THE JUDGEMENT OF Vrines.  
By Robert Record Doctor of Physic.  
Whereunto is added an ingenious Treatise concerning Physicians, Apothecaries, and Surgeons, Set forth by an Eminent Physician in Queen Elizabeth's days.  
With a Translation of Papius Ahalsossa concerning Apothecaries Confecting their Medicines; Worthy perusing, and imitating.  
LONDON, Printed, and are to be sold by Peter Parker at the Leg and Star in Cornhill, against the Royal Exchange, 1679.   

To the Reader.  
IF either the corruption, or abuse of things, might deprive us of this lawful and necessary use of them, even the sacred Scriptures, our laws, our provisions of life and clothing, might fall under declension, if not abolition: It is true from the inspection of Urine, some have presumed to pretend a larger judgement, and indication, then may justly be drawn or conjectured out of it; yet it is generally concluded by Physicians, both ancient and modern, that both Urine and Pulse are so necessary, that without them all knowledge of Physic, besides, is doubtful, obscure, and uncertain: whereof the first showeth the estate of the liver and veins, the second of the heart and arteries: The Urine because with the blood it is conve●ed into all parts of the body, and from thence returneth back again in the veins, to the liver and urinal vessels, bringeth with it some indicature of the state and disposition of all those parts from whence it cometh: and who shall please to peruse that exact piece of Daniel Becherus, shall find observable pieces, both concerning the urine, and divers experimented medicines made with it. Concerning the judgement of the Pulse, who shall please to peruse Doctor May upon Pennant, shall find the Pulses motion not so certain an indicature, because in some diseases there is cessation, or none, or small appearance to conjecture by. Concerning the Author, he was one of the first who laboured to reduce the tractate thereof, unto order and method, and hath been seconded by laborious Fletcher, to whom our English Nation oweth much for their labours: The antiquity and pains of the Author hath caused it to be presented again to the Press, hoping, with judicious men, it shall receive the acceptance is desired and studied  
By the wellwisher of your health, R. R.   

The PREFACE.  

The good use of a covetous example.  THough the unsatiable greediness of covetous men do many and sundry ways hurt, yet some ways it may do no less good, if men will not disdain (as they ought not) to use it in such sort as I shall show you.  
But because that unsaciableness is never satisfied, but beside thousand of means invented already to quench the unquenchable greediness, it seeketh and findeth daily new and new means innumerable, so that it were an infinite labour to declare them all. I will wittingly, and purposedly pass them over, only taking one general sentence, which shall be in stead of all the rest.  
Vespasian, one of the great schoolmasters of avarice, which could pick out profit of every thing (yea, even of men's urine) taught his Scholars (I mean the whole court of covetous persons) this lesson ensuing: 
Lucri bonus odor 〈◊〉 qualibet.  
Lucre is sweet, and hath a good savour;  
Though it come of Urine, dirt or Ordure.   
This sentence, if it be withdrawn from the filthy lucre of unsatiable covetousness, wherein it is detestable, and employed rather to the due lucre of man's sustenance, than it becomes tolerable: But if it be referred to the necessary lucre of man's health, then is it greatly commendable. If there can be then any commodity for man's health gathered out of urine, (as there may be much) men should not be negligent in seeking of that thing which should do good both to themselves and others? seeing the covetous are so diligent in seeking for that thing which shall profit neither themselves nor others?  
And the negligence is so much the greater, if men be more remiss in seeking after so necessary a thing in a matter so commendable, than the covetous in a bad thing.  
But in as much as this thing (by reason it is not plainly set forth) is with no less difficulty to be studied on, than it is necessary to be used, the ignorant may have some excuse: I therefore in the name of many other, have taken this pains on me, to set forth this thing so plainly, 
Ignorance set aside.  that ignorance can have no excuse.  
But that no man should doubt of the truth of this Treatise, or of mine intent, 
Why this Book is written.  in putting forth the same rather in this our English tongue then any other: I shall briefly show reasons of both; First, for the truth of it, 
The first reason.  I will boldly speak, knowing for certain that no man that can judge it, will say or think otherwise, but that it is as true as man's knowledge can devise it. And it is the opinion of the most excellent writers of Physic both Greeks and Latin; namely, Hypocrates, Galen, Aetius, Aegin●ta, Philotheus, Theophilus, Actuarius: also Cornelius Celsus Plinius, Constantinus, Africanus, and Clementius Clementinus, with others more, conferring also with these Avicenna, Egidius, Polidamus, and such like: But with what temperance and moderation they that are learned may perceive. These have I followed chief in this judgement of Urines.  
And in the use of medicine and diseases touching urine, I have joined with them Dioscorides, Quintus Serenus, Columela, Sextus Platonicus, and divers others. Now if there be any man that doubteth of the truth of those writers in this thing, I am not here to force belief upon them.  

The inter of the Author.  But now as touching mine intent in writing this Treatise in English; though this cause might seem sufficient to satisfy many men, that I am an English man, and therefore may most easily and plainly write in my native tongue, rather than in any other: yet unto them that know the hardness of the matter, this answer should seem unlikely: considering that it is harder to translate into such a tongue, wherein the Art hath not been written before, then to write in those tongues in which the terms of the Art are better expressed.  
Now to show briefly the causes moving me thereunto. I am sure, there are but few that ever sought counsel for their health, but they know that the common trade to attain to the knowledge of the disease, is by the judgement of the urine, though not alone, yet as the principal.  
Likewise, as there is not any thing so good, but the abuse of it may cause harm to ensue thereupon. So this judgement of urines, though it be a thing highly to be regarded, yet if it be used rashly without foregoing signs it may cause (as it doth often) some error in the judgement of the Physician, though he were right excellently learned: not so much by the ignorance of the Physician, as by want of knowledge in the patiented, which should instruct the Physician, in such questions as he needed to demand of him: and not to look that the Physician should tell him all things at the first sight, more like a God then man.  
So that if there be any Physician so arrogant, that he will take upon him to tell all things alone, and will not hear the Patient speak, specially not knowing the party before, neither seeing other signs but only the urine, as I dare boldly pronounce, That such a man is unworthy to be called a Physician. So it shall be good for all men, not to trust to the judgement of such a one: for by such mis-use in this thing not only much harm befalls the patients, so that it hath been the occasion of many men's death, but also very much reproach hath ensued to the whole estate and order of Physicians, and hath caused that excellent and most necessary art to be contemned, derided, and little set by.  
To avoid the more this inconvenience, I have written this little Treatise to all men in common, 
The use o● this Book.  that they may learn to have some knowledge in their own urines, and thereby may be the better able to instruct the Physician, at the least, what sort of urine they have made from time to time from the beginning of their sickness, and somewhat before.  
And also what sort of water they were wont to make in their health? so that if men will be diligent to mark their water in time of health, they shall not only be able to instruct the Physician (as I have said) but should be also able to perceive the cause of the disease sometimes before the grief come, and so by the counsel of some discreet Physician avoid the sickness before it be fully entered: yea, and by due marking of their urine, they shall perceive from time to time, how they shall govern themselves in meats and drinks, in exercise and rest, and the like things, so that thereby they may eschew both the diseases, and also the causes of the same.  
Now what a commodity this may be to all men, and what thanks he hath deserved that hath taught this so great a commodity to all men in general, I leave it to every man's own judgement.  
And thus (as you may perceive) I have declared the causes of this my pains, taking them to be for the profit of the whole Commons indifferently. Howbeit, if any mean learned Physician shall be thereby furthered in his judgement, I will not envy him, but will be the gladder, the more number of men I perceive to take benefit by it.  
I am sure that the true judgement of urines, according to the mind of Hypocrates, 
The difficulty of Judgemen in Urine.  Galen, and such like, is very hard, though not to excellent Clerks, yet to the meaner sort; partly by reason that it is written so dispersedly in their works, and not in any one Book peculiarly and sufficiently: and partly because that sundry words used in the same (as in the rest of Physic) are obscure to them that have not been exercised in all kinds of learning, and that with the knowledge of both the Greek and Latin tongues. Therefore I trust, that this my pains shall be some help also, to them that lack the exercise of such study and knowledge.  
But because there is a common saying in the mouths of many men now a days, that it is a profaning of learning, and a means to bring it into contempt, so to set it forth in the vulgar tongue, that every man indifferently may read it, and study it: 
The answer unto it.  To this I will briefly answer, that this saying is not only against many great learned men's acts and examples, but also against manifest reasons: besides, that it encludeth a pernicious kind of counsel. For if every thing should be put away, or left undone, that evil men may pervert and use to an evil purpose, so should we have no good thing remain: meats and drinks must be taken away, because many abuse of it. And because evil men do abuse of both eyes, and tongues, shall all men therefore pluck out their eyes and their tongues? Because many men do abuse laws and authority, shall men expel laws and high powers? Many evil men and heretics have misinterpreted God's word, yet ought Gods word nevertheless to be taught vulgarly to all men. Though the Pope, Cardinals, and Monks, have practised to poison men, even with the very Sacrament of the supper of the Lord, yet no man will be so mad, therefore to eschew the use of that blessed Sacrament: And yet all this followeth, if men allow that common saying, above written. Better means it were to set forth publicly all that might do good to the public wealth, and straight to punish the abuses of them, then to punish good men and good things, because that evil men offend. It is a like error to that sort of doctrine, which contemned wine as an evil thing, because that many were made drunken with it. But to leave this, and to come more particularly to the matter.  
What is learning unlearned, or knowledge unknown, any thing else but a vain name? Learning then increaseth most, when it is studied of most: And learning then triumpheth most, when it hath most favourers and followers. And then doth ignorance (learning's enemy) rejoice most, when learning reigneth in fewest, and blindness ruleth most: so that than is learning most profaned, contemned, and hated, when it hath most enemies: that is to say, when most men are ignorant. For that old saying shall always be true: Learning hath no enemy, but the ignorant.  

Plutarch his sentence.  Ask that great Clerk Plutarch what his mind is in this: Whether the judgement of health be a meet thing for every man to study: and thou shalt hear him answer: that shame it is for men to observe the crying of Crows, and such like things in beasts and birds, whereby men judge of the change of weathers, and to be negligent in marking motions within themselves, and alterations preparing unto sickness. Yea he requireth so exact knowledge in every man appertaining unto health, that he noteth it for a great shame, and calleth it unsensibleness in a man if he be so ignorant, that he shall need to ask of the Physicians, what meats are best for him. And to ask what meats shall best digest in him, is as absurd a question (saith he) as to ask what meats are sweet, sour, or bitter, and such like. Yea beyond all this, he requireth in every man the knowledge of his own pulse, which is a thing harder than the judgement of urines.  

Examples of Writers in the Vulgar tongue.  Now if you require Examples, the whole world is full of them. They that wrote i● Greek, wrote in their own vulgar tongue 〈◊〉 and so did they that wrote in Latin, write● in their own common speech.  
Besides that, have we not infinite examples of Learned men in Germany, France, and Spain, which wrote of Physic in their own tongue? Yea, Is not our own England full of Examples? How many Books of Practices? how many Herbals? and other like Books of Physic, hath there been put forth many years past? And yet unto this day do not learned wits sleep. How much is all England bound to that Worthy and Learned Knight Sir Thomas Eliot, 
Sir Thomas eliot's Castle of Health.  which took the pains to build a Castle of Health for all English men (besides many other learned Books that he hath pu● forth in the Vulgar tongue) whereby a man may learn both to govern himself so, that though he escape not all sicknesses quiter yet he shall eschew the great dangers of them? England may rejoice of such a Knight: yea, England hath too few that followeth such example. But if England had as many well willing doers as she hath cruel and spiteful disdainers, than were England the Flower of all Realms in the world.  
Now will I leave this and draw nearer to my purpose, and will desire all men that shall read this Book, patiently to bear with my boldness, and thankfully to receive my good mind. And if there shall be found in this Book, or in any other that I shall put forth, a small error or oversight (for greater errors, I dare say there shall be none) I shall desire all them that shall find any, to advertise me thereof by word or writing, and I shall be ready not only to render condign thanks, but also to amend duly that shall be thought amiss, or else to yield a reason for the proof of the same,  

An exhortation to the Reader.  And now to make an end: I will desire every man soberly and discreetly to use this my Book, not using it to the taunting or checking of other men: nor to trust in ●heir own knowledge further than they ought.  
And likewise I shall exhort all men, not to mock and jest with any Physician (as some light wits do) tempting them with Beasts stolen, in stead of men's urine: others bringing to them men's water for women's, and such other like things. For in this doing they deceive not the Physician, but themselves. For a man's water to be like a woman's, it need seem no strange thing. Howbeit, again there is a notable difference, insomuch that that water which in a man declareth health, if it were a woman's, might declare some disease; and likewise that which in a woman signifieth health, if it were a man's water, it might betoken sickness. And if a man's water and woman's be like, and betoken both diseases, those diseases may be divers and not one.  
Yea two men's waters being both alike, shall not declare always one grief, except they agree also in age, diet, exercise, and other like things  
Also, that a Beasts Water may be like a Man's (the Man's sickness being thereafter) Hypocrates witnesseth, and experience teacheth, as I shall declare hereafter.  
Therefore if you seek the Patient's health, look that you receive the urine diligently: and as soon as you can, present it to the Physician, and be diligent to instruct him in all things that you can, and that he shall not have need to ask. And so no doubt, you shall receive great commodity of that Art, to the health of man, and the glory of God, which hath given such knowledge unto man.   

THE URINAL OF PHYSIC.  

CHAP. I. Of the Division and Order of this Book.  
BEcause that nothing done confusedly can be well understood of the Readers, for every thing the better order it hath, the better it may be understood, and is much more easily remembered, when the order of it is well and certainly known: 
The sum of this Book.  I have therefore digested this Book orderly, as I shall here set forth, to the intent that you may read, as it were in gross the whole Book, and thereby keep it the better in remembrance.  
First, therefore I will declare the nature of urine, what it is, and how it is engendered within man, and how it passeth forth from man.  
Secondly, of the order of receiving it in a convenient vessel. And of the time and place meet to consider it.  
Thirdly, how many things are to be considered in urine: and how many ways they may be altered in a healthful man.  
Fourthly, what significations and tokens may be gathered of urine, concerning any alteration in man, past, present, or to come,  
Fiftly, to what use in medicine urine may serve: and of other good uses of it to man's commodity.  
And last of all, I will declare certain diseases touching urine, which either let it, or cause it to void unwillingly: with the Medicines and remedies meet for the same.   

CHAP. II. How Urine is engendered in Man and how it passeth forth.  
AS unto them that are learned and know by the Art of Anatomy the situation of the parts of man, and the natural office of every part, it is easy enough to perceive the original generation and cause of urine, without any example: so unto them that neither know the situation, nor offices, no, neither yet the names of the parts of man's body, it is scarce possible to make them to perceive the generation of urine, without some sensible example● But because it is very hard to find an artificial example, which can alone duly express this work of nature, I will use therefore an example of a natural work, which shall express in many points this thing, though not in all; for such can there none be, but the thing itself.  
And in as much as this example is not easy to be understood of all men, though the most part do now a days partly know it by experience of finding springs of waters, I will first propose an artificial example, to make both the other to be the better perceived.  

An example of Stilling.  It is daily seen in distilling of Waters, that the temperate heat of the fire doth separate the purest part of the juice from the herbs, and also from the grosser juice. This by natural lightness is drawn into the head of the stillatory, where by the coldness of the helmet, it is made somewhat grosser, and so through natural heat descendeth and passeth forth by the Pipe of the stillatory.  

The Original.  And as the Art of man useth to make this water, so doth nature use to make the water of springs, whereof come all rivers, streams and floods, except the sea. For seeing the earth is not perfectly sound and thick of substance, 
'Cause of springs.  as stones and some woods appeareth to be, but it is hollow and full of holes, as you see that cork is: so that the air which by his subtleness pierceth into never so little a hole, entereth and filleth this hollowness, nature so leading to it, because no place should be empty: In which place by the coldness of the earth, the air is turned into water, as you may see in walls and pillars of stone, namely, of marble, how the coldness of the stone turneth the air into water, and hangeth full of drops, which sometimes trickle down apace, as if they did sweat. So when the earth hath turned the air thus into water, then doth it drop down and gathereth together, and so runneth out as it can find or prepare way▪ As long therefore as there is hollowness in that place, with such sort of coldness, and none other let, the Spring of water shal● never cease. But if the way by any mean be stopped, than the water turmoileth and laboureth, either to expel that let, or to make a new way.  

The causes of diversity in taste of Water.  Now this water being thus engendered of the air which hath no taste, is also naturally without all taste: but the taste that it hath is the taste of the veins of earth or mettle, by which it doth run. And that is the cause that some waters are sweet, and some sour; some fresh, and some salt, and otherwise diversely tasted; some also are hot, and some cold, and with other like qualities endued, according to the ground whereby it passeth. But of this I will not now speak, because I have appointed for it a peculiar Treatise, if God grant me time: Only this I say now, that a man that is expert, can by the colour, taste, and other qualities of the water which he seethe, tell what veins of earth or metals is in that place whence that water cometh, though he see it not.  
And this water is expelled out of his first place, as unprofitable there to remain; and yet when it is come forth thence, it is good for divers and sundry uses.  

The generation of urine.  Thus may we think of the generation and use of urine or man's water.  

Three Concoctions.  It shall not need that I here reckon exactly the places, causes, and the order of the three concoctions which go before the generation of urine, but it shall suffice to te● briefly, that of the meat and drink together concocted in the stomach is made rud● blood: (if I may so call it) which rude bloo● is wrought again, and made more perfect● in the liver: and thirdly yet more purified in the hollow vein, where the urine i● separate from it, as whey from milk, but ye● may not exactly be called urine, till it com● into the reins or kidneys, which draw it ou● of the hollow vein, by a certain natural power resting in them. And then doth the reins or kidneys alter it perfectly into urine us the coldness of the ground turneth air into water. But you must take this comparison o● similitude to be spoken of the alteration itself, and not of the cause.  
Now when Urine is thus made like to that fashion of water (as I said) then as the water passeth forth from his first place, by issues outward, so doth the urine descend from the reins by certain veins (as it were) called Water pipes, and runneth into the bladder, from whence at due times it is expelled forth, if the way be not let. So that you may compare the reins to the head of a conduit, the water pipes, to the conduit pipes, the bladder to the conduit, and the shaft to the rock of the conduit.  
And further as the water doth declare by ●aste and colour the qualities of the earth, or ●eins of mettle, whereby it runneth, and ●rom whence it cometh, so the urine by ●olour, and other ways, declareth of what ●ort the places that it cometh thorough, and humours that it cometh from are affected.  
And yet not only serveth for this, but also ●s the water, though it depart from the earth as superfluous in that place, yet in other places and to other purposes it is greatly profitable. So the urine, though it be expelled as a superfluous excrement, yet beside the commodity of judgement, which it giveth of the parts that it cometh from, it doth also serve for divers uses in medicine, and other good commodities: Of both which, I will anon orderly write, after I have declared certain things appertaining to the due judgement of it.  

Of the Instrument and parts by which Urine is engendered and passeth, mark this Figure following.  
 excretory system  

A. Is the liver.  
B. The hollow vein  
C. Veins by which the reins do draw the urine, and therefore be called sucking veins.  
D. The reins.  
E. The water Pipes.  
F. Is the Bladder.  
G. The spout of the yard.   
All the other parts beside, appertain to Generation and seed.    

CHAP. III. What Urine is, and what tokens it giveth in general.  
YOu have heard now how urine is engendered, from whence it cometh, and ●y what places it passeth, which things all, ●o the intent that you may the better keep ●n mind, you shall note this short definition.  

The definition of urine.  Urine is the superfluity or wheyie substance ●f the blood into a hollow vein, conveyed by ●he reins and water pipes, into the bladder. ●o that hereby you may plainly perceive, ●hat if the blood be pure and clean, and none 〈◊〉 grief in the reins, Water-pipes, Bladder, nor Shaft, then shall the urine so declare ●t, being also perfect and pure in substance ●nd colour, and all other tokens according ●o the same. But if there be any grief in ●ny of those parts, or the blood corrupt by ●ny means, then shall the urine declare certain tokens of the same, as I shall anon particularly express.  
But first it shall be necessary to instruct ●ou of the vessel place, and time, meet to ●udge urine, and of the manner of receiving   

CHAP. FOUR Of the form of the Urinal, and of the p● and time meet to judge urine, and how it should be received.  
THat urine should be kept to see, wh● is first made after midnight common or namely when the patiented hath slept lo● but you must take heed whether the pati● be man or woman, 
The order to receive urine.  that they make not th● urine in another vessel first (as many use do) and then pour it into the urinal wh● it is settled, for that causeth much de● and error in the judgement of it. And that the Patient cannot well make it in 〈◊〉 urinal, either by weakness, or any ot● cause, then let them make it in another unsel; but see that it be clean and dry; and soon as the water is made, pour it forth p●sently into the Urinal altogether, and lea●● no part of it out, as some curious folk● use to put the clear part only into the urin● and cast away the dregs, as though it sto● not with their modesty to bring such fo● gear to the Physician, others of such like fo●lish mind. Pour it therefore in wholly, an● let not the urinal stand open, namely industry place, but stop it close with a glove 〈◊〉 other leather, and not with cloth, paper, nor ●ay, and let it be brought to the Physician within six hours at the furthest, for after that ●ime it cannot well be judged.  

The Urinal.  Now as touching the Urinal, it should be of pure clear glass, not thick, nor green in colour, without blots or spots in it, not ●at in the bottom, nor too wide in the neck, out widest in the middle, and narrow still toward both the ends, like the fashion commonly of an egg, or of a very bladder being measurably blown (for the Urinal should represent the bladder of a man) and so shall every thing be seen in his due place and coour. If neither the grossness of the Urinal neither the colour, nor spots shall let the true sight of the colour and substance of the urine, and the contents of it: neither the deform fashion of the urinal shall alter the regions or rooms of the urine.  

The place  Likewise concerning the place meet to behold urines, you must look that it be neither too dark, so that your fight should not discern perfectly, either the colour, substance or contents, for lack of light: neither yet that your sight be likewise deceived, if the place be too light, as in open light or beams of the sun.  

The time.  Besides this also you must mark the time due to behold urines, but because there o● no one time be assigned certain and exact judge all parts of it, I will briefly show t● order of the things to be considered in the time.  
First, when the urine is made, while it yet somewhat hot, you shall consider the c●lour of it: for that may best be discern then; and likewise the thickness of the substance of it, which if it be mean, shall the● be best seen. All other things, as the bubbl● and the contents shall be best judged somewhat after, when the urine is somewhat co●led, and they be duly settled in their prope● places.   

CHAP. V How many things are to be considered in Urine.  
NOw leaving this as a brief instruction of the generation of the Water or Urine, 
Four things to be considered in Urine, viz. Substance, Colour, Quantity, Contents.  and of the manner of receiving it i● vessels due, with time and place meet to consider it. I will particually declare how many things are to be considered in it, which ar● commonly named four, that is the Substance, the Colour, the Quantity, and the Contents and the Savour thereto may be added as the fift; to the which fift, if you shall join stableness and order, as two accidents common to the first four things, (but yet no less to be considered than they) then shall you judge the more certainly.  

Stableness.  Stableness is called, when the urine continueth certain days together of one sort. And if it altar every day, 
Unstableness. Order.  then is that called unstableness or changeableness, to which thing order doth appertain: For order is the following of one thing after another, as black coloured urine after white, green or pale. I mean not, because that so it ought to follow, but only that you must observe how it doth follow. For black Urine doth not signify the same if it follow after green urine, as it doth if it follow after white urine: so that the order ought also to be marked.  

Substance.  But now to return to the four first things.  

Three sorts of substance in urine. Thin.  Substance is called in urine, the urine itself, in respect of the thickness or thinness of it: So that there are 3. sorts of substance in urine: thick, thin, and mean.  

Thick.  Thin substance is called, when you may perceive well the joints of your fingers through the urine. And contrariwise it is called thick, when you cannot well see your fingers through it: and that is in the middle between extreme thick and extreme thin, 
Mean 〈◊〉.  is called, mean.  
Colours are divers, but the principal are these six, white, pale, flaxen, yellow, red and black. And all the other colours are contained under these six.  

Light white as Chrystallie, snowy.  As under white, are contained clear as crystal, white as snow, and pure as water which three are light whites.  

〈◊〉 Dark white as milk-white, horny ●ray, pale, flaxen, yellow.  Then are there other three more darker as milk white, clear like horn, and grey.  
After white, followeth pale colour, an● then flaxen, 〈…〉, an● then yellow, which may be called golden, fo● it is the colour of pure gold.  

Light saffron, saffron colour. Claret. Red. Crimson. Purple. Blue. Green.  After it followeth light saffron, and the● saffron, than claret colour, and then red, after it crimson, and then purple, and the● blue.  
Then is there green of divers kinds, as light green, green as grass, stark green, and dar● green.  

Oily.  There are also oil colours (that is, popi● gay green) of three sorts: as of green, light oily, stark oily, and dark oily.  

Ash colour.  After these is there Ash colour like un●● lead; 
Black.  and after it, as last of all cometh blac● And these be the chief colours.  
Now as touching quantity, it is also in three sorts; much, little, and mean.  

Quantity Much.  Then it is called much quantity, when it exceedeth the measure of a man's drinking.  

Little.  And then is it called little, when a man pisseth less than he drinketh.  

Mean.  And that is mean, when a man's pissing and his drinking is of like quantity. All this must be considered by due proportion.  

Contents.  The contents are all things in the water, that be of another matter and substance particularly, then is the urine: 
Sediment. Sublation. Cloud.  as the sediment or ground, the sublation or swim, and the cloud, To these are added other dis-form contents, like hairs, like husks, like bran, 
Crown.  and such other. And also the crown of the urine, with the bubbles, and other things swimming on the top of it.  
For the better understanding of these contents, you must note that the whole urine from the top to the bottom, is divided commonly into three rooms or regions.  

〈◊〉 rooms or Regions. Ground or Sediment.  The lowermost is the region of the ground or sediment: so that the grounds or sediments are the contents that occupy the lowermost region. Or yet more properly, the sediment is called a certain substance of grosser matter than is the urine, like to a quantity of very watery phlegm, which sleeteth a little above the bottom of the urine: But if it be so light, that it swim in the middle region of the urine, then is it called the sublimation or swim.  

Sublimation or Swim.  And if it be yet more lighter, so that it doth fleet in the highest part of the urine than it is called a cloud: whereby you may perceive that the ground, 
Cloud.  the swim, and th● cloud are but one thing in substance, and differ only by lightness and height, and taketh his name according to the region that i● occupieth. 
Another division of the three Regions.  But yet again note, that ever● one of the 3. regions, is farther divided into other parts also; whereby you may know exactly, how far all contents differ from th● just room of their region; so that the whol● urine must be divided into eleven just parts of which the nether region occupieth fou● the fift is the void room between that an● the middle region, which containeth 3. more that is to say, the sixth, seventh, and eigh● And then the ninth is a void room between the middle region and the highest, whic● highest region, containeth the other tw● parts that remain, that is the tenth an● the eleventh, as this Figure showeth whic● hereafter followeth.   urinal divided into sections for measuring urine 

Bubbles.  Highest of all things in the urine are the bubbles which either go about with the ring only, or else fleet in the middle of the urine only, or else both. Yea sometime they cover all the whole top of the urine.  

Fattiness.  Beside these, there is oftentimes as it were floats or fattiness on the top, and sometime certain spots only, which are like to drops of oil. And these commonly are the whole contents. For as for gravel or stone, or any like thing is contained under the name of dis-form contents.  
You shall also understand, that in the contents must the substance, the quantity, and colour, be observed.  

Substance.  The Substance is either equal or unequal.  

Equal.  Equal Substance is called, when the ground swim, or cloud, (for to them appertaineth this consideration) is not tattered and dispersed, but justly knit together.  

Unequal.  Unequal is contrary, when it is thinner in one part then in another, or flittered out, and not jointly and uniformly joined together.  

Quantity.  The quantity must be considered in respect to a mean, which if you know well, then may you soon judge that to be overmuch, that is more than it: and that to be too little, that is less than it: But this mean quantity must you learn of a perfect whole water, and best by the teaching of some good Physician.  
Of colours I have spoken before sufficiently for their variety.   

CHAP. VI What a perfect Urine is, and also how many ways all parts of the Urine may be altered in a healthful man.  
NOw that you know the difference o● such things that ought to be considered in urine, before you shall learn by consideration of them, to judge of the person that made it, how he is disposed in his body: you must first know how many ways the parts of the urine may be changed in a healthful man. For the better understanding of which thing, and of all that shall be said hereafter, I will first define what a perfect whole urine is, which as it betokeneth no grief in itself, so it is a true rule to examine all other urines by that, which are not whole, but declare in them some grief.  

A perfect whole urine Galen c. 12. Crisib.  A perfect whole urine is mean in substance and in quantity, and in colour pale, or party saffron, with a white ground, duly knit and stable, without bubbles and other evil contents.  
So that this perfect whole urine declareth the difference of all other urines; For every urine the more it agreeth with this, the better it is: and the more it differeth from this, the worse it is, as I shall anon particularly declare.  
And here you must mark, that this perfect whole urine is not only taken of a perfect whole man, but also of the lustiest time of man's age, that is at thirty years: or more largely, between twenty five and thirty five. For in every age doth the urine alter, as you shall hear by and by.  

The difference of Urine by age in men.  

Children.  THe Urine of children differeth but little in colour from pale, or light saffron and in substance it somewhat exceedeth i● thickness the substance of young men's urine and hath much ground in it. 
Galen 2. presag. Hippoc. 13.  And the more they do grow in age, the higher waxeth th● colour, 
Young men.  the substance the thinner, and the les● is the ground. And therefore when age i● most freshest, 
Men.  the colour is pale (so that th● urine of flourishing youth or perfect manhood, is pale or light saffron) and the●● resteth, and goeth no higher, and the groun● of it is mean. But now after that time th● more age increaseth and youth decayeth, th● more the colour changeth from pale toward white, 
Age.  and the ground waxeth lesser an● darker: so that the urine of old men is thi● and white, with little ground, inclining unto crudity.   

Of the Urine of Women by age.  

Women.  THe Urine of women which are temperate in health and in their flourishing youth, doth decline somewhat from pa● and light saffron toward white, and the substance is in manner thin, 
Young women.  but it hath more ground than men's urine; now all they that be under this flourishing age, the younger they be, the whiter coloured is their urine, and the more ground it hath; and if they be elder, the more aged they are, 
Aged women.  the whiter also is their urine, but the ground is everless and less. And this you may see how both diversity of age, and diversity also of kind or sex, causeth alteration in urine, without change of health; for you must understand all these ages with perfect health.   

The diversity of Vrines, according to the times of the year.  
EVen as the diversity of ages altars urine, so doth the times of the year. 
Spring.  For the more that the spring time draws toward heat the more the urine gathereth high colour, departing from pale and flaxen, toward pale and light saffron: and the inequality of substance changeth into a due equality according to nature, and the ground doth wax thinner, and the quantity is more in respect to that is drunk: so that about the midst of the spring they return to a mean.  

Summer.  In the beginning of Summer, the colour appeareth pale and light saffron, and the substance mean, the ground white, duly kn● and stable, but yet thinner than a mea● ground. And the more that the Summ● proceedeth and draweth to the highest, th● lesser is the quantity of urine, in comparison to the drink and the ground, changeth fro● his natural whiteness to a palish colour an● is much lesser and thinner. And this thinness glistereth withal, and inclineth toward golden and saffron colour.  

Harvest.  When Harvest cometh, than the colours do return to a mean again: but th● thinness and brightness remaineth still; th● ground also is still obscure and little, but y● it is white, duly knit and stable. And a● Harvest goeth forward, so the urine returns to a mean in all things.  
In the middle of winter and thereabouts the urine keepeth due quantity, but the colour inclineth toward white, and the groun● is over great, but in all other points it mean.  

Winter.  And as Winter goeth on, the substance urine appeareth divers, and the colour whit● the quantity greater in respect to the drin● and the contents greater and unconcoct but toward the spring time they return towards a mean as I have before said.  
Yet beside these, also diversity of countries causeth diversity of urine, 
Country's altar urine.  even by the ●ame reasons as doth the times of the year. For countries that be temperate exactly, make urine like unto the spring time. And those countries that be hot and dry make urine like unto summer. And contrariwise, cold and moist alter water, as doth winter. But countries that are dry and distempered between heat and cold, make urine like harvest.  

Meats drinks and medicines.  Also meats and drinks, and order of diet, causeth urine to alter, and medicines also, as not only experience reacheth, but also Hypocrates witnesseth in the sixth Book of his Epidemies, (or raining sicknesses) in the fift part and the fifteenth sentence, as for example: 
Meats of light concoction▪  Those meats that are light of concoction and good in substance, cause good and temperate urine with pure contents: but contrary meats cause discoloured urine, and thin, with strange contents.  

Meats of hard concoction.  Meats that will not concoct, make lesser contents, and divers in substance. Evil meats cause greater contents, and in nothing duly form. And as the quality of meats doth alter urine, so doth the quantity also. For if a man have eaten much, and not concocted it, his urine shall be thin and white, and sometime without ground. But if this crudity (or rawness in stomach) contin● long, the urine will become divers in substance, 
Drinking of wine.  and in contents.  
Also wine drunk abundantly causeth iteration in urine.  

Fasting long.  But now contrariwise, if a man do s● long, his urine will appear fiery and saffr● coloured, and thin with lesser ground  

Suffering of famine.  But if a man suffer famine, and do n● nourish, his water shall be thin and whi● with a certain glistering, and without ground.  

Labour.  Moreover, exercise and rest changeth ●rine: for through excessive labour, the uri● changeth from light saffron, and at leng● becometh saffron coloured, with lit● ground, thin, and higher coloured than should be. And some time there fleet on the top a certain fastness, specially after overmuch weariness.  

Rest.  But idleness and rest doth contrariwi● cause white urine, with greater and gros● ground.  

Sleep. Watching.  Furthermore sleep, and watching, if th● exceed measure, they altar urine; but the● is a difference between both sleep a● watching coming of sickness, and the● both when they be taken willingly in heal● For if that sickness cause overmuch slee● ●hen is the urine whitish, with substance ei●her fully thick, or but partly thin, and the contents many and undigest.  

Natural sleep.  But if that such sleep come naturally the urine is not so white, but rather flaxen, and the substance mean, with greater and well concoct contents.  

Voluntary sleep.  And likewise they that have watched purposedly, and not by reason of sickness, their urine is but little changed. 
Watch in sickness.  But if they watch for any sickly cause, their urine will change but little at the beginning: but with continuance the contents will be dispersed, and at the last clean wasted, and the substance of the urine waxeth thinner and thinner, by little and little, and the colour inclineth either to white and watery, or unto golden saffron, oily, or black, according as the cause is that maketh it so to change.  
Of alteration by complexion, I will write in the next Chapter.  
Now have you heard as touching alteration of urine in health, according to diversity of ages, both in men and women, times of the year, countries, meats and drinks, labour, rest, sleep, and watch: so that you must have regard to these in all judgements both in health and in sickness. For if these be not diligently marked, they may cause great error, as you may well co●der.  

What is to be considered in urine  First therefore, in every urine you 〈◊〉 consider, whether it be a man's or a wom● and what age he or she is of, than w● time of the year it is, and what count what meats and drinks the person us● and likewise of labour and rest, sleep 〈◊〉 watch: And then must you consider 〈◊〉 every one of these doth alter urine: so 〈◊〉 if the altering of them from that health urine (whereof I spoke in the beginning this Chapter) be but such as one of th● foresaid things would cause, then may it be judged to come of any disease, as for ●●ample. High coloured water in sum● (so that it pass not saffron colour) or w● coloured water in winter, should rather reckoned to come of the time of the y● then of any sickness: and likewise of o● things.    

CHAP. VII. What be the general qualities that alte● the parts of Urine.  
BEfore I treat of the signification of 〈◊〉 parts of Urine, I think it good to instr● you of the general qualities which cause all alterations in urine: whereby you shall perceive not only what every urine doth betoken (as I shall anon set forth) but also if you mark well this Chapter, you shall see ●he cause why every urine doth so signify.  
You shall understand therefore, that there be four chief and only qualities, whereof all things that are both in the Sea and Earth are made: as man and beast, fish and fowl, trees, herbs, stones, and metals. These four qualities are heat, cold, moistness and dryness: and these four continuing duly tempered (as nature ordered them first in every perfect body) be the cause of continual health. But if they be altered wrongly, then do they cause diseases diversely, according to the diversity of the alterations: And as they do cause diseases, so they change the colour, substance, and other parts of the urine, whereby we may conjecture the cause of the disease; and so consequently the disease itself, though sometime it declareth the disease itself, and not the cause thereof.  

Passive and active qualities.  But now to come to the matter meetest for this time, you shall mark that two of these four qualities are named Passive, and they cause but small alteration in comparison. The other two are called Active, an● they cause great alteration.  
The Active qualities are heat and col● and the Passive qualities are dryness an● moistness.  

Moistness.  When Moistness therefore exceedeth alone, it dulleth the natural colour of urin● thicketh and engrosseth the substance, an● increaseth the quantity. And as the ove● part of it above waxeth rough and trouble● so the ground increaseth and continue● raw and unconcoct.  

Dryness.  But dryness doth diminish the quantity of urine, and also the contents: It makes it thin in substance, clear and bright, an● causeth mean colour, and the ground appeareth grosser.  

Heat.  Likewise heat, if it exceed measure bu● little, it maketh pale and light saffron colour in the urine. But if heat exceed greatly it causeth golden and saffron colour with mean substance, and a little brightness the ground is mean, in respect to the quantity of urine, but it declineth from the du● whiteness toward saffron colour.  

Cold.  But cold on the other side maketh urin● turn to white colour, and changeth the substance from a mean. And if the cold increase, the urine will alter from mean substance, and therefore consequently will be either thin or gross. If it be thin or unpure, the ground shall be either obscure and little, or much, and that divers and unconcoct.  
And this is the working of these four qualities when they exceed alone.  
But and if two of them exceed together, there may result of that sort four other distemperances'; as hot and dry, hot and moist, cold and dry, and cold and moist. 
Compound distemperatures of qualities.  Now what alterations these and every one of them doth cause the urine, you may easily conjecture, if you keep in mind that which I said of the four simple qualities, and so add togethet the alterations.  
And this must you remember therewith, that where they both agree in any alteration, they cause that alteration to be the greater: and where they be contrary, they cause the alteration to be nearer to a mean: howbeit somewhat to help you, take this brief declaration.  

A temperate man.  As a temperate man doth make that perfect urine, written of before, (in Chap. 6.) so the urine of a sanguine man (which is hot and moist) shall be yellow, or light saffron coloured, by the reason of the heat, and somewhat gross, by reason of the moisture.  

A choleric man.  In a choleric man (being hot and dry 〈◊〉 the urine shall be in colour as in a sanguine man, but in substance thin, by reason of th● dryness.  

A melancholic man.  The urine of a melancholy man (whose nature is cold and dry) shall be white through the cold, and clear for the dryness.  

A phlegmatic man.  The phlegmatic man (which is cold an● moist) maketh urine white through cold, an● thick by the moisture, for as heat and col● altereth the colours, so dryness and moisture changeth the substance. Now if you hav● remembered all that I have written before then shall you be the meeter and better able a great deal to perceive the reason's 〈◊〉 the tokens which urine doth give. And 〈◊〉 shall your knowledge be the more certain if you know not only the thing, but also th● cause of it. Now therefore will I wri● of the signification of the parts of urin● particularly, that you may perceive th● first, and chief commodity of urine which 〈◊〉 worketh for man's health.   

CHAP. VIII. The significations of the parts of Urine particularly.  
I Told you in the sixth Chapter of this Book what urine was most perfect, sound, and healthful of all other. And I said, that it was the rule and trial to examine all other urines by, so that the nearer that any urine was to it, the better it was; and the further that it declineth from it, the worse it is. This I said, should be as a general rule, which thing to be true in healthful men, you may perceive by that I have written already. And that it is also true in sick men. Hypocrates, witnesseth, saying, That Urine is best, whose ground is white, duly knit and stable, all the time that the sickness prevaileth. But Galen to supply that that is understood in this saying, and so to make it perfect, addeth thereto, That it must be of colour party golden or pale, and of a mean substance between thick and thin. And also in these things is required stableness, to make it a perfect Urine; for that which is unstable in any part, in that it is not perfect.  
Here were a place to speak of the difference of this changeableness or unstableness; for there is one sort called ordinary, and another called unordinarie, and of both these are there divers differences. But because they depend of an exacter judgement the● unlearned men can well attain unto, I overpass them for this time, and will declare the other differences of urine, whereby it altereth from this mean urine, in all parts particularly.  

Substance or urine.  And first I will begin with the substance of urine, the which (as I said before) is o● three kinds, thick, thin, and mean.  

Mean.  A mean urine is that, that is in the middle between extreme thick, and extreat thin. And as it is mean between them i● substance, so is it mean in signification, so it doth betoken (of itself) only good temperance and health. But the other two betoken distemperance and default of concoction, and that diversely, according to the diversity of the causes of them, as you shall no● consequently hear.  

Thin urine.  First to speak of thin urine, either it doth still ● continue thin, as it was first made, or else it doth she●ly wax thick and troubled. That that doth contin● still thin doth betoken lack of concoction, and so do● the other also; but yet this that continueth thin be●keneth more lack of conoction, for it betokene● that nature hath not yet begun to concoct. A● therefore is that water, a sign of extreme crud● or rawness in nature. But that that waxeth thick, it beginneth to cool, though it betoken lack of concoction, yet doth it declare that nature hath begun to concoct already, notwithstanding it is an evil urine, for it signifieth that nature hath need not only of great strength to perform that concoction which she hath begun; but also that there is required long time to the performance of the same. For the which cause, Galen calleth this, Of all Vrines the worst.  
Thus have you heard touching crudity and concoction, what thin urine doth signify, so that all thin urine betokeneth crudity. And beside that doth further betoken (as witnesseth Hypocrates) gatherings or apostumations in the nether parts of the body, namely, if it continue so very long, and the patiented escape death.  

Thin and white.  Furthermore, if such thin urine have with it a light whiteness, it is a very evil sign. For if it be in a burning ague, it is a token of frensines. But if the patiented be fransick already, and the urine doth so continue, it doth most commonly betoken death. And if he escape death (the which is seldom seen) then shall he be long sick, and escape hardly.  
Thin urine also betokeneth divers other things: as the stopping of the reins, and of the water veins. And likewise, if a man have had much bleeding, or lax, or pissing, his urine will be white and thin, and almost without ground: Like manner in old age, and long weakness of sickness. Also in young children if it continue long, it is a deadly sign.  
Yet thin urine doth sometime betoken the end of sickness and recovery of health: as in Agues (namely quotidians) if at the beginning of them and so after, the urine did appear thick and troubled, and especially if the colour amend therewith.  

Thin and ●axen.  And if it be thin in substance, and of flaxen colour, then is it better than thin and white: for because the colour is better thought the substance be all one; so that thought it betoken some weakness and lack of concoction, yet not so much as doth the other, for the colour is meanly concoct: that is to say, natural heat is meanly increased.  

Thin and golden.  But if it be thin and golden, it is ye● more better then thin and flaxen: for the colour is more exact and this betokeneth concoction half complete, for that which it lacketh in substance, it hath in colour.  

Thin and saffron.  After this is there thin and saffron coloured, which betokeneth first lack of concoction, and beside that default of nourishment as in a young man that fasteth long: And sometime it betokeneth that excess of her● in the inner parts of the body, doth caus● choleric humours to abound, as in the fever tertian. Beside all this, it betokeneth thought, carefulness, and watching, and also overmuch labour, and taking of heat in the Sun.  
And thus have you heard the significations of thin urine, both alone, and also with such colours as it can be coupled.  
Now shall you hear what thick urine doth betoken, both alone, and also with such divers colours, as it may be coupled.  

Thick.  Thick urine (which is, so I mean, when it is first made) either it doth continue still thick, or else it doth settle, and wax clear. If it continue still thick, it betokeneth that that disturbance which was in the blood, that is to say, the rage of sickness doth still continue strongly: and that natural strength is but weak. This urine is not so good as that which doth settle and wax clear. For that doth betoken that the disease shall shortly be overcome: howbeit there remaineth yet somewhat of that distemperate trouble in the blood: yet nature hath the over-hand and expelleth the matter of the grief, and therefore is such a urine called good, but yet it betokeneth some lack of concoction, though not so much as that which continueth troubled and thick still.  
Also thick urine (if it be exceeding thick) doth betoken death, as Hypocrates saith, And the urine that is thick and troubled, like beasts urine, doth betoken head ache, either present already, or shortly after to com● If thick urine appear in an ague, whe● thin urine went before, it betokeneth tha● the sickness will abate straightways, for ● declareth that nature hath overcome the matter of the sickness: but if it appear thick ● the beginning of the ague, and do not wa● thin in process of time, it betokeneth plent● of matter, and weakness of nature; so th● there is fear lest nature should be overcome except the colour do amend.  

Thick and white.  Thick urine also betokeneth openne● of the water pipes and reins. And if it b● thick and white, it betokeneth great plen● of raw humours, and sundry kinds of phlegm to be gathered in the body: and betokene● also (namely if it be much) that those gath●rings, which might be looked for in so● agues shall not ensue, for the matter whic● should cause them departeth out by urine but the whiteness of this urine is bright snow. For if it be somewhat darker li● the whiteness of milk, it is a token of th● stone, either in the bladder or reins, namely if such urine chance in the end and amending of sickness.  

Grey.  But if the colour of it be grey, it betokene● not only plenty of matter in the body, but also that the whole body is possessed with a dangerous sickness, whereof oftentimes it chanceth the patiented to break out with blisters and heat in his skin.  

Thick and claret.  Next after this followeth thick claret colour (for flaxen, yellow, nor saffron colour doth not agree with thick urine) and it doth signify that the disease shall continue long, specially if the ground of it be also of claret colour. But yet this disease without peril of death.  

Thick and red.  Thick urine, if it be red coloured, doth betoken abundance of blood, as is seen in continual Agues, and in all perilous Agues, as witnesseth Theophylus. If this water come by little and little, it is an evil token, for it doth always declare danger.  
And if that sort of urine (in such Agues) do wax troubled, so that there come with it deafness of hearing, and ache of the head, with pain in the neck and in the sides of the belly, it betokeneth that the Patient shall have the falling evil within a seven night.  

Thick and crimson.  And if a thick urine have a crimson colour, If it be burning Agues, and the Patient then have the headache, it betokeneth that a chief critical sign either is then present, or else nigh at hand.  

Thick and blue.  But if the urine be thick and blue coloured, it signifieth diversely, as the persons a● that made it. For in them that are in wa● of recovery, it betokeneth that they sha● escape their grief. It signifieth also pa● in the water-pipes, or else that the par● hath run much.  
And if it appear such in old men, and th● continue long, it declareth not only that th● bladder is infected with evil humours, b● commonly also that he shall be rid of them But if it come after the grief of the stone, ● declareth that the grief shall be turned into the strangury.  

Thick and green.  Thick urine and green, namely in Ague● is a token of the yellow Jawnders, either present, or ready to come.  

Thick and ash coloured.  Thick urine and ash coloured, if it appea● in Agues and do not settle, it is a sign of madness, But in the burning Ague, it betokeneth that the strangury will come shortly.  

Thick and black.  But if a black colour appear in thick urine it betokeneth sometime well, as in the end of the Fever Quarten, and of melancholic madness, for it betokeneth that the melancholic matter, which caused the diseases, doth avoid out.  
But sometimes it is an evil token, for it signifieth that either the blood is burned through exceeding heat, or else that natu●ll heat is clean quenched through deadly ●ld, and therefore is commonly called a ●adly sign, namely in sharp Agues, if it ●ve an evil savour. And so meaneth Galen, ●hen he saith, that he marked, The thicker ●at a black water is, the worse it is, and moreover, That he never saw any escape, ●hich made such Urine.  
And thus have you heard of the significa●ons of thin and thick urine, with such co●ours as may be coupled therewith.  
Now will I write a little of the colours a●one, and of such tokens as come chief of ●hem, rather than of the substance or any other part of the urine.  

Colours of urine.  The colours of urine declare commonly, how heat and cold do reign in the body, so that the whiter the urine is, the greater is the cold, and natural heat less; and the higher coloured that the urine is, the greater is the heat.  

White.  But to speak particularly, that you may perceive it the better. If the urine be white, it is a sign that concoction faileth quite, and the lighter coloured, the worse.  

Pale.  Pale colour is better somewhat, though it also declare lack of natural heat and strength.  

Flaxen.  And flaxen colour, though it betokeneth beginning of concoction, yet it is not perfect: howbeit it may be well taken, if all ●ther signs be good.  

Pale, light saffron.  Pale and light saffron (as you have hea● before) are the best colours and most temperate, which betoken exact concoction.  

Golden saffron.  But golden and saffron colour declare excess of heat.  

Claret red. Crimson Purple. Green oily.  Claret is next, and then red, after it crimson, and then purple, then green, and l● of them is oily urine, which as they go in o●der, so they declare greater and greater he● with increase, not only of the quality, b● also of the matter containing the same.  

Blue ash-colour.  But now of the other side, blue urine, an● ash colour, are tokens of excessive cold sometime with matter, and sometime with out; and so likewise of black urine, howbeit it cometh sometime of excess of heat.  
But how you may know the difference both of it and all the other, now will I show in order, with the rest of their significations  

White.  White urine, if it come in great quantity in a whole man, it betokeneth much drinking of thin wine.  
But if it be mean in quantity, with a due ground, it declareth cold distemperance of the liver. The urine doth appear white, with a dis-form and unconcocted ground, in them that have the dropsy. But in old men, white ●rine is no great evil sign, as you may perceive by that I said before of Ages, how ●hey altar urine. But in young men, and such ●s are of freshest age, it is a worse sign, and specially if it have either no contents, or else evil contents. And if urine continue ●ong time white without changing, it betokeneth painful beating of the head, daselling of the eyes, and giddiness, and also the fal●ing evil, lothsomness of good meats, and ●usting sometime after evil meats, greedy hunger, pain in limbs, and painful moving of the sinews, and divers griefs of the head and reins, and also pain in the fundament, and great weakness by sickness, for all these do follow continually lack of concoction, either cold, or stopping of the urines and conduct, or transposing of the humours.  
But the differences of these cannot easily be known of every man, yet such as are learned may gather certain distinctions of them by the accidents which follow diseases.  

Milk white, hornwhite, grey.  Dark white colours, as milk white, white, white like horn, and grey, If they appear in the beginning of Agues, and in the increase of them, they do betoken much pain. But in the decrease of Agues, they declare he especially if it come plentifully.  

Pale, flaxen  Pale urine and flaxen, do not lightly pear in Agues, except they be easy Ag● and short, as those which continue but day, but if that it do follow after bu● Agues, it declareth that they be fully dived.  

Pale, saffron.  As for pale and light saffron, they are 〈◊〉 I said before) the best and most perfect ●lours, namely, in young men and f● youth. But in old men, women and child● (whose urine, as I have said, declineth ●ward white and pale) it doth betoken t● their body is too hot, either by reason● their diet, or else of their exercise. Bu● as much as it is but mean excess, it declare● but small grief.  

Golden saffron colour.  Golden and saffron coloured urine, if be either somewhat thin, or very thick, ●ther it hath no ground, or else very few, a● dark contents. But in this they differ, th● golden urine declareth excess of heat, a● matter also, by reason of meats, sharp medicines, chafing of the blood through ange● heat of the bowels, or else heat of the tim● of the year.  
But saffron colour appeareth rather wit● default of matter, through some affection o● the mind, watching, heat of the sun, labour, and such like things, which increase thin and yellow choler, and diminish natural heat, ●o that the cause of this colour is choler itself, increased either in quantity, or else in quality. But in old men and women, and ●uch other, there is some greater cause that occasioneth it, for it signifieth an Ague comes of saffronly choler dispersed through the whole body; after which there followeth commonly giddiness, headache, bitterness of ●he mouth, lothsomeness of meat, thirstiness, Also in young men, such urine is caused through much exercise, and use of hot meats.  

Of Claret and red Urine.  

Claret urine.  CLaret and red urine is coloured either of the mixture of red choler, or else of the corruption of blood; such urine oftentimes goeth before Agues. For when the blood doth so abound, that it cannot be duly laboured, nor can take no air, there is engendered a certain corruption, which as it is red of colour itself, so it causeth the urine to be red in colour if it be much, else it maketh only claret colour. But if it be exact red like grain, it betokeneth that blood issueth into it, out of some veins nigh to the reins, which either are broken, or other ways opened. But how it may be known fr● whence it cometh, and how, there are ●ny means to search, but because they are● light to perceive, I will reserve them for P●sicians that are learned. This colour o● self is no great evil sign, namely in yo● men, for it betokeneth excess of blood, wh● may well be born of them. But in old m● it is a very evil sign, for it betokeneth ●ther long sickness, or else death, sigh na● is so weak that it cannot keep in her natu● humour. And if that red colour, come● red choler, as it doth in young men, for 〈◊〉 most part and not of blood (which thing learned Physician may conjecture partly 〈◊〉 the former diet, and other signs more) t● accidents shall be the more troublous; howbeit yet not so evil, as when it cometh 〈◊〉 saffron or golden choler, for this cause greater thirst, and more troublous sleep th● the other.   

Of Crimson colour.  

Crimson colour.  CRimson colour is a token that the goo● humours of the body are burned, an● turned into red or black choler, which cau● worse griefs than the other; howbeit if 〈◊〉 have a good ground, the grief is the more moderate: But if it have either no contents for a space, or else evil contents, and the urine appear like a thick mist, but somewhat glistering light, it is a sign that nature needeth such strength to recover herself to her own state. Notwithstanding such urine is caused sometime in whole folk, by reason of much labour, and long journeying, and then it hath some good signs therewith. But in them that have a sharp Ague, such crimson colour of urine doth betoken that corrupt blood doth abound, and that it doth putrify, and turn into choler. And commonly they that make such urine, do thirst much, and are dry in their mouth, and are troubled in their sleep, and feel sharp Agues, and are half distracted, and feel pain of the liver with coughing.  
Howbeit, yet these signs may be sometimes as well good as bad, according as the colours do change to better or worse.   

Of Purple Colour.  

Purple colour.  PUrple colour declareth need of much strength before it can be altered to a good urine.  
This urine is a sign of burning choler. And if it do continue very long, it is a token of the yellow Jaundice, with abundance gross and corrupt choler, gathered in the ●ver. And at the beginning there goeth w● it some spices and grudge of the Ag● with a little thirstiness; but unless there b● discretion used in the diet of such a Patie● it may turn to a much worse disease.   

Of Green Vrines.  

Green colour.  GReen colour is an evil and a dangero● token, for it needeth not only long tim● but also cotinual strength to bring it ag● to a good trade. The higher that this cold is, the more it declareth that choler exce●eth the other humours: which if it be a● more burned, will cause black urine, which I will anon speak. But if green o●lour come of wasting of the fat, then is somewhat like to oily colour, or popin● green: but if it come of abundance of purp●lish colour, and through increase of his quality, then doth the colour incline more ●ward black, and glistereth with shadow green, drawing very nigh unto black. Af● green choler followeth madness, parbrea●ing, and avoiding of choler, sometimes wi● matter, or else burned: and also continu● thirstiness, and burning heat of the tongue straightness about the stomach. And like other things. But if the patiented continue strong, and the colour of the urine do wax lighter, there is good hope, else there is great fear, least of the dryness and burning, there do follow contraction of the sinews, which will kill the patiented.   

Of Oily Urine, or Popinjay Green.  

Oily urine, or popinjay green.  Oily Urine is of three sorts, as I said in the fift Chapter, that is, light oily, stark oily, and dark oily.  
Oily urines are a token of unnatural heat, and the higher that the colour is, the greater is the heat. And also they betoken melting of the fat within a man, for of it are they so coloured. But at the beginning, when there is a little fat melted, the urine is light oily. For if it look stark oily, than it signifieth that the disease increaseth. But if it come once to dark oily, then is the disease sore increased, Hypocrates in the seventh Book of his Aphorisms speaking of fatness in urine, saith thus: Who so maketh urine with fatty floats coming much and fast, they have sharp pains in the reins.  
Which sentence though it seem more to appertain to the contents then to the colour, yet doth not only Galen, but also Aetin● Actuarius, and also another Grecian, (who name I know not) expound it amongst colours: and by it declare the difference ● know whether that waist or melting ● fat be in the reins itself, or in other parts o● the body. For if it come fast together, (● Hypocrates saith) then cometh it from th● reins itself, and betokeneth the wasting ● be in them. But if it come softly and increase by little and little, then doth it declare th● the whole body is overcome with unnatural heat, and that the fat of it doth waste it doth betoken (as Act. witnesseth) a wasting Ague; consuming the body.   

Of blue Urine, Ash-colour, and Black.  
Blue colour, Ash-colour, and Black do differ only in lightness and darkness For ash-colour is darker than blew: an● black is darker than any of them both.  

Blue colour.  Blue colour sometime cometh of moderate melancholy, and then is the urine somewhat thin in substance. And sometime i● cometh of great cold, and then it is thick in substance. And sometime it is a token o● mortifying of some part. Yea, and sometime even of whole nature: namely, if the colour change to worse and worse, and there went before no token of concoction.  

Ash-colour.  Ash coloured urine cometh of like causes, and betokeneth like things. Howbeit it is so coloured many times, when the party that made it, hath been sore beaten and bruised. But in this you need not the help of urine, for you may see the walts and tokens of the stripes in his body.  

Black urine.  Urine which is extreme black, sometime betokeneth extreme heat, and sometime extreme cold, the which both you may distinctly discern, if you do observe order of alteration in the colours of the urine that the patiented made last before. For if his urine before were green, or like thereto, then doth the black urine which follows it, betoken extreme heat. But if it were last before blue or ash-coloured, then doth it signify extreme cold. This black colour though it be commonly an evil and deadly sign, as I said before, (speaking of thick urine and black) yet sometime it is a good token.  
For in all diseases lightly that come of melancholy matter, it betokeneth that the matter doth avoid, and so the sickness to end. And such urine doth appear many times after purgations or other meats and drinks which purge the spleen; namely, if a man do labour upon them, that was before diseased of the spleen.  
Howbeit, sometime meats and drinks of li● colour cause black urine, as Galen witnesseth namely, after dark red wine, and Allegant.  
But in moderate Agues, if such black ●rine do appear, it is a token of death, except it be on some Critical days. And likewi● in sharp agues, especially if the savour b● strong and stinking: unless it come of som● grief of the bladder  

Quantity of urine.  Let this suffice for this time, as touching colours. Now for the quantity of urine, ● when it is mean, it is a good token: so whe● it is either too much, or too little, it is an evil sign, except it come of such cause, (as showed before) that altereth urine in healthful man.  

Much in a whole body.  As first excessive quantity of urine, com●meth of much drinking of thin wine, as Rhenish wine, and such like. But that shall yo● thus know: for the colour will be whitely, and the substance thinner than a mean● the contents also will be divers, and not d●ly knit. Likewise if there be abundance of raw humours in a man unconcocted, an● yet nature persevering strong, then is ther● great quantity of urine, and somewhat thi● of substance, but not so white as the other and the contents of this are better. Als● (as Hypocrates saith) much Urine made i● the night, 
4. Aph. 3.  is a token of small siege; so that if any impediment let natural siege, then will the quantity of urine be the greater. But in this as the colour is mean, so is the ground both greater and grosser, yet in healthful folk may the urine, by another means also be greater than a mean, and that may be by medicines which provoke urine, but then is the colour more natural than the last that I spoke of, and the ground is thinner of substance, so that it is dark and scarcely seen, and then is there a certain glistering in the urine itself.  

Little urine in a whole body.  Now contrary ways, and of contrary causes cometh small quantity of urine. For it cometh sometime of lack of drink, or dry meats, and then is the colour light saffron, with a small ground, but yet somewhat gross. Also both meats and medicines that are clammy, and apt to stop the water-pipes, do cause little urine, but then is the ground also little and thin.  
Besides these, much siege causeth urine to be lesser, for if the one excrement be greater than nature would, the other must needs be less, if the body be healthful. In this urine, as you may partly know the cause of it by the knowledge of the excessive siege, so will the urine itself be thinner, and the ground very dark, thin, and not duly knit. And th● many ways may this alteration appear in healthful body.  

Much urine in a sick body.  Now in a sick person, much urine either betokeneth the dropsy, and then is it like water, with a raw and divers ground or else if it be white, thin, and without ground, then doth it betoken the pissing ●vill. And this urine (as witnesseth Galen ● in his first Book of Judicials) is the worst ● any other of like sort, 
Diabete.  I mean which declare lack of concoction, for it declareth the decays yea I may say, the utter extinction of tw● natural powers, that is, the retentive power and the alterative power also.  
Much urine, in colour fiery, and light saffron, or of any like colour, is to be feared namely, if it be coupled with evil contents But if it be of crimson or purple colour and so proceed, especially if no concoction went before it, then doth it incline to evil and betokeneth a certain mortifying and wasting of the whole composition of the body▪  
But if much urine come in an Ague, namely toward the end, and that there went before it little urine, thick and ruddy, then is that a good token, 
4. Aph 69.  as witnesseth Hypocrates for it betokeneth the Ague to be at an end. And this Urine will be white and thin moderately, and will have a mean ground.  

Little urine in a sick body.  Now little quantity of urine, with a gross ground, unduly knit and unconcoct, is an evil token; for it betokeneth the weakness of the alterative power, which is not able to extenuate, concoct, neither alter the matter, and therefore doth it with much difficulty pass forth in such grossness. Howbeit, if there follow after it a more thinner urine, with the ground well and duly knit, and stable, then is it without fear. For this latter urine (as you heard before) is a token that the cause of the other is overcome and vanquished.  
This little quantity of urine cometh sometime in vehement Agues, and then is the violent heat, cause thereof. Sometime also it cometh of the stopping of the water-pipes, not only through clammy meats and drinks, but also of some disease or grief in them.  
And this now shall suffice for an Introduction, as touching the substance, colours, and quantity of urine.  

Contents.  It followeth next, to speak of the contents which so greatly help to the right judgement of urine, that Hypocrates (in his second book of Prognostications) doth by them only; yea, and that by one of them (I mean the ground (pronounce the judgement of a perfect urine; saying, That that is the best Urine, 
Sediment.  which hath his sediment or ground, white, duly knit and stable, and that continually all the time of the sickness.  
Now seeing this great Clerk and Father of Physic, doth thus esteem the ground, it shall not seem unmeet, that I orderly do write briefly of those principal things that are to be considered, as touching the contents; and first of all of the ground, which hath alteration (as you have heard) both in substance, colour, and quantity.  
But now as touching the substance? then is it only mean, when the third concoction in the veins is perfect. For the ground is the excrement (as you might say) of that third concoction, and is like in form to matter, save that it is more duly knit together then is matter, and doth not smell so evil as it; or else you may liken it to thin steam.  

Gross ground.  This Ground is then gross, when the veins are replenished with raw humours. Howbeit this grosseness or thickness is not always an evil token; for sometime it is a sign that nature hath prevailed against the crude humours which caused diseases, and doth expel such superfluous excrements. And that shall you discern by the goodness, of the colour, and also if it come in the declining of the sickness: for if it come at the beginning, either in the increase of the sickness, then are they to be suspected as evil; especially if they bring with them evil colours.  

Thin ground.  A thin ground, being also pure, and so cleaving to the bottom of the Urinal, that it will not lightly rise, though the urinal be shaked, it is a token of great weakness of nature in the third concoction, and such a ground appeareth most in white and watery urine. Howbeit sometime a thin ground cometh by the reason that the raw humours are extenuate through natural heat, which getting new strength, doth extenuate and disperse all grossness of raw humours within the veins. For the property of heat, is to knit and bind together thin things, and to extenuate and disperse gross and raw things.  

Colour of the groun●  Now as touching the colours of the ground, the perfect ground is neither exceeding white, neither yet pale, but mean between both, for if there appear any such excessive white, then is it some rag of phlegmatic matter, or else matter extremely concocted, which cometh from some inward member being sore; and that you may discern (as I said before) by the toughness, and by the savour.  
And if any man be desirous to know the cause why the ground is white of colour, let him remember, that the ground is the superfluous excrement of the blood being perfectly concocted in the veins. Now that the blood itself, when it is exactly concocted, is turned into a white, or at least, a party white colour, you may conjecture by the generation of milk, and also the seed of man, yea, and of matter, which all three are nothing else but blood, exactly concocted, save that matter cometh of evil blood.  

Pale. Flaxen.  And therefore whensoever the ground hath in it any other colour then white, it is no good token: As first, if it be pale and flaxen coloured, than it is swarved from his right and commendable colour. Howbeit, yet it may be born as but meanly evil, because that that colour cometh of small excess of choler.  

Saffron. Actuarius.  But if it be more higher coloured by choler, so that it be saffron coloured, then is it an evil token (as Actuarius saith) for it declareth that choler is excessively increased, either by the order of diet, or else by the corruption of blood, or some other ways. 
7. Aph. 32.  Howbeit Hypocrates in his Aphorisms, seemeth to say the contrary, for he saith, That when the ground is so coloured of choler, especially if at the beginning of the sickness it were watery to sight, then doth it betoken a quick sickness; that is to say, as Philotheus expoundeth it, 
Philotheus.  a sickness, that will shortly be ended, and so it may justly be called a good sign. Notwithstanding as in this point it is a good token, in that it signifieth that the disease is nigh the end, so it may be called (as Actuarius calleth it) an evil sign, because it doth betoken a choleric sickness, and that choler doth unnaturally abound.  

Antonius Musa.  And if this answer do not content you, (though it content Antonius Musa) then may you say more better (as I think) thus: That if the ground be at the beginning of the sickness coloured with choler, and so increase (as Actuarius seemeth to mean) then is it an evil token indeed, for it declareth both the abundance, and also the increase of choler. But if the ground, at the beginning of a choleric disease were marry, that is, white and thin, and afterward turn to saffron colour, which is the exact colour of choler: or else to a yellow colour (which is somewhat less choleric) then is it a token that the choleric matter, which before lay lurking in the body, doth now begin to avoid; and so the cause of sickness, thus by nature expelled, health must nee● follow.  
As contrariwise, if after yellow or saffron colour it change unto whiter, and the be no certain token of concoction, than it an evil sign, and a token of frenzy. Howbeit, if there be any token of certain concoction, then is the same a good sign, that if you take heed, you may perceiv● here what a necessary thing it is to observ● order in the alteration of urine, of whic● I have partly spoken before.  

Claret colour. Red. Bloody.  Now therefore to go o●n If th● ground be of claret colour, either red o● blue, the token is not good. For these bloody colours come either of too much abundance of blood, or else by reason that the retentive power is so feeble, that it canno● keep in the good humours, but suffreth them to run out.  

Claret red.  Claret colour and red, do betoken a certain default of concoction in the veins, and that through the excess of red choler. Bu● yet this default is but mean and without danger, seeing that the hurt is only by quantity, whereas some other do hurt both by quantity and quality also.  

Bloody.  Bloody grounds are altogether worse than red (though they be better than ash-coloured, and black) for they betoken that the blood is nothing duly wrought, especially if their quantity be much, withal, for then the quantity of matter doth let the powers to work, which thing yet as it may be born, so it declareth need of long time to recover health.  
But if this do come through weakness of the powers in themselves, then is it an extreme evil sign: for it betokeneth that the powers are overcome with weariness in working, and be not able to keep in the good and profitable humours. Which thing to discern more exactly, you shall take artificial conjectures by other circumstances, which give also tokens of judgement; namely, as by the age of the person, by his order of diet, and such like.  

Blue. Ash-colour Black.  Now to make an end with the other colours which are of a dark hue, as blew-ash-colour and black: These of all other are the worst, and most envious to nature, and the nearer they cleave to the bottom of the urinal, the worse they are.  
These colours come of a black melancholy humour, being engendered within the veins, or else coming from some other part into them: or else it betokeneth deadly mortifying. But sometimes it cometh of sore bruising and stripes, and generally cometh (namely the black) either of excessive cold or excessive heat.  
And now for a conclusion, whatsoever have said of the ground, you shall understand the same to be spoken of the swi● and the cloud; for they are in kind but o● thing, save that they differ in lightness an●heft, and therefore also in places: But th● judgement of their substance and colour, ● much after one rate, though some difference there be, as you shall hear hereafter.  

Quantity  And likewise of their quantity, whic● as it is then only commendable when it i● mean, so if it be greater than a mean, it dot● declare some alteration in man, though no● always extremely evil, for sometime it i● a token of fatting, or growing to a corporateness, 
Great.  and that it doth signify, if non● other evil sign be coupled with it. Fo● though the person feed much on nourishing meats, and that with rest and an idle life, ye● natural heat appeareth so strong, that she can easily concoct such meats. According to this saith Galen in his Judicials, that the plenty of the ground in urine betokeneth certain and exact with concoction: And that as the body is  with crude humours, so it declareth that those same be in expelling out at that present time. And for this cause (saith he) in all children commonly, and in men also which feed much, or be of some other cause replete with humours, their urine hath a great ground.  
Also oftentimes it chanceth the pores of the skin to be stopped, so that such excrements as were wont to pass out by them, are enforced to seek a new passage, which they find most readiest by the urine, and thereof are the contents, and namely the ground, oftentimes increased. And all these ways chance in health. But in sickness, it chanceth many and gross superfluities do appear in the urine, as often as the natural powers, namely, the alterative or concoctive power being weakened, such crude humours pass out undefied.  
So doth it chance (as witnesseth Alexander Trallianus) That the urine of them which have the Colic, 
Tral. 2. cap. 33.  is phlegmatic and hath a great ground. But if the contents be either great, or gross in the beginning, or in the augmenting of sickness, (namely if the Patient have any notable Ague) it argueth abundance of humours, to the concoction of the which there needeth both strength of natural powers, with time and good speed.  

Little Contents.  And now contrary ways must you judge of the smallness of the contents, for they becaused either of great labour, long fasting stopping, or obstruction of the veins, and such like parts, or else of slackness of concoction. 
Gal. 2. pres. Hip. 26.  And (as Galen saith) when the body is replete with crude and raw humours, then is the ground great, but if the body be replenished with choleric humours, then is there in the urine either little ground or none at all; but in such case it is well, if there be any sublimation or swim.  

Urine without ground.  Now seemeth the place most meet to speak of such urines as have no ground at all, nor other orderly content, and that will I do by the order of the colours of the urine, according as Actuarius proceedeth.  
The urine that is very white, and exceeding thin, and so lacketh the ground, doth betoken either some notable obstruction, either immoderate cold, or else crudity and lack of concoction. And as these tokens may be greater or lesser, so shall the things which they betoken be judged in like rate, either more, or lesser.  
But if the urine be pale coloured, or flaxen, and then lacketh contents, as it doth declare lesser obstruction, so it doth signify as great crudity, as the other before.  
And so shall you judge of urine that is yellow or flaxen coloured. For in them it appeareth, that natural heat doth prevail. Notwithstanding such things (I mean the default of the ground with those colours) may chance (as often they do) through vehement pain, immoderate labour, long watching, and also default of matter.  
But such urines as be higher coloured than these that I have named, by their colours they declare the qualities of the humours which do prevail: and also betoken a certain putrefaction, and crudity in the veins.  
It chanceth also sometimes, that some gathering sore being in some of the principal members, by his unnatural heat withdraw thither the matter (even as it were by cupping) and so doth cause the urine to have no ground. And though, indeed, it is never a good token to lack the ground in a urine, yet it is less to be complained of, if the colour and substance draw nigh to a mean; for in such a case it betokeneth, that though nature be somewhat slack, yet will she shortly gather strength, so that there shall appear a ground in the urine.  
Now to show you the reason, why it chanceth no ground to appear in the urine: First, in case of crudity, when there wanteth perfect concoction, there must needs want also the contents in the urine; for they are the excrements (as you might say) and the superfluities of the third concoction. Likewise though concoction be perfect enough, yet may there want the contents, if there be any notable obstruction or stopping of the veins, namely, seeing the contents are somewhat gross of substance, and therefore unable to pass, if the way be any thing stop●.  
After the same sort shall you judge of long fasting and default of meat, and moreover of such meats as are unapt to concoct. For in all such cases, there can be engendered few or no contents.  
And contrariwise, though nature do work many superfluities, yet if the womb be so lose that it yields many seges, then as the urine shall be the lesser, so shall the contents be few or none: for nature then doth expel by siege, those superfluities, which should cause the contents.  
And likewise, when there is in any part of the body an inflammation or excessive heat, which doth draw matter to it, either that any of those parts are weak, unto which nature is wont to expel such superfluities; for in all such cases there may want the ground, and the other contents in the urine. And as for some of them (I mean crudity and oppilation) they may be well enough born withal, unless their continuance be long.  
But now again, there is great difference touching the time of the sickness in which it chanceth, for in the beginning and increase of sharp Agues, if the ground be lacking, it betokeneth great weakness of natural strength, which if not prevented, may continue unto the chief strength of the sickness. And after such an urine, there doth follow much waking and disquietness, half madness and trouble of mind, and all those shall be according to the greatness of the Ague, either extreme or mild. And sometime it is a token that there shall be a gathering sore in some part of the body, namely, if other agreeable causes come therewith, as a winterly disposition of the air, with an uncertain state of sickness, and unconstant alteration, and mean weakness of the Patient's power. But in the declination of the sickness, such urine ought not greatly to be blamed, for than hath nature escaped the brunt of sickness, though she be yet weak. Yea, and in the chief strength of sickness (as well as in the declination) it may seem no strange thing, if nature (as though already she had the over-hand) do gather her power together, and draw a little nourishment to herself, and thereby causeth little or no ground to appear. But afterward when she is somewhat refreshed, and doth more liberally nourish the body, then doth she show forth contents in the urine. And lightly the order of the contents is such, that first there appeareth a cloud, which afterward doth gather more strong and weighty substance, and doth become a swim or sublimation: And last of all, when it hath gathered a right natural whitness, and due substance, then will it grow to a ground.    

CHAP. IX. Of difform Contents.  
OTher things should I here speak of, as touching the Judicial of the contents, both of their stableness, that is, their continuance in good form, and of their due knitting, being neither tattered, nor dispersed, nor yet overmuch clodded together. But because the exact judgement thereof exceedeth the capacity of mean wits (for whose sake I have written this Book) and cannot lightly be perceived of them, but by the Instruction of a lively voice, I will for this time overpass the exact and perfect declaration of them reserving it to a place more due: And now will I briefly overrun the other things which remain to be considered in urine, but yet not without some mention of those other, as occasion cometh: and first those difform Contents which occupy the place of the ground, 
Difform contents.  and therefore take his name also.  
Of this sort there are four principal: the first is in bigness of a small fatch, and red coloured, which you may call therefore red fatches, because of their likeness. These (as witnesseth Galen) are engendered of the consumption and wasting of the flesh, 
6. Epid.  when the fatness is already melted away. But in this there is great difference, for sometime it is only the wasting of the reins, and sometime of the whole body: as if there appear in the urine tokens of due concoction, then is that waist in the reins only. But if there appear in the urine default of concoction, (namely being great) or if the patiented have an Ague, then is it the waist of the whole body, and that standeth well with reason, that when it betokeneth the waist of the whole body, there must needs appear default of concoction; for in such case those parts which are the Instruments of concoction are so weakened, that they cannot do their office. These contents, by reason that they are gross and heavy, therefore they appear always in the bottom of the urinal.  

Brannie contents.  Other difform contents there be also, of which some are like bran, and some like scales. And of those that are like bran, there is one sort smaller, and another grosser; the smaller sort is like the bran of Wheat that is finely ground, and those may I call fine bran. The grosser is like bran of Barley, or of evil ground wheat, and may therefore be called gross bran, 
Fine bran. Gross bran.  for it is thrice as big as the other.  

Scales.  The third sort which is like Scales, hath no notable thickness, but only breadth and length. These three do betoken waste of the strongest parts of the body; but yet not all alike, as Hypocrates doth declare in the second Book of his Prognostics. Howbeit, because that place of Hypocrates is so difficult, that scarcely the great learned men can agree thereon, I will not now meddle therewith, but will write Actuarius mind of those three.  

Fine bran.  When the Ague (saith he) is grounded in the bottom of the veins, than there appeareth such fine bran. Howbeit, sometimes it is a token of the only grief of the bladder being scabbed, as witnesseth Hypocrates, 4. Aphor. 77. But than hath the Patient no Ague, and again, there doth appear tokens of concoction in the urine. But when it cometh of the whole body, this is the cause thereof; The Ague getting power and prevailing unto the hard parts of the body (as in those Agues which are called Fevers hectike) then in the striving between those parts and the Ague, the Ague having the mastery, doth by his violence raise of such brannie scurf. For the nature of fire (whose operation the Ague hath) is to work according as the matter is that it findeth, either to melt it, if it be a liquid and unctuous thing, either else to scale it and fret it, if it be hard and unpliant: and the harder that the matter is, the greater scales it fretteth off; which thing you may see by daily experience, how fire melteth wax and tallow, and such like, turning them into liquids: whereas of iron and of other metals, 
Scales.  it maketh scales and not liquor.  
But when the Ague hath attained and overset, not only the substance of the veins, but also the strong parts of the body, and doth melt and waste them, than doth there appear in the urine, scales, broad and thin, which you shall know to come 〈◊〉 the whole body (as I said of the other before) if the Patient have an Ague, or the● appear default of concoction in the urine ● else if these two be absent, it may come o● the blistering of the bladder, as Hippocrate● writeth 4. Aphor. 81. and namely, if ther● be in the urine an evil savour withal.  

Gross bran.  Now to speak of the great and gross bran, which as it is much greater than the other, so doth it declare a greater strength of the Ague, and that in the whole body, and all the parts of it, enflaming and burning the whole substance thereof, and therefore is it not only the worst of them all, but is nigh unto a deadly sign, 
Note.  and that either by the waste and consuming of the great and strongest parts of the body, or else by the burning or drying up of the blood. Which two things you may discern asunder by the colour of them. For if they be red, then come they of the burning of the blood; but if they be white, then come they of the waist of the strongest parts of the body.  

Hippoc. 7. Aphor. 31.  Of this kind of contents speaketh Hypocrates saying: In whatsoever Agues there doth appear grounds like unto gross bran, it is a token that the sickness shall continue long. Which saying, Galen doth understand so to be true, If the Patient have sufficient strength to continue with such sickness, else it may be a sign rather of short life, then of long sickness. For as that token is commonly deadly, so those few that do escape, do recover hardly, and not without the long sufferance of the violence of that cruel Ague.  
Now as touching the foreknowledge of it, whether the patiented may endure with it or no, that shall you gather of the multitude, order, and stableness or unstableness of it. For if they be many in number, and proceed to worse and worse, than it is an evil and mortal sign, and doth declare that nature is wearied and doth quite faint thorough the waste and decay of the whole constitution of the body: But contrariwise, if they appear few, and do alter continually unto less evil tokens, then is there good hope of health. And this shall suffice as touching these.  

Ragged scraps.  Now to speak of the rest, of the ragged scraps, hairs, and other like: First you shall understand, that sometime a good ground is coupled with certain evil and unconcted fragments of all sorts of humours, for sometime there appeareth with the contents certain ragged scraps, inclining in colour toward a yellow, or a white, ● else some such like, if those appear in gre● quantity, they declare the matter to be ha● unconcoct, and that the humour (who scraps they are) doth abound in the depth ● the body, and is as dust or burned, but if the● be few, then declare they the malice ● the humour to be milder, and that the ● of evil meats doth cause them, the great● that such ragged scraps are, the lesser adu●on of humours they declare to be in t● veins, and the lesser they be, the greater he they do betoken. For the cause of suc● ragged scraps is excessive heat, which do turn those humours into a thickness, and as ● were a bony nature, by reason that they ha● remained long in certain veins, and we● neither dissolved, nor extenuated, nor ye● quickly expelled by urine.  

Hairs.  Besides these there are hairs of sundr● lengths, some an inch, and some an handful long, some longer, and some shorter; an● these are in colour whitely, and do betoken grief of the reins. These are engendered in th● water-pipes, which go from the reins t● the bladder, so that as long as those water-pipes are in length, so long may those hair also be, which are a gross and baked humour wrought in form of a hair.  
Of those speaketh Hypocrates, saying; 
4. Aph. 76.  In whose Urine soever there doth appear little pieces of flesh, either as it were hairs, those same come from the reins, namely, if the urine be thick. Howbeit these are sometimes seen in such men's urines as feel no grief in the reins, but only have fed some continuing space on phlegmatic meats, which will prepare matter to such diseases, as they do also to many other griefs, of which to speak in this place it is meet.  
But to go on with this thing that we have in hand, beside such ragged scraps and hairs (as I have spoken of) there appear sometimes in the ground of the urine, and also disparkled abroad in the urine itself, sundry and divers kinds of motes (as it were) which do declare that there is grief dispersed in sundry parts of the body. 
Motes.   

The places of the contents. The lowest region.  And this now may suffice, as touching contents of every kind: Therefore now will I a little repeat out of Actuarius of the diversity of judgement, by the places or regions of the contents.  
That ground which fleeteth nigh to the bottom of the urinal, being in other points also good and mild, doth betoken no strange thing. But if it be unconcoct and deformed it betokeneth default in nature. And if his, parts be disparkled asunder, it betokene● a dimness in nature, which doth not rest the rebellion of noisome humours, so tha● in such case there appeareth need both ● long time, and also more strength to overcome that evil. But as it is commendable that the ground fleet nigh the bottom o● the urinal, so is it discommendable if it lye● flat on the bottom of the same.  

The middle region.  Now as touching the swim or sublimation, if it be good in colour and other ways, then doth it differ only in place from a right ground: and that cometh of an unnatural ●iness, which maketh it to be so light, ●o fleet above his due place, but if his ●r and other like points be evil, yet ●oth it betoken less evil, then if it ●in the right place of the ground.  

The region  ● now as touching the third and high●●gion, which is the place of the clouds. ●e appear a light and thin cloud, it be●th no small grief of the head. But ●fference is there in the clouds, the that they be in colour and substance, ●ther they differ from a right good ●urall Content. And therefore need ●ng time to return thereunto. And ●y ways, the worse that they are in ●nd substance, the less they are to be blamed, by reason of their place, which is so much distant from the natural place of Contents. For this is a general rule: The lower that good contents fleet in the urine, (excepting always such as cleave to the hard bottom) the better they are. And contrary ways of evil contents and such like, the higher they fleet, the less evil they betoken.  

The proportion of the regions, to the parts of man.  Now to make an end of this. You shall observe a certain proportion that is between the parts of the urine, and the parts of man's body. The highest part of the urine doth betoken, the highest part of the body, namely the head, and such other near unto it. The middle region of the urine doth represent the middle parts of man, as the breast, the bowels, and the parts about them. The hither region of the urine doth purport the lowest parts of man, from the bowels downward. And if you mark well this proportion, you may the easier judge the griefs of the parts of man.  
For when the contents which in colour and substance are natural, and yet by the abundance of windiness be lift up to the higher part of the urine, it declareth some great pain to be in the head. And in like manner, when the swim or sublimation doth declare grief, that grief must be lo●ed to be in the middlemost parts of man (● I said before) and so of the other.  
Again, as this proportion between th● regions of urine, and the parts of man's body doth declare that place in certain height so doth it in breadth also by like proportion if you do duly mark the side, unto whic● the contents do decline.  
And if you mark well what I have sai● you may perceive the only cause of me● such griefs, when the contents is only disordered in place, cometh of an unnatural windines, but yet commonly annexed wit● phlegmatic and unconcocted matter.  
And as the windiness doth cause disord● in the contents, so it causeth also another kind of things not to be neglected in urine and that is bubbles: 
Bubbles.  which sometimes flo● in the ring or garland only, and sometimes in the midst of the urine only, and other times do cover the whole face of the urin●  
The Bubbles which stand round abo● over the garland only, and continue without parting, if they he of the same colour th● the urine is, they declare great pain to be it the head, and that in all parts of the head● if the Bubbles join together without parting. But and if they occupy only the one half of the garland, then is that pain in the one half of the head. And so forth may you judge by like proportion.  
But if they do part in sundry places, and join not all together, it is a token that the pain is the lesser, and cometh of a weaker cause. The more yellower that their colour is, the greater they declare the pain in the head to be. If they be white, or rather whitish, and stand about in the compass of the garland, they betoken little pain or none. And if the urine be thin withal, they betoken weakness of natural heat, or else the oppilation and stopping of the reins, namely, if there appear no ground in the urine. This doth Hypocrates witness, 
7. Aph. 14.  saying; When in the urine there swimmeth bubbles, they betoken grief in the reins: And also that it shall long continue. The reason of the long continuance (as Galen and Philotheus do both declare) is, because that the grief cometh of cold and tough phlegmatic matter, which always is long before it may overcome. 
Lib. 28. c. 6.  Pliny also saith, that that urine is evil, which is full of bubbles and thick, in which if the ground be white, it is a token that there shall be grief either about the joints, or else about the bowels. Howbeit, yet sometimes the bubbles are not an evil token, but contrariwise, a good token of concoction, and declare that nature doth now apply herself wholly unto concoction. And this do the Bubbles signify, when they appear in the water, in which they were not seen long before. And therefore in an Ague, we may conjecture the declination of it, when we see bubbles to appear after that sort; except it be so that they appeared in the urine at the beginning of the sickness, and hath so continued still: For than they declare grievous pain to be in the head, yea and that dangerous, if the urine also be thin in substance. But if the substance of the urine be thick, than the bubbles are not so evil a sign, neither declare so grievous danger.  
Sometimes in stead of Bubbles which do not appear when they should, it sufficeth that there appear a gross some (as it is sometimes seen to rise upon wine) and it doth betoken even the same thing that the Bubble do, 
Foam.  especially in the declination of the Ague of which I spoke a little before.  
These Bubbles do appear very thick above the garland, in the urine of him that hath the issue of seed, or waste of nature. Sometime also there are seen in the Bubbles certain small scraps (as you would say) much like hairs in grossness, and of such length sometime that they reach from the one side of the bubble unto the other, and sometimes longer, and sometimes shorter, which things may come either of the wasting of the reins, or else of the shedding of nature.  
The cause of the generation of bubbles, and also of the dispersing and elevation of the contents, is an unnatural windiness. Of which, as there are divers kinds much differing asunder, partly in multitude, partly in substance, and partly also in quality, so doth the bubbles engendered of them diversely , according unto those differences, whether they be sole and several, or jointly many knit together. But windiness if it be gross, then doth it puff up such Bubbles; and if it be subtle, then doth it rather work a dispersion in the contents, and is not able nor meet to cause Bubbles. And hereby may you know the quality of the windiness, and likewise also the quantity. For there appeareth less quantity of windiness to be where the contents only are dispersed, then where such Bubbles be engendered.  
Now as touching the other qualities of it, as heat and cold (which are the chief qualities indeed, and most active) you may judge them by the colour of the bubbles. For as pale colour, and other low colours declare coldness of that windiness, so high colours inclining toward yellow or higher, be certain tokens of heat.  
Bubbles that are small, and thick knit together in the garland of the urine, doth betoken a gross windiness, whose cause cannot easily be vanquished; for the grossness and toughness that is in them, will not suffer them to swell great, and that causeth them to be so small. And contrariwise, the greater that the bubbles be, and the more bouled, the more they declare that windines that causeth them to be severed from tough matter. Moreover, the colder that such windiness is, the lesser grief is felt of them.  
Bubbles in the urine of old men, namely being great and large, do betoken cold windiness, but sometime such bubbles are ● sign of rheum distilling from the head into the lights, especially if the Patient at th● entering of Summer were very hot, and 〈◊〉 did drink much, which matter, the head being dried, did draw unto him, and did distil again part of it down into the lights whereof cometh a cough, and part of it into the womb, which thereby is moved to lax.   

CHAP. X. Of the Garland and other like things.  
AS I have compendiously, and yet not very slightly spoken of those former parts, to be considered in urine, so will I briefly speak of a few more, which may not well be omitted, and so make an end of the Judicial.  

The Garland.  First, therefore in the over-part of the urine, round about the edge of the urine there appeareth a garland, circled, or ring, which doth there appear, by reason that the higher part of the urine being thinner than the rest, and more subtler, and therefore doth not only more sooner alter, but doth more readier declare the alteration. Howbeit sometime there doth appear no ring at all; and that is when the colour of the urine, and of it is all one, by reason of the great force of the cause which altereth the urine, but yet so that nature doth match that humour, and is neither overcome by it, neither yet hath overcome it. For if nature have plainly either got the victory, or lost it, then is there another colour in the garland, then is in the rest of the urine.  
Now if the colour of the urine be evil, and the colour of the garland better, it is a token of health. As if the colour of the urine be yellow, red, or crimson, or any such like, and the colour of the garland be white, or whitely, it is a token full of good hope; but when the colour of the whole urine is evil, and the colour of the garland worse yet, then is it an evil sign. As when the colour of the urine is green or purple, and the garland worse coloured, then is it a plain token that nature is overcome, and that the evil humours have gotten the upperhand.  
Of these more particularly doth Egidius treat, but yet not more truly nor more sufficiently, his words are these: If the circle of the urine be thick and watery, it is a token that the hinder part of the head is oppressed with phlegmatic matter; but if it be purple-coloured and thick, then is the forepart of the head overcharged with blood.  
A pale and a thin circle declareth the left side of the head to be troubled with melancholy matter; but if it be red and thin, it betokeneth choler to abound in the right part of the head.  

Leddy or ash-colour.  A Leadie or Ash coloured circle, doth signify the falling Evil, through the great grief of the brain.  
And further declareth that such grief shall proceed by the sinews into the other parts of the body. But if after such a leadie colour there follow a reddsh colour, that is a good token; for than doth nature gather strength again, and the powers of the brain reviveth.  

Green.  If the colour of the garland be green, and the Patient have a burning Ague, it is to be feared, lest that the abundance of choler shall cause a Frenzy.  

Black.  Black colour in the circle doth sometime betoken mortification, and sometime only extreme heat. But these shall you distinct (as I said before of the urine itself) by the order of the colours. For if green colour went before, then doth the black betoken adustion through heat, but if his colour last before was ash-colour, then is it a token of death, coming through the dominion of cold. And thus much as touching the colours may suffice for this time. 
Quivering in the garland.   
Sometimes also you shall perceive a quivering and trembling in the garland, and that declareth grief in the back bone. And thus many tokens be taken of the circle or garland.  

Fattiness.  Sometimes there will appear fleeting on the urine, certain scum or fattiness, sometimes like drops of oil, and sometime like a thin spider's web, and these both do betoken the melting of the fat within the body, as Hypocrates witnesseth in his Prognostics, 
7 Aph. 30.  howbeit in his Aphorisms he doth assign it as a token of the grief of the reins peculiarly, saying; In whole urine there fleeteth fattiness, and that much at once, they have pain in the reins, but shall not long endure.  
This Aphorism doth Galen understand so to be true, if that fattiness appear quickly and much at once; else if it come by little and little with longer continuance, so doth it not betoken waist only of the fat about the reins, but rather throughout the whole body, which sign yet is not always evil, except it continue long; for if it continue but a little while, it declareth no great evil.  

Stinking sa●our in urine.  Now to go forth with other signs; If the urine have a stinking savour, it is ever an evil sign, for it doth betoken some putrefaction more or less; as of the bladder only, by some blister or sore in it: and that most certainly, when the stinch is very great, and there appeareth also scales in the urine, and matter. But if there be matter in the urine, and the stinking savour but mean, then doth it declare the sore to be in some other part of the body. But this ever is true, that matter in urine is a token of a sore. And if in continuance of time the matter and stinch do abate, it is a good token, but if the other continue or increase, it is an evil sign. If the urine do stink, and there appear no matter in it, then is it a token of some mortifying. For if there be in the urine mean tokens of concoction, then is the mortification in some one part of the body; but if the other signs in the urine be evil, then is that mortification rather of the whole body, then of any one part of it.  
And thus have I overrun briefly the chief things to be considered in urine, which (I say) are appertaining or annexed to the urine itself. Howbeit two other things there are, which though they be more plainer than these other, yet may they be overpassed no more than the other: that is to say, blood coming forth with the urine, and gravel expelled therewith also.  

Blood.  Blood coming forth with urine, doth declare some sore to be in the reins or bladder (as Hypocrates writeth in his Aphorisms) or else some vein to be broken about the reins, namely if it come suddenly, and without manifest cause. Howbeit, as Galen, Oribasius, and divers others do declare, and reason also with experience doth consent, there may appear blood in the urine also, i● that there be such a sore in the liver, or in t● shaft. But in any of these cases, the pain fe● in the place and part, will utter from whence the blood cometh.  

Gravel.  Now to speak of gravel: Hypocrates saith, In whose urine there appeareth grave● in the bottom, they have the stone in the bladder, or else in the reins, as Galen addeth; but commonly if the stone be in the reins, the gravel will be red, as Hypocrate● declareth in his sixth Book of his Epidemies, And thus now will I make an end of the judicial of urine.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Commodities and Medicines of Urine.  
THe greatest commodity of urine is already declared: that is, That it doth declare unto man, the manifold diseases which happen unto him; and thereby doth not only give him knowledge of the cause, and so consequently of the cure of the same, but also warneth him before of the grief to come, whereby he may take an occasion to eschew it, if he will be diligent.  
Now as this is the greatest commodity of urine, so it hath many other as well in use of medicine as other ways, of which I will write some, though not all. And first out of Pliny, 
Pliny.  which reciteth strange operations of the urine of a Hedgehog, and of a Beast that the Greeks call Leontophon, and moreover of the Beast Lynx, which I omit now with many other: but this will I not omit, 
Urine of man.  that Hosthanes saith: That if a man let his own urine drop upon his feet in the morning, it is good against all evil. And that it is good for the gout, we may perceive by Fuller's, which never have the gout, by reason that their feet are so often washed with it.  

Ostrich urine.  The same Pliny writeth, That the Urine of an Ostrich, will do away blots and moles of Ink.  
Also that if Urine be tempered with water of like quantity, and so poured at the roots of the trees, it will both nourish them (as many men say) and also drive all noyance from them.  

Bees.  The urine also of men or oxen, tempered with honey, and given to Bees, will cure them that are poisoned with the flower of the Cormier or Cornoiller tree.  

Beans.  And likewise if Beans be steeped in urine and water three days before they be sowed, 
Dioscorides Stinging of Adders, etc.  some judge that they will increase exceedingly. Dioscorides saith, That a man's own urine is good to be drunk for stinging of Adders, and against poison, and also against the dropsy when it doth begin: And for the stinging of the sea-Adders, of scorpions, and dragons; it is good to soak the stinged part withal.  

Dog's urine.  The urine of Dogs is good to soak the place that is bitten with a Dog, and to cleanse manginess, and itchinesse, if salt peter be added thereto. And that that is old will more strongly cleanse scales, scurff, scabs and hot bushes. Also it stayeth fretting sores, namely, on the privy members. Furthermore it stincheth mattering ears, if it be dropped thereinto, and if it be sod in the rind of a Pomegranate, it expelleth worms out of the ears.  

Child's urine.  The urine of a child under 14. years of age doth cure the toughness of breath, if it be drunken. If it be sod in a brazen vessel with honey, it healeth creythes, and also the web and the tey in the eye. There is made of it and copper, good soldier for gold.  

Dregs of urine.  The dregs of urine is good for Saint Anthony's evil, if it be anointed thereon, so that (as Galen doth wisely add) the sore be cooled first with some other thing, and be not burning. If it be heated with oil of privet, and laid to the womb of a woman, it will assuage the grief of the mother, and cureth also the rising of the same. It cleanseth the eyelids, and the creythes in the eyes.  

Ox stolen.  Ox stolen being tempered with myrrh, and dropped into sore ears, healeth the pain of them. The urine of a wild Boar, 
Wild bore.  is of the same virtue if it be kept (as Sextus Platonicus writeth) in a glass, and dropped warm into them, but it hath a more peculiar property in breaking of the stone, and to expel the same, if it be drunk.  

Goat's urine  Goat's urine drunk every day, with Spikenard, and three ounces of water, is good for the dropsy, for it expelleth urine by the siege, and it cureth pain of the ears, if it be dropped into them.  

Ass piss.  Ass piss (as it is written) is good for the grief of the reins, if it be drunk.  

Mules stolen.  Mules stolen (as Paulus Aegineta saith) is good to heal pain in the joints.  

Camels and goats stolen.  The stolen of Camels and Goats also doth provoke siege, and therefore is good for them that have the dropsy.  

Sextus Platonicus.  Sextus Platonicus saith, That Goat's urine (if it be drunk) doth provoke woman's terms, and cureth pain in the ears being droped into them, 
Paulus Aegineta.  and being mixed with mulset wine, and so dropped into the ear● it draweth out matter, if there be any.  

Wild Boar.  The urine of the wild Boar with mulse vinegar, is good for the falling evil, if it be drunk.  

Dogs piss.  A Dogs piss tempered with dust, and l● in wool, will heal corns marveilously, an● destroy warts.  

Child's urine.  A child's urine will heal the stinging of Bee, Wasp and Hornet, if the place be washed therewith.  

Man's urine.  A man's urine will cleanse the freckle● and spots in the face. And if a woman ca●not be delivered of the after burden, let he drink man's urine, and she shall be delivered strait.  

Collumella.  Collumella saith, that the best dunging f● young shots of trees, is man's urine, namely which hath stood half a year. For if yo● water vines or appletrees with it, there no dung that will cause so much fruit as ● will do: 
Sheep's urine  and not only that, but it cause● also the savour and the taste both of the apples, and of the wine, to be much the better.  

Constantinus Affricanus.  Constantinus Affricanus saith, That the urine of a Sheep, or an Ox, with some hot oil is good for the grief in the ears that cometh of cold. 
Vitalis.  Urine (as Vitalis de Furno saith) fretteth, drieth, and burneth, and is good for the grief of the spleen, if it be drunk, as Gentilis writeth.  

Ass stolen.  The Urine of a male Ass, as the same Vitalis saith) tempered with Nardus doth increase and preserve hair.  

M. Virgilius  And as some say (by the writing of Marcellus Virgilius) Urine is of no small nourishment, for divers folk in the time of dearth, have been preserved by the only use, and drinking of it.  

Marcellus.  Also Marcellus the Practitioner, in the 27. Chapter doth witness; That the Urine of a man is good for divers diseases of the womb and bowels, and namely for the Colic, because that partly with provoking of vomit, and partly by occasion of seges, it expelleth strongly all noisome humours, and for the same cause doth common Practitioners keep it still in daily use.  

Vldericus Huttenus.  Vlderick Hutten also witnesseth, That he did drive away the Ague above 8. times with the only drinking of his own Urine, at the beginning of his sickness. And many still do use the same practice, and it proveth well.  
Likewise Marsilius Ficinus writeth that Many men do use to drink urine for the Pestilence; 
Marsilius Ficinus.  which thing did Galen write long before him, and also Paulus Aegineta; and do testify also, that it preserved them tha● drank it: at the least way as they thought  

Galen.  All urine (as Galen writeth) is hot i● virtue, and sharp (as saith Aegineta) howbeit, it differeth according to them that mak● it. For the hotter they are that make it, the hotter is it also, and likewise the colder urine cometh of a colder body.  
men's urine is the weakest of all other except tame barrow hogs; for they in ver● many points agree with man, but the urin● of wild Boars is stronger.  

Man's urine  men's urine is of as strong cleansing virtue as any thing else, and therefore do Fulle● use it to scour and cleanse their cloth. An● in cure of griefs also for the same reason it is used to soak, and wash maunginess, an● scabbedness, and running sores that are ful● of corruption and filth, and specially if they have in them putrified matter, and for suc● sores on the privy members it is good, an● for mattering ears, and for scales and scurf● if the head be washed in it.  
I have healed with it many times sores on the toes, namely, which came of bruises, and were without inflammation, and that in servants and husbandmen, which had a journey to go, and no Physician with them, bidding them to wet a small clout with it, and to put into the sores, and then to bind a cloth about it, and as often as they listed to make water, to let it fall on their sore toes, and not to take the cloth away till it were quite whole.  

Chrisocola  That medicine which is made of child's urine, called of some men in Greek, Chrysocola (that is to say, gold soldier) because men use to soldier gold. This (I say) is exceeding good for sores that are hard to heal. For this medicine do I use for the chiefest, mixing it with such other things, as are good for such like sores:  
In the time of Pestilence in Syria, many did drink children's urine and men's also, and thought that they were preserved by it.  

Alchumists.  Of urine also, do Alchumysts make divers things, as salt, and other things moe.  
And many other commodities there be of urine, as for washing and scouring, and other like, which for briefness I overpass, and the rather, because they are commonly known of all folk.  

Of the Diseases touching Vrines, and the Remedies for the same.  
NOw to come to that I promised, as touching the griefs which hinder urine, or expel it disorderly, either in time oftener than is meet, or in quality, with other fashions than is agreeable to it, or like other sorts, I will briefly write, not intending to teach the art of curing them, (which would require a longer Treatise, and a meeter place) but only to name certain of the most common diseases, and to set after them such simple and uncompound medicines only which cure those griefs.  

Stopping of urine. The stone.  First therefore, touching the hindrance or stopping of urine, it is not unknown, that one common cause is the stone, which sometimes is in the reins, and sometime in the bladder. I shown you before, that commonly you may discern those two asunder, by the colour of the gravel, but the more sure token is the grief in the sick part.  
Now for the cure of the same, doth these medicines serve, which follow. But as I have always said, you shall use them with the counsel of some learned Physician; for there is great difference both of the grief, and of the medicines.  

Medicines for the stone, both in the Reins and Bladder.  

Astra Bacca.  
Ameos.  
Angle toches sod.  
Betony.  
Bryony root.  
Bylgrum.  
Chamamel.  
Capers Bark, namely of the root.  
Claret seed.  
Clotpoll seed.  
Dock root.  
Fenel seed, and root.  
Goat's blood.  
Gladian.  
Gromell.  
Gum of Plumtree, and Cherry tree.  
A hedge Sparrow.  
Harebell.  
Kneholm root and Berries.  
Madder root.  
High Mallows seed and Root.  
Mugwort.  
Parseley.  
Pelliter of Spain.  
Pyony Berries which are black.  
Radish.  
Sampere.  
S. john's Wort.  
Sperage.  
Scholm.  
Swine's Fenell.  
Sothern Wood-seed.  
Sour Almonds.  
Tent-wort.  
Tutsan Berries.  
Water Plantine.  
Winter Gillyflower   
And beside these there are divers others.  
Also the Stone itself that came from a man, being braid and drunken, will break and expel that other within him.  
Beside the stone, also it causeth the urine to be clean stopped, by reason of weakness of the expulsive virtue, and sometimes through clods of blood, which rest in the shaft. Sometimes also through tough and clammy humours, and sometime through some swelling within the yard, and divers other ways also, of which the declaration is too long for this place and time: but another time I intent to write of them at large, and of all other griefs of man's body.  
But to return to this matter that is in hand. One other stop of urine there is, which doth not clean let it, but causeth it to avoid lesser than it should; and this cometh of like causes as that other last did, save that the cause is less, according as the stay of urine is, and therefore the cure in both is much like. For if it come of weakness of the expulsive virtue, then with the use of other hot meats and drinks, those medicines are good which do provoke urine, as these be that follow.   

Medicines which do provoke urine.  

Aniseed.  
Ally-saunders.  
Alkakengi.  
basil.  
Bylgrum.  
Cammock.  
Charlock.  
Chervell.  
Caraways.  
Calamus Aromaticus.  
Cubebes.  
Dictany of Candie.  
Dragance.  
fumitory.  
Fatchys.  
Flower delice.  
Garlic.  
Ground pine.  
Ginger.  
Helecompane.  
Honey.  
Juniper and the Berries.  
Alas savery.  
Leeks. Mints.  
Margerom.  
Maiden hair.  
Navew. Nepte.  
Negella Romana.  
Nettle. Pepper.  
Pie Ryall.  
Quinces.  
Rue. Rosemary.  
Rocquet.  
Savine.  
Sage. savery.  
Time.  
Valerion.  
Wild Marjoram.  
Wild Parseley.  
Wild Time.  
Water Cresses.  
Woodbinde.   
with many other, and namely those for the most part, which I named before to be good for the stone. But there must be discretion in the use of them.  
Besides those, is there a disease named the Strangury (which some corruptly call the Strangurion) in which Disease the urine doth continually drop forth, 
Excess of urine.  as fast as it cometh into the bladder. And therefore may it well be noted the first kind of such griefs as provoke forth, and further urine excessively. For that strangury these Medicines following are noted good.   

Medicines for the Strangury.  

Alexander.  
Astra Bacca.  
Brokelime.  
Cedar berries.  
Ceterake.  
Calamus Aromaticus.  
Gladiane.  
Knot grass.  
Kneholm.  
Sperage.  
Seholm.  
Spatula Fetida.  
Turpentine washed.  
Wild Fennell.  
Water mints.   
But you must consider (as I have often said) that as the disease may come of sundry causes, so it must have sundry cures. For most commonly these are good that I have written, yet such may be the cause of the sickness, that they may do harm, therefore take always counsel of some learned Physician.  
Another kind of excessive making of urine cometh of the weakness of the retentive virtue in the reins, whereby the Patient pisseth as fast as he drinketh, 
Flux of urine. Pissing evil. The piss gout.  and that in like quantity. This I may call the flux of urine, or pissing evil: or after the imitation of the Greeks, the piss gout. For which disease it is not greatly commendable to set forth medicines with the only bare names. Howbeit, if I do it, I trust no man will the rather misuse them, namely being warned so often to take no medicines without counsel, and specially in this thing, For some of the Medicines must be received inwardly, and some of them emplastered outwardly.   

Medicines for the pissing evil.  

Apples.  
Dates.  
Elecompane.  
Peries.  
Myrtle Berries.  
Night shade.  
Cycory. comfery.  
Endive. Paritarie.  
Penny wort. Lettuce,  
Lintels. Pomegranate.  
Purslane.  
Vine leaves.   
Other defaults there be of excess of urine, as of them which cannot keep their urine, and namely of children, which piss their beds. This disease cometh oftentimes of the dissolution of the muscle which should keep the urine, and therefore requireth cure meet for it, and unmeet for this place, and such shortness. Wherefore for this time here I will make an end, trusting that all men will with as gentle heart receive this my writing, as I of gentleness have taken the pains to set it forth.    

Additions. Of the diversities of Colours, and of the making of them.  
BEcause that it is not very easy for every man to distinguish colours duly asunder, I thought it good at the end of this Book, a little to touch the distinction and making of them, namely of such as are mentioned before in this Book.  

Milk white.  Milk white, by the name of itself doth sufficiently declare what it is; for it is the very colour of milk, though the substance need not to be so thick in the urine, as in the milk, for the colour must be understood several from the substance, both in this and all other colours, which thing would be remembered, for it might else (as it hath often done) deceive the simple folk.  

Horn white.  Horn white in like manner hath his name of the thing that it assimuleth most, for it is like the white and clear part of a horn of a lantern, or such like.  

Grey.  Grey is like the white part of a man's nail next unto the joint, or like hoar hair that is not very white, for grey is so much darker than horn white, as horn white is darker than milk white.  

Pale.  Pale colour hath a certain appearance of yellow in it, but is exceeding little. If you seethe a piece of the rind of Pomegranate, and then put to it thrice as much clean water, it will be a pale colour.  

Flaxen.  But if you put thereto little or no clean water, it will be flaxen coloured, that is somewhat more yellower than pale.  

Pale.  After it followeth pale, which is a kind of light yellow, something lighter in colour then crown gold.  

Yellow.  For the colour of pure gold (as an angel or royal) is a right yellow colour.  

Light saffron.  A light saffron colour is, that colour that saffron doth make when it is steeped in water, and laid light on any white. For if it be laid on deep, then doth it make a full saffron colour. 
Saffron.  For that is called a saffron colour, which saffron doth die, and not that that is in the saffron itself. 
Red. Claret.  For that is very red, and is higher than claret, which is a mean colour between saffron and red, as if it were made of them both mixed together.  

Crimson.  Crimson is a dark bloody colour, well known by his own name, but is not in urine so light as it showeth in cloth. Purple, 
Purple.  needeth not to be much described, being so commonly known, howbeit if you will see the making of it, mix a dark crimson, with an orient blue, and it will be purple. And because that many men be deceived in the latin name of this colour, you shall observe that it is not that which in Latin is called Purpureus colour, (as most men think) for that is rather a crimson, but it is called more peculiarly Purpura violacea, or Passeus colour.  

Blue.  Blue colour is the colour of the clear Sky, or of Azure. Howbeit, in urine it is not so orient, but if you will mix pure white (as white lead, or pure lime) with due portion of right black (as coal dust, or other like) then there will of these amount that blue, which is ascribed to urine.  

Green.  Green is a compound colour of blue and yellow duly tempered together. And the right green have I in this Book called a stark green. 
Stark green.  But if the yellow do exceed in it, then is it a light green; and contrariwise, if the blue do exceed, 
Light green.  then is it a dark green: Of this green doth Dioscorides mean, when he doth say of divers herbs, that their leaves be black; and sometime when he noteth white-lines to be in herbs, he meaneth a light green, though he other times understandeth thereby a certain horiness; of which thing in mine Herbal you shall read more exactly.  

Oily.  Oily colours differ from green oily in their lightness of hue, and thinness of substance in the urine where they appear. The light oily is somewhat lighter, 
Light.  (or rather) brighter and more glittering then light green, 
Stark.  So is the stark oily brighter than the stark green, 
Dark.  and the dark oily than the dark green, which all cometh through the thinness of substance in the urine.  

Ash-colour.  Ash-colour is darker than blew, and is made of the same sort that blue is, save that it requireth more of the black by twofold. This is the colour of lead, which is much darker than the inner part, though indeed both are one colour, and differ only in brightness and darkness, which ought rather to be called the hue of colours, than colour.  

Black.  Now as for black, I need not to speak any whit, for as all men do know it, so these very letters do show it, which though of all other it be most deadly, yet is it surely of all the most mighty, for it overcommeth all colours, and none can change it, so that well it may be called the colour of death. For as death overcometh all bodies, so black doth damp all colours; beside, that it is the messenger and token of death, which is the end of all things, and black the end of colours.   

The Exposition of certain Words.  
NOw for because I was enforced to use some (though but few) terms in this Book, which be not well known of the most sort of men, though a great number know them well enough, by often talking with Physicians, I thought it good here to declare some certain of them, for the aid of the most simple sort.  

Ages.  
Because that in the judgement of urines, the differences of ages ought to be considered, you shall understand that the chief differences of them are four, that is to say, Childhood, 
Childhood.  Youth, Manhood, and Old-age, for though there be commonly 7. Ages reckoned, yet these be four principal, and the other three be comprehended under these four, childhood endureth from the hour of birth till the end of 14. years of age, and is of complexion hot and moist. At the end of 14. years beginneth youth, 
Youth.  and lasteth till the 25. year, and this age of all other is in complexion the most temperate. From 25. until 35. years, 
Manhood.  is the flourishing of manhood, but yet that manhood lasteth (though not in full freshness) until 50. years of age, and this age is of complexion hot and dry. From 50. years forward, is the time of age peculiarly called, 
Age.  in which time man's nature is cold and dry, and not moist, as many do falsely think.  

Alterative Active q. Brightness.  Active qualities, see the title of qualities.  
Alterative virtue, see in the title of virtues.  
Brightness in urine must be marked for a several thing from cleverness. For the brightness betokeneth the orientness and the beauty of the colour, with a certain glistering. And cleverness is referred to the substance of urine, 
Clearness.  and is ever annexed with thinness of it. Yet is it a divers quality from thinness. So may an urine be clear in substance, by the reason of his thinness, and yet not bright in colour, and not clear in substance, but this would be well pondered, lest this necessary distinction, cause a negligent confusion.  

Critical days.  Critical days be such days, on which there is (or may be) perceived some certain token and great alteration in the sick body, either to health or death, or continuance of sickness. What these be, more at large I will hereafter (God willing) declare in a Book peculiarly, because it requireth more largeness of words, then is meet for this place. But one thing I must tell you, that the same days also be called Judicial, 
Judicial days.  but not Indiciall, for the Indiciall days are of another kind: but yet associate to these other.  

Crudity.  Crudity is the rawness of the meat in the stomach, when the natural operation of it cannot duly digest the meat which it hath received; and therefore the urine which declareth default of such digestion, is called a crude, raw, and unconcoct urine.  

Cupping.  Cupping is commonly known, that ● needeth no declaration.  

cloddy urine.  A cloddy urine is that which hath in it clods of blood, or other crude matter, or any clustering of difform contents.  
Dark ground is not meant of the darkness of colour, but rather of the slenderness of substance, so that it can scarcely be discerned to be any ground, by reason that it is so near in shape and substance to the rest of the urine. 
Dulness.  Dulness of colour is contrary to brightness, so that when the colour lacketh all brightness, then is it clean dulled, and whatsoever thing causeth decay of such brightness, that thing dulleth urine.  

Divers.  Those contents be called divers, which have neither their own right form, nor any other certain, but are altogether disordered and out of form, rather seeming to be many, then to be one.  

Duly knit.  Duly knit, is a property of due contents, when they are not tattered, ragged, nor jagged, nor flittering asunder, nor yet are not so clammed together, as tough fleam, or any such thing, but are in a moderate mean between both these.  

A gathering  A gathering sore, is that sore that is caused of the excessive recourse of humours into any part of the body, as a bile, or any other like.  

Harvest.  Harvest, seek times of the year.  

Judicial days.  Judicial days, seek Critical days.  

Inequality.  Inequality of substance in urine doth appear to be the difforments and disagreeing of the parts of it together; as when it is thin in one part, and thick in another. Howbeit, it is as well used for the alteration from a mean substance to thickness or thinness, or other ways unnatural. Obstruction, 
Obstruction.  is a stopping commonly of the veins, and such great conduits (which convey blood or any other humour) so that the thing which they should convey cannot freely pass as it ought. But if the like stopping happen in the pores of the skin, (I mean those unsensible holes, by which sweat passeth out) so that neither sweat, nor any like excrement may pass that ways, then is it most named Oppilation. Howbeit, 
Oppilation.  as these words be sometimes used the one for the other, so they be applied also to other sundry parts of the body; but evermore they betoken such stopping in that part, that nature's work is hindered thereby.  

Principal members.  Principal members (as to our purpose now) are these 3. the brain, the heart, and the liver.  

Passive. Putrefaction.  Passive: seek Qualities.  
Putrefaction is commonly known to signify, rotting.  

Qualities.  Qualities active, are named heat and cold, because they are more apt and able to work, then to be wrought. And contrary ways, dryness and moisture are named passive, or suffering qualities, because they are more ready to be altered by the working of hea● and cold, then to work themselves; howbeit yet they do work also.  

The four times of sickness.  There be in sickness four principal parts of time, to be observed of Physicians: The beginning of sickness, the increase or augmenting, the standing or chief force of it, and the declination or assuaging of it.  

The beginning.  The beginning is, from the time that sickness hath overcome man's strength, and brought him to lie down, till there do appear manifest signs of concoction of the matter, 
The increase.  whereof the disease cometh, at which time, the sickness waxeth fiercer and fiercer: and while it so continueth, that time is called the Increase and augmenting of sickness, but when the violence of the sickness is at the most, 
The state.  so that the rage of it is at one stay, and neither increases nor decreases, that time is called the standing, stay, state, or chief strength of the sickness. And after that the furious rage of sickness doth abate, and calm his cruel storms, then is the declination of the sickness: 
Declination.  after which (if the Patiented escape as very few die in the declination) then followeth recovery to health again. And these be the four general or universal times of sickness. Beside these there be other times more particular, 
Times of the year.  whereof how too speak I need not. The diversity of times in the year are duly to be observed, for they do much alter man's body.  

The Spring.  The Spring time increaseth blood and bringeth all the parts of the body to a temperance, as nigh as it can. For it of all other times is the most temperate, neither excessively hot, nor cold; neither moist, nor dry; but of a just temperature, as Galen proveth abundantly in his first Book of Temperaments, where he doth much blame them that name it to be hot and moist, which he saith, is of all other the most pestilent state of air. This Spring, after Galens mind, doth begin about the tenth day of March, and endeth about the 14. day of April, so that it lasteth but 6. weeks, and 2. days. For at the rising of the Pleyades (which is now in our time about the 24. day of April) he saith that Summer doth begin. 
Summer.  Which Summer is in complexion hot and dry, and therefore meet to increase choler, which in that time doth abound. The Summer lasteth 21. weeks. 
Harvest.  Harvest doth begin after Galens mind, about the 17. day of September, and lasteth 7. weeks. The Harvest, is dry of complexion, but neither only hot, nor only cold, but is distemperate in heat and cold. For in the morning and evening it is cold, and at noon it is hot. So may it not be called justly (as men do name it) cold and dry. In this time doth melancholy increase. At the end of Harvest, about the seventh day of November, 
Winter.  doth Winter begin, which time is cold and moist; and therefore increaseth phlegm, which is like in complexion unto it. And the Winter lasteth till the 10. day of March; so is it in length about 17. weeks and a half, and then beginneth the Spring time again. And this is the course of the year, after Physic. Other men which entreat of Husbandry, 
Another sort of these times.  do part the year into 4. equal parts, giving 3. months to every time. Unto the Spring they give February, March, and April. To the Summer, May, June, and July. Unto Harvest, August, September, October. And unto winter they appoint November, December, and January. Why the Physicians part the year one way, and writers of husbandry another way, at more convenient time I will declare.  

Virtues. Attractive.  Virtue's natural are four. The first is, That which draweth nourishment into due places, and that is called the attractive virtue. The second, 
Alterative.  is it that altereth the nourishment into a due form to nourish the body, and is called the alterative virtue. The third is that virtue, 
Retentive.  which keepeth in the good nourishment, till the alterative virtue hath duly altered it, and therefore is called the retentive virtue. The fourth, is called the virtue expulsive, 
Expulsive.  because his office is to expel those superfluous excrements which are left, when the other virtues have done their office duly.     
FINIS.