anish, but to exceed it in fineness and manulacturing value. A sample of picklock merino wool is 1,750th of an in i t I * ' 1 10. Corresponding vvilli tliis, and mosl satisfactorily illustrativo of tiio account wiiicli has hem given of the structuro of the fibre of wool .'ukI 'u.6 felting |iruj»orty, jintl manufacturing vmIuo as a tlfpen- dant on ijjat structurf , the price — the true tc.-,t of vnluc — oi tho Looncso ^pahi^l^ wool in 1831, varied iVom 2s. (id. to -Is., while tiiat of tho ►Saxon was tVoni 4s. 9d. to Tjs I3d. per pound. 11. 'J ho government of fSaxonv verv mntcrialU' contrihutod to this n suit hy the csLahlishnicnt of an ngriculUiral school and other ndnor ;-i-liools for sheplic rds, and by cli.>trihiiting ccriain nub- licutions will' h plaiidy and intelligibly e.vpla ned tho valu" and j)ropcr Uianageinent ol the merino sheej). The governmeiit i.iay fail tu acC'-Mijilish many ca[)rici(jus or tyrannical obj.'oi>, but it will .receive its bo>;l rcwaril in the full accompli-lmient of its purpose, when it tiuis identiiics it.-elf with llie best interests of its s'djjccls. V2. In y.'txony, as in ^Siiesia, although tho sheep are hous'-d at the heginni))g t^i' winter, yet they firr^ ti.rned out r.nd conipelled to seek, periiap'.s iuider the snow, a ptnlion of lb' ir food wlionover tho woatlivrwili pi-rmil ; and the season niu.it Lo unusu'^lly inclemont in which Iif.'y are not dri\en into the courts at lea.-l lor twoor throo hours during ihe middle of the dav. Tlie doors rin I \\ind';\>s aro also ijequeniiy opened, that the sheep houses may be suliiciently ventilated. lli. k'ome^dieep masters, whose convenience is promoted 1 y such a svstem, k-'ci) their llock in a house or vard durinfj; th.e whole of the >en.r, .aiid it is not believed t'lat the sheep sutler from t'al'-', eitlier iii ll.tir health, or in i.he fineness (. Tho principal recommendations of the Leicester brco;], accord- ing to Culley on liive Stock, are "the beautv and fulln.ess of form, <:omj)rising in tho same dimensions greater w^-ight than any other sheep ; an early maturity, and a disposition to fatten, equalled by no otlier breed ; a (liminutioa in the proportion of oil'-l, and tho return of the )nost money for the food consumed." ■1. " .As a lowlaiid sheoj), and destined to live on good nasture," says Mr. Yoiiatt, "the New Leicester is without a riv;:] — in fact, )if> has improved, if he has not given the principal value lo, all , .e «'ther long woolerJ sheep." The sanie accurate observer g'ves tho following as the characteristic of a true Leicester— a slioep thai has precisely the form for an animal requiring plenty of good pas- ture, without any great distance to travel, or exertion to make in gatliering it : — 5. " The head should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards CANADIAN AGlUCrLTUnAL RKADKR. 160 tho mu7.7.1e, niul projpctlng liorizonlnlly (urwriri'S. The oyos pro- iiiinont, hut witli n ([Mict ex])r(^ssioii. 'J'hn oars thin, rrithrr huig, nnd directed hacku.uds. 'jho nock f'dl niid hn^ad al tho ha.sf.\, vrhore it pntcoods from tho chof , but gradinily Inporing towards tho lieaH, and htMiig parlirnlarly no nt llio jun(!l't)n w illi tlio hoad ; the TiCi'k sooniinf-^io proj'xit straifjht iV.wn ihochcsf, solhnt thoro la, with the slicjiitost pnf^sihlo dt-viaiiuii, we cuniinu'-d horizontal lino Ironi tlio runijt to th*"' j)(>ll. 6. "'i'ho hi'oaslhro;i(i nnd (idl ; tlio s'louidors also hroad nnd ronnd, and no luicvon oranuul.'ir iormalio!) whoro tiioshotddf^rs ioinoithor the no( k or ilio hack, particularly no risinj,^ of the \vithnrs,or hollow bohind tiio situation of thrsn honos. 'I'ho arm fh >hy throtigh its whole cxlonl, and cvon down to tho knoo. 'J'ho honoa of the jogs small, M'liidiiif^ wido apart, no Ioos"nc>-:^ of skin rd-o;it t'lou'i, and comparaiivcly haro (»!"\vool. 7. " The cIio,«t and harrol at onoo deep rj.v\ round ; tlio ril)s form- ing a oonsiijorable arch from t'lo spino, so rs in s -mocasos, especi- ally wlirn tho nnhnal is in good condili'in, to m il;r> ;ho apjtfirent width Oi" the chest even grcaU'r than it.; di , ih, Ti:n barrel well rihljod hiimo ; no irregularity of lino on tlio l.vick or tho holly, but on tho sidos the carcass very [rr'nUially dimini.-hii ;^^ ti)uards the rump. TJie quarters long and full, f;nd as with tiio forelogs, tho muscles extondinsr down to tho li'":d{ : th - t!ii,;!is ,al-o wide and full. The lof^sof a moderate length, the pfll id-. rncKlnratoly thin, but soft and eh'bjtic, and covered wilb a good quani.ity of white wo(d, not so long as in some brec(is, l)ut consiilcr.d)ly lirur." 8. Ti)is dosoripiion will bo rocogiii/.cd at once as ju.st by any oni who has h.ail an opportuidty ofcxaminii'-g the jnnny hcaiuiiul sheep of that breed that have wilhin a few yo-rs b-'cn introduced into Canada. 'I'h.-y mar'.v an animal calculat-'! to aitain great weight, with the flesh where it will i)^ of tho niov.t value, ,uid if, as somo of hi:^ rivabi asserted, Tvir. F)akowoli ;i:icr!nced tho wo;)l to the car- cass, he certainly brnufrb.tthe last to the higiiest s'.i.io of prrfection. 9. 'I'hiF. is evident ['kh-w tlie manv i^mniuins the imnroved Leiccr<- tors have received in I'higland, wdiere ni irr^ aUontion is given to weight of carcass than it lias as yrt receivr^ I in this country. Tho object of :Mi. (.'ulley\s improvements was to no awav the objr'ction raised to the coarseness of the Leicester w^)ol, as lofi: by Mr. I'ako- well, whiio tiie size and tendency to fittm should bo retained, and he has ni a merisutc succeeded, though slill not so far as to produce wool he for tho finest fabrics. 10. One of tho earliest and most successful ijrowors of the Loi- ceeteror JJakewell Sliecp in America is Mr. Dunn of Albany, llo i '• i' A 7 Si Hi < -I a '■Am 170 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. hna at present, however, hut tow pure Leicosters, having given lii«r (locit n cro^s of the (J('i.sw<»l(l, as ho thinks lo t!io improvonient of the llecce and tiio coii^titiilidii. Acooniing Ln u stntomohl in ihe Cullicu/ur^ Mr. Dunn'^vf-'arlinj^ rams pru(Ju^;(•^l wool as fi)llowa:— 2 voarling.s, - • • - 2i Ihs. 4 ' " - - . . 4-2 " 4 •♦ .... :).,]" averaginiT 10 pounds each. I\Ir. Wilkin.son, of Dunncshuigh, iian a Hock oi' Loicuslor.'j ulii(di averaged on llic wiiolu ti\ poiiiids per head. Skctimn IV. 1. f-MM'TH Down SuKrr. — Xoxt to tin; Leioeslcr slicep the atten- tion ol shocj) grt.iwers in liiis countrv lias boon (lii'eou:h Doun, a van(!tv iiighly inij.'Dvcdhy Mr. lllliuan, wiio lias done fur liiciM what Mr. )jai^.euoll did for the Lei:te>ter.j — hro^'i'ht ihem to a liiga standard of perfection. As a iiill .sheep, on^' Uiat can ondui'o occasioiiril ' sh trt kcping, auii ini-il .^ti^cking,' lii.'t early arrives at maturity, prodiiccb ilesh of fnio l and the forehead also, and the space botwe'.ii the ears well protecleil hy it, as a defence ag-iinst the ily. The eye full and bright but n;it prominent. The neck of a incdium length ; the breast wiuc, dee[), and projecting iorwardb^ween llw inrelegs, indieaiiiig a good constitution, and disposition to thrive. The shoulders o:i a level v.ith the hack, but not too wide rdu)vo. The ribs ccaning out horizontally from the spine, and exlen.iing far hackward. 3. Tlio hips wide ; the space between theui and the I'lst rib as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a barrel. The ba(dc and belly straight. 'I'ho legs neith- ther too long nor too short ; the hones line, yet giving no appear- ance of weakness, and the legs having a speckled grey or dark color. The belly well covered with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind the knee, curled, and i\'CQ from spiry projecting fibres, or coarser hairs. 4. In reply to a number of queries, on the qualities of the sev- s ' CANADIAN AGRICFLTURAL RBADKR. 171 ernl varieties/ of sheep, nindo to Mr. Ilotoh ofOtspgo, onnoflho be«l hrectlfrs find skilful ju(]go.s in Anioricn, wns the following : — " VVii.'il ImcccI is most lim dy find host fida|)tf.'d to our clinirttc *'' To tills fiLiory tlirit giMii](Miian iv-plied, "South I )m\vii, fv-r/^/. /////." Mr. U. says ' they arc a nicdinnj sizf, fmo in liic nocce, which Jivoragoa 4 liH. in tho owns, the hii(d. 5. in quri'ity tiio \V(M)1 isp(|ual to half hlood niorino. Thoy arc oxcclliiit nu;j^os ,'iii(i qnicd; hcdcrs.' Ouiiif^ to S'.nio cnu;.)l is tho oljoct of the glower, tho pure Mrrino or »Sa.\on will, be profonc'd to tho i^'oulh Down or any ofhor kind. In l''.ii- glfind it has h.u n ll.uiid impossible to introduce tlio Sa.\on < r even lh(} ci;cccss, fuid honce t!if' fiitcntion of her agriouliuris'.s ha-- been directed to tho inijirovemonl of their best woL>Ied native breed?, r.mou^ whlcli the S(nitu Uo'.vu stfuids pro- eminent. 7. Admilliuf;, of which we think there crin bo n.) rcrison;ibiO doubt, that tlic South l/ownisa i-hoe[) of more hfirdy constitu- tion, is fi hoLfi r iiiM'sc, yi.'ids as mucli wocd, and that of ;is good quality as the li.'ilf blood merino, it is cle.'ir vm fidvan'rige would bo derived by .-.ulisiiliiting the first for th.e h'st on our fiU'nis. The weight of the "-'oui'i In)vvi niid the lia;f hloixls wmiM pro!;ribly not vary vciy es.'-eiitially, Ivi! iho mutton of the form-'r issnid to be of a (Quality far superior to the latf'r ; roul fis the i.sc of mutton is yearly becoming more comnu)!), among all cla.ssc;> in this coun- try, it of iLs.df fiu-nin]i';s a sullicient reason why more attention siiould ho p;!.'d to the subject. 8. The iniriKJujtion of improved finimals from al)road, by cro.s- »os or otherwise, cannot I'O too highly commendeil. The result cannot be (jtherwi:-o than honeficial to the country ; as by it the kinds best suitet] to the climate, and the wants cA' the inhfd>itrinte, will most speedily be obtained. All experience shows that tiiero are so many circuinst'inces of soil, pasture, climate, and attention to breeding, to ho taken into consideration in estimating tiie value of any particular breed of animals, when that breed is to be transj)lanted to anotlier region, that success must ofnecesitv bo uncertain ; and the adaptatitni of tho animal to its new abode can only bo decided by actual experiments, fairly conducted and continued for some lime. 4.1 •* » A ■ -H i. n! '''it 'Jl M (■■'a 172 CANADIAN AORICULTMP vL RKADKP.. 9. In cslimating t!io v/iluo of imj»ortoH nniinfls wlion roniparod with tlioc iinmon hrocds of tho count! v, it «lii)Ui.l not l>o foigotton llifit. thuy arc usually, nnii always ought to !•", piclvcd and choico onos ; thnt »|jr>y nro in tlu'liands of invn \vir> aro al)|o to give ihoin good kcf'jiirig and of tlio kind hfst s;iit'' I to tlioir \vfiii!s ; and fliat in iho hands .(I'oi-diiiriry [aniicis thoy uould not rcudi llio standaiii ol* oxcrdlcncn tljr-y now do Jl'tlioso things aro overlook' d, an cxog- gpraf/.'d cstirinfo of their valu'.' is apt to he ontorluincd, and di&ap- pointnionl Will bo tho hn of the parcluiscr. Rrctiov V. 1. \V'r,Tr,iit\(; Siimf.i'. — 'riioio i.s no srason of ihi^ yfnr which ox L' re is OS .so jxiwoifnl nn indacnco on thn slinop as Itif winter jmd spring, and no one which so clearly dtUenninf'.s tho prolit or loss wiu'di sh'tl ririsM to llio wool grower. .'•dierp niiy ho kf'pt fat through I'lo .suin:ne;% and t'loro is a do'dd.' 1 ailvaniap.r' in having any a;i:iiinl in fnie ord(;rrit the coMjinrncciir'nt of winter fording, but if llie proper care, food, and attention i^e n'H paid, to the llock during tho trying monlhs of March and April, 'U nlo.^l cases a serJ- oars''I\ gMiiiinl corii, wet, may he ^'i von iLfin. '1 licv slioiild hfivo w.'itrr, aiid it* fit ytaiiirig ilipy slill >*ccm
  • iig I'armris", that rarly Inmh.s caiiiKtl hr' raised. This is a mislakon opiiiii-ri, .-.n'! shfiiid not bo t(»lc'rato(!. It is truo moro earn lor thrro or i«»iir tlnys is uMially requirnl in .Itiiuary or I'V-iiriiary, than in Ai)nl (m* Alay, hut it in oJMo trun that siadi U-mlis nriMvurlh miirh moro than lalo onfm, that they wimor hcHt^, nnil il* rn's.'-ii inr thf market as m;:i y lamhM now aro, the [>v'uso, hy taking aiivaniagi.! ol"llio market, w .ii bo near- ly douhird. t). Thoro cm ho no d'Hiht that a gonoral improvomrnt in fho rnanagomotif. ol'shecji has lakoti place in thi.s coimtry, hut wh<»n cno kiecs in the sprint^ .•shet'|) w If h the wool drojiplng iVom them; ihe skeletons lying ahoiil the harns, pic.-ketl by dcgs, hogs, ar»l crows ; and the a|)[>le tre'^s dceorated with dead Iambs, ho is com- pelled toaiiccessl"ully nrprd fur early waftiung, and no U-sks from this cause rises from waiiinij. 8. The henlih of ihesheej),andthe comfctrt of tIiewasher,!)oth de- mand that regard should he had to ihe tompeiature of the weather and water, heibre the |)rocess is undertaken. iSutlicient attention is not paid to tagging the sheep, or freeing them from harLlened aiid accumulated dii't, before washing. Neglect here will always cause a serious loss, hy injuring tlio quality as well as lessening the quuii- tity fit for market. U. There is great deficiency in another roped which should be •orrected. She^p are frequently washed or rather wet, as if iUq process was one intended for a frolic, not for use. Only get li«eio ' 4l 9 1 . (1 174 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. W i>K m ■Ji mn !*l. into tho water, and in llio opinion of man}', the gran(^ cbjoct is ao- complished. Now slieop shoulii be washed clean ; if (liey are noi, they may as well be let alone, and the lime and trouble of wetting tboni s.'i\cd. li'. Soap should bo iisoilwlien noeossary, and the wliole business should be (v»n(luctod with care fujd attention. No more slmuld bo penned at onoo than can be washed well and th >roi;n!)ly witjiin a reasonable time; to shut them up and keep them eight or ton hours without f'lod is a needless jdeco ol cruelly. ft is tho practice of many to diive their sheep some two or three miles to a l.-tkc or river for washing, but the practice is a bad one and gonerally entirely needless. 11. I'y driving them so far they frequently lire ouf., and alway?? get more or loss dust and dirt fastened to ilh-ir v.ot wool. 'J here are but few f/irms, certainly but few neighborhoc^ds, in which clear running brooks cannot be found, and with these, places for washing are easily made. A tub four or fivo feet in depth and as many in diamoter, such as is freipienlly nseil by tho fiirmor for hoMingrain water, a trough or spout large enough to lonvoy a suitnljlo quantity of water to the tub, and a pen for yarding the sho"p are all that id rejjuired ; and these can in most cases l>o provided in a lew hours. 12 At such a tub two men can wash easily, without being seri- oush' wot '.hemselves, and with an entire command of the shfiep at all times, oome prefer vats of a suit;djle depth ; but the fact that vats are as expensive as tubs, that they can be used {ov nothing else while tubs when not wanted here arealwavs useful elsewhere, would seem to render tubs preferable. 11^. 'I'liis is, however, of little consequence compared with the benefits of Wushino: sheei) at home ; a svslem whi(dj when once atioptcd bv the farmer will bo rarelv OAchiinffod lor the laborious one of driving ainoad, This melhod of wfi'liing reqn;ri>s iut little water ; iust enouidi to flow otrireclv, washinjr awav th(^ oirt and other iuipurities, either over a depressed part of th.e jrinrgi.i of the tub, or through a suitable sized opening near the bottoii). We are also convinced tiiat a m;ijority of our frmers shear their sheep too soon after washing. 14. If sheep are washed as they should be to render the wool clean, much of the natural yolk or oil of the wool, a substance that contributes much to its smoothness and ease of working, is taken away, if sheared too soon after washing, the wool is destitute of this principle, and is apt to be harsh or tender, an evil that the greasing given bv the manufacturer, but imuerfectly remedies. JSheep should be allowed to run several days after their vrool is dry, CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 175 f 4 X e rihvnys being cnreful to confine them to clean j)nstures, nnrl tho bcnelit of the dcl'iy will he felt not only in the superior sofinoss and (jurility of liio lloece, but in tiie groritcr weight and conse([uout j»ro- lil.s ol salt'. bKCTION VI. I. Essay o\ Swink. — Ofilio hogtribr>, {Siis) zoo]orlhy of regird at the presi-iU dfiy ; and Varro and Columella, if we could substitute soft, thin hair, for " thick, strong aii.j erect bristles," have described the main points of what we may now consider, with all our mudv^rn improvements, a very per- fect bore. 4. Tiie reasons that were supposed to influence the forbidding of eating swiiiC.->' fiesh, as well as tint of several other crentures, un- der the Levitical law, are, tint tho children of Israel, at the time ot tlieir exodus out of Egypt, were a very debised and gross people ; but few grains and vo';etables were then cultivated to vary the foo(i of man, and a; 5 ley generally 170 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. II hot and dry c'linialc prevailed, n great iiidulgenco in these mcate would tend to liiickcn tho Mood, check persjdration, and conse- <|ucntly, especially cngondor .-crDl'ulous, scorbulio unci cuLanfOus ciisea;s''s. f). \V c find ainonr^ t!ilians, that soinn of tho same prohi- bitions ol' My so great a varioty «»l' crrain and vegetable food, c'ln no longer bo <&onsidci'ed ol/j(^cli«>iiahlo, cs|.>ei:ially in a cool cliiuale. 6. As it is one of tiio moat paliitaldo and sub..lantial of meals, tho cheaj)esi and easiest re.'i.r'.xl, the longest and mo.-t certain lo keep, it l»as at lenuth become tho niost necessary item of tho stronger food of civili/ed man, and without doubt iho mt)st impor- tant of the stock grower's produ(its in the ianadian Piovinces. Of all tho known varieties of tho domesticated hog, the Chinese has long been celebrated as decidedly the most perfect in shape and general comtbrmntion. 7. Il(.w this bro!;d was first produced, it is impossiblo now to eay ; there is no d'>uht, however, in my mind, but thnt, like the J\rabian horso, it was angina/,, and thnt the best sj)ecimens to be Xound on the Kai,tern (.'ctntincnt, are tho identical cotiutorparts of tbe pair ttiat doscended with Noah from the ark, after tho subf;i- ding of the deluge, and ihat all other vai ioius have deteriorated by running w ild, or fiom (^nrolessness in feeding, and neglect and inattention in properly breeding, — the goodncts of the Deity never forming in tho l)Ogiii!iing ihedf;teslab!e bruto that we see roaming in ewvy dirfH:tion Uio country round, like a veritable camnUal, stiokint< whom and nhut he m:iv devour. b. ]>ut bo this as it may, the tJhineso, as we find them scattered along tho corists of tho Celestial Empire, and on liio adjacent is- lands, vary greatly in size, and somewhat in shape, and are of every shade of color, from pure white up to jet black, 'i'hc mo^t approved varieties, however, may be thus described : — A fine head and .snout, with tho face somewhat dished, small upright cars, a somewhat short and very thick deep carcase, large hams and shoulders, short legs, delicate feet, soi't thin hair and skin, a Icn- dcncy lo grow and fatten almost upon air alone, and to givo wiien slaughtered very little offal, and the sweetest and most delicate of pork. 9. As now bred by the writer, their live woighta full grown, av9 CANADIAN AOEICULTC&AL RBADKR. 177 goneruUy from 200 to 300 pounds ; occasionally they have goaa lis high as 4U0 pournJs, but this is extremely rare. They a; -3 C(|ualiy hardy, enduring heat and cold as well as any of the nati'-'B bwine ; are fair breeders, usually having from six to nine pigs n . a litter ; nuUurc easily, and can be tatiened at any nge. VVhetli- er iu fi'.'k! or po!i, th^y are ever quic^t ; the loosest boards keof; thf^m up, and tiio pooreNt fence secures them wiibin theii bound?, ; iind like Du'genes In his tub, they seem never so hnpjjy as wh':.. left alone lo slo<.[), and dream, and cogitate on deep phil<'>(.phy. 10. Their njcai is excredingly delicate and swcot. I?i linghmd i bears the highest price, and is called parexcfdlonce tlie "geutJeujon'.-. pork." The improved Chinese will yield a greater nii'oiint ork for their lood ihrui any other bi fed in exist. 1)01? ; a);d it is ..'i allusion lo this ci cunistanee that the able editor (-f ihe Maiu'i Farmer, \s ilh no Ic-;.s Muth than justice, calls th''i/i the '• j.oor man's hog." i>oars (jfthi-i bi'ced are l.iglily recoinmenr.'od to cross w.i... the common h'Jg ol' the counlry, ;is they most r.-.j i,r a.'j the writer lias l)ecn aide to lollow them up, tiiorehas br-en iitlh'' .'■jueci--ss, iMid that little very ^iowly obl.iined, except only whef? re^sort has been had itjiiiiediatciy to thcC'ninese boar. Ttils .sj.a;-- liculra'.y ih. •ISO with England, who»e etiorts ^c m to h;iv(; cirrioi her, i^i this , .■ptirt.iicnt, us far beyond her neiglibors a^ in t.hat tif the iin[)r )v-(':ne;U ot'liursos, cattle and shee[), 12. Evry county tliorc boasts of its breed of swine, and cert.iiri- ]y many are very deserving, having dei-ived tiicir chief cxf'.ellen- » from a cross more or less deep with the large v. bile Ufiineso bo'w. Of tlie-,c are t'ne f,.eicester, t!ie Bedford or Wobui'ii ti'^. S,jt;sex a; -1 CUeshiie. Jiut the most decided iniproveieont, and which hv iho care aiid skill of recent breeders has now nofirly attained | eriV-r tion, was that of the black Siamese boar up'»n the old stock yf r>erkshire ^-.ounty. 1^^ '1 his, 1 un ierstand, began about forty 3 ears sin<'e. '[ic^ Berkshires were then mostly a long, larg-'-, coarse, lop eaied Im-,'^. of a sandy or reddish brown, or white, with blnek spots, nnd coi. ing up, n<.>t unfrequently, to the high weig'i's olSUO, and '-von 100*) pounds, r.ut it was a slow feeder, long attaining to maturity, 'm enormous consumer, and in common with most of Kngland'i other m ITB CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. si I ^\ fl"* :i ■ vnrietios, an unprofitable beast. Yet possessing rather thicker hams nntl shoulders than the otlier kinds, a longer, fuller body, and its meat nhounding grenily in lenn, the little, short, fat, black, niousn. eared k*'i;iinrso told wfjl in the cross ; and thus produc ed the dark, sj)i;ndid l;orkshiro, that at present occupies the s.-aiie rank Ofiiong ii"gs that the Jhiilianis do among c.altle. 14. 'J'hey nnture quickly, and like the Ch.inese, can he fattened at. any ftge, ma] siill rnav ho selected, when dcsirnbio, for great si'/es ; aie prolilic breeders and the best of nurses ; thrifiy, hardy, and of most excellent consiilutions. They are line in tlioir points, i)osscssing remarkfihlo tiiicduicss in tb.e ham and shoulder, find show a rountl, smonth birrol of good l^nnt!). that cjv* s a large pro- portion of sid"* pork. Tliey have little ollh!, thin rind and hair, and fow or n<) l)i'i !lc^. The mo;it rJjiunds still groatlv in muscle, nnd the hinis particularlv rsro highly pi'i/':d, coniinandirg an extra prife in marl;ot. boing verv tender, jiiicy and lean. If). As now !>red, the f^erksliii-es varv somowhrti; in si:'/^, appear- ance rv.v] m-iturity. Tho:>o witli the rin':^st heads, a di;-hcd face, and rather U|. right th-in for'.vard ears, v/itli a snugger shoulder and inm, and shorlor \j').]\\ m ):t rescmhle the Siamese ancestor, nnd trxerefjro are (luii-kcst to m ilii'-e, and probably give lh,e most deli- cite' moat, and to one salisfio I with moderate si/.e, rue undoubtedly to b-^ ]) re for red. 10. l)nr;'o\vs ofthisdescription, if v/ell led ti'l 18 months old, cn^sily attain ^iUU t'.) ■lt)i) p;'unds, and woights witlun these lin-its are the most ea"!;erly soufriii for ni the i.-^ mi t.n field mnrk':^*, and arc probably ini the whole tnc mo'>t proiitah.'e (or !)otn C!>i.sumer aiid jiroducor. Gibers, generally of a straigiit nos", willi a coarser head, and enra protr.iding well forward over iho eye, or slightly loppiotl, with great- ov length of body, incline more to the oi'iginal I^erkshi'^s, attain t'.igher weights, and rorpn're a hmger time to mature. There are i'ldivid'ials, liowover, occnsionall}' j)0sses-ing all the fine requisites oi' the fij'mor select ons, tog-'tJuM* v,-it!i the large si/.o of the bitter. 17. We now come to a jiairof fatting l'arro\\sof the unimproved breeds of swine. They nbound througliout the country, under a variety of most euphonious r- -:, but we may suppose those of Alligator iuh\ Ijandpike about as ajipropriate to them as any others that could well be applied. Tliey are not, however. intro(iuce 1 here fn* derision, or for the purpose of getting up a caricature, as tho originals can easily be found : but to show that there is snm^fhin^! tn lirccfi^ and to illustrate the diiference between a good animal and n poor one of the same variety. it5. Th?y }iave long, peaked snouts, coarse Heads, thin cheat 4. CANADIAX AOEICULTURAL READER. 17« 111 a o f re 10 titk] nnrrow slKUilrlors, shnrp backs, shb g'lHp'^. stoop rumps, nnd mcr'gro (Hmiiiutive li'uns, biir lf'ii:s, clmnpfd foot, willi ibo hi;io 'if a rliiiiocnroH, Mid ibe hriir n?id bri-^tlcf; of ?i prc-cupino, rind ns tliick niid sh.'iggy ns a lin-ir's. flow cnn pucli ruiiuifils tlu'ivo. •\\\{\ ,')bovo all ever be I'-U' hc.-i \ To n'tompt to innko th'^n Ho ^libor, ns ibe \vritcr fonnJ f'> bis cost in bis first flfirt'^ .it frirnii!"Tf, v.oic time, niid i.'innoy, .'it.ii pr.',ii;co tb.rown nwjiw Tiiov bnvo jio cnpnoily at di'- -siioi), .'ii.d cuicocfinjT tbcir food in ibf' '^t'unpcb fo/- iioiirisb- ine?it ; and iftii^v bnd, to liic form.viiou of \\b;ti would it all go ? I'ork ? 1*>. X'\ ii'ii^'^r'd — hr.f oO'i!. iMUios. rii.d, lii'i'ilrs nnd li'ilr, vitli a narrow i.'ro'k of *?!•!.- ;le \\\ d' iiiorit!), nnd a. .'';il i/irii'V, cr liiio of lo.'ii). boh ns V.iu'.^li iiiid rroil: ,';s w bitb':itl.ri-, rnid rl.oi t r.s iiicnpa- blo ;if bf^iiig n';isi;(v'!fr-d ; niid if It woro not, i:iu. t ''((jt'li'cu v.'ist deal of /('//•.'//■••'ff to iiirike it 8U'--t.';;ii buiii, n life. 1 biv- Iron obli- ged to piiii'!i.<-;o it orcf'.;-i.- Iwj'c; ibcy could j)os-il)]y -rri, ir,) <\ f;y ri>r bionkfift, i\\i''e tjie v.r::;!;! in lard from other !,(•'•>■•'"' to ije .':(irl-;;i to it ; nir! r;s ^y:\- b"!^';:r or builing cwie miailit w '.vl' iiir!f;i.';ke to slew v.w -dli'^at 'r's i.i:'e ii.-O'l. -)'k lii dis;>o--!;i'''n, ihcy are like tk'' fsliiiriolit'":-; - 1' old— tbf'ir *n(>u/6' are figaiM.-t ev-ry man, and every iiirui':" }',<\u'l i ■: a:;-'iiiif t thorn. N') rcas^nnblo {:'\\^\':', c: ii st'ip tiieni. b'U ovt r^.-livc aod uner y, liiry rove nl<0!!t 5je"k!::fr p'.i!.!' r ; Mpi'dlin", •.';rinitii;g, rooting, [iTsw inrr. a.lw.-iy:: in loifchicraiid "Iw" ' -^ d"?:t!*(^\ii i^. I'.nor- jnoLis gortnr'rdi/.r i.-<. yel :iovf r s.'itislied : !ri? bk- P:!-r idi's ]'''.'i.!i kino, tliev b:.d: ibcii* iou !■; firii>ir.>, a!i I vlue.v l,i t'lc'i iniserablo carcas-s no rerion for tb*"' i">i A con>'i:no..!. In sh t/f. !.'ie inoro a man posse ;"■"; •.>:' siirli s:o(dc, the worse In is ofT. a:i 1 !;o Ind far betlcrse'l bis iiro 'ii;'.; at anv |)ri 'C — ves, f'vn bis '''.ni at a dime a bu.-dicl, than lu laiL it into tuidi tot:il!\ wor;b!e.;s brut.o. Pi:f;Tio\ VII. 1. T.'ic Hoar. — AOer olitaiiiiiu? as manv other f^or-d !)o;npociriliy if ofa large si/,*-', twi> at most is suflieient ti'gotlK r in roaiinemcnt, ai.(i it \v<'u!(l be still better that each one had rui aparlineuL to itself in tiie piggery. Un- less the jjig was lean, and ibe object v.as to somewhat line her, it ought n »t to be nllowe:! to brerd, if :t C^iiinese, tili twelve, and if a I'erkshire, tdl eighteen mon;!isj old ; oud it'sonjcliiing extra large was wanted, <.I(Uer their comi.ig in stili six niont.lis loiig.-;i'. 4. There is then i,o ciieck ia ;. o-jtli, rmd tiie iijst later of p;j:f< i:-; usually as line and as li.'L'e as any sui)soip!'^:!t ones, 'i'bo |ie- rioQof tiu.'ir jjfestalion is siUe^'n weeks, anil tee liiii.> liiat thev are 6*inte>'l to the boar sh iu!'i i.'O -.el dowu, aud ouo mo-iib at least pre- vious t-) l"arr:»wi)ig, each soA' .s!] )ull be tiiv n i.:p and occu[)y a ]!lace alone, cither in pa.stuco or ii: p.eti, ;?ijnilar to that describot in g )od order, end striciiy waiciied when c:\- pcicted t ) bring lorth. T). As soon as dropped, see lliit the [tlf^; n.re cleaned and tak^* the teat, .''.iid the drim rid of tho jdaceiita, aud that <•• ri.ed oil' arid buried, kdie should ll.eii b'.:* sn|.j>!i;.vl u iih slr>rt cut iittor in a mod- erate quuiiity, so tiiat her youi:g will not g t i.ii,gb:d in it and be Bi^iothcrcd. 'Jdie watching sliould conti'me sever;;! tiays, till th« [»■•;;•'■ ar ■ .-.tr ing and lively, especially if the sow lic i'ull grown and hfravy, other\\isc 'hey are in dnngerof l)ei:ig lain and trod upon, Rii\} killed. C)ne j)ig more saved thrm leaving the sow i) herself, amjdy rej)ays al! this extra ati.enli'e f pared, with a nuxfure of oat and barley with pea or Indian meal, wi'diit part of either of the latter to three parts ol" the ibrn;er, m CANADIAN AORlCrLTURAL READER. 161 'AH cif, •I'V .irs. iree be cal, highly rerommfindod f-r nursery, t'lgnthcr with nn equal quantity of Ijoilod or Ktrnnif^il vrgomhl s. 7. As s) n .'IS tho |>i[i;.s will onf, n smnll oprn l)Ox frnmn should 1)6 |)lucf(l in ;:)f' |>on, uudcr wln'cti tlioy could run and hn sr'pnrato Ironi the sow '^, n trough sot ihrro, and milk with a light tni.xturo of mor.'l 'ind CO '..•I vogotrdilo roots pou rod o\il for thorn, 'i'his groat- \y rolio\ cs tlo sou', and ml^U uuich t!"> tho growth t'l' iho |dgs ; they wo/in then without scouring, losing condition in the leas', or being ciiookod in t!.* ir 'ir-'Uth. >^. It is 2"'nora!lv thought that piri^s do a-; w^ll t^> ho wonnod at alx weeks old ".>; I:iior, f.trtlio li^llo milk 'hat ench then g'^ts is ob- tained hy in iro or lo^^s qu'irrelli' g, nnd ',\&\< a distn-te to their food; besides it ;s n great consideration to got them olftho sow ns soo.i as possjlde. Liffhtor ten p:':e:\\ |ii?:-i turrging at her Lreast for two or three rooDths, is hard to l.f> hornr". nnd is tVo-jtie-i'ly veiy jiorni- Hoi:s to her lerits. In wenniu:^. a 1 hit on*:^ ^ liould lio tnkcn olF, j'Ut I'ne d.'iiii o I ^\i<\\'i alh>\\anc'o, arid in two dnys ftke the remain- ing j-ig away, niiowing it rit i]i"^ 'odraw the brenst twice a day, aad tiion diuiirM.-h tdl o!i(3e in two or three days during a week. 0. Tiieu tnru the so-v oi t l'~< ?;ra'-s ami le-iv:; otrentirol", nnd co!T!!neneo g;-uin.' iiy ^) put her iiito cond'lion eg'iin. 'I'he JV-rk- shires osppc! '.".!! y rif;. rpront inilkor^, .'K.dmust !)^ wall atteii(3ed l(.i at xrennir-g tin;'', or ihe !>rf"ist will !!!', hocon.e oakrd nnil swollen, n.nd finnlly ulcoi.:"^. end !)■'' tlio cnu^^ sonietiiu'^s « f the (loath of the s";w. T^'.o liilers "reallowr^ i pr-r r.nnuin. atid a prol'eren -e for farrowing i.i tli" ; eiisnete is given t ) the ni tn;!);; <^^ April and ^:'ep- tenihor. l\ rif'-r south, later nnd earlier will answc;-. l<>. A p-i.: v.!"^ri :i.':t di-opwod i-: a verv tender animal, and if tbo wcalhrr be tio c A:\ it nil! ocrish ; tho dani also is likely to b'^i'onip ravfuious nu'i devour her odsprinsr, or roi'u.-o to nurse it. — Afer hein': v.r-U' d. ]i;gs should he i\] upon ec^olccd fotd, at least for a few iii\s ; thev will ih'-'u verv r", rolv scour and if ilioy have a dry warm pla^'o to sleep in covered iVom the weather, will not take cold or he niHictod with swollen head and throat, that too ot'ten destroys them, Xig'.it air is very pernicious to young j)igs, and is tlie direct cau~.e of m )s' His that nlT'^'-t them. 11. In order to g've them a Iiandso.ne shr'pe and good growth, Fsome att'^n'ion tnu'^-t )e had to their friod and accommodation. To their snug slo(>|.ing apartmeni in tho winter, a largo dry yard that tho sun will shirio in when rat, should be nppendod tor exercise, and in summo" they ought to have the run of a good grass or clover lot, with pure water if possible passing through it. The best food that can then be given them, is as much milk, whey and house swill " ♦ ■ n ■ I' 1 162 CANADIAN AORiCULTURAL RBAOBB. as can be Imd, and a mixture of oat niul Indian m'^nl about half and hall*, witli /lix-soed ground willi it, at iho rato of a pint or so to tlio biislii:!, or fur want of this a qu.irt or two ol' oat meal may bo subslilii;* il, 12. All ilu.,, andmoro especially if it can bo cooked oefornhand, mixed with an eiiiiai qiinntity of stcamod n^ots of anv kind, such as potaido.i, hf.'i>t.s, cS;c , mikos tlio must |);il;;ta!>lL', he.illhful and thriving iood tor young j>ig.s or old, tlial I know of. Tlioro is a very grcit s;!\ ing in cooking food lor liog^, fii.d making it pretty tl»in Willi uMicr ; liic lifpiid alone, in iliis cmsp, s'M?i,i.st.» go farther with thciii llian iho whole oftiio food unciookid. lirpo'tod oxpff- imcnt.-i liMvo f\striljli.^ji(;d the f«ct, thai water, urnl r ihcse circum- «tancoy, Ijoconics very nulri:iou.<. I'J. .\MiM.;s -iii:! bran, so lUuch given ti p!g>\ is niosi mi.--.orablo food alo!; •, an. I cspecinlly if us.'.ni without being cooiio;!. li almost iuvaiiaul.' f-coin-o ih 'in, and unilor the most i'.iv >rab!e circumstances 1 could ii.'VOf :s much thrift from the fecdinf]: C'l.lrl swill, and above all ifatall frozr-n, i.-- very pernicious ; it ib ilio c.ii.:e of several diseases, (':;peoi;.liy that of casiing the inwards, itud oi;g!it never to be tod. v\ lion confiiiod, either as store aniionls (m* ;;i;tcrung, nil hogs should h ivo a little suijdiur and salt occasiun.illv in their fujd, Willi pu!*',' \\;ir 1' to (iriiiic ai all seasons once or uvi/o 'i viav. Id. C, iiii'..-; . t'c'i.ircoal or rotten wo;jd shoaKil)^' ihrov.n tothem, and thev slionld beall;.)Wod now and then to c.i.iio to nio (ground a ehort time f -r the |)urpose cd' rooting and eating di.'t. '1 liey may not f.it, or r.ilher U<)(tt frp, (piile so Ja^l tor tiiis, hut iheir flesh will bo mui,'Ii sup'M-i :.r, and the poor animal will ho kc^.t iVeo from tho tevcr that oiln;rw:>oso much torr.ieni.s it ; and indeed, it is believed, ttxcopt in rare Ciiscs, fiom all other diseases. Si:rTiON Vill. 1. I\Ia\i.\o PonK. — The business ot' futening poi'k for sale l§ practised to so no extent by m.jst of our I'.irnieis, t\ny\ when per- formed 0;; >no,i)ii.-ally, or when ti)e most is male of ih.o material* given tiirni, is undoublediv a source of han:ls.)ine profit Yet all will admit, tliat when carried on in the same nntiuer it .-■ )mclime* is, tho pro.;""! ; of p )rk making drains, instead of repleniddng thte farmer's po..'kot. To make faltening hoi^s pnduable, it is necessary, first of all, tliat iho breed selected for ibeding sh >uld be a g'lodone. "2. Thi-re i.i a vast dilibrence in hogs in tho respect of easy fat- tonin.-', proj)er proportion of bone, weight, iSic, and the firmer who thinks to make money by f edingthe long snouted, hump-backed siab-sided animals, that are too irequenlly found among farmer* CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL READER. Itt3 and disi,'racn the very naiiio of swino, will find in tlje end thai iie bos reckoned without his liobt, and lias thrown away bolli time and nioncv. , 3. Thci'o firo several good breeds of pigs now in the country, mostly piolucod by crossings ol"(»ihf>r kinds with the (.'liiuc.-e, /md of course linviug ilillbrcnt dugreos of a|>lilii lo to I'atton ; and tho.'^e breeds iiavo i.?en so di.ssoiiiiuated over the country, that any firmer who is wiiliui;' to make ihu ell'oi-t, niay have some iin|irov(^d animals in his j) !i ;. 'J'iri lime ha.; g(»nc by when a Ijog .shoniil be kept four yea -a to Wvig!» four hundred; the business of fattening s liliie underslOKt! \vi;erc hogs of a year "ind a imlf donol reach tiiat nniount, and soMK' [lij^s have even cxi-eoded that wcighN 4. iSeM to s(.lecting K"*J'1 hiet ds, ii is rtcjuisltc thai ihey sin idii bo kept coiisiaiitly gi"<»\\ ing. 'i here niu.>l l.(^ some f )und.'iiion f*«r fattening vvhcu lh(^ process conmiences, or inuch time Wiil \)0 u»t;t in re|)aini:!.'; e: lors. and much ftjod c()n>umi'd in makiiig car«;ahP tliat aiiiouM ijo emidoyod in covering it wiii fat. ll"gs should l^e kept in Ciov. r pasture, a licld being allotted to ihrm for their exelu- eive use, so laigo in pniporlion io iheir nim. hers that iho fceti may always be iVc.-h, yet not so much so as to run up to set d, or gnw coarse or trii:k. 5. Tboy r>l:ouM have the ir^l'ips of the kitchen, the whey or l)ut- termilk oi tlio d liry, uu]c:.-s this \> reipiired for voung pigs, and m gcn-^ral cvoiy l!uugt!:oy will <• t to ai!v:in!:ig<% or whirdj v. ill pr(»- inote their griAvh. Ttio m:Liiner in which llio mat"rials intended for fallo/ni:g ;».)! k is prepared and [e:l^ \\r\s a ilecid(>d inlluei'co on the rapi iiiy of the process, and of conse. Corn is wiilioui a poradventure llie best article ever produced for rnakir;g goitd jjork ; and thougii otheisub.-i.'inccs nay occ<'isi(jn- nlly bo used willj advantage, and may prodi-ce pork of fair anil good quality, yot cxperioncn lias proven 'hat the real coi'n fed meat is orj the whole su,ieii(U" to all (filers, llogs will fatten on eoni given to them in any state, yet it is I'ar prcfcrublo wdien soakeil, g:'oun(', bteatned t-r boiled. 7. A f.iriMcr o!"our acquaintance, and who is celel)rated for the weight of his hogs, and the e.xcellenco of his poik, is in the haldt of mixing oats 'vith his corn before grinding in the proportion of about one fourth, and thinks that if he hail not the oats of his own, he should be a gainer in exchanging corn, bushel for bushel, i'or oats, rather than not have them to mix with his swine feed. He I .' 31 ..■,1 •5 -Jl '%} lf*l CANADIAN AOAICULTIJRAL RRADRR. thinkci iliey oot tho mi.vture botlnr ihnn donr ffM-n moni, arn lr»««» l.'nl)lo to a sill I'lMT, ani ofcourse will latton much friatcr wilh iho onls iritiri wiihoiu flK':ii. 8. I't^as h;.\c orcnrr.lly l)cen rai>kr»d jf^xt to corn a*' nn nrtiVle for makir.^ jj;)otl pork, fuid th' ;■ nro piMhrihly tho li'^t sul)s!itii'i? lli'it \ms \ ft liodi round, fi"gs r.'odiri'^ well on them, I'rtft'MiitJg ni|)- i< jy, iind llir- p')rk !ipint(<'r jr.)()() (|inli(y. \i is almost iiKiispcMsahlg that pens ^^honld 1^ ^voimd or sonkfd provlons to (bcdinfif. Pofa- t''<^s nio moro cxtciisivclv iiKcd for nutciiinur liof;s t'lan any (^ilior of i\\d ciiilivalnl roots, and are proljril.ly tj.p Ikmi ot'ilip whole t'or thin purj)osc. Unit ss tlify arc hoiloH, howrvr. tlioy arotd' little valuo, ciiinpni-./tivt'ly, luit. when cooked ihey will «;ivp tlif liocfs a linn start in T'-odirj^, and thoy may ihon bo easily tiijishod oH" wiih ctirii (ir pea.-i. 0. 'i'he i^'itlcidng of ho£rs ,,n anplos rrr'v hn coiisidcrod as on'> oi' iho siicfcvlnl innovations (•!' tlio uf^o, it l'<'incf cei lain that thi.i tVnil pos.^cssos a vnliio for ih.'t piirp"S'^ \vlii.-!i butafc.v ycai.-^ sincn wa.-j \v!io!!y unknown. Tbr* siiccp.-s of ibis e.\|;priiheiit. has givoii a new v.iluo to orchards and will probably tditMdv ibcir ik- >.lruction, which in sonno sections of the country iiad alrondy com- • i.cmcGd to a (•oiisidcrablo extent. 'I'lio vai ious rr'pfiris iVoin grnt-Jc- oitii of intfdii.ucnco of the practical rrsulis of fijiple foodint^ aro tdost 'xriiiifying, aii J wo have no doubt llio systchi will b-^ fully ap. proved. lu. Where convenient let. the hogs li-? in l!ic orchard from tlie iMue the fiult bopins to fall, till it is ti:ne to cr.-itiier the a[>plos t\»r wintcrorcidor, and thoy will in most cases be f(»i,ind rospec'!ai»Io pork. When it is necessary to put them in the j,en, boiled apj)!es mixed wilh a smrill quantity of corn, oat, pease, or bn-kwheat m^'al, will rr.l ihcm up rapidly, nKd;o theni lai'd Mell, and fill the farmers' bar- lelswiih sound sweet pork ol" the first ii'i'd'ty. If atjv, however, are doubtful, they can easily finish ofY their apple fed jiork, as is j:?:onerally dune with potutoe fed, with corn or peas, and with similar results. Sectton IX. 1. Profitadle Hrns. — On the first of .f-^nuai'v, 1830, I had ten hens and one good crowcr. In the spring I suffered three of them to go through the process of incubation, which left nie seven to make my experiment upon. The three which raised chickens, gave me twenty-four in number, which [ sold for lid. each when they were the size of quails. The sooner you sell your chickens the hotter, for they will bring but a penny or twopence more when full grown than when hnif grown. vi CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADKR. 165 2. \\*!\on tlio vn.ar wua out on tlio first of lust, J.-.nti.irv, I lookn-' ovor rnv n'?coinit niv\ \\t\ihd tli.'il mv liens liritl civcn nin ninotV'S .t dozon of ogg>, wlii<.h wrro sold lur Ju'i l!).v. z»'!i — tho liigliONt l.v. ',hl. 1 !i ivn rskn(i many luriiiers t<> guess the inmibcr, liUl ihy ahvn\:: rrrino ^hortol'if. '^. 'I'iiey fislv in.-- wli'it 1 give tlu-ni to mrdio llifin so prolili.'s I Mi'piirc now iIk v ti'fil tlifirs. \vl nf ihrr' rS" tfioiM lo r.';t, a!i 1 wla lliey nv^t r.l nif;iit.. 'i'li^y I'dl mr lii-y V iIkmii rest in linrns or . !i uppio ticos — i..igiv!i';r ijirni n, i.'li (■■„(■' jit wli it th'^y onn p • ',> .iroun I the Iionso nnd hfirn. They ihiidv w.tnn douj^h wnl iVt ii! their ci'npiS .'ind kill tiieiii in coM wcnthcr. •I. iN IV. I'll !r'll von 111 w I koPM tho h'^ns. I cmse a rrood housfl I) ho ni;idi3 iur ihnni oii tlio S'Hith sido ot'fi hdi, niiil .stdio it up so wai'i.i ih'it rMi Of rp v.-i!l sc.iiccls (vcr cjot iVn/pn. Durhig Ij.dfiho liiue in \\intftr 1 t,:vi) ihf. Imns hoi'.od potntocs um\ hnn or rntnl, niixod Ic^ntJifT with warn) w.'itrr. I never lost nii\ hens in con.^e- (jMcnce of this d'"tug!i Ir^'/ir-g in their crops ; iftlr-y h,'i\ea good w.-irrn iioijso to sit in, dou!!;h will n d hurt them rtiiy more ih'Mi N>» nil (Tu^-'s will kill :\ i. ..(!•. For the roiniiindor(»f the time, I give ih 111 o;i!s inste-:d oi' Ci.irn. r». I h:ivo hi'U!.;ht o'lt- f'»r H.f. fi-/. a hushel, wlido corn wns, nt the .^-.uno lime, ."•,-,•. 0.'/., ;uid tried the hens first on the onts luid ihi-n on tlio coin, rifforo f'^e lincj tlio hen- I wi»uM lei the o.-ifs soak in warm water f >r (hree or four hours, till they got well swclk'Ml-plt dust in ihoir house and keep it dry so that it cnnnot freeze ; this answers every [>urposo. liens should never he kept near cattle, for their vermin will escape to the cattle and prevent them from growing fat. 7. 1 preserve all the jdeces of white earthenware ihfit I can find, and whe?i the ground is coverel with snow, 1 pulverize it and give it to them. 1 liiifi by experience they will eat it in preference to corn. Water is always placed within their reach. J^ast year, ac- cording to the beyt of my calculation, the cost of keeping my ten hens was £2 5,5. 1 sold eggs to the amount of JC'3 195. (id., and cliickens to that of XI — ^leaving a nett profit in one seasrm of £2 lis. 6d. Besides this, eleven dozon of eggs, worth ton penco a dozen, were used in the family. i .-• ', IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 am 1.4 IIIIIM 112.0 1= 1.6 '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation # .•V ^^ :\ \ «^ % ^^ 6^ ^%^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 166 CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL B.BAOEB. Section X. 1. MY COTTAGE HOME. I've b^cn wlioro pleasure unbedimm'd, lialh illiM my heart wilh joy — Wliei'o I'-diwy weaves her fairy dreams Uiimii.L^ic.'d with alloy; — Whore sorrow's bosom heaves no sigh, Nor angry passions foam, — Yet — iimi no j)loasure half so sweet, As ill iny CoUago Homo. fMH o I've b:on whore wealth, her flowing robes 0"l;;1!, ir;.th sprca;! around, — Whori' s;ni|it.'oii.s fire, and sparkling wine, In h':i',"ousnoss abound ; — Where I'oico — and Lovo — and Happiness, Li!:'-' sister-spirits roam, — Yet — 1\'.\[\ n > |)lnoo, so dear to mo. As mv o^vn Uottngo Home. 3. I've boon witero Englanrl's glory spread llcr liion-banner wide — And with hor bloaehin": canvass hid Wl Til-' iiiam of ()i;ean-tido ; — icro from hor rtjclcv vvave-ffu •tb ase. H or ;kv-ward towofs uprise, — Yet — ycf, my Cotlage Home appears Moiit lovely in my eyes. I've horn wiiero France, nil crown'd with joy, Lau^;hs through each vine clad field, — Wh' 10 Olive groves and Myrtle-bowers Thoir rich })rofiision yield ; — Where Ceylon's sweet perfumes arise, And spicy breezes sigh, — Yet — witli my Cottage Home, I find No palace that will vie. .,• • r CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL RSADKjI. 187 i 5. I've been where Appenines ascend — And where ihe frowning A1[)S, Above llie j'ushi'jg, lcin[)e!5t Ijlast, Up-rear iheir snowy scalps; — Where high lliniinaleh's icy peak Stamis tow'ring, and alone, — Yet — find no j)iacG in all the world, k:'o lovely a.s mv own. 0. I love my Cottage f lonie ! — I lovo The (itiwers tiir.t ioui:d it grow — The riilii'd ^iuifl(»wcr — blu.hiiifij Uoso — T:ie liollyhock (if snow ; — The gr::ccl'. 1 iJly — hiooining Piidv — 'ihc .M,-;rig()iii .'•o gay, — Tiio i l>i!icysiu'kle — Je.ssnniine — \Vh;U b\ve<.lcr HiAvtr than Uiev ! ill Oil! dfirly — dearly do 1 love i\Iy gi'-'vo-cnv IkmiM Home, — An;] ui[ iiiy jicart ity smiles shall beam, \vlurc"or i chinoo Id r<) i;n ; — It.-> woodhin'd roui' — its u liitowasiied wall- Its skill \vi ought, carpet fl(/or, — Oil! iii'\ci' — nc\cr will I leave My iiivcly Ci^ttnge moie. SiCCTlON XI. 1. Plasti.r, and its Mooe of Action. — Lime is one of tho few primilive earths, the one which by ils union wiih sul|)hurio acid, forms g\ j;sum or sulphate of lime, and has hern provcii by Sir llumphiey Davy to consist of a metallic hrj^e ccanijined with oxygen, thf 188 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. S 4 H:: I u lime, or as it is most gCi'ionilly cnllod "Plaster of Paris.'' Tiiis substance, from the astonishing elfect it produces on the grasses, and indeed on most plants, when used under circuinslanccs favora- ble to its application, has become connected with successful agri- culture in sucli a tnrmner as to justify all the ciforts vvliich can 1x3 made to exphiu its m.)do of action, and more thoroughly investi- gate its [u'incj|>Ies. ^^. t:^uiph,'tte of lim'^, or pInsI(M', is composed, in 500 pirls, oflimo 84.0, suljthuri^ acid, 1 t.*^. and water 21."?. When crystallized in a jMiro state, it i.-^ (••illMd volfuiio, is partially transi)afent, and is the s'lbstanco U'^''>;i by t!io .'incicnts i'or the purp.o-e of sculj)tufo, and tcrniol alabaster ; imt it is generally f umd impure, or mixed rnoro or l(\-!awilli forei,f.',u siib.staiices, which renders it, when pulverized or ground, d irhcr in pro,iortion to ih.e extraneous mati^'r it contain.?. i. Ill its natural state, wlioii hented, it parts wiih ils w;.*.er of cn'stallization csily, nnd i.; ihcn easdy reduci'-d fo powder, a mode of preparation cxtousive'.y us-^d when it first came into use 's a dressing for soils, but whitjii is now entirely supersedod by mills constructed so as to pulverize it without burning. Fortu- naloiy, pdast- r — r nl wo u ^e lliis term in ]))-eforonce to the mor3 scir'ntilii: ap|/.dl :li mi, because it is one wliich every body understanda — is on^ of tlie most abundant minerals m nature. 5. 'idle use of pl.-isior as n. dressing for plants commenc(^d in Ger- many, wli"M-e its vn.lne was accidontally discovered i:»y noticing tl'i3 siU[)erior growiii iiml vig-ir of clover, n-. ar a foot-path daily trodden by some peasants who were quarrying this minei'al, and from whose clothes it had been dusted over the grass near their pathway, r'rom this 1 p';in!iin;r its use rapidly spread over (Tormany and France, auil tlience i:ito tiie United States and Canada. 0. It is singular, and shows the cautiousnc's, il' notiiing more, of firmers in adopting any innovation on est.'d)lis'.>od ^^"s, th-.t notwithstandiiifj the lontith of time it has been used. the con- stan^ly increasing fertility of those soils where it has been applied the longest, we find there is a lurking prejudice still lingering ia the minds ol many of our farmers, not to say a serious doubt, ta to the pro{>riety of its use. 7. These objectors reason thus — "We do not deny that plaster enables a farmer to procure greater crops of h^iy or grain than he could otherwise obtain from a given piece ol land in the same time ; but as the growth is not natural, but forced, and as no additional in- gredient of fertility is furnished to the soil by the plaster, it is evi* dent the farm will be exhaused the sooner in exact proportion to the addition made to the crop." CANADIAN AOBICULTUBAL RXADCIU 189 i 1" id 8. The stimulus given to land by plaster it is snid, "is precisely aiialngous in its results to the excitement j)roduced by ardent spirits upon man : while under itsinfiuence he is as n)uch above par in his spirits and powers, as lie is below when the exciting cau.se has passed away." We luive stated those obji.'clioiiS in iheir ylrongesl ibnn, and in the manner in wliich, so Inr as our knowledge cxtclid^, they usually exert tiieir iniiuence ; as, independent oi"lhe fact thai such has never yet been the eiiect ot" plaster, wo hope to be aide lo show satisiactorily Irorn the nature of the substance iiseif, and it«j mode of action on plants, that no sucli result can take place as is £4)j)rehended. y. We do not maintain that constant croj.f.ing of land, without rest, rotation of cro{)S, or returning anything to the soil in the state of manure, would not exhaust it essentially in spite of tlie applica- tion of plaster, but we do maintain, that wiiere plaster is used, even ill such an injudicious course of treatment, the exhraistion will not be more rapid, and tiic prolils oi'croppiiig will be far greater, than wilhi>ut it. 10. in tiie first place, these objections lo the u.-^e of plaster are wholly fouii'.led on the mistaken a.-su!i j tinu ihai aii the nourishnienl of plants is furnisiioil by the soil m wiiicii ihcy are plr.nted, anti oi course the exliauslion will be in pi-opoiiion to ihe magniiui.e aiid the vigor of thoir growth, 'ihi-. su|;[)osilion it will not l;e uilKcuit t) show, is a great anii fun lanjental error, 'i lie sap or circulating fluid of jilan's enters the roots by tlieir spongioie.s or miuule botes, and holding in solution saline, extra.clivc, mucilaginous, saccharine, and other matters, rises upwards through tlie wood, and is distribu- lod through tiie lino pores of the stem, and tlio dL-iicderamificatioua of the leaves. 11. These substances are readily soinbh^, aid j)lants theretore find no diliioulty in obtaining their sup|)ly from the earth, but the most nnportant ingredient in their grvjwi.h, {Ui* t,ijo which enters into their tbrmation in far greater pi!»p!);-tj tii thun any oiher, iiaa not yet been mentioned, and this is carbon or cliaicoal. PStiw altiiough carbon or coal ovists in the earth in imaionse qu'intii.ies, yetfis it is j)erlectly insoluble in wa'.or, it caanji, like most of the salts, earths, alkalies, portantanaiiNJliary. Cr.rbonic gnis is rapidly absorlx'^d by water at all times, t'.\n\ w'lrm rrcenlly b.mposed of lime and sulphuric acid. Sulphuria acid attracts "water, which it takes from the atmosphere so very rapidly, as to imbibo one third of its own weight in twenty-four hours. 17. When plaster is exposed to the air in small quantities, as it U when sown, it slowly undergoes decomposition, or separates ialo CANADIAN AOEICULTURAL READER. \9i lU m y via ur it its constituent parts more or less perfectly. TIio sulphuric ftcid thus set iree seizes with avidity on the water ol* the atmosphere, which water is deposited on the leaves of plnnls, and is thus con- ducted to iho roots of the plants, or on the earth itself, \\here it is speedily iniprcgnraed with the carbonic gas alrr-ady in the air, or which is r.'ipidiy jxjured from the leaves table U'.attcr ; it, is !>y its cliemical action in Riving the means of separating fi'mi liiO air a substance necessary to their existence., and oiFbriug it ready prcparoi i'or tljo usa of plants, that its valuo is> oerivi'd. 'iU. The simple facts of the case seem to be tlieso : Plants must have carbon, or they cnnnotbe healthy and vig )r I i h ** !i against the uso of plaster ; as it is, iney must go for nolliing. evon were notour view of the subject sup[)orleti, as it iully is, by long experience of its benelicial elfects. Wo !ru;it, l!i r'^fore, that no hesitation will be f.'lt by any in purchasing piisler fjr the piirp»x-*o of sowing on clover or ineudow, or for a l»)p 'iressing on wlieU. Skctio.n XII. 1. M\RL. — In reading a very elaborate report from the pen of a celebrated (Jeologist, who has been employed in oneoftlie soulli- ern States for the past few years, we we.e a.-itonished to notice that tracts of country equalling some hundreds of squ-ire mile'-', liad been increased in value within the past eij^iit years to an ex- tent of upwards of one liundred per cent., and this great advance in thu value of property was attributed aluiost solely t*:* the use of inarl. "2. From the moment we read this report, we embraced every opportunity of discovering the location of valuable beds, and have in many cases tested the qualities of the specimens which have come under our ouservatJon. Tlieonly ki,;! wiiicli cin be prolita- bly brought iiit<. general use in this couiiti-v, is ih.it which is gen- erally deuominaled shelly 7uan', w!.i:'h is e.i.iojtly a deposit of she 1 iish, in process of time conv-T'ed i; !•> cxlciieou.s e.u'tti. c^n- taining both stiniulating and lertilizing p'-op'^i'ilt.s, which make it go hignly pri/.od in liritain thatii isclucied anioiig theani;nal m i- nures in point of value. ;i. itexisisat the bottom of most hor:;s and m^-asse-;, or ot'ficr pieces of stagnant water, and is usua'iy under layers of a deep black peatly eait'i. Tiie spcciiii(?ns whii-li wo Losied were tak^^ii from boi'S covered with about tin-ee fjet cibLiok n egfMaido nitmld, tuid ihe ti'nbcr whicli grew Ui)on the 1 uid was priucip.j.lly a (isvan- isii giowih ol: black asli. They Ci>ntainn I about 50 ijer cent, of pure lime, and in one instance oven a much greater quantity 4. If a substance containing from 40 to 50 pf r cent, of lime can be had witiiout any cost i'urther than the more tii-auing, eudi farin- ers OS have this substance within their reac'u wou'.i xJiid it to th^ir advantage to ap[)ly it to their cultivated lan.i, at th>.; rate of aijout five tons per acre. We would recommend experdments with marl on a small scale, and by this means its adaptation to the soil on which it is applied may bo fairly proved, und the m jst lUitutorei cultivator would soon be able to form a correct estimate of iis value. 5. The princijial ingredient in marl that is found to be valuable to the farmers, is the carbonate of lime which it contains, and it is owing to the presence of this earth that marls effervesce on the ad- CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL READFR 1U3 I it 01 on •el .]0. >\e is id- ditinn ofri'-iils. The most common lost is, to w\d n small portion ofdriod iri.'ii fo n wino i^lnss i'liM of' viiirn^nr. A species of violent formoiitrifittii will inko |jiuce if tlin marl i)'^ ric.'i with limo, which will (jtiiM astitiiisii a person inexporieiicod in such m.'ilff rs. This Tfwt i>'. so Kjiriplo ;iad clUiMent. that it is scarcely necessary for ui \(> mention oth'M's. 0. VV'c niif(ht, !iowe\er, mention anniher : Tiet tlio marl hj put itit(.» a u^lit^i^ partly lillcd with water, wliich will expel a. por. Lion of acid contained mechanically in tiio marl. When tho mail is thorouiilily jienetrated by the water, add a little muriatic- atdd, or spirit of salt. Il'a discharge of air should ensue, tho marly naturo oi'tho earlii will bo suliici>uitly established. 7. If a farmer, whoso soil is deficient in lime or calcareous earth, (•'in procuro, ata convenient distance, a, quality of marl, being rich witl» I'me, iie will find by sucdi apf)lic;!tion effecfK equal Iv rss r>enelicial, as tli »ug!i he had used jiuro limo from the kiln. When ti'.e marl is used, <>{ <-<)<;rso tlie (]ua::tity wouM be re([uire;l to Kr? rre;itor, but »iidy to an extent equal to tho amount ofsilex an! other substances not being carbonate oi" lime, it cont-iiri'd. Tho action of marl on ihe smII wiil be niore slow and lasting than fresh luirtit lime, but the benefits in the end will be tbund to be equally us gnu'. Skctiov Xll[. 1. Ponds, ano Pond Mud. — L\')stures that are destitute of w-i'er should have artilicial [»onds made in them, for watering plaz-as. tJDservo wh-3i'e rushes, weeds, flags, and othf^r a-'vitic [dants grow i-ipOMtaneously : or where tVogs are observed . - do s(]uatled down close to th^^ ground, in ordru* to receive its m (..•tiire. ();• ohserVv^ where a vapour is frequently «:een to rise from the samesf)ot. »Some wiy wherever little swarms oi tlios are seen con:stantiv living m tho same place and near the ground, in the morning after sun- rise, there is wat'-r u^iderneath. 2. ffa. well i^ made in a sKtping ground, and the declivi'v is o:i'>ugii fo give it a h)riz.»ntal vent, it will h<^ worth t!ie husbuid- man's whiln to dig such a passage, and bv n)eans of pi!)es or anv other conveyan^;e, to carry the water across the light sdi], through which It might oth^'U'wise sink, 'i'ho greatest quantity of writer wiil be obtained in th's m inner, because thore will heacont]ru.ial stre mi. There is nn dilTiculty in making a durable pond in a clayey soil.- . Let a I'M'ge hoii'iv basin be made in such earth, and if wdl p'-e. serve the water that falls in rain. But it is h[)t to be thick and dirty, if some pains be not taken to prevent it. 3. The declivity bv which the cattle enter, should be pared, and 18 : r ■V.I 1 ,t ( ■■■•* , f} ) ■' 191 CANADIAN AORICULTrRAL BEAUER. gravel slioulu bo sprcmi on iho bottom. Or it mig'it bo bettor if the vvbol" wci'c p.'ived. Tlicro aro ni.'uiy l.-irgo nnturul |i [en W id. I bo iml led lih- s-xjucnily tho most judicious modes of its npiilicatKin t') the land, are oillier bui little understood or ncukictcd ; I'or some cart it directly Ui)oii flio yrouiid an i ploagli it in, eitlirr lor tijrni()s or corn croj>s ; olh^>rss|»rcad ilij;)on old loy^. ; niid m my lay it ma in lliiii ho;i[»s to dry, ai'ior wlucli lli<\v mix it with limo i>r (iuni^ U.-Uj)on this it has l)oen romnrkeii, hy an ominont ngricnltiiris;t, that in reasoning with tlie farmers ujion the cause or j>rinciplo l)y wliicli they are guided in those dili'orent proceedings, the reply isj gonerahy 'that it has been liieir practice to do so — that it haa answered very well — and that they know of no h.-tter mode of treat- ing it.' It may he observed, that jionds, Ijeiiig usually [)la(;od n.t the bottom of the lieM, ro.ceive, after very hard rain, a part of the soil, as well as of the substances with which they have been n)anured. ID. If tho ponds bo largo and de(3i), thoy may also ac(|uiro much deca^'cd vogo'Lahlo matter, arising from tho a(pjaiic plants with winch such ()o.)is usually abound ; and if near the yards at which cattle are (Commonly wintered, they must likewise rec»Mvc a portion of their dung ; s\irAi mud is, thereloi-e, j)articularly applica()le tolighl soils, both as containing nutritive mutter, and adding the staple and consistency of the land. Tho most common time of mudding ponds, is during tho summer mouths, when it is usual to let the slime lie near the edge of the pond, until tho water is drained from It. 11. A spot is then marked, either upon a head land of tho fi-'Id upon wliicii it is to be laid, or as near it as possihie, of a size to raise a compost with alternate lavers of either limo or dung. if dung can be had, the best mode of preparing this maniire, is lo lay u foundation of mad, of about a foot and a lialf in depth, of an ob- long form, and not mire than eight feet in width, u|) )n which the frestiest yanldung is laid to about douide that depth ; thr^n a thin layer of mud ; after which alternate layers of mud and dung, until the heap be raised about five or six feet in height — keeping thr, sidea and end square, and coating the whole with mud, at least twice at dilferciit [»eriods. 1*2. If qidck lime be used, and there remains any moisture in the pond scourings, it will be sufficiently fallen for turning, in a few days ; but if the compost be made with iarm-yard dung, it may require to remain six or eight weeks to fe-tiMnt and decompose be- fore it is in a pntper state for turning. To form them, in the first instance, with both quick lime and manure, is injudicious ; the foN mer ought never to be brought in contact with the latter — though manures may be advantageously incorporated with an old compost, the better mc ' appe: 10 l':;':| 10(5 CANADIAN AOniCULTURAL READRR .'i I ■* •: , np|)ly it ill tliu intlcr end of nuluinn, or early p.'irl ofwihior, and \o brusli-lirirrow it woil niter it lias born lianifiiod bv iVost. 13. k'ta Hi ml or i^hrc/i., lias al.-o been used in Bonjo |)lncos in largo quniiiiii" s, nnu iiaei been luiiitd of so vnry enriciiiiig u naturn, (IS to ruiijdy rciMiinrr.-ito lor (•arrving il to a consiiierablo distance. It is gfMicrully laid M|Min u;;7is,s inaulimm, and |)]()i;!;!ir'(i in wiil;our any addiiion in liiu iull(»v, inci^ sj)iin'^. U is also l(»iiiid tiirti iis ti- lecls remain loj.fuf <'!» lln' land than niavl ; aiid alili«.iigh that w liicli is over-mailed is ii[)oilod for graits, y. i tliut iiover hiiupcns to m-.n mud. Skction XIV. 1. (jKiiKN Ciiui's AP Mamuic. — An lllilemlo fnrmor nskod, "Wjiy duco not :iiy ton aero lifl'i sinlc down, as I and my ancf)N- tors liavu takcu nioio than a huiidrcd cro|)s i'roni ii, without ever addin<^' a jiaitiidc ol' manure V flo was not aware lliat tho sub- stance o(' his crojiri, insloaii of b''ii)\vitH( oxperiment be poituruKHi : Procure a quautiiy id'pouniied glcss, wash it clean, put ilin a clean glass ve-ssei, aj.o j>lani in it grass seed or g'rain ; let il be elcvateht ofsevernl inches ; Olid the gla-:s will not be diminished in tho least. Il" ^\iy^ eA}>cri- mont, instead boJiig made ot* pounded glass were made wilh silex, alununo, and cariwnate of lime, in those proportions in which liiey exist when tiiey t'orm the most fertile soils, the i-esult Vv^ould bo tho same, it is triio, iliat in J)11 good soils there exists animal m.atter, the quantity of whitdi is .'lilbcted l)y the growth of jilants ; but these substances form but a small projiortion of the whole, and vegetable matter in soils is as likely to be increased as diminished by tho growth of id.v.nis. 4. it will thus tje perceived, tliat the j)ractice of enriching land by green crops, is in Uict noUiing else than ol.)tainiiig manure from the air and rain; — ihat plants ibrm a channel through which fer- tilizing su!)stances are conveyed to the soil, which are taken in by the leaves and pass through the stems to the roots. J). The roots of grass in good sward ground make a formidable •uoterranean foj-e^l in miniature, and it is asserted on respectable CANADIAN AORICL'LTL'RAL RKAOER. 107 :a lO authoiily, tl;nt nvuo tli.'in twolvo tons nrn tints mM' ' to tV.r» fcM'tili- zing proMoriif's ai' oycvy nvr(^ ui'.soil. \\ lion tiiorcforo tlio Irnvcs niui sl.Miis .'IS Wfll ;i.s tiiP n>(»!,-», nro nl-d ilins rppli 'i t'lo wIjoIo <]iiantii.v l»f'(.">ip.rs vorv Inriro. (.'i'(»|i>< ttiriird lor nrnn'^i', (-IkviM alwnvH I o in a given stnto, find novrr ripo funl «irv. !n f!io forinor CfiHC tliov I'orfnont nnd l)or'>nio til for stipporfing vc^jr'ntion ; in the \ni\ov tl.cy cnntiniK' iinroMnl (dn.'n f'T yrvirs. (i. (Uiwrr Its a l'\i(low i.rn]). — (.'Invfr (lilKfi's in sovornl rrs'^erffl from tlin ()t\\rv Dillnw cropx, nndon nfcotmi ol'ifs pp-ii' m* .'igfncicH in j)roparin'^ ujr'Minti lor otlifi* ciMps, it ni''iilsn (^i^tirK't ni:i p:irtii'' uirir con5iin. Sotnr rom.'irk^ on lUo "iMiliiy of d >v(yr ns nn iinpi'ovcM' oi'tlio si»il, nnl .-if. ri ki'; 1 of pjra.ss wliicli, lor .-^fv^'ml r^'n- «'>n.s, oiiuKt fo 1)0 !>pld in hipji cstinrUion. have nlroriHy l.-cpn niatk* in ' il \oii have a f|f»vpr tnondow, nnddrsiro !'• "HdIv it to O • 111. iho same uso, it niay bo allowed to j)iodiico i!s jjrs^, and it' you pl^asp. its .second croj) of clover and nlKT that, bo prepared lor wheat by simply tnniinijj over its tciultM' clover Inv. The roots of clover do not I' >rni stifl'swnrds, as do those rifother grnfjses;. Wbere clover jnjrows, the ground is alwnys loo^n, friable, and n;'-']!ow. It needs only to be turned over, nnd s igiiliy liarrower], to bo put in perlectly g')od order for anv crop. rt. Not only cm clover bo inaf'c to snpprs"^de Irdjoi "niis and ex- pensive tillfige, but it can be renderrd bitj^hly henelicird Ijolh to tlie a^dl and to the crop. It is supposed that liio rooisof (dovor, as they rot and undergo necomposilion, rnalce ilie very bc^t of loanurp. — It is supposed too, thnt the roois of ciovpr act tn-ch-Miic'illy upon the soil in loosening its texture,* and thus rendering il accessible to many known and unknown contrihuti'>ris from the atmosphere. 9, Hut it is n )t bv its roots al Mio that clovor is canablo of being rendered tributary to the soil. To singulrr advantaire its tops can bo applied to the same use. If your clover Held, wlii(di if^intp^ndcd to be prepared for a wheat crop, is supposed to be deii(dent in iho strength of its soil, and to need recruiting, then, if a p'.'turp, lot no stock graze upon it for several weeks next preceding the time when it is to be ploughed. L^t llie clover grow nnd b/ve time to produce a good green crop. Then, at the proper time, turn this crop under, and, as an improver bo; h of the soil and of the crop, it will be an equivalent to a good dressing of manure. If * I ^ > l J?' V •"1 r 1^' '' i^' t » "' i- 1.. V' i -m i 108 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. CHAPTER VI. Section I. 1. Farmlxg Capital. — The success and profits of farming de- pend very much upon tlie command of farming capital, and upon its judicious application. We have not now reference to that sys- tem of exhausting husbandry, — which has so seriously impoverished the old cultivated districts of our country, and which is fast impov- erishing those more recently brought under culture — but to the new system, which not only aims at the largest profits upon the outlay, but keeps in view the augmentation, or at least the preservation of Ihe natural fertility of the soil. 2. It is easier to preserve fertility, than to restore it to a soil which has become exhausted by injudicious CiOpping There are two prominent faults in Canadian farming — we cuiiivale too much land, for the capital employed — and in tiie second place, we do not take the right method of preserving fertility, by alternating cro[)8, and by blending cattle with tillage husbandry. The consequence of the first is, tliat non^ of the land is so well or profitably cultivated as it ought to be. y. By keeping a portion of our land under the plough, and almost wholly in grain crops — and another portion in 'natural' meadow, the profits of culture are constantly diminishing, and the land is ulti- mately ^worn out,'' while the deterioration is accelerated t>y the want of farm stock to convert the forage into manure, and the want of economy and judgment in saving and applying the little manure that is made. 4. To keep land in good heart, or to augment fertility, it is essen- tial, among other things, to consume the main products upon the farm, in order that the dung, which the farm stock makes, shall keep the land rich; that the land be well drained, that it may develope all its resources, which it can never do if water reposes either upon, or within oighteen inches of the surface ; — and that it be kept clean. All these matters, as farm stock, draining, and clear tillage, require labour and capital. 5. Instead, however, of laying out the profits of a farm to keep it good, or improve is condition, these profits are generally applied to the enlargement of its size, to speculation, or to some purpose foreign to the preservation of fertility, or to the improvement of the soil. The capital required for the profitable management of a farm, depends much upon the quality of the soil, thenature of the husbandry which is adopted upon it, and the state of the market. 6. It is a well established fact, that farm stock can be purchased iii CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADEIU 199 cheaper, and labour and every thing else had upon better termsH— for cash^ than on credit. And it is equally a self evident proposition, that he who ia obliged to sell the products of his farm, to moet cur- rent expenses, seldom obtains so fair a price, as he who can choose his time and his market for the sale of his produce. The farmer, therefore, who keeps the ready means in reserve, that he may buy and sell when it best suits his i;iterest, has a manifest advantage over him who buys upon a cvedit, and sells from necessity. 7. But it is principally in reference to the improvement of the farm^ and the consequent increase of the profits of the labour which is bestowed upon it, that farming capital is particularly desirable. If, by a moderate expenditure in making land rich, and dry, and clean, we can double its products, we effect a saving of one-half of our labour ; or, in other words, we obtain as much from the fifty improved acres, as we do from one hundred acres in the old way, and with half the labour. 8. As pertinent to this subject, we subjoin some extracts from iJritish Husbandry, persuaded that the remarks they contain apply 10 Canadian with almost as great force as they do to British 11 us- bandry. 'There is no mistake more common,' says our authority, *than that of supposing that the more land a man holds, the greater must be his profits ; for the profit does not arise from the land itself, but from the manner of using it ; the best soil may be made unpro- ductive by bad management, while the worst may be rendered pro- fitable by the opj. :)site course; hut without sufficient capital no land can be properly cultivated. 9. *There is nothing to which capital can be applied with greater certainty of a fair return for its liberal expenditure, when correct- ly employed, than land ; but on the other hand, :here is nothing more ruinous when the capital is either insufficient, or injudiciously laid out. In fact — assuming always that the expenditure be di- rected with judgment — it will be found that the profit upon the out- lay increaocs in more than a proportionate degree to its amount ; thus, supposing five pounds to be the lowest, and ten the highest sum that can be employed in the common culture of the same acre of land, it is more than probable that, if the five pounds return at the rate of ten per cent, the ten will yield twenty, or any interme- diate sum, at the same progressive ratio. 10. 'Now, admitting ihat to be true, — and it is presumed that no experienced agriculturist will doubt it — it follows that 1000/. ex- pended in 'he culiivaiion of 200 acres, will only yield a profit of 100/. ichile, if applied to no more than 100 acres, it would produce 200/. ; wherefore, although a farmer of limited capital may not be i'« I Jill !•■.■ % I i-' tM ■l., I . n 200 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ■ i ^«*i, la II "I (]riven to the extremity we hove supy)osf!d, (distress, duns and final )uin consecjoent upon (Iclicicncy of stork, i.nj)6Mibct tilinge and scjinty crops,) and {illhijugh he njay he ahle to carry on hi,-- l)usiiic'^;3 with a cei'M-iir- degree cm" advantage, it is yet evident tlial hh pr'jU vould Ic increased lij (lliahualting I he quanlihj of luruL 11. '[^!any a one has heen ruined hy a large larrn, u ho niii^'jt liuve acquired a ccnijietercy with one of half the tr^izc. it theiefore be- hoves a nirn to weigh well the ciiargcs with his means, arjd not allov/ himself to he scdu( e(i by any ideal prospect ot gain intotiie inipni- dence of enlering upon a hwger farm than his propei'ly will cnabio him to liianage with the spirit necessary to ensure success. 12. 'Alueli larger caidial than was formerly requisite has become indisperisalJe since tiic general adojUion of the ahernate system ofhushandry; [\n- the foundation of thai system, and of. 'ill good farming, is the support of more live stc^ck than was pojsibic when the land w:;s brought round to the reprG{hjction of grain l)y niGa.ns of repeated fallows, instead of green crops. 'x\\t v'luii'fcs being thus confined to tliose incidental to mere tillage, were compara- tively light; whereas, now, there are arable fai'ins witiiout an acre of pasture except p.erh.aps a paddock for cows, on which live stock is kej^t to an amount far beyond the sum rerjuired for cultivation. 13. 'Ikil the produce is proportionably large ; and more corn and meat arc obtained frou) inlei-ior soils in Norloik, and olher coun- ties where the same plan is pursued, than from some of the best land in the kingdom under less spirited nianageujcnt, it is quite jiianifest that the more cattle and sheep are well njaintained upou jtny given sjiace of gniund, the better it Will be manured; and thereiore, oftwofaruiers, each possessing the san^e quantity of laud, and devoting the same porticjn of it to grain, he who can support the most live stock, will not only realize the customary lirofits of that slock, but will rJso grow the most corn. 14. 'Excejit in situations where extraneous manure can bo !»rocured, it is only by the union of feeding and tillage, tliat land , Co therefore, more generally adopted — especially on poor soils — of laying down a considerble part to grass, there can be no doubt that, if again broken up, i*us productive powers would be found inqiroved, through the meliorating elTects of pasturage and rest ; and wlule the gross ])roduce would be thereby ultimately increased, it would so iur diminish tlie ex})enses of labor, as in many cases locountei'- balance the cost of the stocl*. 15. ''i'he farmer who has the means, as well as the discernment, to make sonio of the various brunches of grazing, or the dairy, an ^.sl CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 301 essential port of I business, ahd tlius nnrh-esa portion of his Kind, presGi'vud tlie til! i^;^ in constant lio.'u't with thi^ aiiiiiliojifvl rnnnure ; and altiiougi) the gross amount ol" coi'n proouceil u^ny be le.ct liio ncr(}ri,blo produce will cerlaii'Iv he crreater, and tho delicicncv will in »re tli:ui be made uj) by tho supply ol' choebe and butter, «i:u of flcsli. io. 'lie also divides his risli, so that, in the CNcnt < f.-iri unfavor- able hardest, the loss U|)(»n his crops will |)rob.':bly Ijo reinibursetl bv lliG profit (.11 Ijis entile. U is a connnon observation thnt grr.- ziers and d.'iiryincn nre the must regulnr rent payers ; to which it may bo ridiled, thai tlie bane of all necessitous farmers, and liie ruin of land, firo under-stocking vrA over-cropping. 17. ^Tli*> multitude ofcircuuistances to b,- consiiicred, — each in some degree varying u]u)n every iarm, and wi?!) overv fnrmer, — preclude the pos.^il)ility of forming any caiCLd:iii( n tiiiit would he precisely ap|)licai)le to every case ; but presuming tho land to be of medium quality, and uniier nn ordinary course ofrultivalion, tiio live s.ock to bn of a gO(;d description, and the implemf-nls new, the retpiisite amount cannot be computed at less than fr :;in 7/. to .10/. per acre 18. 'fjcss f)erhaps might do^ nnd in many oases no doubt is made Io do. An active, i.ntclligent man who watcher opportunities for |dcki;ig up bnrgru'ns (;f stock and imidempnts, who i.-.; m tolerable credit, and is ingenious in devising expedients to supply the want of cash, may contrive to get through . where one oi" less acuteness would fail.' .\ M Skction II. 1. Fat Animals and Lauc^k Crops. — The "profits of c rops, as well as of cattle, depend mairdy upon the return they make for tho food and labor bestowed upon them. The m:>n who grows a hundred busiiels of corn, or makes a hundred |)ounds of meat, with the same means and labor that his neighbor ercpcnds to obtain lifty bushels, or fifty pounds, hasamaniiC'st n:!vantag'^ ; and while the latter merely lives, tho former, il" prudent, miis' j^rnwrich. lie gains thee'itire value of the extra lifty bu-shcls, or ii;"i/ pounds. 2. Thii! sHsparity in the profits of agricultural kdj ■;• and exfion- diture is not a visionary speculation — it is matter ol' f;ifi, which is seen verified in a'inost every town. We see one fam.or raise 80 bushels of corn on an acre of land, with the same labor, but with more foresight in keepin.^ his land in good tilth, and ."enling bettor his crop, that his neighbor emj)loys upon an acre, and wdio does not get 40 or even 30 bushels. This diircrence results from tho manner of feeding and tending the crop. P 1 '. 1, • I, \ I '} ".' ! '1 '.' \A Hi h;[- til 'H! ;V-«5 ^ -$ '*i< '^%, £02 CANADIAN AORICULTUftAL R£ADRB« B;; mm' Ww' , ffin^' ImI^^ ' i ''■. u ir 8. If the farmer for the convenience of transportation to market wishes to convert his grain, and his forage, and his roots, and hia apples into beef and pork, what is his judicious course of proceed- ing ? Does he dole these out to his cattle and his hogs in stinted parcels, just sufficient to sustain life or to keep them in ordinary plight? No. lie knows thata givenquantity of food is necessary to keep them as they are, and that the more, beyond this given quan- tity, which they can transform into meat, and the sooner they do il, the greater the profit. 4. To illustrate our remark : suppose a hog requires twenty bushels of grain to keep him in plight for two years, and that he can manufacture fifteen bushels of this grain into pork in six months, if duly prepared and fed to him. In the one case, the owner has his lean hog at the end of the two years, {"or his twenty bushels of grain ; in the other, he has converted fifteen bushels of this grain into pork — into m^ney — at the end of six months, saved the keep of the hog for eighteen months, and twice or thrice turned his capital to profit. Time is money, in these as in all other things appertaining to the farm. 6. The proposition may be thus stated — that which will barely keep a hog two years, w'lW fatten him well in six months. There- fore, the sooner we can convert our grain and forage into meat, with due regard to the health of the animal, and the true economy of food, the greater will be the profits which accrfcw. The remark applies to miik as well as to meat. These facts teach us, to keep no more stock than we can keep well ; and that one animal, kept icell is more profit than two animals that are but half fed. 6. If we apply these rules to our crops, they instruct us to till no more land than we can till well and to plant an^ sow no morfi than we can feed well ; for the fact must not be lost sight of, that our crops, like our cattle, live and fatten upon vegetable matters. One hundred bushels of corn, or four hundred bushels of potatoes, may be grown upon four acres of land badly tended ; and this is probably about a fair average of these crops ; while the same amount of corn or potatoes may be grown on one acre, if the crop is well fed and tended. 7. The product being the same from the one acre as from the four acres, and the expense but a trifle, if any, more than one quarter as much, it results, that if the crop on the four acres pays for labor and charges, three-fourths of the crop on the one acre is nett gain to the cultivator. Estimating the charges at $25 the acre, the price of corn at $1, and potatoes at 35 cts. the well culti- vated acre affords a profit, over and above the charges, of #75 — CANADIAN AORIGULTUKAL &8ADKR« 308 !!• ■ while the crop on the four acres gives not a cent of profit, but merely pays the charges upon it. 8. Though not in this degree, the same disparity exists in all tlie operations of husbandry ; and the primary cause of difference consists in feeding well, or feeding ill, the crops, as well as the cattle which are the source of the farmer's profit. Let us continue the analogy a little farther. Every one knows, thai to have good cattle it is necessary not onlv to have an abundance of food, but that much, in thy economy i^f the fattening process, depends upon having it of suitable quality, and properly fed out. The grasses should' be sweet and nuiriiious, the hay well cured, and the grain and roots broken or cooked. 9. The man who should leave his cattle food exposed to waste till it had lost half of its value, would hardly merit the name of farmer. Every one would say, thai man is going down kill. Cattle nay they, must eat, and if wedont feed them, they will give us nei- ther meat, milk nor wool. And so must plants eat — they have mouths, and elaborating processes, and transform dung into grain, roots and herbage, with as much certainty and |)rolit, as cattle convert grain Into meat, milk, &c. Hence the farmer who disre- gards dung, or suilers it to waste in his yards, is as reckless of his true interest as he would be to neglect or waste his grain, hay and roots. 10. Dung is the basis of all good husbandry. Dung feeds thi crops; crops jeed the call le ; cattle make dung. I'his is truly the farmer's endless chain. Not a link of it should be broken, or be suffered to corrode, by indolence or want of use. Once broken and the power it imparts is lost. Preserved, and kept bright by use, it becomes changed into gold. It is to the farmer the true philoso- pher's stone. The man who wastes the means of perpetuating fer- tility in his soil, may be likened to the unfortunate sons of opulence who waste, in habits of indolence and dissipation, the hard-earoed patrimony of their fathers. ?: t -.■i\ w i ui ■ ■ . %■"■■■■ ill Section III. 1. Arrangement op Agricultural Labor. — To conduct an extensive farm well, is not a matter of trivial moment, or to the management of which every one is competent. Much may be effected by capital, skill, and industry ; but even these will not always insure success, without judicious management. With it, a farm furnishes an uninterrupted succession of useful labor, during all the seasons of the year ; and the most is made that circumstan- oed will admit of, by regularly employing the laboring persons and t J 204 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. !li 5) ; cattle ot suoh kinrls of work as nre likc^ly to l»e most profitable, ll^ndor «ucli a sy.stoin, it is hnrdly to be credited how liitie time is lost cither of tho men or horses, in the course of a vholc year. This is a gront objoct. 2. Ah the foundation of a proper arranr^ouK'nl, it ir; nncossary to have a pl-m of ;i farm, or at least a list nf ilm (i:>! ^ or parcels of land into wliich it is divided, doscribing fii 'ir [)!M)'Mu'tive (^vtcnt, the quality of t!ie soil, the precnding crops, the ci)!iiv.'iti')ri given to each, and t!io species and quantity of in-ninro t'un- hnve severally received. The future treatment of ertf-h lield for a ;Mi(;ces-iion of years mriythen be resolved on, with mor? prob-ihilitv of success. Ji. ^Vilh the assistance of such a st-iremont ovei-v ;iiUumn, fin arrangement of cro[)s ibr the ensuing vor.r ou'^jit lo ho jnade out, classing the fields or pieces of land according to tho purposes for wnich rliey are respectively intenderl. The n!mi!>ei'<,)rncre.s allotted for arable land, meadiw, or pasture, will tl.'eri be ascei-tainod. It will not thou be dilBcult to anticipate, what numb'^r of horses and laborers will be required during tlie season for th'^ finl i,-, in culture, nor the live stock that will be necessary f )r the p-istin-o find. 'J'he works of summer and harvest will likewise be forGsecji. and proper hands engaged in duo time to perform them. 4. As nothi]]g contributes more to facility and salisffiction in busine:^s, ihnn to prepare for what must bo dorje, a fanner should have constantly in view a judicious relation of crops, recording to the nature and quality of his soil, and should arr-in':^? thfi quantity and succession of labor accordingly. Team labor, wh'-'W frost and bad weather do not intervene, should be arrang-.'d for some months, and hand labor for some weeks, according to the season of tiie year. '*A general memorandum list of business to bo done," is therefore essential, that nothing may escnpe the memorv, an i the most r&. quisite work may be brought forward first, if suitable to the state of the wen til er. T). The followiniir rules, connected with the arrnnn-rmrnt and sue- cessful m-magement of a farm, are particiiiaviv 1o i;e recommend- ed^ : — Fi.sihi^ The farmer ought to rise eaily, and see thar, others do so. In the winter season, breakfast should be taken by candle light, for hy this means an hour is gainel, w'lii.di many farmers indolently lose, though six hours in a week is nonrlv equal to the working part of a winter day. This is a material object, where a number of persons aie employed. It is also particul.-.rly necessary lor farmers to insist on the punctual performance of their orders. 6. Secondly^ The whole farm should be regain rly inspected; and not only every field examined , but every beast seen, at least CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 20ft once a day, eitlier by the occupier or some intelligent pcrs-on. — Thirdly, In u consulerublo laru), it is of the utiao:st consequence to have hiboreio sicciaily approiiriated for each of the most important (iepartments rming it imj)ropcrly, 8. Fiftliljj, ^A'ery means should be thought of to diminish labor, or to increase its power. For instance: by proper arrangement, five horses may do as much lai)or as six j)eri*urm according to the usual mode of employing them. VV hen driving dung from the farm yard, three carts may be used, one always fiiimg in the yard, ano- ther going to the yard, and a third returning; the leading horse of the empty cart ought ll;en to bo unyoked, and put io tiie tull one. In the same manner, while one pair of horses are prr>paring the laijd f)r sowing turnips, tiie oiiier three liorses may be employ (^d in carrying dimg 10 the land, either with two or three carts, as the situation of the ground may happen to require. By extending the same management to o'^^her farm operations, a considerable saving of labor may be effected. 9. Sixthly, A farmer ought never to engage in a work, whether of ordinary prncti.,'e or intended improvement, without previously giving it the best consideration of which he is capable, and being satisfied that it is advisable for him to attempt it ; but when begun, he ought to proceed vvitii it witli much attention and perseverance, until he has given it a fair trial. Scoenl/ily, it is a main object in carrying on, improvements, not to attempt too much at once ; and never to begin a work without a probability of being able to finish it in due season. ... I] I' I ; -« ■ ,, 'ii„ - - : I I. *'J 2()6 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 10. Ldslh/, Every furmor should liavc a book for inserting all those useful hints which are so fre(jucnlly occurring inconvcrsati(jn, in books, or in the j)ractical man.-igoment of a farm. ij0t)so pieces of paper are aj)t to be mislaid or lost ; and when a man wishes to avail himself of these for examining a subject previously investiga- ted and discussed, hn loses more time in searching for the memor- andum, than wuuld bo sufficient for making half a dozen now ones. Hut if such matters are entered in a hook, and if that book has a table of contents, or an index, he can always find what he wants, and his knowledge will be in a progressive state of improvement, and lie will thus be enabled to derive advantage from his former ideas and experience. 11. liy the adoption of these rules, any farmer will be master of his time, so that every thing required to be done will be perform- ed at the proper moment, and not delayed till the season and oppor- tunity have been lost. The impediments arising from bad weather, sick men, or occasional or necessary absence, will in that case be of little consequence, nor embarrass the operations to be carried on ; and the occasion will not j)revent duo attention to even the smallest concerns connected with his business, on the aggregate of which his prosperity depends. Section IV. 1. Farm Implements and Labor-saving Machines. — As far- mers generally have more leisure at the present season (February) than at any oiher time of the year, we would recommend to their attention procuring and repairing such farming implements as they may need for use during the ensuing season. Ploughs, harrows, rakes, hoes, shovels, forks, carts, hay racks, scythes, cradles, and many other things, should be examined and put in order ; and if there is a probability of there not being a sufficient number for per- forming conveniently the required wojk, it will be proper to procure additional ones to sii[)ply thedeliciency. 2. We do not wish to advocate a lavish waste of money in buy- ing what would be unnecessary, but to direct the attention of farmers to the importance of always having at hand a sufficient number of tools. It is no evidence of economy to save a few shillings by refraining from the purchase of a rake or a hoe, and afterwards lose a day's work or more, in a hurrying season, in consequence of the deficiency thus occasioned. Neither is it a proof of economy to purchase the cheapest implements only. 3. The cheapest are generally the worst made, and are either weak or clumsy. We have known active men to waste nearly luUf their slrengih in using such — in performing, day after day, nut CANADIAN AORICULTIJBAL RKADER. 'iC7 I more than tv.-o-tliirds of the hibor thoy might liavo d;)no, ha;! thoy u-si'd siroiig, in'.'it, fiiul well inndc tools. As it is inipossihlo to work wilhoul. tooJs, so it is imjjossiblo to do work well Miid expeditiously, without u;ood \.o Aa. 4. Another important suljoct, is that of labor-saving imploinonta and machines. There is one groat advantage in these, which ia generally overlooked. By enabling the farmer to despatch his business, his work is more completely under his control ; and he ia enabled to guard against loss or damage which might be the conse- quence of more protracted operations. 5. Thus, for instance, in using the horse rake, he is not only enabled to accomplish the same work ^ith one quarter of the ex- pense he would otiierwise have to employ ; but by enabling him to perform it so much more expeditiously, he can take advaninge of the weather, and have many acres of hay upon the ground without the danger of iiaving it spoiled by rain ; as the speed with which he may collect it with a horse rake, enables him to anticipate wet weather. 6. Thus, independently ot the immediate amount of labor it saves, it })revenls the troublesome operation of drying wet hay, after it has once before becojno fit for the mow or slack. Again, by the uye of the planting or di'illing machine, one man is enalded to do the work of several ; this is one item of saving ; but in addition to this, it very often happens that a crop may be planted with it during a favorable season, and while the ground is in the best possible con- dition ; while, without it, tiie work might be protracted till the ground is rendered unfit by heavy rains ; and a loss of many bush- els to the acre sometimes arises from crops being plantcc out of season. 7. A vast amount of labor might be saved by employing a mod- erate share of thought and contrivance in constructing or procuring, and arranging, some of the simpler and more common kinds of labor-saving machinery. Thrashing machines have become very common, and many are connected with a portable horse power, which may be separated|from the machine and applied to other purposes This may be easily, and it sometimes is, attached to a circular saw, (the cost of which is comparatively small,) and the expensive and laborious operation of sawing wood by hand, is ren- dered expeditious and easy. 8. It may also with a little contrivance, be made to work a straw- cutting machine, a turnip and potato slirer, a cor.i sheller and other Bimilar machines, which are commonly worked by hand ; and this may be frequently done while it is driving a thrashing machine, or ( '» lli • * r i I I ' •^ I ';i: i «08 CANADIAN AGRICULTL'HAL KKADKR. ^ (I 5?^ ', < '1 .ii .■n :f K't ill performing,' otiior work. We have known a frinnirif:^ mill to bn con- nected wilii il, .'luil worked by it, tlio !lira;s!ii?i<5 m-'iciiiuc being sitii- ati'd on a fkjor rdjovp, so tbut tbo wbeat t'cll direcfly iVoni it inio the iioi)[)or ol'lbo tiuiiiiii!^ mil!, a;i(l pns.scd out rcniy for ir)'irko'.. V). Wo bavo filoo h(nird ofa p.'iir of buhi'-ytones |'bicr\] in a bnr:i, \viiicb c^'Uid bo driven by the liorse power of a tbrnsiiitig niacbine, and u.sod lor grindini;- fo'xl for dome^stic animals. \]y a little iittcn- tion and thinkifi'^-, nmnbr-rlc^s sirnikir conveniences mav bo dnvLscd. improvro econofu'cal than dry. •2. We think the present season one most admirably adapted to cure such an error as we conceive tins o[)inion to be ; and now while the farm^'r is suilbring with cold Hn go rs from his green wood fire, and he is in good earnest lamenting the leanness of lii5 wood yard, wo v/ould ro^Miesi himcand'ialy to review the whole sub- ject, and ask himself whether he had not better desert a position wdjich both sound theory and daily experience show is no longer IcnaLde. .'}. The direct e.\]ieriii;cnt.^ of Dr. IJlack on fuel, and the lafr 0!ies of Count. Mumfordon the best mode of producing and econ.> itnsing heat, have, in conjunction with the labors of others demon- si rated the very great loss those siK^tain who use unseasoned wood lor the purpose «if lutil. Making an estimate of the vario'>s kinds of greenwood, hard and soft together, and of the same wood wbion thoroiighl}' seasoned by exposure to the air, the dilfer- ence is found to be ecjual to at least one third ot the whole ; and it' dried at a temperature of 100, tho ditforence will exceed this pro- portion. 4. Green wood, therefore, "contains at least one tiurd its welglit of water, and allowing a cord of such wood to weigh three thousand pounds, there will be one ton of wood and a Haifa ton of water in every cord. That the wood will not burn so long as this water mi CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RBADKB* 209 led I tie |er- Liid in prosnnt In iho wood, all will admit ; it must tliorcfore be evaporn- led or driven oll'lri tlio form of steum ; or in otluM* words culoric' or hnat on()u^,di from oilier sources must bo comMneiJ with tho water t<» ImII away half a ton, or about 1-0 firfiljons ; and as thi» heiit tni'>.l jj.i-^sos otl'lri a lalout slato, n» pi ».s5iibio benefit is deriv» eJ tV'»m •«) grc.tt a wnste. A. 'J'iio amount ul' dry fuel nocossary to prrorm this opprntion^ of boiliu;5 away l,.-ill'.t. l)ii i)\ w:iinr, ev«'ry farmor can e^limato lor liimsf'h"; and wo tiiink no oii'! rjiu nvoid si;; iiia that whatcvrr this w iv 1)0, it is a Ujt.-il loss to hiiusoh". ii is true, ris mriny pr^uo that tho ooasamj.lif'n of a groen stick (.»rwi)Oilis loss rr'pid than that of a dry (v.ic ; but such forget, it sconis, that a nnich Inrgcr <|nanli!y iiiu.-.r. bo cum.si uitl v kept on tho ii-e to pmduco the sanio degree (^fii'.i.'it ; and that 'i.Jtil tiie grrsBii wocid hns absorbed t'roni otiier s'.>ur:jes suiiioioiit boat to expel the wiicr wiiii Miiich it is charg.ii, the Jirc is dull an*! the leal feeble ; there is abundance of siiiolv'e, but coinbui!.i(Mi goes on slowly or not at all. 0. Sitico the fact of the (lilloreiute betwo ii llm weight of dry and green wood ad slated .nbovc is indi.^putab!.', we think that those who have eou'iidorable Mii.intities of wood to move would do well to, bear it in mind, as l)y airenrjiiig to this circumstance, a very great. diininu;:)u in the amoui. of iat)or ro.[uirei may be imde ; and tho sti'ikin^ oifiho transportation of thirty-iliroo <.ons in one hun- dred, all will a,::"rt!e is no trifling o.llair. 'i\j labor is honoiable ; but it is limo our farmers should learn that lo expend it needlessly is nut p roll table. SECTION VI. 1. Canada Thistles. — Salt will desiroy Canndathisues. It will' dotlus by it^ own direct ago'icy, and a'so by an agency thnt in . indirect. It i-'-, 1 bebcve, generally known, that salt a;)plied in ; considorabL' (|uanlilics to the roots oi' vegetables will destroy their • life. 1 h'lve never known it to t'ail in doing this except inaf-ase . ot horse radish in my gard(3n, when 1 attempted, btit without suc- cess, to kill it, by the ap{)lic?ition of strong brine. 2. When Canada thi.stlos exist only in small |i.t,tohos, tins will: be an easy and expeditious way of getting rid of them. The pro- cess is vory simple ; first to cut olT the tnistles a little below the surface of the ground and then apply to the stem of each root a . small quantity of salt. A quantity less than a table spoon full will, I think, be sutficient. Strong brine will answer die same pur- pose. No matter by what philosoi)hical principles of action it is t done, the tact is ascertained that salt applied in the manner here ? suggested, will inflict upon tho root a mortal distemper. .i 14 **•• 'i m 1 i Hi \'- tio CANADIAN AOEIGULTUBAL »iAPB»« u Re sK • ^, I have frequnntly destroyed thistles hy salt nnd by brino, ap- plied in this way, tho roHults in both cases being the same. Care, howovor, nriust bo tMkcn when salt is used for tliis purposo, that no Hiock oi'anv Ivind run in iliu field at tlio tiino. 1 salfod in on«Mlav, and vvilh onliro unil'orniity, throe patches of Canada thistjfs, two ol which wctro in one Hold, tho other in a field adjacent. The ex- poi'imenl, as to the two first tnontionrd patches, was completely sue- cosslul, as to iho other, it was an entire failure. 4. At lir.st this .sceu)cd to involve Fornething of jnystery ; but the mystery was soon solved, by the eonsiderfifion th;'.i .sheep wore running in tiie Hold where the experiment failed, while there was no slock in the other. The shce[) hnd found the salt and licked ii up ijcforo there had been time for it to perform itsinteu;!cd func* tiuiis. ,5. Salt, when used to destroy thistles by it"* in(iircct pgcncy, v:^ ap- plied to ihom in small ([U'lntilies, to induce shc-p, cattlo and otlnsr stack to feed upon tiictn. It may he used to advantr^go on a scale much larger than wlien its direct ngoncy is relied upon, in many cases, this is an easy and ex[)editious method of concpierir.g t!iistles, there being no dilllculty in achieving the conquc:;t in tho course of a season. Tiie proce;-;s i:-; ns follows, viz : if the thistlc.s have uc- quir':d a considerable growth, they should bo cut close with a scythe some dnys beiore the baiting process is to corr.nicnce. G. Tlio object of thi.s is to give an op|)Ortunity of sciiding out young sl#)oi8, and clothing themselves with tenderer ^\'qs\\ Icliago. Salt IS then to be strewed on, in quantities sulHcient oniy to render the thistles palatable to the animals that are to feed upon them. — The [irocess of salting is to be f''equently repeated, special care being taken not to a{)|dy salt s<> freely as to glut with ti'nt article tho appeliles of the animals. Whatever stock ma}- !)e put to this use, it must be kept all tho while in a condition to be hunkering for salt. V. Tills being the case, the animals will feed upon the thistles dady, and suilicienliy to keep them entirely deprived oftlieir loliage. Tho thistles, pressed in this manner, will in a little tiino !)e under the necessity of capitulating. It is, I believe, geni-'rally known, that but iew vegetables if any can retain life for any considerable lime, if, during the season of vegetation, they are kept continually deprived of their foliage. 8. Several experiments tried by myself to destroy Canada this- tles by the means now suggested, have produced the most satistac- tory results. In no case have I experienced failure. Here, then, is proseuted to the farmer, who may have the misfortune to possess CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RBADBl. 211 parcels oflliP Canada tliistlos, a cli*^ap and expnditious niothod of gntling rid «)('l!join. This process ne<'J not, lis when tho diroct agency of salt is relied iii on, bo CMiilincd to small j)at(:hes ; but it niuy be applieii lo (vtnsidi.-rablo establislmi^'nts. S). The larinor who keeps a large si.iek, say two or three hun- dred slicrp, and other .stock in proportion, niii^hl ijy tiio inelhod now propoisiii, d.'stroy in <>no .season the Ihisilus ot" an extenMivo hold, althougn ii, were over-run with ihein. '] he lid i to be ihiis opera- oj upon, M!i>r!,i for the seas(»n bo set apart as the salfii'g pla«'o tor all the stock on the farm, anti tho whole stock iVoin ti'nc to time be gatlicrcd intoiiLo receive ih<'ir |M»rtion of salt, n:.u Lo gra/o in tl)0 tield. 10. 'i'liis is t!ie vision ol' my own mind. I hrivo not done it, nor seen it done, neither have I henrd of its having bocn done, ynt, ] h.'ivo r.H t^■,u!)t tiial by the u.so of such mi ans, h.ivock tuiuhl l)0 made amoDg Canada tlu.stles. From the lights ('d', tlm results of which upi'o their entire conqeest the saiiU! hca^on. 11. It has been repeatcdiv announced that thi^.i!es may l)0 des- tro\ rd by cuttin<'- thorn ;it th(^ time when tliev are in blossom, iust before n :ihtvuer. I have nev^r availed li.y.'xif of an o|;|)oitunity to test tills by ex[)eriment. Yet I think cotisider.-.hle coniissom, and then gave them an ar- tificial shower by sj?.<' ink ling water up(m dmvn, to assist in extract- ing the root. 13. In July last, I commencerl on a patch of Cnnada thistles which liad recentlv appeared on mv premises, an experiment not before tried by m\s(df, nor by others within my knowledge. It was cutting them olF with a long bladed grubbing hoe several inches below tiio surface of the ground, and then settling tho ground in a compact form about them; by giving a few blows with ■I t'i I -I » I ffS tl3 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER* the heel of the hoe. But few, perhaps none, that were so treated have re-appeared. The prospect is that the experiment will result favorably. 1 think it quite likely that, when Canada thisllosgrow on sliir ground, or ground that is clayey, tiiey may be destroyed in this way very expeditiously. Skction VII. 1, Faiimf.r a. wiio WORKS IT WRON(J. — The worlil is n world of contrasts, and in no [»art('f it are more striking ones r.xhiLilcd ihan exist among (nrnicrs. I^'cme seem to i)e ivaM'C cumbeiers of the earth, ann ini| art thrir dull, half animaied aspect to everything around llioin ; there are oiiiers who setni to in'i'inrt giai^ncss and freshnr-s wherever tliev move. One bclonftinj^ to the lii.st class lately iVll under my notice, and h's portr-iit mjiy 1)0 given ns the rei)resciiti'itivo of much too Inrgc a class oi'men asix-ng i;--. i f;holl ca.ll him f;!!')ner A. Travelling is to me a kind of penance; but it froquontly places one in situations, and anicnq loople, fnvorable for obsorw'ilion ) and a inrmer myself, and deeply inlci'estcd in every thing ilmt relates to tlieir prosj)eriiy, iliLii- businetis and their prosperity nuiurally engross my lirst atLcntion. 2. 1 liiid been directed to Air. A. as an indi\ii!inl wli;> wished to dispose of Ins fai'm, and circuinsianc.\s rendered it nec(";-.^.'iry to re- main wit.li him through the night. The first asprctof iho p/remisea was gl(.:»:iiy ijid forbidding enough. The "shingled p.'d.'ice," as foreigners delight to call our extravngant two-story wooden houses, had been pitl U[) three years before, yet it exhibited icw indications that it woiild ever be fmished. The windows were " irlazed with boards," on;^ or two excepted, in which a single sash containt-d a few pnne.-. of glass. '^. There were in the rear of the house a few scattering, sorry looking, scrubuy trees stnnding, the remains of an orcliard planted by a former proprietor ; and 1 observed some dozen or so of coarse woolled, wild looking sheop, gently browsing on a row of currant bushes, iliat from thoir diminutive size and stunted appearance, looked ihi though they were accustomed to a similar oi)eration, while a sirnggler or two had commenced pruning the only plum tree visible un the premises. 4. Tiiere was what was called a barn and sheds on the farm, but a horse was standing with his head poked through an opening made by a fallen otrb(»ard, and which board lay half covered and rotting in the dung, the sharp nails sticking up ready to pierce the foot of man or beast ; and half the roof of one of the sheds had fallen in from sheer neglect in securing the rafters properly. JNot an orna. ,. ^ CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 213 ith a rv rse int but de g In in mental tree of any kind was near the house ; not a fence was dis- cernible except the ghosts of some rail fences; and a dreary com- munity of desolation seemed equally to ])erva'Je every j)art. 5. Far:ner A. came originally from "down east," but his long absence from that part of the country, added to the circumstances in whicli he had })L'iced himself, and his ricipiirod habits, iiad left in him but few traces of the character ihat usually marks the provi- dent and iiit/lligent New-binglander. Five times since his mar- riage bad he moved, and though he had lived longer where he then was th'iM in any olhor place, it b.eing nearly ten years, he was then anxious and preparing to pull up stakes and depart lo Michi- gan or illinni^^. lli.s farm was naturally an excellent one, well watered and timborc;!, and precisely that kind of soil that makes the he u'l of the wheat grower rejoice, but its whole surface bore sad marks ot" neglect and improvi.Jent husbamhy. 6. Farmer A. was not at homo wlicn I arrived, but his wife was present. tShc was undoubtedly once a good looking, amiable wo- man, but care and negloct had made serious inroads U[)on her con- stitution, and, as is too often the caf^'O, somewhat tried and deranged the cijuanimity of her temper. liVery one knows, however, that there are men witli whom no woman, unless possessedof more than the patience of Jol), could live with any degree of peace or comfort ; and it is no more tlian fiir to infer that Mr. A. was precisely one of these men. Two or three large awkward girls, and some half a dozen boys, none of them looking remarkably neat or intelligent, made U|> the family. 7. Soon afler tiie family had taken supper, farmer A. came home, and a single glance at him sliowed, what indeed his farm had sufficiently indicated before, that he was a devout and not unfre- (juent wors!)ipper at the shrine of Bacidius, and that great as the triumj)hs of temjierance have been, ihcy had not as yet reached him. Mr. A. had hardly iinished his supper, when he began to complain of the hardness of the times, and the great dilficulty he found in su-pporting his numerous family ; addiufj:, he believed h"^ must sell out and go to the west, whore he could get more land, and live without so much hard work ; a reason, by the by, very fre- quently usn 1, yet but little understood, 8. Wishing to draw him into a little deta.il of his farming man. ngement, I inquired how much land he then owned, lie replied, *'a little more than two hundred acres." "And how much have you cleared ?" '• Perhaps two-thirds of the whole," he said. "Your land has every indication of fine wheat land, and with so much in cultivation, your wheat crop this year must have been ..I I '-id •3 i K ^1 '■M H ' I ■ ■ i .A 214 CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL READER* . .-fl! ' / heavy, and with such prices as wheat commands, farmers should not com|)lain of hard times." 9. " ]\fy land is good enough," he answered, " but this year I was unlucky in my wheat. 1 did not sow it till quite late ; my seed had some chess in it ; the fence around the fields was rather low ; my catlle and horses would get into them in spite of me j where they nibbled it off the wheat turned to chess, and at harvest I had but IJrilo mure than enough to svij)ply my family." "But part of your farm is first rate corn land ; pcrhrtps your loss in wher't was made up in your corn, and that you know is worth seventy-live cents a bushel." 10. " No, there again my dish was bottom upwards," — " I think it always is," said his wife in a soUo voce tone, calculated to reach me hovvover vlistinctly, but he did not notice the interi'uption, — " i had a dozen pigs nnd atlor my corn had been up a week and looked well, ihat lazy loul," pointing to his eldest son, "whom I had ordered to walch the field, let the pigs lie in it a week, and they destroyed it, I'oot and branch. It was too late to replant, and if 1 had done iliat, the frost would have prevented my having more than half a crop ; so you see 1 have not a bushel ol corn this year." 11. " But your potatoes V " My potatoes, with the exception of a few that were injured by the pigs, were passable ; but after they wei-e dug and placed in heaps, and while i was waiting to get time to cover them, the boys let the cows get to them, v/here they eat till one of them was choked to death, and she must stroll oif and die where we did not find her till the hogs had torn hei", skin and nil, to pieces." 12. "Do you have much of a dairy *?" I inquired. " No — there is but little profit in making butter and cheese, tl.ougn some of my neighbors thiidv oilferently. My boys and girls don't love to milk, so you see the cows, if I liad them, would quickly dry up, and the whole concei'n be good lor nothing. I am convinced, as 1 told you before, that this is no place for me ; I must go to the west." 13. While I was conversing with their father, the girls sat staring at us, and doing noihiiig, while I perceived that two or three of the boys had got into a corner, and were amusing themselves with a greasy and evidently much used pack of cards. As the evening was quite cool, one of the boys was ordered by the father to get some wood. " There aint a single stick," answered the bov, with- out turning his head from his play. " Where's that load of rails you got yesterday morning '?" " Every stick is burnt, and mother picked up wood this afternoon for a fire,'* responded the urchin. n CANADUN AGRICULTURAL READER. 210 get lith- an. ' " Well, you young dog, give us none of your jaw ; but go and buck a rail, and cut it up quick, and let us have some fire." 14. The rail was brought, cut up, a,nd before leu o'clock we had seen the last of it ; nor was ii longer a mystery how the house came to stand in an unonclosed common. IJe had burnt the rails, be- cause he had ratiier be at the tavern than getting wood, antl because he was going to MicJn'gan. The want of rails had made his crea- tures unruly, and caused the destructi,, and if I could convoy to my readers but a small degree of the j)lcasure, whicU a sight of what industry and good order can accomplish h;is allorded me in the remembrance of the incidents, 1 should feel mvself ampiv rewarded. 2. Mr. B. took care to secure a farm containina; as manv natural advant.'iges as {possible, though in this respect I thiidv his farm wa-* inferior to that of farmer A. When he had made his choice, however, he considered it as made for life, and immediate y set himself at work to effect a thorough and permanent arrangement of his pre* mises, previous to the course of improvement he intended to adopt. A largo farm and great wealth formed no part of his plans — a farm of ordinary size, contentment and competence, were trio extent of his ambition, and these things he speedily accomplished. 3. Tarmer B.'s hous,. is one of the most periect specimens of that picture of rural neatness, elegance and comfort, an English cottage, thfit I have seen in this counlry. Standing at a little dis- tance from the public highway, unassuming in its altimde and di- mensions, embowered in trees, and half hidden in vines and shrub- bery, it seems as you approach it the chosen reireat of farming taate • f- -V 11 .^iV 216 CANADIAN AOKlCliiTtTkAL ki^ADCE and comfort. The neatly painted pickets ofthe different enclosures were as firm and perfect as if put on but yesterday. 4. The gates to the different avenues were ready for use without creaking or grating. Tlie avenues tliemselvos wore well gravelled, hard and clean — the grass was cut close, and free iroin all dirt or rubbish, and it Was evident the work done here had not been in- juriously subtracted from l<'i!)or rcquirrd e'sowiiore ; cvrry thing had been done in order ar;d in lime, and a glrmcc showed that the whole secret consisted in these two words— giood man?!grment. — On entering t!ic liousc, as might have been evpccted, the Kams order nnd neatness was found pervading every spot. 5. Mrs. 1), was a middle aged, sensible woman, a good f-irmer's wife, without the least elFort at display or ostentntion, l;ut greeting the stranger vvitli a v.-clcome and frankness thfit gnvo rirditional value to whatever oMigntion she conferred. Two daughters, the one eight, and the other perhrsps fitleen, with tlieir n.ofhcr, con- stituted the female part ofthe fiunily. 1 know of no sicht on earth to me more pleasing, or so conducive of delightful emotions, as a beautii'id little girl, such ns the playful Mary 1). 6. They ai'e the rosebuds of human nature, — j-.ure themselves, and ignorant of wrong in others, they only delight in seeing others happy, — overflowing with aflection which they have not yet learn- ed to hor^.rd for a single favored individual, and unacquainted with those deeper and mysterious influences which startle the young girl, and mantle her cheek with blushes, when she first acknow- ledges their existence and power ; there is a fearles;-ncss and frankness about the innocent creatures, difficult to retain in after life, but which, when combined with purity of heart, form the great charm of female character. 7. Farmer B. was at home when I arrived, and as we walked over his well managed farm, he seemed to feel a rational pleasure in recoiiiiiing the steps by which he harl brought it to such a state of fertility and productiveness, and of which ample proof was found in the fact, that he had that day received six hundred dollars for a crop of wheat grown on twenty acres. Two of his eldest sons were at work in the field, the youngest being at school ; Mr. B. remark- ing, that as he intended his children for farmers, or the wives of farmers, they were kept at school until they were able to aid in the business ofthe farm, the girls by assisting their mother, and the boys in the field, when the summer schooling wasdiscontinued, but resumed in the winter, or at an academy, as long as was desira- ble — it being his opinion, that a due regard to health, and an ample ac- quaintance with the operations of husbandry, demanded that course. CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL RKADKR. aif ■e e d a e )f n d 8. Mr. B. said he was a strict utilitarian, and while he submitted OS useful to his children, and required in their course of studies, much that others would consider as unnecessary, he would not allow them to consume their time upon courses piirelv ornamental, and for which in all probability they would find liltlo or no use in their after sphere of active life. Fanner B. was not a visionary or enthusiast in farming ; but ho loved experiment, nnd never re- jected a |)roposition because it was new — it was cnougii that it commondcd itself to his i-eason, and was able to lie.tr the close and rigid scrutiny to which he was accustomed to submit all farming speoul-i.'jon^. 9. There are fewjiassages in life more doliglit Ail tlian an evening spent in such a Ounily. ln!elIi^j;oiit, amiable, and unrtubcted in their manners, their cheerful courtesy makes one feel at home, and places him at once on one of tliose green islands that are here and there found in the needlessly broad desert of liuma.n life. In the room to w'nich wo were iutroducod for tlie eveniiig, were a fire, lamp-;, sofa, car[)ct, chairs, and what 1 particularly noticed, a table on which lay one or two of the latest newspapers, u m/vgazino or review, and an agriculural journal of established celobritv. 10. There was an assortment of books, not largr>, but well se- lected, consisting of voyages, travels, history, and a number of the- ological volumes, with one of the popular commentators on the Bible. The family was soon grouped around, and all even to little Mary, were busy, the boys with their books, the girls with their sewmof. o 11. " You will excuse us," said Mr. B. to me, "but wo have i'l our family long since adopted a practice which we do not like to relinquish : for one hour in the evening, after the usual labors of the day are closed, sonie one of us, and we intend V) do it in rota- tion, reads aloud for the benefit of the others, and ns we have just received a work more than usually interesting, my children would teel deprived of a privilege were this custom omitted this even- ing." 12. I of course begged I m.ight not be a hindrance to their happi- ness, and young Mcllen, the second son, a lad of sixteen, was call- ed upon to road. Tiie number is but few who enter into the spirit of an author, and understand giving his words and sentiments their proper value and etFect. Mellen, however, far exceeded my expec- tations, and when he named Lamartine's Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as the work they were reading, I was not surprised they were anxious for its continuation ; and when the hour had expired 80 deeply interested had we all become in the narration of the elo- .. •'^>f ;.,U ■' (^ ■' -srJ \ ' S''- .'.'■iW- 1*1 -■■'^ '^M '^iW S18 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. >i' m quent Frenchman, that by an unanimous vote the book was liand- ed to the eldest daughter, and nnother hour gli'icd qujckly away in listening to her sweet toned voice, and the glowing thoughts of the poetic writer. 13. After what I had seen and heard,! was not surprised to find Mr. B. a man of deep religious feeling, or disjjo.scd to wonder at the profound feeling of humility and thankfulness willi which ho closed the evening by commending us all to the care of a beneficent Creator. Ai'ier the children had retired, I cnuld not hclj) con- gratulating Mr. B. on the excellent course he hud adopted in his family of accumulating knowledge, and the beautiful oilbct its influ- ence already exercised. 14. " Jt is said," he remarked in reply, "that farmers, or their children, do not have as much tune to read as the child i'C]i of pro- fessional men or mechanics, and it may be parLly triio, yet I am convinced the plea wiiich farmers so often urge as an excuse for their ignorance, ihat ihey have no lime to read, arises more fre- quently from disinclination to read, tlian from any other cause. — Few men are sensible how many valuable ()Ooks are gone through in a year by the reading of one hour a day ; and by ha- vhig them read aloud in the family, all arc interested, and all instructed. 15. "As I have accustomed my children to ask questions on what is read and to the correction of errors in the reading, t'le attention even of the youngest rarely flags during the liour.'' 1 wOit to bed reflecting on the contrast between iarmers A. and B., and the ditTerent probable results their influence and that of their families would liave on their own happiness, and that of th.o society around them. 10. With farmer A. everything was at sevens and sixes ; nothing in doors or out, in the house or on the larm, as it sh.ould bo. or as it ought to have been ; and this state of things evidonily had its eflect on the minds of the family, rendering them morose, ill-tempered, I may also say, immoral ; as well as continually restless and dis- satisfied with every thing around them, wi'hout inducing the neces- sary steps to cure the evils of which they were so re:idy to corn- plain. 17. On the contrary, at farmer B.'s every thing moved like clock-work, and it was evident his success as a farmer arose from having his work done in season, and from " having a place for every ihing, and every thing in its place." Its eflects on the family we have seen, and one thng is certain — Mr. B. will not go tp the west in search of competence or happiness. •H CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 219 ri \ . » ,, t'* Section IX. 1. The Story or Uncle Tim and hib Son. — I\Ir. Timothy Treadmill was about the tigiitftst man that ever came from "down east," but although penurious in the last dogreo he never became very ricii. He was a firm believer in the doctrine of- " following in the footsteps o[ his predecessors," and practised it to an iota. The way his lather |ilanlcd corn, he plnnted it — tho pfntio time in the moon that !ii;s faihor sowed peas, ho s;owed iheni. The last pair of cart wheels that were seen wearing a siren k tire, wove Uncle Tim's — nnd tiie hist of the old wooden plouglis was seen mouldering into its original elements at the back of his wood-house. In short, with the exception of adopting some few improvements in tho way of implements, he vvr.s precisely as good a fanner the day he loft his falhor's roof, ns he was forty vears afterwards. 2. 'I'hat there was any better w;iv of larrning t!ian that practised by his fither and the rest of the good people d(twn in old (Connecti- cut for so long a time, nothing short of actual demonstration could make him believe. The idea oi' hnprovemcnt in farming seemed to be as ab:5urd in his mind, as that the bees should set about m.'iking an improvement in the construction of their cells, or the birds in building tlieir nests; book farming and itrw itivriitions were his utter aboininaiion. What! such men as Judge ])ucl, who never pretended to be a fiirmer till he was forty years old, undertake to teach /t'ln how to raise corn and potatoes, who had been a farmer all his days, and his father before lum 1 3. He lake a newspaper to learn how to farm ? no — he knew better than to j)riy his money for snch foolery nstliat. If any body wanted to read tise big stories of il;cm 7ino Jtjnir/ed farmers about Albany, about their great cro is .:nd their new fnshioned kinds of cattle and hogs, he wns wilii .•• ;hey should, l)ut for his part, ho believed he could farm about ;;:•< ^\oll as those that printed newspa- pers, and raised spotted hog> to sell. 4. liis farm w;.s " suitably divided into mowing, pnstiiring, tillage, and wood-land," — what was in pasture when he bought ihe farm remained in pasture still, and what was mowing at tliat time the ploughshare never disturbed, and what was ploughland then re- mained slill the same. His manure always laid at the barn till fall, because it was so much better for corn after it was nicely rotted, and his barnyard was so situated that the water would run from it in all directions — of course it was always nice nnd dry. 5. When he happened to have a little maimre left after planting, be had been known to put a little sprinkling on some spot in his meadow, where he thought daisies and June grass were likely to f 1 pi <:- •■I 'A r 200 CANADIAN AOBICULTUKAL BEADEll. I run out — but as long as the daisies flourislied well he was not alarmed, for he said the farmers down in Connecticut thought they made about the best hay of any thing. In hoeing he w.is not over anxious about the weeiis, for lie said thoy lut as I said l)eforo, Undo Tnn never grow very rich — for, although ho saved every thing, tho fact was ho h id n"f. nvick to save. His caltio and his fields being lightly fyj, foi li^^hlly in rottirn. It seemed to him that all he gave his cittle boyon 1 what was barely sufHci.^nt to keep skin and bone togoiher, vv.i.s about t'le same as thrown away, and every hundred of hay he could ,s ;vo to sell in spring, was so much clear gain. And as for layiu'^ out nny expense to increase his quantity of manure, it was a thing ho never dream- ed of 7. But as I said before, starving his cattle and his crops proved to be a bad business, for there seemed to be a fiir prospect that it would nnd in starving himself He could perceive that tho products of his firm gradually diminished from year to year, still he never seemed to suspect that the cause was to be attributed t > bad manage- ment. 8. There were, however, good things about Uncle Tim. And although errors and prejudices of this kind seomod to be, in a great measure inexcusable, his were entitled to as large a sliare of charity as those of most other men. There was one thin^r al)out which he O evinced quite a commendable degree of liber.'ility. He had a son growing up to manhood, and his better feelings induced him to go so far as to say he thought young people now a days Might to have a better education than they had 40 or 50 years ago, vvlion he was a young man. 9. In f ict, ho afforded his son a very tol'^irablo opportunity for acquiring a good common education. And finally young Timothy was becoming quite a reading, and consequently, intelligent young man. Tnis, however, led to consequences entirely unf)reseen by the father, and which for a while gave him a good deal of uneasi- ness. 10. In his intercourse with the more intelligent of their neigh- bours the young man had occasionally met with agricultural papers, and perused them as far as opportunity permitted, with a good deal of interest. He saw that many of his father's notions about farm- ing were erroneous. The evidences that great and important ini- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 221 provements were taking plnce, were to his mind nltogotb^r irresisti- ble. And tiUliough he well knew that his father would pose any innovatioM.-, jio began occa:?ionally to make known the result of his reading and rffloc'ion on tiio siibjoct, by proposing some litllo changes iu ihcir mode of inanagemrnf, and linally intimated that ho shoulij like wry well to t.-ikolhe Cidtivntor. 11. lliit it was a d'-'.'-pcMatc case, lor whatever failh Uncle Tim might has o iwid in inoro di-'itrint things, it was clear thfit in the matter of Agriculiiiidl iiiii.rGi'O/tfnU, he had neither faith, nor works. The old gesnik'iii.iii, while he felt disposed to graiify his son in all prudent desires, cuulu nol hut ibel vexed to find him inclinrd to depart so I'ar from \-\\:a ho coii^'jidnrcd " iho go(j<^ old pntiis." Things went on, howcNcr, r.iucii ai'lcr liiis f;i«hi()n i"or a considerable tiuie. 12. TiiuoiJiv V, uuld out to all these n prof-ciitations tlio old gentleman had always a ready answei-. /\ii ihis. h.'. .raid, miitlit do vcrv well for rich mm who lived nortr a iii,ukut, fur small farms, situated as they wore away brick in :Uv coiinti-y, to attempt to take those big men tor a guide, wouli l^e iuinous extravagance. One of Timothy's sugges- tions, how (^vcr, rather singgored him. 13. " WMl, fithor," said he one day, as they went oat towards the barn, ju- 1 aiier a shower, and the streams of water, as black as your hat, weio iiinuing out of the yard, "I think tiiere is one thing wo t-ii.all lai-uicrs in the country might do as well as the large ones that live near tlio cities. If we. cannot buy manure, we nugiit take care of what we have ; you see that if your barn-yard waa turned hottuni up, it would be just in the shape recommended by .ludgo Buel, i'.\i,\ woulii hold all this liquid manure that we see run- ning oii'inio the road.'.' i^L 1*1 >r fy >y 51- Skction- X. 1. Somrwiicre about these davs it came into the heart of Uncle Tim tj visit his old frione, although somewhat rested, was nut vcr^ much impr*)ved in his ca- pacity to pertbirn a journey. 3. Even ilieir siuull b,"g was but scantily filled, and to buy oats on the road seemed to Uncle Tin) a very improvieient way of tra- velling, k^o they jogired on with smh speed as the circumstan- ces pcrmiUed ; Init befjre they were wiihin (ifiy miles of home, old grey ga\c (Hit, and lliey wore oMigod to hanl uj). The fact was, old g^ey was a good horse, but lie was vsed up. Allhougli he had been a good horso a great wliile, it was not old age that ,iros- trated hiin. Lie had skin a.id bone and muscle and wind, and ?our sound le.\s. Tlie machine was in order, but the moving power had been wilnheld. 'J lie poor old horse was as useless as Itic steam engine wiilioul the ste-im. 4. Well, Uncie 'J'im and his son were in a bad fix. Their pas- sage home in the stage would cost considerable money, and then to leave old grey there to recruh, and the expense of sending for •him, wouhi increase the sum to a pretty important amount — and they could hardly think of selliner the old horse lor the small sum often dollars, which was the most they could get olfered ior him. The result oftiieir deliheration was, that old grey was left with a farnier near by at a moderate expense, and the father and son took ])assage home in the stage. It so happened they were the only passengers, so they had identy of time to think, and occasionally as the spirit moved, to talk a little. 5. " Well, father," said the young man, 'ifter a pretty consider* able long silence, " I do not know tiiat you think as I do, but it ap- pears to me that our firm and old grey are vei-y nearl}'^ in the same situation." "I do not know," said his father, " what thero can be about a farm and a horse, that can make them resemble each other 60 very much." Timothj' then undertook to explain. 0. " There is," said he, " what was uncc a good farm, and the CANADIAN AOEICULTU.tAL KIADK&. :» ler ge rs, rit er- be iier the foundation on which to make a good farm now. So there is what was once a good horse, and a good frame to make a horse of now. But both liave boon so overworked and poorly fed that thoy have l)Gcoiii6 cxliausted, and are of but liltlo value. The farm, you know, produces liule, il'any thing, more than enough to pay for the labor wo beatuw up'ju it, and the value of old grey wo have had a j)rctiy good opporiuniiy of testing. 7. '' Nuw, it appears to me that I can convince you that under a dillerent course of management, bolii the larm and the horse would have tniicb more l!i:ui repaid the oxlra oxper.se bestowed upon ii\em, aud been worth at this day moro than double what they are. I am vevy ccrtniij I can as re..pocls the horse, and it is oipialiy clear to my mind wiiii respect to the lai-iU lSupj)ose, then, we Ind given the horse one peck of oats per day, for the last two months, in ad- dition to vv'liat he has had — would not that have enabled him !o work considerably harder than ho has done, and kept him in good condi- tion ^" The old gentleman could not but admit that he thought it Would. 8. " \Voll, now," said Timothy, "do you not think that if old grey was in good working ordor, lie would s,ell tor forty dollars V^ '• Yes, and more too," was his father's prompt reply. " Now," said the young man, '• lot us calculate the cost of oafs ; one {)eck a day for two months would be nearly sixteen bushels, which, nt tv/enly-live cents per busb'.l, would amount to four dollars ; and as things have turned out, 1 am sure you will be willing to tidmit that sixteen Iju.hcls of oats disposed of in that way would have been a very judicious cx;)enditure, as, according to our cal uilation, it would have produced a dilll-ience of thirty dollars in the value of ihe horse." " LUu," said his fullier, "old srrev is aciuallv worth more than ton dollars, as it will not cost t!iirty dollars to recruit him U[)." 9. " Perhaps not," said Timothy ; '• but whatever it does cost, added to the extra expense of our getting home, and the loss of tlio work of tlie (dd horse after that, would at any raie have been saved by the four dollars worth of oals. And now," said ho, " with re- gard to the firm, you have always told me that it was originally rich and p'-uduced great cro|)S ; and if it were as good now as it was then, could we not make one hundred dollars more easily than wo can filty now V " Yes," saitl his fuher, " I suppose we could." 10. " Well, now," resumed the young man, " the only question is, wlicther or n^'t it could have been kept up m its original stale of fertility till this day, with the ordinary available means, by a dif- ferent course of management. I think that it could, and will try to explain as well as 1 can with my small knowledge of improved ft I m ■'"! j; 224 CANADIAN AORICULTURAL llEADCK. h ' 1 1' ' II husimndry, what course of manogement would havo boon required to elfect so dnsirrible a rosult. 11. " 'Iho liist great oUjoct would havo beon to increase, l)y all prudent moans, tlio f|Uc'intii.y of rnnniiro, and cithor to use it in a fresh state, or |)rf;vtMit waste by washing or ovai)orati(^n ; and ono means of accomph'shiiig iliis would have boon, to sell no lunj^ unlos!! a corrrspondlng iiiiiount <»f manuie could havo hoen purchased — l)ut to kco|; iii'iio sinrk, or, poihnps, to (q{^{\ what was kept belter, so as toconsinnc all the i'odderat liomo. 12. '• 'The next change wouM hnvo boon to divide the farm info smaller lois, .jo fis t.» pursue what is called a rotation of crops, that is, that tl'o \v!i()!'' nifsy he in turn inanurcd and np[)ro])ri.'itod t> the dilfii-ent kinds ofcrnps; oUior chaii^i^os would h:ive hct'W to culti- vate the 1 lud bi'ilt'r — to procure nioi'o n\\{\ belter implements, ond to pay m I'c alt iilion lo the broedint]^ of animals of all kinds. i;3. "These arc the iniportant ciiangos reqin'rod by what is called " im')roved husbandry." 'J'hcro are of course manv small mnttcrs Udongiug to ench that I have not nientioiiod. And now, alLliougli the lai'Mi is, as we say, run ov/, a resort to the same moa- fcuros will raise it to the desired slntool' fertility ; but the improve- ment must of course bo very gradual, unless considerable expense is laid out at the commencoment lor manure, fencing, v.'\:c. 14. " I am avv.ire that this may not appear so plain a case as that of ijio horso, but 1 am not aljle to see how any oi\o can, upon redection, avoid coming to the conclusion that the two casos are precisely ,;iu'ilar. The /Itr;/. is ihoy have both been starved, and for all usefiil purposes, in their present stale, areo" very little value. By good food and proper man-itoment both may bo restored." \o. Uncle Tim kept cool all this time, but it was evident fiom the way housed up iho cuds of tobacco, that he felt a heth, uncom* fortal)lo. '• Well," said ho, " 1 do not think that I shall ever be- come much of a hook-farmer myself; but as 1 am getting old, and as I ex|)ect th-? farm to be eventually yours, and as you are so con- fident thatthe:;e new ways are the best, I am willing that you should take the management, and try, and satisfy yourself and me too. 16. " 1 will try and look at your managemor 1, .vithont prejudice, and at the end of three years, shoukl we both li\ ^ till that time, if I feel satisfied that the new way is the better ^^ay, you shall hnve a deed at that time." VVe will only add, that sonio time before the three years expired. Uncle Tim's deed was made out, " signed and sealed ;" and what was still a greater wonder, he had become a constant reader of the Cidlivator^ and said he really did thmk that Judge Buel had done some good in the world. - ■» <:ANAUIAN AQHICULTURAL IlKADKIi. 2Q0 Suction X[. THE FAUMLIllS' FAIR. Ye liusI)aiidiriori, both far and nonr, U|), up, Klir rouiul, propiiro, With sons, and wives, and daughters too, To ailond iho Fannors' Fair. IJring whoat and corn of various kinds, I) ring all tiiat'8 now and rare. And hurley, oaLs, rye, huckwhoat, millet, All to the Farmers' Fair. i'. 15ring pumpkins, squashes, carrots, bcols, Quince, apple, poach, and pear, I'otaloe, turnip, cabbage, peas, And l)eans to the Farnnei"s' Fair. Bring "sheep and oxen," large and fine, And cows, and horse and mare. And pairs of horses, asses, mules — Bring all lo the Farmers' Fair. Bring iieifers, steers, and stately calvos, Let "hulls and goats" be there, Bring natives, short horns, long horns, no horns, All to the Farmers' Fair. Briiig porkers spotted, porkers white, Suit ovnry connoisseur — Let IJcrkshiro, Byfield, ('hino, Leicester, Meet at the Farmers' Fair. Ye wives and daughters bring your best, And host with good comj)are ; Bring something that your hands have wrought, And come to the Farmers' Fair. Bring golden butter, melting cheese, Bring nick-nacks rich and rare ; Let woollens, cottons, linens, silkd— Bring praises on. the Faio. 16 see CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RBADBR. Mcclmnics, too, and artists come, I ^) ring samples of your ware ; Display the products of your skill, And crowd the Farmers' Fair. Bring cullivators, harrows, ploughs, All made for wear and tear ; Corn plriniers, drills, yokes, shovels, hoes, And rakes to the Farmers' Fair. In 'M Machines for thrashing, fanning mills, Horse power and smaller ware, Straw-culfor, corn-mill, cheese-press, churn- Bring all to the Fanners' Fair. One word to him of generous soul, Who loves thus to prepare — Oh, let that "Farmers' coat of arms," Be bore at the Farmers' Fair. Yo clergy, teachors, students, come, Conje taste the bright blue air ; Pule, sallow, sickly, " feeble folk," Turn ouL to tiie Farmers' Fair. Ye Lawyers, Doctors, Merchants too, Come gather round — for where Shall 7io7i-producei-s learn their place ! Save at the Farmers' Fair. Come men and women, old and young — Let boys and girls be there ; Come rich, come poor, come mute and blind- Come ALL to the Farmers' Fair. Bring smiling faces, cheerful hearts — At home leave gloom and care — Let a right good hearty shake of the hand, Go round at the Farmers'" Fair, The Farmers' Fair — that glorious day- Muy U and I be there ; And friendship, joy, and peace unitei To bless the Farmers' Fair. ' J i^ CANADIAN AOaiCULTC£AI. &KADKB. 227 ■J TheFnrmers' Fair — oh glorious day, Lov'd here and everywhere ; Now all m chorus join and rniso Three cheers for the Faraikuk' Fair. CHAPTER VII. ' Section I. 1. Gooo Maxims for Farmkus L\ the Management of theie Barn-Ya;u)s — fJavirig submitted to our renders all that occurs to us of importance on the subject o'LJarm-yard manure^ wo shall here recapitulate a sunnnary of the ciiiei' pomts which we deem particularly wcjrthy of their consideration. Firstly, to bottom tlio barn-yard with furze, fern, dry haulm, or any other loose refuse that takes the longest time to dissolve, and over that to bed it deep with straw. jSVcvmr//?/, to occasionally remove the cribs of store cattle to dilicrent parts of the straw-yard, in order that their dung may be dropped, and their litter trodden e([ually. •2. TA??v//^, to spread the dung of other animals, when thrown into the yards, in equal layers on every part. Fourthly^ to remove the dung from the yard at least once, or oftener, during the winter, to the mixen. FiffJilij, to turn and mix all dungliills until the woodv or fibrous texture of the matter contained in them, and the roots and seeds of weeds, he completely decomposed, and until they emit a foul and putrid smell, by which time they reach their great- est degree of strength, and arrive nt the state of spit-dung. Sixthly^ to keep the dung in an equal state of moisture, so as to prevent any portion of the heap from becoming iire-fanged. If the fermen- tation be too rapid, heavy watering will abate the heat ; but it will afterwards revive with increased force, unless the heap be either trodden firmly down or covered with mould to exclude the air. 3. ounds of that substance will unite with 8 of oxygen, forming a gas called carbonic oxide; but if 6 pounds of carbon be burned in a close vassel with 16 pounds, or two equivalentsof oxygen, they will form carbonic acid gas. It therefore appears that carbon is capable of uniting either with one, or with two, equivalents of oxygen. 5. These resulting compounds have their equivalent numbers also, in which proportions they unite with other elements, or com- jKDunds, and the numbers which express their equivalents are the 8ums of their elements. Thus the equivalent of water is 9, the Bum of oxygen 8, and hydrogen 1. That of carbonic oxide is 14, the sum of carbon 6, and oxygen 8, and that of carbonic acid 22 ; the sum of carbon 6, and /ico equivalents of oxygen 16. Now quick-lime is a compound (as will hereafter be shown) whose equivalent number is 28. 6. If, therefore, 28 grains of lime be dissolved in water, and the flolution be agitated in a jar containing 22 grains of carbonic acid gas, the whole of the latter will unite with the former ; the lime will lose its burning quality, and subside to the bottom of the jar, ■ . ' i I 'I- 1'^ 280 CANADIAN .lORICULTUKAL BEADBft. I, P ■ L'to I* ■ f. •I. ■ as an insoluble compound called carbonate of lime, mild lime, or linie-stone. The equivalent number of this substance is 50 — being the sum of 28 and 22 ; which are the respective equivalents of lime and carbonic acid. 7. It matters not whether we use grains, or pounds, as the equi- valent proportions are the s^ame in both cases. Such are llie simple and beautil'ul laws which regulate the combination ol' elements and their compounds ; from a due consideration of which, it will be easy to comprehend how, from a very small number oi' elements, such on infinite variety of substances as nature presents to our view may bo produced. 8. It has been noticed that one element has a stronger affinity for, or disj)Osition to unite with, some other particular element than with the rest ; so that, if it were placed among many others, it would select that for which it had the strongest affinity. If, when thus united, another element were presented for which it had a stronger atlinity or attraction, it would leave its former companion and unite with the last. This is what is called eiccf./ve attraction, from the element choosing, as it were, its companion ; and the same action takes place among compounds. 9. For instance, when carbonate of potash — which is a compound of potash with carbonic acid — is dissolved in water, if a solution of quick-lime be added, the carbonic acid will leave the potash, and unite with the lime to form carbonate of lime, which will sink to the bottom ; leaving the pure potash dissolved in water. If this solution be now poured off, and the carbonate of lime washed, dried, and then thrown into vinegar, or any other stronger acid, the lime will unite with the stronger acid, and the carbonic acid will escape as gas. 10. In this case the lime hod a stronger affinity ibr carbonic acid than the potash had, but had a still stronger affinity for the vine- gar, or last acid which was applied to it. It is this action of ele- ments, or their compounds, upon each other, which is the cause of those changes which are called decay, or decomfosition, fermenta- Hon, and putrefaction, in vegetable and animal substances. 11. In living plants and animals, the elective attractions of their elements are controlled by the vital principle, and they are thereby combined under a different arrangement than that which they would otherwise have assumed. But when life ceases, the several ele. ments exert their original affinities ; each selects that for which it has the strongest attraction, a general dissolution of the animal or plant ensues, and, as the new combinations are mostly volatile, consisting of water and various gases, the bulk rapidly diminishes, and in a short time only a small mass of black mould remains. ^ .. i h r 11. Carbon is a powerful antiseptic ; for if meat be kept, in pow- dered charcoal, or in water containing that powder, it will be pro- served a very considerable time iVoin puticfaction. h is also a groat promoter of vegetation. Plants ])laced in powderfd charcoal, if well .supj)lied with water, grow with great rapidity, and the smallest cuttings, or even portions of leaves, take root. 'i\'ie effect of soot, as a manure, is partly owing to the carbon it contains in a state of minute dividon. It is dissipated in vasit 'luantilios [)y the fermentation of ltir'"-yard dung, from which it escapes, combined with oxygon as carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and with hydrogeu as carbu retted hydrogen. 12. NiTKOOKN is a gaseous element, indispensable to the exist- ence both of plants and animals. It is t<)und, however, only in small quantities in some ol the substances which compose the former, but abounds very much in the latter ; and it is this abund.nnco which forms the principal and most striking distinction between them, its combining proportion, or equivalent number, is 14. When animal substances undergo putrctaction, their nitrogen unites with three equivalents of hydrogen to form ammonia. 13. In tliis state it is capable of forming nitric acid by the aid of an earthy or alkaline base, and in this change five equivalents of oxygen take the place of three equivalents ot" hydrogen. The acid thus formed unites with the base and j)roduces a salt called a nitrate. If the base be potash, it is called a nitrate of potash (nitre) ; if soda, nitrate of soda ; and if lime, nitrate of lime. This change takes place most abundantly in warm climates, from whence such salts are commonly obtained. It must, however, occur in all soils under cultivation, which contain animal matter ; and the transfor- mation is promoted in the operation of fallowing, by exposing such putrefying substances to the action of the air. 14. Most persons must have observed, that in stables, the mortar between the stones or bricks becomes soft and falls out. This is owing to the putrefaction of the urine first producing ammonia, and then nitric acid ; which, uniting with the lime of the mortar, forms nitrate of lime, which is so soluble a salt that it easily washes out. It is the presence of nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, which is the principal cause of the powerful effect of manures of animal origin, and particulrtrly of urine, from which it is abundantly produced. 15. Tiio iiucay and putrefaction of vegetable and animal substances are continually supplying ammonia to the atmosphere, which is brought down again in every shower of rain, and in this way is supplied both to the leaves and roots of plants. Green crops thus fix and accu- mulate ammonia in the soil j which, together with the occasional sup- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ft»5 ply in farm-yard dung, enables it to yield tho great quantity of this substance required for the growth of groin. 16. Note — It has been o' ..vcd, that oxygen conalitutos about ono- fiflh of the atmosphcro, tho other four-fiflh*' isnilropon, somotmicH called azote ; but tho nilrojjon of plants and animal substunces is said not to bo derived from this source, tho latter being always found in a stale of couibinatioii witli other oubstanccH. Liubii ) ! • ■ i d36 CANAOIAN AORICULTURAL RKADBR. piration or broathing. It is tl.o means by which the oxygon, or vital air, when drawn into the lungs, is separated and conveyed by the circulation to every part ol'the body ; and if this action of the iron in the blood be prevented, as it sometimes is by broathing other gases which are therefore called poisonous, life instantly censes.* 0. Potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica or flint, and alumina, are all oxides ; that is, they consist of bases which have the nature of metals united with oxygon, and are never found separated from it in a natural state. It is indeed only by the most powerful chemical agencies that they are proved to be so compounded — that is, that ihey can be separated ; they may, therefore, be considered as sim^ pie substances. They are commonly called bases from their ten- dency to unite with acids. 7. Potash and Soda are called alkalies. The former is always found, and the latter very commonly, in the ashes of plants, united wiih acids. Besides other important purposes which potash serves in the nourishment of plants, it forms, with silica or flint, that bard external covering of all the grasses. 8. Lime and Magnesia are called alkaline earths, and are tba bases of the earth of bones, as before noticed. 9. Silica and Alumina are termed earths, though the former it sometimes called an acid, from its tendency to unite with the bases. When a stiff soil is mixed with a considerable portion of water, well stirred, and then allowed to rest, the grosser part, consisting of sand and stones, will quickly subside ; if the turbid water be then poured off, the fine particles suspended in '' will in a short time settle, or might be more, readily separateH by passing the water through a filter of paper. The earthy matter thus separated is what is called clay, though, in reality, it consists of about equal quantities of silica, or pure flint, and alumina, or pure clay. 10. We have thus briefly described the composition of five differ- ent acids : namely — the carbonic, nitric^ muriatic, sulphuric, and phosphoric. These are called mineral acids, because they are commonly found united with mineral substances. When these are chemically united with the oxides, or bases, subsequently mentioned, they form what are called mineral salts ; which have received names signifymg at once the particular acid and base of which they are composed. Thus a salt composed of carbonic acid united with a base, is called a carbonate of that base ; as carbonate of lime, carbonate of potash, carbonate of soda, dec. 11. If a base is united with nitric acid, the salt is called a n^ * Professor Liebijf , On the Theory of Respirfttion, CANADIAN AGUICULTLUAL HEADER, 237 trnto ; with muriatic ncid, a muriate ; with sulphiiri-.i riciil, a sul- jihato J and wiLh [jhusj)h(jric acid, a \)\\ sphato of that base ; making carbonates, nitrates, muriates, sulphntes, and |jh(i.-.;»hatcs of tho sovoral bases, according lo tho acid wiih wliicli each is rosj)ectivoly united. ISilica, as belore noticed, is sonielimcs called an acid, be- cuuso it unites with certain bases in the manner of an acid. Ututed witii potash it forms a silicate of that base, and is a very important ingredient in manure for corn and grass crops. Suction V. 1. The Gknkral Composition of Uarn-yard Manure.— In a general view, Barn-yard Manure consists of refuse straw, hay, chatr, and grass, and of tiio dung and urino of animals which arv fed in the sheds and stables of the yard. 2. Straw consists of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; the two latter in the proportions which constitute water, with some portion of nitrogen, and of earthy and alkaline salts. It has been before (Mated, that the three iirst elements are abundantly supplied to tho growing plants by the atmosphere, and that, theroforo, ammonia and the earthy and alkaline salts are the most valuable parts as manure. The value, however, of the combustible part of straw is by no means inconsiderable, as it serves, in the undecnyed state, to receive and retain the urine ot animals j and, when placed on tire ground, attracts moisture from the air, which it supplies to the roots of plants. 8. By its decomposition, it increases the temperature of thesoil ; and, at the same time, yields carbonic acid gas lo the roots of plants, before their leaves are sufficiently expanded to enable thetn to de- rive that substance from the atmosphere. Dry straw, when burnt, yields about 5 percent, of ashes. Professor Johnson gives the follow- ing analysis of lUO parts of the ashes of straw ofdiilerent kinds : — Whcdt Straw. Barley Straw. O.it Slravp. 1^ I Potash • i 3i 15 8oda f 1 _ ^ * ■ Lime 7 lOi n Magnesia ] U i 1 I Alumina 25 3 — — /■ ! Oxide of Iron — — 1 *- — , " 1 Silica or flint 81 734 80 V Sulphuric acid 1 2 li i Phosphoric acid 6 3 i a''} Gi^lorine 1 n — — 100 100 100 1138 CANADIAN ARRICULTURAL RBADBB. ?.i I 4. The alkalies and earths aro uriiloi] with tlio carbonic and mk noral ncids as Kails, ilie loniior of whiclj llio I'rores.s- soluble. The sohi[)lo part of the ashes of whorit straw is about 9 j)or cent. Tiio ashes of the corn of tlic scver/il kinds consists of ihc samo snlts, except that they contain a much larger portion of potash and s.)!la. The Professor observes, that " plants may leave tho jsanio weight of ashes when burned, and yot the nature of tho ashes bo vorv dillbrent : tho ash of one mav contain much lime ; of another much jxHash ; of n tliird much soda ; whilo in u fuurih much sili(;a may bo present." 5. Thus 100 |)oands weight of the ashes of bean straw contains 5:^ pounJ-! of potasli, while ;hat of barley straw contains only ',ik pounds in the lOU. On the other hand, the same weight of the a.shes of tho latter contains Vlii pounds of silica, while those of tbtt bean straw produce only 7i pounds, Tho dillbrent kincis of chair produce similar ashes to tho straw, but always contain a greater portion of silica. It should, however, have been observed, that straw !iagr» of t!in gms.sos, and parfii'iilarly of tho Ircloils, obiaijis i'roni the air all tho {'nrhcn and nitrog^-n to form, with the cloments of wrifor, tlip nourishing suhstancos ihoy yiold. Tlie iniportanco ni' the oartliy parts uf plants will I)(^ the Ijotter ap- |>rccial(' I \v!inn it is known as a laf.t, reported hy tin' highest cho- nii(;al aulhi'iiy, that in certain situations the hones of cattle and horses aro vr^ry defective in solidity and strength, owins: to tho do ficiency oi' hnn(^ aarth, one of the principal constituents of ashos. It is highly prohahle that a similar deficiency in oar dairy pasturoB might, iji tviaiiy situations, have an etfect inaffectingtherpmlity, if not tho (juantiiy. of milk, which always contains phosphate of lime and magnesia in consid arable quantity. SKcrrov VI. 1. Co.MisrsTiox AND Dkc' \y OK Plants. — Wo liavo already said that plants in a dry state, su;j;h as straw, hay, iSjc, consist of carbfjn, hydrogen, and oxvgen ; a very small portion of nitrogen, and of nhout six pirts in 100 of alKaline and earthy salts ; and that the former eloments are placed, hy the operation of the vit.al principle, under a ditferent arrancfoniont with regard to each other from that which tlioir chemical affinities give them a tendency to assume. 2. The combustion or hurningof vegetable substances is nothing more than a rapid and violentaction of those afiiiiitiesor attractions, in which oxygen plays a principal part. When they are heated to a certain degree, both the oxygon of the air and that already con- tained in the substance are brought into action, and the result will be easily understood from what has been previously stated of the nature of the elements concerned. 3. T'ho fixygen unites with the carbon to form carbonic acid gas, and v/ith the hydrogon to form water, while a small j)ortion of the hydrogen unites with nitrogen to form ammonia, or (though subject to some do!iht) passes off uncombined. Carbonic acid gas is the most abundant of these products, water tho next in quantity, and ammonia l)y far the least. These all escape as gases, and thi) ashes that remain consist of some or all of the oxides, or bases, be- fore described, united with sofne or other of the mineral acids — aa alkaline and earthy salts, which differ very much, both in kind and quantity, according to the plants from which they are derived. I ;1 ill n ; ) % jmM m m 240 CANADIAN AGRlCUl TURAL READER. 4. As these salts, or mineral substances, constitute an esscnli.'il part of all plants, they arc themselves capable of acting powerfully as manure. The mt.'st valuable, find generally the most plentiful of them, are the salts of potash, and the phosphates of lime and magnesia ; not that the other salts contained in ashes are less es- sential ; as, for instance, muriate of soda {^common salt) and sul- phate of lime (gypsum)^ but beciiusc the latter are more liberally su])plied to tl»e soil by the hand of nature. 5. If, instead of being burnt, plants are accumulated in heaps exposed to the weather — as in a dung-yard — a similar action to burning, though of slower operation, takes place j which indeed may be called a tardy combustion, in which the elements of the water present take an active part. The greater portion of the car- bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with nitrogen, are thus dissipated ; the sulphates and phosphates are decomposed, producing stinking gases; and if in the meantime water be allowed to soak through the mass and drain away, it carries with it the soluble salts, ulti- mately leaving a black mass, consisting chiefly of carbon, with a small (luaatity of hydrogen and oxygen, and some insoluble earthy salts. 6. If, therefore, decay be allowed to proceed to its greatest ex- tent, it produces a much worse eflTect than absolute fire ; inasmuch as almost all the soluble salts are lost. Vegetable matter reduced to this state is humus, or that black vegetable matter contained in all rich soils, and those of old pasture land. The only diflference is in the mode of their production, the one having been produced by the decay of plants on the surface, and the other from the decay of" the roots and leaves of plants both above and beneath the soil. They operate in the same way in the nourishment they yield to plants, namely, by the salts they yet retain, by attracting moisture and ammonia fro.n the atmosphere, and by slowly yielding carbo- nic acid gas to the roots ot the growing crop. 7. li' the quantity of water which mixes with the heap be Hmitetl, it is often evaporated by the heat produced by the fermentation ; the chemical action in a great measure ceases ; and the heap, when opened, exhibits that appearance which is commonly called "/r^- fangcd.''^ When in that state, it will be found to luive lost more than one-half of its value ; but, if due care be taken to regularly mix the layers of dung, without too much intermixture of horse litter, there will be no danger of the dung made by the cattle in the yard« being overheated by fermentation, even in the warmest weathe». Should that danger, however, be apprehended, an addition of road- serapinge, or earth of any kind, will prevent it ', ojid, in the wiiMur CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 241 Xhe cleanings of t!i0 c^\v•hou;^•:>, as being of a col J nnturo, will answer iho jjiirpoye. 8. W'hon ji! I'l's.ind tlioir seeds are consumed by animnls, n'^nrly half their wniglji, \n a *irv 5;!?Uo is given out ftojii the lungs nnd by pcrspiivitioii iVoin ttio skiu in a gnsoous form, cliietly as carbonic acid gas atire, the insohihle aiiinKi] mailer and baits, and the ur nt the more soluble sails and suLstances, ricli in nitrogen. 'J. if no care lie taken f the urin'^. and it be allowed to nm ubout the y irl, it so lii purefies — jls nitrrtgen (hes oif in the shapo of amm :)nia ; its ;, dts are c.iri'ied awav bv every shower of rain ; and, ahhoiigh a portion of it may he saved by its mixture with the dung ol'tiic ;:at;!e, vol the groaler j;rirt of its valuable contents is rvaporated i>v t!ie a -ti:)!! of the. fitmosphere. If it he nllovve;! to (ipain into a !r.':k or (/Jier receptacle, it there alscj rnpidly under- goes [)Ul;-efi-l;')i) : an I, ii'this he not checkcl, a considerable part of the arnuM lii prou'uceil will escape with the sulp!u.!r and phos- piiorus, res.j'uiu'.i^ iVom the doco'rijjosition of th^^^^ salts containing those substancjs : occasionin-? the iniolcrable stench obscived in {^uch cases 10. Now the amii'Jtiia. and tlie nlkalin'^ and earthy salts, am by i7uu;'a thn mo.-:: valti ii)!e part of farm yard or stfdile dung, i\iv\ the t'ormcr is always mdre abundant wlion cattle ai'e (al witii oi-n, oil cake, and other rich tood. vViihnut ammonia no soo;i coiild bo produced ; a?id n'itiiout aikaline and earthy salts, neither seed nor plants could exi.-t. Skctfon VIi. 1. Causes ok ST;:fJT,i rv. ft is tiie deficioney of some of these snbslances. where mo's'ure is not wnniing, which is t!ie cause of the land prodocin:.^ poor crops: and it is the almost total al.seiico of some, or nil f)f tb'MO, which is the cause of comjilete stenlitv. Instances may al-n-.st everywhere !>'; found of land which, though nb nmdiiig in b.u,.!a> — s ich ns heathy and peatv soils — are, not- withstanding, iiuMp'b!- oC bearing grain. If the vnlual;le sub ta.nces ubove monli'ined he wast^nl in tho manner df^scribed — which i.-- tf)0 often the cas^, to nn enormous e.\t<^nt — the crops will be vo-y defi- cient ; and if to this wf.sto bo added the carrying away of largo portions of the produce — as when hay and straw are sold, and no manure returned —the land will soon cease to bear crops. * " *' i| i w I 'r Si 41« .;! j'4 1-1 ,. t ^•1 til CANADIAN AOBICULTUEAL READER. « 1 U I ll 2. To increase the quantity of manure raised on the land should, therefore, bo the constant aim of every farmer : hay should never be sold, unless two tons of stable litter are returned ibr every load sent off the farm ; and, unless the farm contains a large portion of rougli pasture, the horse-teams should be kept in the stable, and jiOiled during the summer and autumn on green fdod ; every por- tion of apparently rcluse vegetable and onimal matter should also be carefully collected and added to the dung-heap ; and, in this manner, it is inconceivable what additional quantities of muck may be produced. 3. The manure thus made, and not fermented, is generally ap- plied, either in its fresh state, or only partially turned, to clay land fallows which are to be sown with wheat ; as, being of a colder nature than winter-made dung, it will not occasion the crop to bt^ s<3 hastily pushed forward as to occasion straw instead of corn. If attemj.ts be made to supply the place of tarm yard dung by avy one salt, or, in other words, by two or three only of the elements of plants -nitrate of soda, or nitrate of potash, or sulphate of lime (gypsum) for instance — it will succeed only where all the others happen to be present on the soil, by the effect of previous manu- ring; and will inevitably fail where those other netdful substanctq are either ab-ent or very dellcien:. 4. Now, it is extremelv difficult to ascertain in what salt the soil w really deficient ; care must, therefore, be taken in tho applica- tion of artificial manures, that they contain all the elements inclu- ded in the muck for which they are subsiituted. These are alt usually found, more or less, in the dur.gheap : how needful, there- fore, is it that tne farmer should take good care of that manure pro- duced upon his own land, which certainly contains all the elements of plants, and upon which he knows he can safely vely ! 5. It has been stated before, that the most efficient part of farm- yard dung is that small portion invisible in the mass, which consist."* of earthy and alkaline salts and ammonia. The other ingredients which constitute the bulk of manure, consisting of carbon and the elements of water, are abundantly supplied by the atmosphere to tho growing plants, and therefore a loss of these by needless fermentn- lion or neglect is of little importance, were it not that their loss i» Unavoidably accompanied with the waste of the more essential sub- stances in the manner described. 0. It should be the cbject of the farmer not only to prevent the waste of such precious substances by every means that knowledge ftnd ingenuity can devise, but also to make every addition to theia ttiat nature or local circumstancea have placed within his reach. il hiU OANADIAN AORICULTUBAL RRADFR. 248 These desirable purposes he will bo the better able to carry info effect when he fullv understands the nature of the manure he hns nnder his manngement, and by thnt moans he can exercise a sound discretion in adding to its quantity and effect. 7. Let it not be alleged against any inquiry by the farmer into the constituent nature and cheu)ical properties of his manure, that he has no ideas attached to the several terms used to designate tim substfuiccs of which it is sriid to consist. lie is obliged to learn iho names and uses of the several implements he ciripl(»ys in the culti- vation ; and, upon what principie, we may ask him, shoidd he re- fuse to make hitnself acquainted with the names and genevol pro- pcrtios of the produce he raises ? But little effort is required to obtain a precise knowledge of the several elements, or substances at least, by llie emj)!oyment of whi(;h he is enabled to raise and in- crease his crops, and is it not pleasant to learn, as well as most useful to uuderstand, the reason of their value to iii.n I 8. Nor is this limited degree of chemical knowledge of diflicult attainment, bivery farmer has seen wood-ashes, and also seen wa- ter ^^o' i'pA upon tiicm for the purpose of extracting a something : that Si J. i CR is chiefly potash, which may he seen by evaporating the clu-v.. water, which leaves the alkali behind, and the dregs which remain at the bottom consist for the most j)art of earthy phosphates — a similar substance to the earth of bones. 9. Soda is now so commonly used as to be known at sight to most persons ; /me and magnesia T\.ves\\\\ u)ore familiar j ammonia is the common [lungentsalt of smelling bottles ; sulphui ic, mnriaticy and iiHric acids, are extensive articles of commerce, and, with phos- fhoric acid, may be found at any cliemist's shop, and these acids, as well as their bases— potash, s(jda, lime, and magnesia — may bo tvdd for a trifle, either separately or combined as salts. 10. When, therefore, the appearance and more obvious qualities of these several substances have becoine familiar, their efficacy as manure may be proved, by mixing them thoroughly with two or three hundred times their weight of mould, and applying the com- post to garden plants. The fanner might in this easy way soon become acquainted with the name, character, and properties of tho invaluable substance contained invisibly in the muck of his vards ; and wouly produce much more both of flesh and fat when kept in a state of rejjose, an gree of cold ; and Vvdien this is suiiicientlv intense, tliat they are either sn-nend^d, or aliorether annihilated " * 4. Alth(tKgh raitier besirle our present purpose, \yo yet cannnt refrain f om remarking in ih'r, place upon that be'^utilul economy of nature which connects the nutrition and growth of plants with that of aninrils ; hv v/hicb the inorganic substances essential t'> the latter ar'- enufillv so to the fornK'r. Thn>. the phosphates of lime find ni ,gne'sia, ar.d the sulj)hate and muriate of soda (comm'm sall)^ potfish. and iron — ns required by plants — equally subserve the nf^mri 'i.n.'^nt (>f r^nimals. 5. Wiibont the forn.^r, the honc< of animals could not be formed; while pho.;pi!!Oiic, snl|)huric, and muri.')tic acids, soda, potash ai^d iron, are not onlv necessary to form the substance of animals, but are indispcMisable to the discharge of the functions oflife. In this wav, p'fOiis imv Po sfiid to be the caterers of animfi'ir-'. as tl»ey col- lect and fr«!coct the food ufion which lliey subsist. The caseina (or f/f.-sr). fillumen, and fd)riiie. whi' h have hitherto been consi- dered ihf production of animal life, are now asc^ert'iined to be pre- viouslv formed by plantj, as well as starch and sugar ; and aro * Profj'Hsor Pla.'iT nn the App'ipation of Physio'oij'y to tl;p Rcarinjr tir\i\ Fe«'(iin(T of Cattl'^. Journal of lh« llo)al Agncullurai Soc.ety cf Lufrlaiid, viil, iv. p. 231. . ^ . ' CANADIAN AORICULTUIIAL SLEADER. 24fi onlyasslmilcited and modifiRd by lliennimnl functions. The threo first substances liavo been by tne chemist extracted from plants, and their analysis is |)reciscly siniibu' to those yiohicd by animals. (). One thuusand parts of the A()//i/ exi'remrnt of a cdio, or ox, consists of 7'0 parts of water, and tho rem'iinder of the rejected vegetable ii)atl?r, and some animal sLibstanecs derived from the waste which iheorgnns of ;ini!nals are continually undergoing. — When 101)0 of the drifd excrement is burnt, it yields IJO [)ari3 of the following substances : — Silica .---.---44 Carbonate and phosphate of lime - . . 12 Carbonate, sulphite, and niu"iate of soda - - 2 Magnesia, alumina, and potash - - - - 2 tr 60 7. The solid excrement of cows aiid oxen is by itself very little prone to undergo j)utrefaction or 'ern.'^ntation, whi(di is owing to the very Siuall iptantity of nitK^igen th';y coi-fain ; it, thereb^re, gives out b".t little ammonia ; bat when mi\'^d with urine — whicli abounds with nitrogen rapid ierui-'ntation <" nsues, a i;d very pun- gent fumes of anjmonia and other offensive gat-f^s escape. 8. The urine of tiorned cat' hi consists of n. large p>rtion of wa- ter, holdino; ill solution a substanca cnlled urfiL whic-i readily changes by f"rmenlation into runmonia ; it al.,.) con'^^ij sevet'al »?aUs forn'.cd from the various elements alreadv dr^r. ,i»-d. The f'»l lowing is an abstract of the analysis of 100,000 pr ; \:< oi the urino of cattle by Professor Sprengcl : — Water - - - • . 92.624 Urea, with resinous matter - - - 4.000 Albumen and mucus, substances containing nitrogen 200 Salts of potash, soda, and ammonia, with organic acids 862 Sulphates, phosphates, and muriates of soda, lime, oiid magnesia . . - - . 747 Ammonia . • . - • 205 Potash --...- 664 Soda ---.-• 554 Lime -•..-- 65 Magnesia . • • • - ftl; Alumina --«•-- % Oxide of iron and manganese - - - 5 Silica • • • • • • 30 i, .;♦ 10Q.0OO 'I r S46 CANADIAN AOBICULTURAL READER. 9. It is owing to tlie presence of so much nitrogen in urine that it S3 rap. iiy undergoes putrefaction, and promotes that action in vegetable substances in contact with it : as, for instance, in tlie straw and refuse of the farm-yard. The urea — which abounds in nitrogen — takes an active part in this process, and yields a largo quantity of aiimionia. 10. 'J'he solid excrement of horses — ns lliey generally consume a considerable quantity of corn — contains more nitrogen than that of horned cattle ; which accounts for the circumstance of its ferment- ing much faster than the latter. 100 partsof this excrement consist of 70 water, '20 vegetable fibre, and the remaining 10 parts are com. posed of animali/.ed matter, earthy and alkaline salts. 1000 parts of the dried solid excrement contain, according to Professor Sprengel. CO parts, by weight, of ashes, of the following composition : Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda - 5 Carbonate and phosphate of lime - 9 •Silica - - - . - 46 60 Besides these there must be some other earthy substances. 11. The urine of horsts is composed of 94 parts in 100 of water ; the remaining 6 parts consisting of urea and salts of soda, lime, and potash. Nitrogen is much lovss abundant in this urine than in that of cows and oxen ; which renders the former much less fertilizing than the latter, when cpplied in a liquid state. Stable dung, how- ever, yields a large quantity of ammonia, most of which is lost to the farmer — as is evident from the strong ammoniacal smell which is constantly emitted in stables ; and, more especially, from the heaps generally placed near the door. This escape of ammonia has been alluded to before, in speaking of its principal element — nitrog?n ; and the injury done to stable walls by the conversion of the mortar into nitrate of lime. 12. The waste of this precious material might be easily prevented by means of strewing the floor of the stable with gypsum powder, by which a sulphate of ammonia would be formed, a substance or »alt that is not volatile. The gypsum should be in fine powder, or it will fail of producing the desired effect ; as some recent expe- riments have tended to prove. Sulphuric, or muriatic acid, diluted with a large quantity of water, will, however, be much more rapid and effectual. 13. The dung of pigs is generally considered to be a "cold manure ;" but this can only be said of that of store pigs, for itmust form a powerful manure when pigs are fed upon corn and other CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 247 i food containing much nitrogen. The nrin^ contains a Inrge quan- tity of nitrogen, and becomes exceedingly oflbnsive when allowed to putrefy by itself 14. Tlie excrements of the pig should, therefore, be constantly carried :;way along with the litter, and mixed with the other dung of the farm-yard ; for if applied by itself to potatoes, or other es- culent roots, it is apt to imj)art to them a most disagreeable flavor ; occasioned, ])robabiy, by the large quantity of liquid flood which they consume, and to some peculiar volatile substance coniained in the urine ; which, according to au analysis by Professor Spren- gel, contains, in lOOjOO"" parts — Water - ' - ' - - 92.600 Urea, with a very iittle mucus, albumen, and colouring matter - - 5.640 Salts ; as common salt, muriate of potash, gypsum, carbonate of lime, and sulphate of soda - . • • 1.760 100.000 15. From which analysis, it appears, that the urine of the pig contains rather a smaller proportion of water than the urine of horned cattle, and 1 J per cent, more of urea ; and this explains the reason of its being more caustic in its fresh state, than that oi cattle. Section IX. * 1. Excrements OF Fowls. — The droppings of birds form one of the most powerful of known manures. This arises in part from the circumstance that in the economy of birds there is no final se- paration between the liquid and solid excretions. Both escape mixed together from the same aperture. Pigeons^ dung is much prized as a manure wherever it can be obtained in any considera- ble quantity. In Belgium it is esteemed as a top dressing for the young flax, and the yearly produce of one hundred pigeons is sold for about 20s. 2. Its immediate effect depends upon the quantity of soluble matter it contains, and this varies much according to its age and thr circumstances under which it has been preserved. Thus Davy* and Sprengel obtained respectively of Recent. Six months' old. After fernnentation. (Davy.) (Sprengel.) (l>avy.) Soluble matter in > ^. * ,« . « pigeons' dung J 23 per cent. 16 per cent. 8 per cent r ■1 vi • Davy's ^Agricultural Chemistry , Lecture TI. 'i 248 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 3. Tho soluble matter consists ofurio ncid in small quantity, of urate, sulplinte, aiid es|jccially orcarbonriteuimnouiM, common salt, and sulplinto ofpotrtsh ; — tho insolubJe (rliKHy »>l |,iiijs|yi!jite oflimo witli a litL.'e pliu;'|)liato of magnesia, and a varwible aiimixturG of sand and other earthy matters. W Ikh exixiscj U) moisture, tho pigeons' dung, especially if recent, undcrgxs fci'mcutalion, loses 71 portion o. its ammoniacal sabs, and thus br-comes loss valuable. AV'hcn it is inton ed to bi kfji't it vshould ho nuxed wiili a dry vege- table s )il, or mrule into a oompost wilh ('"irtb and siw dust, with a |)ortion of pulverized or chaned peat, or u Jih such a disinfecting charcoal as that uhicl. is employed in the manuiaclurc of the ani- mal izcd carbon above described. 4. Hens'' dung often accumulates, decomposes, and runs to wnsto in poultry yards, when, with a lillio cure, it might he collected in considerable quantities. Goose dung is less rich ihan that of h.ens or pigeons, because this bird feeds less upon grain, and derives a considerahle portion o!' its nourishment fi-'in iho grass which it crops, when allowed to go at liherty o\er tie fuMs. Its known inju'ious etfects upon the grass upon vvhi(;h it I'llls arise from its be- ing in too concentrated a state. In r,)oist wenlher, or wlien rain soon succeeds, it does no injury, and even wh.en in dry weather it kills the blades on which itdrops, it brings up llie succeeding shoots with increased luxuriance. 5 Rooks^ dung unites with the leaves of tho trees among which they live, in enriching the pasture b'^ieath them. In .)!d rookeries the soil is observed also to be slowly clevntrd fbovo the surround- ing land. This surface soil J have found 1o be especially rich in phosphate ol lime, which has gradually accumulnted jI remained in it whi'e the volatile and soluble parts ol" the droppings of the bird have slowly disa|)peared. Guano is the name given to the accumu- lated dung chiefly of sea birds, which is found upon the rocky pro- niontories, and on the islands that skirt the (!o si of South America from the ll3th to the '-ilst degree of south 1,' itudc. 0. In that part of y\mcrica, the climate 1 ing very «hy, droppings of the birds have decomposed with exceeiiing slowisrst, and upon some spots have accumulated for many coitu; ies, forming layers, more or less extensive of 10, 20, and at certain places it is said even 60 (?) feet in thickness. In some plac( s the more ancient of these deposites are covered by layers of diift sand, which tend fur- ther to preserve them from decay, in our moist climate the dung of the sea fowl is readily washed away by the rains, so that even where sea birds most abound no considerable quantity of guano can ever be expected to collect. •-v ^')\i CANADIAN AOEICULTURAL READER. 249 7. The solid j)nrt of the drojipings ofb'rHs in gnnornl, when re- cent, consists chiolly of uric ficid, wim a litilo urate of ninnionir\, und a vari.iblo pc-contago of phospiirilo of lim(? find othor salino compounds. 'J'he liquid part, liiio ihn urino of other nr.imnls, c/m- tains uiu(d» uro >, with soinc j)ir'spli.'ites, sidplintcs, nnd cliloridra. Tho uric acid rind urea, however, gr;ulufilly undfM'tro docomposiiion and are clmigou into cnrbonJitn and other ^.'iis of jiniinonia. b. If npplicd to the land when ihis singe of fiO(;()inposition is attained, they ioim an active, powerful, ai d iMUTifchntoiy operating manure ; l)Ut ifallowed to remain exposed to the nir for a length- ened period of time, the salts of ammonia gradually volatili/e, and the efiicacv of wliat remains becomes ere;itlv diminished. Hence, the guano which is imported into this couiiriy is very variable in quality, some s:imples being capable ol" yielding (mlv 7 per cenL of ammonia, while others are said to give so much as 25 per cent. Suction X. 1. Dung op Shkfp. — Sheep abstract somewhat more nourish- ment from their food than neat cattle ; for if we hrst weigh liiedry food given them, and afterwards tl)e dry excrements, we shall find that tliese wei;;li ratiier less in proportion wMli siieej) than with cattle. It rnuv, indeed, be supposed, that in the digestion of sheep, a greater amount of oxygen and hydrogen unite to form Avater, which accordingly evaporates with drying. 2. Still tlie stOiPacli, and other digestiv organs of shc.op, must have the p." wer of Libstractiiig from the f<.<'d a larger quantity of nourislm:; t tluu tiiosoof rattle ; as shee i. in eating, chew their food m ■ i.iinutely. This is the reasor. why the same food — es- pecial!) V 'en consisting of hav, straw, or other dried plants — goes furtl. " with sheep than with neat cittle ; and this is by no means an ' ;iimportant circumstance. 3. The ! digestive organs of sheep would seem even in some degree to .educe vegetable fibre ; which substance passes undigest- ed throug I the bodies of most other animals, not excepting the human body. Of what incalculably im|)ortant consequence would it be, if food could be prepared in some cheap manner, so as to render ihe whole of the vegetable fibre digestible ! And that it is capable by chemical means of being brought into such a state, we know by the fact that sugar may be obl&^ned out of paper, which is very pure vegetable fibre. 4. It is matter of experience that green clover is better food than the hay made from it ; the simple reason of which is — that in tho process of drying, many of its vegetable particles are so much hard- ■i X I 1150 CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL READER, r li- cned that the digestive organs have no longer any power to rodiu!* them. By steaming the hay the hardonod particles are again softened, and consequently there is always a loss portion of such food required than dry. 5. According to Block, the following quantities of excrement arise from dillbrcnl species of fodder given to sheep : — From 100 lbs. of rye-straw, fluid and solid, ... 40 llvs. « hay, 42 ♦♦ potatoes, 13 " green clover, . . .... 8 J ** oats, dry excrement, 49 0. In this caf^e, thtsrefore, the same thing happens as with cattle; upwardsof one-half of the solid food being lost, whether from straw or any other kind of food — for 100 pounds of green clover give 20 pounds of hay, and 100 pounds of potatoes leave 24 or 25 pounds of solid substance. This loss occurs partly in the formation of water ; partly in the carbonic acid of respiration; partly in the production of wool and the formation of flesh and fat ; and partly also, in the last place, in the evolution of ammonia and other per- spirable matter through the skin. 7. The solid excrements of sheep has been chemically investiga- ted by Zierl, and this appears to be the only chemical investigation we possess on the subject. 1000 parts, by weight, of the solid ex- crements of sheep, fed on hay, contained : — Water, .... . . 679 Sugar of gall and soluble salts, , . . 34 Bilious, with extractive matter, . . . 19 Humus, with coagulated albumen, and mucus of the intestines 128 Woody fibre and vegetable remains, . , 140 1,000 1000 parts, by weight, of the dry excrement, give on being burnt, 96 parts of ashes, consisting of — Carbonate, muriute, and sulphate of soda, . . 16 Carbonate and phosphate of lime, . . • 20 Silica, . . . . . .60 90 8. He has undoubtedly overlooked magnesia, potash, alumina, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese, as all these substances occur in the hay which ihesheephad eaten ; but we might take for grant- ed that the whole of the potash of the hay would pass off in the urine. The chemical component parts of the solid excrements of CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. ftfil sheep, ns well ns of nil otljcr excremrnts of nnimnls, depend naturally on iho food the nniinnls eut ; nrul tli.iy are so much the better or worse, in their etleit as manure, as the food itself is stronger or |)oorer. 9. jNo/zV/ .s/u'fpdung {;ontfiins somewliat less wntor than the solid excrement of cattle ; a circumstance which the a|)pearance alone of the sheep duncf, being less sot't and pulpy, would hrive led us to expect. It possesses, on the other hand, more of the easily dccom^ j'osahle suhsifinces cont-iinin*:^ nitrogen ; for while the solid excre- ments of calilo in JOOO parts hy v\( ight contains only 105 niid 112 of this and other suhstanccs that are quickly decoruposed, that of the sheep contains no less thnn 180 part.^. if, also, we consider that sheep-dung consists (»f finely divided j»arts, we shall easily understand how it happens that it comes sooner into action than that of cattle, and whence it arises that on further putrefaction, when lying in heaps, they generates© much heat. 10. The kcrp'nig of shcfj; m pens will probsbly sound strangely in the ears of some. In the north of Germany, however, the se- verity of the climate during winter retpiires such prot( ction. In that country the iiraclice is not onlv necessary for the health of the sheep, but is attended with great e<;onomy of food. 'J'he views lately developed by that illustrious cliemist and physiologist, Pro- fessor Liebig, throw great light U|)on this as well as upon almost tjvery other bianch of rural economy, in which he seems, with a lU'dster-hand, to "unfold all nature's law ;" and has been ably sup- ported by the recent publications of Professor Playfair on the same subject. 11. According to 'iiese views the craving for food is much in- creased by cold ; and the increase of food required by animals when exposed to cold, doet not go to fo -in fnt and increase the growth of the animal, but is exj)ended in keeping up the proper temperature. It is important to be fully aware that clothing and shelter supply, to a great extent, the place of food ; at all events, that food will go very much further when aided by reasonable shelter. 12. A very valuable proof of this has been recently given to the agricultural world by Walbanke Childers, Esq., M. P., which is recorded in the second part of the first volumeof the Royal English Agricultural Journal. Uy this experiment it appears that forty sheep, of e(jial size and weight, were selected : twenty of these were fed in ihe usual way in the open field, and the other twenty in a rough shed ; yet the latter — although they received nearly a fifth less food than those of the open field — showed an increase of twenty stone more in the short space of four months. \ fi : . ■i ■f i ■ li I 3;>3 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADRR. 13. At Lord Diinio'.s oxpnrirnonlal funn, nlso — ijf 100 sheep, ko|)l in liio'yon li'!l is lV.» u thj lOili (^ct »b»jr to tl»o lOth March, each oat 'ii Ihs. daily ()|\Svvo(Iom ; whilo aivuhrr htiiiilreJ, having a oovero:] slioj an I a y.ir I to im » info at plo snrp, only ato 20 ll)s. each ol'tho Hiin^^ Uiriiip.s : tlius cloariy proviiij^ihi.s saving of IVkjiI to liavn h.icn k; ••i,i.»iic i s ilojy !iy |)roi(!cti*»n iVoni iho weather ; and thai, (or laLciiiiig sheep, Dim |)la!i i.i CMioHciit. SKGrioN XI. 1. Wood Vhmks and Soot. — Wo xlashos eontain, in a grontor or less (io^i'oo, all the more essonlial oloinonts, or siihstatK-es, which form iho tool of |>la(its!, ox f.,t nin;noi,ia ; or ra'iier all thosewliich are not ahmidanily suppliel by the aim > -phere. The most ahun- danl ofth" n wvo. putask and cnrikly pfi .^phu'es. The qnantity of these, however, is very variahle in the ashes of diilt'ront plants. — Those proii 100 1 by beech-wood contain ibout one (iilh |)art of phoa- phatos. while those of the oak yield scarcely any phoMj)hates. 2. The p (worfi ' elloct ot* wood-ashes in pronountj ilio growth of clover of (Vv'ory kind is w-ll known. ID Gorniany, no other manure is used for grass lands, and by these the/ are kept in the highe ;* state of productiveness. Consi lerin?? how indispensable they are to keep up the fertility of the soil, it might be well worth trying wlK'tlior their more extensive use in Canada wold not ma- terially ndv'iiice the interests of agriculture : wherever made they should be taken as much care of as money, for tlioy are certainly most valuable. 3. The following table contains a statement of the quantity of potash contained in some of the common trees and plants : — 10,000 parts of Oik, li:im, (( i( ft (I »« u (i t( If « lieeoh, - - • Vine, - - • Poplar, - - • Thistle, Fern, • • • Cow-thistle, ■ Wormwood, - - Vetches, Beans, - - - Fumitory. 4. The ashes "produced from the leaves of trees contain much more potash than those of the twigs andi branches, and those of the latter more than those of the trunk of the tree ; while the ashes of 15 39 12 55 7 55 62 196 730 275 200 790 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READCR. 2r)3 the two Inftrr rnntfin the itiort p]iosjl;rtn nnd cnrbnnnto rf limp. The qiimititv (»r potfi.^fi in the Nnvcs vnr.ps wry tiiicli with the Eoason oflhr U'.'U", li^'in- ';rr'ritf:«t iiispiii p fiii I iii n the sluhMo for tho sr.ke olihr lirncfu alll.ivlf.l to ihc > iiC'Triiinp • rop by tho ftshca and it is i\ vi y cnritimn |)r.'ict\r ii| < n ll.i! coniiprnt. ("tin- Hidering \\\c vuU\o oi'sli-.tw ll-r littor, \\,'< tiaist hn n piff-tice of very doubiiu l(:no(if : /hhI n^Imm-o iIk> f'lUbM" is ridt rut lor litter, it must, wlion |>l( n liicd (i)\v!i, ull MK.tely aMcid tuilio himl nil that the asiics contain find .»» n.cthiig nioi'O. 6. Cnal-ush .vnr^ not «rr^MC;n.ll\- tivfiii'ihlotfmurnirir.ors, hntthoro ore few situations in whirl, iliey arr nfit boiu-ruMJil, csprririlly as .-([i- piied to clovci nnd ^r.-iss ci c,]>s ; anil a consiil* r- tion ol'tho sid> laucns thov contain will rcndily accoiuit lor llin cli'-M't ibry itr^'luno. Ho. rkIos the carlby nnd iin|'i'i roctl\ I in-nt cofly niatlf''" of -.vbich tliey principally consist, llioy also contain si.l|i!i.'ito til' lime with ^'ine potash and soda, -ill oj" \vli;(di arc known when ^fparaffdy a; :died to produce a pood otU'ct -n clover cro, ;-•, and to i".Av iba.l I.nndtiii fo^t is very niiicfi ainrc ted by tho S'.eejisor trruien !;ftV»i(' it ;^nos into !he tarn er'w hands; and, wiien found to bo in tluUatatc, the quantity ■ liou d, of course, le increased * 8. It is cxton:-i\e]y used as a !op dresf.'..";. !»[irerid ])y liand, at the rale, on seeds and pas.ure, of fv tv to thirt' ; and on wlioat, barer, and lurnij s from forty to foity-fr. o bnrs(;ei.s per T\r.vr. It is, jjowcver, more !?,etipr,i1]y emploved mi wheat, and is consideind (•no of lliomost pO'verfiU lop-dres .iii5!;s f:)r that crop with which we are ncquainlcd ; and evperlinenis have toliown its powor to be ma- ' If a spooiifnl cf afh.ilferated soot bf> stirred into a InrnMer cf water and allow (; I to Milisiiic, a (juanlii) ' f £iillv niatti r will be found at the la'ttoni of tin' 'j.iass ; but, if ilie snot bo i'l the same ^tate as when fW' |>t from tbt> <;liiiMn' ■^ s, t'lP (bqio"*!! will contain only rniruite paMud»'S u\ nearly impcropplible onrtjiy snhstanct?, which, if rubbed ixdween thii tnifrer^, wjll be soft to the touch. \ ■*.\ 3&4 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. terially increaseil by an admixture of one-fourth of common anU ■; more particularly when laid upon pasture land, the grass of whica soon after assumes a growth of increased luxuriance. 9. Though it has almost always been used as a top-dressing, it is probable thnt it would have a greater effect if used as a comport with other substances by moans of the drill ; and has, in that manner, been successfully employed in the cultivation of potatufs by an eminent tarmer in Gloucestershire. We perceive also, that, in a recent comparntive experiment of different manures for tho growth ofcarrnts, 54 bushels of soot, and 6 of sail, produced larger crops of both the Alteringham and white Belgian species than '24 Ions of stable manure, and 24 bushels of bones j though at one- half the cost. Section XH. 1. Knowledor op Farming. — It may be truly said that et'«ry farmer is a 'practical chemisf. It may, indeed, wi h erpial truth be asserted, IMat no prnctilioner would derive more benefit t'om under- standing the principles of his art, and that there is no other art in which tlie most enlightened practice is of half so much importanco to mankind ; for (to luote the langunge of Liebig:) "there is no profession which can be compared in importance with that of agri- culture : as to it belongs the production of food for man and ani- mals ; on it depends tho welfare of the whole human species ; iJio riches of states, and all commerce/' 2. It is presumed that the jireceding explanations of the natupo cf the several substances which, as manure, fall under the farmer's management, will enable him to H^rm, and to nppreciate, more pre- cise notions as to tho proper >n;Hie of treating ihem ; and that ho. will the more readily understand the force and meaning of the sug- gestions olfcrcd. 'i. When we know that in all good farm-yard dung there is a volatile substance called nitrogen, which, by fermentation, is rapiti- ly converted into ammonia, and in that state escapes into the air and is entirely lost ; and when we also know that this substance is ihe most powerful fertilizer of nny in the dung ; that neither seeds nor plants can be produced without it ; and that certain substances attract this ammonia and prevent its escape, wo have made a wery profitable discovery. 4. When we have learnt that — besides this invisible but important substance — there are others equally invisible in the mass of dung, and no less necessary to the growth of plants, most of which sub- staacos are readily oolublo \a water, and in that state arc eaail/ CANADIAN AORICULTCRAL RKADKR. 965 ry iiy carried away (such are the salts of which potash, soda, and ammonia are the bases) — and know how their escape may be etfectually pre- vented ; we are then placed in a very advantageous position, from which the greatest benefit might be dorived ; and it is certain that the farmer's prosperity must be materially influenceally of carbon, nitrogen, potash, sodn, lime, and magnesia, with sulphuric, phosphoric, and muriatic acids. 6. These, when taken as food in the corn, are again restored to the land in dung and urine, except such portion as is retained in the bones, flesh, and fat of the animals. By giving crushed corn, there- tore, to the sheep and cattle, for the purpose of fattening them, it may be more advantageously disposed of in remote situations than by selling it ; and while the stock, so fed, rnj)i(lly improve in substance and value, a largo portion of the most efficient prin- ciples of manure is retained to increase the productive power of th« land. 7. Such a practice would, in many instances, ftiirm rx more prts fitable method of disposing of a portion of t!ie produce, than by carrying away the utmost quantity of corn that coulil by possibili- ty be spared, particularly when it would in a great measure removft the necessity, or supply tho deficiency of the application of artifi- cinl manures. 8. When the true principles of the nutrition of plants and ani- mals become more generally known and appreciated by agricul- turists, there can b3 no doubt that more economical methods of managing and controlling the productive powers of nature will bo Jidopted, and all the various resources which she ))resents will be eagerly sought and appropriated. Such knowledge is indeed power, and is more precious than fine gold. And though many excellent practical farmers are apt to regard such knowledge as superfluous, the time cannot be far remote when it will be considered a re- proach to bo ignorant of the leading and more important principles, at least of agricultural chemistry. 9. The knowledge and application of mechanical and chemical principles have raised the manufacturing power of Great Britain above that of all other nations, has extended her commerce and em. piro to the remotest parts of the earth, and given her the produce cif 'i T.1 ''J I V,! Vi ^56 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. €very (;1im(?. In ngriculturn she is ypt in some respects inferior to the Chinese, nnH in s mo insffinceslo ilie iiolirians, nnd it is only by the more ^enernl diil'is on (.f i-;riowiedp:e, nnd the a]i|)l;»Mtion of principles, thnt s!tp cm hopn to lake a corrosponding leading posi- tion in the »nnrrh of itnprovonif nt- 10. The lig'nt that h'ts \)"c\n Intelv thrown upon the operations of niriMctilturo hv lh(> piv)ri)inid nnd l.".hoi-ious insoriichii-s of Liebi<^, which hns bpoii liillMspd r/ithor tlu'iii increjisod hy ninii'^rous subse- quent wril'^rs, ihe impoi-t'iii' disoovTirios of Spi'engei, togotiier with the difiusiori of lK>tl' sc;iphtilif* and prncticfd kiinw lr(iil i; nore valuable in those coun- tries and di^I..cts iu o/incn much (I' m» moat is cocsnmed, than where vcgelabio Icuu b)rnis ilio princi. al diet o' the people. It is even said by ."| lotig; i, ibni in tho neij< 'bourhooii of Hi'ilesheim the iiu'U'.ers give a Jug./.w price lor ttio liwu^e manure oi'tbe Luthernn than lor iiiai oi ilic ll in.in Catholic families, because of the nume- rous lasts wnich t'lo l; ,(.'i" are rc([ijired to observe. Every keeper of stocii also knovvsi,ia tlioinmuro in his firm-vard is richer when ho is Icooiii ; i-o callc upon oil-cake, than wiien he gives thcni . cii:' .-^o > : I'lodui.g ot'the horso and ot'tlie cow, Tne latter uumi>ci, .vicii ; i ; .own find not in m-lk, voids nearly 13 times us muo.i ari as ,ii It.rmcr, and though an equal bulk of this urine is [).> »r.'.- i:i soiin niitter, vet the wiiolo fpi.-iiitity con- tains several ti.i.is as mu.-.n as i- present in that of tho horse. But if the cow disun.i^. s more m its urine it must void less in its «oli;i excretions, licnoo, su[»[)o.-,mg the food of a full-grown horse an 1 cl' a cow to be very ne.it ly the same, the dum]^ of ilie firmer — the less uriaegiving .minial — mi si I),? iho richer, the warmer, and tho more valua.-b. — ..ft il is ie;i!l» l;nown to be. 3. T'/nrd/y, iij iiw. am ant. of fxercis", or labour io which the anU too/ M" 5u/yec/-t'i;. —■ t be gi eater the f itigue t > wuicb an nnimal is su; jecied ine Vi^-.^WA' tue uritio is found to bo in tliose ('ompoundH (ui ea chiolly ) w.k.o.i y iold anmunia by their decomposition. CANADIAN AOmCULTURAL READBB* 257 4. The food oftwo animals, therefore, Iteirig the same — other ihings jilso being equal — ilie solid excretions will he richer and more ler« lilizmg in tli.it which i.s kc(it in llie stall or fold yard, the urine in tliat which is woiked in the open air or pfu-^tured in the licld. 5. l''ou.rih/i/, III/ Ihs sl't.le of groivtk to irfiic/i tin: auiiud/ has ar- rived. — A lull grown aniiDal has only U) kicp up its weight and condition by l.h.riood it eats. Kvei'y lhia;f wiiic;j i^ not iioce.>!.6ary lor tiiis I'urpocic, iiere'bre, il rejects either in its s >lid or in iis liquid excretions. A vouiis; animal on the oih^v \,'\\m adds la. likL tn- acaat's its hone and liiuscle at the expense Oi' I's food, it rejects, therefore, a s;naller pi'opi»rlion of w ii.it it e.iis ilence the manure in told-yar.;.i, wiiero young entile are lvC[it, io aUvnys iosorich than where lull giovvn aniuipls are led. ti. l'\J':iiij,, t.ij the furjKjif for u-hlch the anhnal is ftd. — Is it to be impro;e.1 i.i (ondiiiou i 'i non ino f.*ou mu.-^L sl;j)| ly it w'.:'-, the materials fjr laoroasiiij? the si/o and siren-ith of \i^ uiusclos — with ulounun, or Iii»;'i:., t,i- older suot,iances contuining niirogon. In Fuch sul;s*.aiicc«, ther«'.forc, (n* in niirogen deriveo from thcin, the dropjdniis mast be jioorcr, and as a manure, l;}.ss valuable. 7. Is tiio i.iiiiiiai '.') I.e l"itte!;cd ? Tiicn i's Ibod rnu.-t supply iatty miticr--:, t-i' tiicir tl oient.-., of which ni'.rogon f .'rii.s no pan. All the hiiro;,; n ol' tho food, tlierctore, v.ill pats olf in the excro tions, and li;.n(;e t!;c ricli>.'.st manu^-e viekiedat any ti.i.e by the same species of animal is ihat winch is ob'ained w licn it is luli-grown, iiad, being larg-.-ly fe.i, is rapidly fattening. b. Is tiic c"W kt i t for its niiik \ 'i hen the milk it 3 ii Id^; i.s a t3aily dram u,- n *!.,; food i'. ejiis Whatever jiasscs into the udder i.-5 los:. to the dmig, aiid hence, ctiier thiiigs icing (qwi/, the dung of a milk cow will lio less valiiaule to the larmrr itian that of a lull- grown aninril f.oui which no milk is rxjjectej, or than that of tiie same an;m:il v. iion it i.s only laving ou fat. y. jJi a/A///, Jii/ the li'iig'ii of tunc duriiig ir'tir/i the nitiniirc h'. s been A'?/y/.— ill 'zl he begins to ibi'.iiu'nt aau to les.->cn in welgiit. All rudim.inurcs in like manner — t le liung of all r nimals especially — deconip't-e ni' re i>r le5:;s rapidly, aiid p irl with their volatile contititiu tits, 'i'nc value vvu ussign to tiiCiu tvtuay, iherc ii^ie, Will n'"tapj)ly to them to-moj-row. Mid ! ence toe diopjdngs of tiie same animal u\ the same ag(\ and fed in the same way, v.ill be more or less \alu::il.lQ to ihr farmer ftccordmg to the longih of time during which ihev have bei.-n per- mitted U) l"e urait. 10. Last'L/, I'y the vwy in ivlich the m The mixed dung of the farm-yard mitft 17 ha.s b en irebervcd. — d anure uecessariiy bo iesa vuluaLil ^W 1 ■ii 258 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. hi where the liquid manure is allowed to run off — or where it is per- mitted to stand in pools and ferment. Twenty cartloads of such tiung may hasten the growth of the turnip crop in a less degree than half the weight will do, whore the liquid manure has hoen careful- ly collected and rtilurned upon the hea[).s — to hasten and complete their fermentation, and to saturate them wiih enriching matter. SliCTlON XIV. 1. Management of Manure. — In the Manngsment of farm yard manure two primary objects present themselves : Hrst to prevent waste of every kind ; and secondly, to increase the quan- tity of dung by every means in the farmer's power. The waste is effected in the manner before alluded to, by unnecessary and excessive fermentation, by which the organic parts are dissipated in a gaseous form, and by suffering water to run through the dung by which the inorganic substances, the salts, are carried away in solution. No dung should be allowed to ferment until a few weeks before it is put into the soil, and then only in that slight de- gree as to render it manageable, and to facilitate its decomposition wlsen in the soil. *2. As the farm-yard is the general depdt for dung in the raw state, care siiould be take.i to give it such a form as may best pre- serve it, as well as bring it to perfection ; and on this there is a little difference of opinion : some theorists recommending them to be made so cnncace as almost to amount to a ic-dl shape, giving as a reason in support of their opinion, — "that the virtues of dung can only be preserved by its being saturated with urine or some other moisture ;" while othersassert that dung-yards should be form- ed conver, and assign as their reason, "that farm-yard dung should be kept dry^ " Practical experience, however, points out," as Blaikie says, "that a medium between these two extremes is best." 3. In this we concur ; and the form which we recommend is to slope the sides towards the centre : making either at the centre or the lower end, as may be found most convenient, a tank (which may be made at much less expense than farmers generally imagine) to receive the soakings of the dung, towards which the entire sur- face of the yard should have a gentle inclination for discharge. — The bottom should be made of concrete powdered brown lime and gravel, in the proportion of 1 of the former to of the latter, mixed wet, and deposited immediately, or Macadamised stone : or, should the yard be concave, an under-drain should ho carried from its cen- tre to communicate with the tank, wliich should, in that case, be made outsido tiie buildings. ^1 I CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RFADRR. 259 4. The water from surrounding roofs should ho convoyed nwny by shoots, or spouts, from under iho envos, uni] no wnter from any source should ho allowed lo pnss through thr^duug, exoppt the rain- water which falls directly upon it. Indeed, indopPsidrMitly of tho injury which the manure will suslnin by h<^iiigsritu rated with water, there is nlso the very material con.sidei-alion of keepinfir the store cattle which are kept in tlie yard.s as warm and n.'> free from wet as j)«jssihle. The dryiitfrr Irom the horse-strdiles. shaken from tho dung, should, therefore, bo spread constantly and regularly over it, as it will add much to their comfort. .5. In order to keep the cattle dry and comfortable, the dung fn^n the stall-fed (ritrle and pig-sties, and every kind of rough vegotable Htutfor anirrjal refuse, together with all tho sweepings, soaj)-suds, and slops from ttie house, should he carried from the vsheds to a compost formed outside the yard, and added in regular layers to tlio lieap, intermixed with the dung of the horse; for, if this he not done, the manure will be of unequal quality, and the crop, oven in the same field, will often display great disjjarity. 6. We are well aware, that according to the most approved m(»des of laying out farm-yards, they ought to he surrounded with buildings, which should be raised ahove the level of the yard, which should al 'o be divided into compartments for catile of ditferent sorts and age, and every arrangement made in their construction for the saving of labour, and increase of convenience. 7. It is a cotnmou custom in England to lay a quantity of looso Garth of some kind ever the yard, as a foundation for the bedding of the cattle when they are taken for the winter, for the purpose of absorbing their urine, and thus creating, or at least retaining, a valuable portic^n of mmure, which niigiit otherwise he lost ; and this we admit to be a consideration of material imp'>itance, though counteracted in some degree hy the cold and damp which it occa- sions to th« stock. 8. If peat cm bo procured wltliin any reasonable distance during tho summer time, it should be carted to the noigliborhood of tho yard, and afier laying spread to get tolerably dry, should be ilu'own up into heaps for occasional use during the winter, the yard hoing first covered with it as soon as tha dung of the previous winter hai been removed. 9 Tlie peat so laid up should occasionally bo spread upon the surface of the dung; but in case it cannot be procured, a few hundred weiglit of gy[)sum should always he at hunil toscatter over iha dang from time to time, and also a small quatiiitv of rough s.3.1 salt and ifth'at cannot be had, co:nmjn salt. A liltle of tho gvpaa.i) J ••:t 260 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 'i I should be n],sf> r[trii'klcd every day upon the floors of the stiiblos where fJio urihc runs, wliich will bo swept out and conveyed with the lillor lo 1 1.0 ^/meral dc] 6" in the \nrd 10. 'iKU^ Z )i.»;i f innors improve upon this system, by yilnoing the diir'iont S|Cfies of m.inurc insep.irato liciips, according to their diiroront (I'laiilios and speed of icrnientation : tiiur-;, I'or instance, the r'u'.iic i' hoi'si; st'thlcfj as being of the richest aiK.l lioU^'st nntiiro except li it of I .••Kiry, th'il of fatting |)ig.s and b'a!! i\a c t.le tis well a.- i.ii.ii. o," s!ir-op; when kept in iMd-yarils, and las ly, the Bto.'Ts ol" l! : .-M'.'.w-vard ; i mnnureoi'a furtn v*'(»u]d ho vioriy Iwice as great as when all sbc'.i mens are ifg- i' .:'.,:.|;-yard siiould be considered as a iManuf.,ctory of c :nf .^ponding skill and attention f'h'Xikl he be.^ituwed ; i I,". .US' he desirous of pi iciiig lii.s j./dl ij' ur/s upon !!;;.'■ '\ ill I others. If. clcd. 'J h ni.'inure, an upon i', Ii";li LU cqn.ii J*i \v'!i n ii '.s !"uiii»d necessary to en I I he r.iatvure cvoy, in order to t' iwirtiil.c business of the scaso.n. pi'cvi juy lo the com- i!icnco:M:ii! i;.' t.ii work, a quantity <.f jieat, m.-ir), soil, or ro'id earth sii.! i; ! In c-.ilu'cled on the spot int<^nd".d to leci-ive the dung. 'IhcJ'oiiiitl il'u .1 c!'l/\': heaf sliuuld he laid v, IlIi sucli matcriai abi»at Pix h> i.ino ii;«.I • ;. tiilck, r.fcording to the nature of t!ie dung to be I'lid upon li, f n.l it ^/uouiJ be rather inciinrd to tiie centre; so as t> retain ■■•.-; n.ncii as po':sii. liu- gcncriil level ol the heap, and yhc whole SMrfoce, including'; the t.!|/, si.'cs, rnd ends, should be well coal.\d u iih the mould, (•I- c'J ■ r :n't;erial |v)'ovidcd for the purpi >Sv ALioui; ihrepi weeks or anv i.th beibre the uianure is rcipiired ujon tiie hind, the heap shnu'l 1,^ turned, the caiih tiiorou;.d'ly nn'xed with the dung, and annt'i '1' 1. cv (ir c<»aiin? of earth id'ccd ajrain -t the sides and over the t. p of iii.' heap, by w-hicn the whole will be kept moist, and the gases, produced by feruiChtation, prevented from escaping. Skction XV. 2. iMPi'.ovFiiEiNT OP Manurl. — That SO little care and weU- CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READKR. 261 111 •m- -id be te ■ > i.he md ist, 'g- •U- directe;^ skill has hitherto born mnnifcstrfl in tlio nr.mrcmcnt of farm-yard iiunr!: i'l l''i'^ country, can be no r'-'as^mi ll«r continu- ing noglcf^^ The success of a fatlier or gran Tithcr is f.r iVorn being a j)r.»of iliat their prrn.-tico in mnny res; eels cm not bo im- proved Uj)' 11, though tiiat kind ot' argumcni i-- s 'ni. tim-..-j nd- vanced. 'Jiicir success sjiould rath.er bo altrll u'cd '•» tln-ir industry and skill, in the exorcise of which t!:ey availn-! ih'-n-.svlves of tho best lisrhls ilieir titno allnrdcd ihcin, than to hhi!:!! / Lr;;',(!ins tiuit h'.s IsiihcrN) occurred in neg]ectn"-g t!;e nir.nagement of nnnure, niu:t bo attributed to the farmer not !;:;.. \v;i'f::lw^ naturo ofllio essential su!)sfances of which it is composed, anfi ;i jt liic niost VHlunble j\'iris cocid rscr!|)e as an inNisiido fc)'\ (v P,^\\ away dis- fiolved in water. \VI:en his liability to loss in \\:U< wriy comes to bo fully ajvpioci.ced, and ho becomes awaic of ih ■! r\:ei.l to which it is incurrc 1 in ilio oi'dinnry and n'^gligent mclJN/Js f-f treating dang, a bvucr sysiem will bo adopted, and no i aii.s will bo spared to prcs.'^rvc s/.ich valuald? ma^eriaK-. '). Thritevcn ho most enrghtennl and intcl!;t;cr t r.f practical farmers have yet vcrv nuich to lcr;rn on tlio su! i'^'il of ninnures, ij abundantly teslificd l»y tho confusion ofopinicn :h'!t generally pre- vails on tho ajMdi ■-iii'in of certain individual Salts, ,: i, j t-io wonder often ex'pic-.-o;! nt their success in one inslanco an i tltr-ir failuro in another, in cases where the soil appeared to Ij-^ tlio ;;.uiio. Na- ture is ourgr-ai g'udo and instructor in these mattes, nnd if wo inquire of !ior, slic will givo us true and most vahcihlu answers. ■l. iiicbig h'ls bo-iutifidly observed, '-that c\prrin)ci!ts aic qnos. tions put to nature, and tb.c results of those exprriniruts aro her answers" 'I'lio chemi.->t has put such questions r > n-i'iro respect- ing tho composition of plants and their seeds, and slir' b, ;s aiiswered him. '-that they aro formed of ccrtnin bases call-^d i^v hini earths and alkali-^, united with certain acids, and of cert';i;i grir,eou.s sub- stances, tiic naturo of which earths, alkalis, acids, and gaseous matters, she had previously explained to him " .'>. The same question has been put respecting the composition of the dung and urine of the animals which have been fed upon plants and their seeds, nnd tho answer has been, what migtit have been expected, '-that they consist of precisely tho same su -..stances, only in an altered form." The chemist naturally inferred that theso Bubstances aro the food of plants, and that they car :.ot exist with* out them ; nay more — that if all of them are not proyont the plant ,{ ll 263 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. i \ i i: cannot be formed, nny moro than n houso can bo formed without timber, though all the other materials are at hnnd in abundance. — But tlio farmer has not listened to his lore, and would none of his counsel. 6. Without knowing of what his plants are formed — that many dillerent tubsituncos are required ft)r their nourishment, andihat the presence o( all liioso substances is requijiiln \.o {\\q fuifilmrnt of the conditions of tlieir growt.li—\\Q applies one suUstanco only, an individual sa't ; and it'it /u/jy/^ez/.s; to be the very substanco that was wanted to fulfil the conroducing'2ft bushels of wheal : IJy turnips, cabbages, and fallow crops, when applied to the Tons, feeding of cattle ... - " Clover, grass, or herbage, hay, *&:c., first year - 6 " Ditto, if mowed, second year - - - 5i I'ulse croj)s, as beans, «Scc., part of their seed being used on the farm - - • • 44 " Pulse crops, when the seed is sold 5 " White or corn crops — wheat, barley, &:c., on an ave- rage of the whole - - . - 4 2. It is no wonder, therefore, observes this writer, " that green crops should be recommended as sources of fertility, i)roducing proportionally much more manure, besides the other advantages wherewith they are attended.'' This quantity might, however, be very much incrensed by supplying the cattle-yaios with peat and ether rough vegetable substances, which, by care and mdustry, can be collected. S. Another method of increasing the quantity of effectual ma- nure in a very great degree is that of forming Coaipos-t ; by which the farm-yard dung is i)ieserved, and a most valuable addition mnde to its fertilizing principle : particularly where peat is easily ob- tainable. 'I'he fi)llowiiig method of making peat compost is givers by Mr. Alton, in his treatise on peat earlh. as inserted iu Sir John Sinclair's Scotch Husbandry : i 4. The j)eat and dung must be thrown up, in alternate strata, into a heap about four feet and a half high, and in the following proportions : peat, six inches ; dung, ten inches — [)eat, six inches ; dung, i iv inclies — peat, six inches, and then a thin bed of dung, and cover the whole with peat. The heap sh'uld be put loosely together, and then made smooth on the outside. The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat, sooner or later, ac- cording to the weather and the condition of the dung : in summer, ii te\ CANADIAN iORlCULTURAL KEADKll. in tp.n days or sooner ; in winter, not perli.ips for miny weeks if the co)(J is severe, 5. It alw.-iys, however, hns bcrn found to come on nt last ; nntl in suiniiicr it. soiiictiiiirs rises > > high ns to l)p mischirvoiis, hv pro. duclng wh')t is cilled Jlrc-fangiiig. In that 5 0T«ori a .stii.-lc hhouM he kept in it in diiforcnt parts, to piili out and fc I W)\v and then ; for if if iij/jiro-chcs to hlo(.d heat, it should ho ciihrr watered or turned o\ 'r ; 'rid on such occasions advantajro in/iy l.o talker, t nii\ it with a, liiilo frosh DP'if \ prcit varif'tv, nr; o' () pp'u. <». 'J*li.' licat subsides aficr a tiino, and will nordlng to the wraih' r, the dunLr, and the per'bc(io:» of nifdving n;) the compost, whicli tlKii may ho allowed to irinMiii nutoncheil till within thro-' woks of iisinij, \\\\o\\ it shoiWd Ijo tiiriicl over, upsid..-) down and \\\-ACo out, and all the lnni| s bndvcn : liifn it comes into a sec )nrl heat, but soc^n cools and is t.ikcn out f^r u«e. In thin slnto tiio uhrdc, o.\<*opt bits of (iecaycd wooti, apprar;; a black freo mass, and >'j roads like garden mould. Use it wriLrlit lor weight, like fnr.u \aid dung, ami it will be fiund tostai.dlh c««mparison. 7. Jjct it bo observed, l!iat the (;l;ject of making np the compo?-t is to f>rm as largo a hot-lod as the (junntity ol dunp^ cinplryed ad- mits oi', nnd t! en lo h^uiTound it on all sides, so as to ' avo the \s hole benelit of tlio heat nnd eliluvia. I'oat, nearly as -t \vitl> dni!<.r. ilifio is a ihrr c-f'-I i i.fl m.»i»f,'r nini'h is cnnnh'oof uniting with it, an>ririls mentioned. ]t is seldom, however, that nui<'h choico cai I.e exercised. In forming a compost heap, a bed of the or rib sh.iiid ho liist laid down, about six inches drep, and then a l..\er «;f dung about a foot deep, ligiitly anvl regularly laid upon tl:^ C'lh. j.et the alterna- tion bo rcjieatC'd until the lieaj) isab(»ut live ol hi'-li ; a thin cover- ing of tho earth, both on tho t"p and sidt . ; omp ting tho whole. In about ten weeks the heap slKJiih! be 'm; r d rsi well nuxed, nnd again covered with a slight coating o . ?: " li. \'2. Whf never both pert and linit i. nv il.dde, ihey n:)rnn a very good com,.ost for Uianuring ]u^.^tnro i n i. 'Jdio mode of pro- paring this coir.i)ost may ho |)erl»'rmed n ! -j Uf^u'il wav of alter- nate layers, tho p^at being used in a d'Ui! a* triple proportion to tho limo. Tho heap shmjld bo su remain threo or four month.'*, din'ing which time it slio.dd be turned and well mixed. — The lime acts very pouerfully upon thn im^rt jibro of tho peat, and renders a largo poition of it soluble in water, and in a fit state for becondngthe food of phant^. l'^. Any refuse animal matter eon of course 1 e employed in a Bimilnr manner. The carcase of a d( ad horse, which is often sut'- fered to pollute tho air with its noxious efiluvia, has been happily employed in decomposing *Z0 tons of jieat earth, and tranhfornjing it into the most enriching manure. Night-soil may be composted with peat with great advantage. I 266 CANADIAN AORICULTURAL READRR. 1 ll 14. Many volurrT^s hfivo hocn writon on tho sul'j"ct of compos'*, Rs substiiutos (or rnnn-y.'inl (luiii^, anil yot iIip truf/ principle upon which thny shoiilfl bo Ibrniod does not nppf».ir to h.ivo heon clenrly inculoatoil nnd iriHistcl upon. Farm-yard dung isccrlnin in iisetlbcta because it contains all iho rionjcnts or sut»st,inc('s wliicti plants re- quire forthe rfood ; and ibosoconiposifo mrmurfs which contain tlie greatest nuniltor ofthe more essential substances are tho most likely to act with corresponding unilbrmity. CIIAITLUI VIII. Sf.ction I. 1. The wartk of the differknt roxsTiTiiENT Klkments of Plants. — If the anf ire produce of a Jarm were to be carried away from ily and no manure returned to it, the land would, in the great majority of instances, speedily become incapable of bearing crops ; or, in tho common phrase of farmers, it would be " worn out," owing tothedoliciencyof aujmonia, orof alkalime and earthy salts, 2. If, on the other hand, the whole of the produce were consumed upon the land, it would continue to increase in productiveness, until mnro could not be grown for want of space. This decrease in the former case, and increase in tho latter, would be accelerated or retarded by the original nature of the soil, and the maximum quantity wotild ofcourso bo influenced by tho same cause. 3. These extreme cases are not merely hypothetical ; they may be seen in acuial operation in many newly-|)eopled co mtries, and particularly in tho United States. The forests in ;:it country, which had been growing for many centuries, when . r down and burnt by the settlers, left the land so rich as to be considered inex- haustible ; most of tiie produce was carried away, and tho dung left was regarded as an incumbrance. 4. By tho repeated cultivation of exhausting crops, however — wheat and tobacco for instance — much of that land in the maritime states, which have been the longest settled, i-« now reduced to a state of poverty, and requires heavy dressings of manure. Although we mention these as extreme cases, yet the consideration of them is useful, as exhibiting a broad indication of the means by which poor land may become fertile, or very rich land reduced to beg- gary.^ . 5. The medium case is that of land, in older countries, under a regular course of cultivation, and where corn and green crops succeed each other in due order and proportion, and from whence nothing is carried away but corn, cattle, sheep, and wool. Land, CANADIAN AOIilClLTURAL RKAOrft. 207 f under these circumsiancea, is iho proper suljecl for our more partU culnr coiisiilcrulion. 0. Ifa larin, under such a course of liushtuidi y ns thnt mentioned abovo, nnd gcnorally approved as a gocjd and lasting syslon), be cultivated lor a series of sears without Ijeing su|i|»li('d witjj anyvia' nure from foreign sourer.^ tiio land must I<»j«o, in n c(»urso of years, ft considerable portion < t' those inoigjmic or nnniral suhstanfjea which we have staled above to bo iiidispensablo to the growth of j)lantsand wiieh is yoarly withdrawn, as wo have nlicady staled, in ihosliapo of corn, catilc, sheep, or wo«)l, and thftitne willnooes- ^ surily arriv^^ when the crops will become deficient. This will ulti- mately take place in almost all soils, though upon certain rich spots it may not bo perce|)tiblo for many yeais ; and, on many, it will of course bo I'clt much sooner than on the geiieralily. 7. It is well known, tliat land which has "grown sick," as it is called, of clover, will often boar plenliiul crops upon being dressed with a seemingly insignilicant i|uanlity of gy|)suui j and when that substimce fails, the addition of wood, -or even peatashos, will pro- duce the desired ctlbct. in the first case gypsum only was wanted in the second both that and jujtash wore dcticieiit. Substances con- firing much ammonia will generally improve the qunlity andquan- tily of wheat ; but if pho>pliatc8 aro wanting at the same time in the soil, the ear will still be defective; and if potash, the straw will be weak, and more liable to fall early, and io siij'cr bligfit. ti. From the foregoirjg considerations, and what we have pre- viously said upon this important subject, it must bo evident that it is trilling with land, and calculated to produce frequent disappoint- ment and loss, to aj)ply any oiie salt as a substitute tor manure. — When the |)erfect manures (porlect, because ihey contain all the substances which pianls require), such as farm-yard dung, prepara- tions of night-soil, guano, or the dung of other fowls, cannot be ob- tained, recourse must be had to artilicial mixtures. Now the sub- stances the most likely to be exliausteil from soils, from tho cause above mentioned, [xve ammonia^ phosphate if Lima and magnesia, pot* ash and gi/psiim. 9. '1 be most generally available! sources of these salts are soot, bone-dust, and kelp-ashes (the better if only charred), or the two for- mer with wood or jjeat-ashcs, gypsum or sea salt. If peat-ashes are used, gypsum may be dispensed with. By the applicition o' such partial substances for manure, we do not t'ulfil all the conditions of fertility, and disapj)ointment consequently ensues. 10. The silent expression of nature has not been rightly under- stood, because, her interpreter — the chemist — has not been con- 8f)»? CANADIAN AGAICULTURAL READER. milted, or has been troitcd with rontempL — ns a mere " book learn- ed tlicoii.st " — wlicii lie lias oflcrtd liis bf' vices to explain her mean in p^. 11. Though nature proviJos us with amuionin, ns well ns carbon througlj iho inc'Jiuin ol'groen croj;-', yri V) nniiit mm n li'gh deirree offer t If (ij ill corn crops, and ospeci.'iliy in il o pi<'r'i'clion of wheat, ammonia i.i.ist i)0 considoi'cd as o.io •-;" l!ic m )St i;:)'iortant ingre* dients ol n;i ciricionl romposito iirinnro ; fin;! ii ir dor to form a manure (d' ujifaih'iiu oHlcicv uoon every kind oi" I'lud. substances contauimg Its ot' ammonia iiiU5;L he nd. !fd I > tlM>- e nioiganic or mineral sidislnncos that constitntr' he a:-hc3 Oi t!ie plants and seeds which the I .nd i.; required lo pio.hu'n. I'l. Noi;o of th 's ; must bo oinilled except s^^'h rs we are quite cert;. in rdi'oa ly exist in the soil in ino.vhair^'.ili'o |ir.nrily. There can sfdHoin be •luy w.int of silica, anil nior- • 'l^ :;; 'if oxide of iron,. Muriate of soda (c>»:mnf)n silt) and sulphate of linic* (gvj)sum) aro lhone.\t sUi);tances which arele-s likely to bo delicieiit in the soil; but very few under ronsfitit cidti\ 'iiioii c:oui. ',i ouMugh ammonia, phosphates, j.v.d potasli, and consoqu'iiily upon whtrh a mixlnreof soot, wood ashf.v and bone-dust, or rn; o du.-t, would nv)t produce a most powerful nlfoct. 1J{. We trust that the rd;ove oh.'rrvjitioriS. togetlicr with what has been previously said, will go f-ir to explain ti.e ar'pTrontly mysteri- ous nature ol' manures of lliis kind an! I'lr^w li:'iil up(;n a subject whiedi has hithcito been involvcil in doubt and uncertainty, and the want of which has occnsionel much pcr[)loxity, as well as fre- qjent disappointment and heavy losses. Tho rotation of crops SrcTioN IT. 1. RoTATFOx OP Crops and Dii.MNAwK, is necessnrily ('onnecled wi'h the suhj'^ct of r.niuirrs. and a consid eralionof the f)o;J of plants explains the nature of the advnntago which is derived from a varied succession. (Jreon crops leplenish the soil with, o'^gnvic elements^ which tliey derive from the atmos- phere, and s >mo of them — su.di as sainf )in an! I'.icerno — with inor- ganic mailer, whicli their deep roots extract front the substratum ; these they return again to the soil, either in the state of the dung of animals whicli have fed upon them, or as humus, resulting from ».he decay of their roots, which entitles them to be called ferti/iz- ing crops. 2. Li nripo weeds of every description, and green crops if ploughed into the ground, have a powerful eflbct not only on the succeed- ing crop, but, if repeated, during every regular rotation, CANADIAN AORICULTURAL READEB* 260 will be found to mnfcrl'.lly enrich the staple of poor land. — I'urtuors do iiidoeJ somriimrs plough in ti crop (»f Luckwiieal, n3 fi species of sun.nirr-t'Jlow, ruui it is a gooii pieju'irat en for a crop oMvheal ; but tlio l-^iiipt'ition of feeding it (.If, or cutting it for fodiler, muie iVctpciiilv i.iduces them to robtlie land of it. 3. 1'ne corn or (whititstih^j; cr^ys, tb:; tract from tbe f-oil both the organic ai.ii in''!^ irc subst.'inccs, much ol' which, and partio uiarly nitrogm, mjI i.!ij inorg.inic, or nn'ncral, con.slituents, fire unnuriiiy carried < fl by c.itl'.o, sliecp, and the production of grain ; and Ikmicc the I'pp liation they have rccrivm. 'J Iks? sub- lances Me, iio'.vever, rr.avn from th i i«'\[ in \ory fiiilbrent pro,.(r;lions by cilii;reni crops ; c\\q^ r:S p'i)tat!»o«, recjuiriiig more iMnuiis ; anoliier, tiS wheat. m<»n> j !iosj.hat(-s;, an I nitrogen ; and a lliird, as oats more filioatG of pot.i: ii ; wliile beans, j'eas. a:i'l vetciies require little or no p.hosphale.-, aiid hii.,g a I irrecontribuiionof carb ;.,ic nnlter in their sti.iw, and hitrn;.o:. in th'^ir loaves. 4. in this V. iy one !,; which (ho pi'eocding plant d.d not require, and loaves tli'ii wli.h i's successor \van;s. Tiiu;;, by a suitable and judici'jus rotatiou, (:\r\{ e.xhausliiig ci'op receives i;i it - tiirn duo fU[)port, V. iiiio, ;»y the sMj.jdv (>t" manures, and the li'oely int-'r- changc of gi( -;; f iwp.i, nil tho .substances are res'.ored lm the soil, which wouiU <;!mc;u i-c be exhausted. 5. '1 iureis, i)>)Vve\rr, ai/(,'li."r Ciuso furtbo necessity ofa chnngo of crops besides liic c.\li;iu.>tii.:i ot'ibo proper (bod ol'i Imi;.-' ; !ur it bos been fjuu'.l i!':* ii.Avcver ]d 'ii!i.ul y man'ires ir;'".\ i'C supplied, i n\i\ will ml si. .;. r; an umvu'} ir^g succession ()\ the s:.ni(^ crops. It li.'us been d,s,;.y-;i' i i.v rcten* experitnents lint pbvnf; di-ch^rge uw txrrvmcnt iV 'lu i!.cir ro its when jdacei in wa:«-r, riid that a b-3Coi)d oftliM sM,i.> I.ii.d, jdacr-v! in llio s.une \v;iter, s'cl ' r.s ; ut if tins plant bo iOi.!,;cfd by a third of a dilibrcnt i^ind, n - t-uch c."r»- pjquence rcsul'.s. ♦5. 'j'ids txr.i ■■;'■ fl/. therr.TTO. operat'^s a." a ■p-yhon totbos.? plants from which it h s |)c.":ii ))roduccd, '-nd an accunujlatio:. of ii m Itic Foil, by a rcj c; i.^^u of ilie satiie crop, nu!f fullow i.-ig, nod ih*"' action o! liuie and alkal s. 1. 1 bis is one o! ject answ^'red bv repeated drosr-injjs of lime in particular bjcaliiies where the wheat crop is too oft^n ropcat^d. ^Ve will here suggest anoibcr cause of tl;e advantage of change. — 27a CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. Eacli plant is obscrvod to have its j)ecu]iar irlhe of probatory in- sects, which '.vould accrmnulato ia a succession of tho saino crops, but are pcriodicnlly checked or destroyed hy n succobsion. 8. In cotic!i;;5io!i ii shouhi beoh.scrved tiiat every vnre and ntten- tion which can l)e paid to the prei)ar!ition afid aj)plicatinii ofma^ nures will be inPiFcciual in rondoring soils fertile, unless due re- gard be given to the removal of excos ; of moisture by draining when needful. When a soil is saturated with water, the air is ex- cluded fron;i the roots of the plants, and prevented from acting upon the manure ; while the low temporalure produced by continu'il evaporation from the surface, has an additional powerful effect in retarding the progress of vegetation. 9. To lay manure vpan wctsoth is, in truth, to throii' mon^yawav; but were draining universally ellected, the whole of the now com- paratively unproductive soil of the country would, to a vast ex- tent, be rendered capable of receiving the benefit of the numerous modes of fertilizing, its returns are immediate as well as cofnpen- s:itive ; and to hesitate to drain the land, is to hesitate to confer n benefit upon one's self, of which a strong proof lias been lately brought forward in a statement of the profit resulting from the drain- age of 407 acres, and the employment of the drain water ovor 89 acres of land, on the estate of Lord Hatherton, in StafPirdshire, l^iHgland — nffordin f a clear annual interest on Ike outlay of full thirty-seven per cent. ! Section HI . HARVEST HYMN. mi 1 God of the year ! — with songs of praise, And hearts of love, we come to bles< Thv bounteous hand, for thou hast shi>d Thy manna o'er our wildernf Mis c>f LJic: hu^i!. iiidimn in producing cliringcs upon the land, are cilhur inccliaiiical or chemio'il. VVheiiho drains, ploughs, and suI);soils, lie ailorj, chiclly the |'hy;si'Ml eliaractors of his soil — wh'in lie liaici and .nrinurcs it, ho alters iis chouiicd con- icso tvvocla.s;ics (jt" ojteralions, t!icrol"ore, arc perfeclly ^litution 'J"l distinct. \Vlieroa suii conlnins all that ihc croj,-: we desire to grow are likely to rii|uiiO, inoio nio.dunical o|>erai.ions may sullije to render it Ibriilc— bii \vi) .ro. ou o or tii'irc i^l thii in.jru'iiiic consti- tu ;nts of plants aro wining, dnining may iwopure iha land to bonoiit by lurlacr o,»0(ati ms, but it will not \jO aljne sillicicnt to fomovo its com|)araiivG t;.(:r.lily. 5. 1 shall, flier.'roi'e, coiiiidor in succession these two classes of practical opcr.iti >]!•> : -i''ir>t, ^Jcc uinicii/ mclli'ids ofniUMoving the ^■oil, including drainii'^g, pi .M.giiiiig, mixing wiilj (lay, sfiiid, tVc. ; h-econdly, C/if/iii.cdi i.uL'ii ,.s^ including linieiu^^, njarKng and the ripplication of vcgcL.dde, annua!, and i;ineral manures, 'i'o satisl'y luliy, however, in voif^i lo ii:e rbsoUiie necessity for such ciiange,'!, ii'we u.'Uld rt n i^i'ihe l-snd (it to produce any given crop, 1 Will illustrate. La i-w bri>:-l' examples, the intimaic relati'.)n cijscrved in natui-e uctweeu llio kind of soil and the kind of jdants that grow upon il. 0. 'j\'u! councrltrn l''!:-rrit the kiid (f soil and tie kind of plants Ikul. groin vioii il. — '11; at a general connection < xisLs between tlie kind ol" ;.;n! .",nd ;lie kind of |d-inls that grow unon it, is funiliar to all |;ivi tical men. 'l bus clay soils are generally acknowhdf'cd tv> dc h"' ;i antcci I'tr wheal — loam\' soils lor bariev — sandy lo:uus u^v ci?., o,- i-.m-;, y — ^ 'ch ris au.- inoi'c sandy still for oats o- rye — and tho-.j. v. l.ivii a:o amiost pure sand, for rye alono cif all the corn-b..iri..g crops. i>L;t in a slate of nai.ure, wo fmd fcpe.-ialdjirercneesuiuoi;;.; ihc spontaneous produce oi iho soil, whirh jjie more or lest ■cav.dy tr.' ce.blo lo its chemical constitution in Ine tpots whci'O the [)lanis are ".""Mi to giow. Tiiiis — 7. 7"<;Vv/, On ibo sandv soils of the sea shoies. rnd on the salt fctoppcs of Hungary aiid uu.;si.i., iho sand-woris, saltworts, glass- worts, and other s:iil loving | iants abound. VVhcn tiiese sarids ar<^ (•n(!losea and drained, tbcoxc(-ss ot" iho salt is gradually wftshedoi.* by the rains, or in s < no count; 'e> is i-en)ovcd by rea|)ir;g 'he s iline plants annually, and b.irning tiiom for soda (barilla), when whole- F orae and nutritive grasses take tlieir place ; but the white clover r.iid the daisy, and the dandelion, must first appear, before, as a general rule, it can bf profitably ploughed up and sown with corn. CANADIAN AGIICULTURAL aCADEA. 278 I' lu'-h I sal I iss- line jIc- Iver a nil. ^. Secondly^ The dry drifted srinds, more or less remote from \\\e sea, produce no such plants. They are distinguished by their own co.'use grasses, among which the e/i^wtw arenarius (upright sea lyme-grass; often, in our latitudes, occupies a conspicuous place. On the downs of North Jutland, it was formerly almost the only plant which ihelrnveliercould meet with over an area of many miles-. 9. Thirdiy^ on ordinary sandy soils leguminous plants are rare, ©rid the herbage often scanty and void of nourishment. With thti presence of marl in such soils, the natural growth of leguminous plants increases. The Cdlt's-ftot also, and the butter bur, not only grow naturiiily whore the subsoil is marly, but infest it sometimes I) such a degree an to be with grerit difficulty extirpated. 80 tru« is this indication of the nature of the soil, that in the lower valliew of ISwitxerhind these plants are said to indicate to the natives where ihey may succossfnlly dig for marl, 10. On calcareous soils, again, or su(;h as abound iti lime, the <]uicken or C'. s'len in many other districts. When the time for a change of crop aii!v.3J-5 the existing trees begin to I/mguish one alter an- other, their loi\ by an admixture of clay, and openness and porosity to siilfci ly by the addition of sand. 2. The hrst and obvious ell'eclofsuch additions is to alter the physical qualities of the soil — to consolidate the pe its and sands, and to loosen llie clays. Biit we have already seen that the fertility of the soil, or its power of producing a protitable return of this or that crop, depends in the rirst place on its chomical constitution. — It must contain in suliiclent abundance all the inorganic substances which that crop requires for its daily food. 3. Where this is already the c.ise, as in a rich stiff clay, a de- cided improvement may be produced by an admixture with silice- ous sand, which merely separates the particles mechanically, and renders the whole more porous. But let the clay be dehcient in some necessary constituent of a fertile soil, and such an addition of siliceous sand would not produce by any means an equal benefit. It may be proper to add this sand with the view of producing tlie mere physical alteration, but we must add some other substance also for the purpose of producing the necessary chemical change. 4. The good etfects which almost invariably follov from the addition of clay to peaty or sandy soils are due to the production at one and the sanie time of a physical and of a chemical change. — They are not only rendered firmer or more solid by the admixture of clay, but tliey derive from this clay at the same time some of those mineral substances which they previously contained in less abundance. 5. The addition of marl to the land acts often in a similar two- fold capacity. It renders clay lands more open and tViable, and to all soils brings an additioij of carbonate, and generally of pho«-. phateoflime, both of which are proved by experience to be not \ «76 CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL BKADIB. only very influential, but to be absolutely neceasary to healthy ▼ogetation. 6. That much benefit to the land would in many instances accrue from such simple admixtures as those above adverted to, where the means arc available, will be leadily granted. The only question on the subject that ought to arise in the mind of a prudent man, is that which is connected with the economy of the case. Is this tli« most profitable way in which 1 can spend my money 1 Can I em- ploy the spare lnb their own holdings. 9. The more widely a knowledge of the entire subject, in all its bearings, becomes diffused, the less it is to be hoped will this diffi- culty become — for the economist, who regards tlie question of improvement as a mere matter of profit and loss, cannot strike a fair balance unless he knows the several items he may prudently introduce into each side of his account. Section VI. 1, Lime. — Limo is never met with in nature except in a stair of chemical combination with some other sul)stance. That which it usually employed in agriculture is met with in the state of eorbo' CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 277 n iko )f»H- •ry I a tub- Ic.il of Its im- of \x\y of It Carbonic acid, Lime, nnte. Carbonate of lime, or common limestone, consists of lime and c'lrboiiic nc'ui, and when perfectly pure and dry, in the fand the lime-stone nodules which are burned for the manufacture of hy- draulic limes or cements. 4. It is easy to ascertain the quantity of earthy matter contained in lime stone, by simply introducing a known weight of it into cold diluted muriatic acid and observmg or weighing the part which, after 12 hours, refuses to dissolve or to exhibit any effervescence. It is to the presence of these insoluble impurities that lime-stones in general owe their colour, ,)ure carbonate of lime being perlectly while. 6. Of the quantity of lime which ought to be used. — The quan- tity of lime which ought to be added to the soil is dependent upon so many circumstances, that it is impossible to stale any general rule by which, in all cases, the practical' man can safely regulate his ^iiocedure. Firsihj^ to soils which coninin no lime, Of to wljich it is addod for the first time, a larger dose must he given. 6. We have seen that a certain minimum portion of lime is in- dispensable io a productive soil. If v/e suppose this smallest quan- tity to be no groaier than 0.2 per cent, in the surface, then with a soil six inches in depth — which contains no lime, we ought to mix a ton and a half, say 40 bushels of slaked lime, and by succes- sive yearly additions to supply the annual waste. 7. But to mix this feeble d'^&e of lime intimately with the soil to 278 CANADIAN AORICULTUBAL RCAOBI. a depth of six inches would obviously require nn expenditure of labour which the practical furmer could raroly afford. It would bo greater economy, therefure, in most cases to add a dose several times larger, and this not only because the same amount of labour would diffuse it more gonfiully through the whole soil, but because this large liming would render less necessary the immediate addi- tion of new supplies to repair the nnnvoidablo waste. 8. l^ut there is re;i on to believe that the proportion of lime which the soil ouglif to contain, if it is to I successtully subjecieii to arable culture, ou.;ht to ho much larger than is obovt assumed as the smallest or in nimum quantity. If we suppose one per cent, to be necessary, then eiglii ions of lime-shells, or upwards of ;^(M) bushels of slakf'd lime, must be mixed with a soil six Iir-Iics in dejtth, to impart to it t. is proportion — or half the quantity if it be kept with- in three inches of the surface. iOven a very largo dnse of lime, therefore, does not, if it be well mixed, materially alter the consti- tution of the soil. 9. ISecond/}/, but experience has proved that the quantity of lime which a skill'ul farmer will add to his land will vnry with manv other circumstances besides the depth of his soil, and the propor- tion ot lime it already contains. Thus — on clay lands more lime is necessary than on light and snndy soils. This may be partly ascribed to the stiiysicai ffi'ect oi, (he lime in opening and loosening the stilf cloy— but iu ii'pfnden* of this action the particles of lime are liable to be coated over and enveloped by the line clay, and thus shut out from the access of the air. These particles, there- fore, must be more numerous in such a soil if as many of them are ^ be exposed to the air as ir lighter land, through which the o.ypheric air continually per.meates. 0. On wet and marshy soils, a larger application still may be i.itide with safety, and partly for the same reason. The moisture surrounding the lime cannot perform its important functions. The same moisture tends to carry down the lime and lodge it more speedily in the subsoil. The continued evaporation also keeps such soils too cold to allow the chemical changes, which lime in favora- ble circumstances produces, to proceed with the requisite degree of rapidity. - ' 11. The soluble compounds which are formed as the conse- quence of these changes are, in wet and marshy soils, dissolved by the moisture, and so diluted as to enter in smaller quantity into the roots of plants. And lastly, in certain cases, new compounds of the lime with the earthy and stony matters of the soil are formed, which may either harden into visible lumps of mortar and cement. I CANADIAN AOftlCULTURAL BEADCR. 279 lime ly be fsture The imorc I such ^ora- ^gre© mse- tdby the Ids of Imed, ient. or into smaller particles of indurated matter, in which the lime is no longer in such a stato as to be able to act in an equal degree as an improver of the soil. 12. In cold find wet clays, in which all these evil conditions oc- casionally meet, it is not surprising, therefore, that large doses of lime should sometimes have been added without producing any sensible benefit whatever. Again, when the soil is also rich in vegeiuhle matter, lime may be still more abundantly applied. — Thus, when a field is at once wet and marshy, ami full of vegeta- ble matter, as our peat bogs are, liino tnn ; c laid on more unspar- ingly than under any other circumsianc*»H. 13. For in this case, besides the ncli Mie access of water, as above explained, the vegetable matter co ■< with and masks the ordinary action of a considerable qu.intiiy oftlielimo. By this combination, no part of the ullimnte influence of the whole lime upon the soiiy is necessarily lost; in most cases the immediate ef- fect only is lessened, which the same quantity ap|)lied toother soils would have been seen to produce. In favourable circumstances its nction is retarded and prolonged, the compounds it forms with vege- table matter decomposing slowly, and, therefore, remaining long in the soil. 14. To the exnct chemical constitution of the compounds thus formed, as soon as lime is mixed up with a soil rich in vegetable matter, and to the chemical changes which these compounds grad- ually undergo, it will be necessfiry to direct our atention when we come to study the theory of the action of lime, as an improver of the soil. Not only t'le natural depth of the soil, as already stated, but also the d^^'ith to which it is usually ploughed, and to which it is customary iM bury the lime, will materially atTect the quantity which can bo safely applied. 15. A dose of lime which would materially injure a soil into which the plough rarely descends beyond two or three inches, might be too small an application where six or eight inches are usually turned over by the plough. When new soil, also, is to be brought up, which may be supposed to contain no lime, or in which noxious substances are present, a heavier dose of lime must neces- sarily be laid upon the land. 16. Thirdly^ such are the circumstances in which large appli- cations of lime may be usefully applied to the land. In soils of an opposite character not only will smaller quantitios of lime produce an equally beneficial effect, but serious injury would often be in- flicted by spreading it too lavishly upon the fields. 17. The more dry and shallow the soil, the more light and %,' IS H IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) -4 // :/. t/j fA 1.0 I.I I4£ m IIIIM m 1^ IIIIM Hi 1^ III 2.0 u. llll^^^^ 1.25 ■ 1.4 — 6" 18 1.6 V] <^ /2 V °> ■> '/ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,\ '^ V L1>^ \ :\ % V O^ 280 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL REAOKR. snndy, the lesH abundant in vegetable matter, tbe more naturilly mild its locality, and the drier and warmer the climate in which it ivS situated— the less the quantity oriime which the prudent farmer will venture to mix with it. It is to the neglect of these natural indications that the exhaustion and barrenness that have occasion- ally followed the application of lime are to be ascribed. It is only in rare cases, such as the presence of much noxious mineral mat- ter in the soil, that these indications can be safely neglected. Section VII. 1. Whether Limb ought to be uskd in larger doses at iiREATER intervals, OR IN SMALLKR D08K8 AT SHORTER INTER- VALS ? — The quantity of lime which ought to be applied to the land must, as we have seen, vary with its quality, and with the conditions in which it is placed. Hence the practice in this respect necessari- ly vaii'5S in every country and in almost every district. 2. But a difference of opinion also prevails among practical men, as to whether that quantity of lime which land of a given kind may require ought to be applied in large doses at long intervals, or in small quantities frequently repeated. The indications of theory in reference to this point are clear and simple. 3. A certain proportion of lime is indispensable in our climate to the production of the greatest possible fertility. Let us suppose a >- tact wiJ'' it. If both must be applied in the same yoar, they should be laid oi» at periods as distant from each other as may be conve- nient, or if this necessity does not exist, the lime should be spread either a yeir before or a year after the period in the rotation &t which the manure is usually applied. 3. It is for this reason, as well as for the other already staled^ that lime is applied to the naked fallow, to the grass before break- ing up, or along with the winter wheat after a green crop which has been aided by fermented manure. When ploughed into the fallow, or spread upon the grass, it has had time to be almost com- pletely converted into the mild state (that of carbonate) before tba manure is laid on. , ,.» 4. In this mild state it has no sensible effect in expelling the ammonia of decomposing manure. Again, when it is applied in autumn along with, or immediately before the seed, the volatile or ammoniacal part of the manure has been expended in nourishing the green crop, so that loss can rarely accrue from the admixture of the two at this period of the rotation. , ;, ; 5. The excellent elementary work of Professor Lowe contains the following remark : — "It is not opposed to theory that limeshouW W'*-'^' "?>"' "^s* CANADIAN AOKICULTURAL RBiDKR. 280 Ih6 n )r re bo opplied tothesoil at the same time with dung and other vegetablo subslances, as is frequent in the practice of farmers.*' This ia strictly correct only in regard to n)arls, lime sand &c., or to per- fectly mild lime, any of which may be mixed, without loss, with manure in any state. Of quick or caustic lime it is correct only when the animal or vegetable matter has not yet begun to ferment, With recent animal or vegetable matter quick-lime may be mixed Dp along with earth into a compost, not only without the risk of much loss, but with the prospect of manifest advantogo. 6. Thirdly, lIuU quick-lime hastens or revives tUe decomposition of inert organic mailer. — This fact also indicates the propriety of allowing the lime as much time as possible to operate betoro a crop is taken from land in which organic matter already abounds. Or where fermenting manure is added, it advises the farmer to wi^it till sj)ontaneous decomposition becomes languid, wiien the addition of lime will bring it again into action and thus maintain a more equable fertility, 7. The above remarks, in regard to the best time for applying lime, refer chiefly to quick-lnne, the state in which, in England, it is 8 >extensivelv used. Marls and shell-srinds can cause no losh when mixed with the manure, and thereiore may with safctv be laid on at any period of the rotation. The same remark aj)plies\vith greater force to the lirnc composts. These may be used precisely in the same way as, and even instead of, the richer manures — may be laid, without risk, upon grass lands of anv quality, aivJ at any pe- riod — or as a top dressing on the young corn in s[)ring, when Ihi© grass and clover s"eds arc sown by which the corn crop is to be fiucceeded. 8. And as the c^^mpost acts more speedily than lime in any other form, it is especiali/ adapted ^or immediate application to the crop it is intended to benefit. To wet lands also, it is well suited, and to such as are.suLj'Ct to much rain, by which, while the surface is naked, the soluble inailnrs produced in the soil are likely to be very much washci awMv. • ' Suction X. 1. Epfectof Limk on the productions ofthr Soil. — Firsllp, it alters the natural produce oftheland, by killingsome kindsof plants and favouring the growth of others, the seeds of which had before lain dormant Thus it destroys the plants which are natural to silicious soils and to moist and marshy places. From the grain-field it extirpates the corn-marigold {chrysunlhemum segetum), while, if added in excess, it encourages the pf>ppy, the yellow cow-whe:»l l5 ij fi #-. ''^wA*^'''"^^ 1^1 286 CANADIAN AORtCULTURAL RKAOBR. i {melampyrum pratense)^ and the yellow rattle {rhlnanlhus crista galli)^ and when it hay sunk, favours tlie growth ot the trouble- some and deep-rooted coltsfoot. 2. Similar elTects are produced upon the natural grasses. It kills heath, moss, and sour and benty (agrostis) grasses, and brings up n sweet and tender herbage, mixed with white and red clovers, more greedily eaten and more nourishing to the cattle. Indeed, all fodder whether natural or a«titicial, is said to be sounder and more nourishing when grown upon land to which lime has been abun- dantly applied. On benty grass the richest animol munuro of^en produces little improvement until a dressing of lime had been laid on. 3. It is partly in consequence of the change which it thus pro- duces in the nature of the herbage, that the application of quick- lime to old grass lands, some time before breaking up, is found to be so useful a practice. The coarse grassefj being destroyed, toagk grass land is opened and softened, and is afterwards more easily worked, while, when turned over by the plough, the sod sooner decays and enriches the soil. It is another advantage of this prac- tice, however, that the litne has time to ditFuso itself through the soil, and to induce some of those chemical changes by which the succeeding crops of corn are so greatly benefitted. 4. It improves the quality of almost every cultivated crop. Thus, upon limed land, tke grain of the corn crops has a thinner skin, is heavier, and yields more flour, while this flour is said also to be richer in gluten. On the other hand, these crops, after lime, run less to straw, and are more seldom laid. In wet seasons wheat preserves its healthy appearance, while on unlimed land, of equal quality, it is yellow and sick ly. A more marked improvement is said also to be produced both in the quantity and in .the quality of the spring sown than of the winter-sown crops. 5. Potatoes grown upon all soils are more agreeable to the taste and more mealy after lime has been applied, and this is especially the case on heavy and wet lands, which lie still undrained. Tur- nips are often improve^ both in quantity and in quality when it is laid on in preparing the ground for the seed. It is most efficient, and causes the greatest saving of farmyard manure where it is ap- plied in the compost form, and where the land is already rich in organic matter of various kinds. ., 6. Peas are grown more pleasant to the taste, and are said to be more easily boiled sojt. Both beans and peas also yield more grain. Rape^ after a half-liming and manuring, gives extraordi- nary crops, aiid the same is the case with the colsuj the seed of CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADER. 287 v/hich is largely raised in France for the oil which it yields. On jlax alone it is said to be injurious, diminishing the strength of the hbre of the stem. Hence, in Belgium, flnx is not grown on limed land till seven years after it has been applied. 7. It hastens the maturity of the crop. — It is true of nearly nil our cultivated crops, but especially of those of corn, that their full growth is attained more speedily when the land is limed, and that Ihey are ready for the harvest from 10 to 14 days earlier. This is the case even with buck-wheat, which becomes sooner ripe, though it yields no larger a return, when lime is applied to the land on which it is grown. 8. The liming of the land is the harbinger of health as well as of abundance. It salubrities no less than it enriches the well cultivated district. I have already drawn your attention to this as one of the incidental results which follow the skilful introduction of the drain over large tracts of country. Where the use of lime and of the drain go together, it is difficult to say how much of the increased healthiness of the district is due to the one improve- ment, and how much to the other. The lime arrests the noxious effluvia which tend to rise more or less from every soil at cer- tain seasons of the year, and decomposes them or causes their elements to assume new forms of chemical combination, in which they no longer exert the same injurious influence upon animal life. 9. How beautiful a consequence of skilful agriculture, that the health of the community should be promoted by the same methods which most largely increase the produce of the land ! Can you doubt that the All-benevolent naces this consequence so plainly before you, as a stimulus to furiiit;; and more general improvement — to the application of other knowledge still to the amelioration of the soil. Skction XI. 1. Circumstances by which the effects of lime a as modi- pied. — These effects of lime are modified by various circumstances. We have already seen that the quantity which must be applied to produce a given effect, and the form in which it will prove most ad- vantageous, are, in a great measure, dependent upon the dryness of the soil, upon the quantity of vegetable matter it contains, and on its stiff or open texture. There are several other circumstances, however, to which it is proper still to advert. Thus: Its effects are greatest when well mixed with the soil, and kept near the sur- face within eojsy reach of the atmosphere. The reason of this will hereafter appear. 2. On arable soils of the same kind and quality, the effects are il "«wri»«lM»**'^ 288 CANADIAN AORirULTURAL READIK. grealcst upon such as are newly ploughed out, or upon subsoils ju«rt brought to day. In the case of subsoils, this is owing partly to their containing naturally very little limo, and partly to the pre- sence of noxious ingredients, which lime has the powor of neutra* lizing. [n the case of surface soils newly ploughed out, the greater efTect, in addition to these two cnusos, is due also o the large amount of vegetable and other organic matter which has gradually accu- mulated within them. It is the presence of this organic matter which has led to the establishment of the excellent practical rule — *♦ that li ne oiiglit always to precede putrescent manures when aid hys are broken for cultivation,'''^ 3. Lime produces a greater proportional imprnvemenf upon poor Boiis than on such as are richer (Dr Anderson^ This is also easily understood. It is of poor soils in their natural state of which Dr. Anderson speaks.* In this state they contain a greater or le"«s quantity of organic matter, but are nearly destitute of lime, and hence are in the most favorable condition for beinsc benefitted i»v a copious i'miiig. Experience hns proved that by this one opera- tion such land may be' raised in money value eiftht times, or from 6.S-. to iOs. per acre ; but no practical man would ex peel that arable land already worth £'Z per acre could, by limine; or any other single operation, become worth £10 per acre of" annual rent. 4. The greater proportional improvement produced upon poor l.-rnds by lime is only an illustration, therefore, of the general truth — that on poor soils the efforts of the skilful improver are always crowned with the earliest and most apparent success. In certnin cases, the addition of lime, even to land in good cultivation, and according to the ordinary and approved practice of the district, pro- duces no effect whatever. This is sometimes observed where the custom prevails, as in some parts of Ayrshire and elsewhere, to apply lime along with every wheat crop, and on such farms espe- cially where the land is of a lighter qu ility. Where from 40 to CO bushels of lime are added at the end of each rotation of 4 or 5 yoars, the land may soon become so saturated with lime that a fresh addition will produce no sensible effect. 5. Thus Mr. Campbell, of Craigie, speaks of a trial made by an intelligent farmer in his neighbourhood, where alternate ridge« only were limed without any sensible difference being observed. * •* I never mot," he says, " with a poor ho'i! in its natura' state, which Was not benefilled in a very great degree by calcareous matter when ad- BiiniHtered m proper quantities. But I h Ye met with several rich SGili*, which are fully impreorualcd with dung, on which lime applied in any %uiuility pioduced not the gmallest sensible efTect.^* Jis-a ♦"i^warix** CANADIAN AGRICl'LTUnAL READER. 2«0 No result could show more clcnrlytlinn this — thnt f'tr one rotation nt least the PX|)onse of lime rnif^hl be snvpo, while at the same limo the \uin\ would run tho less risk of exhaustion Another Tact men- tioned by iMr. Can!j)hell proves tho soundness of this tvujcliision. The lime never fails to pnjdui^e obvious bf-nc fit where the Jand is allowed to be four or livo years in grass — where it is ajiplied, that is, only on.-o in eight or nine years, G. '1 he lair intcrr'ncr' is, tlK-rofore, that in this district, ns well ns in oihers where similar rtrccts are observed, t, lh"soil h.'is hccn so clinrigo«1 as to yiold no adcquato return for \\('\\ ndilijions, 'I'liiis for a jjonoration or two tho prruMices of IiimIm;^ u\A marling ;:ro fihrtndoiicd, lo l)o slowly and k IiiclMilly ro;>uiMOij ;";;iiti, wlien natural ctuusos have r^-niovcd llio limo frodi the soil, and prodm^ed an nctMunnhtlon of llioso otlior snhsfance^ w'uicli, when asbOL'ialcu witli it, contribut.j lo the prouuotivenesa of the ! Mid, Skction XI I. I. KkKKCTS of an OVKUDOSK 01'' LIMI". AND OK TIIK 8INK1N(; 0|F MMK INTO TIIK SOIL. — Tlicro aro soverul ollVt'is which are familiar to tlio practical man as more or less observable when lime in anv f)rrn in laid too lavishly upon tho land. Thus, firsf/y, it is ren- dered .".u loose by nn overdose as to be capable ot holding no uater. Upon stilfclays a very largo (juanlily indeed will be ro- fiuiretl to produce this cllect. "i. Secondly^ by an overdose of quick limo the land is hardened to huch a degree as to be impervious to water or to the roots of plants. Several parts of the Gar.se of Cr)\vrie are thus rendered so hard as to be unfit for vegetation. This etlbct will be observe»p;Mni? with (torri, in tlio f'l'ouini; (>r no /^r^ou (.'miis, /mi i\i thi a hlHiim >'J' un ni'inurc. \ (it evrn with this Iroiimonf liio lut.d is sliij more pioihictivo tlmn iK'fore the in^irling wrus coininfMic^ii. It Mni'liujcs four roiurns in- sload of ihrc.o, niui it grows w h; ;il wiiui-o Ifibro only i'\e wouKl thrive ?iii(i ripni*. (i. From tlio possession of this pxh'tiistincr prop'^r'y Ims nrison thrt fihu'st uiiivorsuily ilitn'soil piovnrh, that /itiif. cnric/ir.s /iie/o' ihers hiU imj'oi^rr/'-'i'n's /.he suns. 'J'h** f'lult, however, is not in the limp, hilt in tho impro\ idfi t latiuirp;, wlio ju ifu'. cnso, ns in so mrmy othtws, oxUfiiist aiid inconsiiioi'.'Uoly sipianiier tlie inhoritancp of thoir sons. If cure he taken to koej) up the supply of organic tnrit- lor in the soil — hy copious ad(hlions of inariure or otherwise — lium may he ndilod freely und n system of higlj farming kept up, hy which holh the [)reseut holder of the lanu aud his succe.saor will be equally i)onefitled. 7. The opinion exprrssed hy some of the highest nuthorities Rinong practical men, that too much lime rnuw^t ho added, |>rovide(i the soil abound sulUciently in vegetable matter, may perhaps he rather overstated ; hut it undoubtedly embodies the result of long- continued observation — that the exhausting effect of limn nmy ho jiostponed indefmitf^ly by a liberal managr-ment of the land.* 8. One of the cauHPs of ihis gradual diminution of the action of lime is to he found in the singular property it possesses of slowly sinking into the land, until it almost entirely disappears from llie surface soil. It has been long familiar to practical men that when grass lands, which have been limed on the sward, are after n time broken up, a white layer or hand of lime is seen at a greater or loss depth beneath the surface, hut lodging, generally, where it has attained its greatest depth, between the upper, louse and fertile, and the lower, more or less impervious and unj)roductive soil. 9. In arable lands the action of the plough counteracts this ten- dency in some measure, bringing up the lime again tVom l)eneath, and keeping it mixed with the surface mould. Yet, through plougb'^i land It sinks at length, especially vvhei>© the ploughing is shallow, and even the industry of tbft gardener can scarcely pjrevent it froro descending beyond the reaoh of his spade* * In Germany the neceRa»ry anion ofmanareftiK) marl is in the moivtlk of evtiry peasiaul-* ■! Obn» QiiHt 1st dM^ (jleld fui A»«geiqL Vfr^kltU 202 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. i If) 9 10. The chief cause of this sinking is to be found in the exti*emo minuteness of the particles into which slnl(ed lime naturally fulls. If a portion of slaked lime be mixed with water it forms a milky mixture, in which some lime is dissolved, but much more is held in suspension in an extremely divided state. When this milk is al- lowed to stand undisturbed, the fine particles subside very slowly, and are easily again disturbed, but if thrown upon a filter they nm arrested immediately, and the lime-water passes through clear. Suppose these fine ))articlos to be mixed with the soil, and the rain to fall upon them, it will carry them downwards through the poreH of the soil till the close sutjsoil acts the part ol a tilter, and arrests ihem. 11. This tendency to he washed down is common not only to lime but to alhninufehj divided earthy mailer of a tiujjUiprdly inco- herent nature. Hence the formation of that more or lesd imprr- vious layer of finely divided matter which so often forms the sub- soil Leneath free and open surface soils. And that lime should appear alone or chiefly to sink on any cultivated field, may arise from this circumstance — that tiie continued action of the rains had long before carried downwards the finer incoherent particles of other kinds which existed naturally in the soil, and therelbre could find little else but the lime on which this action could be exercised. 12. This explanation is satisfactory enough in the case of light and open soils, which are full of pores, but it appears less so in regard to stiff clnys and to loamy soils, which are not only close and apparently void of pores, but seem themselves to consist of par- ticles in a sufficiently minute state of division to admit of their being carried down by the rains in an equal degree with lime itself. This difficulty induced Lord Dundonald to suspect the agency of Bome chemical principle in producing the above effect. 13. As the lime, however, is unchanged after it has descended, is still in a powdery state, and exhibits no appearance of having been dissolved, it is difficult to imagine any chemical action by which such a sinking could have been brought about. It is possi- ble that in grass lands the earth-worms, which contribute so much to the gradual production of a fine mould, may, by bringing uptb6 other earthy matters only, contribute to the apparent sinking of the lime, as well as of certain other top-dressings, 14. Ihe effects of this sinking are to remove the lime from the surface soil, and to form a layer of calcareous matter which in wet or impervious bottoms will harden and form a more or less solid bed or pan^ through which the rains and roots refuse to penetrate, end which the subsoil plough in some districts can tear up wkb CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADER. 298 of the I wet )lid ite, dJiTiculty. On our stiiTor soils it encoarngos the growth of tho troublosi' slaked lime or of soft and crumbling chalk, it stilfens very loose 8<>i!s, and opens the stilR.>r clays, — while in the form of limestone gravel or of shell sand, il may be employed either for opening a day soil or n)r giving body and firmness to boggy land. Thesa oilects, and their explanation, are so obvious to all, that it is unne- cessary to dwell uj)on them. 2. The purposes served by lime as a chemical constituent of the soil are at least of four distinct kinds : It supplies a kind of organd- ie food which appears to be necessary to the healthy growth of all our cultivated plants. It neutralizes acid substances which are naturally formed in the soil, aiid decomposes or renders harmless otiicr noxious compounds which are not unfrequenth' within reach of the roots of plants. It changes the inert vegetable nmatter in the •oil, so as gradually to render it useful to vegetation. 3. It causes, facilitates, or enables other usetul compounds, both organic and inorganic, to be produced in the soil, — or so promotes the decomposition of existing compounds as to prepare them more a]>eedily for entering into the circulation of plants. These sev- eral modes of action it will be necessary to illustrate in soma detail. 4. Of Lime as the food of Plants. — In considering the chemical imture of the ash of plants, we have seen that lime in all casea forms a considerable proportion of its whole weight. Hence the reason why lime is regarded as a necessary food of plants, and hence also one cause of its beneficial influeoce in general agricul* UktifX practice. fi94 CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 5. The quantity of the pure lime contained in llie crops pn). duccd U|>on one acre during the years' rotation amounts, on an average, to 242 lbs. which are equal to about 430 lbs. (say 4cwt.) of carbonate of lime, in the stale of mar], shell s.-iud, or lime-ston« gravel. It is obvious, therefore, that one of the most intelligibl© purposes served by lime, as a chemical constituent ol the soil, is to Mq)ply this comparatively large quantity of lime, wliich in sonia form or other m'.ist enter into the roots of plants. 6. But the different crops which we grow contain lime in unlike proportions. Thus the average produce ol an acre of land under tl»e following crops contains of lime — Gi rain or Ri 0^6'. Str aw or T ops. Total. Wheat, 25 bushels, 1.5 7.2 b.7 lb» Barley, 38 " 2.1 12 9 15 " Oats, 50 '* 2.5 5.7 8.2 " Turnips 25 tons, 45.8 93.0 138.8 '* Potatoes, 9 " 6.6 259.4 266.0 ** Red clover, 2 tons, — 126.0 126.0 '^ llye grass, 2 " 33.0 33.0 ♦* 7. These quantities are not constant, and wheat especially con- tains much more lime than is above staled, when it is grown upon land to which lime hus been copiously applied. But the very dif- ferent quantities contained in the several crops, as above exliibited, shew that one reason why lime favours the growth of some cropa more than others is, that some actually take up a larger quantity of lime as food. These cro|)S, therefore, require the presence of lime in greater proportion in the soil, in order that they may be able to obtain it so readily that no delay may occur in the perfornv ance of those functions or in the growth of those parts to which lime is indispensable. 8. The chemical action of Lime is exerted chiefiy upon the organs ic matter of the soil. — There are four circumstances of great prac- tical importance in regard to the action of lime, which cannot be too carefully considered in reference also to the theory of itv o^jeration. These are, that lime has little or no effect upon the soils in which organic matter is deficient. That its apparent effect is inconsiderable during the firstyear after its application, compared with that which it produces in the second and third years. 9. That its effect is more sensible when it is kept near the sur- face of the soil, and gradually becomes less as it sinks towards tha •ubsoil. And, that under the influence of lime the organic matter of the soil disappears more rapidly than it otherwise would do, and that after it has thus disappeared fresh additions of lime produce do CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL READER. 295 iiy of b8 be its ?a red Jter M ther good efTeot. It is obvious from these facts, that in general • 'O main beneficial purpose served by lime is to be sought for in ihe nature of its chemical action upon the organic matter of the soil — an action which takes place slowly, which is hastened by the access of air, nnd which causes the orcranic matter itself ultimatelv to disappear. 10. Of the forms in whicli organic mailer ufiualhj exists in the scil^ and the circumstances under which its decomjmsition vunj titkc place. — The organic matter which lime thus causes to disappear is presented to it in one or other of five different forms : in that of recent, often green, moist, and undecomposed roots, leaves, and tfems of plants In that of dry, and still undecomposed, vegetable matter, such as straw. In a more or less decayed or decaying state, generally black or brown in colour — and often in some degree •oluble in water. 11. In wiiat is called the merKstate, when spontaneous decay ceases to be sensibly observed. And, in the state of chemical coin- bination with the earthy substances — with the alumina for exam- ple, and vvith the lime or magnesia — already existing in the soil. — Upon these several varieties oi organic matter lime acts with different degrees of rapidity. 12. The final result of the decomposition of these several forms of organic matter, when they contain no nitrogen, is their conver- sion into carbonic acid and water only. They pasru however, through several intermediate stages before they reach ihis point — the number and rapidity of which, and the kind of changes they undergo at each stage, depend upon the circumstances under which tlie decomposition is effected. Thus the substance may deconipofie aJone, in which case the changes that occur proceed slowly, and arise solely from a new arrangement of its own particles. This kind of decomposition rarely occurs to any extent in soil. 13. In the presence of water only — This also seldom takes place in the soil. Trees long buried in moist clays impervious to air, exhibit the kind of slow alteration which results from the pre- sence of water alone. In the bottoms of lakes, ditches, and boggy places also, from which inflammable gases arise, water is the principal cause of the more rapid decomposition. 14. In the presence of air only. — In nature organic matter is never placed in this condition, the air of our atmosphere being always largely mixed with moisture. In dry air decomposition is eieedingly slow and the changes which dry organic substances undergo in it are often scarcely perceptible. 15. In the presence of both water and air. — This is the alinoMt 296 CANADIAN AOBICULTURAL READER. universal condition of the organic matter in our fields &n3 farm- yards. 'J'he joint action of air and water, and the tendency of tiie «doincnts (jf the organic matter to enter into new combinations, cause now chemical changes to succeed each other with much rapidi'y. It will of course bo understood that moderate warmth is iicce;s.sary to the j)roduclion of tlicse effects. 10. ///. tlie presence of flme, or of some other alkaline substances (potash, soda, or magnesia). — Organic matter is often f{jund in tiiG soil ill such a state that the conjoined action of both air and wa- ter are unai)!eto hasten on its decom|)osition. A new chemical agency must then be iutroduced, by which the el-menls of the or- ganic matter may again beset in motion. Lime is the agent which for this purpose is most largely en![doyed in practical agriculture. Skctio.v XIV. 1. Layino down to grass. — Oneof tlie most common ,Tietlod.s of improving the soil is that of laying doion to grass. Tliis may be done for two. three, or four }oars only, or for an indeilnile pe- riod of time. In the latter case, the land is said to be iuid dosvn jtermanently, or to permanent pasture. 2. Tenijjoranj j)us/ lire or 7neadoi('. — U the land be sown with grass and clover-seeds, only as an alternate crop between two sow- ings of corn, the roots which are left in the soil enrich the surfiire with both organic and inorganic matter, and thus fit it lor bearing a better aftercrop of corn. If, again, it be left to grass for three or live years, the same ellect is produced more fully, and therefore this longer rest from corn is better lilted for soils which are poor in vegetable matter. 8. The quantity of organic matter which has accumulated be- comes greater every year, in consequence of the annual death of stems and roots, and of the soil being more closely covered, but this increase is probably never in any one after-year equal to that which takes place during the first. The quantity of roots which is pro- duced during the first year of the young plants' growth must, we may reasonably suppose, be greater than can ever afterwards be necessary in an equal space of time. Hence, one good year of grass or clover will enrich the soil more in proportion to the time expemk mowed. expcHmd^ than a rest of two oi: three years in grass, if annually , 4. Or, if instead of being mown, the produce in each case bo eaten otT by stock, the result will be the same. That which lies longest will be the richest when broken up, but not in an equal pro- portion to the time it Has lain. The produce of green parts, as CANADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADER. 207 be- of his ich ro- wo be of me \U9 Ibo ies Iro. Ins w^U as of roots, in the firliilci-il grasses, is gonorally gro.ilctst du- ring the first yearniLor tlioy are jsDSvn, and tlicrcf'.rc the iiianurilig uonvod from liie di"oj)(»ing.s uflho stock, as well as from tliG roots, will he greatest in proportion 'iiiriiig the lirst year. That farming, ihereforo, is most ecionornical — vviicre the land nvIH admit of it — which permits the clover or grass seeds to occupy the land for ono year only. 0. \\{\\. if, after iho first year's hay is removc(1, the land bn pas- tared for two or three years more, it is possihlo that eaeli succceii- ijig year may enrich tiie surface soil as much ns the roots and sluhblo of tlie first year's hay had done ; so th;i.t if it lay three years it might obtain three times the amount of improvement. This is owing to the circumstance t!i;!l the whole pro.luce of the field re- mains upon it, except what is carried oiT !)y the stock when re- moved — but very much, it is o!)vious, will depend upon the nature of the soil, and upon the selecrion of the seeds being such as to se- cure a tolerable produce of green food during the SL-cond and third vears. (j. Permanent jpastiire or mcadoic. — But wlicn land is laid down to permanent grass it undergoes a series of further changes, which have Irequenlly arrested attention, and which, though not diflicult to be uiiuerstood, have often ap))eared mysteric-us and perplexing to practical men. Let us consider these changes. When grass seeds are sown for the purpose of forming a permanent sward, a rich crop of grass is obtained during the first, and perhaps also the Mccond year, but the produce afier three or four years lessens, and the value of the pasture diminishes. T. The plants generally die and leave blank spaces, and these again are slowly .filled up by the sprckiting of seeds of other spe- cies, which have either lain long buried in the soil or have been brought thither by the winds. This first change, which is almost universally observed in fields of artificial grass, arises in part from the change which the soil itself has undergone during the few years that have elapsed since the grass seeds were sown, and in part from the species of grass selected not being such as the soil, at any time, could permanently sustain. 8. When this deterioration, arising from the dying out of the 80wn glasses, has reached its utmost point, the sward begins gra- dually to improve, natural grasses suited to the soil spring up in the blank places, and from year to year the produce becomes greater and greater, and the land yields a more valuable pasture. Practi- Cdl men often say that to this improvement there arc no bounds, and th^t the older the pasture the more valuable it bocomos. But (bia 298 CAN'ADIAK AORICULTUKAL READRR. is true only within certain limits. It may prove true for the en- tire currency of a lease, or even for tlje lifetime of a single obser- ver, but it is not generally true. Even if j)asture(] by stock only and never mown, the improvement will at length reach its limit or highest point, and from tins time the value of the sward will begin to diminish, 9. I'his, again, is owing to a new citange which has come over tlje soil. It has become, in some degree, exhausted of those sul>- stances which are ncccssarv to the ejrowth of the more valu:ihia grasses — less nutritive species, therefore, and such as are less wil- lingly eaten by cattle, take their place. Such is the almost uni- versal process of change wliich old grass fields undergo, whether they be regularly mown or constantly pastured only — provided they are left entirely to themselves. 10. If mown they begin to fail the sooner, but even when pas- tured they can be kept in a slate of full productiveness only by re- peated top dressings, especially of saline manure — that is, by adding to the soil those substances which are necessary to the growth oft!*© valuable grasses, aud of which it suffers a yearly and unavoidable loss. Hence, the rich grass lands of our fathers are found now in too many cases to yield a herbage of little value. Hence, also, m nearly all countricfi, one of the first steps of an improving agricul- ture is to plough out the old and failing pastures, and either to con- vert them permanently into arable fields, or, after a few years' cropping and manuring, again to lay them down to grass. 1 1. But when thus ploughed out, the surface soil upon old grass land is found to have undergone a remarkable alteration. When sown with grass seeds, it may have been a stiff, more or less grey\ blue, or yellow claj- — when ploughed out it is a rich brown, gene- rally light and friable vegetable mould. Or when laid down it may have been a pale-coloured, red, or yellow sand or loam. In thi» case the surface soil is still, when turned up, of a rich brown co- lour — it is lighter only and more sandy than in the former case, and rests upon a subsoil of sand or loam instead of one of clay. It is from the production of this change that ihe improvement caused by laying down land to grass principally results. In what does this change consist 1 and how is it effected ? 12. If the surface soil upon stiff clay lands, which have lain long in grass, be chemically examined, it will be found to be not only much richer in organic matter, but often also poorer in alumina than the soil which formed the surface when the grass seeds were first sown upon it. The brown mould which forms on lighter lande will exhibit similar differences when compared with the soil ob i^ i*i" CAMADIAN AGRICULTURAL RKADRR. ^0 winch it rests ; but the prf)j)ortion of nlurniiia in the latter being originally small, the dillerence in respect to this constituent will not be so perceptible. 13. The etl'ect of this change on the surficc soil is in all casen to make it more rich in those substances which cuitivnted plants require, and therefore mor*^ fertile in grrtin. liut strong clay landa derive ihe further important benefit of being rendered more loosy end friable, and thus more easily and more econumicallv cultiva- ted. The mode in winch tiiis change is brought abuul is as follows : — 14. The roots, in penetrating, open and loosen the adjacent stiff cSay. DitFusing tiiemselves every where, tboy gradually raise, by increasing the bulk of, the surface soil. The latter is thus con- verted into a mixture of clay and decayed roots, which is of a dark c<,4our, and is necessarily more loose and friable than the original or subjacent unmixed clay. 15. But this admixiuie of roots afTects the chemicnl composition «H well as the state of nggregation of the sod. The roots and •Cemsof the gras.-5es contain much inorganic — ear:hy and saline — matter, which is gathered fiom beneath, wherever the roots pene- Uate, and is by them sent upwards to the surface. A ton of ha? coutains about 170 lbs. of this inorganic matter. It). Suppose the roots to contain as much, and that the total no- mial produce of grass and roots together amounts to four tons, then about 080 lbs. of saline and earthy matters are every year worke<] up by the living plants, and in a great measure permanently mixed with tlie surface soil. Some of'ims, no doubt, is carried off by the cattle that feed, and by the ruins that fall, upon the land — soriio remains in the deeper roots, and some is again, year after year, employed in feeding the new growth of grass — still a sufficient quantity is every season brought up from beneath, gradually to en- rich the surface with valuable inorganic matter at the expense of the soil below. 17. Nor are mechanical agencies wanting to increase this natu- ral difference between the surface and the under soils. The looisen* ing and opening of the clay lands by the roots of the grasses allow the rains more easy access. The rains grac ualiy wash out the fine particles of clay that are mixed with the roots, and carry them doMrnwards, as they sink towards the subsoil. 18. Hence the brown mould, as it forms, is slowly robbed of a portion of its alumina, and is rendered more open, while the under •oil becomeseven stiffer than before. This sinking of the alumina ie ia a great measure arrested when the soil becomes covered with 800 CANADIAN AflRlCULTURAL READRR* SO thick a swnnl of grass as to hroak the force oftlie raindrops or of tiio streams of water by wliich the land is poriodicaliy visiteil. — I lonce the soil ol' some rich |)aslures contains as much as 10 or 12, of others as iiitlo as 2 or li |)er cent, of nlumina. 19. The winds also here lend tiieir aid. From the n.'ked arable lands, wiion the woruhor is dry. every blrist ol* wind carries off a l)i)rtion of the dust. This it sufiors to (all ngain (is it sweeps along the surface of the grass fields — tho thick sward arresting the par- ticles and silling the air as it passes through them. J'^vorywliore, even to remote districts, and lo ri-eat elevations, the winds bear a constant .S///Y/// burthen of earthy matter; but there are few practi- cal agriculturists who, during our high winds, have not occasion- ally seen the soil carried olf in largo (Quantities from their naked fields. Upon the neighbouring grass lands tliis soil falls as a na- tural top-dressing, by which the texture ol the .surface is gradually changed and its chemical constitution altered. 20. Another important agency also must not be overlooked. In grass lands insects, and especially earth-worms, abound. Thesf^ almost nightly ascend to the surface, and throw out portions of finely divided earthy matter. On a close shaven lawn the quantity thus spread over the surface in a single night often appears sur- prising. In the l.ipse of years the accumulaiion of the soil from this cause must, on old pasture fields, be very great. It has often attracted the attention of practical men, and so striking has it ap- peared to some, that they have been inclined to attribute to the slow but constant labour of these insects, the entire formation of the fertile surface soils over large tracts of country. \'H\i »|i-i L II ■ • '1 \^)j^ d at CONTENTS. >«u. Sec. CIIAPTBRI. 1. Brie r Hints tor January, 2. February, 8. March, 4. April, 6. May, 6. June, 7. July, 8. August, - 0. September, 10. October, 11. November, 13. December, CHAPTER II. 1. The Plough and its use, 2. Ploughing, 8. Fall Ploughing, 4 dz; 5. Fallows, . - - 6. Deep and shallow Ploughing, 7. The Roller, 8. On the Effects of stirring the Earth aa a relief against Drought, CHAPTER III. Pa OR. ft 7 y 10 II 14 l."i 2i) *2i ♦24 •2 ft 27 29 84 38 S9 44 45 Sc«. 1&2 Wheat Culture, > • 1 « 49 8. Spring Wheat, • « 56 4. Rust on Wheat, ■ m 58 •■ ! B. Chess on Wheat, - • 60 . ? ft. Smut on VVheat, m m 61 r 7. Winter Killed, 62 8. Barley, - - . - • 4 64 : 9. Spring Crops, — Oats, , 67 * 1 10. Pease, ... • 1 68 ! 11- Culture of the Polatoe, 71 ■■.^i Vi. Culture of Indiftn Corn, - m 76 v^J 13. Broom -corn. 78 %y 14. Selection and change of Seed, » % 60 [302] 1 Paor, Skc. \\ On the cultivation of tho ?U!?'ir Jjor-t, Hi t IH. lliiffi [{ug.'i. orSwoiiisiri'urnip, 87 If 17. ('.'irrot, — Dducim, ... 89 18. lJeirij)S, ..... !»:j 19. ('nltiv;ition ofCirasses, 94 20. Mowing, .... 99 i; 21. Pasture, - . - . , l()-2 '.; •24. Raising Seeds, .... 104 ■ ■ Cn AFTER IV. Skg. 1. Horses, lOfi 2. Treatment ol" tho Horse, lOf} 8. Colour of the Horse, . . . < 109 1 4. Tiio Hackney Horse, - . . . li:) 5. The Farmer's Horse, - 114 1 6. The Draught Horse, 117 1 7. Points of a Good Horse, 119 8. |)iscases of Horses, . . - . 12i ( , 9. The Waggoner, . . . . 125 ll( ' 10. Farm Stock, 127 U. On Stocking a Farm wit.h C^ttle, - 128 i li &i 13. Fissay on (^'attle, - . . . i:U 1) . , . 14. Training Oxefl, . . , . 141 , 7- If). 'J'reatnient of Milch Cows, - 14'i ■ ■' 16. Mutter Making, . • • - . 144 1 17. Cheese Making, . . . . 118 ] 18. Rearing Calves, . . . . irx2 19. Apples, as Food for Slock, - 1.54 1 20. Fattening (battle, . . . . 156 1 1 -i •21. Mangel Wurtzel, , . . , 159 A CHAPTER V. i| Swe. 1. Rules for selecting Cattle and ^beep. 103 1 3. Saxon and Meriuo Sheep, IM 8. Leicester Sheep, . . . . ItiS l>i 4 South Down Sheep, . . . . 170 1 '■ ."i 1 »• ■ . Wintering Sheep, . . - - na i! -: ■■' -«. • Essay on Swine, . . - - 175 '% The 'Boar, 170 ar •i. Making Pork, 19*J I Hi' 9. Profitable Hens, - . . , 1^^ i lU. My Cottage Homei • • * Ifil [303] Skc. P > 11. 18. 14. riaster, mid its mode of nrlion, Marl, . . . . Ponds, nrtd I'oiid ^!^tl, (irceii Crops tis Muimre, CIIAl'TEll VI. Farming (.'<'i|)itul, Fut Animals nnd Larj!;n Oops, Arrangement of Agrii-iiitural liahor. Farm Implcmontsand Ijabor-s'iving Much Impolicy of burning CJrcon Woutl, Canada Thistles, Farmer A, who works it wrong, - Farmer B, who works it right, t> vSc 10. The Story of Uncle Tim and his Son, 11. The Farmers' Fair, CHAPTER VU. Si'ic. 1. Good Maxims for Fanners in the nmnago- rncnt of their Barn-yards, *2, 3&;4. The Sim[)le Elements in Chemistry Si:€. I. ») •*• 8. 4. 5. I'aor. 1H7 lirj I'Jii lfJ8 •JO I ♦20i> 'J 1 9 188, ry. «. 7, 8. 0. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. vard Q, anc 8«c 1. a. a. The general composition of f?arn- Manure, ... Combustion and Decay of Plants, Causes of Sterility, Excrements of Horses, Horned Cattl Pigs, - ^ - Excrements of Fowls, - Dung of Sheep, Wood Ashes and Soot, Knowledge of Farming, Quality of Manure, Management of Manure, Improvement of Manure, Quantity of Barn-yard Manure produced by Crops and Conjposts, - - . CHAPTER VIII. The waste of the different constituent ele- ments of Plnnts, - - . - Rotation of Crops and Drainage, • Harvest Hymni 927 2^7 •241 213 2-17 2U> 2.VJ 254 258 Q09 270 [304] !eo. 4. ft. A. 7; •<• v. a ft. 10. 11. la. 14. TI»o j)hysical qunlitios nnd chnmicnl con. stilution of a soil mny bo cliiingol by Ri't, ••■••« linprovomcnt of iho soil by mixing. Lirrif, ...... VVliollier Lime oiiglit to bo uso(i in lar^op doses at grontfi* iiiti*rval8, or in sm;illor dosoH at sborter intervals, Form and state of combijiation in whic^h Lime ought to bo a|)plio(i to the land, and of the use and advantages of the compost form, . . . - When ought limo to be applied, Efl'cct of limo on tho productions of thi soil, --.... CirciunstanceF by which the elFccts of Limo are modified, - . - EfTocts of an overdose of Lime, and of the sinking of Ijimo into the soil. Theory of the action of Lime, Laying down to Graas, Worn, 271 v>7(} 2*10 2«2 2b4 28r, 287 2!K) 27« '2^0 2«2 28.', 297 2fK) 2fi;{ 21>?i >♦