C(jecilian Edition JOUSSE’S MUSICAL CATECHISM CONTAINING THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC BY J. JOUSSE REVISED AND ENLARGED BY THOMAS A’BECKET WITH A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS AND * SCHUMANN’S RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS BOSTON OLIVER DITSON COMPANY New York Chicago Chas. H. Ditson & Co. * Lyon & Ilealy Copyright, 1906,'by Oliver Ditson Company EDITOR’S PREFACE Few works on music have shown such remarkable vitality or enjoyed such popularity as the little book popularly known for several generations as “Jousse’s Catechism.” The author, born in Orleans, France, in 1760, was driven from Paris by the Rev- olution and fled to London where he established himself as a teacher of singing and piano. He reached the good age of 77, dying in London, January 19, 1837. During his London career he published several text-books, among them “Lectures on Thor- ough-bass” (1819), the basis of the present Catechism, which is a revision and augmentation of it. In the course of teaching and musical progress in general many new and valuable definitions have been evolved, and the Catechism has passed through many editions. All the material found in old editions has been carefully revised and much that is new added in this Caecilian Edition. It is confidently offered to the music-loving public as being the most complete of all editions, and, what is more important, correct. Thomas A’Becket. January, 1906. CONTENTS SUCTION PAGE I. Notes, Staff, and Clefs 1 II. Notes, Rests, Time, and Rhythm 8 III. The Sharp, Flat, and Natural 16 IV. Intervals and Formation of the Scale 19 V. Characters in Common Use. Embellishments ... 27 YI. Terms of Expression, Speed, and Style 40 VII. Position at the Piano and Manner of Playing ... 43 Yin. Fingering ana Scales 46 IX. Transposition 61 X. Use of Syllables— Chords— Modulation .... 65 Appendix Pronouncing Dictionary of Musical Terms .... 72 Rules for Young Musicians, by Robert Schumann . 80 KEY-BOARD OF A MODERN SEVEN OCTAVE PIANO EXPLAINED © ^ © J rS fl Q 'H h a -*• o J ff'S ® 06 P-cr1 G ^ ^ b. 03 - - - <—? o © © rG © . G CO G Hi -pH r—t G © © S ^ P 'd ° ° Pi f> 32 rG O ° "3 Q j§ ^ rG G " G © n3 G 5p Q | G O rG be g a 8 *; 2 G fi ,G •H H GO fc> ^ ^ m'g'a! j* .2 S*^-* g^°S G Tj © •“ ! oT.S X g © G G co ^ 1 ^ G © O © © co rS § s £ © © CO ^ ~ G Q co co rGg ^ co S? *q G ^ Pnfn I 3©5g° aS^-Sd &>>gs ,3 3.3 S 1 “^.s^a I -d o -g ^ § ! S| 3 * 2 §:S 3£'§'S $ A CATECHISM OF MUSIC SECTION I NOTES, STAFF, AND CLEFS What is music ? A pleasing grouping of musical tones, either in suc- cession (melody) or in combination (harmony). What is a melody ? A succession of single musical tones, so arranged as to form a pleasing effect. What is harmony ? Two or more musical tones sounding simultaneously, preferably in concord ; the study of harmony teaches the proper or scientific arrangement of these sounds. How do we express musical ideas in writing ? By characters called notes and rests. How many notes are used, and what are their names ? Seven. They are named from the first seven letters of the alphabet : A, B, C, D, E, F, G-. (In France, Italy, and Spain the notes are named by these syllables : la, si, do, re, mi, fa, sol.) A, B, C, D, E, F, G. How are the keys of the piano named ? By the same seven letters, A, B, C, D , E, F, G. (The black keys are divided into groups of twos and threes. CD 2 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC D is the note between the two black keys ; between the three black keys the note on the left is G, on the right A. The situation of the others may readily be found from these positions. C is to the left, and E to the right of D. F is on the left of G, and B is on the right of A. (See the diagram of the keyboard.) How many white keys are there on the piano? On a seven-octave piano there are fifty, which are called naturals. How many black keys are there on the piano ? Thirty-five ; they are called sharps and flats. How is the staff formed, and what is its use ? It is composed of five parallel lines and the four inter- mediate spaces, and is used for placing the notes upon, and determining their pitch. Staff. * 5 T o 4 5 « 3 : 1 3 i How are the lines and spaces of the staff counted ? From the lowest one upward. Each line or space constitutes a degree of the staff ; the progression from one degree to the next is in regular order. If the first line is E, the first space will be F ; the second line G, etc. By what means do we obtain the names and pitch of the notes ? By using a clef, which is placed at the beginning of the staff. This clef locates on the staff the position of a letter (G, F or C) and so determines the position of all the other letters. NOTES, STAEF, AND CLEFS 3 How many clefs are used for piano music ? Two ; the G, or treble clef, generally used for the right-hand part, and the F, or bass clef, ^z, usually used for the left-hand part. Where is the G clef placed upon the staff ? Upon the second line, to which it gives its name, G. (All the other degrees of the staff receive their names from this by proceeding in regular order, up or down.) Clef note. EFG ABCDEF Name the five lines of the G or treble clef. The first line is E; the second, G; the third, B; the fourth, D ; the fifth, F. Notes placed on these lines take their names. Ns the four spaces of the treble clef ? The first space is F ; the second, A ; the third, C ; the fourth, E. Lines. Spaces. EGBDF FACE Where is the F clef placed upon the staff ? Upon the fourth line, to which it gives its name, F. The other degrees will be named correctly by proceeding up or down in regular order. 4 A CATECHISM OP MUSIC Clef note. 3- GABC DEF G A Name the five lines of the F, or bass clef. The first line is G ; the second, B ; the third, D ; the fourth, F ; the fifth, A. Name the four spaces of the bass clef. The first space is A ; the second, C ; the third, E ; the fourth, G« Lines. Spaces. G B D F A ACEG How is the position of the clef notes found on the keyboard ? Find the C key which is nearest to the center (usually just under the name of the maker) ; the first G to the right represents the pitch of the G clef ; and the first F to the left is the position of the F clef. What is the use of a brace ? j It is used to connect the staves carrying the treble and bass clefs. The upper staff is for the right hand; the lower staff for the left hand. Brace. Treble. Bass. NOTES, STAFF. AND CLEFS 5 In this example we may proceed regularly from the lowest bass note, G, to the highest one upon that staff, A; but from that point to the lowest note upon the treble clef, E, three letters (or notes) have been omitted ; viz., B, G, D. How may notes be carried beyond the limit of a staff ? By the use of short lines, called leger lines, which are added above or below the staff, as they may be needed. Notes may be written upon these leger lines, or above and below them. Observe that they alternate line and space ; practically they are the continuation of the staff in both directions. What are the leger lines above the treble staff ? The first leger line above is A ; the second, C ; the third, E ; the fourth, G ; the fifth, B. G B What are the leger spaces above the treble staff ? The first space above is G ; the second, B ; the third, D ; the fourth, F ; the fifth, A ; the sixth, C. 6 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC A C (On account of difficulty in reading, more than five leger lines are rarely used.) Name the leger lines and spaces below the treble staff. The first line below is C ; the second, A ; the third, F. The first space below is D ; the second, B ; the third, G. — 2 3 — 1 2 3 w 1 * 1~=\—t 1— — c•*- 4Hi-4 L - (Notes lower than the third leger line below are usually written in the bass clef.) Notes of Treble Staff and Accompanying Leger Lines and Spaces. Clef note. What are the leger lines of the bass staff ? The first leger line above is C ; the second, E ; the third, G. NOTES, STAFF, AND CLEFS 7 What are the leger spaces above the bass staff ? The first space above is B ; the second, D ; the third, F ; the fourth, A. F B D A £4=- Name the leger lines and spaces below the bass staff. The first line below is E ; the second, C ; the third, A; the fourth, F. The first space below is F ; the second, D ; the third, B ; the fourth, G. -q- 1 2 3 4 — 1 2 3 4 J -1 .-4=— i-=1 t i 1 - 1 i 1— w -+ ^ 4F D T * Notes of Bass Staff and Accompanying Leger Lines and Spaces. 8 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC What is middle C? It is the C which stands midway between the G clef note and the F clef note. G. Clef note. Middle C. F. Clef note. It derives its name from the relative position of the clefs, and not from its position on the keyboard. It may belong to either staff ; as the first leger line below the treble, or the first leger line above the bass. The black notes show how the grand staff may be formed by pro- ceeding line by line from the lowest, and what close connection there is between the bass and treble staves. SECTION II NOTES, RESTS, TIME, AND RHYTHM. What are notes? They are the characters by which the length of a sound is shown. By their shape the duration of a sound is expressed. The pitch of a sound is shown by the position of a note upon the staff. What are the different kinds of notes? The whole note ; the half note ; the quarter note ; the eighth note ; the sixteenth note ; the thirty-second note. NOTES, RESTS, TIME, AND RHYTHM 9 Describe their shape. The whole note is oval in shape, & ; sometimes called an open, or white note. The half note, J, is of the same style, open, with the addition of a stem. The quarter note, J, has a black (or filled) head with a stem. The eighth note, has a black head and stem to which is added a hook. The sixteenth note, has a black head, stem, and two hooks. The thirty-second note, has a black head, stem, and three hooks. £2 r r r r r 000000C0 00000000 00000000 00000— £a The hooks of the eighths, sixteenths, and thirty- seconds are here shown joined. They may be separate or joined, with stems turned up or down, without any alteration of value. What proportion do the notes bear to each other ? Each note is equal in duration to one-half of the preceding note, and, of course, is twice the value of the note following. 10 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Practice Questions. How many half notes in a whole note ? How many eighths in a half note ? In a quarter note ? What is half of an eighth note ? Of a half note ? Of a sixteenth note ? Much benefit will be derived by frequently writing out these proportionate values. What are rests ? Characters which indicate silence. They are equal in value to the notes bearing the same name. Describe their shape. The whole rest is a block, or dash, placed under a line of the staff. The half rest is a similar block, or dash, but placed over a line of the staff. The quarter rest was, originally, a stem with a hook extending to the right, but is now made in this form <[ that it may be readily distinguished from the eighth rest. The eighth rest is a stem with a hook extending to the left. The sixteenth rest is a stem with two hooks, extending to the left. The thirty-second rest is a stem with three hooks extending to the left. Table of Rests 3— —£—r— - "3 3 Whole. Half. Quarters. Eighth. Sixteenth. Thirty-second. Notice that the eighth, sixteenth, and thirty-second rests all turn to the left. What is the effect of a dot after a note, or rest ? It increases the value pne-half. NOTES, RESTS, TIME, AND RHYTHM 11 What is the effect of a double dot ? Placed after a note or rest the double dot increases the value three-fourths; the second dot is one-half the length of the first dot. CL • • it; 0 • • m • • - Vf • •r*- T T J equal to 1 p 9 0 w — - p m p — ^ Nf *i *1r r J J u & • * ' q— -j U— V V s-R- What are bars ? Upright lines drawn across the staff to divide the music into equal portions. What are these portions called ? They are called measures. Sometimes they are called bars, but this is not correct. 12 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC What is time ? In music, time has reference to the rhythm or mea- sure of the music. Some prefer the word meter, for time also means the duration or speed of the music. How many kinds of time (or meter) are there ? Two; double (even) and triple time. Double time has an even number of parts in a measure ; as two, four, six, eight, or twelve. Triple time has an odd number of parts ; as three, or nine. How is the time (or meter) expressed ? By placing immediately after the clef, at the begin- ning, two figures in the form of a fraction. What do these figures show ? The upper figure, or numerator, shows the number of units or parts into which the measure has been divided. For instance, 2 would indicate that it had been divided into two units or parts ; 4 would show a division into four units; 8 into eight units. The lower figure, or denominator, shows the kind of note constituting the single unit or part. What is meant when the letter C is used as a time signature ? That each measure must contain the value of a whole note ; as generally expressed, “ four quarter notes in a measure ; ” and more generally known as common time. Any kind of notes and rests may be used if the combined value does not exceed a whole note. The figures \ would mean the same as C. NOTES, RESTS, TIME, AND RHYTHM 13 Explain what is meant by \ as a time signature. The 2 shows that there are two units or parts in each measure ; the 4 indicates that the unit is a quarter note. , * » • * . * * . 4 i F {— 1 — i — H L-J— - i- r- SJ H tr — ' ' ' 1 12 12 1 2 Explain the following time signatures, indicating which are common, double, or triple time. Table of Time Signatures. . . A q TT q q /l 1 q 1 o TT A qn 4 t > Z J \ ) u 4 4 tz tz *7 4 4 V J A A /I Q Q Q A o o Q Q IP4 4 4 _n o a 4 Z Z 4 4 rrzitr : What is the time when this ^ is used ? A C with a line across indicates two half notes in a measure. It is called “ alia breve ” and is largely used in compositions for church use, and often in marches. How many species of double and triple time are there ? Two of each ; simple and compound. What is the difference between them ? If the upper figure is less than six, the time is known as simple time : if the upper figure is six, or more than six, the time is compound. Simple Double Time. Simple Triple Time. 242424 3333 4, 4, 8, 8, 2, 2. 8, 4, 2, 16. Compound Double Time. 6 12 12 8, 4 , 8 . Compound Triple Time. 9 9 8, 4. 6 4, 14 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC What is rhythm ? The regular recurrence of the natural accent. Give examples of rhythmic accent. In ^ timfe the accent falls upon the first quarter, or beat; in \ time it falls upon the first and third (some- what lighter) ; in | time it falls upon the first beat only ; the same m ^ ; in | it falls upon the first beat, and, lightly on the fourth beat; in | upon the first beat, and, slightly, upon the fourth and seventh beats ; in 1 q upon the first beat, and, slightly, upon the fourth, seventh, and tenth. The first is known as the prominent, or superior accent ; the others as the inferior accent. The manner of counting time varies according to the time signature, and according to the speed of the move- ment. In ( 1 time, at moderate speed, the time will be counted as Pour quarter-notes. Moderate). =1 4= THV "XT ~ ~ w 4 0 0 0 . Count12341 234 1234 In a very slow movement it is better to divide each quarter note and count eight eighth notes. Adagio. l and 2 and o and 4 and 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and —4 — TV -J 0 0 =| 0 -*—w~ , =s V 4=« J-- - - Count 1234667 8 12 34 567 8 NOTES, RESTS, TIME, AND RHYTHM 15 It is preferred by some to have the count as given above the example ; viz., 1 and, 2 and, 3 and, 4 and. This is a matter of choice. The words “ and ” represent the intermediate eighth-notes. In counting \ time the same rule will prevail ; two quarter notes in moderately quick, or fast movements, and four eighth notes in slow movements. 123412 34 In | time the count will be three quarter notes if the speed is ordinarily fast, and six eighth notes if the speed is slow. Moderalo. m • Pm / , ™ t J r m m r r r 0 0 . i \ a L r t r b r 9 s V z 4 L 1 ^ I L c 1 2 3 12 3 1 2 3 123 j i i i P m i j j i a ^ i r [ i r 9 # * - 1 M 9 # 9 123456 123456 123456 123456 In a quick | time the unit for counting is the dotted quarter note. Each dotted quarter note, being worth three eighth notes, will occupy one-half a measure in this 16 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC time ; in consequence there will be two in each measure. In slow q time six eighth notes will be counted. Allegro. - # m P~m ' *• . 1 -(b-h- -t-P=P-t=£p:: 12 12 12 12 Andante. V 0 0 0 m TT i i l ^ - m P 1 iii f P m tin\\Lc> ,• i L 1 r i m r C_ J _[ i r I f i C-bd L LU- + JL - 123456 133456 123456 Is it necessary to beat time ? It is better to count the time, and to count aloud. As this is not possible for vocalists and performers on wind instruments, they must beat time, using the hand or foot for that purpose. SECTION III THE SHARP, FLAT, AND NATURAL What is the effect of a sharp ( § ) ? To raise the pitch of a note a half step without chang- ing its position on the staff. The note before which it is placed must be played on the next adjoining key on the right, whether black or white. r-p— r—fr— i , a 44 p $pm UP—1— - F T ~~T *= -J-— 1 F. F Sharp. C. C Sharp. B. B Sharp. E. E Sharp. THE SHARP, FLAT, AND NATURAL 17 What is the effect of a flat ( fr ) ? To lower the pitch of a note a half step. The note before which it is placed must be played on the next ad- joining key on the left, whether black or white. 7^ — » fr# —p—b# — 1 1 m=£=%-=4—4 -- r - r —J— i 4=z B. B Flat. E. E Flat. C. C Flat. F. F Flat. What is the effect of a natural ( ) ? The natural contradicts both the sharp and the flat and restores the note to its original pitch. m '— M -H F. F Sharp. F Natural. B. B Flat. B Natural. It will be seen that the natural will raise or lower the pitch of a note a half step, according to circumstances. Is the sharp or flat marked to every note as needed in a musi- cal composition ? No ; the sharps or flats necessary to the key are marked immediately after the clef, and are called the key-signature. They affect all notes of the same names throughout the piece, unless contradicted by an acciden- tal, by which is meant any Jf, or {j, that is not contained in the signature. What is the effect of a double sharp ( ) ? It raises the pitch of a note a whole step. The note is played on the second key to the right, whether black or white. 18 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Played on G. Played on C sharp —9—•—ft*—**—r — i . " i j.' w- h- - f( r r t- w 7KW v F f F— F — F. F sharp. F double sharp. B. B sharp. B double sharp. While is the usual sign for the double sharp, the jjfjf is sometimes used. The former is not so cumbersome, and is less confusing to the eye. What is the effect of a double flat (W? )? It lowers the pitch of a note a whole step. The note is played on the second key to the left, whether black or white. Played on A. Played on E flat. F#-j— i fcfej -J ~l 1 1 l - - If V w ^ rrw v J u! uuj ,LM vM gg* B. B flat. B double flat. F. F flat. F double flat. There is no distinctive mark for the double flat other than bb- How are double sharps and double flats contradicted ? By using a natural followed by a sharp or a flat. C double sharp. C single sharp. D double flat. D single flat. Although this is the rule, numerous instances may be found where the is omitted, and only the single or b used. Many signs are apt to be confusing, and the cus- tom of using but a single corrective accidental is growing in favor. INTERVALS AND FORMATION OF THE SCALE 19 Can a double flat, or sharp, be used without having been pre- ceded by a single flat or sharp ? No ; a note must have been affected by a single flat, or sharp, before the double can be used. To what extent do accidentals effect notes ? They effect all succeeding notes of the same name in the measure unless contradicted ; but their effect lasts only for the measure in which they occur. SECTION IY INTERVALS AND FORMATION OF THE SCALE What is a semitone or half step ? A semitone, or half step, is the smallest interval used in music. On the piano it exists between any key and the next one, whether that next one be black or white. What are called the natural half steps will be found between B and C, and between E and E. What is a tone or whole step ? It is composed of two semitones or half steps. Whole step. Whole step. Whole step. Whole step. 20 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC What is the meaning of scale ? A ladder ; it is the name given to the succession of seven notes (sounds) ascending or descending. How many kinds of music scales are there ? Two; the diatonic and the chromatic. How many varieties of the diatonic scale are there ? Two ; major and minor. Of what does the major diatonic scale consist ? Of five whole steps and two half steps. How are they arranged ? The major diatonic scale proceeds by two successive whole steps, followed by a half step, then by three sue. cessive whole steps and a half step. Scale of C. 1 2345678 “7 f . - . w ~j ((V J m m 9 • * - Whole Whole Half Whole Whole Whole Half step. step. step. step. step. step. step. n 87054321 t A # m f( V ^ • W m t . — ? ±_—• . 1 Half Whole Whole Whole Half Whole Whole step. step. step. step. step. step. step. Observe that the half steps occur between the third and fourth, and the seventh and eighth sounds, or degrees. All major scales are formed in this manner. To comply with the rule regulating the arrangement of the steps and half steps it will be necessary to use flats or sharps in each scale, excepting the scale of C. INTERVALS AND FORMATION OF THE SCALE 21 Scale of G. n 1 2 3 4 5 6 * ^ s J m * fr - ^7 tt \ m 9 0 ^w 1 0 c Whole Whole Half Whole Whole Whole Half step. step. step. step. step. step. step. ^ 6 5 4*3 2 1 7 T ^ 0 9 mV c Half Whole Whole Whole Half Whole Whole step. step. step. step. step. step. step. At * the distance from E to F was too small ; only a half step. By using a sharp the distance is increased to a whole step, the rule requiring a whole step between the sixth and seventh degrees is complied with, and the equally necessary half step -0- between the seventh and eighth degrees is provided. For this reason the scale of G- is known as the “ scale of one sharp.” Scale of F. 1 2 3*4 5 6 7 ^ hi * p V « 9 V* — J * • — L- Whole Whole Half Whole Whole Whole Half step. step. step. step. step. step. step. n 8 7 6 5 4*3 2 1 4 • _ 9 m e I v! LL V 7 ^ • 9 \ c Half Whole Whole Whole Half Whole Whole step. step. step. step. step. step. step. At * the distance from A to B was too large ; a whole step. By using a flat the distance is reduced a half step, and the rule requiring a half step between the third and fourth degrees is complied with. This scale (F) is known as the “ scale of one flat” Pupils should prac- tice the forming of scales. 22 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC How is the minor diatonic scale formed ? In ascending by using the same number of whole steps and half steps as in the major scale, but arranged in dif- ferent order. The half steps must occur between the second and third, and the seventh and eighth degrees. Scale of A Minor, Ascending.12345678 Whole Half Whole Whole Whole Whole Half step. step. step. step. step. step. step. In descending, the minor scale proceeds by two suc- cessive whole steps and a half step, then by two other whole steps and a half step, and ends by a whole step. Scale of A Minor, Descending. Whole Whole Half Whole Whole Half Whole step. step. step. step. step. step. step. The foregoing is known as the melodic minor scale. This form requires the sixth and seventh degrees of the ascending scale each to be raised a half step ; in the descending scale the sixth and seventh degrees resume their original pitch, the accidentals which raised them in ascending being cancelled. The harmonic minor scale ascends and descends without change, but the arrange- ment of the whole tones and half tones is different from those of the melodic. In this form will be found three half steps, which are placed between the second and third, fifth and sixth, and seventh and eighth degrees. INTERVALS AND FORMATION OF THE SCALE. 23 Scale of A Minor, Harmonic Form. 12345678 Whole Half Whole Whole Half Half step. step. step. step. step. step. 87654321 Half Half Whole Whole Half Whole step. step. step. step. step. step. At * the distance is a step and a half. All minor scales, melodic or harmonic, can be formed by following the preceding rules. What is the meaning of the word key, when applied to a collec- tion of sounds ? It has the same meaning as scale, and refers to a regu- lar succession of sounds, governed by a principal note called the tonic or key-note. How many fundamental keys, or scales, are there in music ? Only two ; C major and A minor. All others are but transpositions from these. How can you distinguish a major key from a minor key ? By the third degree or sound. In a major key the third is a major, or greater, third ; in a minor key the third is a minor, or lesser, third. What is a major, or greater, third ? It is an interval which includes three degrees of the staff, and comprises four half steps. 24 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Degrees. 2 3 # ^ Half steps, l What is a minor, or lesser, third ? It occupies three degrees of the staff, but contains only three half steps. Degrees. ^ <2 ti* •_?— - Half steps, l 2 3 How many keys are represented by the same signature? Two; a major and a minor; for instance, the key of C major and the key of A minor. Because the minor key or scale has the same signature as the major, it is known as the relative minor. Give a rule for finding the key-note when sharps form the sig- nature. When sharps form the signature, the tonic, or key- note, of the major key is the half step above the last sharp in the signature, and the tonic of the relative minor key INTERVALS AND FORMATION OF THE SCALE 25 is the tone below that last sharp ; or more properly stated, the tonic of the minor key is a minor third below the tonic of its relative major key. According to this rule what are the keys with one sharp ? The key of G major, for its tonic is a half step above the k sharp in the signature, and the key of E minor, the tonic of which is a whole step below the F sharp, and a minor third below G. (As but one sharp is used in the signature it is the last as well as the first.) What are the keys with three sharps? A major and F sharp minor. With four sharps? E major and C sharp minor With five sharps? B major and G sharp minor. With six sharps? F sharp major and D sharp minor. With seven sharps? C sharp major and A sharp minor. G Major. E Minor. What are the keys with two sharps? 1> major and B minor. 26 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC What is the rule for finding the key note when flats form the signature? The major key is a fifth above the last flat in the signa- ture, and the relative minor key is a major third above that last flat, or more properly stated, the tonic of the minor key is a minor third below the tonic of its relative major key. (As already stated, a major third contains four half steps ; a perfect fifth contains seven half steps. What are the keys with one flat? F major and D minor. ° ^ D Minor.F Major With two flats? B flat major and G- minor. With three flats? E flat major and C minor. With four flats? A flat major and F minor. CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 27 With five flats? D flat major and B flat minor. With six flats? G flat major and E flat minor. With seven flats? C flat major and A flat minor. F Major. B Flat Major. E Flat Major. A Flat Major. u : j —^—7 r!K — , y o / < -•— ^ La a nx ^ 1 a ‘Sfn\P 1 “ \ J 1 T 1 ° D Minor. G Minor. C Minor. F Miner. D Flat Major. r\ l. . G Flat Major. -hi ^ C Flat Major. L , J , 0 U f k U , ^ ^ 1 la u/ y f ^ y o u \vT7 v I ^ !/ _ - B Flat Minor. E Flat Minor. A Flat Minor. A complete set of scales will be found in the section on Fingering. SECTION V CHARACTERS IN COMMON BSE. — EMBELLISHMENTS What is a double bar? It is used to divide the music into parts ; it denotes the end of a portion, or of a complete composition. Why are dots placed at the double bar? These indicate a repetition of the part which is on the same side of the double bar as the dots. 28 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Kepeats. Bar. Bar. Double Bar. Why are the figures 1 and 2 placed at a double bar ? They show that the section just performed must be played again. In playing the first time the notes under |“^ must be played, going back to the repeat mark ; in playing the second time, the notes under rj must be omitted, and the notes under played instead. r-fr$ -T-.—1 ~j jr-r-S3 - # 1 1 J T TT n 2 J # r [ t NfFa \2 % * * w What is the meaning of Da Capo ; usually abbreviated D. C. ? From the beginning, or head. What is the meaning of Dal Segno, or D. S. ? From the sign. This sign is used in an earlier part of the composition, and the words Dal Segno, or the letters D. S., or the repetition of the sign all indicate that the performer must return and play from the first sign. (Observe that Da Capo and Dal Segno have a somewhat similar meaning, but not exactly so.) What is the meaning of Da Capo al segno or D. C. al segno ? Return to the beginning and play to the sign. Where should a composition end after making the repetitions D. C. or D. S.? At the word fine (pronounced fee'nay) or at ^ placed over a double bar, CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 29 What is the name and use of ? It is called a pause, or hold. When placed over a note or rest, it indicates that the sound— or silence— shall be prolonged at the pleasure of the performer. What is the meaning of octava, generally abbreviated 8va or 8 ? It signifies that the notes over which it is placed shall be played an octave higher than written. 8va 0- i 1 . + -f- £ r JT r !lV r n m i 1 • iff \ m e i !7 • r ° Written. Played. If written under notes, the octave lower must be played. Written. Played. -cv i -1 1 1— — 1 -h 1 1 0 m. 8va Li -J:-j. i J The purpose of 8va ... is to prevent the use of too many leger lines. The word loco shows where the 8va ... is to cease. Seldom used in modern music ; the termina- tion of the dotted lines following the 8va or 8 showing the exact point where the higher or lower octave is to be discontinued. What is the meaning of Con 8va ? It means with the octave. When placed over notes, add the octave above to the written note ; when placed under notes, add the octave below. What is an appoggiatura? It means a leaning note. It is indicated as a small note preceding the large npte, and is of two kinds, tho 30 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC long and short. The long, or true appoggiatura, takes half the length of the note which follows it. Written. The short one, which is written with a dash across its stem, is played very rapidly ; its correct name is accaci- atura, or crushing note. Written. 0 P / J K' 4 W _ir» (}—F -J-F—V Y- -i i Played. i IT 5F U What is a turn (~) ? The turn is the union of an upper and lower appoggi- atura of the short variety. It comprises three different notes ; viz., the printed note, the note above it, and the note below it. Turns are of three kinds : direct, pre- pared, and inverted. How is a direct turn made ? By “beginning on the highest of the three notes and playing the others in succession, ending upon the printed note. (The direct turn is indicated by the placed directly over the note.) CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 31 How is a prepared turn made ? By first striking the note which is printed and exe- cuting the direct turn afterward. (The prepared turn is indicated by having the ^ placed after the note.) How is the inverted turn made ? Just the opposite of the direct turn. Begin with the lowest of the three notes, the others in succession, and end with the printed note. (Indicated by this sign b It is seldom used ; the notes being printed in full.) What is meant by using a sharp with the turn ? If the sharp, or any other accidental, is placed over the turn-mark, it will affect the highest of the three notes ; if placed under the turn, then it affects the lowest of the three notes. (The notes of a turn are always governed by the signature of the composition, unless changed by accidentals.) Written. Played. or Written. Played. — -at ~ a a •a a—# 1 4 CL _p _ ill 1 Direct turn. Prepared Turn. Written. Played. Inverted Turn. Accidental above. Written. Played. T Accidental below. (Turns are to be played in keeping with the character of the movement of the composition being performed.) What is a trill (tr.) ? A trill is the rapid alternation of the note printed and the one above it. Trills are in three forms : the passing trill, the plain trill, and the one ending with a turn. 32 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Written. Played. 4r -r 0 0I - rf~T f P-f-irrf'Vre f -L %y - t±=L- J Passing Trill. Written. Played. tr Plain Trill. Written. tr Played. Ending with a Turn. The notes of a trill are affected by the signature of the composition, unless contradicted by accidentals. What is a mordent ('W') ? It consists of two small notes, which . precede the principal note. Written. Played. It will be observed that the note above is added. If a stroke is drawn through the mark, thus, it indicates that the note below the principal one is to be used. CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 33 This is the real mordent, the other form being the prall- trill. Custom has changed the names, and the is called the mordent. What does this mark a indicate ? That an accent or emphasis shall be given to the note above or below which it is placed. A K A A ^ / Z ^ # M ' 9 0 9 9 # m 9 # m m m 9 P* 9 m VS 7 -+ w r ^ W W W “ 1zr What is the meaning of arpeggio ? That the notes of a chord shall not be struck simul- taneously, but played in quick succession from the lowest to the highest, after the manner of a harp (Italian “ Arpa ”). It is indicated by a waved line placed before the chord. Written. Played. All the notes of the chord must be sustained until the expiration of their value. It is a frequent and bad habit to release the lower ones too soon. What is the meaning of Ped f It is the abbreviation of pedal, and shows that the damper, or right-hand pedal, must be pressed down, so that the dampers may be raised from the strings and permit them to vibrate. The pedal is released at the sign or The words una corda (one string) show that the soft, or left-hand pedal, is to be depressed. It is 34 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC released at the words tre corde (three strings). The pedals can be effectively used together, in which case both Fed. and una corda are marked. When is the damper pedal used ? Chiefly in passages in which the same harmony is continued ; when the chords are changed the pedol must be released. (The damper pedal should be carefully used ; neglect of this is a very common fault.) What do the letters R. II. and L. H. signify ? E. H. means right hand ; L. H., left hand. Their use is to show which hand is to play the note or passage. M. D. has the same meaning as E. H. ; M. G. or M. S. has the same meaning as L. H. ; they are the abbrevia- tions of the French and Italian words signifying the hands. What is the effect of a slur when placed over only two notes? The first note receives an acccent, more or less strong, and is well connected to the second note, which is played with less force ; the value of the second is generally slightly shortened. 1 2 1 m . | 1 * 0 0 r 0 1 t-iUz± / ‘ (- V 1 * Written. Played. Written. Played. Example 2 shows more definitely the composer’s desire to have the last note shortened. What is syncopation? It is the alteration or displacement of rhythmical accent. (See Question and Explanation of Ehythm, p. 14.) By it the strong accent becomes weak, and the weak becomes CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 35 strong. It may occur upon the regular beats of a mea- sure, or upon the last half of such beats. 1M £ m •—•- Overture, “ Poet and Peasant,” Suppe. ES > 4" ;—r -—-^J=-[= | - = H——P» « # As syncopation seldom occurs in the treble and bass at the same time, the player is aided in overcoming the odd effect of the syncopation by the rhythmic accent of the other part. A little practice, counting the time aloud, will, however, enable you to master it without such assistance. What is a triplet? Three notes played in the time of two of the same kind : three eighth notes played in the time of two eighth notes; three sixteenth notes in the time of two sixteenth notes ; or better, three notes played in the time of one of the next largest denomination : three eighth notes in time of one quarter, etc.; and in the same pro- portion with all kinds of notes. Triplets should be marked with the figure 3 to properly distinguish them from other groups of three which are not triplets. — - 3 3t \COVJV .CL 0 r 0 rn 0 0 1 m 0 m ^LA L ? i m - r ^ LXJZ 4 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 36 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC The notes forming the triplet must be very even and regular ; the count, or beat, is divided into three equal parts. Do not play This fault is so common that especial attention is called thereto. Are there other irregular groupings beside the triplet? Yes ; groups of six are played in the time of four of the same kind of notes ; also five notes as four ; seven notes as six ; nine as eight. 0 6 7 : P j * , A 0 * if fc'k V 1t-25 ex a r r :r r # j zi u V 7 i— ^ jg # # . o r i> 11 L ! f T V 1 1 # SZ 5 kJ CHARACTERS IN COMMON USE 37 Sometimes the figures are omitted ; then the manner of grouping the notes indicates the method of playing them. To save space, and also time and trouble when writ- ing. there are several methods of abbreviation. Examples of Note Abbreviations. Rule. Play as many of the lesser value notes— indi- cated by the strokes across the stem, usually eighths or sixteenths— as will make one of the note that is written. Examples of Group Abbreviations o 1 rrn| («) | 1 1 1 | 1 1 i («) l & ^ ^ ^ / m w d m m # i ^ < ( \ 1 m 9 9 m 9 9 A lV z w 9 Written. Played. Written. (6) # # w m # # # # # § i #1 : l\ m A : ^ ^ \> ) “ P P P Played. 38 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC r-fr— . r (c) 7 tt w j : 9 a n ~ rm - cJ ? i h~a f *4 n# It t j i f's a „ . ^ f # J rLTj y T W r— L ” Thirdly, by extension of the hand and fingers. 48 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC r -0-— r - • | J ir-rTTr—* 9 a o _ r ‘-r-f-fHvf / * 1 j—9 l h- P w h rIm l j M 1 er j M g I r i —J 3 g 4 £ 3 L- 1 ' ^ Fingering of the Scales. The fingering of the scales is not complicated, as imagined by many young students. It is based upon a plan which provides for the proper disposition of the thumb, so as to permit of the free movement of the fingers upon a level plane, especially in passing over the black keys. Examination will show that the thumb either precedes or succeeds the group of black keys con- tained in the particular scale under consideration. The changes in fingering of the scales are arranged to produce this result. A few simple rules will suffice to give com- plete mastery of scale fingering. Remember, also, that the correct position of the hand and fingers, and a free and elastic action of the thumb are necessary. In the natural scale the thumb of the right hand will fall upon the first and fourth degrees. End. n 1st. 4th. , 1st. 4th. m -0 - -0- Ipl 7- - " r r J J 9 |_ 1 1 1 l j..— 1 - A_# * L t V- 7 i ; w l_ cr 913312341231 234 (A) Fingers. This rule will apply to all scales with sharps as far as the key of B, five sharps. In playing the natural scale with the left hand, the thumb will fall upon the first and fifth degrees. In ascending, there is an exception to this, as we begin with the fifth finger ; but otherwise the thumb falls as stated. FINGERING AND SCALES 49 1st. 5th. 1st. 5th. 1st. 1 — 1 —— — 9 —0—W— f- — — 1 -liiJ-J * •-H *=p_ p—[—F^~ 1 I ~ 3 ~ 213214321321 <$> 4 Fmgers. This fingering applies to all scales with sharps as far as the key of E, four sharps. Both the major and minor scales are fingered as given above. Having mastered this fundamental plan, atten- tion may be given to the variation, as applied to the remaining sharp scales, which can be easily acquired. Key of F Sharp. 7th. , Qjtttnlt 4th. 7th 1 M 0 f f y0 E L_ ! L : ITS itur j 4 0 . r i t ^ ' rim * $ J—m 0 E L 1 . _ 1 -4- r -234123123412312 Thumb of right hand falls upon the fourth and seventh degrees. Thumb falls upon the third and seventh degrees. Key of B. 4th. 1st. 4th. 1st. JZ'dHfc 3— I -| ft \ 4 j m 0 , r rv' "iJ 4th* lit! m e r 1 1 L • —0 * '—1— t —^ j 43213214321 Thumb of left hand falls upon the fourth and first degrees. 50 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Key of F Sharp. 4th. gjlpSi; 7th. 7th. —r—I—I—I—aFit •—r- 43213214321321 (2) Thumb on fourth and seventh degrees. Thumb on third and seventh degrees. In playing scales with flats, the thumb of the right hand will come upon C and F, excepting in the keys of G- flat and C flat, when the thumb will come on C flat and F flat. r-ft, |—|—H- -b-— - i l 1 I b i ! J r irrr 1 J w 9 i/ , i J J J d • i 1 i^ 12 3 4 A L < 12 3 (4) 3 o m * 3 1 . u. C # 5 1 2 3 4 2 • o T71775 u __i_ - 0 g-LT. LJZlb-H ^ R uK 17 1 m • r i r J L_L_D m *T7 k J # • 1 1 :1 17 E_k+» J 1 J J_jf p_rAz 9 • 2 3 4 1 ' _J 12 3 12 1 v P—w This rule does not apply to minor scales with flats. For fingering of these, see complete scales at end of this Section. When playing scales with flats with the left hand, the thumb will come on the third and seventh degrees in the keys of B flat, E flat, A flat, and D flat major. FINGERING AND SCALES 51 -\ -| m —h i — _ m r~ rAl.'T2 r~y~w -— a - — w 0 p L 1 k y. r r 1 1 i - 1 —i—— - *_£-]—1—s—:32143213 32143213 The scale of F, both major and minor, is fingered the same as the scale of C. In the major scale of G flat, the thumb of the left hand falls upon the fourth and seventh degrees ; in the scale of C flat, upon the fourth and first degrees. 4th. 7th. 4th. 1st. I 1 m P • u . . i i 0 0 I r— 1 r- - 0 9 F 0 F r LJ2 ku ^ 0 r , i 1s b h , V J m • 9 I U | v • w r 1 I I 1 v v b J # • 1 1 1 2 P.k u L_ 1 1 _ P 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 (2) ^^43 2 1432 1 In the minor scales of B flat, E flat, A flat, and D flat, the thumb falls upon C and F. The chromatic scale is fingered in various ways. For beginners the usual method is to place the third finger upon the black keys and the thumb upon the white keys. The second finger is used when two white keys come in succession, as E F and B C. The student is advised to practise all the fingering given in the example at the eud of this Section, as greater facility of execution is thereby gained. 52 CATECHISM OF MUSIC Major Scales FINGERING AND SCALES 63 , III « p r ' | | | | | i | i ttw* i i 1 t 1 r r # # « 1 _i f/T\ ti ' i , ^ m w i i i 'tt r m m _ . jhr*i \ BiO# i III i2 #r . \Pm 11 | 1 J m?\ p r t 1 1 1 Mr*#*! 1 i • j M 9 J | 11 ,r # # fj - • 2 r '• 2 • ll \ a J ; i g I l i L i L. ZJ±_^ 1 L_ 4= 64 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Transposed in Key of D. JT--f~fz& P=i-t—* 44 r ^ J U—[— -1 — 1 How would you transpose this melody from the key of C to that of B flat, a whole step lower ? By placing, after the clef, the necessary two flats — B and E— and playing every note a whole step lower. Transposed in Key of Bb, r~~0~.fr Q - H -A • f fr 4=— Always keep in mind the interval— distance—be- tween the old and new keys ; whether a half step, whole step, or third (two whole steps) ; and whether you are transposing up or down, as the accidentals must be con- sidered. A sharp will not always transpose to a sharp, nor a flat to a flat ; for instance, E natural transposed a whole step higher becomes F sharp; a C sharp transposed a whole step lower becomes B natural. The ability to transpose is a very valuable accomplishment. Pupils should be encouraged to undertake it. For one who aiTns to be thorough it is a necessity. While it may require some little practice, it well rewards the effort, and once correctly established is seldom lost. It is an excellent plan to begin by writing out the transposition, especially compositions containing acci- dentals. Later, the effort to transpose “ at sight ” may be undertaken, but with simple things, and those with very few accidentals. USE OF SYLLABLES 65 SECTION X USE OF SYLLABLES—CHORDS—MODULATION In Europe it is largely the custom to use the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, to designate the absolute pitch of sounds, as we use the first seven letters of the alphabet. They were derived from an ancient Latin hymn to St. John, which was chanted upon the notes of the scale— at least six notes— in regular ascending order. The lines of the hymn were as follows : Ut queant laxis Re-sonare fibris Mi-ra gestorum Fa-muli tuorum Sol-ve polluti La-bii reatum Sanote Joannes. Guido d’Arezzo, who lived in the eleventh century, is said to have first attached the syllables to the notes of the scale. Five centuries later the scale was completed by the addition of the syllable Si. In 1640, Do (Doh) was substituted for Ut, being less harsh in pronunci- ation. Where used abroad do represents C, re (ray) rep- resents D, and so on in regular order through the sylla- bles ; in this country, however, it is the custom to have do designate the first tone of any major scale, no matter what letter the scale is based on. Following in order, re (ray) designates the second tone, mi (mi) the third, fa (fah) the fourth, sol (soh) the fifth, la (lah) the sixth, and si (see) the seventh. 66 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC The Tonic Sol-Fa System, which originated in Eng- land, and the syllables of which are now generally used in the public schools of this country, necessitated a change in the syllable representing the seventh tone of the scale as given in the Italian system. In the Tonic Sol-Fa Notation the syllables are represented by single letters and we already have an S (sol) in the scale. Then, again, the word sound see (si in Italian) is pro- duced in Tonic Sol-Fa by the system of chromatic alter- ation (note * below). Therefore, to avoid confusion ti pronounced tee was substituted for si. n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (1) _ft 1 2 , 3 4 5 6 i * r ,4 _| _i 1 8 i I ,0 0 w r > . i 0 r tlr 1111 2 9 1 r \ m * f 1 F k . 1 D< J m * w i • r 1 19 9 > Re Mi Fa Sol La 'n iDo Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do Minor scales begin upon the syllable la, which will be found upon that note of the major scale which repre- sents the keynote of its relative minor. When a tone is sharped the corresponding syllable changes its termination to e ; thus sol when sharped becomes se.* When a tone is flatted the termination of the syllable changes to a, as in may ; thus when mi is flatted it becomes ma. The Construction of Chords Certain sounds, when heard together, produce a com- bination that is agreeable to the ear, while others, when heard simultaneously, produce quite the opposite effect. The first and third sounds of a scale combine agreeably ; so do any sounds that are a third or a fifth apart. The tonic or keynote with the third and fifth sounds of the scale form a very agreeable and satisfying combination. THE CONSTRUCTION OF CHORDS 67 This combination is called a triad or common chord, and may be formed upon any of the twelve sounds contained within the octave. In the example here given those tones which are often enharmonically used are not repeated ; for instance, C sharp and D flat, F sharp and G- flat, etc. Each triad represents one certain key and no other. The notes forming the chord may be distributed, or arranged, in any manner desired and they will still rep- resent the original key and no other. Common Chord of C Major. r-# r JHr-Jh f , . -f 3— • 3 Hr=T— T — r~ r 1 i j 1 i. y r i m u The triads or common chords given above are all major. Minor triads are constructed in the same manner ; by taking the tonic, third, and fifth of the minor scale. By the addition of a tone a third above any of the triads we obtain a chord of the 7th. Chords of the 7th. 7Z 7 a 9 0F 1 2?V 1 , 2? Bear in mind that these important chords do not belong to the scale from which the triad was taken, but to one nearly related to it. 68 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC On Modulation Modulation is the passing from one key to another in a manner which is agreeable to the ear, and does not offend the musical faculties. The simplest method of modulating is to introduce the tones peculiar to the new key. Desiring to modulate from the key of C — which contains c, d, e, f, g, a, b,— to the key of D,— which contains d, e, f $, g, a, b, c $,— you can do so by playing f# and c$ instead of f and c. This, however, will not be satisfying ; there will be something wanting before the new key can be firmly established in the ear. This something is the chord of the 7th which dominates, or controls the new key ; it is built upon the fifth degree of the scale and is known as the dominant seventh chord. The dominant seventh chord of D — founded on the fifth of the scale— is a, c$, e, g. When this chord has been introduced and resolved the ear will be satisfied that the key (D) has been established. As an example, let us write the chord of C, as below. The dominant seventh chord in key of D is formed of the tones a, c e, g, the last two of which are also in the key of C. On account of this similarity it is not a harsh transition from C to this dominant chord of the seventh, which, naturally, is followed by the chord of D. As there are here too few chords to make one feel perfectly satisfied in the new key (D), it will be well to play a few chords in it after arriving, then again intro- duce the dominant seventh chord and end with the com- mon chord of D. Common Chord. Dominant 7th. Common Chord. C D D ON MODULATION 69 The common chord of C has oneor more tones in com- mon with the dominant 7th chords in the keys of F, D, Db, Bb, G, A, B, and Ab, as will be seen in the follow- in example : Bb To pass from the key of C to any one of the eight keys, it is sufficient to play the above two chords, and then the tonic in the new key. The remaining three keys are Eb, E, and Gb. Although the chord of C has nothing in common with their dominants, other chords in the key of C have such letters, or tones, and by intro- ducing one of these chords between that of C and the dominant, a good progression is the result. The domi- nant in the key of E, for example, is b, dft, f ft, and a. Now the chords of d, e, f, g, a, and b, in the key of C, each and all, have tones in common with b, d#, f#, and a, and each chord will do for a mediator. Only the chord of f will not do so well as the others, since it reminds one of a flat key, and we are modulating to the key of E, which is a sharp key. The chord of e minor, or e, g, b, is the best mediant, since it contains two tones which are used in the key of E. So a good modu- lation from C to E would be 70 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Sometimes a chord may have a note in common with the next one and still the progression will be too sudden for a pleasant effect. In this case it may be a good plan to interpose a minor chord upon the same tonic or keynote, as : t 1 1 t( \ /: bi ! V- / ^ Pmc -3; L Pg t & The following are good modulations from the key of C to the eleven other major keys. The same progres- sions will lead to the corresponding minor keys. The key of is the same as that of Gb, and flats and sharps may be substituted for each other at will, as for instance, instead of eb you may write djf. All the posi- tions of the chords may be changed, of course, and the chords may be repeated before changing. Any other variations may be introduced that do not change the character of the progression, and do not offend against the laws of harmony. To modulate from one sharp or flat key to another, do it according to some of the methods which have been mentioned, or play or write a few chords, gradually leaving off the sharps or flats, which will bring you into the key of C. Then modulate from C to the desired key. From C to Db. To D. To Eb. To E. To F. To F# (same as Gfr). ON MODULATION 71 ToG. To Ab. 4 E± -W 1=^1= To A. J—4- To Bb. To B. M- $ ±s-#g The small black notes show the connecting tone if the chord had been in close position. 72 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS. a ale , 8, add , a am, e eve , 6 end, I ic u fttfe, ii but , ii A cappella, /£. (a kap-peLla.) In the church or chapel style ; that is, without accompaniment, as in the days when organs or other instruments were not tolerated in church. Accelerando, It. (&t-tsh61-er-an- d5.) Accelerating the time ; grad- ually increasing the velocity of the movement. Acclaccatura, It. (at-tshe-ak-ka- too-ru.) A species of appoggiatura ; an accessory note placet! before the principal note, the accent being on the principal note. Accidentals. Flats, sharps, or naturals occurring during a com- position, and not fn the signature. Adagio, It. (ft-dd-je-5.) A very slow degree of movement, although not the slowest ; requiring much taste and expression. Ad libitum, Lat. (&d ZiW-ttim.) At will, at pleasure ; changing the time of a particular passage at the discretion of the performer. Affettuoso, It. (af-ffit-too-o-zo.) Affectionately, tenderly. (Con - affettuoso , with feeling.) Agilita, It. ta.) Quickness ; agility. Agitato, It. (aj-e-fd-tb.) Agitated, hurried, restless. Alla, It. (&Z-la.) In the style or manner of. Alla brere, It. (kl-la brd-v8.) A quick species of common time, formerly used in church music. It is marked Each bar con- tains the value of a whole note — equal to two half notes, or four quarters. 3, I ill , 5 old, 5 odd, 6 dove, oo moon , French sound. Allegretto, It. (al-16- grdt- to.) Rather light and cheerful, but not as quick as Allegro. Allegro, Fr. and It. (al-/d-gro.) Quick, lively ; a rapid, vivacious movement, the opposite to the pathetic, but it is frequently mod- ified by the addition of other words that change its expression. All* ottava alta, It. (2,1 otdd-va dl-tsi.) In the octave above. A1 segno, It. (alsdn-yo.) To the sign ; meaning that the performer must return to the sign in a previous part of the piece, and play from that place to the word Fine, or the mark ^ over a double bar. Amoroso, It. (&m-6r-o-zo.) Ten- derly ; delicately. Andante, It. (an-rfdn-te.) A move- ment in moderate time, but flow- ing steadily, easily, gracefully. Andantino, It. (an - dan - te - no.) Properly, a little slower than An- dante ; but custom has given it an entirely different meaning, and it usually denotes a slightly quicker movement than Andante. Anima, con. It. With life and animation. Animato, It. (&n-g-m#-to.) Ani- mated ; with life and spirit. A piacere, It. (ap6-a-fsAS-r6.) At pleasure. A poco. It. (a p&-kb.) By degrees, gradually. Appoggiatura, It. (ap-pQd-je-a- too-ra,.) Leaning note, grace note, note of embellishment. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY 73 Arpeggio, It. (ar-nad-je-5.) Playing the notes of a cnord quickly one after another, in the harp style. Assai, It. (as-sa-6.) Very, ex- tremely, in a high degree, as Alle- gro assdi, very quick. A tempo, It. (a tbm-pb.) In time ; a term used to denote that after some deviation or relaxation of the time, the performers must return to the original movement. Attacca, It. (at-faA;-ka.) Attack or commence the next movement immediately. Authentic Cadence. The ca- dence in which the final chord or tonic is preceded by the dominant chord. A una corda. It. (a oo-na kor-d'd.) On one string ; in piano music the term signifies that the soft pedal is to be used. Bar. A short line across the staff to divide music into measures. Baritone. A male voice interme- diate in respect to pitch between the bass and tenor, the compass usually extending from B flat be- low to F on fifth line treble staff. Bass clef. The bass or F clef, placed upon the fourth line. Bravura, It. (bra-roo-ra.) Spirit, skill ; requiring great dexterity and skill in execution. Breve, It. (bra-vb.' Short ; for- merly the breve was the shortest note. The notes then used were the large, the long, and the breve. Brillante, It. (brel-Jan-tb.) ) • .. Brillante, Fr. (bre-ydnht.) J cngIU ’ sparkling, brilliant. Brio, It. (bre-o.) Vigor, animation, spirit. Cadenza, It. (ka-<72n-tsa.) A ca- dence ; an ornamental passage introduced near the close of a song or solo either by the composer or extemporaneously by the per- former. Calando, It. (ka-£#n-d5.) Grad- ually diminishing the tone and retarding the time ; becoming softer and slower by degrees- Cantabile, It. (kan-fd-be-16.) That can be sung ; in a melodious, sing- ing, and graceful style, full of expression. Canto, It. (kan-to.) 1. Song, air, melody, the highest vocal part in choral music. 2. A part or divi- sion of a poem. Canzone, It. (kant-zo-ne.) A song. Capo, It. (M-po.) The head or be- ginning ; the top. Capriccioso, It. (ka-pret-she-b-zb.) In a fanciful and capricious stylt Chord. Two or more tones ar- ranged according to harmonic rules. Chromatic, (chro-maMc.) A scale consisting of half-tones : sounds foreign to the key. Clavichord. A small keyed in- strument like the spinet, and the forerunner of the piano. Clavier, Fr. (kl£v-Sr.) ) The keys Clavier, Ger. (kla-fbr.) J or key- board of a pianoforte, organ, etc. Also, an old name for the clavi- chord. Clef, Cle, Fr. (kla.) A key ; a char- acter used to determine the name and pitch of the notes on the staff to which it is prefixed. Coda, It. (ko-da.) The end; a few bars added to the end of a piece of music to make a more effective termination. Commodo, It. (kbm-mb-do.) Qui- etly, composedly. Con, It. (kbn.) With. Con calore, It. (kbn ka-/o-rS.) With warmth, with fire. Con celerita. It. (kbn tsha-16r- e-ta.) With celerity, with rapidity. Concerto, It. (kbn-^s^r-tb.) A composition for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniments. Concert pitch. The pitch adopted by general consent for some one given note, and by which every other note is governed. Con delicatezza, It. (kbn dbl-e ka- tat-sa.) With delicacy and sweet- ness. 74 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC Con dolor©, It. (k5n do-Zo-rg.) Mournfully, with grief and pathos. Con eleganza, It (kgn a-Vb-gan- tsa.) With elegance. Con energico, It. (k5n a-w^r-je-ko.) With energy and emphasis. Con espressione, It. (kon as-prgs- se-o-ng.) With expression. Con fuoco. It. (k5n foo-o-ko.) With fire and passion. Con moto, It. (kgn rad-to.) With motion ; not dragging. Con sordino. It. (kgn sgr-rfe-no.) With the mute; meaning that a mute or damper is to be affixed to the bridge of the violin, viola, etc. With the soft pedal. Con spirito, It. (k5n spe-re-tb.) With spirit, life, energy. Contralto, It. (kgn-ZraZ-to.) The deepest species of female voice. Con variazione, It. (k5n va-re-a- tse-o-ng.) With variations. Corda, It. (fcdr-da .) A string, una cdrday one string; use the soft pedal. Corona, It. (ko-rd-na.) A pause or hold, /t\. Counterpoint. Point against point. The art of adding one or more points or notes to a given theme or subject. Before the invention of notes, the various sounds were expressed by points. Melody against melody. The support of melody by melody instead of by chords. Crescendo, It. (krg-sZiew-do.) A word denoting an increasing power of tone ; is often indicated by the sign, < 1- Da Capo, It. (da M-po.) From the beginning; an expression placed at the end of a movement to indi- cate that the performer must return to the first strain. Da capo al fin©, It. (da fce^po. al fe-ng.) Return to the beginning and conclude at the word Fine. Da capo al segno, al sdn-y5.) Repeat sign It. (daM-po from the Dal Segno, It. (dal sdn-yd.) From the sign , A mark directing a repetition from the sign. Decrescendo, It. (da-krg-sAaw-do.) Gradually diminishing in power of tone, Delicato, It. (del-e-M-to.) Deli- cately, smoothly. Diatonic. Through the tones. Scales composed of tones and half- tones. The natural scale of any key. Diminuendo, It. (de-me-noo-d/i- do ) Diminishing gradually the intensity or power of the tone. Di molto, It. (de mol-to.) Very much ; an expression which serves to augment the meaning of the word to which it is applied. Dolce, It. (dol-tshg.) Sweetly, softly, delicately. Dolcissimo, It. (dol-Zs/ies-se-mo.) With extreme sweetness and deli- cacy. Dolente, It. (do-ldn-tZ.) Sorrow- ful, mournful, pathetic. Dolore, It. (do-Zd-rg.) Grief, sor- row. Doloroso, It. (do-lo-ro-zo.) Dolo- rously, sorrowfully, sadly. Dominant. The name applied to the fifth note of the scale. Dot. A mark, which when placed after a note increases its duration one half. Double bar. Two thick strokes drawn down through the staff, to divide one strain or movement from another. Double flat. A character (bb) which, placed before a note, sig- nifies that it is lowered two semi- tones. Double sharp. A character (*) which, placed before a note, sig- nifies that it is raised two semi- tones. Dynamics. This term in music has reference to expression and the different degrees of power to be applied to notes. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY 75 Energico, It. (5n-dr-j6-k5.) Ener- getic, vigorous, forcible. Enharmonic. Enharmonic notes or chords are those that sound alike on the piano, but are ex- pressed in different notation. Ensemble, Fr. (anh-sanA-bl.) To- gether, the whole; applied to con- certed music when the whole is given with perfect smoothness and oneness of style. Espressione, It. (Ss-pras-se-o-ng.) Expression, feeling. Espressivo, It. (Ss-pras-se-vo.) Expressive, to be played or sung with expression. Etude, Fr. (d-tiid.) A study, an exercise. Falsetto, It. (fal-sdf-to.) A false or artificial voice ; that part of a person’s voice that lies above its natural compass. Fantaisie, Fr. (fdn-ta-ze.) 1 Fantasia, It. (fan-fd-ze-a.) | Fantasie, Ger. (fan-ta-ze.) ) Fancy , imagination, caprice. Finale, It. (fe-nd-16.) Final, con- cluding, etc. Fine, It. (fe-nS.) The end, the termination. Flat. A character (b) placed before a note, to lower its pitch a semi- tone. Forte, It. (for-15.) Loud, strong. Fortissimo, It. (fdr-fes-sg-mo.) Very loud Forzando, It. (for-tsan-do.) Forced, laying a stress upon one note or chord. Fuoco, It. (foo-d-ko.) Fire, en- ergy, passion. Furioso, It. (foo-re-d-zo.) Furi- ous, vehement, mad. Gamut. The scale of notes belong- ing to any key. Gavot, Eng. (g&-v6t.) 1 A dance, Gavotta, It. (ga-rdMa.) [ consist- Gavotte, Fr. (gd-vot.) ) ing of two light, lively strains, f ~\ com- mon time. Giocoso, It. (jg-5-£d-z5.) Humor- ously, sportively. Giusto, It. (joos-to.) A term sig- nifying that the movement indi- cated is to be performed in an equal, steady, and just time. Glissando, It. (gles-san-do.) Slurred, smooth, in a gliding man- ner. Grandioso, It. (gran-de-d-zo.) Grand, noble. Grave, It. (grd-\e.) A slow and solemn movement ; also, a deep, low pitch in the scale of sounds. Grazioso, It. (gra-tse-d-zo.) In a graceful style. Gruppetto, It. (groop-j^d-to.) A turn ; also, a small group of grace, or ornamental notes. Gusto, It. (goos-to.) Taste, ex- pression. Harmonic minor scale. The or- dinary minor scale. Impetuoso, It. (em-pa-too-o-zo.) Impetuous, vehement. Impromptu, Fr. (tinh-promp-too.) An extemporaneous production. In alt. It. (en alt.) Notes are said to be in alt when they are situated above F on the fifth line of the treble staff. In tempo. It. (en-tam-pd .) In time. Interval. The distance, or differ- ence of pitch between tones. Inversion. A change of position with respect to intervals and chords ; the lower notes being placed above, and the upper notes below. Key. A series of sounds forming a scale, either major or minor. Also the mechanism which sets the hammers of the piano in mo- tion. Key-board. The keys of a piano or organ. Key-note. The first note of the scale. Largbetto, It. (Vir-gat-td .) A word specifying a time not quite 76 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC so slow as that denoted by largo , of which word it is the diminu- tive. Largo, It. (lar-go.) A slow and solemn degree of movement. Leading note. 1 The major seventh Leading tone, J of any scale ; the semitone below the key note. Legatissimo, It. (l8-ga--zo.) Ma- jestic, stately, dignified. Main, Fr. (m&nh.) The hand. Main droite, Fr. (m&nh drwat.). liight hand. Main gauche, Fr. (m&nh gosh.) The left hand. Major. Greater, in respect to in- tervals, scales, etc., in contrast to the like minor intervals, etc. Mano, It. (md-no.) The hand. Mano dritta. It. (ma-no drSt-tsi.) The right hand. Mano sinistra, It. (ma-no se-nes- tra.) The left hand. Manual. The key-board ; in organ music it means tnat the passage is to be played by the hands alone without using the pedals. Marcato, It. (mar-M-to.) Marked, accented, well pronounced. Measure. The space between two bars. Mediant. The third note of the scale ; the middle note between the tonic and the dominant. Melodic minor scale. A vari- ation of the usual minor scale. Meno,/£. (ma-no.) Less. Metronome, Gr. (m-zb.) Lively, animated, brisk, spirited. Staccato, It. (stak-M-to.) De- tached, distinct, separated from each other. Indicated also by dots over the notes. Staff. The five horizontal and par- allel lines on and between which the notes are written. Stave. Name formerly given to the staff. Step. A degree upon the staff. Americans use the terms step and half-step in place of tone and semitone. Stretto, It. (stra-to.) Pressed , close , contracted. In fugue writing, that part where the subject and answer succeed one another. Stringendo, It. (strbn- gan -do.) Pressing, accelerating the time. Sub, Lat. (stib.) Under, below, beneath. Subdominant. The fourth note of any scale or key. Subito, It. (soo-be-to.) Suddenly, immediately. Submediant. The sixth tone of the scale. Subtonic. Under the tonic; seventh of the key. Suite, Fr. (swet.) A series, a suc- cession ; une suite de pieces , a series of lessons or pieces. Supertonic. The note next above the tonic or key note; the second note of the scale. Syncopation. The temporary displacement of the accent by having a note fall upon a weak beat and continuing it through a strong beat. Tacet, Lat. (ta-sSt.) Be silent. Tema, It. ( A, an, one. Uno, It. (oo-no.) ) Unison. An accordance or coinci- dence of sounds ; together ; on the same tone. Veloce, It. (vg-Jo-tshe.) Swiftly, quickly. Velocissimo, It. (vS-lo-£s^es-se- mo.) Very swiftly, with extreme rapidity. Vivace, It. (vS-va-tshg.) Lively, briskly, quickly. Voce, It. (vd-tshg.) The voice. Volante, It. (yo-lan-th.) Flying ; a light and rapid series of notes. Volti, It. (vol-te.) Turn over. Vox human a, Lat. (v6x hu-wo-na.) Human voice. An organ stop. 80 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS. Robert Schumann. I. The most important thing is to cultivate the sense of hearing. Take pains early to distinguish tones and keys by the ear. The bell, the window-pane, the cuckoo,— seek to find what tones they each give out. II. You must sedulously practise scales and other finger exercises. But there are many persons who imagine all will be accomplished if they keep on spending many hours each day, till they grow old, in mere mechanical practice. It is about as if one should busy himself daily with repeating the A-B-C as fast as possible, and always faster and faster. Use your time better. m. “Dumb pianofortes,” so-called, or keyboards without sound, have been invented. Try them long enough to see that they are good for nothing. You cannot learn to speak from the dumb. Play in time ! of a drunkard. IV. The playing of many virtuosos is like the gait Make not such your models. V. Learn betimes the fundamental laws of Harmony. / VI. Be not frightened by the words Theory, Harmony; Counter point, etc. ; they will meet you amicably if you meet them so. VII. Never dilly-dally over a piece of music, but attack it briskly ; and never play it only half through 1 RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS 81 vra. Dragging and hurrying are equally great faults. IX. Strive to play easy pieces well and beautifully ; it is better than to render difficult pieces only indifferently well. X. Always insist on having your instrument perfectly tuned. XI. You must not only be able to play your little pieces with the fingers ; you must be able to hum them over without a piano. Sharpen your imagination so that you may fix in your mind not only the melody of a composition, but also the harmony belonging to it. XII. You must carry the development of mental hearing so far that you can understand a piece of music upon paper. XIII. Accustom yourself, even though you have but little voice, to sing at sight, without the aid of an instrument. The keenness of your hearing will continually improve by that means. But if you are the possessor of a rich voice, lose not a moment’s time, but cultivate it, and consider it the fairest gift which Heaven has lent you. XIV. When you are playing, never trouble yourself about who is listening. XV. Always play as conscientiously, however, as if a master heard you. XVI. If any one lays a composition before you for the first time, for you to play, first read it over mentally. 82 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC XVII. Have you done your musical day’s work, and do you feel exhausted ? Then do not constrain yourself to further labor. Better rest than work without joy or freshness. XVIII. As you grow, play nothing which is merely fashionable. Time is precious. One must have a hundred lives if he would acquaint himself only with all that is good. XIX. / Children cannot be brought up on sweetmeats and confec- tionery to be sound and healthy. As the physical, so must the mental food be simple and nourishing. The masters have provided amply for the latter ; keep to that. XX. A player may be very glib with finger-passages ; they all in time grow commonplace and must be changed. Only where such facility serves higher ends is it of any worth. XXI. You must not countenance nor give currency to poor com- positions ; on the contrary, you must do all you can to suppress them. XXII. You should neither play poor compositions nor even listen to them, if you are not obliged to. XXIII. Never try to acquire facility in what is called Bravura. Try in a composition to bring out the impression which the composer had in his mind ; to attempt more than this would be caricature. XXIV. Consider it monstrous to alter or leave out anything, or to introduce any new-fangled ornaments in pieces by a good com- poser. That is the greatest outrage you can offer Art. RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS 83 XXY. In the selection of your pieces for study, ask advice of older players ; it will save you much time. XXYI. You must gradually make acquaintance with all the more impor- tant works of all the great masters. XXYII. Be not led astray by the dazzling popularity of the so-called great virtuosi. Think more of the applause of artists than that of the multitude. XXYIII. Every fashion grows unfashionable again ; if you persist in it for years, you find yourself a ridiculous coxcomb in the eyes of everybody. XXIX. It is more injury than profit to you to play a great deal before company. Have a regard for other people, but never play any- thing which, in your inmost soul, you are ashamed of. XXX. Omit no opportunity, however, to play with others in duos, trios, etc. It makes your playing fluent, spirited, and easy. Accompany a singer when you can. XXXI. If all would play first violin, we could get no orchestra together. Respect each musician, therefore, in his place. XXXII. Love your instrument, but do not have the vanity to think it the highest and only one. Consider that there are others quite as fine. Remember, too, that there are singers ; that the highest manifestations in music are through chorus and orchestra combined. XXXIII. As you progress, have more to do with scores than with virtuosi. 84 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC XXXIV. Practice industriously the fugues of good masters, above all those of John Sebastian Bach. Make the “ Well-tempered Clavichord” your daily bread. Then you will surely be a thorough musician. XXXV. Seek among your associates those who know more than you. XXXVI. For recreation from your musical studies, read the poets fre- quently. Walk also in the open air ! XXXVII. Much may be learned from singers, men and women ; fyut do not believe in them for everything. XXXVIII. Beyond the mountains there live people, too. Be modest ; as yet you have discovered and thought nothing which others have not thought and discovered before you. And even if you have done so, regard it as a gift from above, which you have to share with others. XXXIX. The study of the history of Music, supported by the actual hearing of the master compositions of the different epochs, is the shortest way to cure you of self-esteem and vanity. XL. A fine book on music is Thibaut “ On Purity in the Musical Art.” Read it often as you grow older. / XLI. If you pass a church and hear the organ playing, go in and lis- ten. If it happens that you have to occupy the organist’s seat yourself, try your little fingers, and be amazed before the omnipo- tence of Music. RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS 85 XLII. Improve every opportunity of practising upon the organ ; there is no instrument which takes such speedy revenge on the impure and the slovenly in composition, or in playing, as the organ. XLIII. Sing frequently in choruses, especially on the middle parts. This makes you musical. XLIY. What is it to he musical ? You are not so, if, with eyes fast- ened anxiously upon the notes, you play a piece through painfully to the end. You are not so, if, when some one turns over two pages at once, you stick and cannot go on. But you are musical, if, in a new piece, you anticipate pretty nearly what is coming, and in an old piece, know it by heart ; in a word, if you have Music, not in your fingers only, but in your head and heart. XLY. But how does one become musical ? Dear child, the main thing, a sharp ear and a quick power of comprehension, comes, as in all things, from above. But the talent may be improved and elevated. You will become so, not by shutting yourself up all day like a hermit, practising mechanical studies, but by a living, many- sided musical intercourse, and especially by constant familiarity with orchestra and chorus work. XLYI. Acquire in season a clear notion of the compass of the human voice in its four principal classes ; listen to it particularly in the chorus ; ascertain in what interval its highest power lies, and in what other intervals it is best adapted to the expression of what is soft and tender. XLVII. Listen attentively to all songs of the people ; they are a mine of the most beautiful melodies, and open for you glimpses into the character of different nations. 86 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC XLYIII. Exercise yourself early in reading music in the old clefs. Otherwise, many treasures of the past will remain locked against you. XLIX. Reflect early on the tone and character of different instru- ments -• try to impress the peculiar coloring of each upon your ear. L. Do not neglect to hear good operas. LI. Revere the old, but meet the new also with a warm heart. Cherish no prejudice against names unknown to you. LII. Do not judge of a composition on a first hearing ; what pleases you in the first moment is not always the best. Masters should be studied. Much will become clear to you for the first time, in your old age. Llfl. In judging of compositions, distinguish whether they belong to the artistic category, or only aim at dilettantish entertainment. Stand up for those of the first sort, but do not worry yourself about the others. LIV. “ Melody ” is the watchword of the dilettanti, and certainly there is no music without melody. But understand well what they mean by it ; nothing passes for a melody with them but one that is easily comprehended or rhythmically pleasing. But there are other melodies of a different stamp ; open a volume of Bach, Mozart, or Beethoven, and you see them in a thousand various styles. It is to be hoped that you will soon be weary of the pov- erty and monotony of the modern Italian opera melodies. LV. If you can find out little melodies for yourself on the piano, it is all very well. But if they come of themselves, when you are not at the piano, then you £ave still greater reason to rejoice, for RULES FOR YOUNG MUSICIANS 87 then the inner sense of music is astir in you. The fingers must make what the head wills, not vice versa. LYI. If you begin to compose, plan it all in your head. When you have got apiece all ready, then try it on the instrument. If your music came from your inmost soul, if you have felt it, then it will take effect on others. LVII. If Heaven has bestowed on you a lively imagination, you will often sit in solitary hours spellbound to your piano, seeking expression for your inmost soul in harmonies ; and all the more mysteriously will you feel drawn into magic circles as it were, the more misty the' realm of harmony as yet may be to you. The happiest hours of youth are these. Beware, however, of abandon- ing yourself too often to a talent which may tempt you to waste power and time on phantoms. Mastery of form, the power of clearly molding your productions, you will only gain through the sure token of writing. Write, then, more than you improvise. LVIII. Acquire an early knowledge of directing ; watch good directors closely, and form a habit of directing with them silently and to yourself. This will clarify your perception. LIX. Look about you well in life, as also in the arts and sciences, other than music. LX. The moral laws are also those of Art. LXI. By industry and perseverance you will never fail to carry your Art higher. LXII. From a pound of iron, bought for a few pence, many thousand Watch-springs may be made, whereby the value is increased a hundred-thousand fold. The pound which God has given you, improve it faithfully. 88 A CATECHISM OF MUSIC LXIII. Without enthusiasm nothing real comes of Art. % LXIV. Art is not for the end of gettingriches. Only become a greater and greater artist, the rest will come of itself. LXV. Only when the form is entirely clear to you, will the spirit become clear. LXVI. Perhaps only genius understands genius fully. LXVII. Some one maintained that a perfect musician must be able, on the first hearing of a complicated orchestral work, to see it as in bodily score before him. That is the highest that can be con- ceived of. LXVIII. There is no end of learning.