Ronald J. Burke
York University
Alaug Mikkelsen
Stavanger University College
Abstract
This study compared work experiences, work satisfactions and psychological well-being of police officers in constable jobs across five career stages using age cutoffs. These stages were: 32 years of age or younger, 33 to 37, 38-42, 43-47 and 48 years or older. Data were collected from 466 police officers in Norway using anonymously completed questionnaires. The five career stage groups differed on personal demographic and work situation characteristics (e.g., shift schedule, police tenure) related to age. Constables in early career stages reported more favourable work outcomes, greater social support, less exhaustion and cynicism, fewer subjective health complaints and better over-all health. There were also many areas where the career stage groups were similar (e.g., job demands, job satisfaction). The findings suggest the importance of particularly responding to the needs of constables in later career stages.
Introduction
Hall (1986a) has written that a major deficiency in the literature on organizational careers centers on the career maintenance or midcareer stage. What happens to an individual who has successfully explored options and made an initial occupational choice, entered an organization, been tested and has not settled down and become established in a career field? Hall (1986a) and Bardwick (1986) identified the following themes in the midcareer experience; perceived constriction of career opportunity, a slower growing (or even declining) organization, ambiguity and uncertainty about one’s future career role, midcareer change experienced as disjunctive and individualized, greater awareness of changes in the work role, the person or an awareness of lack of change, among others.
Although the specific ages used to define the various career stages vary, researchers have used age to establish career stages. Brooks and Seers (1991) considered five career stages (18-21, 22-27, 28-32, 33-40, 41 and older) whereas Reilly and Orsak (1991) considered four career stages (30 or under, 31-38, 35-44, 45 and older). The age ranges used in the present study fit the typical cutoffs observed by Morrow and McElroy (1987).
There is also increasing evidence that individuals pass through a series of psychosocial stages as they develop. Fagan and Ayers (1982), in a interview study of 23 police officers having a mean age of 33.9, found they passed through a series of psychosocial stages. They observed that officers tended to split into two groups – an active (usually promoted) group and a resigned group – in their early 30s.
There is also research support for the notion that not only do different factors increase or decrease in importance across various career stages, but the importance of various factors in predicting particular work outcomes also varies across career stages (Gould & Hawkins, 1978; Isabella, 1988; Jans, 1989; Hurrell, McLaney & Murphy, 1990; Cohen, 1991; Brooks & Sears 1991; Lynn, Cao & Horn, 1996).
Bedeian, Pizzolatto, Long and Griffeth (1991) review the writing on career stages. Career stage models build on three central assumptions: individuals progress through distinct career stages, each having unique and distinct developmental tasks; each stage is characterized by different work attitudes and behaviours; and individuals in the same career stage tend to behave and respond in similar ways.
Three operationalizations of career stages have been used: age ranges organizational tenure and job tenure. Unfortunately there is still little consensus on the actual ages/years that one should use to create the stages. It is also critical to select dependent variables that would be relevant to career stage theory (Slocum & Cron, 1985). It is also not clear the extent to which findings obtained in one occupation will generalize to the same career stages in another occupation.
Cooper (1982) described ways in which police officers’ beliefs and feelings differ over the course of a career. How did police officers go from being newcomers to veterans? Some officers held positive views about policing throughout their careers; many did not, becoming jaded and cynical. The reality for most falls somewhere in between these two extremes; the situation of never-promoted constables can be particularly problematic however.
He gathered questionnaire and qualitative interview data from sixty police officers working in a large Canadian regional police force. The sample was deliberately diverse. Officers were assigned to six career stages: less than 1 year, 1-2 years, 3-7 years, 9 or more years as a constable, sergeants and staff sergeants in patrol and traffic, and sergeants and staff sergeants in CID.
The first stage (first year) involved “breaking in”; reality shock at this time took many forms. Officers at this stage learned from more experienced constables. Early views on promotion criteria were developed but these were coloured by uncertainty. The second stage involved “settling in”. As officers got more experience, their views on promotion criteria changed, giving more weight to political factors. Conflicts about their role also increased. The third stage, “making out”, showed greater interest in promotion by constables. Considerable effort was made to decipher the promotion decision-making process; visibility became a more important factor.
The costs or toll of police work also increased at this stage.
Officers who were promoted and those who were passed over now began to view their careers differently. Those continually passed over became resigned; while still performing their duties, non-career areas rose in importance. And as they got older (45 to 50), it was more difficult to actually do the job. Some became bitter, blaming the system for failing to see their merits. Those who were promoted (sergeant level) faced other challenges as they now helped to develop more junior constables. Over time, constables became hardened, less willing to trust others (particularly the public) and more willing to give and receive support from other officers. Family problems increased over time. Job demands and stresses also increased, some demands stimulating and others debilitating.
McGinnis (1985a) reported the findings of a career development study conducted in a medium-sized Canadian police force. For most people, the notion of a career embodies upward mobility and advancement. The organization is the context, having both constraints and opportunities, in which careers unfold. Police forces may also have some unique career development issues. First, they have a steeply graded hierarchy with about 75% of officers in constable rank. Promotions are now slower with a 15 year constable more common. Second, forces have little turnover; job security is high, transferability of skills is low and transfer across forces is low. Third, new recruits are better educated than previously and they have higher expectations of promotions more rapidly.
McGinnis collected questionnaire data from 253 officers as well as conducting interviews with 140 officers. He assigned respondents to one of ten career stages: from (1) constables, 1-5 years, to (10) Senior Officers. Constables were placed into four groups: 1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, and 16 or more years. Several sergeant groups were also considered. These were based on police tenure (length of service), rank, and type of assignment. Lower ranked constables were more highly educated. Higher ranked officers were generally more satisfied with work, supervisors, pay, promotion and co-workers. Those in lower stages were also less motivated. Constables having 10-15 years experience indicated the lowest career satisfaction. Constables were dissatisfied with career planning opportunities, performance appraisal and promotion policies.
McGinnis (1985b), in the same study of Canadian police officers, reported that about half his respondents aspired to senior officer rank leading him to conclude that there will be great frustration and disappointment since few will achieve this goal. No one wanted to spend a career as a patrol constable – the backbone of a police force. Patrol work has low status. Policies and practices of personnel assignment and promotions downgrade the status of patrol and patrol constables. Uniformed patrol constables are the largest group in a police force.
He reported additional findings from interviews conducted with members of his larger questionnaire sample. Some major career issues were identified: favouritism, unable to plan a career or get desired assignments, lots of competition for others. Lower ranks (tenure and career stage) used less of their abilities; this was particularly low in the year 1-5 and 11-15 year groups, the latter being the lowest of the constables. Police personnel were oriented towards promotion. The probability of obtaining another career move was lowest in constables with 11-15 years experience. This group was also low in numbers expecting promotion. Promotions were becoming less common and more career constables will result, so the job satisfaction of these officers became more important. The extent to which accomplishments were appreciated was lowest in 10-15 year constables among the three constable groups. McGinnis then divided his sample into: Patrol constables, 1-5 years, Patrol constables 6-10 years and 11-15 years, Patrol constables 16 years and longer, and constables in administration. Constables with 11-15 years tenure were least satisfied; constables in administration were also dissatisfied.
The present research compares a variety of work experiences, satisfactions and health outcomes among a large sample of Norwegian police officers of constable rank across five age-based career stages. It replicates these earlier studies in another country using more current data.
Method
Respondents
Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the police sample (N = 451). Most respondents were married (78%), had children (70%), worked in urban areas (73%), worked in large departments (100 or more, 39%) worked between 36-39 hours per week (89%), worked 5 or less hours of overtime per week (74%), held fairly short police tenure (10 years or less, 48%) and were born in 1970 or before (65%).
Table 1 - Demographic Characteristics of Sample
Procedure
Data were collected from 766 police officers in 2003 using anonymously completed questionnaires, resulting in a a sixty two percent response rate. Questionnaires were mailed by the Police union and returned to an independent research institute. Some measures were translated from English to Norwegian for this study while other measures had already been translated into Norwegian (e.g., Maslach Burnout Inventory). Only police officers at constable rank were identified and included in this analysis of career stage differences.
Measures
Career Stages
Men and women serving in police constable jobs were divided into five career stages using age cut-offs that formed adequately sized groups. These groups are shown in Table 2. The youngest group was the largest (n = 154, 35%), with each increasingly older career stage group becoming progressively smaller.
Table 2 - Career Stages of Constables
Personal demographic and work situation characteristics
A number of personal demographic and work situation characteristics (e.g., age, marital status, organization size, police tenure) were measured by single items typical of those used by others.
Work demands
A number of work demands were measured by scales from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOC) developed by Kristensen and Borg (2001).
Quantitative demands was measured by a seven item scale (α = .83). Respondents indicated their agreement with each item on a five point scale (5 = Always, 3 = Sometimes, 1 = Never/hardly ever). A sample item was “Do you have to work very fast?”
Cognitive demands was assessed by an eight item scale (α = .82). One item was “Does your work require you to make difficult decisions?”
Emotional demands was measured by a three item scale (α = 80). An item was “Does your work put you in emotionally disturbing situations?”
Demands for Hiding Emotions was assessed by two items (α = .59). One item was “Does your work require that you hide your feelings?”
Sensorial demands was measured by a five item scale (α = .58). An item was “Does your work require a great deal of concentration?”
Responsibility was assessed by a three item scale (α = .58). One item was “Could it injure other people if you make mistakes in your work?”
Role clarity was measured by a four item scale (α = .76) anchored by (5) to a large extent, (3) somewhat, and (1) to a very small extent. One item was “Do you know exactly which areas are your responsibility?”
Role conflict was assessed by a four item scale (α – .71). An item was “Are contradictory demands placed on you at workk?
Leadership quality was measured by an eight item scale (α = .94). A sample item was “To what extent would you say that your immediate superiors appreciate the staff and show consideration for the individual?”
Access to information was measured by two items (α = .79). One item was: Do you receive all the information you need to do your work well?”
Feedback was measured by two items (α = ), part of COPSOQ. An item was “How often do you talk with your supervisor”.
Work and Family
Work family conflict was measured by a five item scale (α = .83) developed by Torgen, Stenlund, Ahlberg and Marklund (2001). An item was “My work has a negative impact on my family”.
Spouse/Partner Concerns was also measured by a five item scale (α = .78) developed by Torgen, et al (2001). An item was “My spouse/partner worries that my job is affecting my health”.
Work Outcomes
Five work outcomes were included, all from the COPSOQ (Kristensen & Borg, 2001).
Job satisfaction was measured by seven items (α = .75). Respondents indicated how satisfied they were with each item on a four-point scale: (4) Very satisfied, (1) Highly unsatisfied. One item was “How satisfied are you with your usual take home pay?
Organizational commitment was measured by four items (α = .58). An item was “Do you enjoy telling others about your place of work?” Responses were made on a five-point scale (5, to a large extent, 1 = to a very small extent)
Development was assessed by seven items (α = .76). An item was “Do you have the possibility of learning new things through your work?”
Freedom was measured by four items (α = .77). One item was “Can you decide when to take a break at work?”.
Meaning was measured by five items (α = .79). One item was “Do you feel that the work you do is important?”
Influence was measured by ten items (α = .80). an item was “Do you have a large degree of influence concerning your work?”
Social Resources
Three coping and social resources were considered.
Social support was measured by a four item scale (α = .79) from the COPSOQ (Kristensen & Borg, 2001). An item was “How often do you get help and support from your colleagues?” Responses were made on a five-point scale (5 = to a large extent, 1 = to a very small extent).
Social relations was assessed by a two item scale (α = .58) developed by Kristensen and Borg (2001). An item was “Is it possible for you to talk to your colleagues while you are working?” Responses were made on a five point extent scale.
Sense of community was measured by three items (α = .84). An item was “Do you feel part of a community at work?”
Psychological Well-Being
Burnout
Three components of burnout were measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS) developed by Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach and Jackson (1996).
Exhaustion was measured by five items (α = .86). One item was “I feel emotionally drained from my work?”
Cynicism was also measured by five items (α = .78). “I have become less enthusiastic about my work”.
Professional Efficacy was measured by six items (α = .80). “At my work, I feel confident that I am effective at getting things done”. Respondents indicated how frequently they experienced each item on seven point frequency scale (0 = never, 6 = always).
Psychological Health
Five measures of psychological health were included.
Subjective Health Complaints was measured by a 29 item scale (α = .89) developed by Eriksson, Ihlebaek & Ursin (1999). Respondents indicated how frequently they experienced each complaint or symptom (e.g., headache, lower back pain dizziness) during the past month.
Medication use was measured by a five item scale (α = .39). Respondents indicated how frequently they had taken each medication (e.g., sleeping pills, pain killers) during the past year.
Post Traumatic Stress Symptoms (PTSS) was measured by a ten item scale (α = .92) developed by Knudsen, Weisaeth, Lerdal, Wahl, Rustoen and Hanestad (2002). Respondents indicated how often they experienced each symptom (e.g., depression, irritability) on a seven point scale (1=never, 7=very often).
Anxiety was measured by seven items (α = .83) developed by Zigmond and Snaith (1983). One item was “Worrying thoughts go through my mind”. Responses were made on a four-point frequency scale (1 = Only occasionally, 4 = A great deal of the time).
Depression was assessed by six items (α = .82) also developed by Zigmond and Snaith (1983). An item was “I feel cheerful” (reverse scored). Responses were made on the same four point frequency scale used for Anxiety. Bjelland, Dahl, Haug and Neckelmann (2002) present more recent evidence of the validity of both the Anxiety and Depression scales.
Suicidal Ideation
Suicidal ideation was assessed by a four item measure (α = .84) developed by Paykel, Myers, Lindenthal and Tanner (1974) and used later by others (see Tyssen, Vaglum, Gronvold & Ekeberg, 2001) The items were: (1) Have you ever felt that life was not worth living? (2) Have you ever wished you were dead?” (3) “Have you ever thought of taking your own life even if you would not really do it?” (4) “Have you ever reached the point where you seriously considered taking your life, or perhaps made plans how you would go about doing it?” A fifth item then asked, “Have you tried to take your own life in the past year?” (yes/no). This question was not used in the analysis since so few police officers had attempted suicide (n = 1 male).
Physical Health
Respondents described their levels of physical health absenteeism and life style behaviours on eight single item measures.
“Generally how is your health?”
“Have you taken any sick leave during the past six months?”
“If yes, how many sick days have you taken?”
“How would you rate the level of your physical fitness?”
Lifestyle Behaviours
“Do you take part in regular physical exercise (over 30 minutes per day)?”
“Do you smoke?”
“How many alcoholic drinks have you had in the past 14 days?”
“How often do you drink alcoholic beverages?”
Results
Demographic Characteristics
Table 3 shows the comparisons of the five career stage groups on a number of demographic characteristics using one-way ANOVA; when the overall F-value was statistically significant (p<.05), all pair wise comparisons were undertaken. Some of the significant differences shown in Table 3 were expected as they were related to age.
The following comments are offered in summary. There were no career stage differences on marital status, urban vs. rural location, size of force, hours worked per week and overtime hours worked. Almost all of the other groups’ differences were expected. There were more women in the first than last career stage reflecting the recent entrance of women into police work. Respondents in later career stages had more children reflecting their greater age. Respondents in early career stages were more highly educated reflecting the greater emphasis now being placed on formal education. Respondents in later career stages were older, and had longer police tenure reflecting their greater ages. Finally, respondents in later career stages were less likely to work continuous shifts reflecting their greater seniority.
Table 3 - Demographic Characteristics over Career Stages*
Job Demands
The five career stage groups were generally similar on a number of measures of Job Demands. However, police officers in early career stages indicated greater Sensorial demands, greater Responsibility, and received more Feedback than one or more of the later career stage groups.
Table 4 - Job Demands over Career Stages*
Work Outcomes
The five career stage groups were similar on Influence, Freedom, Organizational commitment and Job satisfaction. Police officers in early career indicated greater Development opportunities and greater Meaning (see Table 5).
Table 5 - Work Outcomes over Career Stages*
Work and Family
Police officers in early stages indicated more work-family conflict than did officers in later career stages; the career stage groups did not differ on levels of spouse concerns (see Table 5).
Social Resources
Officers in early career stages indicated higher levels of both Social support and Social relations than did officers in later career stages (see Table 6). The five groups indicated similar levels of Sense of community.
Table 6 - Social Resources over Career Stages*
Psychological Well-being
There were substantial career stage differences on measures of psychological well-being (see Table 7). Police officers in early career stages indicated lower levels of emotional exhaustion, less cynicism, fewer health complaints, less medication use, and lower levels of depression than did officers in alter career stage groups. The career stage groups were similar on professional efficacy, anxiety, suicidal ideation (low in general) and posttraumatic stress symptoms.
Table 7 - Psychological Well-being over Career Stages*
Physical Health and Lifestyle Behaviours
Police officers in early career rated their overall health higher and had taken fewer sick days than officers had in later career stages (see Table 8). The two groups were similar on whether they had taken sick days, level of self-reported physical fitness and whether they exercised regularly. Officers in early career were less likely to be smokers and to drink alcohol less frequently. Amount of alcohol consumption was similar across the career stage groups.
Table 8 - Physical Health and Lifestyle Behavior over Career Stages*
Discussion
This research compared the work experiences, satisfactions and psychological well-being of police constables in five career stages. The stages, based on constable age, were similar to those used by others (Morrow & McElroy, 1987). Previous research (Cooper, 1982; McGinnis, 1985a, 1985b) has indicated that constables in later career stages (e.g., older and with longer police tenure) are less satisfied with their work and careers. These issues were examined in a different country (Norway) and more recently (2003) making it possible to replicate the earlier research.
The career stage groups (Table 3) were found to differ on personal demographic and work situation characteristics related with age (e.g., number of children, police tenure) but were similar in other ways (size of force, hours worked, extra hours worked).
While the career stage groups were generally similar on job demands (see Table 4), the four significant career stage effects showed constables in early career reporting higher reported higher levels of Sensorial, Responsibility and Feedback – all likely associated with more positive reactions. And while the five career stage groups were generally similar or work outcomes (see Table 5), the differences that emerged on Development and Meaning favored those constables in early career. Likewise, constables in early career indicated more support (see Table 6), a finding also reported by Cooper (1982).
These factors were also associated with more positive attitudinal responses (see Table 7) such as lower levels of exhaustion and cynicism among early career stage constables and perhaps account for the lower levels of depression and subjective health complaints and PTSS among early career stage constables as well. Finally, early career stage officers were less likely to be smokers and described their overall physical health more positively than did later career stage constables reflecting their younger years.
Taken together these findings suggest that constables in later career stages experience a less satisfying work experience, as others have also found (Burke, 1989; Cannizzo & Liu, 1995). There are suggestions of initiatives that organizations might undertake to support this valued human resource (Hall, 1986b; Hall & Mirvis, 1985).
McGinnis (1985b) sees dealing with the plateaued constable with many years of service as the biggest concern for Canadian police forces. Cooper (1982) suggests three areas of intervention to help officers more successfully navigate these career stages.
1. Recruitment and training. Providing applicants a more realistic picture of the job through talking with police officers, reading more realistic accounts of police work or viewing videos of police officers talking about their jobs or working would be helpful. Also, using more realistic training exercises and cases in recruit training is advised.
2. Feedback and supervision. More contact with managers and more feedback of work performance, realizing that this requires extra effort since supervisors do not have readily available opportunities to observe constable job performance.
3. Promotion and assignment information. Forces can use peer information in decision-making and provide passed over constables with information as to what they need to do to improve their changes of future promotions.
Senior police managers need to deal with expectations of promotion among police officers. Officers are socialized to seek and expect promotions. No police officer expects to be a career constable but some will. It is important to share the numbers in a realistic way with force members.
Police officers need to consider various practices for coping with the plateaued constable: Police forces and police senior managers need to understand the mentality of the plateaued constable. It is important to keep constables growing, challenged, and feeling valued and respected by the force, to keep them from becoming dissatisfied, alienated, cynical and deadwood. Common practices to address this problem include:
Negative sanctions for low performance.
Performance appraisal – Provide feedback to control expectations
Retraining – for the force or outside of it
Symbolic rewards – recognizing contributions
External therapy – for alcohol problems
Also, some non-traditional practices are possible. These would include:
Lateral transfers within the force – this deals with content plateauing.
Moving to a flatter organizational structure – the use of team policing. These approaches have been found to increase decision-making scope.
Teaching people about the career plateau. Include material on career development in police training careers.
Career counselling provide career support and guidance to police officers at all career stages.
Footnotes
1 Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by the Rogaland Institute, Norway and the School of Business, York University. We acknowledge the support of the Police Union in conducting the study and collecting the data. Lisa Fiksenbaum assisted with data analysis.
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