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Study Text IV

Commentary on

The Rite of Penance

1975

Publications Office

UNITED STATES CATHOLIC CONFERENCE

1312 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20005



Copyright © 1975 by the Bishops’ Committee on the Liturgy
National Conference of Catholic Bishops

1312 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005



Contents

INTRODUCTION 1

I. SIN-PENANCE-RECONCILIATION 3

The Consciousness and Experience of Sin 3

The Practice of Penance Today 6

The Church: Sign and Ministry of Reconciliation 7

Why a Sacrament of Reconciliation? 9

Why a Celebration of Reconciliation? 12

II. PASTORAL COMMENTARY ON THE
RITE OF PENANCE 15

General Orientation 15

The Mystery of Reconciliation in the

History of Salvation 17

The Reconciliation of Penitents in the

Life of the Church 19

Offices and Ministries in the

Reconciliation of Penitents 22

The Celebration of the Sacrament of Penance 23

III. THREE FORMS OF CELEBRATION 27

The Reconciliation of Individual Penitents 27

The Reconciliation of Several Penitents with

Individual Confession and Absolution 32

The Reconciliation of Several Penitents with

General Confession and Absolution 36

IV. APPENDIX 40

A Suggested Bibliography 40

Deadened





Introduction

Study Text IV is being made available as diocesan liturgi-

cal commissions, parish liturgy committees, study groups,

teachers, confessors, and faithful turn their attention to the

preparation needed for a proper and fruitful implementation of

the new rite for the celebration of the sacrament of penance.

Fourth in the series of study texts, this booklet provides a

practical explanation of the Ordo Paenitentiae (Rite of Penance)

as promulgated by the Congregation for Divine Worship on

December 2, 1973 and approved in English translation by the

Apostolic See on March 1 1, 1975. It is the hope of the Bishops’

Committee on the Liturgy that this study text will help place

the celebration of penance in its proper place within the pastoral

practice of the Christian community.

It is suggested that a copy of the Rite of Penance be re-

ferred to as the material of Study Text IV is studied. In addition

to a general treatment of sin, penance and reconciliation, this

booklet offers a pastoral commentary on the introduction to the

new rite along with a thorough discussion of the three forms of

sacramental reconciliation!



Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2016

https://archive.org/details/commentaryonriteOOcath



I. Sin—Penance—Reconciliation
“I have not come to invite the self-righteous to a change of

heart, but sinners” (Luke 5:32). More than ever these words

of the Lord compel Christians to rethink their perception of

the Gospel and the whole task of pastoral ministry. In a world

torn by division, and in an age in which even the Church is not

exempt from conflict and division, Christ’s words and life’s

ministry are still present and meaningful. The Lord still calls

men and women to conversion, repentance and reconciliation.

Thus the new Rite of Penance, the last major section of the

Roman Ritual to be reformed, comes at a time when it is most

needed.

After ten years of liturgical reform, the Church is still

learning that the praise and worship of the Lord depend on our

lives being transformed by the healing and reconciling grace of

God. The experience of conversion, expressed liturgically and

sacramentally, is as central to the life of the Christian as is the

recognition of sinfulness and dependence on God. To come to

the Lord as worshippers “in spirit and in truth” Christians must

at the same time change their way of life, repent and believe.

The new Rite of Penance is central to good liturgical reform

and as such will be a rich source for the pastoral ministry. The

various options, the possibility of three different rites, the cen-

trality of the scriptures, the warmth and prayerful dialogue

envisioned by the rites, all underline the fact that the Church’s

ministry is one of healing, of forgiveness and reconciliation.

Underscoring the new Rite of Penance is a broader and 1

deeper understanding of sin and sinfulness. If the word of God the CONSCIOUSNESS AND
is a call to conversion, it is therefore a challenge to men and EXPERIENCE OF SIN

women to recognize the human condition and predicament.

Conversion implies change and so a movement away from sin.

The bible enables one to recognize the presence of sin, its true

meaning and extent, and to understand one’s involvement in evil.

Hearing the word of God, hearing the call to repentance, makes

man conscious that he is indeed a sinner, that he is weak and in

3



need of healing—that he must choose. For only in hearing God’s

word can man understand the need for salvation.

Many people are asking: “Whatever became of sin?”

Pastors wonder about it when confronted with the statistics of

the decline in confessional practice. Are people no longer

conscious of sin? Has responsibility for one’s acts been com-

pletely transferred outside the individual person to the realm

of behavioral determinism? Does the word “sin” even have any

meaning today? And in any case, why confess one’s sins in

intimacy to another human being?

Undoubtedly, the fact that such questions are even asked

demonstrates the change that has taken place in moral conscious-

ness. Likewise, the scope and extent of penitential practice has

always been a barometer of the moral environment of a society.

So where are we today? Are we witnessing a moral decline of

great magnitude, or a change (for better or worse?) in our

understanding of sinfulness?

The change has been neither sudden nor recent, for one

thing. Rather, there has been a gradual and progressive move-

ment away from the idea that sin can only be measured as an

individual and personal transgression of some law or precept. A

good case can be made for the notion that moral consciousness

has really developed and deepened in our time. For the meaning

of sin has often in the past been too narrow and too limited to

the individual act. We are witnessing today not only a new

consciousness of the individual but also a newer awareness of

the corporate responsibility of all men and women for the con-

dition of society. The shocking and wretched misery of so many

human beings, problems of peace, justice, oppression and hunger

are now posed as personal and corporate questions of conscience.

They are the responsibility of all human society. This change

in consciousness has also contributed to a change in the concept

of sin. However two factors continue to obscure the problem.

Moral theologies of the past often confused sin and moral

fault, identifying one with the other, because of constant refer-

ence to precise individual acts and catalogues of sin. In a

legalistic moral theology, where value is defined in terms of what

is allowed and what is forbidden and in which God is seen

almost exclusively as legislator and judge, sin became identified

4



with the transgression of rules and commandments, divine or

ecclesiastical. As a consequence, conversion came to be under-

stood as that process of “getting back in good order,” but always

with reference to an external set of rules.

The same process can be observed in a moral theology of

intention in which human values are seen as ideals. Sin is then

understood as failing to live up to those ideals. In such a the-

ology, the person of Christ becomes viewed as that of an idealist

and do-gooder. Good behavior and human idealism are pro-

jected on to his person and ministry. Conversion in such a

system is not radical; it simply means living up to a vague ideal.

Neither system says enough about the biblical idea of con-

version as radical transformation of one’s life. Jesus was not

content simply to announce the Kingdom. His whole ministry

brought the power of the Kingdom to bear on all human activity,

thus dealing a blow to such comfortable ideas that man is self-

sufficient, or that riches (Mark 10:21-25) or pride (Luke 18:9)

can solve a person’s problems. For Jesus conversion is the re-

turn of the total person to God, becoming a “little child”

(Matthew 18:3 passim ) who depends totally on the Father.

Human existence must be measured and arranged according to

this new law of love and dependence. Thus conversion is trans-

formation, and necessarily means a change in human conduct.

We live in explosive times, an era in which traditions, ideas

and ideologies which took and kept shape for so long, are giving

way. However, the rapid change which modern men and women

are experiencing today has, as a consequence, caused deep feel-

ings of anxiety and insecurity. Thus a displacement of moral

consciousness has taken place with regard to ancient references.

No longer is it viable to consider good Christian conduct as mere

conformity to a set of rules. Likewise, dearly held values of the

past, e.g., power, comfort, order, security—all are being con-

tested.

What remains constant, however, is both the consciousness

of evil and the aspiration for good. We are witnessing a creative

dissatisfaction in man with ordinary and useless ways of doing

things, arranging the world, and solving problems. Such a dis-

satisfaction is leading mankind in new and different directions

and is changing men and women, not always for the better, but

changing them nonetheless.

5



2 Change in sacramental practice is symptomatic of the

THE PRACTICE OF broader change in human consciousness. Undoubtedly, the

PENANCE TODAY central role once played by the sacrament of penance is no

longer the same, nor as important as it once was. Many Catho-

lics have given up the practice of monthly confession. Priests

and religious have set aside weekly confession. Yet accompany-

ing the decline in number and frequency of confessions has

been the steady, and to some, startling increase in the number

of communions. At any given Sunday eucharistic assembly, the

majority of people receive communion. One of the most basic

reasons for this development is the fact that Catholics no longer

see a necessary link between confession and communion. Nor

did frequent confession in the past necessarily imply frequent

communion. Too often Catholics felt unworthy to receive com-

munion at Mass even though they had recently confessed.

Penitential practice has changed for many reasons. The

constant repetition of the “same old sins,” the impersonalism

of the confessional, the all too frequent short shrift given to

penitents in the confessional, the new sense of freedom among

Catholics—all are factors in the change of climate and status

of°the sacrament of penance. But perhaps the most important

element has been in the understanding given to the notion of

“serious” or “mortal” sin. The obscurity of meaning surround-

ing the idea of sin is closely tied to the decrease in confessional

practice, and to the evolution of both moral consciousness and

moral theology.

Changes in moral theology were not always perceived in

terms of any evolution in ecclesiology. People have grasped

certain ideas of the “new” moral theology without also under-

standing the theology of the Church which supports those ideas.

Thus if people believe it is more difficult to be involved in mortal

or deadly sin than we had hitherto supposed, the very need for

the sacrament of penance is then questioned. After all, if I am

not in serious sin why do I have to confess to a priest? What is

there to confess? The problem here is ecclesiological.

God’s merciful kindness cannot be conceived only in terms

of deadly sin but as the condition and climate of Christian

thinking and of human relations. The Church exists not as a

structure to organize society but as the witness and continuation

of the healing presence of the Lord in the world. The Church

6



is a reconciling community, in which all Christians must con-

stantly recognize the need to establish peace through mutual

forgiveness and by being a sign of forgiveness for all men and

women. Within the Church, through her sacraments, Christians

realize the mutual support needed in the ongoing task of change

of heart. Reconciliation itself is an ecclesial, sacramental reality

in which all Christians are engaged. This has not always been

understood in recent centuries. The new rite of reconciliation

comes, then, at a time when it is most needed. But why recon-

ciliation?

If moral responsibility in both the personal and collective

spheres of human activity is a crucial issue in the modern world,

so is the issue of peace, mutual forgiveness, healing, in a word,

reconciliation. For reconciliation conceived in terms of peace

and healing, and forgiveness, reaches into our inner souls in a

more profound manner than any other reality dealt with in the

Church’s liturgical/pastoral renewal. The reform of penance

gets at the heart of our personal and civic lives and challenges

us to move in a different direction. The new Rite enables us to

see the Church as a reconciling community, the sign of God’s

healing presence in the world, a Church charged with a ministry

of reconciliation.

The very relevance of the Church is in question today.

So the question, Why reconciliation? must be coupled with the

question, Why Church?

Human liberation is a key issue of our age. It is the key

issue of the Gospel. The freedom of minorities and colonial

peoples, the liberation of women, and the very freedom of all

men and women living in free societies in which economic com-

petitiveness leads all too frequently to economic victimization

and enslavement are all facets of the problem of human libera-

tion. What has the Church, which claims to have received the

Spirit of freedom, done in this area is a question many ask. One

view of history would lead us to believe it has done exceedingly

little, and therefore deserves to be phased out of existence or

forgotten.

If one looks at the past, at times it might be hard to see

how the Church has significantly contributed to human devel-

opment and freedom. The disaffection of many Christians is due

3

THE CHURCH: SIGN AND
MINISTRY OF

RECONCILIATION

7



to a view of history which maintains that from generation to

generation Christians have not improved and that the Church

has not progressively evolved over the centuries into a better

and more perfect institution. Rather, it would seem that the

evidence demonstrates that the Church, as with all human in-

stitutions, has had its bad as well as good periods. If the Church

is truly the community of believers committed to bringing the

freedom of Christ, why has humanity changed so little in two

thousand years? Despite technological advancement there are

the same wars, the same forces of oppression, the same hunger

and injustice, and a solution hardly seems in sight. What has

the Church done?

The liberation wrought by God in Jesus Christ is the central

message of the Gospel and spiritual liberation can be signified

by human freedom. The prophets of Israel announced liberation

by rising up against the forces of oppression of their times but

they did so in each generation in differing historical circum-

stances. They proclaimed that the message of liberation is

achieved through personal conversion.

Conversion is simply not transmittable from one genera-

tion to the next. Each generation of Christians must be con-

verted and changed. Thus the re-creation of humanity is a work

that each generation must attempt because the Kingdom is near

at hand. While their spirit may be transmitted, freedom and

love are not a heritage which can be handed down from one

era to the next. The Church, then, in each age must be a sign

and cause of forgiveness and conversion for that age.

The Church’s task to be a sign of reconciliation means that

it must engage in a ministry of reconciliation. The Good News

is a message of hope, “. . . that God, in Christ, was reconciling

the world to himself, not counting men’s transgressions against

them, and he has entrusted this message of reconciliation to us”

(II Corinthians 5:19). Through Christ and in him all things,

all creation is reconciled and is at peace “both on earth and in

the heavens, making peace through the blood of the cross”

(Colossians 1:20). The process begun in Adam’s fall is glori-

ously reversed for all creation in the paschal mystery of Jesus

Christ ( See Romans 8:19-22).. The very worship of God de-

pends upon our reconciliation with one another for one “who

has no love for the brother he has seen, cannot love the God

8



he has not seen . . .whoever loves God, must also love his brother”

(I John 4:20b, 21; Matthew 5:23 ff).

The Church’s task, or ministry, is to announce reconcilia-

tion and peace to all men and women and to bring it about

sacramentally. Not infrequently the question is raised: “Why

can I not confess directly to God?” “Why must I confess to a

priest of the Church?” Questions of this type open up a much

broader area for consideration. What must be discussed is one’s

membership to a particular community (the local church), the

effect one’s sinfulness has upon it, and how one is reconciled

with the church community and with God when one has sinned

seriously. Implied in the priest’s ministry of forgiveness in the

sacrament of penance is certainly the idea that the Father has

given all judgment to the Son and that Christ in turn has given

judgment to the Apostles and their successors in the priesthood

( See John 20:22). Thus all judgment on sin is ultimately the

Father’s judgment, ministered by Christ and by the Apostles and

by their successors in the Church. The actual submission of the

sinner (who has turned penitent) to the Church through the

Rite of Penance configures the sinner to Christ Himself who

willingly submitted to the Father’s judgment on sin, “even to

accepting death on a cross” (Philippians 2:8).

The introduction to the new rite of penance does not only

pose the question, How? The real question is one of attitude:

Why a Sacrament of Reconciliation? Why the insistence in the

new rite on reconciliation?

In order to answer these questions we must first look at

the whole question of the vocabulary of the sacrament.

Names and titles are sometimes more important than we

think. The fact that the sacrament has been called “confession”

for so long both in popular and technical theological language

tells us a great deal about the popular perception of the sacra-

ment. Even though its official title was “penance,” the term

“confession” has been most extensively used. The new rite pro-

poses a third title, that of “reconciliation,” while still retaining

“penance” as the generic name of the ritual.

The rite continues to use “penance” since it is an ancient

title and was canonized, as it were, by the Councils of Florence
1

4

WHY A SACRAMENT OF
RECONCILIATION?

—A NEW VOCABULARY

9



and Trent .
2

The rite does not contain only the sacramental

rites of reconciliation but also presents a variety of non-sacra-

mental celebrations which, while penitential in character, are

not sacramental celebrations. The broader title of Rite of Pen-

ance also embraces these celebrations. But why not “Confes-

sion?”

—CONFESSION in English, “confess” has many meanings. First of all,
it signifies “admitting one’s sins in confession.” The full sense

of “confession” in the earliest Christian usage not only meant the

recognition and self-accusation of sins committed against God

and neighbor but also the praise of God
(
confessio laudis), and

the affirmation of faith
( confessio fidei ).

3

These three meanings

form a totality when the word is used in the scriptures, particu-

larly in the psalms. The early Latin Christians gave a new

meaning to “confiteri” by attaching to it the biblical notions of

confession of praise and faith
(
confessio laudis et fidei). In pre-

Christian Latin confteri—it should be pointed out—had primarily

a juridical connotation, that is, to recognize a fault or debt be-

fore a judge. By linking the biblical ideas to the Latin juridical

term, Christians gave the world the fuller meaning of accusation

and praise.

During the age of persecutions “confession of faith” ( con-

fessio fidei ) became the primary meaning. Later on, the con-

fession of sins held first place. Already Augustine lamented that

“confession” was becoming too restricted in use to mean con-

fession of sin, and attributed this usage to the fact that the faith-

ful were deficient in biblical formation .
4

Of course, in our own

time and since the early middle ages confession has meant only

confession of sins. Confessio in its fullest and richest sense has

been nearly forgotten.

—PENANCE AND metANOlA Confession of sins is only one aspect of the sacrament of
penance, even when the term is used to express its full sig-

nificance. For the terms “penance” and “metanoia” bring out

another important element—conversion.

In the New Testament, metanoia is used principally by

Luke in the third Gospel and in the Acts of the Apostles. In

Greek literature the term denotes repentance, often of some

misdemeanor. “The Jewish background of metanoia focuses

attention on the deeply interior quality of repentance. For the

10



Synoptics some kind of interior renewal must accompany for-

giveness of sins.”
5

The first Latin Christians translated metanoia with paeni-

tentia which in classical Latin designated regret for something

which happened (for example, Cicero employs the word when

speaking about regret of old age). They gave the term a new

and exclusively moral meaning, that is, conversion of life. To

“do penance”
(
paenitentiam agere

)
was a Christian way of

translating metanoiein
!'

For the ancient Church the sacrament of penance was the

paenitentia secunda or second conversion, as baptism was the

first metanoia. Augustine’s catechesis distinguished three kinds

of penance: baptism or first penance, the sacrament of penance

for serious sins, and ordinary penitential discipline (for example,

prayer, fasting, almsgiving, etc.) which must be a central part

of living according to the Gospel for every Christian.

As with the terms penance and conversion, “reconciliation”

is also an ancient term for the sacrament under consideration.

Its roots are Pauline and behind it lies the Old Testament idea

of atonement. Basically, reconciliation signifies the restoration

of harmony between man and God, the healing of the situation

of alienation which exists in man without God
(
See Ephesians

2:12). Sin creates alienation and expiation brings about recon-

ciliation. Paul viewed reconciliation in terms of man and God,

man and his fellows (I Corinthians 7:11; Matthew 5:24), and

between Jew and Gentile (Romans 11:7-32; Ephesians 2-3).

In Romans 5:8-11 the estrangement between God and man

is described as enmity, a kind of objective hatred: “the broken

relationship is a gulf needing to be bridged.”
7

Only divine love

can rectify the situation. It is not God’s attitude which must be

changed, but man’s. For God hates sin but not the sinner. Paul

stresses the fact that it is the actual death and resurrection of

Christ which effects reconciliation and that this death is an act

of God on man’s behalf and is in no way a form of human

propitiation offered by man to God. For God “reconciled us to

himself” (II Corinthians 5:18), and God in Christ reconciled

the whole cosmos to himself.
8

It is Christ, therefore, who is the agent of reconciliation, and

it is Christ’s death and resurrection which brings it about. Ac-

77

—RECONCILIATION



cording to Paul the Church possesses a ministry of reconcilia-

tion, for it has received the message of peace to bring to the

world, “the gospel of peace” ( See Romans 10:15; Ephesians

6: 15) .
9

The use of the term “reconciliation” to describe the sacra-

ment is ancient. The Gelasian Sacramentary (Vllth century)

already speaks of the reconciliation of a penitent and gives

prayers for the occasion. A prayer for the reconciliation of a

penitent at time of death asks God to admit the penitent to the

sacrament of reconciliation.
10

The XHIth century pontifical of

the Roman Curia includes prayers of absolution under the same

generic title.
11

The roots for the term “reconciliation” are earlier still for

in the ancient Church the central liturgical act in the sacrament

of penance was the reconciliation of the sinner, the restoration

of his role in the ecclesial assembly.
12

Reconciliation designated

the sacramental act by which the Christian was re-introduced

into the Christian community once the period of penance had

been fulfilled.
13

The term then has the advantage of being both

biblical and rooted in the earliest liturgical tradition of the

Church.
14

5 All Christian existence is situated in the context of the

WHY A CELEBRATION covenant established in Christ between God and man, a covenant

OF RECONCILIATION? which is expressed in ecclesial and sacramental realities. Thus

was penance understood in the primitive Church. The earliest

witnesses of the sacrament, Hermas and Tertullian, saw penance

as a distinct reality, a kind of second baptism for the pardon

and remission of post-baptismal sin, received only once in a

lifetime. And even though the sacrament has changed a great

deal throughout the centuries, the one common denominator

has always been that penance is for the pardon of sins. Cutting

through all the names and titles, pardon is the one constant

factor. Thus the Church has always believed that through the

sacramental action of her minister God effects the pardon of

sins.

All pardon, all reconciliation comes from the Father

through Christ’s death on the condition of faith.
15

But Christian

faith is faith in the word of God, a word which is visible and

tangible because it is audible in the proclamation of the Gospel.

72



Because the word is alive and accessible to the senses, the econ-

omy of salvation, the covenant, implies structures which are in

continuity with the incarnation. The totality of these covenant-

structures coming from the Father’s love constitute a sacramental

universe: Christ is the primordial sacrament, the sign of God’s

living and working presence in the world. The Church is thus

the sacrament of salvation present in the name and power of

Jesus Christ, and the sacraments themselves are this presence

made visible in the dimensions of human existence. While bap-

tism is concerned to insert men and women into the sacramental

universe of Christ’s presence through reconciliation and the

pardon of sins, penance is concerned to re-insert the baptized

into a dynamism weakened or lost through sin, the dynamism

of relationships with God and other persons.

In the new covenant all relationships are lived and ex-

pressed in sacramental, signifying terms. If such are the struc-

tures of the new covenant then we must recognize that there is

no road to salvation which does not pass through the sacra-

mental universe of Christ-Church-sacraments. For every gift of

God has by its very nature an ecclesial dimension. A gift is not

given to any one individual but to a person insofar as he is a

member of the body of Christ. The sacraments are not an ap-

pendix to God’s grace but they belong to the very dynamism of

grace whose expression they are.

Once we understand the covenant and Christian life in

sacramental terms then there is no opposition between life and

sacrament. They are the same dynamism. Conversion/lived-

reconciliation and conversion/celebrated-reconciliation are one

and the same.

Baptism is the sacrament of birth into a reconciled existence

within a reconciled community, the Church. Penance acts as a

re-insertion into this life and community, a re-insertion into the

dynamism of one’s baptism. For the sinner belongs to the Church

and the Church, the servant of Christ, is the sacrament of recon-

ciliation. A Christian is not converted by himself but only with
reference to and within the reconciling community, the Church,

for it is a people whom God has called and with whom he has
made a covenant. Conversion is a reality of the community and

not simply of the individual; the individual is converted within

13



the community. Thus the converted and reconciled sinner him-

self becomes a sign of God’s love, and so, a reconciler.

Truly repentant, the sinner is reconciled with God and the

Church. The sacrament of reconciliation is a moment in the

visible celebration of conversion in the Church, a celebration of

the initiative of God’s love in Christ to reconcile all things to

himself. The sacrament itself is the celebration of repentance,

conversion, and reconciliation.

The celebration of reconciliation, therefore, is a part of a

dynamic process of interior and exterior reconciliation lived con-

cretely by the Christian. What is celebrated in the sacrament

by minister and community is that the initiative of conversion

and the fact of reconciliation have come not from man but from

God. Yet at the same time the sacrament is a new gift, for what

the word of God says, it does in the action of the Church’s

minister here and now: the sacrament does not simply reaffirm

that which God has already done but rather grants pardon here

and now in a new way, as part of the ongoing process of recon-

ciliation begun in Christ.

In the sacrament of penance God achieves and seals a

reconciliation wrought in Christ at his initiative through a cele-

bration of forgiveness on a human level. The sacrament is a

gift because it is the expression, the celebration, of a new and

progressive encounter between a forgiving God and a repentant

person.

1 See Denzinger—Schonmetzer 1323 (Hereafter = DS).
2 Ibid., 1667-1693.

3 Pierre-Marie Gy, “Les noms ont une importance,” Penitence et Reconciliation

Aujoiird’hui, Paris, 1974, 58.

4 Sermon XXIV, 2,2.
5 Carroll Stuhlmueller, “The Gospel According to Luke,” The Jerome Biblical

Commentary

,

44-46.

6 Gy, op. cit., 59.

7 G. Buttrick (gen. ed.), Interpreters’ Dictionary of the Bible, IV, 17.

8 Alan Richardson, An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament,

New York, 1958, 215-217.
9 See V. Taylor, Forgiveness and Reconciliation, 83-129.

10 L. C. Mohlberg, Sacramentarium Gelasianum IV, nos. 83, 349, 354 (“recon-

ciliationis gratiam”), 360, 367.

11 M. Andrieu, Le Pontifical de la Curie Romaine, II, XLVII, nos. 1-6, 484-486.

12 An earlier term for reconciliare was dare pacem. See Cyprian of Carthage,

On Modesty, 10, 31-96 and the study by J. Ramos-Regidor, “Reconciliation in the

Primitive Church and Its Lessons for Theology and Pastoral Practice Today,”

Concilium 61 (1971 ) 76-88.

13 Gy, op. cit., 6 1

.

14 Ibid.

15 DS 1520-1550

14



II. Pastoral Commentary on the

Rite of Penance

In this section our aim is threefold: (1) to situate the

sacrament of reconciliation within the totality of the Christian

mystery and in the life of the Church; (2) to offer a descriptive

analysis of the various sections of the Rite of Penance; (3) to

grapple with some of the pastoral questions and problems of

implementation. In doing so we use the General Introduction to

the revised rite as our source. It is a basic document written in

the language of the scriptures and the Fathers, yet attentive to

the discoveries of contemporary human sciences. It is sug-

gested that you have the Introduction handy as you read and

study the following matter.

The Latin, typical edition of the Ordo Paenitentiae consists 1

of 120 pages. After the decree of promulgation, there is a Gen- GENERAL ORIENTATIONS

eral Introduction
(
Praenotanda

)

consisting of forty sections.

The Ordo is then divided into three chapters:

A. Rite of Reconciliation of Individual Penitents (nos.

41-47);

B. Rite of Reconciliation for Several Penitents with Indi-

vidual Confession and Absolution (nos. 48-59);

C. Rite of Reconciliation of Several Penitents with General

Confession and Absolution (nos. 60-66).

The fourth chapter is a collection of various texts, readings and

prayers, which may be used in the three rites (nos. 67-214). Two

appendices follow. The first is for the absolution from censures

and for the dispensation from irregularity. The second appendix

consists in models of non-sacramental penitential celebrations

for various occasions and groups, for example for children, teen-

agers, Lent, Advent. Finally the third appendix presents a

schema for an examination of conscience.
•

The Introduction not only describes how each rite is to be

celebrated but also gives general orientations necessary for the

implementation of the rite.

15



—ROOTED IN DAILY LIFE First of all, this new ritual of penance is an invitation to

restore the sacrament within the total dynamism of Christian

existence (nos. 3-5). For the sacrament of penance and recon-

ciliation to be a truly effective instrument it must be rooted in

the daily lives of Christians leading them to a renewed and

deeper commitment to the service of the Lord and of their

brothers and sisters.

ACTIVITY OF THE CHURCH The new Rite of Penance recognizes and underlines the

necessary role of the Christian community in the sacramental

act. Each of the three rites underscores the ecclesial dimensions

of the sacrament, as does the new form of absolution. It is to

the entire Church as priestly people of God, acting in diverse

ways, that the ministry of reconciliation has been entrusted

(no. 8). The action of the minister is not isolated from the

Christian community, for “the Church becomes the instrument

of the conversion and absolution of the penitent through the

ministry entrusted by Christ to the apostles and their succes-

sors” (no. 8).

—GENUINELY PERSONAL Likewise the personal dimensions of penance and recon-

ciliation are given fresh emphasis. This rite is concerned with

such human signs as greeting, welcoming, kindness and gen-

erally putting penitents at their ease, so that fruitful dialogue

may take place in a spirit of Christian charity. This more open

setting can also be an efficacious sign of the Church’s concern

for the individual person. Incentives for personal prayer within

each of the three rites help to underscore the personal dimen-

sions of the sacrament.

—SCRIPTURALLY ENRICHED A more organic place is made for the word of God in all

three rites. This is in response to one of the most fundamental

principles of the liturgical renewal initiated by the Council.

“In sacred celebrations there is to be more reading from scrip-

ture, and it is to be more varied and suitable.”
1

The scriptures

are not simply “used” to give the sacrament a more “biblical

look.” Rather, reconciliation is seen as a call and challenge

directly flowing from the Gospel. Thus, reading the scriptures

is not limited to the communal forms of celebrations, but it also

forms part of the central core of the reconciliation of individual

penitents.

16



Finally, the rite presents a diversity of forms of celebration.

The ritual proposes four types of celebration : three sacramental,

one non-sacramental. The Rite of Penance is a call for personal

and social penance and conversion. It commits us to a whole

life of reconciliation with God and with our neighbor. The sacra-

ment of penance and reconciliation is only one aspect of the

Christian life. By celebrating the sacrament from time to time,

the Christian engages himself in the task of conforming oneself

more to Christ. Thus the rite challenges Christians to such

practices as mutual forgiveness, fasting, struggling against in-

justice, prayer and a spirit of hope.

The first section of the Introduction draws a sketch of the

history of salvation, salvation basically seen as “reconciliation.”

The background is Pauline. “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ,

he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behQld the new

has come. All this is from God, who, through Christ reconciled

us to himself and gave us a ministry of reconciliation. ...”
2

Reconciliation means setting right the estrangement that

exists between God and man; an alienation which causes the

hostility and strife that mar human relationships. God is the

initiator of reconciliation and Christ is the means. Man becomes

a new creation because God does not reckon his sins against him.

More specifically, this re-ordering of relations is accomplished

through the death and resurrection of Christ .
3

The Church possesses such a ministry because reconcilia-

tion is the heart of the mystery of salvation, and because Jesus

himself practiced a ministry of reconciliation: He came to free

all men and women from the slavery of sin
4

and to call them out

of darkness into light .
5

Salvation is the intervention of God in

man’s history to liberate him from sin, to enable man to be at

peace within his own being, so that peaceful order ( shalom

)

may be established between man and God and be the ground

upon which all human relations are founded.

Thus the imperative of the Gospel, “Repent, and believe

the Good News,”
6

is a call to continual faith and conversion.

The imperative stems from the nearness of the Kingdom, of

which the presence of Jesus is the sign, his death and resurrec-

tion the beginning and means. The whole Gospel is really con-

cerned with reconciliation and the work of Jesus toward that end.

—STRUCTURALLY DIVERSE

2

THE MYSTERY OF

RECONCILIATION IN THE

HISTORY OF SALVATION

(NOS. 1-2)

—THE GOSPEL

17



The call to repentance and reconciliation established the pro-

phetic dimension of the Good News. Thus we see the interde-

pendence of the terms, healing, forgiveness, repentance, con-

version and reconciliation .
7

For Jesus’ ministry of healing is

itself a ministry of reconciliation. When he forgave sinners it

was nearly always in a context of healing, physical and spiritual.

The essential kerygma of forgiveness, penance and recon-

ciliation of the Gospel is also the kerygma of the primitive

Church. The Spirit was given to the Church by Christ so that

Jesus’ ministry of reconciliation be continued in time. The

Church’s ministry does not exist apart from Christ’s for it is

evangelical. Thus, the kerygmatic sermons of Peter and Paul
,

8

the preaching of the early Church, are calls to conversion and

peace with God. The gift of the keys must be seen within this

evangelical context.

—baptism The preaching of forgiveness and reconciliation is brought

about effectively through sign. Section two of the Introduction

to the revised rite is concerned to situate the sacrament of pen-

ance in the total sacramental context of the Church. Baptism,

“the one baptism for the forgiveness of sins,” is the fundamental

sacrament of conversion and reconciliation in which the victory

of Christ over sin and death is shared with all who repent and

believe. For by baptism all die in Christ and rise with him to

new life.” Baptism places us in a new situation which totally

changes our old relationship to God, it separates us from our

old self. For Paul the depth of meaning of baptism comes from

reflection upon the liturgy. As we go down into the water, we

enter the tomb and are buried with Christ. Rising clean from the

waters of baptism we are raised with Christ in his resurrection .
10

Thus, beginning with our conversion, baptism makes us new

creatures.

—the Eucharist xhe eucharist proclaims and effects our reconciliation and
peace with the Father. For Christ’s death and resurrection has

reconciled us to God .
11

His sacrifice made our peace with God

so that “we may be brought together in unity.”
12

The Mass, the

sacrifice of Christ, brings about forgiveness of sins “so that if

we draw near to God with an upright heart and true faith, with

fear and reverence, with sorrow and repentance through the Mass

we may obtain mercy . . . for by this oblation the Lord is ap-

18



peased, he grants grace and the gift of repentance, and he par-

dons wrongdoings and sins, even grave ones.”
13

The sacrament of penance forms part of a sacramental triad.

As baptism is the “first washing” so penance, in the tradition of

Hermas, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Ambrose and

Augustine, is a “second baptism,” a baptism of forgiveness

granted through the tears of repentance. As Ambrose says, the

Church “possesses both water and tears: the water of baptism,

the tears of repentance.”
14

“The Church is holy but always in need of purification”

(no. 3). Since the mystery of salvation is essentially a mystery

of God’s reconciling love, reconciliation must always take first

place in the life of the Church, its worship, and in Christian

action and life. The Church is holy with the holiness of Christ,

but it is a Church of sinners in continual need of reform.
15

“Penance in the Church’s Life and Liturgy” (no. 4) . God’s

people must be a sign of conversion and peace to all the nations

of the world. So the work of penance and reconciliation must

be expressed in a variety of ways. The liturgy must be the ex-

pression of the perpetual purification and conversion in which

the Christian community is engaged in its pastoral ministry of

service and charity.

“The Purpose of Penance and Reconciliation” (no. 5 ) . The

first purpose is reconciliation with God. Sin is disruptive, it

breaks our friendship with God. That is why the ultimate pur-

pose of penance is deeper love and friendship of God, as Pope

Paul has pointed out in his Apostolic Constitution, Paenitemini .
16

Penance brings about reconciliation with others. Men and

women are bound together in a common bond of solidarity so

that what each person does affects the other. Reconciliation

with God is dependent upon reconciliation with others. For we

cannot love the God we do not see if we do not love the brother

whom we do see ( See I John 4:20).

The new Rite of Penance brings out this concept of soli-

darity very well. Not only are individuals sinful, but nations

and other social groups also sin, for “men frequently join to-

gether to commit injustice” (no. 5). But there is solidarity in

19

—
.PENANCE

3

THE RECONCILIATION OF

PENITENTS IN THE LIFE

OF THE CHURCH (NOS. 3-7)

—THE PURPOSE OF PENANCE



grace as well as in sin, and this is the basis for communal cele-

brations, for any celebration of reconciliation.

—THE ESSENTIAL PARTS OF
THE SACRAMENT

“The Sacrament of Penance and Its Parts” (no. 6). This

section is basically a repetition of the Thomistic and Tridentine

doctrine of the parts of the sacrament placed in an evangelical

and patristic context. On God’s initiative the sinner responds

by seeking inner conversion. The inner conversion is expressed

by:

Contrition. This is the first and the most important act of the

penitent. For one who has cut himself off from God it is the

start of a renewed life in Christ, the first act in the interior proc-

ess of reconciliation. God’s grace is given in an act of illumina-

tion so that the sinner may see herself or himself as he/she

really is and not in terms of a false self-image. Contrition, then,

is not simple remorse for sin, but a cold, hard (sometimes brutal)

look at oneself in terms of self, others and God. Contrition is

the first step of conversion.

Confession. Illumined by the Spirit, the sinner can make an

avowal of guilt and self-accusation. Confession is the willing-

ness to admit things to oneself, compelling one to be open to

God in the presence of the Church’s minister. Thus confession

implies self-knowledge on the part of the penitent and a certain

sensitivity and spirit of discernment on the part of the confessor.

Act of Penance. God’s gift of forgiveness is free and uncondi-

tional. Satisfaction is not made to appease God, but to set things

right between oneself and others, oneself and the Church. Thus

the act of penance should imply and express satisfaction for

faults, improvement of conduct, reparation for injury, that is,

it should be a healing remedy for renewal and a new beginning.

The confessor should not make the act of penance a mere repe-

tition of prayers (three Hail Marys, etc.), but truly make it an

act of penance.

Absolution. God uses visible signs to express his love and mercy.

His Son is the ultimate visible and tangible expression of this

love. So too the absolution which the Church grants through

its minister is a sign that God pardons the penitent who confesses

his sins. It is a sign of God’s initiative. Even before the prodigal

son came on his father’s property, the father ran out to embrace

and forgive him. And so he spread before him a banquet. Abso-

20



lution in the sacrament of reconciliation thus leads to the eucha-

rist where the Father’s love for mankind is fully celebrated.

“The Necessity and Benefit of the Sacrament” (no. 7). In
need for penance

presenting reconciliation as the essence of the sacrament of

penance, the new Rite of Penance poses several problems which

it might be good at this point to discuss.

Reconciliation is necessary if there is a rupture or break in

either the relationship between the penitent and God or between

the penitent and others. But if it is simply a question of a lack

of attention towards others, petty manifestations of egotism, or

of what has been called venial sin, why then a sacrament of

reconciliation? Is this term not too restrictive? The problem

is not dealt with in the Introduction. Rather it repeats Trent’s

doctrine: “To obtain the saving remedy of the sacrament of

penance, according to the plan of our merciful God, the faithful

must confess to a priest each and every grave sin which they

remember upon examination of conscience.” Nevertheless, where

the Council says iure divino the revised text says “according to

the plan of our merciful God” which is less juridical; and in

place of mortal sin the Introduction speaks of grave sin. The

expression “mortal sin” does not appear once in the entire docu-

ment.
18

Frequent and careful celebration of this sacrament (no.

7b) does not necessarily imply the repetition of the same con-

fession of sins nor the exercise of psychology for the correction

of faults, but “a serious striving to perfect the grace of baptism.”

The concern is not so much for this or that particular minor sin,

as for one’s state of sinfulness, the weakness that is the lot of

every human person. The sacrament might be celebrated fre-

quently so that one’s likeness to Christ might be further per-

fected, so that one might be more open to the action of the Holy

Spirit.

Moreover, whether the sacrament of penance and recon-

ciliation is useful to some or necessary for others, it is always a

proclamation of the Church’s faith in the mercy of God and an

act of thanksgiving for the freedom given us through the death

and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The sacrament thus possesses

both a eucharistic and an eschatological perspective.

21



4

OFFICES AND MINISTRIES
IN THE RECONCILIATION

OF PENITENTS (NOS. 8-11)

—THE PERSON OF THE
MINISTER

The ministry of reconciliation belongs to the whole Church,

the Church as priestly people reconciled to God. For each

Christian must be at peace with his brother to worship the Lord.

Christian service
(
diakonia

)
and charity (agape) demand that

we help one another recognize ourselves and our faults, that we

be solicitous for the welfare of one another, and for the whole

world. Thus each Christian man and woman, by virtue of bap-

tism, must be involved in a ministry ( diakonia ) of reconcilia-

tion.

The Church becomes the instrument of conversion and

absolution through the ministry entrusted to it by Christ to the

apostles and their successors (See Matthew 18:18; John 20:23).

For while recognizing that all Christians engage in a ministry

of peace and reconciliation, the Church believes that it is em-

powered to grant the forgiveness of the Father in the name of

Jesus Christ. “The universal agreement of the Fathers has al-

ways understood that by such striking action (the gift of the

Holy Spirit: Acts 2:38; John 20:22ff) and by such clear words

the power of remitting and retaining sins, and of reconciling the

faithful who have fallen after baptism was communicated to the

Apostles and to their legitimate successors.”
19

“The Minister of the Sacrament of Penance” (no. 9). The

minister of reconciliation is no abstraction. The personal di-

mensions of the celebration stand or fall to a significant measure

with the person of the minister, the priest-confessor. Beyond

juridical competence (faculties, etc.), the rite looks for other

qualities. For the confessor is not merely a judge, a passive

listener or dispenser of absolution.
20

Rather he is a man who

should be able to “understand the disorders of souls and apply

the appropriate remedies to them” (no. 10a).

Qualities such as discernment and wisdom are necessary

in the minister if he is to understand the state and condition of

the penitent, but so are warmth, friendliness, and availability.

For the confessor must “reveal the heart of the Father and show

the image of Christ the Good Shepherd” (no. 10c). He must

be a man steeped in the scriptures and in both personal and

liturgical prayer. The trust and intimacy of the celebration of

the sacrament always demands the inviolability of the sacra-

mental seal of confession.

22



“The Penitent” (no. 11). If the new rite is demanding

on the minister (definitely implying a reform both of attitude

and of method)
,
it is no less challenging to the penitent. Perhaps

the newest attitude for the penitent will be for him to realize

that in the sacrament of penance he is engaged in the celebration

of a liturgy, a liturgical encounter between himself and the Lord.

Confessions without sufficient preparation impede and

hinder true celebration. Close attention to personal peccadillos

without consideration of one’s broader responsibilities to obey

the Gospel injunction of love and service of God and others,

abandons the sacrament of reconciliation to the realm of routine.

Thus the acts of the penitent are all important for the proper

celebration of the sacrament. Personal prayer and reflection

before the celebration are as necessary for the penitent as they

are for the confessor.

“The Place of Celebration” (no. 12). Obviously the new

ritual points to a more open, personal and warmer celebration,

and in two cases to communal forms of that celebration. Num-

ber 12 of the Introduction says very little on the subject: “The

sacrament of penance is celebrated in the place and location

prescribed by law.” No longer, however, is the screen necessary

for the celebration of the sacrament.

The 1614 ritual was the first to prescribe the grill or grates

to separate the priest from the penitent. Its rise is not anterior

to the second half of the sixteenth century. Its origin probably

goes back to St. Charles Borromeo when he was Archbishop of

Milan. His diocesan statutes forbade his priests to hear women’s

confessions “outside the confessional unless there is a divider

between them.”
21

The Code of Canon Law ( 1 9 1 8

)

22

and the

ritual of 1925 continued to prohibit hearing the confessions of

women without benefit of a grill. Thus the origin of a
.

grill or

barrier is not to be found in a desire for anonymity. That came

as a secondary effect because of the separation and darkness of

the confessional.

For celebration of individual confessions the most desirable

location would be a small chapel or room in which penitents

might choose to confess their sins and seek sacramental recon-

ciliation through an informal face-to-face exchange, with the

opportunity for appropriate spiritual counsel. Likewise, since

23

—THE PENITENT

5

THE CELEBRATION OF THE

SACRAMENT OF PENANCE

(NOS. 12-14)

—PLACE OF CELEBRATION



—THE TIME OF
CELEBRA TION

the rite calls for the extension of hand(s) during absolution

(nos. 19, 46), such a room or chapel provides for the use of

this gesture. Mutual prayer and reading from the scriptures

during the rite require a warm and open setting in which both

the penitent and the confessor may be at ease. Such rooms

should be designed to afford the penitent the option of anonym-

ity, for in every case the freedom of the penitent to confess in

the usual way is to be respected. It goes without saying, how-

ever, that catechesis in this area is extremely important. For if

the fullness of meaning of the new rite is to come out, and if the

pastoral implementation of the new rite is to be effective, prior

explanation not only must be given but is required.

Other areas for the celebration of the rite of individual

reconciliation are possible, and often more desirable, depending

on the interior arrangement of a given church building. A classi-

cal place for the celebration of penance is the presidential chair,

the symbol of apostolic authority, from which in ancient times

the bishop would preach and instruct the faithful. This is espe-

cially good for the celebration of communal penance.

Another area for the celebration might be the baptistry.

From the second century penance was seen as a “second bap-

tism.” This aspect of the sacrament of penance would be en-

hanced if confessions were celebrated there. Any chair built into

or placed within the baptistry or baptismal area should be seen

as the extension of the presidential chair.

Chapels of the blessed sacrament, where they exist, may

also be used for the celebration of penance, for the reserved

sacrament is a pledge and abiding sign of the covenant. Like-

wise, the forgiveness and healing power of the eucharist is easily

recalled in such a setting.

“The Time of Celebration” (no. 13). The sacrament of

reconciliation may be celebrated at any time and on any day.

However, people should know about the fixed times when the

priest is available for this ministry. It is obvious that confessions

should not be heard during Mass or any other liturgical cele-

bration.

The most appropriate season for the celebration of penance

is Lent, for the very theme of Lent is conversion and reconcilia-

tion. Greater emphasis should be given to Ash Wednesday as

24



the inauguration of the great penitential season, the day when

the whole Christian community begins a time of deeper personal

conversion in preparation for the great festival of Easter. It is a

time for acknowledging the need for personal reform and com-

mitment. Thus the celebration of the sacrament of penance

should be one of the high points of this period. In any case, to

properly observe the Easter celebration, the sacrament of pen-

ance should be celebrated before Holy Thursday night whenever

pastorally possible.

Advent—although it is clearly not a penitential season-

might be a good time for penance since the themes of joyful

watchfulness and preparation for the Lord’s coming may be

underscored in the celebration. The Baptist’s injunction: “Pre-

pare the way of the Lord!” is clearly brought out in the sacra-

ment. In this way the eschatological dimensions of penance and

reconciliation are underlined.

The manner in which the new Rite of Penance is celebrated

will also dictate how we schedule the sacrament. For example,

Saturday no longer seems to be the best day for the celebration

of penance. So many people go away for the weekend or use

Saturdays for their own entertainment. The Sunday anticipated

Mass on Saturday evening also militates against the celebration

of penance at that time. Likewise, since Sunday is the Day of

the Lord, the Day of the Resurrection, it is not appropriate that

penance be celebrated on that day. Even Sundays of Lent tra-

ditionally remain outside the penitential discipline. Thus sched-

uling the sacrament, whether individual or communal, before

or after Sunday Masses or on Sunday evenings is discouraged.

Parish priests should be available at all times for the cele-

bration of the sacrament of reconciliation. However, it is good

to set aside at least one day a week when parishioners know

that a confessor is easily available. Thursday evening might be

a good time for this. Friday, the Church’s traditional day of

fasting and penance is also a fitting time to celebrate the sacra-

ment.

The diversity of ministries within worship is manifested by —liturgical vestments

the different liturgical vestments which are worn ( See no. 14).

The alb is the common vestment for all ministries.
23

For com-

munal celebrations, a cope may also be worn. Vestments should

25



always contribute to the overall beauty and visual impact of the

rite. The stole should be given particular prominence and should

be of such size, design and fabric as to enhance the symbolism

of the entire celebration. For the reconciliation of an individual

penitent, the practice common in the United States, of wearing a

cassock or clerical suit and stole may still be followed.

1 Constitution on the Liturgy, no. 35.

2
II Cor. 5:17-18.

3 John L. McKenzie, Dictionary of the Bible, Milwaukee, 1965, 722-723.

4 Lk 8:34-36.
5

I Pe 2:9.

(l Mk 4:12-17; Lk 4:14-15.
7 Lk 5:20; Mt 9:2-8.
8 Acts 2:14-42; 3:12-4:12; 17:22-31.

9 Rom 6:3-13.
10 Lucien Cerfaux, The Christian in the Theology of St. Paul, New York, 1967,

331.

11 Eucharistic Prayer III.

12 Eucharistic Prayer II.

13 DS 1743.
14 Epist. 41:12 (PL 16, 1116).
15 Constitution on the Church, no. 8.

16 Apostolic Constitution, Paenitemini, Feb. 17, 1966 (AAS 58 [1966], 179).
17 DS 1707-1708.
18 Pierre Jounel, “La liturgie de la reconciliation,” La Maisoti-Dieu 117, 14-15.

19 DS 1670.
20 Gerard T. Broccolo, “A Commentary on the Reform of the Sacrament of

Penance,” Chicago, 1974, 5.

21 A. G. Martimort, et al., L’Eglise en priere, Paris, 1965 (3rd edition), 594-595.

22 Codex Iuris Canonici, Canon 909, 2: “Sedes confessionalis grate fixa ac

tenuitur perforata inter poenitentem et confessarium sit instructa.”

23 General Instruction, no. 298 ff.

26



III. Three Forms of Celebration

Catholics until recently have been familiar with only one

form for the celebration of the sacrament of penance: individual

confession and absolution. With the publication in 1972 of the

“Pastoral Norms Concerning the Administration of General

Sacramental Absolution” (Congregation for the Doctrine of the

Faith) communal penitential services were encouraged espe-

cially during the liturgical seasons of Advent and Lent.

The revised Rite of Penance presents three distinct forms

for celebrating the sacrament of penance: individual recon-

ciliation; the reconciliation of several penitents with individual

confession and absolution; and the reconciliation of several

penitents with general confession and absolution. The rite is

quick to point out, however, that “individual, integral confes-

sion and absolution remain the only ordinary way for the faithful

to reconcile themselves with God and the Church, unless physical

or moral impossibility excuses from this kind of confession”

(no. 30).

Perhaps the most striking aspect of the new rite for the

reconciliation of individual penitents is the atmosphere and con-

text within which it is to be celebrated. For the tone of the cele-

bration is to be one of warmth, healing, communication and

dialogue between confessor and penitent. Thus there should be

no haste, no hurrying along because of the number of penitents

or other reasons. For this reason, the preparation of both peni-

tent and confessor before the celebration is of capital importance.

Priest and penitent should spend some time before the cele-

bration in prayer, especially in the invocation of the Holy Spirit.

The confessor needs to pray for enlightenment and charity so

that he will be able to accept and understand the penitent. The

penitent prepares himself also by seeking illumination, compar-

ing his life with the examples and commandments of Christ,

seeking through prayer the pardon which in faith is accessible

to him from God (See no. 15).

In the past preparation before confession seemed to consist

27

1

THE RECONCILIATION OF

INDIVIDUAL PENITENTS



in a hasty prayer before the altar and going to the confessional

with little consciousness of what was to take place. Catechesis

should be strong in this regard, recommending ways for the

penitent to prepare himself. Nor should Christ’s own manner

be ignored by the priest and penitent; joining fasting to prayer

Christ prepared himself for every great event in his ministry.

The manner in which each prepares himself would thus aid in

atmosphere of the celebration itself.

The celebration basically takes place in five steps: recep-

tion of penitent and opening rites; reading of the word of God;

confession of sins and acceptance of satisfaction; prayer of the

penitent and absolution; proclamation of praise of God and

dismissal.

OPENING RITES The priest welcomes the penitent warmly, with charity and

should address him/her in a friendly manner. The consideration,

interest and respect which the confessor shows right from the

beginning will set the tone for the whole celebration, enabling

the penitent to better experience the mercy of God in the kind-

ness of the priest.

The penitent then makes the sign of the cross. The priest

invites the penitent to have trust in God by means of an invo-

cation such as, “May God, who has enlightened every heart,

help you to know your sins and trust in his mercy.” The con-

fessor may use these words, another formula given in the rite

(nos. 67-71), or his own words. “If the penitent is unknown

to the priest he may indicate his state in life, the time of his last

confession, his difficulties in leading a Christian life. . . .” This

is so that the priest may be aided in exercising his ministry of

spiritual counseling. It also makes the sacrament less imper-

sonal, especially if the penitent has opted for anonymity. It helps

the penitent to better see himself or herself and the priest to

assign the proper satisfaction.

—READING THE

WORD OF GOD
“Through the word of God the Christian receives light to

recognize his sins and is called to conversion and to confidence

in the mercy of God” (no. 17).

25



In placing a scripture reading at this point, the ritual reaf-

firms the centrality of the word of God in the call to repentance

and in the gift of forgiveness from God. The word of God “as

an event has a symbolic power of its own, apart from its content

and hence has its own significance for the achievement of man’s

salvation as well.”
1

The Lord is present not only in the procla-

mation of the word, but also in the very hearing of it. The word

of God is always a call to penance and conversion.

So the word should have both a prominent role and place

in the celebration. A beautiful, modern edition of the bible

should be displayed prominently in the area where confessions

are heard. Reading the scriptures is an option in the rite, yet

clearly it has more than a decorative value. In using the scrip-

tures, participants proclaim their faith in God’s mercy revealed

in his word, recognizing that the source of divine forgiveness is

God who continually speaks to man.

When the penitent presents herself or himself for confession

no specific formula is required. Formulas can be helpful, but

there is always the danger that they re-enforce the mechanical

enumeration of sins, something which should be avoided in the

renewal of the sacrament of penance. However, where it is the

custom, the penitent may begin with a general formula such as

the Confiteor. If necessary, the priest may aid the penitent in

making an integral confession and expressing proper sorrow.

The counseling which the confessor gives should center

around the mystery of Christian conversion. “He (the confes-

sor) urges him to be sorry for his faults, reminding him that

through the sacrament of penance the Christian dies and rises

with Christ and is thus renewed in the paschal mystery” (no.

44). This is really spiritual direction of the best sort. The en-

counter which takes place in the sacrament of penance is an

encounter with the saving mystery of Christ in his death and

resurrection. This must constantly be pointed out to penitents so

that they may see the real meaning of the sacrament.

The work of satisfaction that is given to the penitent should

be viewed as a symbol of the real satisfaction which should

occur, that is, personal and interior conversion. For this reason

what is chosen is important. The satisfaction should reflect at

least two things: (a) a corrective for the sins committed; (b)

—CONFESSION OF SINS AND
ACCEPTANCE OF

SATISFACTION

29



a real means to help in the long-range process of continual con-

version. A satisfaction may be a public or private event, prayers
or acts, such as fasting, charity, involvement in some activity

for the benefit of the penitent. The confessor must always be

careful, however, not to overburden the penitent. Perhaps the

penance-satisfaction may be arrived at by consultation with the

penitent himself. The penitent should accept the satisfaction in

a spirit of humility recognizing the presence of God’s mercy,

and with a firm purpose of amendment.

No matter what satisfaction, there is one thing that should

be absolutely avoided. Never should the impression be given

that the forgiveness that comes from God is earned or merited.

For the mercy and pardon of God are totally gratuitous. Nothing

we do can merit forgiveness. It is a free gift from the Lord.

Therefore, the idea and practice of satisfaction should not be

modeled on any analogy with human justice. The justice and

mercy of God are beyond human understanding.

—PRAYER OF THE

PENITENT AND ABSOLUTION
The priest asks the penitent to express his sorrow. The

penitent does so in a prayer of contrition which also seeks the

help of the Lord for his conversion. This may be a simple

declaration or the penitent may use one of the prayers found in

the ritual (nos. 45, 85-92), or one of his own composition, or

even a spontaneous prayer. If the penitent is seated up to now,

he may wish to kneel for this prayer and the absolution.

The priest then extends his hands over the head of the peni-

tent (or at least his right hand) saying the words of absolution.

The gesture of laying-on of hands is ancient in connection with

penance. Saints Cyprian, Augustine and Leo the Great all wit-

ness to its widespread usage in the West.
2

Medieval speculation on what is absolutely necessary and

what is not absolutely necessary for valid celebrations of the

sacraments led St. Thomas to affirm that no particular rite or

gesture was needed per se for the proper celebration of penance.
3

This opinion, shared by many other theologians, contributed to

the gradual disuse of the gesture of imposition. However, the

ritual of 1614 re-introduced the rite—the elevation of at least

the right hand. But the progressive popularity of the confes-

sional made even this a useless gesture. While the new rite gives

one the option of full laying on of hands or simple elevation of

30



the right hand, it does so only in recognition that the confes-

sional screen remains an option. Good pastoral practice requires

that we reestablish this ancient usage whose roots are in the very

actions of Jesus himself.

The prayer of absolution, which the penitent should care-

fully listen to, should stand out as the center of the rite. The

prayer is trinitarian and essentially biblical. Father, Son and

Spirit are invoked in the context of their actions in salvation

history. God is the Father of mercies from whom all things

proceed; reconciliation comes to us on the initiative of the

Father. The Father’s love and mercy is concretized in the sav-

ing death and resurrection of the Son who sent the Holy Spirit

for the forgiveness of sins. The prayer also brings out the ecclesial

nature of divine forgiveness. For it is through the ministry of

the Church that pardon and peace emanate from God because

the Church is the body of Christ.
4

As the priest says the second part of the prayer “I ab-

solve. . .” he makes the sign of the cross over the penitent as a

continuation of the laying on of the hands.

After the absolution the priest continues, “Give thanks to

the Lord, for he is good,” to which the penitent concludes, “His

mercy endures forever.” Alternate forms are provided in the

rite (no. 39). The priest then dismisses the penitent who has

been reconciled, saying, “The Lord has freed you from your

sins. Go in peace.”

The rite provides for a shorter form to be used in special

situations when “pastoral need dictates it.” However, except in

cases of imminent danger of death, the integrity of the rite must

be safeguarded, that is, it must include the following elements:

confession of sin and the acceptance of the act of penance; the

invitation to contrition, the formulas of absolution and dismissal.

The new ritual leaves rather ambiguous the pastoral ques-

tion of how frequently one should celebrate penance. Obviously

it is necessary for the penitents who have cut themselves off from

a loving relationship with God by grave sin. It is, nonetheless,

useful to those of the faithful who in spite of their serious attempt

to grow in holiness and Christlikeness find themselves guilty of

lesser sins which to one degree or another strain or stress their

31

—PROCLAMATION OF

PRAISE AND DISMISSAL

—A SHORTER RITE

—HOW OFTEN SHOULD
ONE CONFESS?



relationship with God and neighbor. For this reason the Intro-

duction asserts that “frequent and careful celebration of this

sacrament is also very useful as a remedy for venial sins. This

is not a mere ritual repetition or psychological exercise, but a

serious striving to perfect the grace of baptism so that, as we

bear in our body the death of Jesus Christ, his life may be seen

in us ever more clearly” (no. 7b).

The enriched structure for the rite of reconciliation of one

penitent should make the individual celebration of penance more

fruitful. Confessors as well as penitents should recognize the

value of the sacrament and celebrate it in a manner most bene-

ficial for the individual’s growth in holiness. Although the in-

dividual is not reconciled from a state of profound aversion to

God or converted from the depths, it must be admitted, there is

still reason for celebration on a regular pattern.

2

THE RECONCILIATION OF

SEVERAL PENIENTS WITH

INDIVIDUAL CONFESSION

AND ABSOLUTION

The second form given for the celebration of the sacrament

of penance structures a communal setting for the individual

form. It is a ratification of the desire for a community celebra-

tion of penance that has been expressed in recent years by peni-

tential liturgies, with or without the sacrament as part of those

liturgies. The individual confessions are set within a context of

community preparation and thanksgiving. Numbers 22-30 and

48-57 enshrine this liturgical development for the sake of bring-

ing out the ecclesial dimensions of the individual form in more

evident fashion.

“A communal celebration shows more clearly the ecclesial

nature of penance” (no. 22). The ritual gives as its reasoning

for this rite not only the ecclesial element, but also the very fact

of large gatherings of the faithful. When a number of penitents

come together at the same time for penance, ideally at set times

in the month or liturgical year, the sacrament should be cele-

brated in this manner so that all are prepared together for its

reception. This rite focuses on the liturgy of the word which

prepares penitents for confession and mutual prayer. Then,

“after each person has confessed his sins and received absolution,

all praise God together for his wonderful deeds on behalf of the

people which he has gained for himself through the blood of

his Son” (no. 22)

.

32



The rite takes place in four steps: introductory rites; cele-

bration of the word of God; rite of reconciliation; dismissal of

the faithful.

As with all good celebrations, the gathering begins with a

song which expresses the penitential stance of the assembly or

the character of the liturgical season in which the sacrament is

being celebrated. Examples of appropriate antiphons which

bring out the mercy and compassion of the Lord are given in

number 48.

The priest or another minister, such as the deacon or reader,

speaks briefly about the importance and purpose of the cele-

bration, taking care to explain the order of the service. Such

an introduction must be brief and practical, stressing the major

theme of reconciliation. Explaining the order of service is neces-

sary if the liturgy is to be celebrated smoothly and easily.

The introductory rites are concluded by an opening prayer.

The priest invites all to pray, remembering God’s continual call

to conversion. Several examples of this prayer are given (nos.

97-100). Essentially, such a prayer is a petition for pardon

which brings with it peace and true freedom.

The word of God is read because it is a call to repentance

and true conversion of heart, and the readings that are chosen

should reflect that call. The ritual is a rich source for such

readings and sections 101-201 have rightly been called a “Lec-

tionary of Penance,” for it contains 32 readings from the Old

Testament, 15 psalms, 28 apostolic readings, and 26 gospel

pericopes. The celebration may be structured like any liturgy

of the word with a number of readings and responses, followed

by a homily.

The readings, introduced by a brief comment to help focus

one’s attention, should reflect one of the following themes:

(a) the voice of God calling men back to conversion and

ever-closer conformity with Christ;

(b) the mystery of our reconciliation through the death

and resurrection of Christ as well as through the gift of the Holy

Spirit;

(c) The judgment of God on good and evil in men’s lives as

a help in examination of conscience.

33

—BASIC STRUCTURE

—INTRODUCTORY RITES

—CELEBRATION OF THE

WORD OF GOD



The homily should reflect what has been proclaimed to the

congregation and should lead the penitents to examine their

consciences. “It should remind the faithful that sin works

against God, against the community and one’s neighbors as well

as against the sinner himself” (no. 25). Therefore, in conjunc-

tion with the main themes of the readings, the homily should

recall

:

(a) the infinite mercy of God, greater than all our sins,

by which he continually calls us back to himself;

(b) the need for interior repentance, by which we are pre-

pared for making reparation for sin;

(c) the social aspect of grace and sin, by which the actions

of individuals in some degree affect the whole body of the

Church;

(d) the duty of making satisfaction for sin; this is effective

because of Christ’s work of reparation, and requires especially

in addition to works of penance the exercise of true charity to-

ward God and our neighbor (no. 25).

After the homily a period of silence should occur so that

all present may fruitfully examine their consciences and awaken

true contrition for sin. The priest, deacon or other minister may

aid the assembly with brief considerations or a litany which may

be suitable to the background, age or culture of the group as-

sembled.

—rite of reconciliation This rite takes place in four steps: a general confession of

sin, a litany of confession and contrition, the Lord’s Prayer

which is never to be omitted and the confession and absolution.

The rite begins with a general confession of sinfulness while

the congregation kneels or bows. The Confteor or other formula

may be used. Then all stand while the deacon or other minister

invites the assembly to confess its sins and pray for each other

so that God may heal them. Such a litany should express con-

fession of sins, heartfelt contrition, prayer for forgiveness, and

trust in God’s mercy.

The litany is concluded with the Lord’s Prayer, for in it

the faithful seek God’s forgiveness and mercy for our sins and

affirm that they need to forgive and be forgiven by others. The

34



ancient Church clearly understood the effectiveness of this prayer

for forgiveness of sins. Saint Augustine attests that all our weak-

nesses are effaced by the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer. When

the faithful say, “forgive us our trespasses,” and beat their

breasts, the daily penance of good and humble Christians is

effected, declares Augustine.
5

The place of the Lord’s Prayer in the sacrament of penance

is of great importance, not only because it is the Lord’s Prayer,

but also because it situates our appeal to God for mercy in the

proper gospel context. The Gelasian Sacramentary in comment-

ing on the prayer’s meaning has this to say:

“
‘Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who tres-

pass against us.’ The meaning of this precept is the following:

we cannot merit pardon of our sins unless we ourselves before-

hand have forgiven our brother who has sinned against us, as

the Lord says in the Gospel, ‘If you do not forgive the sins of

others, the Father will not forgive you yours’ ” (Matthew 6: 14) .
6

The Lord’s Prayer should not only be a help to us but

should regulate our lives. It is concluded by a kind of embolism

as in the Mass, or in the form of a litany.

The penitents are then instructed that, if they wish, they

may go to individual priests to confess their sins and receive

absolution. Each penitent accepts a fitting act of penance and

is individually absolved. Collective absolution by a number of

priests or general absolution by one priest is not permitted in

this rite. The practice of general absolution is discussed in the

next section.

When all the individual confessions are completed, the

principal celebrant or president of the assembly with all the other

confessors gathered about him, invites the reconciled to offer

thanks to God. He should encourage them to do good works

which will give witness to the grace of conversion which the

community has received. So it is fitting that all sing a hymn of

thanksgiving and gladness expressing joy in and acknowledge-

ment of God’s power and mercy. Examples such as the Song of

Mary (Luke 1:46-55) or Psalm 135 are given in the ritual.

Paragraph number 206 also lists many other possible sources

for hymnody, psalms and Old and New Testament canticles.

—
.PROCLAMATION OF

PRAISE AND DISMISSAL

35



The priest concludes the thanksgiving with a prayer, again

stressing the wonder of God’s love for mankind, a love which

transforms us into the likeness of the Son; a prayer which ends

by giving glory to God. Thus the confession of sins ( confessio

peccatorum
) is joined to the confession of faith and praise ( con-

fessio fidei and confessio laudis ).
7

The prayer is followed by a

final blessing of the assembly (nos. 58, 212-214). Then the

deacon, reader, other minister or the priest himself dismisses the

congregation: “The Lord has freed you from your sins. Go in

peace.” All answer, “Thanks be to God” (no. 59).

There is a danger that this second rite may become too

long, especially if the majority of people present wish to make

individual confessions. Therefore, it is important that there

always be a sufficient number of confessors present, that the

congregation have a clear idea where they are stationed, and

that access to them is easy and orderly, without regimentation.

All the rites should be characterized by and structured with

dignity and simplicity. Too many readings, an overlong homily

and too many litanies can make the celebration excessively

verbal, lessening the impact of the power of the Word to excite

contrition and conversion. While retaining the openness and

warmth called for by the first Ordo for the actual confession of

sins, spiritual counseling should be kept at a minimum, unless

of course the situation demands it.

3

THE RECONCILIATION OF

SEVERAL PENIENTS WITH

GENERAL CONFESSION AND
ABSOLUTION

In this third rite everything takes place as in the rite of

reconciliation of several penitents with individual confession

and absolution except for the individual confessions and absolu-

tions. At the end of or during the homily those seeking general

absolution are instructed as to the proper disposition necessary

for absolution, contrition for sin, resolve to repair any scandal

or harm, resolution to confess in due time each one of the grave

sins which cannot be confessed at the present moment. An act

of penance is suggested which all might do.

The deacon or another minister at the proper moment calls

upon the congregation to show by some sign such as bowing

their heads or kneeling that they wish to be absolved. Together

all present make a general confession by using a formula such as

the Confteor which may be followed by a litany or penitential

song. The Lord’s Prayer is said by all. The priest next invokes

36



the Holy Spirit for the forgiveness of sins, gives sacramental

absolution, and then invites the congregation to give thanks.

The norms for general absolution found in the revised rite

(nos. 31-34) essentially repeat those expressed in the pastoral

norms, Sacramentum Paenitentiae, issued by the Congregation

for the Doctrine of the Faith on June 16, 1972. The background

against which these norms have been drawn up is to be found

in the Instruction of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary of March

25, 1944, and in the teaching of the Council of Trent, Session

XIV, on integral confession.
8

“Particular and occasional circumstances may render it

lawful and even necessary to give absolution in general to a

number of penitents without their previous individual confes-

sion” (no. 31). The 1972 pastoral norms require serious neces-

sity: “namely, when in view of the number of penitents there

are not enough confessors at hand to hear properly the confes-

sions of each within an appropriate time, with the result that the

penitents through no fault of their own would be forced to do

without sacramental grace or Holy Communion for a long time

. . . this is not lawful, however, when confessors are able to be

at hand, merely because of a great concourse of penitents such

as can for example occur on a great feast or pilgrimage” (no. 3 )

.

The judgment as to the presence of any of the above con-

ditions belongs to the bishop of the diocese who must take

counsel with the other members of the episcopal conference. An

individual priest, if he judges it necessary to give general abso-

lution may do so if he first has recourse to the Ordinary of the

place. If this is not possible, he must notify the bishop after he

has given the absolution.

After the general confession, the priest holds his hands

extended over the penitents and says the prayer of absolution.

He may use the absolution for individual penitents, in the plural,

but the extended prayer of absolution provided for this occasion

is preferred.

This prayer, like the individual form, is also trinitarian and

biblical. It is divided into four parts, the first three being invo-

cations of each of the divine persons in their roles in salvation

history, the fourth section is the declaration of absolution itself.

37

—WHEN MAY GENERAL
ABSOLUTION BE GIVEN?

—THE RITE OF
GENERAL ABSOLUTION



CONCLUSION

The biblical background for the first invocation, to the Father,

may be found in Ezekiel 33:11 and I John 4:9-10. Romans

4:25 and John 20:22-23 are the background for the invocation

to the Son. The invocation of the Holy Spirit is based in John

20:23; Ephesians 2:18 and I Peter 2:9.

The rite is concluded by an appropriate proclamation of

thanksgiving followed by the dismissal.
9

Chapter IV of the ritual consists of a rich selection of texts

which may be used in the various forms of the sacrament. Once

the new ritual is implemented, confessors and planners of peni-

tential liturgies should be open to all the options which are given

in this chapter. They are given precisely because a fixed routine,

structure, or pattern should be avoided. A certain amount of

creativity is desirable.

Appendix II is also a rich source for the Church’s liturgical

life. In it are given six sample non-sacramental penitential

liturgies: for Lent, for Advent, common celebrations, for chil-

dren, for young people, and for the sick. The purpose of these

non-sacramental celebrations is not so much reconciliatory (in

the sense that one is reconciled to the Church through absolu-

tion), but rather they are aids for the Christian community as it

progresses in gradual understanding and conversion. While they

are remissive of lesser sins, such celebrations may motivate one

who is in serious sin to seek out absolution in another context.

The benefits of “devotional confession” might also accrue from

such a celebration. It should be clear, in any case, that Appen-

dix II only provides models; other texts and formats may be used.

The need for conversion and the call to repentance apply

to all, for Jesus came not to save the self-righteous, but the sinner

and all Christians share in the sinful condition which requires

reconciliation.
10

The Church in promulgating the Rite of Penance

has given its ministers and faithful a wonderful instrument for

the realization of reconciliation in its own household. For as

a reconciling and reconciled community, the Church can truly

be a witness to the liberation which Christ wishes to give to

those who believe.

38



1 Otto Semmelroth, The Preaching Word: On the Theology of Proclamation,

New York, 1965, 179.
2

. . ut per manus nostrae impositionem te cooperante, infundantur eis

spiritus sancti gratia, descendat super eos caelestis benedictio, tribuatur eis pecca-

torum remissio.” (Romano-German Pontifical [X century], XCIX, 243, 29-32.)
3 Thomas, Summa Theologica, III, art. 4.
4 For the biblical background of the new prayer of absolution, See II Cor

2:3, 5:14-15, 18-19; also Jn 20:22-23, Mt 16:19, 18:18.
5 Epist. 265.

6 Text from A. Hamman, Le “Pater” expiique par les peres.
7 Other examples are given in nos. 207-211.

8 DS 1704, 1706-1709.
9 A short rite may be found in nos. 64-66.
10 Lk 5:32.



Appendix I

A Suggested Bibliography

Anciaux, Paul. The Sacrament of Penance. New York: Sheed and Ward,

1962.

Bausch, William J. It is the Lord! Sin and Penance Revisited. Notre

Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1970.

Buckley, Francis J. “I Confess.” The Sacrament of Penance Today. Notre

Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1972.

Burghardt, Walter J. Towards Reconciliation. Washington: U.S. Catholic

Conference, 1974.

Corrigan, John E. Growing Up Christian: Penance and the Moral Devel-

opment of Children. Dayton: Pflaum, 1968.

Crichton, J. D. The Ministry of Reconciliation. London: Geoffrey Chap-

man, 1974.

Foley, Leonard. What’s Happening to Confession? Cincinnati: St.

Anthony Messenger Press, 1970.

Freburger, William. Repent and Believe: The Celebration of the Sacra-

ment of Penance. Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1971.

Gallen, John. “General Sacramental Absolution,” Theological Studies 34

(1973) 1, 114-121.

Guzie. Tad. What a Modern Catholic Believes About Confession. Chicago:

Thomas More Press, 1974.

Haring, Bernhard. Shalom: Peace, the Sacrament of Reconciliation. New

York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1967.

Janssens, Sr. Paul Mary, O. P. The Sacrament of Reconciliation. Notre

Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1973.

McKeever, P. E. and Palmer, P. “The Sacrament of Penance,” The Cath-

olic Encyclopedia, XI, 73-83.

Orsay, Ladislas. “Communal Penance: Some Preliminary Questions,”

Worship 47 (1973) 6, 322-337.

Poschmann, Bernhard. Penance and Anointing of the Sick. New York:

Burns and Oates, 1964.

Prieur, Michael. The Sacrament of Reconciliation Today. Bethlehem:

Catechetical Communications, 1973.

Rahner, Karl. “Some Forgotten Truths Concerning the Sacrament of

Penance,” Theological Investigations. Vol. II. Baltimore: Darton,

Longman and Todd, 1964.

Riga, Peter. Sin and Penance: Insights into the Mystery of Salvation. Mil-

waukee: Bruce Publ., 1967.

Saint-Cyr, Carra de Vaux. The Sacrament of Penance. New York: Paulist

Press, 1966.

40



Schillebeeckx, Edward, O. P. “Sacramental Reconciliation,” Concilium 61,

(1971).

Snoeck, Andreas. Confession and Pastoral Psychology. Ireland: Mercier

Press, 1962.

Watkins, Oscar D. A History of Penance. 2 vols. New York: Burt Frank-

lin, 1920.

Weiland, Duane. Resistance: The Sacrament of Penance. Dayton: Pflaum,

1969.

United States Catholic Conference, A Study Paper for First Confession.

Washington, 1973.



.

.