Research purpose: The objective of this study was to investigate whether work-family enrichment helps to predict psychological health, specifically increased subjective well-being and decreased feelings of emotional exhaustion and depression.

Motivation for the study: The burgeoning literature on the work-family interface contains little on the potentially positive benefits of maintaining work and family roles.

Research approach, design and method: The authors used a descriptive research design. Employees in two national organisations in the financial retail and logistics industries completed a self-administered survey questionnaire. The authors analysed responses from those who reported both family and work responsibilities (N = 160).

Main findings: Consistent with previous research, factor analysis revealed two distinct directions of work-family enrichment: from work to family (W2FE) and from family to work (F2WE). Multiple regression analysis showed that F2WE explained a significant proportion of the variance in subjective wellbeing, whilst W2FE explained a significant proportion of the variance in depression and emotional exhaustion.

Practical/managerial implications: The findings of this study revealed the individual and organisational benefits of fostering work-family enrichment.

Contributions/value add: This study presents empirical evidence for the need to focus on the positive aspects of the work-family interface, provides further support for a positive organisational psychology perspective in organisations and hopefully will encourage further research on interventions in organisations and families.

Role shifts and intense work pressures in a global economy have increased employee stress. These occurrences have resulted in increased depression and burnout (Mostert, Peeters & Rost, 2011). They may be particularly acute in South Africa, with its diversity of family structures and highly unequal pattern of wealth distribution (Chibba & Luiz, 2011). With work and family as important life domains for most employees, the challenge is for South African employees to integrate these role responsibilities without compromising their health or sense of wellbeing.

Researchers have used the terms positive spillover, facilitation, enhancement and enrichment interchangeably to explain the positive side of the work-family interface. Although using these terms may have led to some confusion, researchers have argued that they are distinct (Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne & Grzywacz, 2006).

Enhancement (Sieber, 1974) refers to gains in resources and experiences that benefit the employee in several life roles. The term positive spillover (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000), on the other hand, refers to the transfer of positive experiences from one life role to the other. Enrichment refers to the process in which an improvement in the quality of experiences in a role arises because of positive experiences in another (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Enrichment builds on positive spillover and enhancement, although the literature indicates that the construct is considerably more complex. For enrichment to occur, it is critical for employees to transfer resource gains from one role to the other and for improved performance to occur in the receiving domain (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). The primary distinction between enrichment and facilitation (Wayne, Grzywacz, Carlson & Kacmar, 2007) is the unit of functional analysis. Where enrichment focuses on improved performance on the individual level, facilitation focuses on improved performance on a systems level (Carlson et al., 2006).

This study uses the construct of work-family enrichment to reflect the positive work-family interface because it provides the most inclusive conceptualisation of this phenomenon at the individual level of analysis (McNall et al., 2010).

Researchers have consistently found that work-family enrichment positively influences employee health in areas like improved physical health (see Carlson et al., 2011), improved personal wellbeing (see Kinnunen, Feldt, Geurts, & Pulkkinen, 2006), improved mental health (see Gareis, Barnett, Ertel & Berkman, 2009) and improved sleep quality (see Williams, Franche, Ibrahim, Mustard & Layton, 2006). Researchers have also found that work-family enrichment reduces negative health outcomes like burnout (see Van Steenbergen, Ellemers & Mooijaart, 2007), depression (see Nitzsche, Jung, Pfaff & Driller, 2013) and anxiety (see Grzywacz & Bass, 2003).

This study examines the influence of WFE on three important areas of psychological health: subjective wellbeing, depression and emotional exhaustion. Van der Colff and Rothmann (2009) emphasised that employee mental health issues deserve urgent attention from South African organisations.

This was a prescient call, given that the South African Depression and Anxiety Group (n.d.) now claims that mental health issues exceed physical injuries as the leading causes of workplace absenteeism in South Africa. The World Health Organisation strengthened this assertion. It stated that, by the year 2020, depression will be the second foremost cause of workplace disability globally (following chronic heart disease) and that, by 2030, it will be the largest contributor to disease problems (World Health Organization, 2009). The prevalence of emotional exhaustion (as an occupational disorder) amongst employees is also increasing, possibly because of the high demands associated with a globally competitive economic environment (Rothmann & Cilliers, 2007).

Consistent with a positive approach to psychological health, this paper also considers subjective wellbeing – how people feel and think about their lives. Subjective wellbeing may have important implications for organisational psychology research given the growing awareness of the salience of maintaining a happy, positive workforce (Harter, Schmidt & Keyes, 2003).

Meta analytical evidence reveals that the two directions of WFE are distinct but can occur simultaneously. Although predictors of W2FE originate primarily in the work domain and predictors of F2WE originate mainly in the family domain, cross-domain effects have also been established (McNall et al., 2010). For example, family support was a significant predictor of W2FE (Bhargava & Baral, 2009; Karatepe & Bekteshi, 2008). However, these results are not consistent. Aryee, Srinivas & Tan (2005) found that family support had a positive relationship with F2WE and not with W2FE.

Carlson et al. (2006) found three dimensions of W2FE (development, affect and capital) and three dimensions of F2WE (development, affect and efficiency). Recent empirical research has yielded mixed evidence about the factorial validity of these dimensions and the trend in current research is to consider only the two directions of work-family enrichment, W2FE and F2WE (cf. Rantanen, Kinnunen, Saija & Tement, 2013).

According to the conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989), people seek to acquire and preserve resources. These resources may include conditions (like marital status), personal characteristics (like self-efficacy) and energies (like time) (Lu, 2011). The drain of resources that accompany several role demands are less likely to affect people with greater resources. In addition, they are better able to cope with stress-related variables that negatively influence their wellbeing (McNall et al., 2010; Odle-Dusseau, Britt & Greene-Shortridge, 2012). When one uses COR theory to understand the relationship between WFE and psychological health, it emphasises the dynamism of resources deployment. This is because one role provides resources that assist the person to manage the responsibilities of the other role and improve the quality of the receiving role.

To date, the research findings on the relationship between work-family enrichment and wellbeing are mixed. Stephens, Franks and Atienza (1997) reported a positive relationship between both directions of WFE and wellbeing in a sample of 105 American caregivers. In support of these findings, in a later and much larger study of Finnish employees (N = 5097), Mauno, Kinnunen and Rantanen (2011) found that both directions of WFE had positive relationships with wellbeing. However, Kinnunen et al. (2006) used path analysis on data from a sample of 202 Finnish employees and found that wellbeing had a relationship with W2FE but not with F2WE. On the other hand, Allis and O’Driscoll (2008) found positive relationships between non-work and work enrichment and three forms of wellbeing (family, personal and work).

Other studies that linked WFE and depression have reported mixed results. Van Steenbergen et al. (2007) found a negative relationship between WFE and depression in a sample of 377 Dutch financial services employees. Whilst Grzywacz and Bass (2003) reported that F2WE predicted depression, they found no such relationship betweenW2FE and depression.

Therefore, the authors examined the predictive relationship between both directions of WFE on depression.

Time 2, but only in women.

Based on this background, this study proposes the hypotheses that follow:

• Hypothesis 1: WFE has two distinct directions, W2FE and F2WE.
• Hypothesis 2a: W2FE predicts personal wellbeing.
• Hypothesis 2b: F2WE predicts personal wellbeing.
• Hypothesis 3a: W2FE predicts depression.
• Hypothesis 3b: F2WE predicts depression.
• Hypothesis 4a: W2FE predicts emotional exhaustion.
• Hypothesis 4b: F2WE predicts emotional exhaustion.

The rest of this article describes the method the authors employed to conduct the study. A presentation of the analyses the authors used to test the hypotheses follows. The article concludes with a discussion of the main results and some limitations of the study. It offers implications for managers.

The sample comprised women primarily (82%). Of them, 64% were married or cohabiting and in full-time employment (95%). Of the 68% of the sample that responded to the question about parental status, 48% reported having at least one child and 52% reported having no children. Thirty-three per cent of the sample had at least one dependent (other than their own children) living with them. Forty-nine per cent of the sample did not have any dependents living with them and 16% of the sample had more than two dependents living with them. On average, the participants worked 40 hours a week (SD = 8.161), whilst the average number of hours of childcare and household duties per week was 17.66 (SD = 17.55). Over a third (37%) of the sample reported having paid domestic support. Tenure ranged from one day to 20 years with an average of 4.4 years (SD = 4.452). Twenty-eight per cent of the sample held managerial jobs.

The authors chose this measure because it incorporates the bidirectional nature of enrichment (Carlson et al., 2006). A sample item in the work-to-family direction is ‘My involvement in my work helps me to gain knowledge and this helps me be a better family member’. In the family-to-work direction, a sample item is ‘My involvement in my family puts me in a good mood and this helps me be a better employee’.

Subjective wellbeing: To measure subjective wellbeing, the authors used seven items of the eight-item Personal Wellbeing Index (International Wellbeing Group, 2006). The measure was designed as the first level deconstruction of satisfaction with life as a whole (Tiliouine, Cummins & Davern, 2006). Each item measures one’s level of satisfaction with a distinct life domain on a 10-point scale.

The authors removed one item (the item related to one’s satisfaction with security) because of the ambiguity of the domain it measured. Although indices are not amenable to reliability analysis, researchers often calculate them to show the internal consistency between the items. Tiliouine et al. (2006) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.85 for the scale. An example of an item is ‘How satisfied are you with your personal health?’

Emotional exhaustion: The authors measured the emotional exhaustion component of burnout using the five-item subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS) scale (Shimmin, 2008). Maslach developed this scale from the original Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Whilst Maslach designed the original MBI specifically for human service occupations, the MBI-GS is a measure that assesses burnout amongst employees in all occupations. A sample item is ‘I feel drained when I finish work’.

The authors measured items on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never; 5 = always). High scores indicated emotional exhaustion. The Cronbach alpha value that Nitzsche et al. (2013) reported was 0.88.

Depression: The authors used the depression subscale, of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), to measure depression. This subscale was appropriate for use in this study because the major DASS scales were developed with non-clinical samples. The depression subscale consisted of 14 items. The authors measured the items on a five-point Likert scale (1 = not at all; 5 = all of the time). Participants had to state the frequency with which they experienced each item over the previous week. An example of an item is ‘I feel that life is meaningless’. Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) reported the internal consistency for this scale as 0.91.

Control variables: The authors controlled for several potentially confounding factors when they investigated the relationship between work-family enrichment and psychological health. Personal variables included gender, age, number of children and marital status, whilst the work variables included average hours worked per week, tenure and job level.

A covering letter explained the anonymous nature of the questionnaire and gave instructions for completion. It emphasised voluntary participation and that participants could withdraw at any point in the study. The researchers administered the paper-based questionnaires directly to the participants at the two organisations and collected the data over a three-week period. The participants returned the completed questionnaires in sealed envelopes.

Further details about these results are available from the authors.

Table 1 gives the correlation matrix, which shows values significant at p ≤ 0.001. The authors used Cohen’s (1988) guidelines to assess whether the correlations between variables were weak (r = ± 0.10 to ± 0.29), moderate (r = ± 0.30 to ± 0.49) or strong (r = ± 0.50 to ± 01.0).

Subjective wellbeing had a weak positive relationship with W2FE (r = 0.260; p < 0.001) and had a moderately significant relationship with F2WE (r = 0.370; p < 0.001). Emotional exhaustion had a strong negative relationship with W2FE (r = -0.419; p < 0.001) but did not correlate significantly with F2WE (r = -0.087; p = 0.283). Depression had a strong negative relationship with W2FE (r = -0.500; p < 0.001) and a weak negative relationship with F2WE (r = -0.254; p < 0.001).

Table 2 summarises the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis for emotional exhaustion. The authors entered the personal control variables of age, gender, marital status and number of children at step 1. The personal variables explained 7% of the variance in emotional exhaustion (p = 0.04). The authors then entered the work control variables at step 2. The work variables explained an additional 6% of the variance in emotional exhaustion (ΔR² = 0.062; p = 0.03). After the authors entered W2FE and F2WE at step 3, the total variance the model explained as a whole was 28%, F(9, 131) = 5.538; p < 0.0001. The work-family enrichment variables explained an additional 14% of the variance in emotional exhaustion after controlling for the personal and work variables the authors entered in step 1 and step 2 (ΔR² = 0.143; p < 0.0001). In the final model, only W2FE was statistically significant (β = -0.415; p < 0.0001).

In this study, participants reported higher levels of F2WE than W2FE. A possible reason for this is that workers may derive more transferable resource gains from their family role than from their work role. This finding is consistent with past research (Carlson et al., 2006) and highlights how important it is that organisations promote family-friendly workplace cultures.

Depression: As the authors mentioned earlier, there is scant empirical research on the relationship between WFE and depression. To their knowledge, this is the only study that has investigated this relationship in South Africa. Consistent with a few past international studies (cf. Hammer et al., 2005, Nitzsche et al., 2013; Van Steenbergen et al., 2007), the authors found that W2FE was a significant predictor of depression. This result confirms Hypothesis 3a that, when resources generated in employees’ work roles improve their functioning in their family role, they are likely to experience reduced depressive symptoms. W2FE may even serve as a protective factor against depression (Nitzsche et al., 2013). Interestingly, being married was also a significant predictor of depression. One could attribute this to spousal support as an important resource for reducing depressive symptoms (Wallace, 2005). Contrary to the authors’ expectation, they found no support for Hypothesis 3b (that F2WE predicts depression).

Emotional exhaustion: The results of this study confirmed Hypothesis 4a (that W2FE significantly predicts emotional exhaustion). This finding could infer that workplace resources, like social support and decision latitude, allow employees to feel more relaxed and less tired when they leave work to go home to their families, reducing their likelihood of emotional exhaustion. Employees who talk to co-workers and supervisors about their problems, or feel empowered by their ability to exercise autonomy in their roles, may feel less stressed. This feeling enhances their family role and serves as a preventative measure against emotional exhaustion. On the other hand, the authors found no support for Hypothesis 4b (that F2WE was a predictor of emotional exhaustion). Emotional exhaustion is an important aspect of burnout, which originates from the effects of the work role (Montgomery et al., 2006). It seems that, for the participants in this study, the family did not provide resources that they could apply at work to relieve emotional exhaustion.

Van Steenbergen et al. (2007), who examined WFC and WFE in relation to depression and emotional exhaustion, found that WFE explained additional variance in depression and emotional exhaustion over and above that of WFC. Their findings, together with this study’s findings, suggest that managers and employee assistance programmes should aim to find ways to foster WFE instead of only identifying strategies to reduce WFC (Hammer et al., 2005). Work-family enrichment plays a preventative role in the onset of negative outcomes. Therefore, increasing positive resources in workplaces that facilitate WFE may benefit employees more than applying remedial interventions to deal with WFC, especially in reducing absenteeism and improving workplace productivity.

Managers, who wish to promote WFE, could introduce resource-rich job components (like increased autonomy and task variety) and train managers to support employees, who try to manage their work and family responsibilities, more.

Rooted in social support theory, research on family-supportive supervisor behaviours (FSSB) has shown a strong positive relationship between supportive supervisory behaviour and WFE (Hammer, Kossek, Yragui, Bodner & Hanson, 2009). Furthermore, Haar and Roche (2008) argued that formal family-friendly policies in the workplace are insufficient and often not effectively implemented in the absence of family-friendly support from supervisors. In these circumstances, employees fear that family-friendly policies without their supervisors’ support may jeopardise their performance evaluations and career prospects. Supervisors can provide support in the form of emotional support, role-modelling supportive work-family behaviours, direct instrumental support and general creative management (cf. Hammer et al., 2009). When supervisors provide family-friendly support, initiatives like flexible working arrangements (part-time work, flexible parental leave or job sharing) have increased the experiences of work-family enrichment (McNall et al., 2010).

These policies and practices are appropriate for both male and female employees. Organisations should be careful not to reinforce a gendered structuring of work-family life, which places women at the centre of such efforts (Stevens, Kiger & Riley, 2006). Clark (2001) found that employees, who have control over their working conditions and have better perceptions of autonomy, experienced greater levels of job satisfaction and well-being.

Future research could also include objective measures of employee health (like blood pressure) and sick leave days (Gareis et al., 2009). Other variables to consider include alcohol and drug abuse, job stress and quality of sleep (McNall et al., 2010).

Furthermore, and consistent with positive organisational scholarship, it would be interesting to examine the influence of positive dispositional variables (like optimism, happiness and sense of meaning in life) on the relationships between WFE and psychological health (Moskowitz, 2010).

This study also provides new evidence that work and family roles influence one another positively. Family-to-work enrichment resulted in employees feeling increased levels of subjective wellbeing and work-to-family enrichment led to employees experiencing lower levels of depression and emotional exhaustion.

We need further research on the positive aspects of the work-family interface to balance the plethora of research on work-family conflict and to realise the possibility of improving the quality of family life and workplace productivity.

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