ORTY YEARS AFTER
.W ^

UCTING THE SOCIAL ORDER

ENCYCLICAL LETTER OF

HIS HOLINESS, POPE PIUS XI

TENTH PRINTING

NATIONAL CATHOLIC WELFARE CONFERENCE

1312 Massachusetts Avenue N. W.

Washington, D.C,

:«ll





AtTHiK

ENCYCLICAL LETTER
OF HIS HOLINESS

PIUS XI

BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE

POPE

TO OUR VENERABLE BRETHREN: THE PATRIARCHS,

PRIMATES, ARCHBISHOPS, BISHOPS AND OTHER

ORDINARIES, IN PEACE AND COMMUNION WITH THE

APOSTOLIC SEE, AND TO ALL THE FAITHFUL OF THE

CATHOLIC WORLD ON RECONSTRUCTING THE SO-

CIAL ORDER AND PERFECTING IT CONFORMABLY

TO THE PRECEPTS OF THE GOSPEL, IN COMMEMO-

RATION OF THE FORTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE

ENCYCLICAL “RERUM NOVARUM.”

TENTH PRINTING

NATIONAL CATHOLIC WELFARE CONFERENCE

1312 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W.

Washington, D. C.

1940



ENCYCLICAL

OF

POPE PIUS XI

FORTY YEARS AFTER

Reconstructing the Social Order

Copyright, 1931,

BY''

National Catholic Welfare Conference



QUADRAGESIMO ANNO

ENCYCLICAL LETTER OF HIS HOLINESS
PIUS XI

BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE

POPE

To Our Venerable Brethren: The Patriarchs, Primates,

Archbishops, Bishops and Other Ordinaries, in Peace

AND Communion With the Apostolic See, and to All the

Faithful of the Catholic World on Reconstructing the

Social Order and Perfecting It Conformably to the

Precepts of the Gospel, in Commemoration of the For-

tieth Anniversary of the Encyclical “Rerum Novarum.”

VENERABLE BRETHREN AND BELOVED CHILDREN

HEALTH AND APOSTOLIC BENEDICTION

ORTY years have elapsed since the incomparable En-
cyclical of Leo XHI of happy memory, Rerum No-
varum, first saw the light. The whole Catholic world

gratefully recalls the event, and prepares to celebrate it

with befitting solemnity.

The way for this remarkable document of pastoral

solicitude, it is true, had been in a measure prepared by other pro-

nouncements of Our Predecessor. His letters on The Foundation

of Human Society, The Family and the Holy Sacrament of Matri-
mony;^ On The Origin of Civil Power and its proper coordina-
tion with the Church;® on the Chief Duties of Christian Citi-

zens,* Against the Tenets of Socialism;® and the False Notions of

Human Liberty;^ these and others of the kind had unmistakably
revealed the mind of Leo XHI. Rerum Novarum, however, stood

lEncycl. Arcanum, February 10, 1880. 2Encycl. Diuturnum, June 29, 1881.

sEncycl. Immortale Dei, November 1, 1885.

4Encycl. Sapientiae Christianae, January 10, 1890.

sEncycl. Quod Apostolici Muneris, December 28, 1878.

eEncycl. Libertas, June 20, 1888.



4 FORTY YEARS AFTER

out in this, that it laid down for all mankind unerring rules for the

right solution of the difficult problem of human solidarity, called

the social question, at the very time when such guidance was most

opportune and necessary.

Occasion

Towards the close of the Nineteenth Century the new eco-

nomic methods and the new development of industry had sprung

into being in almost all civilized nations, and had made such head-

way that human society appeared more and more divided into

two classes. The first, small in numbers, enjoyed practically all

the comforts so plentifully supplied by modem invention. The
second class, comprising the immense multitude of workingmen,

was made up of those who, oppressed by dire poverty, stmggled

in vain to escape from the straits which encompassed them.

This state of things was quite satisfactory to the wealthy, who

looked upon it as the consequence of inevitable and natural eco-

nomic laws, and wno, therefore, were content to abandon to

charity alone the full care of relieving the unfortunate, as though

it were the task of charity to make amends for the open violation

of justice, a violation not merely tolerated, but sanctioned at

times by legislators. On the other hand, the working classes, vic-

tims of these harsh conditions, submitted to them with extreme

reluctance, and became more and more unwilling to bear the gall-

ing yoke. Some, carried away by the heat of evil counsels, went

so far as to seek the disruption of the whole social fabric. Others,

whom a solid Christian training restrained from such misguided

excesses, convinced themselves nevertheless that there was much

in all this that needed a radical and speedy reform.

Such also was the opinion of many Catholics, priests and lay-

men, who with admirable charity had long devoted themselves to

relieving the undeserved misery of the laboring classes, and who

could not persuade themselves that so radical and unjust a dis-

tinction in the distribution of temporal goods was quite in har-

mony with the designs of an all-wise Creator.

They therefore sought in all sincerity a remedy against the

lamentable disorder already existing in society, and a firm barrier

against worse dangers to come. But such is the infirmity of even

the best minds, that these men either found themselves repelled

as dangerous innovators or opposed by fellow-workers in the same

cause, who held views different from theirs, and thus wavering in

uncertainty, they did not, under the circumstances, know which

way to turn.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 5

In this grave conflict of opinions, accompanied by discus-

sions not always of a peaceful nature, the eyes of all, as often

in the past, turned towards the Chair of Peter, that sacred de-

pository of all truth whence words of salvation are dispensed to

the whole world. To the feet of Christ’s Vicar on earth were

seen to flock, in unprecedented numbers, sociological students, em-

ployers, the very workingmen themselves, begging with one voice

that at last a safe road might be pointed out to them. Long did

the prudent Pontiff consider the matter before God, seeking the

advice of the most experienced counsellors available, and care-

fully weighing the reasons for and against. At last, “urged by the

responsibility of the apostolic office”^ and lest by keeping silence

he should seem to neglect his duty,® he decided in virtue of the

divine Magisterium committed to him to address himself to the
Universal Church of Christ, nay, to the whole human race. On

May 15, 1891, therefore, the long-desired message was given to the
world. Undaunted by the difficulty of the undertaking or by the

weight of years, with unbending courage, the venerable Pontiff

taught mankind new methods of approach to social problems.

You know. Venerable Brethren and Beloved Children, you

know full well the admirable teaching which has made the En-

cyclical Rerum Novarum forever memorable. In this document

the Supreme Shepherd, grieving for “the misery and wretchedness

pressing unjustly” on such a large proportion of mankind, boldly

took in his own hands the cause of workingmen, “surrendered, iso-

lated and helpless, to the hard-heartedness of employers and the

greed of unchecked competition.”^ He sought help neither from

Liberalism nor Socialism. The former had already shown its

utter impotence to find a right solution of the social question,

while the latter would have exposed human society to still graver

dangers by offering a remedy much more disastrous than the evil

it designed to cure. The Sovereign Pontiff approached the sub-

ject in the exercise of his manifest rights, deeply conscious that he

was the chief guardian of religion and the chief dispenser of all

that closely appertains to it, for the question at issue was one to

which “no solution could be found apart from the intervention of

religion and of the Church. Basing his doctrine solely upon the

unchangeable principles drawn from right reason and divine reve-

lation, he indicated and proclaimed with confidence and “as one

having power,”^^ “the relative rights and mutual duties of the rich

and of the poor, of capital and of labor,”^- and at the same time

TEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 1. sEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 13.
9Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 13. lOEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 20.
iiMatt. vii. 29. i2Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 1.



6 FORTY YEARS AFTER

the part that was to be taken by the Church, by the state and by

the persons immediately concerned.

Nor was the Apostolic voice raised in vain. It was listened to

with genuine admiration and greeted with profound sympathy not

only by the loyal children of the Church, but by many also who
had wandered far from the truth and from the unity of faith; nay

more, by well nigh every one who, either as private student or as

legislator, was thereafter interested in social and economic ques-

tions. With particular enthusiasm was the Pontifical Letter wel-

comed by Christian workingmen, who felt themselves vindicated

and defended by the highest authority on earth, and by all those

devoted men whose concern it had long been to better the condi-

tions of labor, and who heretofore had found nothing but general

indifference, not to say unfriendly suspicion, or even open hostility.

All these men have ever deservedly held the Encyclical in the

highest esteem, to the extent of solemnizing its memory in various

ways year after year throughout the world in token of gratitude.

Despite this widespread agreement, however, some minds were

not a little disturbed, with the result that the noble and exalted

teaching of Leo XIII, quite novel to worldly ears, was looked

upon with suspicion by some, even amongst Catholics, and gave

offense to others. Eor it boldly attacked and overthrew the

idols of Liberalism, swept aside inveterate prejudices, and was

so far and so unexpectedly in advance of its time, that the slow

of heart ridiculed the study of the new social philosophy, and the

timid feared to scale its lofty heights. Nor were there wanting

those who, while professing their admiration for this message of

light, regarded it as a Utopian ideal, desirable rather than attain-

able in practice.

The Scope of the Present Encyclical

And now that the solemn commemoration of the fortieth an-

niversary of Rerum Novarum is being enthusiastically celebrated

in every country, but particularly in the Holy City, to which

Catholic workingmen are gathering from all sides. We deem it op-
portune, Venerable Brethren and Beloved Children, first, to recall

the great benefits which this Encyclical has brought to the Cath-

olic Church and to the world at large; secondly, to vindicate the

social and economic doctrine of so great a master against certain

doubts which have arisen, and to develop more fully some of its

points; finally, after arraigning modern economics and examining

the nature of Socialism, to expose the root of the present social

disorder, and to point out the only salutary cure, a reform of



FORTY YEARS AFTER 7

Christian morals. Such are the three topics to the treatment of

which the present Letter is dedicated.

Benefits Due to Encyclical

Beginning, then, with the topic We have mentioned first. We
cannot refrain from paying to Almighty God the tribute of Our

earnest gratitude for the benefits which have come from the En-

cyclical of Leo XIII. For We Temember the counsel of St. Am-
brose: “No duty is more urgent than that of returning thanks.”^®

Were We to enumerate these benefits even in a cursory way, it
would be necessary to recall almost the whole social history of the

past forty years. We may summarize them conveniently under
three heads, corresponding to the three forms of intervention for

which Our Predecessor pleaded in order to bring about his great

work of reconstruction.

What Was Done by the Church

In the first place, Leo himself clearly stated what could be

expected from the Church. “The Church insists, on the authority

of the Gospel, upon those teachings whereby the conflict can be

brought to an end, or rendered, at least, far less bitter. The

Church uses her efforts not only to enlighten the mind, but to di-

rect by her precepts the life and conduct of each and all. The

Church improves and betters the condition of the workingman by

means of numerous organizations.”^^

In Doctrinal Matters

This mighty power for good the Church did not suffer to remain

unprofitably stored away, but drew upon it freely in the cause of a

peace that was so universally desired. Time and again the social

and economic doctrine of the Encyclical Rerum Novarum was

proclaimed and emphasized in spoken and written word by Leo

XIII himself and by his successors, who were ever careful to

adapt it to the changing conditions of the times, and who never

relaxed their paternal solicitude and pastoral constancy, particu-

larly in defense of the poor and of the weak.^^ With like zeal

and erudition did numerous Bishops of the Catholic world in-

i3St, Ambrose, on the Passing of His Brother Satyrus, Book 1, Capt. 44.

i4Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Page 9.

loLeo XIII, Litt. Apost. Praeclara, June 20, 1894; Encycl. Graves De Communt,
January 18, 1901; Pius X, Motu Proprio De Actione Populari Christiana, December 8,’

1903; Benedict XV, Encycl. Ad. Beatissimi, November 1, 1914; Pius XI, Encycl. Ubi
Arcano, December 23. 1922; Encycl. Rite Exptatis. April 30. 1926



8 FORTY YEARS AFTER

terpret and comment upon this doctrine, and apply it, according

to the mind and instructions of the Holy See, to the special cir-

cumstances of the various nations.^®

It is not surprising, therefore, that under the teaching and

guidance of the Church, many learned priests and laymen earn-

estly devoted themselves to the problem of elaborating social and

economic science in accordance with the conditions of our age, for

the chief purpose of adapting to modern needs the unchanging and

unchangeable doctrine of the Church.

Under the guidance and in the light of Leo’s Encyclical was

thus evolved a truly Christian social science, which continues to

be fostered and enriched daily by the tireless labors of those

picked men whom We have named the auxiliaries of the Church.
They do not allow it to remain hidden in learned obscurity, but

bring it forth into the full view of public life, as is clearly shown

by the valuable and well-frequented courses founded in Catholic

universities, academies and seminaries, by social congresses and

“weeks” held at frequent intervals and with gratifying success, by

study circles, by sound and timely publications spread far and

wide.

Nor were these the only blessings which followed from the

Encyclical. The doctrine of Rerum Novarum began little by little

to penetrate among those also who, being outside Catholic unity,

do not recognize the authority of the Church; and thus Catholic

principles of sociology gradually became part of the intellectual

heritage of the whole human race. Thus, too. We rejoice that
the Catholic truths, proclaimed so vigorously by Our illustrious

Predecessor, are advanced and advocated not merely in non-Cath-

olic books and journals, but frequently also in legislative assem-

blies and in courts of justice.

Moreover, when after the great war the rulers of the leading

nations wished to restore peace by an entire reform of social con-

ditions, and among other measures drew up principles to regulate

the just rights of labor, many of their conclusions agreed so per-

fectly with the principles and warnings of Leo XIII as to seem

expressly deduced from them. The Encyclical (Rerum Novarum

)

has become in truth a memorable document to which may well be

applied the words of Isaias, “A standard set up unto the na-

tions.”^^

leCf. La Hierarchie Catholique et le Probleme Social DePuis UEncyclique Rerum
Novarum, 1891-1931, pp. xvi, 335; Union Internationale Etudes Sociale Fondee a Ma-

lines, en 1920, Sous La Presidence du Card. Mercier, Paris, “Editions Spes,” 1931.

iTlsaias xi. 12.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 9

In Practical Application

In the meantime, study and investigation caused Pope Leo’s

teaching to become widely known throughout the world, and steps

were taken to apply it to practical use. In the first place in a

spirit of active beneficence, every effort was made to lift up a

class of men, who, owing to the expansion of modern industry, had

enorrnously increased in numbers, but whose rightful position in

society had not yet been determined, and who in consequence were

the objects of much neglect and contempt.

These were the workingmen. In addition, therefore, to their

other heavy pastoral duties, the secular and regular clergy, under

the guidance of the Bishops began at once the work of popular edu-

cation and culture to the immense advantage of souls.

This constant endeavor to imbue the minds of the workingmen

with the Christian spirit did much to awaken in them at the same

time a sense of their true dignity. By keeping clearly before their

mind the rights and duties of their position, it rendered them capa-

ble of legitimate genuine progress, and of becoming leaders of their

fellows.

From that time onward, the resources of life were provided for

in larger measure and more securely. In answer to the appeal of

the Pontiff, works of beneficence and charity began to multiply.

Under the direction of the Church, and frequently under the

guidance of her priests, there sprang up further an ever increasing

number of new institutions, by which workingmen, craftsmen, hus-

bandmen, wage-earners of every class could give and receive mu-

tual assistance and support.

What Was Done by Civil Authority

With regard to the civil power, Leo XIII boldly passed be-

yond the restrictions imposed by Liberalism, and fearlessly pro-

claimed the doctrine that the civil power is more than the mere

guardian of law and order, and that it must strive with all zeal “to

make sure that the laws and institutions, the general character and

administration of the commonwealth, should be such as of them-

selves to realize public well-being and private prosperity.”^® It is

true, indeed, that a just freedom of action should be left to individ-

ual citizens and families
;
but this principle is only valid as long as

the common good is secure and no injustice is entailed. The duty

of rulers is to protect the community and its various elements
;
and

in protecting the rights of individuals they must have special regard

for the infirm and needy. “For the richer class have many ways

isEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 26.



10 FORTY YEARS AFTER

of shielding themselves and stand less in need of help from the

State, whereas the mass of the poor have no resources of their own

to fall back upon and must chiefly depend upon the assistance of

the State. And for this reason wage-earners, since they mostly be-

long to that class, should be especially cared for and protected by

the government.”^®

We do not, of course, deny that even before the Encyclical of
Leo, some rulers had provided for the more urgent needs of the

working classes, and had checked the more flagrant acts of injus-

tice perpetrated against them. But after the Apostolic Voice had

sounded from the Chair of Peter throughout the world, the leaders

of the nations became at last more fully conscious of their obliga-

tions, and set to work seriously to promote a broader social policy.

In fact, the Encyclical Rerum Novarum completely overthrew

those tottering tenets of Liberalism which had long hampered ef-

fective interference by the government. It prevailed upon the peo-

ples themselves to develop their social policy more intensely and

on truer lines, and encouraged the elite among Catholics to give

such efficacious help and assistance to rulers of the state that in

legislative assemblies they were not infrequently the foremost

advocates of the new policy. Furthermore, not a few recent laws

dealing with social questions were originally proposed to the suf-

frages of the people’s representatives by ecclesiastics thoroughly

imbued with Leo’s teaching, who afterwards with watchful care

promoted and fostered their execution.

\s a result of these steady and tireless efforts, there has arisen

a new branch of jurisprudence unknown to earlier times, whose

aim is the energetic defense of those sacred rights of the working-

man which proceed from his dignity as a man and as a Christian.

These laws concern the soul, the health, the strength, the housing,

workshops, wages, dangerous employments, in a word, all that con-

cerns the wage-earners, with particular regard to women and chil-

dren. Even though these regulations do not agree always and in

every detail with the recommendations of Pope Leo, it is none the

less certain that much which they contain is strongly suggestive^f

Rerum Novarum, to which in large measure must be attributed

the improved condition of the workingmen.

What Was Done by the Parties Concerned

“In the last place,” the wise Pontiff pointed out, “employers

and workmen may of themselves effect much in the matter We are
treating by means of such organizations as afford opportune aid to

l9Encycl. Rerum Novarum. Par 29



FORTY YEARS AFTER 11

those who are in distress and which draw the two classes more

closely together.”^® Among these He attributed prime importance

to societies consisting either of workingmen alone, or of working-

men and employers together. He devotes much space to describ-

ing and commending these societies and expounds with remarkable

prudence their nature, reason and opportunities, their rights, duties

and laws.

The lesson was well timed. For at that period rulers of not a

few nations were deeply infected with Liberalism and regarded

such unions of workingmen with disfavor, if not with open hostil-

ity. While readily recognizing and patronizing similar corpora-

tions amongst other classes, with criminal injustice they denied

the innate right of forming associations to those who needed them

most for self-protection against oppression by the more powerful.

There were even Catholics who viewed with suspicion the efforts of

the laboring classes to form such unions, as if they reflected the

spirit of Socialistic or revolutionary agitators.

Workingmen’s Unions

Worthy of all praise, therefore, are the directions authoritative-

ly promulgated by Leo XHI, which served to break down this op-

position and dispel these suspicions. They have a still higher dis-

tinction, however, that of encouraging Christian workingmen to

form unions according to their several trades, and of teaching

them how to do it. Many were thus confirmed in the path of

duty, in spite of the vehement attractions of Socialist organiza-

tions, which claimed to be the sole defenders and champions of the

lowly and the oppressed.

The Encyclical Rerum Novarum declared most appropriately

that ‘‘these workingmen’s associations should be so organized and

governed as to furnish the best and most suitable means for at-

taining what is aimed at, that is to say, for helping each mem- (

ber to better his condition to the utmost in body, soul and prop-
,

erty;” yet that it is clear “that they must pay special and chief

attention to the duties of religion and morality, and that social

betterment should have this chiefly in view.” For “the foundation
,

of social laws being thus laid in religion, it is not hard to establish
"

the relations of members one to another, in order that they may i

live together in concord and achieve prosperity. I

Eager to carry out to the full the program of Leo XHI, the

clergy and many of the laity devoted themselves everywhere with

20Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 36. 2lEncycI. Rerum Novarum, Par. 42, 43.



Zy
12 FORTY YEARS AFTER

admirable zeal to the creation of such unions, which in turn be-

came instrumental in building up a body of truly Christian work-

ingmen. These happily combined the successful plying of their

trade with deep religious convictions
;
they learned to defend their

temporal rights and interests energetically and efficiently, retain-

ing at the same time a due respect for justice and a sincere desire

to collaborate with other classes. Thus they prepared the way for

a Christian renewal of the whole social life. These counsels of

Leo XIII were reduced to practice differently in different places.

In some countries one and the same association included within its

scope all the ends and purposes proposed by him. In others, ac-

cording as circumstances seemed to counsel or demand, a division

of function developed, and various associations were founded. Of

these some undertook the protection of the rights and legitimate

interests of their members in the hiring of their labor; others had

as their object the provision of mutual help in economic matters;

while others, still, were exclusively concerned with religious and

moral duties of a similar kind. The latter method was chiefly used

wherever the laws of the country, or peculiar economic conditions,

or the lamentable dissension of minds and hearts so prevalent in

modern society, or the necessity of uniting forces to combat the

growing ranks d^ revolutionaries, made it impossible for Catholics

to form Catholic unions. Under such circumstances, they seem to

have no choice but to enroll themselves in neutral trade unions.

These, however, should always respect justice and equity, and

leave to their Catholic members full freedom to follow the dictates

of their conscience and to obey the precepts of the Church. It be-

longs to the Bishops to permit Catholic workingmen to join these

unions, where they judge that circumstances render it necessary

and there appears no danger for religion, observing however the

rules and precautions recommended by Our Predecessor of saintly

memory, Pius

Among these precautions the first and most important is that,

side by side with these trade unions, there must always be associa-

tions which aim at giving their members a thorough religious and

moral training, that these in turn may impart to the labor unions

to which they belong the upright spirit which should direct their

entire conduct. Thus will these unions exert a beneficent influ-

ence far beyond the ranks of their own members.

It must be set to the credit of the Encyclical that these unions

of workingmen have everywhere so flourished, that in our days,

though unfortunately still inferior in number to the organizations

22Encycl. Singulari Quadam, September 24, 1912



FORTY YEARS AFTER 13

of Socialists and Communists, they already muster an imposing

body of wage-earners able to maintain successfully, both in na-

tional and international assemblies, the rights and legitimate de-

mands of Catholic laborers, and to assert the saving principles on

which Christian society is based.

Organizations Among Other Classes

There is the further fact that the doctrine concerning the in-

nate right of forming unions, which Leo XIII treated so learnedly

and defended so bravely, began to find ready application to corpo-

rations other than those of workingmen. It would seem, there-

fore, that the Encyclical is in no small measure responsible for the

gratifying increase and spread of associations amongst farmers and

others of the humbler classes. These excellent organizations, with

others of a similar kind, happily combine economic advantages

with mental culture.

Associations of Employers

Associations of employers and captains of industry, which Our

Predecessor so earnestly pleaded for, did not meet with the same

success; they are, we regret to say, still few in number. The rea-

son for this must not be entirely attributed to want of good will,

but to other and far more serious obstacles, whose nature and grav-

ity We well know and appreciate to the full. There are, however,
well founded hopes that these obstacles also will shortly be re-

moved. We hail even now with deep joy of soul certain experi-
ments, far from negligible, which have been made in this regard,

and which have already produced much fruit and give much prom-

ise for the future.-®

‘^Rerum Novarum” Magna Charta of Social Order

These beneficent results of Leo’s Encyclical, Venerable Breth-

ren and Beloved Children, which We have here suggested rather
than described, are so many and so great as to prove beyond ques-

tion that this immortal document exhibits more than a beautiful,

but merely imaginary picture of human society.

We would rather say that Our illustrious Predecessor drew
from the Gospel as from a living and life-giving source doctrines

capable, if not of settling at once, at least of considerably mitigat-

ing the fatal internal strife which rends the human family. That

the good seed sown with a lavish hand forty years ago fell in part

on good ground is shown by the rich harvest which by God’s favor

the Church of Christ and the whole human race have reaped unto

23See Letter of the S. Congregation of the Council to the Bishop of Lille, June 5,

1929.



14 FORTY YEARS AFTER

salvation. It would not be rash to say that during the long years

of its usefulness Leo’s Encyclical has proved itself the Magna

Charta on which all Christian activities in social matters are ulti-

mately based.

Nevertheless, there are some who seem to attach little impor-

tance to this Encyclical and to the present anniversary celebration.

These men either slander a doctrine of which they are entirely ig-

norant, or if not unacquainted with this teaching, they betray their

failure to understand it, or else if they understand it they lay

themselves open to the charge of base injustice and ingratitude.

In the course of these years, however, doubts have arisen con-

cerning the correct interpretation of certain passages of the En-

cyclical or their inferences, and these doubts have led to con-

troversies even among Catholics, not always of a peaceful charac-

ter. On the other hand, the new needs of our age and the changed

conditions of society have rendered necessary a more precise appli-

cation and amplification of Leo’s doctrine. We, therefore, gladly

seize this opportunity of answering these doubts, so far as in Us

lies, and of satisfying the demands of the present day. This We
do in virtue of Our Apostolic office by which We are a debtor to
all.2^

The Authority of the Church in Social and

Economic Spheres

But before proceeding to discuss these problems We lay down
the principle long since clearly established by Leo XIII that it is

Our right and Our duty to deal authoritatively with social and eco-

nomic problems. It is not of course the office of the Church to

lead men to transient and perishable happiness only, but to that

which is eternal. Indeed “the Church believes that it would be

wrong for her to interfere without just cause in such earthly con-

cerns;”^® but she never can relinquish her God-given task of inter-

posing her authority, not indeed in technical matters, for which she

has neither the equipment nor the mission, but in all those that

have a bearing on moral conduct. For the deposit of truth entrust-

ed to Us by God, and Our weighty office of propagating, interpret-

ing and urging in season and out of season the entire moral law, de-

mand that both social and economic questions be brought within

Our supreme jurisdiction, in so far as they refer to moral issues.

For, though economic science and moral discipline are guided

each by its own principles in its own sphere, it is false that the two

orders are so distinct and alien that the former in no way depends

24Rom. i. 14. 25Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 13.

26Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 13.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 15

on the latter. The so-called laws of economics, derived from the

nature of earthly goods and from the qualities of the human body

and soul, determine what aims are unattainable or attainable in

economic matters and what means are thereby necessary, while

reason itself clearly deduces from the nature of things and from

the individual and social character of man, what is the end and

object of the whole economic order assigned by God the Creator.

For it is the moral law alone which commands us to seek in all

our conduct our supreme and final end, and to strive directly in

our specific actions for those ends which nature, or rather, the Au-

thor of Nature, has established for them, duly subordinating the

particular to the general. If this law be faithfully obeyed, the re-

sult will be that particular economic aims, whether of society as a

body or of individuals, will be intimately linked with the universal

teleological order, and as a consequence we shall be led by progres-

sive stages to the final end of all, God Himself, our highest and

lasting good.

The Right of Property

Descending now to details. We commence with ownership, or
the right of property. You are aware. Venerable Brethren and

Beloved Children, how strenuously Our Predecessor of happy mem-

ory defended the right of property against the teachings of the

Socialists of His time, showing that the abolition of private owner-

ship would prove to be not beneficial, but grievously harmful to

the working classes. Yet, since there are some who falsely and un-

justly accuse the Supreme Pontiff and the Church as upholding,

both then and now, the wealthier classes against the proletariat,

and since controversy has arisen among Catholics as to the true

sense of Pope Leo’s teaching. We have thought it well to defend
from calumny the Leonine doctrine in this matter, which is also

the Catholic doctrine, and to safeguard it against false interpre-

tations.

Its Individual and Social Character

First, let it be made clear beyond all doubt that neither Leo

XHI, nor those theologians who have taught under the guidance

and direction of the Church, have ever denied or called in ques-

tion the two-fold aspect of ownership, which is individual or social

accordingly as it regards individuals or concerns the common

good. Their unanimous contention has always been that the right

to own private property has been given to man by nature or

rather by the Creator Himself, not only in order that individuals

may be able to provide for their own needs and those of their



16 FORTY YEARS AFTER

families, but also that by means of it, the goods which the Creator

has destined for the human race may truly serve this purpose.

Now these ends cannot be secured unless some definite and stable
order is maintained.

There is, therefore, a double danger to be avoided. On the

one hand, if the social and public aspect of ownership be denied

or minimized, the logical consequence is “Individualism,” as it is

called; on the other hand, the rejection or diminution of its pri-

vate and individual character necessarily leads to some form of

“Collectivism.” To disregard these dangers would be to rush head-

long into the quicksands of Modernism in the moral, juridical

and social order, which We condemmed in the Encyclical Letter is-
sued at the beginning of Our Pontificate.^^

Let this be noted particularly by those seekers after novelties

who launch against the Church the odious calumny that she has

allowed a pagan concept of ownership to creep into the teachings

of her theologians and that another concept must be substituted,

which in their astounding ignorance they call Christian.

The Obligations of Ownership

That we may keep within bounds the controversies which have

arisen concerning ownership and the duties attaching to it, We
reassert in the first place the fundamental principle laid down by

Leo XIII, that the right of property must be distinguished from

its use.^® It belongs to what is called commutative justice faith-

fully to respect the possessions of others, not encroaching on the

rights of another and thus exceeding one’s rights of ownership. The

putting of one’s own possessions to proper use, however, does not

fall under this form of justice, but under certain other virtues,

and therefore it is “a duty not enforced by courts of justice.”^®

Hence it is idle to contend that the right of ownership and its

proper use are bounded by the same limits; and it is even less

true that the very misuse or even the non-use of ownership de-

stroys or forfeits the right itself.

Most helpful therefore and worthy of all praise are the ef-

forts of those who, in a spirit of harmony and with due regard

for the traditions of the Church, seek to determine the precise

nature of these duties and to define the boundaries imposed by the

requirements of social life upon the right of ownership itself or

upon its use. On the contrary, it is a grievous error so to weaken

the individual character of ownership as actually to destroy it.

27Encvcl. Ubi Arcane, December 23, 1922. 2SEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 19.

29Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 19.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 17

The Power of the State

It follows from the two-fold character of ownership, which We
have termed individual and social, that men must take into ac-

count in this matter not only their own advantage but also the

common good. To define in detail these duties, when the need

occurs and when the natural law does not do so, is the function

of the government. Provided that the natural and divine law be

observed, the public authority, in view of the common good, may

specify more accurately what is licit and what is illicit for prop-

erty owners in the use of their possessions. Moreover, Leo XIII

had wisely taught that “the defining of private possession has

been left by God to man’s own industry and to the laws of individ-

ual peoples.

History proves that the right of ownership, like other elements

of social life, is not absolutely rigid, and this doctrine We our-
selves have given utterance to on a previous occasion in the fol-

lowing terms: “How varied are the forms which the right of

property has assumed! First, the primitive form used amongst

rude and savage peoples, which still exists in certain localities

even in our own day
;
then, that of the patriarchal age

;
later came

various tyrannical types, (We use the word in its classical mean-

ing)
;
finally, the feudal and monarchic systems down to the vari-

eties of more recent times.”®^

“It is plain, however, that the state may not discharge this

duty in an arbitrary manner. Man’s natural right of possessing

and transmitting property by inheritance must remain intact and

cannot be taken away by the State from man.”^^ “For man pre-

cedes the State and the domestic household is antecedent, as well

in idea as in fact, to the gathering of men into a community.”®^

Hence the prudent Pontiff had already declared it unlawful for

the State to exhaust the means of individuals by crushing taxes and

tributes. “The right to possess private property is derived from

nature, not from man; and the State has by no means the right

to abolish it, but only to control its use and bring it into harmony

with the interests of the public good.”®*

However, when civil authority adjusts ownership to meet the

needs of the public good it acts not as an enemy, but as the friend

of private owners; for thus it effectively prevents the possessions

of private property, intended by Nature’s Author in His Wisdom

for the sustaining of human life, from creating intolerable burdens

SOEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 7. SlAllocution to the A. C. I., May 16, 1926

32Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 6. ssEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 10.

34Encycl. Rerum Novarum. Par 35



18 FORTY YEARS AFTER

and so rushing to its own destruction. It does not therefore abol-

ish, but protects private ownership, and, far from weakening the

right of private property, it gives it new strength.

Obligations Regarding Superfluous Income

At the same time a man’s superfluous income is not left entirely

to his own discretion. We speak of that portion of his income
which he does not need in order to live as becomes his station.

On the contrary, the grave obligations of charity, beneficence and

liberality which rest upon the wealthy are constantly insisted upon

in telling words by Holy Scripture and the Fathers of the Church.

However, the investment of superfluous income in securing

favorable opportunities for employment, provided the labor em-

ployed produces results which are really useful, is to be con-

sidered, according to the teaching of the Angelic Doctor,®^ an act

of real liberality particularly appropriate to the needs of our time.

Titles in Acquiring Ownership

The original acquisition of property takes place by first occu-

pation and by industry, or, as it is called, specification. This is

the universal teaching of tradition and the doctrine of Our Prede-

cessor, despite unreasonable assertions to the contrary, and no

wrong is done to any man by the occupation of goods unclaimed

and which belong to nobody. The only form of labor, however,

which gives the workingman a title to its fruits is that which a

man exercises as his own master, and by which some new form

or new value is produced.

Capital and Labor

Altogether different is the labor one man hires out to another,

and which is expended on the property of another. To it apply

appositely the words of Leo XIII: “It is only by the labor of

workingmen that states grow rich.”®® Is it not indeed apparent

that the huge possessions which constitute human wealth are be-

gotten by and flow from the hands of the workingman, toiling

either unaided or with the assistance of tools and machinery

which wonderfully intensify his efficiency?

Universal experience teaches us that no nation has ever yet

risen from want and poverty to a better and loftier station with-

out the unremitting toil of all its citizens, both employers and em-

ployed. But it is no less self-evident that these ceaseless labors

would have remained ineffective, indeed could never have been at-

35S. Thomas 2. 2. Q. 134. seEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 27.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 19

tempted, had not God, the Creator of all things, in His goodness

bestowed in the first instance the wealth and resources of nature,

its treasures and its powers. For what else is work but the appli-

cation of one’s forces of soul and body to these gifts of nature

for the development of one’s powers by their means?

Now the natural law, or rather, God’s Will manifested by it,

demands that right order be observed in the application of natural

resources to human needs; and this order consists in everything

having its proper owner. Hence it follows that unless a man ap-

ply his labor to his own property, an alliance must be formed

between his toil and his neighbor’s property, for each is helpless

without the other. This was what Leo XIII had in mind when

He wrote: “Capital cannot do without labor, nor labor without

capital.”^^ It is therefore entirely false to ascribe the results of

their combined efforts to either party alone; and it is flagrantly

unjust that either should deny the efficacy of the other and seize

all the profits.

Unjust Claims of Capital

Capital, however, was long able to appropriate to itself exces-

sive advantages; it claimed all the products and profits and left

to the laborer the barest minimum necessary to repair his strength

and to ensure the continuation of his class. For by an inexorable

economic law, it was held, all accumulation of riches must fall to

the share of the wealthy, while the workingman must remain per-

petually in indigence or reduced to the minimum needed for exist-

ence. It is true that the actual state of things was not always and

everywhere as deplorable as the Liberalistic tenets of the so-called

Manchester School might lead us to conclude; but it cannot be

denied that a steady drift of economic and social tendencies was

in this direction. These false opinions and specious axioms were

vehemently attacked, as was to be expected, and by others also

than merely those whom such principles deprived of their innate

right to better their condition.

Unjust Claims of Labor

The cause of the harassed workingman was espoused by the

“intellectuals,” as they are called, who set up in opposition to this

fictitious law another equally false moral principle: that all prod-

ucts and profits, excepting those required to repair and replace in-

vested capital belong by every right to the workingman. This

error, more subtle than that of the Socialists who hold that all

37Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. IS.



20 FORTY YEARS AFTER

means of production should be transferred to the State (or, as they

term it, socialized), is for that reason more dangerous and apt to

deceive the unwary. It is an alluring poison, consumed with avid-

ity by many not deceived by open Socialism.

Principle of Just Distribution

To prevent erroneous doctrines of this kind from blocking the

path of justice and peace, the advocates of these opinions should

have hearkened to the wise words of Our Predecessor: “The earth

even though apportioned amongst private owners, ceases not there-

by to minister to the needs of all.”^® This teaching We ourselves
have reaffirmed above when We wrote that the division of goods
which is effected by private ownership is ordained by nature itself

and has for its purpose that created things may minister to man’s

needs in orderly and stable fashion. These principles must be con-

stantly borne in mind if we would not wander from the path of

truth.

Now, not every kind of distribution of wealth and property

amongst men is such that it can at all, and still less can adequate-

ly, attain the end intended by God. Wealth, therefore, which is

constantly being augmented by social and economic progress, must

be so distributed amongst the various individuals and classes of

society that the common good of all, of which Leo XIII spoke, be

thereby promoted. In other words, the good of the whole com-

munity must be safeguarded. By these principles of social justice

one class is forbidden to exclude the other from a share in the

profits. This sacred law is violated by an irresponsible wealthy

class who, in the excess of their good fortune, deem it a just state

of things that they should receive everything and the laborer noth-

ing; it is violated also by a propertyless wage-earning class who

demand for themselves all the fruits of production, as being the

work of their hands. Such men, vehemently incensed against the

violation of justice by capitalists, go too far in vindicating the one

right of which they are conscious; they attack and seek to abolish

all forms of ownership and all profits not obtained by labor, what-

ever be their nature or significance in human society, for the sole

reason that they are not acquired by toil. In this connection it

must be noted that the appeal made by some to the words of the

Apostle: “If any man will not work, neither let him eat,”^® is as

inept as it is unfounded. The Apostle is here passing judgment on

those who refuse to work though they could and ought to do so;

he admonishes us to use diligently our time and our powers of body

ssEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 7. 392 Thess. iii. 10.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 21

and mind, and not to become burdensome to others as long as we

are able to provide for ourselves. In no sense does he teach that

labor is the sole title which gives a right to a living or to profits.*®

Each class, then, must receive its due share, and the distribu-

tion of created goods must be brought into conformity with the

demands of the common good and social justice, for every sincere

observer is conscious that the vast differences between the few

who hold excessive wealth and the many who live in destitution

constitute a grave evil in modern society.

The Uplifting of the Proletariat

This is the aim which Our Predecessor urged as the necessary

object of our efforts: the uplifting of the proletariat. It calls for

more emphatic assertion and more insistent repetition on the pres-

ent occasion because these salutary injunctions of the Pontiff have

not infrequently been forgotten, deliberately ignored, or deemed

impracticable, though they were both feasible and imperative.

They have lost none of their force or wisdom for our own age, even

though the horrible “pauperism” of the days of Leo XIII is less

prevalent today. The condition of the workingman has indeed

been improved and rendered more equitable in many respects, par-

ticularly in the larger and more civilized states, where the laboring

class can no longer be said to be universally in misery and want.

But after modern machinery and modern industry had progressed

with astonishing speed and taken possession of many newly colon-

ized countries no less than of the ancient civilizations of the Far

East, the number of the dispossessed laboring masses, whose

groans mount to Heaven from these lands, increased beyond all

measure.

Moreover, there is the immense army of hired rural laborers,

whose condition is depressed in the extreme, and who have no hope

of ever obtaining a share in the land.*^ These too, unless effica-

cious remedies be applied, will remain perpetually sunk in their

proletarian condition.

It is true that there is a formal difference between pauperism

and proletarianism. Nevertheless, the immense number of prop-

ertyless wage-earners on the one hand, and the superabundant

riches of the fortunate few on the other, is an unanswerable argu-

ment that the earthly goods so abundantly produced in this age of

industrialism are far from rightly distributed and equitably shared

among the various classes of men.

402 Thess. iii. 8. 10 4lEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 35.



22 FORTY YEARS AFTER

Proletarian Conditions to be Overcome by Wage-Earner

Ownership

Every effort, therefore, must be made that at least in future a

just share only of the fruits of production be permitted to accumu-

late in the hands of the wealthy, and that an ample sufficiency be

supplied to the workingmen. The purpose is not that these be-

come slack at their work, for man is bom to labor as the bird to
fly, but that by thrift they may increase their possessions and by

the prudent management of the same may be enabled to bear the

family burden with greater ease and security, being freed from that

hand-to-mouth uncertainty which is the lot of the proletarian.

Thus they will not only be in a position to support life’s changing

fortunes, but will also have the reassuring confidence that when

their lives are ended, some little provision will remain for those

whom they leave behind them.

These ideas were not merely suggested, but stated in frank and

open terms by Our Predecessor. We emphasize them with renewed
insistence in this present Encyclical; for unless serious attempts

be made, with all energy and without delay to put them into prac-

tice, let nobody persuade himself that the peace and tranquillity

of human society can be effectively defended against the forces of

revolution

!

A Just Wage

This program cannot, however, be realized unless the property-

less wage-earner be placed in such circumstances that by skill and

thrift he can acquire a certain moderate ownership, as was already

declared by Us, following the footsteps of Our Predecessor. But

how can he ever save money, except from his wages and by living

sparingly, who has nothing but his labor by which to obtain food

and the necessaries of life? Let us turn, therefore, to the question

of wages, which Leo XIII held to be “of great importance,

stating and explaining where necessary its principles and precepts.

Wage Contract Not Essentially Unjust

And first of all, those who hold that the wage-contract is essen-

tially unjust, and that in its place must be introduced the contract

of partnership, are certainly in error. They do a grave injury to

Our Predecessor, whose Encyclical not only admits this contract,

but devotes much space to its determination according to the prin-

ciples of justice.

In the present state of human society, however, We deem it ad-

42Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 34.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 23

visable that the wage-contract should, when possible, be modified

somewhat by a contract of partnership, as is already being tried in

various ways to the no small gain both of the wage-earners and of

the employers. In this way wage-earners are made sharers in

some sort in the ownership, or the management, or the profits.

In estimating a just wage, not one consideration alone but

many must be taken into account, according to the wise words of

Leo XIII: “Before deciding whether wages are fair, many things

have to be considered.”^®

In this way He refuted the irresponsible view of certain writers

who declare that this momentous question can easily be solved by

the application of a single principle, and that not even a true one.

Entirely false is the principle, widely propagated today, that

the worth of labor and therefore the equitable return to be made

for it, should equal the worth of its net result. Thus the right to

the full product of his toil is claimed for the wage-earner. How
erroneous this is appears from what We have written above con-
cerning capital and labor.

Individual and Social Character of Labor

The obvious truth is that in labor, especially hired labor, as in

ownership, there is a social as well as a personal or individual as-

pect to be considered. For unless human society forms a truly

social and organic body; unless labor be protected in the social

and juridical order; unless the various forms of human endeavor,

dependent one upon the other, are united in mutual harmony and

mutual support; unless, above all, brains, capital and labor com-

bine together for common effort, man’s toil cannot produce due

fruit. Hence, if the social and individual character of labor be

overlooked, it can be neither equitably appraised nor properly

recompensed according to strict justice.

From this double aspect, growing out of the very notion of hu-

man labor, follow important conclusions for the regulation and

fixing of wages.

Support of the Workingman and His Family

In the first place, the wage paid to the workingman must be

sufficient for the support of himself and of his family.^* It is right

indeed that the rest of the family contribute according to their

power towards the common maintenance, as in the rural home or

in the families of many artisans and small shop keepers. But it is

wrong to abuse the tender years of children or the weakness of

43Encycl. Rerum Novarum. Par. 17 44Encycl Casti Connubii, December 31, 1930.



24 FORTY YEARS AFTER

woman. Mothers will above all devote their work to the home and

the things connected with it. Intolerable, and to be opposed with

all our strength, is the abuse whereby mothers of families, because

of the insufficiency of the father’s salary, are forced to engage in

gainful occupations outside the domestic walls, to the neglect of

their own proper cares and duties, particularly the education of

their children.

Every effort must therefore be made that fathers of families re-

ceive a wage sufficient to meet adequately ordinary domestic needs.

If in the present state of society this is not always feasible, social

justice demands that reforms be introduced without delay which

will guarantee every adult workingman just such a wage. In this

connection We might utter a word of praise for various systems
devised and attempted in practice, by which an increased wage is

paid in view of increased family burdens, and a special provision is

made for special needs.

The State of Business

The condition of any particular business and of its owner must

also come into question in settling the scale of wages; for it is un-

just to demand wages so high that an employer cannot pay them

without ruin, and without consequent distress amongst the working

people themselves. If the business make smaller profit on account

of bad management, want of enterprise or out-of-date methods,

this is not a just reason for reducing the workingmen’s wages. If,

however, the business does not make enough money to pay the

workman a just wage, either because it is overwhelmed with un-

just burdens, or because it is compelled to sell its products at an

unjustly low price, those who thus injure it are guilty of grievous

wrong; for it is they who deprive the workingmen of the just

wage, and force them to accept lower terms.

Let employers, therefore, and employed join in their plans and

efforts to overcome all difficulties and obstacles, and let them be

aided in this wholesome endeavor by the wise measures of the pub-

lic authority. In the last extreme, counsel must be taken whether

the business can continue, or whether some other provision should

be made for the workers. The guiding spirit in this crucial deci-

sion should be one of mutual understanding and Christian har-

mony between employers and workers.

The Exigencies of the Common Good

Finally, the wage scale must be regulated with a view to the

economic welfare of the whole people. We have already shown



FORTY YEARS AFTER 25

how conducive it is to the common good that wage-earners of

all kinds be enabled by economizing that portion of their wage

which remains after necessary expenses have been met, to at-

tain to the possession of a certain modest fortune. Another

point, however, of no less importance must not be overlooked,

in these our days especially, namely, that opportunities for

work be provided for those who are willing and able to work.

This depends in large measure upon the scale of wages, which

multiplies opportunities for work as long as it remains within

proper limits, and reduces them if allowed to pass these limits.

All are aware that a scale of wages too low, no less than a scale

excessively high, causes unemployment. Now unemployment, par-
ticularly if widespread and of long duration, as We have been
forced to experience it during Our Pontificate, is a dreadful

scourge; it causes misery and temptation to the laborer, ruins the

prosperity of nations, and endangers public order, peace and tran-

quillity the world over. To lower or raise wages unduly, with a

view to private profit, and with no consideration for the common

good, is contrary to social justice which demands that by union of

effort and good will such a scale of wages be set up, if possible, as

to offer to the greatest number opportunities of employment and

of securing for themselves suitable means of livelihood.

A reasonable relationship between different wages here enters
into consideration. Intimately connected with this is a reasonable

relationship between the prices obtained for the products of the

various economic groups: agrarian, industrial, etc. Where this har-

monious proportion is kept, man’s various economic activities com-

bine and unite into one single organism and become members of a

common body, lending each other mutual help and service. For

then only will the economic and social organism be soundly estab-

lished and attain its end, when it secures for all and each those

goods which the wealth and resources of nature, technical achieve-

ment, and the social organization of economic affairs can give.

These goods should be sufficient to supply all needs and an honest

livelihood, and to uplift men to that higher level of prosperity and

culture which, provided it be used with prudence, is not only no

hindrance but is of singular help to virtue.*®

The Reconstruction of the Social Order

What We have written thus far regarding a right distribution
of property and a just scale of wages is concerned directly with the

individual, and deals only indirectly with the social order. To this

45Cf. S. Thomas, De Regimine Principum, 1, 15; Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 27.



26 FORTY YEARS AFTER

latter, however, Our Predecessor, Leo XIII, devoted special

thought and care in his efforts to reconstruct and perfect it accord-

ing to the principles of sound philosophy and the sublime precepts

of the Gospel.^®

A happy beginning has here been made. But in order that
what has been well begun may be rendered stable, that what has

not yet been accomplished may now be achieved, and that still

richer and brighter blessings may descend upon mankind, two

things are particularly necessary: the reform of the social order

and the correction of morals.

When We speak of the reform of the social order it is prin-
cipally the State We have in mind. Not indeed that all salvation
is to be hoped for from its intervention

;
but because on account of

the evil of Individualism, as We called it, things have come to such
a pass that the highly developed social life which once flourished

in a variety of prosperous institutions organically linked with each

other, has been damaged and all but ruined, leaving thus virtually

only individuals and the State. Social life lost entirely its organic

form. The State, which now was encumbered with all the burdens

once borne by associations rendered extinct by it, was in conse-

quence submerged and overwhelmed by an infinity of affairs and

duties.

It is indeed true, as history clearly proves, that owing to the

change in social conditions, much that was formerly done by small

bodies can nowadays be accomplished only by large corporations.

None the less, just as it is wrong to withdraw from the individual

and commit to the community at large what private enterprise and

industry can accomplish, so too it is an injustice, a grave evil and

a disturbance of right order for a larger and higher organization to

arrogate to itself functions which can be performed efficiently by

smaller and lower bodies. This is a fundamental principle of so-

cial philosophy, unshaken and unchangeable, and it retains its full

truth today. Of its very nature the true aim of all social activity

should be to help individual members of the social body, but never

to destroy or absorb them.

The State should leave to these smaller groups the settlement

of business of minor importance. It will thus carry out with

greater freedom, power and success the tasks belonging to it, be-

cause it alone can effectively accomplish these, directing, watching,

stimulating and restraining, as circumstances suggest or necessity

demands. Let those in power, therefore, be convinced that the

more faithfully this principle be followed, and a graded hierarch-

46Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 16.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 27

ical order exist between the various subsidiary organizations, the

more excellent will be both the authority and the efficiency of the

social organization as a whole and the happier and more prosper-

ous the condition of the State.

Harmony Between Ranks in Society

Now this is the primary duty of the State and of all good citi-

zens, to abolish conflict between classes with divergent interests,

and thus foster and promote harmony between the various ranks

of society.

The aim of social legislation must therefore be the reestablish-

ment of vocational groups. Society today still remains in a strained

and therefore unstable and uncertain state, being founded on

classes with contradictory interests and hence opposed to each

other, and consequently prone to enmity and strife. Labor, indeed,

as has been well said by Our Predecessor in his Encyclical, is not

a mere chattel, since the human dignity of the workingman must

be recognized in it, and consequently it cannot be bought and sold

like any piece of merchandise. None the less the -demand and

supply of labor divides men on the labor market into two classes,

as into two camps, and the bargaining between these parties trans-

forms this labor market into an arena where the two armies are

engaged in combat. To this grave disorder, which is leading society

to ruin, a remedy must evidently be applied as speedily as possible.

But there cannot be question of any perfect cure, except this oppo-

sition be done away with, and well-ordered members of the social

body come into being anew, vocational groups namely, binding

men together not according to the position they occupy in the labor

market, but according to the diverse functions which they exercise

in society. For as nature induces those who dwell in close prox-

imity to unite into municipalities, so those who practice the same

trade or profession, economic or otherwise, combine into vocational

groups. These groups, in a true sense autonomous, are considered

by many to be, if not essential to civil society, at least its natural

and spontaneous development.

Order, as the Angelic Doctor well defines, is unity arising from

the apt arrangement of a plurality of objects; hence, true and

genuine social order demands various members of society, joined

together by a common bond.*^ Such a bond of union is provided

on the one hand by the common effort of employers and employees

of one and the same group joining forces to produce goods or give

service; on the other hand, by the common good which all groups

47S. Thomas, Cont., Gent. 3, 71; Cf. Summa Theol., I, Q. 65; A. 2 C. C.



28 FORTY YEARS AFTER

should unite to promote, each in its own sphere, with friendly har-

mony. Now this union will become powerful and efficacious in
proportion to the fidelity with which the individuals and the groups

strive to discharge their professional duties and to excel in them.

From this it is easy to conclude that in these associations the

common interests of the whole group must predominate
;
and among

these interests the most important is the directing of the activities

of the group to the common good. Regarding cases in which inter-

ests of employers and employees call for special care and protection

against opposing interests, separate deliberation will take place in

their respective assemblies and separate votes will be taken as the

matter may require.

It is hardly necessary to note that what Leo XIII taught con-

cerning the form of political government can, in due measure, be

applied also to vocational groups. Here, too, men may choose

whatever form they please, provided that both justice and the

common good be taken into account.^®

Just as the citizens of the same municipality are wont to form

associations with diverse aims, which various individuals are free

to join or not, similarly, those who are engaged in the same trade

or profession will form free associations among themselves, for

purposes connected with their occupations. Our Predecessor has

explained clearly and lucidly the nature of these free associations.

We are content, therefore, to emphasize this one point: Not only
is man free to institute these unions which are of a private charac-

ter, but he has the right “further to adopt such organization and

such rules as may best conduce to the attainment of their respec-

tive objects.”^® The same liberty must be claimed for the found-

ing of associations which extend beyond the limits of a single trade.

Let those free associations which already flourish and produce

salutary fruits make it the goal of their endeavors, in accordance

with Christian social doctrine, to prepare the way and to do their

part towards the realization of that ideal type of vocational groups

which We have mentioned above.

The Restoration of the True Guiding Principle of

Economics

Still another aim intimately connected with the preceding

must be kept in view. Just as the unity of human society

cannot be built upon class warfare, so the proper ordering of

economic affairs cannot b^ left to free competition alone. From

this source have proceeded in the past all the errors of the “In-

48Encycl. Immortale Dei. Nov. 1, 1885. 49Encycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. 42.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 29

dividualistic” school. This school, ignorant or forgetful of the

social and moral aspect of economic matters, teaches that the

State should refrain in theory and practice from interfering

therein, because these possess in free competition and open mar-

kets a principle of self-direction better able to control them than

any created intellect* Free competition, however, though within

certain limits just and productive of good results, cannot be the

ruling principle of the economic world; this has been abundantly

proved by the consequences that have followed from the free rein

given to these dangerous individualistic ideals. It is therefore very

necessary that economic affairs be once more subjected to and

governed by a true and effective guiding principle. Still less can

this function be exercised by the economic supremacy which within

recent times has taken the place of free competition; for this is a

headstrong and vehement power, which, if it is to prove beneficial

to mankind, needs to be curbed strongly and ruled with prudence.

It cannot, however, be curbed and governed by itself. More lofty

and noble principles must therefore be sought in order to control

this supremacy sternly and uncompromisingly; to wit, social jus-

tice and social charity.

To that end all the institutions of public and social life must

be imbued with the spirit of justice, and this justice must above

all be truly operative, must build up a juridical and social

order able to pervade all economic activity. Social charity should

be, as it were, the soul of this order and the duty of the State

will be to protect and defend it effectively. This task it will per-

form the more readily if it free itself from those burdens which,

as We have already declared, are not properly its own.
Further, it would be well if the various nations in common

counsel and endeavor strove to promote a healthy economic cooper-

ation by prudent pacts and institutions, since in economic matters

they are largely dependent one upon the other, and need one

another’s help.

If then the members of the social body be thus reformed, and

if the true directive principle of social and economic activity be

thus reestablished, it will be possible to say, in a sense, of this

body what the Apostle said of the Mystical Body of Christ: “The

whole body, being compacted and fitly joined together, by what

every joint supplieth, according to the operation in the measure of

every part, maketh increase of the body, unto the edifying of

itself in charity.”^®

Within recent times, as all are aware, a special syndical and

•‘'OEph. iv. 16.



30 FORTY YEARS AFTER

corporative organization has been inaugurated which, in view of

the subject of the present Encyclical, demands of Us some men-

tion and opportune comment.

The State here grants legal recognition to the syndicate or

union, and thereby confers on it some of the features of a monop-

oly, for in virtue of this recognition, it alone can represent respec-

tively workingmen and employers, and it alone can conclude labor

contracts and labor agreements. Affiliation to the syndicate is

optional for everyone; but in this sense only can the syndical

organization be said to be free, since the contribution to the union

and other special taxes are obligatory for all who belong to a

given branch, whether workingmen or employers, and the labor-

contracts drawn up by the legal syndicate are likewise obligatory.

It is true that it has been authoritatively declared that the legal

syndicate does not exclude the existence of unrecognized trade

associations.

The corporations are composed of representatives of the unions

of workingmen and employers of the same trade or profession, and

as true and genuine organs and institutions of the State, they direct

and coordinate the activities of the unions in all matters of com-

mon interest.

Strikes and lock-outs are forbidden. If the contending parties

cannot come to an agreement, public authority intervenes.

Little reflection is required to perceive the advantage of the

institution thus summarily described: peaceful collaboration of

the classes, repression of Socialist organizations and efforts, the

moderating influence of a special ministry.

But in order to overlook nothing in a matter of such impor-

tance, and in the light of the general principles stated above, as

well as of that which We are now about to formulate. We feel
bound to add that to Our knowledge there are some who fear that

the State is substituting itself in the place of private initiative,

instead of limiting itself to necessary and sufficient help and

assistance. It is feared that the new syndical and corporative

institution possesses an excessively bureaucratic and political char-

acter, and that, notwithstanding the general advantages referred

to above, it risks serving particular political aims rather than con-

tributing to the initiation of a better social order.

We believe that to attain this last named lofty purpose for the
true and permanent advantage of the commonwealth, there is need

before and above all else of the blessing of God, and, in the second

place, of the cooperation of all men of good will. We believe,
moreover, as a necessary consequence, that the end intended will



FORTY YEARS AFTER 31

be the more certainly attained, the greater the contribution fur-

nished by men of technical, commercial and social competence,

and, more still, by Catholic principles and their application. We
look for this contribution, not to Catholic Action (which has no in-

tention of displaying any strictly syndical or political activities),

but to Our sons, whom Catholic Action imbues with these prin-

ciples and trains for the Apostolate under the guidance and direc-

tion of the Church, of the Church, We say, which in the above
mentioned sphere, as in all others where moral questions are dis-

cussed and regulated, cannot forget or neglect its mandate as

custodian and teacher, given it by God.

However, all that We have taught about reconstructing and
perfecting the social order will be of no avail without a reform of

manners; of this, history affords the clearest evidence. At one

period there existed a social order which, though by no means

perfect in every respect, corresponded nevertheless in a certain

measure to right reason according to the needs and conditions of

the times. That this order has long since perished, is not due to

the fact that it was incapable of development and adaptation to

changing needs and circumstances, but rather to the wrong-doing

of men. Men were hardened in excessive self-love and refused to
extend that order, as was their duty, to the increasing numbers of

the people; or else, deceived by the attractions of false liberty

and other errors, they grew impatient of every restraint and

endeavored to throw off all authority.

It remains for Us then to turn Our attention to the actual con-

dition of the economic order and to its bitterest adversary and

accuser—We mean Socialism. On these We shall pronounce a
frank and just sentence; shall examine more closely the root of

the present grave evils
;
and shall indicate the first and most neces-

sary remedy, which lies in a reform of morals.

Changes Since Leo XIII

Since the time of Leo XIII important changes have taken

place both in economic conditions and in regard to Socialism. In

the first place, it is obvious to all that the entire economic scene

has greatly changed. You are aware. Venerable Brethren and

Beloved Children, that Our Predecessor, of happy memory, had

chiefly in mind that economic regime in which were provided by

different people the capital and labor jointly needed for produc-

tion. He described it in a happy phrase: “Capital cannot do
without Labor nor Labor without Capital.”®^

siEncycl. Rerum Novarum, Par. IS.



32 FORTY YEARS AFTER

Leo XIII ’s whole endeavor was to adjust this economic regime

to the standards of true order; whence it follows that the system

itself is not to be condemned. And surely it is not vicious of its

very nature; but it violates right order whenever capital so em-

ploys the working or wage-earning classes as to divert business

and economic activity entirely to its own arbitrary will and ad-

vantage without any regard to the human dignity of the workers,

the social character of economic life, social justice and the common

good.

It is true that even today these economic conditions do not

everywhere exist exclusively, for there is another economic system

which still embraces a very large and influential group of men.

There are for instance the agricultural classes, who form the larger

portion of the human family and who find in their occupation the

means of obtaining honestly and justly what is needful for their

maintenance. This system, too, has its difficulties and problems,

of which Our Predecessor spoke repeatedly in his Encyclical, and

to which We Ourselves have more than once referred in the present
Letter.

But it is the capitalist economic regime that, with the world-

wide diffusion of industry, has penetrated everywhere, particularly

since the publication of Leo XIII ’s Encyclical. It has invaded

and pervaded the economic and social sphere even of those who

live outside its ambit, influencing them, and, as it were, intimately

affecting them by its advantages, inconveniences and vices.

When We turn Our attention, therefore, to the changes which
this capitalistic economic order has undergone since the days of

Leo XIII, We have regard to the interests, not of those only who
live in countries where “Capital” and industry prevail, but of the

whole human race.

Domination Has Followed from Free Competition

In the first place, then, it is patent that in our days not alone

is wealth accumulated, but immense power and despotic economic

domination is concentrated in the hands of a few, and that those

few are frequently not the owners, but only the trustees and direc-

tors of invested funds, who administer them at their good pleasure.

This power becomes particularly irresistible when exercised by

those who, because they hold and control money, are able also

to govern credit and determine its allotment, for that reason sup-

plying so to speak, the life-blood to the entire economic body, and



FORTY YEARS AFTER 33

grasping, as it were, in their hands the very soul of- production,

so that no one dare breathe against their will.

This accumulation of power, the characteristic note of the

modern economic order, is a natural result of limitless free com-

petition which permits the survival of those only who are the

strongest, which often means those who fight most relentlessly,

who pay least heed to the dictates of conscience.

This concentration of power has led to a threefold struggle for

domination. First, there is the struggle for dictatorship in the

economic sphere itself; then, the fierce battle to acquire control

of the State, so that its resources and authority may be abused

in the economic struggles; finally, the clash between States them-

selves.

This latter arises from two causes: because the nations apply

their power and political influence, regardless of circumstances, to

promote the economic advantages of their citizens; and because,

vice versa, economic forces and economic domination are used to

decide political controversies between peoples.

Disastrous Consequences

You assuredly know. Venerable Brethren and Beloved Chil-

dren, and you lament the ultimate consequences of this Individual-

istic spirit in economic affairs. Free competition is dead; economic

dictatorship has taken its place.

Unbridled ambition for domination has succeeded the desire

for gain; the whole economic life has become hard, cruel and

relentless in a ghastly measure. Furthermore, the intermingling

and scandalous confusing of the duties and offices of civil authority

and of economics have produced crying evils and have gone so far

as to degrade the majesty of the State. The State which should

be the supreme arbiter, ruling in kingly fashion far above all party

contention, intent only upon justice and the common good, has

become instead a slave, bound over to the service of human passion

and greed. As regards the relations of peoples among themselves,

a double stream has issued forth from this one fountainhead: on

the one hand, economic Nationalism or even economic Imperial-

ism
;
on the other, a not less noxious and detestable International-

ism or international Imperialism in financial affairs, which holds

that where a man’s fortune is, there is his country.

The remedies for these great evils We have exposed in the
second part of the present Encyclical, where We explicitly dwelt
upon their doctrinal aspect. It will, therefore, be sufficient to



34 FORTY YEARS AFTER

recall them briefly here. Since the present economic regime is

based mainly upon Capital and Labor, it follows that the principles

of right reason and Christian social philosophy regarding Capital,

Labor and their mutual cooperation must be accepted in theory

and reduced to practice. In the first place, due consideration must

be had for the double character, individual and social, of Capital

and Labor, in order that the dangers of Individualism and of Col-

lectivism be avoided. The mutual relations between Capital and

Labor must be determined according to the laws of the strictest

justice, called commutative justice, supported however by Chris-

tian charity. Free competition and still more economic domina-

tion must be kept within just and definite limits, and must be

brought under the effective control of the public authority, in

matters appertaining to this latter’s competence. The public in-

stitutions of the nations must be such as to make the whole of

human society conform to the common good, i. e., to the standard

of social justice. If this is done, the economic system, that most

important branch of social life, will necessarily be restored to

sanity and right order.

Changes in Socialism

Since the days of Leo XIII, Socialism too, the great enemy

with which his battles were waged, has undergone profound

changes, no less than economics. At that time Socialism could

fairly be termed a single system, which defended certain definite

and mutually coherent doctrines. Nowadays it has in the main

become divided into two opposing, and often bitterly hostile camps,

neither of which, however, has abandoned the principle peculiar

to Socialism, namely, opposition to the Christian Faith.

The More Violent Section Commimism

One section of Socialism has undergone approximately the same

change through which, as We have described, the capitalistic eco-
nomic regime has passed; it has degenerated into Communism.

Communism teaches and pursues a two-fold aim: merciless class

warfare and complete abolition of private ownership; and this it

does, not in secret and by hidden methods, but openly, frankly, and

by every means, even the most violent. To obtain these ends. Com-

munists shrink from nothing and fear nothing; and when they

have attained power it is unbelievable, indeed it seems portentous,

how cruel and inhuman they show themselves to be. Evidence

for this is the ghastly destruction and ruin with which they have

laid waste immense tracts of Eastern Europe and Asia, while their



FORTY YEARS AFTER 35

antagonism and open hostility to Holy Church and to God Him-

self are, alas! but too well known and proved by their deeds. We
do not think it necessary to warn upright and faithful children

of the Church against the impious and nefarious character of

Communism. But We cannot contemplate without sorrow the
heedlessness of those who seem to make light of these imminent

dangers and with stolid indifference allow the propagation far and

wide of those doctrines which seek by violence and bloodshed the

destruction of all society. Even more severely must be condemned

the foolhardiness of those who neglect to remove or modify such

conditions as exasperate the minds of the people, and so prepare

the way for the overthrow and ruin of the social order.

More Moderate Section

The other section, which has retained the name of Socialism,

is much less radical in its views. Not only does it condemn re-

course to physical force; it even mitigates and moderates to some

extent class warfare and the abolition of private property, it does

not reject them entirely. It would seem as if Socialism were afraid

of its own principles and of the conclusion drawn therefrom by the

Communists, and in consequence were drifting towards the truth

which Christian tradition has always held in respect; for it cannot

be denied that its programs often strikingly approach the just

demands of Christian social reformers.

It recedes somewhat from class war and the extinction of

ownership.

Class war, provided it abstains from enmities and mutual

hatred, is changing gradually to an honest discussion of differences,

based upon the desire of social justice. If this is by no means the

blessed social peace which we all long for, it can be and must be

an approach towards the mutual cooperation of vocational groups.

The war declared against private ownership has also abated more

and more in such a way that nowadays it is not really the pos-

session of the means of production which is attacked but that type

of social rulership, which, in violation of all justice, has been

seized and usurped by the owners of wealth. This rulership in

fact belongs, not to the individual owners, but to the State.

If these changes continue, it may well come about that gradual-

ly the tenets of mitigated Socialism will no longer be different from

the program of those who seek to reform human society according

to Christian principles.

For it is rightly contended that certain forms of property must

be reserved to the State, since they carry with them an opportunity



36 FORTY YEARS AFTER

of domination too great to be left to private individuals without

injury to the community at large.

Just demands and desires of this kind contain nothing opposed

to Christian truth, nor are they in any sense peculiar to Socialism.

Those therefore who look for nothing else, have no reason for be-

coming Socialists.

The Possibility of a Middle Course

It must not be imagined however that all the Socialist sects or

factions which are not Communist, have in fact or in theory uni-

formly returned to this reasonable position. For the most part

they do not reject class warfare and the abolition of property, but

merely are more moderate in regard to them. Now, when false

principles are thus mitigated and in some sense waived, the ques-

tion arises, or is unwarrantably proposed in certain quarters,

whether the principles of Christian truth also could not be some-

what moderated and attenuated, so as to meet Socialism, as it

were, halfway upon common ground. Some are enticed by the

empty hope of gaining in this way the Socialists to our cause. But

such hopes are vain. Those who wish to be apostles amongst

the Socialists should preach the Christian truth whole and entire,

openly and sincerely, without any connivance with error. If they

wish in truth to be heralds of the Gospel, let their endeavor be to

convince Socialists that their demands, in so far as they are just,

are defended much more cogently by the principles of Christian

faith, and are promoted much more efficaciously by the power of

Christian charity.

But what if, in questions of class war and private ownership.

Socialism were to become so mitigated and amended, that nothing

reprehensible could any longer be found in it? Would it by that

very fact have laid aside its character of hostility to the Christian

religion? This is a question which holds many minds in suspense;

and many are the Catholics who, realizing clearly that Christian

principles can never be either sacrificed or minimized, seem to be

raising their eyes towards the Holy See, and earnestly beseeching

Us to decide whether or not this form of Socialism has retracted

so far its false doctrines that it can now be accepted without the

loss of any Christian principle, and be baptized into the Church.

In Our fatherly solicitude We desire to satisfy these petitions, and
We pronounce as follows: Whether Socialism be considered as a
doctrine, or as a historical fact, or as a movement, if it really

remain Socialism, it cannot be brought into harmony with the

dogmas of the Catholic Church, even after it has yielded to truth



FORTY YEARS AFTER 37

and justice in the points We have mentioned; the reason being

that it conceives human society in a way utterly alien to Christian

truth.

Socialism Conceives Society and Social Character of Men

Foreign to Christian Truth

For according to Christian doctrine, man, endowed with a social

nature, is placed here on earth in order that he may spend his life

in society, and under an authority ordained by God; that he may

develop and evolve to the full all his faculties to the praise and

glory of his Creator; and that, by fulfilling faithfully the duties

of his station, he may attain to temporal and eternal happiness.

Socialism, on the contrary, entirely ignorant of or unconcerned

about this sublime end both of individuals and of society, affirms

that living in community was instituted merely for the sake of the

advantages which it brings to mankind.

Goods are produced more efficiently by a suitable distributior.

of labor than by the scattered efforts of individuals. Hence the

Socialists argue that economic production, of which they see only

the material side, must necessarily be carried on collectively, and

that because of this necessity men must surrender and submit

themselves wholly to society with a view to the production of

wealth. Indeed, the possession of the greatest possible amount of

temporal goods is esteemed so highly, that man’s higher goods, not

excepting liberty, must, they claim, be subordinated and even sac-

rificed to the exigencies of efficient production. They affirm that

the loss of human dignity, which results from these socialized

methods of production, will be easily compensated for by the

abundance of goods produced in common and accruing to the indi-

vidual who can turn them at his will to the comforts and culture

of life. Society, therefore, as the Socialist conceives it, is, on the

one hand, impossible and unthinkable without the use of compul-

sion of the most excessive kind; on the other it fosters a false lib-

erty, since in such a scheme no place is found for true social au-

thority, which is not based on temporal and material advantages,

but descends from God alone, the Creator and Last End of all

things.®^

Catholic and Socialist Are Contradictory Terms

If, like all errors. Socialism contains a certain element of truth

(and this the Sovereign Pontiffs have never denied), it is neverthe-

less founded upon a doctrine of human society peculiarly its own,

32Encycl. Divinum Illud, June 29, 1881.



38 FORTY YEARS AFTER

which is opposed to true Christianity. “Religious Socialism,”

“Christian Socialism” are expressions implying a contradiction in

terms. No one can be at the same time a sincere Catholic and a
true Socialist.

Cultural Socialism

All that We have thus far laid down and established by Our
sovereign authority bears application also to a certain new Socialist

phenomenon, hitherto little known, but nowadays common to many

sections of Socialism. Its main aim is the formation of minds and

manners. Under the appearance of friendship, it attracts little

children in particular and attaches them to itself, though its activ-

ity extends to all the people, to make of them convinced Socialists,

upon whom to build society modelled on Socialistic principles.

In Our Encyclical Letter Divini Illius Magistri,^^ We have
expounded at length the true principles on which Christian educa-

tion rests and the end which it pursues; the contradiction between

these and the actions and aims of cultural Socialism is so clear and

evident as to require no comment. Nevertheless, the formidable

dangers which this form of Socialism brings in its train seem to

be ignored or under-estimated by those who are little concerned to

resist it with strength and zeal, as the gravity of the situation

demands.

It is a duty of Our pastoral office to warn these men of the

grave danger which threatens. Let all bear in mind that the

parent of this cultural Socialism was Liberalism, and that its off-

spring will be Bolshevism.

Catholic Deserters to Socialism

This being so, you can understand, Venerable Brethren and

Beloved Children, with what grief We perceive, in certain coun-
tries particularly, not a few of Our children, who, while still pre-

serving, as We are convinced, their true faith and good will, have
deserted the camp of the Church and passed over to the ranks of

Socialism. Some openly boast of its name and profess Socialistic

doctrines; others, either through indifference or even almost in

spite of themselves, join associations which, in theory or in fact,

are Socialist.

In Our paternal solicitude, therefore. We have meditated and
sought to understand what can have been the reason of their going

so far astray; and We seem to hear what many of them allege in

53Encycl. Divini Illius Magistri, December 31, 1929.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 39

excuse: The Church and those professing attachment to the Church

favor the rich and neglect workingmen and have no care for them:

they were obliged therefore in their own interest to join the

Socialist ranks.

What a lamentable fact, Venerable Brethren and Beloved

Children, that there have been, and that there are even now some

who, while professing the Catholic Faith, are well nigh unmindful

of that sublime law of justice and charity which binds us not only

to give each man his due, but to succor our brethren as Christ

Our Lord Himself; worse still, that there are those who out of

greed for gain do not shame to oppress the workingman. Indeed

there are some who even abuse religion itself, cloaking their own

unjust impositions under its name, that they may protect them-

selves against the clearly just demands of their employees.

We shall never desist from gravely censuring such conduct.
Such men are the cause that the Church, without deserving it,

may have the appearance and be accused of taking sides with the

wealthy, and of being little moved by the needs and sufferings of

the disinherited. That these appearances and these accusations

are undeserved and unjust, the whole history of the Church clearly

shows. The very Encyclical, the anniversary of which we are

celebrating, affords the clearest evidences that these calumnies and

contumelies have been most unfairly passed upon the Church and

upon her teaching.

The Invitation to Return

But We are far indeed from being exasperated by these injus-
tices or dejected by Our pastoral sorrow. We have no wish to
drive away or repel Our children who have been so unhappily

deceived, and who are wandering so far from the paths of truth

and salvation. On the contrary. We invite them with all possible
solicitude to return to the maternal bosom of the Church. God

grant that they listen to Our voice. God grant that whence they

set out, thither they may return, to their father’s house; that where

their true place is, there they may remain, amongst the ranks of

those who, zealously following the directions promulgated by Leo

XIII and solemnly repeated by Ourselves, unremittingly endeavor

to reform society according to the mind of the Church on a firm

basis of social justice and social charity. Let it be their firm per-

suasion that nowhere, even on earth, can they find an ampler

happiness than in company with Him, Who being rich became
poor for our sakes. That through His poverty We might become



40 FORTY YEARS AFTER

rich
;
Who was poor and in labors from His youth

;
Who invites

to Himself all who labor and are burdened that He may refresh
them bounteously in the love of His Heart Who, in fine, with-

out any respect for persons, will require more of him to whom more
has been given, and will render to every man according to his

works.

Cites Moral Renovation

However, if We examine matters diligently and thoroughly We
shall perceive clearly that this longed-for social reconstruction

must be preceded by a profound renewal of the Christian spirit,

from which multitudes engaged in industry in every country have

unhappily departed. Otherwise, all our endeavors will be futile,

and our social edifice will be built, not upon a rock, but upon

shifting sand.®®

We have passed in review. Venerable Brethren and Beloved
Children, the state of the modem economic world, and have found
it suffering from the greatest evils. We have investigated anew
Socialism and Communism, and have found them, even in their

mitigated forms, far removed from the precepts of the Gospel.

“And if society is to be healed now”—^we use the words of Our
Predecessor

—
“in no way can it be healed save by a return to

Christian life and Christian institutions,”®® for Christianity alone

can apply an efficacious remedy for the excessive solicitude for

transitory things, which is the origin of all vices. When men are

fascinated and completely absorbed in the things of the world,

it alone can draw away their attention and raise it to Heaven.

And who will deny that this remedy is not urgently needed by

society?

The Chief Disorder of the Modern World: The Ruin

of Souls

For most men are affected almost exclusively by temporal

upheavals, disasters and ruins. Yet if we view things with Chris-

tian eyes, as we should, what are they all in comparison with the

ruin of souls?

Nevertheless, it may be said with all truth that nowadays the

conditions of social and economic life are such that vast multitudes

of men can only with great difficulty pay attention to that one

thing necessary, namely their eternal salvation.

Constituted Pastor and Protector of these innumerable sheep

by the Prince of Pastors Who redeemed them by His blood. We

642 Cor. viii. 8. 55Cf. Ps. Ixxxvii. 16. 5GCf. Matt. xi. 28. 57Cf. Luke xii 43,

58Cf. Matt. vii. 24-27. 59Encyd. Rerutn Novarum, Par. 22.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 41

can scarcely restrain Our tears when We reflect upon the dangers

which threaten them. Our pastoral office, moreover, reminds Us

to search constantly, with paternal solicitude, for means of coming

to their assistance, appealing to the unwearying zeal of others

who are bound to this cause by justice and charity. For what

will it profit men that a more prudent distribution and use of

riches make it possible for them to gain even the whole world,

if thereby they suffer the loss of their own souls?®® What will it

profit to teach them sound principles in economics, if they permit

themselves to be so swept away by selfishness, by unbridled and

sordid greed, that “hearing the Commandments of the Lord, they

do all things contrary”?®^

The Cause of Loss of Souls

The fundamental cause of this defection from the Christian

law in social and economic matters, and of the apostasy of many

workingmen from the Catholic Faith which has resulted from it,

is the disorderly affection of the soul, a sad consequence of original

sin, the source of these and of all other evils. By original sin

the marvellous harmony of man’s faculties has been so deranged

that now he is easily led astray by low desires, and strongly

tempted to prefer the transient goods of this world to the lasting

goods of Heaven.

Hence comes that unquenchable thirst for riches and temporal

possessions, which at all times has impelled men to break the law

of God and trample on the rights of their neighbor; but the con-

dition of the economic world today lays more snares than ever for

human frailty. For the uncertainty of economic conditions and

of the whole economic regime demands the keenest and most un-

ceasing straining of energy on the part of those engaged therein;

and as a result, some have become so hardened against the stings

of conscience as to hold all means good which enable them to

increase their profits, and to safeguard against sudden changes of

fortune the wealth amassed by unremitting toil. Easy returns,

which an open market offers to any one, lead many to interest

themselves in trade and exchange, their one aim being to make

clear profits with the least labor. By their unchecked speculation

prices are raised and lowered out of mere greed for gain, making

void all the most prudent calculations of manufacturers.

The regulations legally enacted for corporations, with their

divided responsibility and limited liability, have given occasion to

abominable abuses. The greatly weakened accountability makes

6oCf. Matt. xvi. 26. 6iCf. Judges ii. 17.



42 FORTY YEARS AFTER

little impression, as is evident, upon the conscience. The worst

injustices and frauds take place beneath the obscurity of the com-

mon name of a corporative firm. Boards of directors proceed in

their unconscionable methods even to the violation of their trust

in regard to those whose savings they administer. In the last

place must still be mentioned the unscrupulous but well-calculated

speculation of men who, without seeking to answer real needs,

appeal to the lowest human passions. These are aroused in order

to turn their satisfaction into gain.

A stern insistence on the moral law, enforced with vigor by civil
authority, could have dispelled or perhaps averted these enormous

evils. This, however, was too often lamentably wanting. For

at the time when the new social order was beginning, the doctrines

of rationalism had already taken firm hold of large numbers, and

an economic science alien to the true moral law had soon arisen,

whence it followed that free rein was given to human avarice.

As a result, a much greater number than ever before, solely

concerned with adding to their wealth by any means whatsoever,

sought their own selfish interests above all things; they had no

scruple in committing the gravest injustices against others.

Those who first entered upon this broad way which leads to

destruction,®^ easily found many imitators of their iniquity because

of their manifest success, their extravagant display of wealth, their

derision of the scruples of more delicate consciences and the crush-

ing of more cautious competitors.

With the leaders of business abandoning the true path, it is

not surprising that in every country multitudes of workingmen

too sank in the same morass; all the more so, because very many

employers treated their workmen as mere tools, without any con-

cern for the welfare of their souls, indeed, without the slightest

thought of higher interests. The mind shudders if we consider the

frightful perils to which the morals of workers (of boys and young

men particularly), and the virtue of girls and women are exposed

in modern factories; if we recall how the present economic regime

and above all the disgraceful housing conditions prove obstacles

to the family tie and family life; if we remember the insuperable

difficulties placed in the way of a proper observance of the holy

days.

How universally has the true Christian spirit become impaired,

which formerly produced such lofty sentiments even in uncultured

and illiterate men! In its stead, man’s one solicitude is to obtain

his daily bread in any way he can. And so bodily labor, which

62Cf. Matt. vii. 13



FORTY YEARS AFTER 43

was decreed by Providence for the good of man’s body and soul

even after original sin, has ever5rwhere been changed into an

instrument of strange perversion: for dead matter leaves the fac-

tory ennobled and transformed, where men are corrupted and

degraded.

The Remedies

Economic life must be inspired by Christian principles. For

this pitiable ruin of souls, which, if it continue, will frustrate all

efforts to reform society,®^ there can be no other remedy than a

frank and sincere return to the teaching of the Gospel. Men must

observe anew the precepts of Him Who alone has the words of

eternal life, words which, even though Heaven and earth be

changed, shall not pass away.®*

All those versed in social matters demand a rationalization of

economic life which will introduce sound and true order. But this

order, which We Ourselves desire and make every effort to pro-
mote, will necessarily be quite faulty and imperfect, unless all

man’s activities harmoniously unite to imitate and, as far as is

humanly possible, attain the marvellous unity of the divine plan.

This is the perfect order which the Church preaches with intense

earnestness, and which right reason demands; which places God

as the first and supreme end of all created activity, and regards all

created goods as mere instruments under God, to be used only in

so far as they help towards the attainment of our supreme end.

Nor is it to be imagined that remunerative occupations are

thereby belittled or deemed less consonant with human dignity.

On the contrary, we are taught to recognize and reverence in them

the manifest will of God the Creator, Who placed man upon earth
to work it and use it in various ways in order to supply his needs.

Those who are engaged in production are not forbidden to increase

their fortunes in a lawful and just manner; indeed it is just that

he who renders service to society and develops its wealth should

himself have his proportionate share of the increased public riches,

provided always that he respects the laws of God and the rights

of his neighbor, and uses his property in accord with faith and

right reason. If these principles be observed by all, ever5rwhere

and at all times, not merely the production and acquisition of

goods, but also the use of wealth, now so often uncontrolled, will

within a short time be brought back again to the standards of

equity and just distribution.

Mere sordid selfishness, which is the disgrace and the great

63Cf. John vi. 69. 64Cf. Matt. xxiv. 35.



44 FORTY YEARS AFTER

crime of the present age, will be opposed in very deed by the

kindly and forcible law of Christian moderation, whereby man is

commanded to seek first the Kingdom of God and His Justice, con-

fiding in God’s liberality and definite promise that temporal goods

also, in so far as he has need of them, will be added unto him.®^

The Law of Charity Must Operate

Now, in effecting this reform, charity “which is the bond of

perfection,”®® must play a leading part. How completely deceived
are those inconsiderate reformers who, zealous only for commuta-

tive justice, proudly disdain the help of charity! Clearly charity

cannot take the place of justice unfairly withheld. But, even though

a state of things be pictured in which every man receives at last

all that is his due, a wide field will nevertheless remain open for

charity. For, justice alone, even though most faithfully observed,

can remove indeed the cause of social strife, but can never bring

about a union of hearts and minds. Yet this union, binding men

together, is the main principle of stability in all institutions, no

matter how perfect they may seem, which aim at establishing

social peace and promoting mutual aid. In its absence, as repeated

experience proves, the wisest regulations come to nothing. Then

only will it be possible to unite all in harmonious striving for the

common good, when all sections of society have the intimate con-

viction that they are members of a single family and children of

the same Heavenly Father, and further, that they are “one body

in Christ and everyone members one of another,”®^ so that “if one

member suffer anything, all members suffer with it.” Then the rich

and others in power will change their former negligence of their

poorer brethren into solicitous and effective regard;®® will listen

with kindly feeling to their just complaints, and will readily for-

give them the faults and mistakes they possibly make. Working-

men too will lay aside all feelings of hatred or envy, which the

instigators of social strife arouse so skillfully. Not only will they

cease to feel weary of the position assigned them by divine Provi-

dence in human society; they will become proud of it, well aware

that every man by doing his duty is working usefully and honor-

ably for the common good, and is following in the footsteps of

Him, Who, being in the form of God, chose to become a carpenter

among men, and to be known as the Son of a carpenter.

A DifSicult Task

Because of this new diffusion throughout the world of the Gos-

65Cf. Matt. vi. 33. eeColoss. iii. 14. 67Rom. xii. 5. esPhil. ii. 6.



FORTY YEARS AFTER 45

pel spirit, which is a spirit of Christian moderation and of uni-

versal charity, We confidently look forward to that complete and
much-desired renewal of human society, and to “the Peace of

Christ in the Kingdom of Christ,” to which We firmly resolved
at the very beginning of Our Pontificate to devote all Our care and

all Our pastoral solicitude.®® You, Venerable Brethren, who by

ordinance of the Holy Spirit rule with Us the Church of God,^®

are laboring strenuously and with admirable zeal in all parts of

the world, not exclusive of the sacred missions among the pagans,

towards this same end of capital importance and necessity today.

Receive your well-deserved meed of praise; and with you all those,

of the clergy and laity, whom We rejoice to see daily taking part
in this great work and affording valuable help: Our beloved sons

devoted to Catholic Action, who with extraordinary zeal aid Us

in the solution of social problems, in so far as the Church in virtue

of her divine institution has the right and the duty to concern

herself with them. With repeated insistence We exhort all these
in the Lord to spare no labor and be overcome by no difficulty, but

daily more to take courage and be valiant.'^^

The task We propose to them is truly difficult, for well do We
know that many are the obstacles to be overcome on either side,

whether amongst the higher classes of society or the lower. Still,

let them not lose heart, nor in any way allow themselves to be

diverted by any art from their purpose. To face stern com-

bats is the part of a Christian, and to endure labor is the lot

of those, who, as good soldiers of Christ,^^ follow closely in His

footsteps.

Relying therefore solely on the assistance of Him Who “will
have all men be saved, let us devote all our energies to helping

those unhappy souls who are turned away from God
;
let us with-

draw them from the temporal cares in which they are too much

involved, and teach them to aspire with confidence to things that

are eternal. At times, indeed, this will be easier to accomplish

than appears at first sight; for if in the depths of even the most

abandoned hearts, there lurk, like sparks beneath the ashes, spirit-

ual forces of unexpected strength—a clear testimony of a “natural-
ly Christian soul”—how much more then must these abide in the
hearts of the many who largely through ignorance and unfavor-

able surroundings have wandered into error!

For the rest, the associations of the workingmen themselves

provide glad signs of coming social reconstruction. To the great

69Encyd. Ubi Arcano, December 23, 1922. 70Cf. Acts xx. 28.

7lCf. Deut. xxxi. 7. 722 Tim. ii. 3. 731 Tim, ii. 4.



46 FORTY YEARS AFTER

joy of Our Heart We discern amongst them dense masses of young
workers who listen readily to the call of divine grace and strive

with splendid zeal to win their fellows to Christ. No less praise
is due to those leaders of workingmen’s organizations who, sacri-

ficing their own interests, and anxious only for the good of their

companions, strive with prudence to bring their just demands into

harmony with the prosperity of their entire vocational group, nor

by any obstacle or misgiving do they permit themselves to be

deterred from this noble task. Further, many young men, des-

tined soon by reason of their talents or their wealth to hold dis-

tinguished places in the foremost ranks of society, are studying

social problems with growing earnestness. These youths encour-

age the fairest hopes that they will devote themselves wholly to

social reforms.

The Course to be Followed

Present circumstances therefore. Venerable Brethren and Be-

loved Children, indicate clearly the course to be followed. Nowa-

days, as more than once in the history of the Church, we are con-

fronted with a world which in large measure has almost fallen

back into paganism. In order to bring back to Christ these whole

classes of men who have denied Him, we must gather and train

from amongst their very ranks auxiliary soldiers of the Church,

men who know their mentality and their aspirations, and who

with kindly fraternal charity will be able to win their hearts.

Undoubtedly the first and immediate apostles of the workingmen

must themselves be workingmen, while the apostles of the indus-

trial and commercial world should themselves be employers and

merchants. It is your chief duty. Venerable Brethren, and that

of your clergy, to seek diligently, to select prudently, and train

fittingly these lay apostles, amongst workingmen and amongst

employers.

No easy task is here imposed upon the clergy, wherefore all
candidates for the sacred priesthood must be adequately prepared

to meet it by intense study of social matters. It is particularly

necessary, however, that they whom you specially select and de-
vote to this work should show themselves endowed with a keen

sense of justice, ready to oppose with real manly constancy unjust

claims and unjust actions
;
that they avoid every extreme with con-

summate prudence and discretion; above all, that they be thor-

oughly imbued with the charity of Christ, which alone has power

to incline men’s hearts and wills firmly and gently to the laws of

equity and justice. This course, already productive of success in

the past, we must follow now with alacrity.
‘



FORTY YEARS AFTER 47

Further, We earnestly exhort in the Lord the beloved sons

who are chosen for this task, to devote themselves wholeheartedly

to the formation of the men entrusted to them. In the execution

of this most priestly and apostolic work, let them make oppor-

tune use of the powerful resources of Christian training, by in-

structing youth, by founding Christian associations, by forming

study circles on Christian lines.

Above all, let them hold in high esteem and employ with dili-

gence for the benefit of their disciples the spiritual exercises, a

most precious means of personal and of social reform, as We said
in Our Encyclical Mens Nostra. These exercises We declared in
express terms to be most useful for the laity in general and espe-

cially for workingmen, and We warmly recommended them; for
in that school of the spirit not only are excellent Christians

formed, but real apostles of every state of life are trained and

enkindled with the fire of the Heart of Christ. Erom that school

they will go forth, as the Apostles from the Cenacle in Jerusalem,

strong in faith, unconquerable in steadfastness under trials,

aflame with zeal, eager only for the spread in every way of the

Kingdom of Christ.

And in truth, the world has nowadays sore need of valiant

soldiers of Christ, who strain every thew and sinew to preserve

the human family from the dire havoc which would befall it were

the teachings of the Gospel to be flouted, and a social order per-

mitted to prevail, which spurns no less the laws of nature than

those of God. For herself the Church of Christ, built upon the

solid rock, has nothing to fear, for she knows that the Gates of

Hell shall not prevail against her
;

and the experience of centuries

has taught her that storms, even the most violent, pass, leaving

her stronger and triumphantly victorious. But her maternal

bosom cannot but be stirred at the thought of the countless ills

which tempests of the kind would occasion to so many thousands;

at the thought, above all, of the immense spiritual evils which

would ensue, entailing the eternal ruin of so many souls redeemed

by the Blood of Christ. No stone, then, must be left unturned to
avert these grave misfortunes from human society.

Towards this one aim must tend all our effort and endeavor,

supported by assiduous and fervent prayers to God. For, with the

assistance of Divine Grace, the destiny of the human family lies

in our hands.

74Matt xvi. 18.



48 FORTY YEARS AFTER

Intimate Union and Harmony Between All Good Men

Let us not permit, Venerable Brethren and Beloved Children,

the children of this world to seem wiser in their generation than

We, who by God’s goodness are children of LightJ^ We see these
men cunningly select and train resolute disciples, who spread their

false doctrines daily more widely amongst men of every station

and of every clime.

And when it becomes a question of attacking more vehemently

the Church of Christ, we see them lay aside their internal quarrels,

link up harmoniously into a single battle-line, and strive with

united forces towards this common aim.

No one indeed is unaware of the many and splendid works in
the social and economic field, as well as in education and religion,

laboriously set in motion with indefatigable zeal by Catholics.

But this admirable and self-sacrificing activity not unfrequently

loses some of its effectiveness by being directed into too many

different channels. Let, then, all men of good will stand united.

Let all those who, under the pastors of the Church, wish to fight

this good and peaceful fight of Christ, as far as talents, powers and

station allow, strive to play their part in the Christian renewal of

human society, which Leo XIII inaugurated in his immortal En-

cyclical Rerum Novarum. Let them seek, not themselves and the

things that are their own, but the things that are Jesus Christ’s.'^®

Let them not urge their own ideas with undue persistence, but be

ready to abandon them, however admirable, should the greater

common good seem to require it: that in all and above all Christ

may reign and rule, to Whom be honor and glory and power for-
ever and ever.'^’^

That this happy result may be attained. Venerable Brethren

and Beloved Children, We impart to you all members of the great
Catholic family entrusted to Our care, but with special affection of

Our heart to artisans and other workingmen engaged in manual

labor, by Divine Providence committed to Us in a particular man-

ner, and to Christian employers and masters, with paternal affec-

tion, the Apostolic Benediction.

Given at Rome, at Saint Peter’s, the fifteenth day of May, in

the year 1931, the tenth of Our pontificate.

PIUS PP. XI.

75Luke xvi. 8. 76Phil. ii. 21. 77Apoc. V. 13.