A NEW COSMOGRAPHY, OR SURVEY Of the Whole WORLD;  
In Six Ingenious and Comprehensive Discourses.  
With a Previous Discourse, being a New Project for bringing up Young Men to Learning.  
Humbly Dedicated to the Honourable HENRY LYTTELTON, Esq  
By GVY MIEGE, Gent.  
LONDON, Printed for Thomas Basset, at the George in Fleetstreet, near St. Dunstan's Church, 1682.   

ADVERTISEMENT.  
MR. Miege, the Author of this Book, Teaches Geography both at Home and Abroad, with the Use of Globes and Maps.  
This is that Noble Science, which gives an Account of the World wherein we live, of its several Countries, Mountains, Capes, Seas, Lakes, Rivers, Towns and Cities, Provinces, States, and Kingdoms. A Science without which one cannot he a good Historian, or a complete Statesman, and which is no small Ornament to any thing of a Gentleman. Therefore it is so Taking beyond Sea, but in France especially, that there are few Men of any Note or Fortune but are brought up to it. And we find by Experience, that, of all Study's Young Gentlemen are put upon, None is so Acceptable and Welcome to 'em, and indeed None so fit for Them, as the Study of Geography. For, as it is not only Genteel and Useful, but also very Delightful; so a short Time, with a little Application and Help, will serve to conquer it. Which makes me Confident, 'twill be well Relished Here, especially if it be Seasoned with apposite History.  
The Author lives at his House, next to the Nag's head, in James-street, Covent Garden. Where he is now preparing for the Press a large English Dictionary of Geography, both Ancient and Modern, Enriched with History. A Work that will be of great Use to all Gentlemen, Scholars, Merchants, Travellers, and generally all Lovers either of Geography or History.   

The TABLE.  

The First Discourse; Being an Introductory Discourse, or a new Project for bringing up Young Men to Learning. Page 1.  
The Second Discourse; Of the Heavens, and the Stars thereof, with a particular Account of the Sun and Moon. p. 14.  
The Third Discourse; Of the Air, and Meteors. p. 35.  
The Fourth Discourse; Of the Terr-Aqueous Globe in General, and the Earth in Particular. p. 53.  
The Fifth Discourse; Of the Waters. p. 76.  
The Sixth Discourse; Of the National Parts of the Earth. p. 104.  
The Seventh Discourse; Of the Use of Globes and Maps, with their several Circles. p. 129.    

A NEW COSMOGRAPHY, OR SURVEY Of the whole World.  

The First Discourse;  
Being an Introductory Discourse, or a New Project for bringing up Young Men to Learning.  PHilalethes. 
What think you, Sophronius, of the Way used now adays to bring up Youth? Sophronius. 'Tis doubtless an odd kind of way; and, if Men be out in any Thing, 'tis in this. For 'tis undeniably true, that Children are brought up like Slaves till they come to the age of fourteen or fifteen years, or thereabouts. And what for? to make them learn, against the grain, perhaps a mouthful of Latin. For of a hundred Scholars that spend the prime of their Age in this Torture, I dare affirm there is not the tenth part that after seven years' Apprenticeship can justly boast to have conquered that Language.  Phil. 
'Tis true enough, and I found it so by my own experience. They pester Youth with a pack of hard Words and Rules that confound their Memory, and stun their little Intellectuals, and all this under the Standart of the Rod. For my part, I am quite besotted with it, and with much ado shall I come to myself again.  Sophr. 
Thus they make of a fine Language, the Terror and the Plague of Youth; Who, being incapable of apprehending the beauty thereof, look upon it as a mere Scarecrow. The Reason is, because they are put upon it before their Memory be strong enough to retain so many strange words, and their Judgement ripe enough to apprehend the abstruse meaning of the Rules. For it is not with the Latin Tongue as with Vulgar Languages, which are learned with much less difficulty, because usually spoken; Whereas the Latin Tongue (as it is used now adays in England especially) is in a manner but a Language for Books.  Phil. 
What course then, my dear Sophronius, would you have one to takes?  Sophr. 
This in my judgement would be the most proper way. After that a young Lad has learned to Read and Writ, and that he is pretty well instructed in the fundamental points of the Religion wherein he was born, I would have him put upon some easy, pleasant, and useful Science, until his Judgement were ripe for the Latin Tongue.  Phil. 
What is that you would have him learn?  Sophr. 
The State and History of the World, and particularly of his own native Country. A thing so easy to learn, that it is not at all inconsistent with his tender Years. So pleasant, and so full of charming Variety, that he cannot but be taken with it. And withal so useful, that he would lay this up as a Treasure to be used in his riper Years. Thus I would have him to apply himself to two Things, Geography and History. Geography, that would show him the Extent of the habitable World, its Continents, Islands, States, and Provinces, Towns and Cities, its famous Mountains, Seas, Lakes, Rivers, and other Curiosities. By History he should see the different manner of living amongst Men, their several Languages, Religions, and Governments, together with the various Changes and Revolutions of States.  Phil. 
Oh! had I but taken this course. I should not have been laughed at, as I was not long since in a Company, for confounding (by mere Ignorance) Swethland, with Switzerland. I should not be puzzled, as I am, reading, the Gazette, to know whether such a Place lies North or South, and whither it is in Spain or Moscovy. This is not all. I am so little acquainted with the public Concerns of the World, that I am quickly mumped, when there arises any Discourse of that kind in Company.  Sophr. 
Thus it is to be ill brought up in his Youth. For my part, I cannot conceive how any man that pretends to good Education, can be so narrow-souled as to live in this World as if it were all shut up in his Neighbourhood; nor how he can be satisfied, if he read either History or Foreign News, without some Knowledge of those Places which happen to be there mentioned.  Phil. 
The Truth is, without it one is but half an Historian; and to live in the World without a competent knowledge of the same, is properly to see no further than his Nose, and not to know whereabouts one is. This is, I confess, my Case; and truly I blush at it. But, if ever I have a Son to bring up, I am resolved it shall not be so with him  Sophr. 
Thus where a Young Man has made a considerable Progress both in Geography and History (wherein young people take delight) I would have him disposed of for the Latin Tongue, especially if his Fancy should lead him to it.  Phil. 
But can no Expedient be found out to learn it in less time, and with less trouble, than now they do in Schools?  Sophr. 
Do you doubt it? I'll tell you of one which I think is very likely. Instead of so many Latin Schools which swarm every where, and where so much precious Time is lost by reason of their tedious and lingering Methods, (beneficial indeed to Schoolmasters) there should be in every Province some Colleges erected, where nothing but Latin should be commonly spoken. For, when all is done, the quickest and best way to learn a Language is not so much by the eye as by the ear. And what makes us conquer vulgar Languages so much sooner than the Latin Tongue, but that those are spoken, and this is not, in England especially?  Phil. 
'Tis true. But to what purpose shall one learn to speak a Language so little in use here, except to understand Books?  Sophr. 
I confess the speaking Part is so much out of date here, even amongst the greatest Scholars in the Land, that Strangers are in a maze to see Men of such a profound Learning as we have here in England, speak Latin with so much hesitancy. Latin that should be by right the general and standing Language for Scholars of any Nation to converse in together. But 'tis no wonder, if we consider how this Language is taught in Latin-Schools, where the very Masters speak as little Latin, and deliver themselves as much in English as they can. Whereas, if they did use their Scholars as well to the Speaking as the Reading Part, it would not only forward their Learning, but also make them fit to converse in that Language. And, though the speaking Latin is not altogether; so much abroad since the French Tongue came up, as it has been formerly; yet it may fall out that a Traveller shall stand in need of Latin, where French is not so much in request.  Phil. 
In short, I perceive you would have one learn Latin, by using himself to speak it; because you conceive it is the readiest Way.  Sophr. 
Right. And to that purpose the foresaid Colleges should be provided of able and skilful Masters, such as should have absolutely the command of die Latin Tongue.  Phil. 
But you will grant, Sophronius, that the greatest benefit of that Language doth lie in the Reading Part.  Sophr. 
I grant it.  Phil. 
Now the Question is, whether speaking nothing but Latin in the Schools would advance the Reading Part so considerably as you imagine. For you know the style of most Latin Writers is very different from any thing of a speaking style.  Sophr. 
'Tis true. But still the speaking part, I hope, would be no hindrance. And, when all is done, the Speaker has this advantage, that he practices his Language two ways, that is by Reading and Speaking; but the Reader, only by Reading.  Phil. 
There you are in the right. Now let us see how you would order your Colleges.  Sophr. 
In the first place I would have them all to be Boarders that should come to any of them.  Phil. 
But then poor Parents should be deprived of the Advantage of bringing up their Children to Scholar ship.  Sophr. 
So much the better. For many of them undo themselves utterly that way; and, when all comes to all, their Children are often forced to leave off, for want of Help. And than what signifies their long struggling, toiling, and moiling after a thing they could not compass, but only to make their Lives the more uncomfortable? Whereas, had they learned a good Trade, they might live comfortably, and perhaps get enough besides to give their Children a good Education. And so they should not have occasion to repine at their loss of Time and Money, and to be justly grieved for having took so much pains about a thing which now is to be forgotten.  
Learning is Chargeable, and the Harvest does not always answer to the Seeding. 'Tis I confess, a great Ornament and Advantage to Persons of Honour and Estates, who are best able to make a good Use of it, and to keep up its Reputation. But amongst Men whose whole Dependence is Learning, and who are fain to drive a Trade of it, it loses its Credit, and grows a very Drug. I appeal to these Times, now we see whole Shoals of poor distressed Scholars treading upon one another's heels, and who going along may well use Bias his saying, Omnia mecum porto, I carry with me all I have. What makes them so cheap, despicable, and ridiculous, apt every foot to be trampled upon by Brutish and Insulting Ignorance, but naked and hungry Poverty? And what makes their Poverty but their excessive Number?  
Poverty, the General Scarecrow of Mankind, the fear of which keeps Men in a perpetual Motion, and makes them run headlong into the greatest Dangers,  Per Mare Pauperiem fugiunt, per Saxa, per Ignes. 
Poverty, a lingering kind of Death, that having once seized upon a Man's Spirits dejects and stupifies him, takes away the edge of his Senses, weakens his Memory, discomposes his Mind, and makes, him almost uncapable of any Thing. Poverty, in a Word, that makes men Ridiculous; and so Juvenal has it,  
— Nil hahet Paupertas durius in se  
Quàm quòd Ridiculos homines facit—  
Here's the greatest Mischief of Poverty, It turns Men into ridicule.  Phil. 
I do acknowledge what you say to be true. But, if the Sovereign, or any Rich Person well-disposed, had a mind to Found a College or more for the Education of a certain number of poor People's Children, would not you approve of it?  Sophr. 
I should not at all dislike it, provided that (according to the Jesuits way) none should be admitted therein but ingenious, witty, and hopeful Lads.  Phil. 
Put the case then, Sophronius, that your Proposals were approved of by the Public, how would you order your Scholars For those that come in must speak some Language or other. Now 'tis supposed they cannot speak Latin, for they come hither to learn it; and, if they speak another Tongue, 'tis contrary to your own Proposition.  Sophr. 
To answer your Objection, I confess that, to compass our Design, it were convenient that such as should be first admitted into a College should have already some smattering of the, Latin Tongue. Which the Masters might easily and in a short time improve to some degree of Perfection, by conversing with them in Latin, and using them to speak nothing else. And, after the first Comers, none should be admitted in, that did not understand some Latin Words, such as may be got by a good Vocabulary; and some familiar Dialogues, like those of Corderius. Thus their Tongues being untied by these previous Helps, one word would help out another; and conversing with none but such as speak Latin, Necessity would breed Attention, as Attention doth Learning. And so I am confident, that in a years time they would be as forward as those that have lingered four or five years at School.  Phil. 
Thus far I am satisfied. But Would not you have them to make use of the Grammar?  Sophr. 
By all means. For, though by Rote one may learn a Language with ease, yet a Grammar is of great use to to confirm that Learning. By that one learns it easily, and by this exactly.  Phil. 
You put me in mind, Sophronius, of a Young man that I was told of another's day; who had been several years in France, where he had learned the French Tongue in its Purity, but only by Rote. He came back to England, where he was very much admired for his French. But he had not been here above three Months, when he began to confound the Tenses of Verbs, the Gender of Nouns, and to make strange Anglicisms.  Sophr. 
All this happened for want of Grammar-help. And therefore there should be for our Colleges a compendious Grammar, such as might be run over in a short time. By'r, because the main difficulty of the Latin Tongue in the Reading of Authors doth consist in the Construction, the Learners should be used frequently to that, is also to make Paraphrases. By this means I am confident that a Boy should know Latin enough at a years end to learn the Greek Tongue, and that in three years at farthest he might be fitted for the University.  Phil. 
That indeed were a fine Business. But there should be very strict Orders kept in those Colleges, and the Collegers should have but little Correspondence with the rest of the World.  Sophr. 
Very right. And truly there's nothing so mischievous and fatal to young Gentlemen as the want of that Coercion for some time. For, whilst they are allowed to appear in public with a Splendour suitable to their Birth, they meet with that Respect and those Caresses from their Inferiors that fills their minds presently with Pride and Vanity. Their eyes are ever admiring of fine Garbs, their Ears bewitched with the charming noise of the great Estates and Honours they are Heirs to, their Fancy's tickled with the flattering expressions of Servants and others that are apt to adore a rising Sun. Thus my young Gentleman hardly feels himself for joy, and his soft heart swells daily like Puff-past. Till at last he grows too stiff to be kerbed; and, instead of a pliant Willow, he proves a stubborn Oak. He becomes Impatiens Jugi; and, though perhaps he never learned to Obey, yet he thinks it long till he Rules. His Lust is the only thing he is resolved to enslave himself to, he runs wherever that hurries him, and never thinks it far enough. But one step into Learning puts his Body and Soul out of Joint Learning, pedantic Learning, why should he trouble himself with it? He is Learned enough that is Rich, and that knows how to improve sensual and brutish Pleasures. And so there's my Midas, with his Ass' Ears.  Phil. 
You have hit the Nail on the head. And without doubt it were the best way to keep such young men in the dark as much as possible, till they have discretion and learning enough to appear in public, and so take advantage of such Companies as be fittest for them to improve themselves by. But still it will be objected, that a young Man in this Condition will go near to forget his Mother-Tongue; and that, being kept from People of good fashion, he will grow thereby so bashful that he will hardly dare to peep into the World.  Sophr. 
No such thing. For first, as to his forgetting of his Mother-Tongue, he will never so forget it but that he will quickly be able to recover it. But however, to prevent chat Inconveniency, I would allow my young Gentlemen the receiving of Visits from their Friends and Relations in the holidays. And besides, there might be an Academy set up for every College, to learn in English at set hours, these Exercises so fit for a Gentleman; viz. Fencing, Riding the great Horse, Dancing, etc. Now, to answer the other part of your Objection, a short time will make a bashful Young Man forward enough to appear in Company. If one has but wherewithal to appear in a good Garb, there is in Man an infallible principle of Vanity that will help to put him forward.  
In fine, I would have the Masters of every College to be themselves well bred and polite, of a sweet and genteel Conversation, and as little pedantic as might be. For it is most certain, that Pedantry, as well as Poverty, has brought a great disrepute upon Learning.  Phil. 
You say right. But I have one Objection more to make you.  Sophr. 
What is that, Philalethes?  Phil. 
The newness of the Thing, that will scarce be acceptable to so many Admirers of old Methods; who would think their Children undone, if they went never so little out of the old Road. And this their Prejudice (you must think) will be backed by those Persons whose Interest it is to keep up the Modern way of Schooling.  Sophr. 
I have only delivered my Opinion, and given Reasons for it. Which I shall back with Monsieur Montagne's Exemple, who bade the fortune to learn the Latin Tongue much after this manner. If what, I have said be relished, I am satisfied: If not, I must be contented.  Phil. 
For my part, I like it extremely well. And, to conclude our present Discourse, let me beg a favour of you.  Sophr. 
Pray, what is that?  Phil. 
I am so taken with the Thoughts of Geography, that I am absolutely resolved to learn it; and I must beg your Assistance in it.  Sophr. 
You shall have it, Philalethes, for I think nothing too much for your Service. And I am much mistaken, if you do not find it as pleasant and useful a piece of Learning as any yond can fix upon.  Phil. 
I do not doubt it in the least, dear Sophronius. And I am resolved so to give my mind to it, that I hope in a short time to be too hard for those who jeered me lately for want of skill in it.   

The Second Discourse.  
Of the Heavens, and the Stars thereof, with a particular Account of the Sun and Moon.  SOphronius, 
What do you think of it now, Philalethes? are you still of the same mind as to Geography?  Phil. 
You cannot Imagine how eager I am for it, and methinks the whole World itself is not able to satisfy me. In short, I look upon myself as a Citizen of the World, and I will know of what Latitude my Right is.  Sophr. 
Softly, Philalethes, softly▪ You will find the World big enough, I warrant you.  Phil. 
Let us leave, I pray, this Prologue, and enter upon the Matter. Come on, I long to Travel the world about. Show me the way, and I maul follow you.  Sophr. 
But what do you mean by the World?  Phil. 
I mean the Land of the Living, or the habitable World.  Sophr. 
Why do not you count the Heavens and the Air part of the World?  Phil. 
Yes sure, when I mean the whole Fabric of the World.  Sophr. 
Now you must know the Description of the whole World together is called Cosmography. Whereas the proper Object of Geography is only the Terrestrial Globe, which consists of the Earth and Waters.  Phil. 
Pray tell me then, Sophronius, in the first place, whether you think the World had a beginning or no, or that (according to some Philosophers) it is from all Eternity.  Sophr. 
I believe rather, according to the Holy Writ, that it was Created (or made of nothing) some thousand years ago by that Supreme and Spiritual Being we Worship, an Immortal, Immutable, Incomprehensible, Alwise, and Almighty God.  Phil. 
How many thousand years do you reckon it since the Creation?  Sophr. 
We reckon it commonly 3949, years from the Creation to our Saviour's Coming upon Earth. To which if you add 1681. years since Christ's Coming, the whole amounts to 5630 years. Thus much for the Origine of the World, now let us explain (if you will) the Parts thereof.  Phil. 
That I wait for with great Impatiency.  Sophr. 
Well. But the Question is, whether you mean to be a Cosmographer, or simply a Geographer?  Phil. 
That I leave to you, Sophronius.  Sophr. 
Come on then, Philalethes. We are going to begin a great Voyage, and vie must take off our Minds from the Earth to raise them as far as Heaven.  Phil. 
For my own particular, I shall sore up as high as I can.  Sophr. 
To say nothing of the Empyreal Heaven (the highest, largest, and most; Glorious Heaven, supposed to be reserved for the happy Mansion of the Blessed) the Astronomers reckon ten several Spheres or Orbs, all contained one within another. The highest of which is called Primum Mobile, or the first Movable, which carries all the lesser Orbs contained within and under it about from East to West, and so to the East again, in the space of twenty four hours, or one whole day. Next to this Orb is the Crystalline Heaven, thought by some to be that which appears so pure blue unto our sight. Below this Orb is that which contains all the fixed Stars in it, and is called the Firmament. To which succeed the seven several Orbs of the Planets; the highest of which is Saturn, than Jupiter, Mars, Sol, or the Sun, Venus, Mercury, Luna, or the Moon Which that it may the better occur to your Memory, do but mind this Latin Verse,  Post SIM SUM sequitur, ultima Luna subest. 
For the three Letters of SIM serve to denote severally Saturn, Jupiter, Mars; and the three Letters of SUM, Sol; Venus, Mercury.  Phil. 
But which are those you call the fixed Stars?  Sophr. 
A Numberless Number of Stars, contained in the eighth Orb; and called fixed Stars, not that they be immovable, but because their natural Motion is but flow, and that they keep always the same distance. Which the Planets do not.  
But there is besides a visible Difference betwixt the fixed Stars and the Planets. For it is proper for the fixed Stars to sparkle, or shine with a trembling light, but chief in a Serene weather. Whereas the Planets, as the Moon among others, send forth steady beams, and void of all vibration. Except Mars, Venus, and Mercury, which are observed sometimes to sparkle; but neither so much, nor so constantly, as the fixed Stars.  
But how long do you think, Philalethes, that the fixed Stars are finishing their natural Course?  Phil. 
A long time, sure enough, if their Motion be so slow, as you said before.  Sophr. 
According to Tycho Brahe, the Wonder of our Age in point of Astronomy, they are no less than 25412. years before they come to their first station. And yet in his Calculation he falls very much short of Plato, who reckoned it 49000. years, which therefore was called the Platonic Year. And, according to the Opinion of those Times, that Year being expired, the World is to begin anew in the same Manner, and under the very same Circumstances as formerly.  Phil. 
What? Then at that rate I must about 49000. years hence return into my Mother's Womb, be newborn, suck, go to School, and there be sound lashed again. Then you and I, after that vast distance of time, shall meet here, and hold the same Discourses we do now. A pretty Conceit indeed! But, if a Man has got an imperious Scold, or a Wanton Flurt, to his Wife, is he to have her again?  Sophr. 
The very same, according to that great Philosopher Plato.  Phil. 
So Socrates must have his Xantippe again, and Octavius his Messalina. 'Tis a hard fate, and for my part (if I were to choose) I had rather lay for ever in the Dust. In the mean time I know not what to think of it. There is no new Occurrence whatsoever, but what I fancy to have been so a long time since.  Sophr. 
A little matter, I see, would inveigle you into that Opinion; especially if one should prove it by Scripture, as by these. Words of the Wise, that there is no new Thing under the Sun. But I would not have you, Philalethes, to be too much affected with it. And let us now proceed to a Survey of those fixed Stars which the Ancients took special notice of.  Phil. 
Which are those, I pray, dear Sophronius.  Sophr. 
They reckoned 1022. of them in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, the least of which is eighteen times bigger than the Earth. And, that they might be conveniently discerned from one another, they reduced them to forty eight Signs or Constellations, and gave them severally the Names of Living Creatures and other Things to which they fancied them most like. Twelve of these, being the chiefest, are found in the Zodiac; 21. in the Northern Hemisphere; and fifteen in the Southern. To which last Frederick Houtman has added since thirteen more, discovered by him while he was in Sumatra.  
The Twelve chief Constellations, otherwise called the Signs of the Zodiac, or the Twelve Houses of the Sun, are as followeth, with their several Figures, so much used by Astrologers.  
Viz. 

Aries, ♈.  
Taurus, ♉.  
Gemini, ♊.  
Cancer; ♋.  
Leo, ♌.  
Virgo, ♍.  
Libra, ♎.  
Scorpio, ♏.  
Sagittarius, ♐.  
Capricornus, ♑.  
Aquarius, ♒.  
Pisces, ♓.    
I shall pass by the other Constellations, both for brevity sake, and because they are of less use.  Phil. 
But what's the meaning of that large, whitish, and bright Tract of the Sky so observable in a clear Night?  Sophr. 
I suppose you mean that which the Greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the Latins Via lactea, and We from thence the Milky Way. 'Tis nothing else but a great Multitude of little Stars gathered together in this part of the Sky, which give but a confused Light, and are not discernible to the eye but with a prospective-glass.  Phil. 
But how comes it, Sophronius, that in a clear. Winter-night we see in and about the Constellations an infinite number of lesser Stars, which are hardly seen at all in Summer time?  Sophr. 
Because in Winter time the Nights are darker, and so any thing of light is the more conspicuous and obvious to the eye.  
Now you must know, Philalethes, that the Astronomers divide the biggest and brightest of the fixed Stars into six several Degrees of Magnitude. And they reckon fifteen of the first Rank, forty five of the second, two hundred and five of the third, four hundred and seventy seven of the fourth, two hundred and seventeen of the fifth, and forty nine of the sixth. To which if you add besides five Cloudy, and nine Dark, you will find the complete Number aforesaid of one thousand twenty two.  
Those of the first Magnitude are reckoned to be each of them an hundred and seven times bigger than the Earth; those of the second Magnitude, ninety times; of the third, seventy two times; of the fourth, fifty six; of the fifth, twenty six; and of the sixth, eighteen.  
Thus much for the fixed Stars. Now let us come to the seven Planets, whose Names follow here according to their respective height, with their several Figures as they are used by Astrologers.  
Viz. 

Saturn, ♄.  
Jupiter, ♃.  
Mars, ♂.  
Sol, ☽.  
Venus, ♁.  
Mercury, ☿.  
Luna, ☽.    Phil. 
How come they to be called Planets?  Sophr. 
They are called Planets, that is, wand'ring Stars, not that they be subject to any uncertain or irregular Motion; but because they have, either in respect to themselves or the fixed Stars, a different Motion, and that they are not always at an equal distance from each other.  
But the Copernicans deny the Sun to be a Planet, and will have it to be a fixed Star. And, whereas we say the Sun turns about the Earth; they hold quite contrary, that the Earth turns about the Sun. I suppose you have heard of this Opinion by the by, and (for aught I know) it may be true enough. But we will not insist upon it.  
Shall I now tell you the several (but prodigious) Distances of the Planets from us? You will be amazed at it. But thus we have it from approved Astronomers. Saturn is fourteen Millions of Leagues distant from us; Jupiter, eight Millions of Leagues; Mars, twelve hundred thousand; Sol, or the Sun, eleven hundred thousand; Venus, a hundred and sixty seven thousand; Mercury, sixty four thousand; and Luna, or the Moon, betwixt thirty and forty thousand Leagues. And yet the Planets are nearer than any of the fixed Stars.  Phil. 
This is passed any man's Belief but an Astronomers. But, if it be so, sure these Celestial Bodies must be of a vast Magnitude to be seen at such a distance.  Sophr. 
The Sun, which is counted by much the largest of all the Planets, is by some reported to be two hundred times at least bigger than the Earth; and by the most moderate, a hundred and sixty six times. Then they make Jupiter ninety five times at least bigger than the Earth; and Saturn, ninety times▪ Mars they reckon to be one third part bigger than the Earth; Venus lesser by thirty seven times; the Moon, by thirty nine times; but they make Mercury much lesser.  Phil. 
Pray, what Planet is that you call Venus?  Sophr. 
The same which is more commonly known by the name of Morningstar in the Morning, and of Evening-Star in the Evening.  Phil. 
But how comes it, Sophronius, that whilst the Sun appears above our Horizon, none of the other Planets, and indeed no Star, is seen?  Sophr. 
The Reason is plain. For a greater Light drowns a lesser; and the Sun, being as it were the source of Light, must needs have a greater proportion of it than any of the Stars.  Phil. 
Are you then of Opinion, that the Stars have no Light of their own?  Sophr. 
I do not say so. But it is credibly thought, they borrow the greatest part of their Light from the Sun. And therefore it seems that God has placed the Sun in the midst of the Planets, that those above and beneath it might equally partake of its Splendour.  Phil. 
So much for that, Sophronius; I desire now to understand their Motion.  Sophr. 
To clear this Point, you must know that those Philosophers who hold the Sun moves about the Earth (which is the vulgar Opinion) suppose two several Motions of the Stars in general. The one Natural or Proper, from West to East; and the other Violent from East to West. And they attribute the Cause of this last Motion, as I have already hinted, to the great Orb called Primum Mobile, which turns from East to West round the World with an equal rapidity within the space of twenty four hours, and with it hurries away all the lesser Orbs. Which is observable in the Sun particularly.  
Whereas, according to the Natural Motion of the Stars from West to East, 'tis to be observed amongst the Planets, That cold Saturn does not finish its Course but within the Compass of almost thirty years; bright Jupiter finishes his in about twelve years; fiery Mars, within little less than two years; the Sun in one year; fair Venus, in one year and a half; Mercury, in something less than half a year; the Moon, in twenty seven days and about eight hours.  Phil. 
I do not understand these contrary Motions. It is apparent, as you say, that the Sun moves daily from East to West, and so goes round about the World. But how can it at the same time move by a proper motion of its own a quite contrary way, that is, from West to East? How can any thing go backward and forward at the same time? This is passed my Understanding.  Sophr. 
Do but suppose a small Fly upon a Globe to run through the Ecliptic Line, which shows the proper Motion of the Sun.  Phil. 
What then, Sophronius?  Sophr. 
Then turn the Globe never so much about from East to West, still you will find that the Fly in the mean time gets forward in her course from West to East. And, if you do so turn the Globe about, that, as often as it turns quite round, the fly may advance one Degree in her Course Westward; you will find that by turning the Globe three hundred sixty five times, the fly shall be gone as many Degrees in a quite contrary way. Such is the Yearly Course of the Sun from West to East, according to which it goes about one Degree every day, and in a years time runs over the twelve Signs or Constellations called the Houses of the Sun.  Phil. 
You have explained it to me with as much clearness as may be.  Sophr. 
Now from this Course of the Sun is come the Distinction and Distribution of Time, which is the measure of Motion. And, to proceed à minori ad majus, there is first a Minute, next an Hour, than Days, Weeks, Months, Seasons, Years. Threescore Minutes go to an Hour, twenty four Hours to a natural Day, seven Days to one Week, four Weeks to a Month according to the Moon, and some odd days more to a Month of the Sun. Now twelve of these Months make the four Seasons of the Year, viz. three Months to each Season. And so the Year does consist of twelve Months, fifty two Weeks, or of three hundred sixty five Days and about six hours. Except it be a Leap-year, and then there is three hundred sixty six Days.  Phil. 
Pray, what's the Occasion of this additional Day?  Sophr. 
You must know that (according to the old Julian Account) the Year consists of three hundred sixty five Days and six hours. Now these fix hours, at four years' end, come to twenty four hours, that makes up a Day, which is added to the Month of February. And then that Year is called Leap-year, which by the Romans was named Bissextilis.  
As to the Months of the Sun, as we reckon them, some have thirty Days, some thirty one, and February alone has but twenty eight, except every Leap or fourth year, when it has twenty nine Days. Which that you may find out readily at any time, do but mind these following Verses;  
Thirty Days hath November,  
April, June, and September;  
Of eight and twenty there is one,  
And the rest are of thirty one.  Phil. 
But did the Ancients hold the same Year as we do.  Sophr. 
Before the time of Julius Caesar they held several forts of Yea But that Emperor, forty years before Christ's Birth, ordained the Year to consist of three hundred sixty five days, and fix hours.  Phil. 
Pray, tell me the Difference of the Old and New style, and what's the Ground of it?  Soph. 
The Old Style, which the Greek Church and most Protestants keep still, is the old Julian Account, which for many Ages seemed to have no sensible Error. But in process of time it was discovered to be not altogether agreeable with the natural Motion of the Sun, the Julian Year exceeding the rue Solar Year ten Minutes, and forty eight Seconds; which caused the Equinoxes; and Solstices yearly to change their Places, and fly back so many minutes and seconds. Whereupon Pope; Gregory the XIII, by the advice and direction of Antonius Lilius and other excellent Mathematicians, corrected the Calendar, making the Year to consist of three hundred sixty five days five hours, forty nine minutes, twelve seconds. And, to the end that the vernal Equinox (which then was on to the eleventh of March) might be reduced to, the one and twentieth of March, as it was at the time of the first Nicene Council; he commanded ten day in October to be left out, so as the fourth day of October was accounted for the fourteenth day. This happened in the Year fifteen hundred eighty two, from which time this Account was called the Gregorian Account; and so came the Distinction of Old and New Style, the Old according to the Julian, and the New according. to the Gregorian Account  Phil. 
Thus the Nations that hold the New Style do reckon ten days before us; and, when it is with us for exemple the first day of May, 'tis the eleventh with them.  Sophr. 
Right. But, as we differ in the Style, so we do from some Nations as to the beginning of ' Years and of Days.  Phil. 
How so, my Sophronius?  Sophr. 
You know; that in most Parts of Europe they begin the Year, as the Romans did, on the first of January. And so we do here in England in some respect, therefore we call it New-Years-Day But upon a Civil Account, and for our Date, of Buying or. Selling, etc. We begin the Year (and so do the Spaniards) eight weeks after, viz. upon Lady-Day, the twenty fifth of March. So the Jews, after they got our of Egypt, began their Year much about the same time in March, to which answered in part their Month Nisan; Whereas before they were wont to begin it in their Month called Tisri or Ethanim, which comprehended part of our September and October.  
Now the Venetians begin theirs the first of March. And so did Romulus the Founder of Rome; for 'tis observed that before Julius Caesar, the Month of July was called Quintilis, or the fifth Month from March. The Moscovites, who follow the Greek Church, begin their Year the first of September, upon this ground For they believe the World began in Autumn; and, whereas we reckon our Years from the Coming of Christ into the World, they reckon theirs from the time of the Creation.  
As for Days, you must know there is a Natural and Artificial Day; that containing Day and Night, and consisting of twenty four hours; this beginning at Sunrising, and ending at Sunset. The Natural Day is reckoned in most parts of Europe from one midnight to another, reckoning twice twelve hours; that is from Midnight to Noon twelve hours, and from Noon to the Midnight following twelve hours more, beginning with one, two, three, etc. But in Italy (as formerly in Athens) they reckon twenty four, hours all along without coming back to one, as we do; and that from Sunset to Sunset. At Nuremberg, and some other Places of Germany, they reckon their Days (as the Ancient Jews and Chaldeans) from one Sunrising to another; beginning with one a Clock, and so on to the twenty fourth hour. 'Tis true the Jews had (besides their Civil Day) a Sacred Day, destined for Holy Exercises, which began at Sunset, and continued till the next Sunset. In Moscovy they reckon their day from the Sunrising till Sunset; and, when the Sun is gone down, than they reckon the first hour of the night, and so on, till the Sun appearing again over their Horizon finishes the time of their Night and gins with them a new Day.  Phil. 
I have heard very often of Equinoxes and Solstices, but could never understand clearly what they are. Be pleased to give me as clear an Account of them as you can.  Sophr. 
In Order to that you must know there are yearly two Equinoxes and two Solstices; a Vernal and an Autumnal Equinox, a Summer and a Winter Solstice, which begin the four several Seasons of the Year. For the Vernal Equinox gins the Spring; the Summer Solstice the Summer; the Autumnal Equinox, the Autumn; and the. Winter-Solstice, the Winter. And, as in the Equinoxes the Days and Nights are of an equal length; so in the Summer-Solstice, we have our longest Days, and in the Winter-Solstice our shortest. Now the Equiquinoxes are so called from the Latin Aequinoctium, because then the Days and Nights are of an equal length. And the Solstices have their Name from the Latin Word Solstitium, which signifies a stop of the Sun. Not that the Sun's Motion be stopped, except from coming nearer us than the Tropic of Cancer, and from going, further from us than the Tropic of Capricorn. But of this you shall hear more hereafter.  Phil. 
What shall we then proceed upon?  Sophr. 
Next to the Glorious Brightness of the Sun, the Vastness of its Body, the prodigious Distance thereof from us, and its continual Motion to or from us, let us now consider the Influence of it by its Heat, which in a manner is the Life of Plants and Animals. For, as without the Light of the Sun the whole Frame of Nature should be buried in Darkness; so, without the Heat that arises from it, no living Creature could live. Neither is this Heat inherent in the Body of the Sun, but it is wonderfully produced (as Philosophers teach us) by the Reflection of its Beams. Wherewith the Air being warmed foments and keeps alive all Vegetables.  Phil. 
But what is an Eclipse of the Sun?  Sophr. 
'Tis a privation of its beams in some part of the Earth, caused by the Interposition of the Moon betwixt the Sun and that part of the Earth. Which happens when the Moon being in the same Sign and Degree the Sun is in, it falls out that these three Body's, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth are diametrally opposite.  Phil. 
And how is the Eclipse of the Moon?  Sophr. 
This you shall know, when I have first made a short Description of it. The Moon, (as I have already observed to you) is the lowest of all the Planets, and consequently that which is nearest to us. Therefore her Influence must needs be the stronger over all Sublunary Things.  
'Tis a Planet much subject to Change, and seen in divers Shapes; that sometimes shines, and sometimes does not. And, when it does, it is more or less, according to the proportion of Light it receives from the Sun. We call it new Moon, when it is in conjunction with the Sun; and than it gives us no light, because the dark part of it is to us ward. But four days after it makes its first appearance in the shape of two bright horns, the rest of her Body being dark; and then is the first Quarter. Being a Week old, half of it appears bright, and the other half dark; and than it is called a Crescent, or halfmoon. Thus it increases for a week more, till it comes to. be full; and then, being diametrally opposite to the Sun, this strikes its Beams upon that the more fully. Four days after full Moon, it gins to Decrease and lose its light (which is called the Wane of the Moon;) and three days after this it appears again in the form of a Crescent. So, it loses its Light gradually, till it is New-Moon again.  Phil. 
So I perceive that the nearer the Moon is to the Sun, the less light she receives from it; and on the contrary, the further off, the more luminous she is. But, pray, tell me what Course does this Plainer take?  Sophr. 
The very same as the Sun's. Only 'tis to be observed that, whereas the Sun is a whole Year finishing its Course, the Moon performs hers in a Month.  
Shall I tell you now, Philalethes, some Influences of the Moon? 'Tis the Moon that brings the Fruits of the Earth to Maturity and their ultimate Perfection. 'Tis the Moon that influences very much upon Generations, upon great Belly's, and Labours. 'Tis this Planet that contributes greatly to the nourishment and growth of living Creatures. Insomuch that it is observed, the very Oysters increase and decrease with to the Moon.  
But, as the Sun, so the Moon is subject to Eclipses Now an Eclipse of the Moon is nothing else but its privation of the Light of the Sun, occasioned by the Interposition of the Earth betwixt the Sun and Moon. Which does not commonly happen but upon the full of the Moon, when this Planet is diametrally opposite to the Sun.  
Thus much for the Sun and Moon, whose Influences (of all the Planets) are most taken notice of.  Phil. 
But what do you think; Sophronius, of the World in the Moon?  Sophr. 
Ay Marry, Now you Started a pretty Question indeed; but it is not for me to satisfy you whether or no there be such a Thing in Nature. Lucian, a man of eminent parts, (but as base an Apostate from the Christian Faith in which he was bred) was the first that writ of this new World in the Moon; but then he proposed it as a mere Fancy of his own, and so he affords us in one of his Dialogues a conceited Character of it. But of late times, that Fancy of his is become a Matter of more serious debate. Insomuch that some have laboured with great pains to make it probable, that there is another World in the Moon, Inhabited (as This is) by People of divers Languages, Customs, Policy's, and Religions. And, more than so, some Means and Ways have been proposed to Consideration for maintaining an Intercourse and Commerce betwixt That and This. The like Endeavours there are to prove that the Earth is a Planet. And, long before Lucian's time, Aristophanes (a famous Man amongst the old Greek Poets) speaks in one of his Comedy's of a City of Cuckoos in the Clouds, which he calls Nephelococcygia.  Phil. 
I must confess these are pretty Conceits.  Sophr. 
However 'tis observable, that great Truths have been started upon slight Presumptions. And truly it goes hard with some to believe, that such an infinite Number of great and glorious Stars as there are in the Heavens should be appointed only to wait upon this little and dirty Spot of Earth. I say no more, because it is time to conclude.  Phil. 
I forgot myself, and should have considered how precious your Time is. But I am so ravished with this kind of Learning, that what Knowledge you have already infused into my Mind does but inflame my Desire of knowing more.  Sophr. 
I am very glad to see you relish these Things. And, as for my Time, you may assure yourself that I think no Time lost but what I do not spend at your Service. At our next Meeting, if you will, we shall discourse of the Air and Meteors.  Phil. 
When it shall stand with your Conveniency.   

The Third Discourse.  
Of the Air, and the Meteors.  PHilalethes, 
I come again to you, Sophronius, with a greedy mind to learn how the World stands.  Sophr. 
Well Philalethes, I shall endeavour to satiate your Greediness; and, were you a Chameleon, you should not want for Air, I assure you. For 'tis the Air (as I remember) which is the Subject fixed upon for our present Discourse. And I can afford you three Services of it, all of a different Nature.  Phil. 
I perceive you intent to Air me to some tune.  Sophr. 
Ay, but take heed of an After-clap. For I shall come upon you at last with Thunder and Lightning.  Phil. 
I feat it not, provided it be such as may enlighten my Understanding.  Sophr. 
To make then no further Preamble, you must know the Air is a thin, transparent, lukewarm, and moist Element, that surrounds the Globe of the Earth. 'Tis the Air that penetrates the substance of mixed Body's, and which makes way for Generation. 'Tis the Air that serves for our Respiration, for Vocal and Instrumental Music, etc. and wherein the Birds of the Air move with great Swiftness. In fine, 'tis the Scene where Nature acts those Wonders we call Meteors.  
The same is by Pilosophers divided into three Regions, viz. the Upper, Middle, and Lower Region.  Phil. 
These are, I suppose, the three Services you intent to treat me with; a very Airy Diet.  Sophr. 
You found it out. But to be serious, the Upper Region gins from the Sphere of the Moon, and reaches to that part of the Air where the Vapours condensate. The Middle Region, which follows next, is bounded by the reflected Beams of the Sun. And the Lower reaches from thence to the Surface of the Earth. But, because the Sunbeams reach higher in Summertime than they do in Winter, therefore 'tis to be concluded, that in Summer the Middle Region is lesser, and the Lower greater, than in Winter.  
Now 'tis the General Opinion of Philosophers, that the Supreme (or Upper) Region is accidentally warm, either by reason of the fiery and Sulphureous Exhalations which ascend thither, or because of the violent Motion of the Spheres from East to West, or lastly (according to Aristotle) because it is next to the Elementary Fire which he places in the Concave of the Moon. The Middle Region is cold. And the Lower is sometimes warm and sometimes cold, according as the Sun affects it with its Beams by its nearness or remoteness.  Phil. 
But what is that we call Wind?  Sophr. 
'Tis nothing else but an Agitation, or a strong Motion of the Air; occasioned chief by the Sun, and by Vapours and Exhalations. For the Sun by its natural brightness does rarify the Air, and this being rarified requires more room, and so struggles hard for't. On the other side, the Exhalations from the Earth and Vapours from the Water being raised in great quantity and with some Violence up to the middle Region of the Air, do often occasion a Wind by their Conflict with the cold Air they meet in that Region. But there are other Causes assigned for the Wind. As the Clouds, when they rarify, or when by their descent, they press the Air. To which add the Snow and Ice, (especially in Mountainous places) that often turn into Wind. Which is the Reason why the Straight of Magellan, having on both sides of it high Mountains always covered with Snow, is subject to those Counter-Winds, which beat with equal Fury on all parts thereof; Insomuch that, which way soever a man Steer his Course, he shall be sure to have the Wind against him.  
Now the Winds move cross ways, that is, neither upwards nor downwards. The Reason is, because when the Air is pressed down still there arise more Vapours which beat it back.  Phil. 
But how many sorts of Winds do you reckon?  Sophr. 
A great many. And they are chief divided into Cardinal, and Collateral. We call Cardinal Winds those that blow exactly from the four Quarters of the World, North, South, East, and West; from whence we call them generally North, South, East, and West Winds.  Phil. 
But how shall I know the one from the other?  Sophr. 
If you do but know the North, you know all. For it is but turning your face straight to the North, and then you have the East on your right hand, the West on the left, and the South just behind you opposite to the North.  
But then by the East you must understand the East Equinoctial, that is where the Sun rises in an Equinox; and accordingly by the West you must understand the West Equinoctial, where the Sun Sets in an Equinox.   compass rose Phil. 
Now what do you mean, Sophronius, by Collateral Winds?  Sophr. 
You must know there are no less than 28. of these, that is, seven betwixt two Cardinal ones; as betwixt North and East, East and South, South and West, West and North. Amongst which, those that are just in the middle betwixt two Cardinal Winds are counted the chiefest. So, reckoning the four Cardinal Winds, there are in all 32. Winds, the Names of which you have in their Order in the following Scheme.  See the Figure of the Winds. 
And now, Philalethes, I must observe to you, 1. That in Spring and Autumn Winds are commonly more brief and more violent than either in a hot Summer or a frosty Winter. 2. That Winds are more frequent from the East then from the West, especially in the Torrid Zone. In England the East-Wind is most common in the Spring, and is counted an unwholesome Wind, both to Plants and Living Creatures, according to the Proverb that says, Wind from the East is neither good for Man nor Beast. But in Summertime the South-West Wind does most times predominate. 3. That East and North Winds are commonly both colder and stronger than either West or South Winds, especially in our Zone. 4. That Winds are convenient for two things principally, that is for Navigation, and (except the East Wind) to purify the Air.  Phil. 
There are those who pretend to foresee what Wind will blow. What do you think of it, Sophronius?  Sophr. 
I confess one may give sometimes a shrewd guess, & the Mariners (those Amphibious Creatures that live most upon Wind and Water) have a pecular Gift that way. The Ancients guessed at it by the sight of some Birds, of a Dolphin, or of some Meteor or other. Now our Seamen, when they see a small Cloud of a pale or blackish colour, they conclude a Wind from thence. So when the Sun does not rise clear, but seems to be spotted, or when it is overcast with a pale or a black Cloud, it presages either Wind or Rain. The same's is observed of the Sun, if it look pale when it sets. And then, if clouded with black Clouds, 'tis a sign of a North Wind. The Moon, when it looks red, is looked upon as a certain sign of windy weather, according to the Verse,  Pallida Luna pluit, Rubicunda flat, Alba serenat. 
And so is the Circle about the Moon. There are other Signs of Winds, as when the Sea makes a grumbling Noise inwardly. Lastly, a great deal of Rain is usually followed with a strong Wind.  Phil. 
What kind of Wind is that which is called a Trade-Wind?  Sophr. 
'Tis a Wind which blows constantly at a set time of the Year, and continues for a long time together. Such were the Etesiae amongst the ancient Greeks, for so they called the North-winds that blew constantly every Year for 40. days together in the Dog-days.  Phil. 
What do you mean by an Hurricane?  Sophr. 
A Tempestuous Gust of Wind, such as destroys most Ships at Sea that are in its way, pulls down Houses, and pulls up Trees by the root. The word is come from the West-Indies, and particularly from the Caribby-Islands, where they have once in two or three years (in July, or thereabouts) most dreadful Hurricanes, thus described by Seamen. First, the Sun exhales a great quantity of Water from the Sea into a Cloud, and then it gushes down with great violence; followed with a terrible Tempest of Wind, which lasts about two or three hours, and sometimes longer. By which means the Sea rages so furiously that no Ship almost can hold out, and few Houses at Land in its way escape being destroyed.  
In July, 1666. The Lord Willoughby of Parham, sailing betwixt Barbados and St. Christopher's, had the ill fortune to be lost in an Hurricane, with divers English Ships. In short, an Hurricane can be compared to nothing so well as to a violent Earthquake.  Phil. 
Now you put me in mind of Earthquakes, pray, what is the occasion of them?  Sophr. 
Nothing but Subterranean Winds that force their passage out of the Earth with great violence, whereby sometimes whole Cities are swallowed up. Witness so many fine Places in the East, that have been destroyed by Earthquakes, the Falling-Sickness of most great City's in those Parts.  Phil. 
My Blood chills in my Veins with the dreadful Thoughts of Earthquakes and Hurricanes. Pray, let us leave this Subject.  Sophr. 
The next Thing that offers itself to our Consideration is the Meteors, those Phaenomena which are form in the Air, and made either of Exhalations or Vapours raised up thither by the heat of the Sun and virtue of the Stars.  Phil. 
What difference do you put betwixt the Exhalations and Vapours?  Sophr. 
The Exhalations come out of the Earth, and are warm and dry; the Vapours from the Water, being both warm and moist. Those are proper for Fiery, and these for Watery Meteors.  Phil. 
Which of the three Regions of the Air is proper to Meteors?  Sophr. 
Some Meteors are form in the Upper Region, some in the Middle, and others in the Lower. Which that you may the better apprehend, you must know in the first place, that some Meteors are Real, and others but Apparent.  
The Real Meteors are either Fiery, or Watery. The first are Simple, or Mixt. Those we call Simple, that consist only of Exhalations; and Mixed, such as are of a courser and more viscous nature, consisting both of Vapours and Exhalations.  
Simple, as, In the Upper Region, 

Fax, or Candela accensa, a burning Taper.  
Trabs, or Ignis Perpendicularis, a Fiery Beam.  
Bolis, or Jaculum, a Dart.  
Caprae Saltantes, the Skipping Goats.  
Scintillae Volantes, the flying Sparks.    
In the Middle Region, 

Stella Discurrens, a shooting Star.  
Stella Cadens, a falling Star.  
Lancea Arden's, the Fiery Lance.    
In the Lower Region, 

Draco Volans, the flying Dragon.  
Ignis Fatuus, Jack in a Lantern.  
Ignis Lambens, the Lambent Fire.    
Mixed, as In the Upper Region, 

Cometa a Comet, or Blazing-Star.    
And in the Middle, 

Fulgur, a Lightning.  
Fulmen, a Thunderbolt.    
Fax, or Candela accensa, is a thin fiery Meteor; so called because of its resemblance to a burning Taper. Trabs, or Ignis Perpendicularis, is another sort of fiery Meteor shaped something like a Beam or a Pyramid, and burning all together. Bolis, or Jaculum, is a Meteor, that having catched Fire fly's upward, and looks like a Fiery Dart. Caprae Saltantes is an odd kind of Meteor, the matter whereof extends more in length than in breadth, and which having took Fire looks like so many skipping Goats. Scintillae Volantes, or flying Sparks, are nothing but Exhalations which spread themselves into many small parts, and by their motion take fire.  
Stella Discurrens, a shooting Star, is a fiery Meteor of the Middle Region, of a Globous Figure, which conceiving Fire by the coldness of the Air runs with an obliqne motion. Whereas Stella Cadens, or a falling Star, comes down, and so appears like a Star falling from the Sky. Lancea Arden's, a fiery Lance, is a long and well compacted Meteor, which having took fire falls down like a firebrand.  
Draco Volans, or a flying Dragon, is a courser sort of Meteor seen in the Lower Region; which being raised up on high, and clashing with a cold Cloud catches fire, and bends itself into some form of a Dragon. Ignis fatuus, well known in English by the Nicknames of Jack in a Lantern, or Will, with a Wisp, is also a Phenomenon of the Lower Region, but of a courser nature. Which conceiving fire by the coolness of the night, and being tossed to and fro by the Wind, is apt to run into steep Places and Precipices; and so proves sometimes fatal to Travellers, that suffer themselves to be misguided by such a false Light. This Meteor is seen chief in Summer time, and most of all in hot Country's, as in Aethiopia, where they are very brief. When it appeared single, the Ancients called it Helena; and, when it appeared in two parts, they named them Castor and Pollux. Lastly, Ignis Lambens is a light and thin Meteor, without any heat; that sticks sometimes to men's  or hair, and does no hurt at all.  
Cometa a Comet, or Blazing Star, is a Meteor consisting of great abundance of dry and viscous Exhalations, with some mixture of Vapours, both raised up to the Upper Region; where being well compacted together they take fire by their own motion, and appear to us in the shape of a great Star. Now there are three sorts of Comets, viz. Crinitus hairy, Barbatus bearded, and Caudatus with a tail. The first happens, when the Pabulum is thick in the middle, and thin in the outward parts; which makes the Comet look with a kind of dispersed light round about like ones hair about the head. The Bearded Comet is so called, when the outward parts reach no great way, and look something like a Beard about the Star. The Comet with a Tail is that which spreads itself a great way on one side or other, and appears to us like a Star with a long tail. Of this last sort there have appeared several in our Time; but none of so prodigious a length as that which is yet so fresh in our Memory, I mean the great Comet that was seen but last Year.  
The proper Time (if any) for the appearance of Comets is Autumn, a Season which does most abound with Vapours and Exhalations. Their Duration is uncertain, for it falls out according to the Pabulum. However it is observed, that the longest continuance of a Comet is six Months, and the shortest a Week.  Phil. 
But do you think, Sophronius, that Comets are Ominous?  Sophr. 
I confess it is a vulgar Opinion, grounded upon this Experience, that few Comets appear but what are followed with Wars, Pestilence, Famine, or some other public Calamity. But, whether those Things be really influenced by the Comets (which are a natural Meteor) 'tis more than can be proved.  
Now, to proceed,  
Fulgur, a Lightning, is a flash of Fire that comes out of a Cloud. The matter of which Meteor being but thin and dispersed is the reason why it catches fire but here and there, and that it vanishes away presently.  
Fulmen, a Thunderbolt, is a fiery Meteor that breaks out of a Cloud with great Violence, and dashes in pieces whatever it falls upon. And this is properly that which the Philosophers call Fulmen Discutiens. But there is another sort of Fulmen called Terebrans, because it does only bore a hole where it chances to fall. And lastly, there's Fulmen Urens, which does nothing but blast, and therefore we only call it a blasting Lightning.  Phil. 
But what have you to say of the Thunder, which commonly goes along with the Lightning?  Sophr. 
The Thunder is a Noise caused by the clashing of the Exhalations against the sides of a Cloud, or by their breaking out of it. Now the Exhalations do either break out all at once, as when we break a Bladder full of Wind, and then we hear a great crack; or else at divers times, and then the noise is re-doubled. But, when the Exhalations do not break out of the Cloud, and remain shut up in it, than it is that we hear a Grumbling Noise.  Phil. 
How comes it that sometimes it Lightens without Thunder, and that on the contrary it sometimes Thunders without any Lightning?  Sophr. 
When the Cloud makes no great resistance to the Exhalations, than it Lightens without Thunder; and, when the Exhalation is not apt to catch fire, than it Thunders without Lightning.  Phil. 
But how comes it to pass that when the Thunder and Lightning go together, we sooner see the Lightning than we hear the Thunder?  Sophr. 
By the same reason that we sooner see the fire of a Cannon shot off at some distance, than we hear the noise of it. And that is, because our Sight is quicker than our Hearing.  
Now Philalethes, I think we have done pretty well as to the fiery Meteors, let us proceed to the Watery ones. Some of which belong  
To the Middle Region, Viz. 

Clouds,  
Rain, and  
Snow;    
Some to the Lower, as 

Hail,  
Dew,  
Hoar-Frost,  
Mist,  
Ice.    
A Cloud is a great heap of Vapours raised up by the Sun and other Stars to the middle Region of the Air, and there condensated by the coldness of it. Now some Clouds are thin, bright, and airy, apt to be dissipated either by the heat of the Sun, or by the force of Winds; when others are thick, black, full of moisture, and consequently fit for the production of Rain.  
For Rain is nothing else but a Cloud dissolved. And, when the Vapours are but thin, than it Rains small; when thick, the Rain is greater. Sometimes there has been seen Frogs, little Fishes, Blood, Milk, Stones; Iron, and the like, come down with the Rain; but than it is, as the Philosophers call it, Pluvia Prodigiosa, a Prodigious Rain. Of all the Winds, none is so apt to bring Rain as a South Wind; and of all other signs of Rain, a pale Moon is one of the truest, according to the foresaid Verse, Pallida Luna pluit, etc.  
The Snow is a Meteor of a Spungious Nature, into which the Clouds do frequently dissolve themselves in Winter. For then, the middle Region of the Air being colder than ordinary, the Clouds are so affected, and (as it were) bound with the coldness thereof, that instead of Rain, they dissolve themselves into that white, fleece-like, and light Substance we call Snow. Some think the Clouds that produce this Meteor have almost in them as great a quantity of Exhalations as Vapours, and that those being extinguished in these, make that spongious substance which at last breaks, and comes fleeting down.  
Hail is nothing else but Rain congealed in the Air; when the Rain coming down from the middle Region is surprised by the heat of the lower Region, and so congeals itself into hail to resist it. Whereby you may conclude, and 'tis found so by experience, that hot Country's are most of all subject to this kind of Meteor.  
The Dew is but a thin and light Vapour, raised not much above the Ground. Which Vapour being condensated by a temperate cool Night, dissolves itself into small drops of Water, and falls down here and there. But than it must be calm weather, or else those light Vapours (if disturbed by any Wind) cannot condensate.  
Hoar-Frost, or Rhyme, is nothing else but a Winter Dew, congealed into the form of white Salt, by the cold Air of a Winter-night  Phil. 
And what is that, I pray, which is called Honey-Dew?  Sophr. 
'Tis a Dew which Men gather upon some Trees, and the Bees upon some sorts of Flowers, qualified by a Spirit which those Trees and Flowers do sometimes exhale into their Leaves.  
To proceed, a Mist, or Fog, is a Vapour that seldom rises but at the Sunrising or Sunset, and which the cold weather does so condensate by degrees, that it lies about us and darkens the very Air we breath. This Meteor (which sometimes has an unwholesome smell with it) is most common in Autumn and in Winter, when the Sun being farthest from us has not strength to raise those thick Vapours above us up to the middle Region.  Phil. 
Now you led me into a stinking Mist, pray, bring me out of it.  Sophr. 
Then you must come over the Ice, which is but congealed water. And that which helps the Congelation, besides the extreme coldness of the Wether, is when there is some mixture of Earth with the Water.  
And so, Philalethes, I have done with the Real Meteors, both Fiery and Watery. I shall now briefly conclude with those Meteors which the Greeks call Phasmata, and the Latins Meteora apparentia.  
Such as 

Parhelius, or the Image of the Sun.  
Paraselene, the Image of the Moon.  
Iris, the Rainbow.  
Halo, a circle about the Sun or Moon.  
Vorago, a great Gap.  
Virgae perpendiculares, the perpendicular Rods.    
Parhelius is the Image of the Sun reflected upon a Cloud. And, when it happens that we see several Suns, it is but by the Impression of one Cloud upon another disposed to receive that Image.  
The same it is with Paraselene, or the Image of the Moon.  
Iris, or the Rainbow, is the Representation of a Bow or Semicircle upon a Drizzling Cloud, which is caused by the reflected beams of the Sun. This is the most common of all these luminous Meteors, frequently seen either in a Morning or in an Evening, and that with these four Colours, red, green, white; and yellow. In the Morning it presages cloudy weather, and in the Evening it promises fair weather.  
Halo, otherwise called Area, or Corona, is a white and bright Circle; which appears sometimes upon a Cloud, either under the Sun, or (which is most common) under the Moon.  
Vorag, a great Gap, is an Exhalation raised up into the Air, where having contracted a brightness, but no where so little as in the middle part of it, as being thicker than the rest, makes this look like a great Gap. The lesser sort of which is more properly called Hiatus, or Chasma.  
Virgae Perpendiculares are nothing else but the Reflection of the beams of the Sun through a thick Cloud.  
And so much for this time. In our next Conference, I shall entertain you with the Globe of the Earth.   

The Fourth Discourse.  
Of the Terr-Aqueous Globe in general, and the Earth in particular.  Sophrnius. 
At last from the Heavens and the Air we are now come to our cloggy Element, the Earth, the Mother of Stones, Metals, Minerals, Plants, and living Creatures. This Earth where God has displayed the Wonders of his Infinite Wisdom, Goodness, and Omnipotency; but where Men show daily their Madnels, Malice, and Weakness. This Earth, the general Stage of Mankind, where are daily acted innumerable ridiculous Farces and fatal Tragedy's. Which made a merry-conceited Author cry out, not without reason, in these Words, Where shall a Man walk, and not meet with Signior Deliro? that is Mr. Madman. This Earth in fine, which has been of old a Prey to Ambitious and Greedy Conquerors, those cruel and bloodthirsty Leeches that take such delight in Blood, those Enemies and Disturbers of Mankind, whose boundless Ambition and Avarice the World cannot satiate. These are the Idols that will not be appeased without Humane Sacrifices; These, the wild Boars that waste our Arcadia's. But where is the Hercules?  
And now to give you a Geographical Account of this Earth, I must tell you in the first place, that the Earth and Waters together make a round Body, commonly called Terrestrial, but more properly Terr-Aqueous, Globe. Terr-Aqueous, because it consists of Earth and Waters; and Globe, from its Figure. Now this Globe is all surrounded with the Air, and hangs in the midst of it.  Phil. 
How is it possible for the Earth and Waters together to make a round Body, when there are so many Mountains, and some of them of a prodigious height?  Sophr. 
Those Mountains in respect to the Globe are nothing, if compared to the greatness of it. Witness el Pico, one of the highest Hills in the known World, and yet not above two Leagues high perpendicularly. And what is, I pray, the disproportion of two Leagues in a Body which no less than 1200. only to the Centre, or the middle point?  Phil. 
Do you say so? How big is then the Terr-Aqueous Globe about?  Sophr. 
It is no less than 360. Degrees, which at 20. Leagues (or 60. miles) a Degree comes to 7200. leagues, or 21600. miles. And yet 'tis all but a Point, if compared with Heaven.  
Now the Diameter being in all round Bodies the third part of the Circumference, it follows that the Diameter of the Terrestrial Globe is 2400. leagues, and consequently the Semi-Diameter (which reaches but to the Centre) 1200. leagues.  Phil. 
I am satisfied as to that, but I am gravelled upon another account. For I cannot conceive how so great and so heavy a Body as is the Terr-Aqueous Globe (as you call it) should hang in the Air without any support, when if we throw but a stone into the Air it presently falls down.  Sophr. 
The Reason is, because all heavy things do naturally incline to their Centre, which is thought to have an attractive faculty to that purpose.  
The next Thing we must consider is, that one part of the Earth is visible, and the other part under Water. Now the Question is, you will say, which of the two Superficies is greater, that of the Earth, or that of the Water. But this we cannot tell certainly, because one great Part of the Terr-Aqueous Globe is as yet unknown to us. And, if we speak only of that Part which is known, there is no doubt, in case that we do reckon Lakes and Rivers, but that the Superficies of the Water exceeds that of the Land. Otherwise I find no great odds betwixt the Sea and the Land. 'Tis true, the Sea gets ground now and then, and incroaches upon the Land; but 'tis as true on the other side, that it leaves some places dry. Witness Zealand, which formerly was under the Sea, as we may guests by the great Bonefish and Anchors that have been digged up there; and now is a pleasant, fertile, and populous Country. But however all this is nothing, if compared to the whole Superficies of the Earth and Waters.  
And so, Philalethes, we have hitherto spoke of the Earth and Waters as an Aggregate Body, now we must treat of them separately.  
First You must know the Land, as it is more or less encompassed with Water, is principally divided  
Into Continents, Islands, Peninsules.  
A Continent, otherwise called Firm Land, is a great part of Earth, but partly watered by the Sea; as France, and Germany.  
An Island is a part of Earth environed round about with Water; as great Britain, and Ireland.  
A Peninsule is a part of Earth almost surrounded with Water, and only joined to the Continent by a narrow neck of Land; as Morea in Greece.  
Now in Continents, Islands, and Peninsule's are to be considered these natural Parts following;  
Viz. 

Isthmus, or Neck of Land.  
Cape, or Promontory.  
Point, or Foreland.  
Coast, or Sea-Coast.  
Shore, or Bank.  
Hill, Mount, or Mountain.  
Valley, or Dale.  
Pit, or Precipice.  
Marsh, Mere, or Fens.  
Plain, or Champaign Ground.  
Downs.  
Heaths.  
Forrest, or Wood  
Desert, or Wilderness.    
An Isthmus is a narrow Neck of Land that joins a Peninsule to a Continent. A Cape, or Promontory, is a Hill that shoots forth into the Sea. A Point, or Foreland, is a narrow piece of Ground that runs point-wise into the Sea. A Coast, or Sea-Coast, is that part of a Country which lies by the Seaside. A Shore, the very extremity of Land that borders upon any Water; and, if raised much higher than the Water, than it is termed a Bank. A Hill is a part of Earth rising more or less above the neighbouring Ground; but, if it be of a great height or extent, than it is also called by the name of Mount, or Mountain. A Valley, or a Dale, is a low Ground that lies at the bottom of a Hill, or betwixt two distinct Hills. A Pit, or Precipice, is a great fall of Earth apt to strike with horror those that look down into it. Marsh, Meers, Fens, or Marshy Ground, a Quantity of Land so intermixed with Water, that it is not passable but in a great Drought or hard Frost. A Plain, or Champaign Ground, is a great plot of Ground lying level and open. Which, if upon a Hill, is called Downs; and, if overgrown with Heath, is named a Heath. By a Forest, or Wood, is properly meant a great Plot of Ground covered with Trees unplanted and growing of their own accord. Lastly we call a Desert, or Wilderness, a vast quantity of Barren and uninhabited Land.  Phil. 
To make some useful Reflections upon what is said, I desire to know in the first place which are the chiefest and most remarkable Islands.  Sophr. 
To answer your Desire, there is first in Europe, Great Britain, and Ireland, both surrounded with the Ocean. These are the two largest Islands of Europe; and great Britain, as it is one of the best, so 'tis one of the greatest Islands in the World. Then in the Mediterranean, if you begin from the straits, you will find these goodly Islands East of Spain, viz. Yvica, Majorca, and Minorca, the two last being the Baleares Insulae of the Ancients. Further Eastward you will meet with Sardinia, and North of that with Corsica. Then at the very Foot of Italy is Sicily, the greatest Island in the Mediterranean. Not much Inferior to which is Candia, formerly called Crect, lying Southeast of Morea in Greece. In the Archipelago, or the Aegean Sea, (a Sea which swarms with Islands) the principal Island for bigness is the Negropont, formerly known by the name of Euboea. As to the Northern Sea, called the Baltic, there are few Islands of any great note, besides Zealand and Fuinen; which make part of Denmark, and in the first of which you will find Copenhagen the Royal Seat of that Kingdom.  
Secondly, In Asia, the chief Islands for bigness, and first in the Mediterranean, are Cyprus in the furthest parts of the Sea towards the East. Next to which is the Isle of Rhodes lying Westward from it. But in the Ocean you will find, besides Ceylan a considerable Island in the East-Indies, these following incomparably bigger, viz. Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Mindanao, Lucon or Manille, and East of China Japan.  
afric cannot boast of any great Island, besides that of Madagascar, which indeed is a vast Island, lying South-East-ward.  
In the New World, or America, you will find near the Month of the River Canada, a great Island called Newfoundland; and in the Gulf of Mexico, Cuba, and Hispaniola. West of Mare Vermejo, or the Vermilion Sea, there's an Island as big as those three, which is called California; and South of the straits of Magellan is also a large Island called Terra del Fuego, or the Land of Fire. The Rest are not to be compared in bigness to any of those.  
But towards Terra Borealis, North of America, you will find three great (but wild) Islands, called Cumberlands Isles, lying betwixt the straits of Hudson and Davis; and another near Furbisher's straits. Further towards the East is Iseland, another great Island belonging to the King of Denmark, which is but thinly Inhabited. The Arctic Circle passes through the middle of it.  Phil. 
What do you think, Sophronius, of Europe, Asia and afric? Are they not surrounded with the Sea?  Sophr. 
They are so. But, because of their vast Extent, they are usually called by the name of Continents.  Phil. 
I have heard say of Sicily, that it was credibly supposed to have been in former times joined to Italy. Pray, what ground is there for it?  Sophr. 
The Narrowness of the straits, and the Shallowness of it, besides that the Land on both sides is very brittle. First, the Straight is so narrow, that where narrowest, it is not above a mile and a half broad; and 'tis observed that, at the taking of Messina by the Carthaginians, many of the Inhabitants saved themselves by swimming over into Italy. Secondly, It is so Shallow that upon a diligent Sounding 'tis found not to be above eight Fathom deep. Thirdly, the Land on both sides is so very brittle and so full of hollow Caverns and Chinks, that it is looked upon as the effects of a working Sea on this separation. To which add, that on the Italian Coast there stands a City of old called Rhegium, and now Regio, from the Greek Verb 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, to break off or pull asunder, supposed to be so called upon this occasion. The Poets themselves give us to understand as much, when they tell us that Neptune with his Trident broke this Island off from the Continent in savour of Jocastus the Son of Aeolus, that so he might Inhabit there with the greater safety. And indeed, if by Neptune we understand the Sea, and by Aeolus the Winds, we may easily with some help from the Mythologists make a Story good enough of that Poetical Fiction.  Phil. 
By what you said the Thing seems very probable. And who knows but that our Island here was once joined to the Continent of France, and broke off from it by the violence of the Sea and the fury of blustering Winds, or perhaps by some Earthquake? 'Tis you know, but twenty miles over.  Sophr. 
That's a great way, Philalethes, and I look upon that distance as the greatest Argument against it, though I know there be those who are apt to believe it. But let there be a Demur upon that Subject; and, if you will, let us now take a Survey of the chief Peninsules.  
First, I begin with afric, the largest and truest Peninsule of all, being every where surrounded with Seas, except where it joins to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Sues. As for Europe and Asia, you may call them (if you will) Peninsules, but not so properly as afric. For, though they be almost surrounded with Seas, yet there is more than an Isthmus in the case; Europe being joined to Asia a good way by Land, and this last besides to afric by the aforesaid Isthmus. But the Northern and Southern America make of themselves two large and perfect Peninsules, every where encompassed with Seas, but where they join together in the middle by the Isthmus of Panama.  
Besides those great Peninsules, there are others of a less compass, and yet much taken notice of. As 1. Jutland in Denmark, known amongst the Ancients by the name of Cimbrica Chersonesus, Chersonesus being Originally a Greek Word for a Peninsule. 2. The Taurick Chersonese, from the Latin Taurica Chersonesus, which is properly the European Tartary, lying betwixt the Black Sea and Palus Maeotis. 3. The Thracian Chersonese, from the Latin Thracica Chersonesus, a Peninsule which runs North from the Hellespont in Greece. 4. Morea (formerly called Peloponesus) in the Southern parts of Greece, this Peninsule being joined but by a very little Isthmus (called the Corinthian Isthmus) to the Continent of Greece. 5. The Golden Chersonese, from the Latin Aurea Chersonesus, a famous Peninsule in the East-Indies, where now lies the Kingdom of Malacca and the South part of that of Siam. 6. The Peninsule of Corea, in the North-East parts of China. 7. Those of Acadia, Florida, and Yucatan, in the Northern America; the first lying Southward of St. Laurence's Gulf; the second in Florida, North of the Island Cuba; and the third being part of Mexico, or New Spain.  
Now, among the Istmus' that join these Peninsules to their several Continents, there are three of special note, viz. the Isthmus of Sues, the Corinthian Isthmus, and that of Panama.  
And it is observable, first, as to the Corinthian Isthmus, that there was a Design of old to cut it through (being but six miles in breadth) and so make a perfect Island of Morea. This was attempted (but in vain) first by Demetrius King of Macedon, then by Julius Caesar, afterwards by Caius Caligula, and most of all by the Emperor Nero. Who, to hearten his Soldiers, took himself a Spade in hand, and began the Work. But at last they being frighted with the Blood which abundantly broke forth, with the Groans and Roar they continually heard, and with the Hobgoblins and Furies which were always in their sight (as if God had not been pleased with so proud an Enterprise) persuaded the Emperor to give over this unprofitable Design, as had done the former Princes on the like Discouragements.  
As to that of Panama, which is twenty Leagues in breadth (a small Ligament for so great a Body as the Northern and Southern America) there has been also some thoughts of cutting a Navigable Channel through that Isthmus; whereby those two Peninsules should be turned into Islands, and the long Voyages to China and the Molucca's might be very much shortened. The Thing itself has been oftentimes moved to the Council of Spain. But it was not thought convenient to attempt it.  
In Egypt Sesostris King of that Country attempted to cut a main Channel from the Red Sea to the River Nilus fit for Ships of great Burden, the marks of which proud Attempt are remaining still. His Project was seconded by Darius the great Persian Monarch, and one of the Ptolemy's. But they all gave it over for this Reason, lest by letting in the Red Sea they should drown the Country, that Sea being found to be much higher than the Mediterranean and the Flats of Egypt.  Phil. 
So perhaps a second Deluge was prevented.  Sophr. 
I could tell you more of these Projects, which never came to perfection. As that of Nicanor King of Syria, to have made a Channel from the Caspian to the Euxine (or Black) Sea, which was a prodigious Project; That of Lucius Verus, who intended to join the Rhine and the Rhone; and the Project of Charles the Great, to let the Rhine into the Danube. There is none but great Lewis, the now Almighty King of France, who by a long and chargeable Channel carried through his Dominions has at last joined the Ocean to the Mediterranean.  
I should now resume, Philalethes, the thread of our Discourse, but that I am loath to pass by the strange and famous Adventure of John Oxenham, an English man, in his Passage over the Isthmus of Panama by Land. An Adventure not to be forgotten, and recorded by Spanish Writers with much Admiration. This Man, one of the Followers of Sir Francis Drake, being arrived in a small Bark, with seventy of his Companions, a little above Nombre de Dios the chiefest Town of all the Isthmus, drew his Bark on Land, covered it with Boughs, and marched over the Land with his Company, guided by Negroes, till he came to a River. There he cut down Wood, made him a Pinnace, entered the South Sea, and went to the Isle of Pearls, where he stayed some days. During which he intercepted in two Spanish Ships (who feared no Enemy on that side) 60000 pound weight of Gold, 200000 pound weight in Bars of Silver, and so returned in safety to the Land.  Phil. 
The Attempt was bold, the Success strange, and the Booty prodigious. But what became of the Adventurer at last?  Sophr. 
It happened, by the Mutiny of some of his Company, that he never lived to return unto his Ship, nor into his own Country.  
Thus having done, Philalethes, with Isthmus', shall I now give you an Account of such Capes as are most famous amongst us?  Phil. 
With all my heart.  Sophr. 
Then, to begin with Europe, there is in Lap-land the North Cape, being the most Northern part of Europe, in the 72. Degree of Northern Latitude. In Galicia, a Province of Spain, the Cape of Finisterra, in the 44th Degree of the same Latitude. In Algarve, the most Southern Province of Portugal, the Cape of St. Vincent, in the 37th Degree of the same Latitude. And in the most Southern part of Greece, the Capes of Gallo and Matapan, in the 35th Degree of the same Latitude.  
In Asia, Cape Raz, the most Eastern part of Arabia, in the 22th Degree of Northern Latitude. Cape Mosandan, upon the straits of the Persian Gulf, in the 27th Degree of the same Latitude. Cape Comori, in the most Southern part of Malabar in India, and in the 8th Degree of Northern Latitude.  
In afric, the Cape of Bone upon the Mediterranean, South and by West of Sicily; and towards the Streights Cabo de las tres furcas. Then, upon the Atlantic Sea, Cape Cantin, in the Kingdom of Morocco, and in the 32d. Degree of Northern Latitude. Cabo biance, or the white Cape, in the Negro's Land, and in the 21th Degree of the same Latitude. Cape verd, or the green Cape, also in the Negro's Land, but in the 15th Degree, of Northern Latitude. And Cabo Formoso, or the Fair Cape, in Guinea, and in the 4th Degree of the same Latitnde. Then Cabo Negro, or the Black Cape, upon the Coast of Cafraria, and in the 17th Degree of Southern Latitude. And in the most Southern Parts of afric, the famous Cape of good Hope, being in the 35th Degree of Southern Latitude. First Discovered Anno. 1487. by Bartholomew de Diez a Portugese, whom John, 11. King of Portugal employed to find out the way to the East-Indies. But he went no further, and returned home again, either discouraged by cross Winds, or unruly Seas, or the untractableness of his Mariners, or by all together. Vasques de Gama was the Man to whom the Honour of this Enterprise was reserved. Who being employed in this Service by Emanuel King of Portugal in the year 1497. doubled the Cape, and called it Cabo de Buena Speranza, or the Cape of good Hope, because of the good hope it gave him of finding the desired Way to the Trade of India. Wherein he was so successful, that having found there the Port of Calicut, he with infinite Joy and Honour returned to Lisbon in the year 1500, and so opened the way to the East-India Trade by Sea. Upon the Eastern Coast there are two noted Capes, that of Corrientes, and the Cape of Guardafuy; this last being the most Eastern part of afric, 130 Leagues East of the straits of Babelmandel, and in the 12th Degree of the Northern Latitude.  
In the Northern America, near Hudscn's straits, you will find Cape Worsnam, Cape Charles, and Cape Henry. In Virginia, another Cape Charles; and in an Island near the Coast of Florida, the Cape of Canaveral.  
In the Southern America, Cabo de la Vela, upon the Gulf of Mexico; and Cabo Raz, or North Cape, in Caribana. In Brazil, the Cape of St. Augustine; and further Southward, Cape Erio. On the Southside of the mouth of Rio de la Plata, St. Anthony's Cape; and further Southward, St. Andrews Cape. Lastly, the Cape of Virgins, upon the straits of Magellan; and the Cape of Victory, on the West end of those straits.  
Towards, and upon the Coast of Greenland, you may take notice of these Capes, first found out by the English. Viz. Cape Discord, Cape Farewell, Cape Christian, Cape Desolation, Cape Comfort, Cape Chidley, Cape Walsingham, etc. And so I have done with Capes, a Thing of great use to Mariners. Now I am resolved to divert you with Hills and Mountains.  Phil. 
You are more like to fright me with the Height and Steepness of them.  Sophr. 
The highest Hill we know of is el Pico aforesaid, a prodigious high Hill of Tenariffe, one of the Canary Islands West of afric. It has been reckoned by some 15. miles high, by others 40 and more, but with little credit. Warenius allows it to be 2. Leagues (that is six miles) high perpendicularly, and 'tis said that it may be seen 80 Leagues at Sea in a fair clear day. The form of it is Pyramidal, in shape agreeing to those Wonders of Art, the Egyptian Pyramids. The Top whereof ending in a sharp point, called the Pike of Tenariffe, is never without Snow.  
But there are other great Hills, famous not only for their Height, but also for their vast Extent. As in Europe, 1. The Alps, that part Italy from France and Germany. 2. The Pyrenees, that divide Spain from France. 3. The Apennine, that part Italy almost in the very middle. 4. The Carpathian Hills, extending from the Borders of Austria to the Black Sea, and so dividing Hungary, Transilvania, and Moldavia, from Poland. 5. Mount Haemus, reaching from the Gulf of Venice, as far as the Black Sea, and so parting Greece from Servia and Bulgaria. 6. The Dofrine Hills, a vast and continual Ridge of Mountains, which divide Norway from Sweden.  
In the other Parts of the World, you have first in Asia, Taurus (of which Caucasus is a part) and Imaus, greater than any in Europe; That, running a vast way from West to East, and This from North to South. In afric, Atlas, extending from the Atlantic Ocean a prodigious way Eastward; besides the Mountains of the Moon, in the South parts. In the Northern America, the Mountains of New Mexico, which run also North of Florida. And in the Southern America, the Andes, reaching from the North parts of Peru to the straits of Magellan, above three thousand Miles.  
Those are, Philalethes, the greatest and most noted Mountains in the World. All of them generally of a Rocky Substance, and in most places overspread with Forests. None of them free from Snow, even in the heat of Summer In short, they are all troublesome and very dangerous to travel over, by reason of their steep and tedious Ascents, narrow ways, and craggy Rocks, deep and dreadful Precipices, fierce Whirlwinds, and huge Balls of Snow which sometimes tumble down from the top with great noise and violence. And yet (which is Remarkable) amongst some of these dreadful Hills, as the Alps, there are Valleys incredibly fruitful and temperate, with Towns and Villages in them. Generally these Hills are Impassable, except in a few Places, which therefore were by the Romans called Portae, or (from the Greek) Pylae, or Thermopylae. And, as from Lakes, so from these Mountains spring many of the greatest Rivers. Some produce Metals, as Gold, Silver, Iron, etc. and others produce none at all.  
Now the lesser sort of Hills are commonly Sandy, Chalky, or Clammy. And some of these, as Mount Aetna in Sicily, Vesuvius in the Kingdom of Naples, and Hecla in Iseland are famous for those dreadful Fires which sometimes do break out of them.  Phil. 
Pray, what's the cause of those frequent Eruptions of Fire and Vomiting of Flames?  Sophr. 
The great Abundance of Sulphureous Matter contained in the bosom of those Hills, the Wind which gets in at the chinks blowing the Fire, and the Water on the other side adding to the force of it.  Phil. 
Then 'tis to be supposed, that when the Combustible Matter shall be wasted, the Conflagration shall cease.  Sophr. 
Sure enough. And therefore in Tercera and St. Michael (two of the Azores Islands) there are now no such Fires to be seen as there has been formerly, but only now and then a Smoke: And 'tis observable, that in the Ascension Island and St. Helena the Soil is so like Ashes, that it may be credibly supposed there have been formerly some Fires of this kind.  Phil. 
But do you think, Sophronius, the Hills are of as old standing as the World?  Sophr. 
For my part I am inclined to believe, the greatest Hills were created at first as they are. Not that I think (as some do) that God, having first made the Earth perfectly Round, without any hollowness, or one part higher than another, and then contrived hollow places in the Earth to contain the Waters, the Hills came of that Earth which made room for the Waters. For certainly as many more Mountains as there are in the World could not fill up all those Concavities.  
And yet I am apt to think, that some Hills have been raised accidentally; as those Sandy Hills near the Sea in the Low Countries, wherein are found many shells. For 'tis very probable, those Shells were carried thither with the Sand by some violent Winds, and afterwards compacted together by succeeding Rains, and so hardened in process of time.  Phil. 
I confess 'tis not unlikely. Now I would said know, Sophronius, whether or no there be Concavity's or hollow places, Wind and Turn, Precipices, and the like, in the Bowels of the Earth.  Sophr. 
There's no doubt of it, if you consider the nature of Earthquakes, and those Rivers that having run a good way under ground come up again.  Phil. 
What have you now to say as to Forests and Deserts?  Soph. 
In Europe, the Forest of most note was the Hercynian Forest, which overrun not only a great part of Germany, but following the course of the Danube spread itself over Hungary and Transilvania, and from thence on the left hand over Poland and Moscovy. A Wood so formidable to the Romans, that when they had gone 60. days Journey through it, they came back, and durst not venture to search the end of it. But in Germany the greatest part thereof is long, since consumed, and no place there so much overspread with it as Bohemia. In Poland and Moscovy this Forest is the most. visible, and in the last especially. Which is so overrun with it, that, when I was there an Attendant on the Right Honourable the Earl of Carlisle his Majesty's Ambassador to the Court of Moscovy, we traveled 15 hundred miles through that Country, and all within that Forest. Next to which for Fame was the Forest called Ardennes in the Lower Germany. Which in the time of Caesar extended from the Rhine one way as far as Tournay in Flanders, and was in Compass at least 500 miles. An inconsiderable Length, you will say, in comparison to that of Hercynia. But now 'tis not above 30. Leagues in length reaching, but from Thionville in Luxemburg to Liege. And yet not all that Woodland neither, though within the Verge of that Forest; there being in that Tract of Ground many Villages, and a great deal of Arable Land.  
In short, I shall observe to you, that most of our European Forests are of Fruitless Tree, as Oak, Beech, Pine, Juniper, Alder, and Maple-tree, of Elm, Ash, and Poplar-tree, but above all of Fir. Though there are some indeed of Olive, Orange, and Myrtle-trees. But in Asia, there are whole Forests of Cedar, Cinnamon, Nutmeg, and Clove-trees. In afric, of Limon, Orange, Palm, and Tamarind-trees. And lastly America is famous for its Cedars, but particularly for that red and exceeding hard Wood called Brasil, from the name of a Country there which has whole Forests thereof.  
As to Deserts, or Wildernesses properly so called, they are either Sandy, Stony, or Moorish. In Europe we are little troubled with them. But in Asia there's enough of 'em, and especially in that part of Arabia which from hence is called Arabia Deserta. A Country, (says Melchior, who had traveled in it) where are sound neither Men nor Beasts, no, not so much as Birds or Trees, Grass or Pasture; but only Stony, High, and Craggy Mountains. In short, 'tis a wild Place, and full of vast Deserts, so waste and desolate, that such as travel there must carry their Provisions with them, and guide themselves in their Journey by the course of the Stars. 'Tis true that towards Euphrates, and near the Mountains of Arabia foelix, it has some few Towns, resorted to by Merchants. But this is only in those Parts. North-West of China there's a notable Desert, a Sandy one, called Xamo Desertum, the Desert of Lop, or Xamo; through some part of which runs Hoang, the great River of China. As for afric, Deserts are as common there as Forests in Europe. And there is a good Part of it, lying betwixt Biledulgerid Northward and the Negro's Land Southward, that is but a continual Desert. 'Tis that we call in Latin Lybia Deserta, or by the name of the Country Zara, which signifies a Desert or Wilderness. In America, 'tis said there are likewise vast Deserts, but we have as yet no good Account of them.  
So, Philalethes, I shall conclude with these Reflections upon the different Nature of Country's, as Parts of the Earth. For, whereas some Country's are Flat, and only set out with some pleasant little Hills here and there; others are Mountainous, full of huge Hills and dreadful Precipices. Some are Fat and Marshy, when others are Sand or Stony.  
Some Country's are fruitful, irrigated with fair and Navigable Rivers, and in short blessed with all Necessaries; whilst others are barren, unhappy, and full of Deserts, fit only to bring forth wild and venomous Beasts. Some produce one Thing, some another, according to that of Ovid,  
Nec eadem Tellus parit omnia, Vitibus illa  
Convenit, haec Oleis, hîc bene Farra virent.  
Some Country's enjoy a Temperate Air, as most Country's of Europe; whilst some are even Scorched by an extreme Heat of the Sun, and others Frozen up almost all the Year round. And here it is that they have almost a continual Daylight for six Months, and as long a time of continual Darkness; whilst most part of the World enjoys in the space of 24 hours the more convenient and daily Vicissitude of Day and Night, more or less. Again, some Country's (but Islands especially) are extremely subject to Fogs, Winds, Rain, and Change of Wether; whilst Country's remote from the Sea do commonly enjoy a purer Air, a more Serene Sky, and such Wether as is suitable to the Season. Those are commonly Unhealthful, and subject to divers Diseases; These nothing near so much. In fine, some Country's (as in the East) are much subject to Earthquakes, some (as the Caribby Islands) to Hurricanes and dreadful Tempests, and others (as Sicily and Iseland) to Deluges of Fire.   

The Fifth Discourse.  
Of the Waters.  SOphr. 
In our last Discourse I have given you, Philalethes, such an Account of the visible Earth, as might fill your Expectation. Now I shall make it my business to be as Accurate in the Description of the Waters, which (as I said before) make up together with the Earth the Terr-Aqueous Globe.  
In order to which I must tell you in the first place, that, as the Earth is chief divided into Continents, Islands, and Peninsules, so are the Waters principally divided into Seas, Lakes, and Rivers.  
By the Sea in general is meant that great Body of Waters which is thought to encompass the Earth on every side, and is properly called by the Name of Ocean. But there are particular Seas, which flow out of the Ocean through a narrow Passage, and stretch themselves a long way through several Country's, therefore called Inland Seas; as the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and Red-Sea, of which more afterwards.  
A Lake is a considerable Body of Waters, having no visible Intercourse with the Sea, or influx into it; as the Lake of Geneva.  
A River is a Watercourse issuing from some Spring or Lake, and continually running in its proper Channel, till it empties itself, either into the Sea immediately, or else into a greater River. The Place where it gins is called Spring, Head, or Source; where it runs into another, Fall, Influx, or Confluence; and where it loses itself in any Sea, that is properly termed the Mouth of the River.  
But next to Seas, Lakes, and Rivers, I must explain unto you these Words.  
Viz. 

Gulf.  
Bay.  
Creek.  
Straight,  
Haven.  
Pond.  
Torrent.  
Brook.  
Spring.    
A Gulf is properly a part of the Sea that makes a crooked or circling Shore of a large extent; as the Gulf of Bengala in the East-Indies, and that of Mexico in America. A Bay is nothing else but a middling sort of Gulf; Though I confess there are great Gulfs which bear the name of Bay, as (North of America) Baffins', hudson's, and Buttons Bay. A Creek is a little Bay. A Straight is an Arm, or a narrow Passage of a Sea; as the straits of Magellan, Gibraltar, and the Hellespont. A Haven, or an Harbour, is a safe Place for Ships to ride at Anchor. A Pond, or Pool, is but a small Body of standing Waters, apt to be dried up in Summer, if not fed with some Spring or other. A Torrent is a rapid Water caused by some great Rain or Thaw, and so rushing down the Hills with great swiftness. A Brook, or Rivulet, is but a little running Stream, of a small extent. And by a Spring, or Fountain, is meant a little Stream immediately Springing out of the Ground.  
Now, to follow the same Method we used in the Description of the Earth, I must give you, Philalethes, a particular Account of the Seas, Lakes, Rivers, etc.  
The Ocean, which surrounds the World, may be divided, according to its four Quarters, into Northern, Eastern, Southern, Western. The Northern Ocean is that which lies North of Europe, Asia, and the Northern America; and so parts them from Terra Borealis. But it is also called the Frozen Sea, as being commonly clogged with Ice in Wintertime. The Eastern lies between Asia and America; called Eastern in respect to Asia. But about the Southern America it is best known by the name of Mar deal zur, or South Sea, or by the name of Pacifick. The Southern Ocean ly's South of Asia, afric, and America; and so parts them from Terra Australis. The Western lies betwixt Europe and afric of one side and America on the other side; called Western, because it ly's West of Europe and afric. But towards America it is named Mar del North, or the North Sea.  
Now the Ocean has several particular Names, commonly taken from the adjacent Country's. So about Britain it is called the British Sea; about Ireland, Irish Sea; about the lower Germany, the Germane Sea, or the Germane Ocean; and about Spain, the Spanish Sea. Towards the East-Indies it is named the Indian Sea. On the West side of afric, from Atlas the great African Mountain, it bears the name of Atlantic Sea, or Atlantic Ocean; and towards Aethiopia, it is from hence called Aethiopick.  
But besides the Ocean, there are some Inland Seas, into which the Ocean diffuses itself. As the Mediterranean, which runs Eastward from the straits of Gibraltar above a thousand Leagues, betwixt Europe Northwards and afric Southwards, as far as the Shore of Asia. Therefore 'tis called the Mediterranean (that is, the Midland) Sea, from the Latin Mare Mediterraneum. And the Grecians upon the same account termed it in their Language 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, that is the Inland Sea. By the Spaniards it is usually called Mar di Levant, because it runs East from Spain. In the Scriptures it is called the Great Sea, as Numb. 34. where it is said, You shall have the great Sea for a Border. And that in opposition to the Dead-Sea and the Sea of Galilee, lying on the other side of the Land of Palestine, which are properly but Lakes of an indifferent compass.  
But, as the Chameleon is said to apply itself to the colour of the nearest adjacent Body, so this Sea takes its denomination from the nearest Shores. And accordingly the Romans of old gave it these several Names; as Mare Hispanicum or Ibericum, Balearicum, Gallicum, Ligusticum, Tuscum or Tyrrhenum, Liburnicum, Corsicum, Sardinium, Siculum, Ausonium, jonium, Creticum, etc.  Phil. 
Then I was all this while under a great Mistake. For I took them all (for want of better skill) to be so many distinct Seas from the Mediterranean, and so could never find them out to fix them in my mind.  Sophr. 
You see what it is to be left without a Guide in the dark.  Phil. 
But whereabouts is the Adriatic Sea?  Sophr. 
The Adriatic is that which is called now a days from Venice the Gulf of Venice, a Sea (or Gulf) which runs up a great way North-west-ward, betwixt Italy of one side, part of Greece and Sclavonia on the other side.  
'Tis properly but a Part (or Limb) of the Mediterranean, which makes an Excursion that way. And of this Mare Illyricum and Dalmaticum were but Parts.  Phil. 
What Sea is that which is called the Aegean Sea?  Sophr. 
The same that is now termed the Archipelago, being likewise but an Excursion of the Mediterranean to the Northward. A Sea remarkable for its Swarm of Islands, and for parting (so far as it runs) Europe from Asia. About the Island Myrtos, it was called Myrtoum; about Icaria, Icarium; and so from Carpathus, it took the name of Carpathium.  Phil. 
Whereabout is the Propontis?  Sophr. 
The Propontis, now called the Sea of Marmora, is a Sea that ly's betwixt the Archipelago Southward, and the Black Sea Northward; being parted from that by the straits called Hellespont, or the straits of. Gallipoly; and from this, by the Thracian Bosphorus, or the straits of Constantinople. This Sea continues the Separation of Europe from Asia.  
And so doth the Black Sea, otherwise called Pont Euxin, or the Euxine Sea. A huge Sea, that spreads itself a great way to the Eastward.  Phil. 
Doth not the Palus Maeotis lie hereabouts?  Sophr. 
Right North from the Black Sea▪ there being but the Cimmerian Bosphorus, or the Straight of Caffa, between. A Sea much lesser than the Euxine, but bigger than the Propontis. And therefore the Name of Palus Maeotis, or Maeotick Fens, is a Name much below the greatness of it. It is now called otherwise the Sea of Zabache, from a Fish of that name caught here at some times of the Year. Pliny calls it the Mother of the Sea, as if the Mediterranean had its Original from hence, and not from the Ocean. The same is also a Boundary betwixt Europe and Asia.  
But in the North of Europe, and altogether within the Bounds of it, there is also an Inland Sea, commonly called the Baltic, and by the Durch host Zee, which washes on the North-side the Shore of Sweden, and on the Southside part of Denmark, Germany, and Poland. The same gins at the straits called the Sund, and ends in two considerable Gulfs, the one called the Gulf of Bothnia, and the other the Gulf of Finland; from two Provinces of that Name about which they lie, both under the Crown of Sweden. The first of those Gulss, being the greater of the two, runs Northwards, and the other Eastwards. Further Northward, betwixt Lapland and Moscovy, you will find the White Sea, a pretty large Arm of the Northern Ocean, which runs from North to South.  
Betwixt Asia and afric is the Red Sea, otherwise called the Sea of Mecca, or the Gulf if Arabia. This gins at the straits of Babelmandel, from whence it runs Northward as far as the Isthmus of Sues, above 400 Leagues, but the breadth of it is not proportionable. This is the Sea so famous for the miraculous Passage of the Children of Israel, and the drowning Pharaoh King of Egypt.  
Betwixt Arabia foelix and Persia ly's an Inland Sea commonly called the Persian Gulf, or the Gulf of Persia, or else the Gulf of Balsora, or the Gulf of Elcatif, from two Towns of the greatest note upon the Sea, that lying just upon the fall of Euphrates into it Northward, and this 90. League's South of that in Arabia foelix. This Sea is a pretty large Arm of the Southern Ocean, which breaks in at the straits of Mossandan, whilst the River Euphrates falls in at the other end. The continual clashing of which two great Waters makes this a turbulent and unruly Sea.  
In the Northern America you will find as large a Sea as that by the name of Hudson's Bay, and the way to it through Hudson's straits. From whence it runs full South, betwixt Estotiland Eastward and New South-wales Westward.  
West from this Sea you will find Buttons Bay. And, about Terra Borealis, the Sea called Baffin's Bay.  
Thus, Philalethes, you have a brief and general Account of the Seas. What remains is to give you an Account of their respective Gulfs and straits.  
The chiefest Gulfs of the Ocean, I mean such as do only make a circling Shore, are (in Europe) the little (but famous) Gulf in Holland called the Zuyder Zee, or South Sea, upon which Amsterdam is Seated; about France, the Aquitanick Ocean, so called from Aquitain, of which the Province of Guienne is a part; and about Spain, the Gulf of Cadiz. In Asia there is the Gulf of Ormuz, South of Persia; then the great Gulf of Bengala, in the Indies; the Gulf of Sian, further Eastward; the Gulf of Tunquin, or Cochinchine, further towards China; that of Nanquin, in the North Parts of China; a great Gulf, North of Japon; and lastly, another large Gulf, on the North of Tartary. In afric there is a great Gulf, towards Guinea. In America you will find St. Laurences Gulf, and the Gulf of Mexico, this last one of the greatest that are.  
And, as the Ocean, so the Mediterranean has several remarkable Gulfs. As That of Valencia in Spain, the Gulf of Lion in France, and on the Coast of Italy the Gulfs of Genoa, Gaeta, Naples, Salerno, Policastro, St. Eufemia, Squillaci or delli Castelli, and Taranto. On the Coast of Greece, the Gulfs of Larta, Lepanto, Arcadia, Coron or Calamata, Colochina or castle Rampant.  
Those of the Gulf of Venice are, on the side of Italy, the Gulfs of Manfredonia and Trieste; and on the other side Those of Carnero, Narenza, Drino, and Valona.  
Those of the Archipelago, anciently so famous in Greece, are now known by the Names of Napoli, Engia, Negroponte, Ziton, Armiro, Salonichi, Aiomama or St. Anna, Monte Santo, Contessa, and Caridia, all upon the Coast of Greece.  
As to the Baltic Sea, besides the great Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland in which it ends, those of most note are the Gulfs of Lubeck, Dantzick, and Riga. And so I proceed to Streights.  
From what has been said before it doth appear that there are three sorts of Streights. Some that afford a Passage out of one part of the Ocean into another, some out of the Ocean into an Inland Sea, and others out of one Inland Sea into another.  Phil. 
Pray, let us have them all together.  Sophr. 
As to Those that make way from one part of the Ocean into another, there is none of note either in Europe or afric; Unless we should reckon in Europe the Channel for one, and the Irish Sea for another. In Asia there are many; as the straits of Weygatz, betwixt Nova Zemla in Terra Borealis and some North Parts of the Asian Tartary; of Uriez,, near the Land of Jesso; of Zungar, betwixt Japon and Yupi, in Tartary; of Manille, South of a great Island of that name, the chief of the Philippine; of Macassar, South of Celebes, another great Island in the Indian Sea; of Palambua, East of the great Island called Java; of Bantam, betwixt Java and Sumatra; of Malacca, betwixt Malacca in the Golden Chersonese and the Island Sumatra; and lastly of Chilao, betwixt the Indian Peninsule on this side Ganges and the Island called Ceylon. In America there's the straits of Magellan, betwixt the Southern America and del Fuego. To which we may add Mare Vermejo, or the Vermilion Sea, betwixt New Mexico an Island of California; which (though never so long) is properly but a Straight of this nature.  
Those that make way from the Ocean into Inland Seas are, in Europe, the Sund, which gives an entrance into the Baltic; and, betwixt Europe and afric, the famous straits of Gibraltar (otherwise called only the straits) which is an Inlet into the Mediterranean. In Asia there is the straits of Babelmandel, which afford a Passage into the Red Sea; and of Mossandan, into the Persian Gulf: North of America you will find the straits of Davis, that lead into Baffin's Bay; and That of Hudson, which brings one into Hudson's Bay.  
Lastly, there are three straits that afford a Passage out of one Inland Sea into another. Viz. the Hellespont, now called the straits of Gallipoli, and by the French les Dardanelles, or le Bras S. George, betwixt the Archipelago and the Propontis or Sea of Marmora. Then the Thracian Bosphorus, or the straits of Constantinople, betwixt the said Propontis and the Euxine (or Black) Sea. Thirdly, Bosphorus Cimmerius, now the straits of Caffa, betwixt that Sea and Palus Maeotis.  Phil. 
Is not the Hellespont that little Channel about a mile broad, over which the Persian King Xerxes, intending to Invade all Greece, made a Bridge of Ships, and so wasted over his propigious Army of above two Millions of Men?  Sophr. 
The very same. But a Sudden Tempest being risen, whereby this Prodigious Bridg was dangerously battered, Xerxes was so incensed against this Sea, that he caused it to be beaten with 300. Stripes, and cast a pair of Fetters into it, to make it know to whom it was Subject. Yet at last his Fleet was so broken both by the Valour of the Greeks and the Fury of the Sea, that he was fain to fly away over this Hellespont, and to make use of a poor Fisherboat.  Phil. 
So the proud King was fain to stoop at last, and run away with shame. A very fit Reward for so extravagant a Pride.  Sophr. 
Thus having taken a Survey of the Seas, Gulfs, and straits, now we shall make (if you think fit) some Useful Reflections upon the Sea, and examine its Height, Depth, Colour, Taste, and several Motions.  Phil. 
Do you believe, Sophronius, the Sea is higher than the Land, or no?  Sophr. 
There are many that do, and who conclude it therefore a Miracle that the Land is not overflown. For my part, I do allow of a Globosity in the Sea, but not such as may endanger the Land, except where the Ground by the Seaside is lower than ordinary. And in such a case the Inhabitants truly done't rely upon Miracles, but are fain to raise Banks in order to prevent an Invasion of the Sea, which never fails to encroach upon the Land when there is any way for it. But the very Course of the Rivers down to the Sea does manifestly prove the Sea to be no higher than the Land, but rather lower. In short, we must conclude, that, if the Sea were higher than the Rivers, that would certainly come down into their Channels, and drown not only the Land, but the Rivers. So natural it is for Water, where there is the least descent; to move that way, one part following still another without intermission.  Phil. 
I am very well satisfied as to this Point, Let us now proceed, if you please, to the Depth of the Sea.  Sophr. 
It's Depth is very unequal. For, as the Land has Hills both great and small, Valleys, and Precipices; so there are in the Sea, Shelves, Rocks, Whirlpools, and Places not to be fathomed. To be short, the further from Land is the Sea, the deeper it is commonly; and in some places it has been found no less than five or six miles deep.  
As for the Colour of the Sea, it appears generally to be of a Sky-colour. But Northward it looks darkish; in the Torrid Zone, Brownish; and in some other Places, Whitish, and Yellowish.  Phil. 
I wonder, Sophronius, you should forget the Red Colour amongst all the rest. Or else how comes the Red Sea to be so called?  Sophr. 
Not from the Redness of the Waters, nor from that of the Sands, as some conceived; the Sea and Sands being found by latter Observation to be coloured here as in other places. But you must know this Sea was originally called the Sea of Edom, because it took beginning on the Coasts of that Country. Now Edom in Hebrew signifies Red, as appears Gen, 25.30. A Nickname first given to Esau, and from him afterwards to Mount Seir or the Land of Edom, Gen. 36.31. and then to the Neighbouring Sea. Which by the Greeks was rendered Erythraeum, and by the Latines Rubrum. Whence the Name of the Red Sea became known to all, but the Reason of the Name to few.  
So the White Sea in the Northern Parts of Europe is probably so called, because it washes the Shore of White Russia or Moscovy. For I guess it must be from hence the Moscovites call it Bella More, and we accordingly White Sea. I am sure by my own Experience, that it cannot be from any Whiteness it has. Neither has the Black Sea took that Name from its Blackness; but either from the great Mists that arise from thence, or from the frequent Shipwrecks that happen there, the Shore being very dangerous by reason of its Rocks and Sands. How Mare Vermejo, or the Vermilion Sea, that runs betwixt the Northern America and the Island of California, came to be so called, I am as yet to seek. But, towards Cabo Verde in afric, the Atlantic Ocean looks so green with a kind of herb, that in calm weather one would take it to be Land; and from that herb, which is something like Water-cresses, the Portugueze call this Sea Mare di Sargasso. In the Year, 1599 the Sea towards the Mouth of Rio de la Plata in the Southern America appeared as red as Blood to the Hollanders that were upon that Road; but than it was occasioned by certain red Worms wherewith the Sea was covered, and which they saw swim upon the Water.  
Now from the Depth and Colour of the Sea I proceed to its Saltness. For it is generally Salt, but chief in the Torrid Zone; except where great Rivers disimbogue themselves into the Sea by several Mouth. And it is observable, that the Salter the Sea is the heavier it is, and less apt to be frozen.  
Lastly, there are several Motions of the Sea; and first a general Motion from East to West Secondly, the Tide, or the Flux and Reflux, when the Sea flows in for some hours and then goes off again. The Cause of which is Arcanum Naturae, a Secret of Nature, which puzzles still the ablest Philosophers. Now the greatest Tides are upon a Full Moon and New Moon, and likewise in the Spring and Fall. But in some Places the Flux is greater than in others, and there is some Seas where it is scarce discernible. The Baltic Sea has none, and the Mediterranean so little, that (except the Gulf of Venice) 'tis hardly to be seen. To be short, in most Places where there is a Tide, the Sea flows constantly during 6 hours and 12 minutes, and then ebbs in the same proportion of time. Whereas in the Garonne, one of the chief Rivers of France, 'tis flowing water during seven hours, and ebbing water but five. And towards Zenega, a branch of the River Niger in afric, the Tide flows but four hours, and ebbs as long again.  
The Sea has also some proper Currents in some Places. As between the Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar the great African Island; where the Sea moves Southwestward so strongly that it is hard to overcome that Current even with a fair Wind. Whereas from Madagascar to the Cape a Ship may come with ease by the savour of that strong Current without the help of any Wind. In the West Indies there is also a violent Current, that is the straits of Bahama, so called from an Island of that name towards Florida. The same it is with those Places where great Rivers fall into the Sea. As betwixt Loango and Congo in Africa, where the great River Zaire empty's itself into the Ocean with such a rapidity, that no Ship (as my Author says) can get above half a League a day forward towards the Shore.  Phil. 
I long to know the nature of Whirlpools.  Sophr. 
This is another Motion of the Sea, proper to some particular Places. As that of the Aegean Sea in the famous Euripus of old, betwixt Eubaea (an Island now known by the name of Negropont) and Achaia in Greece; Reported to ebb and flow seven times in one day. The Reason of which when Aristotle could not find, it is said (but hardly believed) that he threw himself into the Sea, with these words, Quia ego non Capio te, tu Copies me. Sicily has been also most famous for her Charybdis, a Gulf or Whirlpool, of which and Scylla opposite to it in Italy, many fabulous Things are reported by the ancient Poets. Wherefore Florus the Historian calls the Fare of Messina, Fabulosis infame Monstris Fretum. However it is said of this Charybdis, that it attracts and devours all Vessels that come too nigh it, then casts up their Wracks at the Shore of Tauromenium now called Taormina. And, as to Scylla, 'tis but a Rock that stands dangerously on the side of Italy, with many little Rocks that shoot out at the foot of it. On which the Water beating very strongly makes that Noise the Poets feigned to be the Barking of Dogs. Now the Passage between these two, being to unskilful Mariners exceeding Perilous, gave beginning to the Proverb,  Incidit in Scyllam cupiens vitare Charybdim. 
Upon the Coast of Normandy in France, and not far from Haure de Grace, there is a kind of Whirl-pool, which draws a Ship to it with great Force, but beats her off at last. But the greatest of all the Whirlpools we know of is the Maelstroom upon the Coast of Norway. This is some four Leagues about, and for the space of six hours it swallows up whatever comes near it, then brings it up again six hours after with a dreadful noise,  Phil. 
What other Motion of the Sea have you to speak of?  Sophr. 
That which is caused by the Winds, And these (you know) when strong and violent, make the Sea rage and foam, with an hideous noise. A fearful Object to see this Element, which in a Calm looks like an Azure Field, become in a Storm a continual Series of tumbling Mountains and Abysses of Water.  
Me miserum, quanti Montes volvuntur aquarum!  
Jam jam tacturos Sydera summa putes.  
Quantae diducto subsidunt Aequore Valles!  
Jam jam tacturos Tartara nigra putes.  
Thus Ovid bemoans himself in his Book De Tristibus, where he makes an excellent Description of a Storm he met with in his way to Pontus.  Phil. 
I understand you, Sophronius; and certainly a Man must be void of Sense, that exposes himself voluntarily to the Mercy of that Element.  Sophr. 
Not so neither, Philalethes. The Sea, as well as the Land, was made for the service of Man, and from it we reap many great Advantages. By the Sea we have the opportunity of an Intercourse with the remotest Country's. And, if all men had been of your Temper, how should so many fair Islands have been peopled that are now flourishing? In fine, if no Body had had Courage enough to venture upon the Sea, how should we be acquainted with the Wonders of it?  Phil. 
For my part, I confess I am not cut out for the Sea. I love to go upon sure Ground, and I am for that Element which is most proper for Mankind. In short, I like the Proverb, Praise the Sea, but keep on Land.  Sophr. 
There is nothing to the World so formidable, but one may use himself to it. If the Sea be sometimes troublesome and cruel, it is as often pleasant and delightful, and those that are used to it can hardly live from it.  Phil. 
Well, I wish 'em well to do. Trahit sua quemque Voluptas, every one as he likes. I have kit a puking Stomach, I cannot endure to be tossed. And, when all is done, those that go to Sea are in continual Danger of Fire, Water, and Pirates. If one be Sea-sick, what Agony? and what help is there for it? Who can expect a Relief in such a Case, either from those which are in the same condition, or from them who being in health do but make sport with the. Sick? What Cordial (think ye) is the smell of Pitch and Tar? What Lodging, a Hammock hung up in the Air, or a close and fusty ? It makes me dry to think of their Salt Victuals, and my Teeth (as strong as they are) tremble with the very Thoughts of cracking a Stonehard Biscuit, when I might have a new Roll at home. And, to digest those hard Victuals, what Place is there to walk in? A Deck so tossed to and fro, that every step one runs the hazard of a fall, and of a boisterous rude Sea about ones ears into the Bargain.  Sophr. 
What a fine Speech you made now, Philalethes! I see you can make the worst of any Thing. But I am sorry to see you so unmanly, and all your Rhetoric serves only to set out your Faint-heartedness. I wonder how you dare venture to go along the Streets, for the Tiles may chance to tumble upon your head; and how can you with a safe conscience walk the length of your Room, when who knows but that you may shake the Foundations of the House? I see you are in a Fright, and therefore let us leave the Sea, to take a view of the chief Lakes and Rivers. But you must know beforehand, Philalethes, that some of them are like so many Seas.  Phil. 
'Tis no matter. Their Name is not so formidable.  Sophr. 
What think you then of the Caspian Sea in Asia, which in truth is but a Lake, but bears the name of Sea by reason of its vast Compass, being no jest than 260 Leagues long, and at least an 100 broad?  Phil. 
This is a fine Lake indeed.  Sophr. 
The Greatest we know of. Next to which there is another (according to Sansons' Maps) about half the bigness of that, called by the name Carantia, which he places almost in the heart of the Asian Tartary. In afric you will find the great Lakes of Zaire and Zaflan. In the Northern America, the Karegnondi, and other Lakes adjoining to it, the length of which is not yet fully discovered. And. in the Southern America, the great Lake of Parime, through the South part of which runs the Equinoctial. This is at least 120 Leagues in length, and 50 where broadest.  
Our Europe also is stocked with a great many fine Lakes. As in Moscovy the Ladoga, and the Onega; and in Sweden, the Wener. And about the bigness of these are the Beruan, in the Asian Tartary; Chiamay, in the East Indies; the Lakes of Niger, Borno, and Guarda, in afric; Ontorio, Eric, and the Lake of Nicaragua, in the Northern America; Lago de los Xarayes, Cassipa, and Titicaca, in the Southern America.  
I pass by the Lakes of Constance and Geneva, of Ilmen in Moscovy, the Dead Sea in Palestine, and a great many other of good note in all Parts of the World. Which, though they be looked upon as great Lakes, if compared to those of the lesser sort, yet are much inferior to the foresaid in bigness.  
And, as Lakes differ in Bigness, so they do in Figure. For some are Round, some Long, and others Oval.  Phil. 
Is their Water sweet, or not?  Sophr. 
It is sweet for the most part. But there are some indeed whose Water is Salt; as the Caspian Sea aforesaid, and the Dead Sea in Palestine. And this must be either by some secret Intercourse. they have with the Sea, or else by some Salt Springs thereby these Lakes are fed.  
One Thing, Philalethes, is remarkable about the Lake Leman (otherwise called the Lake of Geneva) which is about 16 Leagues in length, and 4 broad where it is broadest; That, whereas both Lakes and Rivers do generally decrease in Summertime, this Lake swells most in the heat of that Season. And the chief reason they give for't is the Thawing of the Snow, which comes down into it from several parts of the Alps.  Phil. 
But how came the Dead Sea in Palestine by that name?  Sophr. 
'Tis thought it came to be called Sea by reason of its Length and Saltness, being about 70. miles long and 16. broad, and furnishing with Salt the whole Country. But it is called the Dead Sea, in Latin Mare Mortuum, either because it has no visible Efflux, or because no living Creature is nourished in it, by reason of the bituminous savour it sendeth forth, from whence it has been called Asphaltis and Asphaltites. Near this Lake it was that stood once the infamous City's of Sodom and Gomorrah, before they were consumed with Fire and Brimstone.  
Now you must know, that many River's spring from Lakes, and that Lakes are fed with Rivers. So that there is a great and perpetual Intercourse betwixt Lakes and Rovers  Phil. 
I am now pretty well acquainted with Lakes, and I would gladly know what you have to say about the Rivers.  Sophr. 
The Principal Rivers of Europe are, in Spain, the Douro, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, and Ebro; in France la Loire, la Seine, le Rhone, la Garonne; in Italy, the Po; in Germany, the Danube, the Rhine, the Elb, the Oder, and the Wesel; in Poland, the Nieper, and the Duna; in Moscovy, Volga, Tanais, Duina.  
In Asia there is the Euphrates, in the Turks Dominions; Indus, Ganges, and Menan, in the East-Indies; Kiang, and Hoang, in China; Ghammas according to Sanson, Oby, and the Volga aforesaid, in Tartary. In afric you will find Nilus, Nubia, Niger, Zaire, Zambeze, Zambere and Rio de Spiritu Santo, or the Holy-Ghost River.  
In the Northern America, the Canada, or St. Laurences Rives, Chucagua, and Rio del Norto or the North River. And in the Southern, the Orenoque, the Amazon, Rio de la Plata, Rio Parana, and Rio Desaguadero. Amongst which the Amazon is a most prodigious River, and the greatest of the Known World.  
Now there is this common amongst Rivers, I mean their Wind and Turn, whereby the Land is most conveniently watered and irrigated. And the great Rivers, which are only to be found in Continents, swell into their bigness by the continual Influx of lesser Rivers that empty themselves into them as they run down their Channels towards the Sea, the general Rendezvous of all Rivers. From whence it comes to pass most commonly, that further a River runs from its Spring, the larger it grows still.  
Again, as some Rivers are remarkable, for their Length and Breadth, so there are some of a notable Swiftness; as the Rhone, the Rhine, and Danube in Europe; the Euphrates, and Tigris in Asia; the Zaire, in afric; the Saguenay, a River of New France in the Northern America; and the Amazon, in the Southern. Amongst which the Saguenay, though but a mean River, is reported to be of so strong a Current, that it suffers not the Sea to flow up its Channel; so deep, that in many places it attains to a 100 fathoms. And, which is observable, the same is narrower at the Influx of it into the great Canada than it is at the very head. A Thing quite contrary to the general Rule.  
Some Rivers run under Ground more or less in the midst of their Course, and at last come up again as new Rivers. Such are the Guadiana and the Rhone in Europe, Tigris in Asia, Niger and Nubia in afric.  
Some spread themselves into the form of a Lake, as the Tanais and Oby. And others cross a Lake with so swift a course, that they preserve themselves distinct from the Waters of it; as the. Rhone aforesaid, which coming down the Alps falls into the Lake Leman, and having run through the whole length of it from East to West comes out at Geneva.  
Some Rivers have great Cataracts or Falls, as the Rhine betwixt Bilefelt and Shaffausen, the Rhone betwixt Geneva and Lion, and la Somme betwixt Amiens and Abbeville. So 'tis said of the River Nilus in afric, that in two several. places it falls amongst Rocks with so terrible a noise that the Neighbouring People grow deaf with it.  Phil. 
Pray, let us hear something of their Fall into the Sea.  Sophr. 
Many of the greatest Rivers fall in through several Mouths, as the Danube and Nilus, which have no less than seven each of them. And Olearius, in his Travels through Tartary to Persia, tells us of 70. Mouths through which the River Volga (that I have been upon several times) disburdeneth itself, after a winding Course of a thousand leagues into the Caspian Sea.  
But there are some Rivers, and commonly small ones, that neither fall into other Rivers, nor yet into the Sea; but either lose themselves in the Ground, or turn into a Lake.  Phil. 
Are all Rivers of the same Colour as ours are?  Sophr. 
They are generally so. But yet there be some of a blackish colour, some whitish, and others radish. Of this last sort was the Adonis a River of Phoenicia in Syria, which rises out of Mount Libanus, and falls into the Sea 6. mile's South of Barut. This River in Summertime used to contract a kind of; Redness, occasioned by the Winds, which then blowing most vehemently did thereby carry down the Stream a great quantity of minium or red Earth from the sides of the Hills wherewith the Water was discoloured.  Phil. 
Is not this the River which was reported (as Lucian has it) to stream blood, when the obsequies of Adonis the Darling of Venus were yearly celebrated?  Sophr. 
The very same. Thus a natural Accident was made use of to give the better colour to the Superstition, as if Adonis' Wounds did bleed every year.  Phil. 
Now, as to the Taste of Riverwater, are all Rivers sweet as ours are.  Sophr. 
'Tis to be observed first, that all River's subject to the Tide have a Taste of the Sea-water, especially near their Fall into the Sea; and, so far as the Tide goes, they have a brackish kind of Taste. But there are other Rivers, that have a brackish and mineral Taste upon another Account, that is from such Minerals as they meet in their Course.  Phil. 
You know that Rivers are apt to overflow after a great Rain or Thaw, as it frequently happens either at the beginning or at the latter end of Winter. But I have heard of a more general and constant Overflowing of some great Rivers beyond Sea, which I much, admire at.  Sophr. 
'Tis this overflowing upon which depends the Want or Plenty of those Countries. And the River Nilus, amongst others, is as famous for that as it is for its Crocodiles. In May, says Thevenot, it gins to flow, and so increases every day some Inches till die latter end of September, or the beginning of October. At which time it gins to fall, and is as long ebbing as flowing. In the Year 1658. it increased (according to the same Author who was then in the great Cairo) to the height of almost 22 Pics, each Picinino at 24 Inches. And then the River began to decrease the 23d. of September.  Phil. 
What becomes in the mean time of the Inhabitants and their Cattle during this great Land-Flood? For Egypt at that time must needs look like a Sea.  Sophr. 
They retire upon Hills, and there abide till the decrease of the Waters, holding still a Commerce by the Intercourse of Boats.  
Now, as it happens sometimes that we have some Years too wet and others too dry; so, if Nilus overflows too much or too little, Egypt does suffer for't. Unless it rise to 16 Pics, 'tis a bad Year; and when it does rise to 24. 'tis as bad. But, if it chance at any time not to overflow at all, 'tis worst of all. For than it does not only presage a Famine in Egypt, but (as some will have it) prognosticates a Change in the State. And accordingly 'tis said that in the tenth and eleventh Years of Cleopatra, a little before her Fall with her Sweetheart Antonius, the River increased not at all.  Phil. 
This is indeed very Remarkable. But, when the Water of Nilus is withdrawn to its natural Channel, I suppose the Ground is very Slimy, having lain so long under Water.  Sophr. 
So very Slimy, that whereas we are fain to dung our Grounds, the Egyptians throw Sand upon theirs before they Sow or Plant any thing. And of this Slime is engendered many living Creatures, and as some say) such innumerable heaps of Frogs, that if the Country were not furnished as it is with a proportionable number of Storks, by whom they are greedily devoured, the Plague of Frogs would come a second time upon the Inhabitants.  Phil. 
Is it true that it never reins in Egypt?  Sophr. 
'tis a Vulgar Error, strongly confuted by Monsieur Thevenot; Who affirms that it reins much in Alexandria and Rosetta, but not indeed so much in the, City of Cairo. However, he says, that he has seen it rain there two days together very hard, and with great Thunderclaps in the Month of December.   

The Sixth Discourse.  
Of the National Tarts of the Earth.  SOphr. 
Besides the Natural Division of the World into Earth and Waters, there is a National Division of it, which is to be the Subject of our present Discourse.  
And, to make it clear to ye, you must know first, the World is divided into two Principal Parts, the Known and the Unknown World. The Unknown World, or that Part of the World which is yet Unknown to us, lies about the Poles, but the greater Part towards the Southern Pole. That Part which lies towards the North Pole is called in Latin Terra Borealis, or Terra Polaris Arctica; and the other Part that lies towards the South Pole, Terra Australis, or Terra Polaris Antarctica.  
The Known World is usually divided into four Parts, Europe, Asia, afric and America. But it is a most unequal Division, and I think it more rational to divide it thus. Viz. the Known World, first into two Parts, the Old and the New World; then the Old World into three, Europe, Asia, and Africa; and the New into two, the Northern and Southern America. For, as the Old World does visibly consist of three distinct Peninsules, so is the New as clearly divided by Nature into two other Peninsules, holding proportion with the former. Thus the Known World shall be divided (if you will) into five Parts.  
Viz. 

EUROPE;  
ASIA,  
AFRICA,  
The Northern AMERICA.  
and The Southern AMERICA.    Phil. 
How comes that Distinction of Old and New World, when they are both of a Date?  Sophr. 
That Distinction came into use since America was first discovered. For than it begun to be called, and that most aptly, the New World; New, for the late Discovery; and World, for the vast Greatness of it.  Phil. 
Which of these five Parts is the biggest?  Sophr. 
Asia is the biggest, Europe the least. For this is little above half the compass of Asia. And yet from East to West, as from the Cape of Finisterra in Spain to Constantinople in Greece, 'tis no less than 950. Leagues; and from North to South, as from the North Cape in Lapland to Cape Matapan in the most Southern part of Greece, 750.  Phil. 
Whereabouts doth Europe lie in respect to the other Parts?  Sophr. 
Europe is bounded on the North with the Northern Ocean, which separates it from Terra Borealis; Westward, with the Western Ocean, which parts it from America; Southwards, with the straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, whereby it is divided from afric; Eastward it is parted from Asia by all those Seas and straits that run up successively Northward from the Mediterranean. But from Palus Maeotis upward, the Bounds are uncertain, and not yet agreed on amongst Geographers. The Ancients, I know, made the River Tanais a Boundary as far as it would go: But they were so little acquainted with these Parts, and with the Course of that winding River, that to follow them here were to follow a blind Guide. For my part I will not presume to prescribe any Bounds. But, if I were to choose, I would only draw a line from the most Northern part of the said Palus Maeotis North-East-ward as far as the Gulf of Petzora, a little on this side the straits of Weygatz.  
I should be loath either to contract Europe so much as to confine it within the Bounds of the White Sea, as some do; or to overstretch it, as others do, as far as the River Oby, whereby they edge into Europe a good part of the Asian Tartary.  Phil. 
So you are for a Medium.  Sophr. 
I am so.  Phil. 
But how comes Europe to be so called?  Sophr. 
Don't you know the old Story, Europe from Europa the Daughter of Agenor King of Phoenicia? Which Lady Europa Jupiter brought to Crect, and so she gave the name to Europe. A very credible Story, that Jupiter's bringing of that Lady from Phoenicia to so small a part of Europe as the Isle of Crect where she came should give denomination to all this Part of the World.  
For my part I should rather think the name of Europe to be derived from a Maritime Province of Thracia so called, and that those of Asia gave the name of Europe to this Part of the World, according to the name of that Province which lay nearest to them. Just so the Europeans gave the name of Asia to that other Part of the World from one small part of it called Asia, which lay next to Greece. And in the same manner the Romans called afric so, after the name of that particular Province or Part thereof which they brought first under their Obedience.  Phil. 
What makes us put always Europe first, when we speak of the chief Parts of the World? I would fain know how this little Part came to that great Preferment.  Phil. 
The best Reason I know for it is, that we love to prefer ourselves. Because we are born and live in Europe, therefore Europe must march in the Front. Though Asia by right, and that upon such Grounds as you shall see afterwards, should have the Precedency. But I suppose they will scarce fall out about it.  
And yet one might say much in the behalf of Europe, as it is now improved. Europe so generally fruitful, temperate, and populous; so extremely improved in all Arts both Liberal and Mechanical. Europe famous besides for having Ruled a long time over Asia and afric, during, the Greek and Roman Monarchy's. Famous for its wonderful Discoveries and Conquests (not to say Invasions) of the New World in these latter Ages. To which we may add that great Prerogative we have above the rest of the World, the Christian Faith.  Phil. 
Now you have done Europe a good turn, and 'twere pity but Europe should consider it. But which of the Sons of Noah first peopled it after the Deluge?  Sophr. 
Whilst Shem peopled Asia, Cham afric, the Isles of the Gentiles (says Moses, Gen. 10.) were divided amongst the Sons of Japhet. Now by these Isles is understood Europe, a great part whereof doth indeed consist of Islands and Demi-Islands. Nor was the Name and Memory of Japhet so much forgotten by the Children which descended of him, but that the Greeks who were the first of their European Plantations retained it a long time in their Japetus, the Son (as they said) of Caelum and Terra, and Father of the wise Prometheus.  Phil. 
Pray what's the meaning of God's Promise unto Japhet, that he would make him dwell in the Tents of Shem?  Sophr. 
The same is to be understood both in a literal and mystical Sense. In the first Sense the Promise was fulfilled, when the Posterity of Japhet, both Greeks and Romans, subdued Judaea or the Land of Canaan, and the Eastern Parts promised to and possessed by the Seed of Shem. And in the second Sense, when it pleased God to break down the Partition-Wall, and to Incorporate the Gentiles of the House of Japhet into the Body of the Church, which for a long time was restrained to the Line of Shem.  Phil. 
Now we shall proceed, if you please, to the Division of the five Parts of the World into their Principal Countries.  Sophr. 
As for Europe, this is my general Division thereof. Viz.  
Into 

Spain,  
France,  
Great Britain and Ireland,  
Germany,  
Italy,  
Turkey,  
Poland,  
Tartary the lesser,  
Moscovy, or Russia,  
Sweden,  
Norway,  
Denmark.    
In Spain you will find the Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. In Great Britain, the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and the Principality of Wales.  
In Germany, besides the Emperor's Dominions (consisting chief of the Arch-Dukedom of Austria, part of. Hungary, and the Kingdom of Bohemia) you will find both the Dukedom and Upper Palatinate of Bavaria, Suaben, Switzerland, Alsace, the Lower Palatinate of the Rhine, Franconia, Hesse, the Low-Country's, Westphaly, Saxony, Brandenburg, and Pomeren.  
In Italy there are the Kingdom of Naples; the Pope's Land, the Dukedom of Tuscany, the States of Genoa and Luca, the Principality of Piedmont, the Dukedoms of Milan, Mont-ferrat, Mantua, Parma, Modena, and the State of Venice, besides the Islands and Kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia.  
Turkey in Europe comprehends 1. all Greece, divided into Thracia, Macedon, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, Peloponesus, besides the Islands, amongst which Crect (now Candia) and Euboea (now Negroponte) are the chiefest. 2. Moesia, containing Servia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia. 3. the South parts of Podolia in Poland, and Caffa in the Taurick Chersonese. 4. Bosnia, with the greatest part of Hungary, Sclavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. And lastly, though the Grand-Signior be not fully possessed of Moldavia, Valachia, and Transylvania, yet the respective Princes thereof are Tributary to Him. And so is the Cham of Tartary the lesser.  
As to the Kingdom of Norway, it belongs to the Crown of Denmark; and the greatest part of Livonia, to Sweden. The great Dukedom of Lithuania is united to the Crown of Poland, Lapland is divided betwixt the Czar of Moscovy and the Kings of Sweden and Denmark; Savoy, within the Alps,, belongs to the Duke of that Name. Adjoining to which is Valesia, and the Country of Grisons.  
Now most of the Country's aforesaid are subdivided into several Provinces, and some of these into lesser Parts. But I shall forbear at present those Subdivisions, and leave that till another time. My Design is only to give you a general Account of the World, till I have more time to come to Particulars.  Phil. 
Then let us proceed to Asia.  Sophr. 
Asia, the greatest of the five Parts of the World, is a Peninsule almost as big again as Europe, and every way encompassed by the Ocean, except on the West side. Northwards the Ocean parts it, as it doth Europe, from Terra Borealis; Eastwards, from America; and Southwards, from Terra Australis. Then on the West 'tis bounded with the Red Sea, which parts it from afric; Next to that, with the narrow Isthmus of Sues, where Asia joins to afric; afterwards, with the East end of the Mediterranean; and lastly, with those Seas, and straits, etc. that part it from Europe, for which I refer you thither.  
The same, as I hinted before, was first called Asia by the Europeans from the nearest part to Greece called by that name. Which spread itself from that Lydian Asia to Asia properly so called whereof that was, but a Part, the proper Asia to the whole Body of Anatolia, and this to the whole Continent. Now this being known by the name of Asia occasioned the Distinction of Asia the greater and Asia the lesser, by which last name Anatolia is still called amongst us.  Phil. 
Now, Sophronius, let me know upon what Grounds Asia should have (as you think) the Precedency.  Sophr. 
Not to insist upon the Largenest of its Extent, or the Riches of its Soil, I think Asia ought to be had in special honour for these Reasons following. First, for the Creation of Man, who had his first making in this Part of the World. For here stood the Garden of Eden, the first place of his Habitation, and from hence all Nations of the World had their first beginning. Secondly, because here flourished the two first great Monarchies of the Assyrians and Persians; the first signified by the Image with the Golden Head in Daniel, and the last by the Arms and Breast of Silver. Thirdly, because it was the Scene of almost all the memorable Actions recorded in the Scriptures. And lastly, because that here our Saviour Christ was born, wrought his Divine Miracles, and accomplished the great Work of our Redemption.  Phil. 
I am very well satisfied with your Reasons. The next Thing I desire to know is the Division of Asia.  Sophr. 
Asia is chief divided  
Into 

Turkey in Asia,  
Arabia,  
Persia,  
India,  
China,  
Tartary,    
Besides the Islands.  
Turkey in Asia comprehends 1. Asia the less, or Anatolia, now called by contraction Anatolia, which anciently was divided into these Provinces so noted in History. Some Maritime ones, as Pontus, Bythinia, Phrygia the lesser, Mysia, Aeolis and jonia, Caria and Doris, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia. And these Inland Provinces, Viz. Isauria, Armenia the lesser, Cappadocia, Galatia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia the greater, Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia. 2. It contains Armenia the greater, now called Turcomania. 3. Chaldea, Assyria, and Mesopotamia, which three Provinces together did properly and originally constitute the Assyrian Empire. 4. Syria and Palestine; the first containing Syria propria, Coelo-Syria, Phoenicia, Palmyrene; and Palestine being otherwise called the Land of Canaan, or the Land of Promise, Judaea, and Israel. The Northern part of which, when possessed by the Tribes of Asser, Nephthalim, Zabulon, and Issachar, went properly by the name of Galilee, 5. part of Arabia.  
Now Arabia is divided into Petraea or Stony, Deserta or Desert, and Faelix or Happy, this last of a vast extent.  
Persia, a large Continent, was anciently divided into Persis, Susiana, Carmania, Gedrosia, Drangiana, Aria, Arachosia, Paropamisus, Parthia, Hyrcania, Margiana, and Bactria. To Persia may be also referred Media and Georgia. Media contained Atropatia, and Georgia comprehended Iberia, Colchis, and Albania.  
India was divided from the River Ganges into India intra Gangem or India on this side Ganges, and India extra Gangem or India beyond Ganges, Here is, amongst other Kingdoms the vast Empire of the great .  
China and Tartary are also two vast Continents, but this last especially, which altogether takes up above one third part of Asia.  
As for the chief Islands of Asia, you have had an Account of them in the fourth Discourse. So I shall proceed to a general Account of afric.  Phil. 
I am ready to hear you  Sophr. 
afric, a complete Peninsule, is bounded on the North with the straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, which part it from Europe; on the South, with the Southern Ocean, which separates it from Terra Australis; Eastward, with the Ocean likewise for the most part, then with the Red-Sea which parts it from Asia, and lastly with the foresaid Isthmus of Sues where it joins to Asia, and without which afric would be a complete Island.  
It contains in chief 

Berbary,  
Biledulgerid,  
Zara,  
The Negro's Land,  
Guinea,  
Congo,  
Cafraria,  
Monomotapa,  
Monomugi,  
Zanguebar,  
Abissinia,  
Nubia,  
Egypt.    
Barbary, which runs as Far as Egypt along the Mediterranean, contains the Kingdom of Morocco Westward upon the Atlantic Ocean, the Kingdom of Fez partly upon that Ocean, partly upon the straits and the Mediterranean. Then, still going Eastward, you will find the States of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Barca. Now Mauritania took up the Western Part of Barbary. And, as the Kingdom of Tunis was the Africa propria of the Ancients, so you will find their Cyrehe and Marmarica in the Kingdom of Barca.  
Biledulgerid, anciently called Numidia, being part of Lybia Interior, ly's South of Barbary; and runs also from West to East, as far as Egypt. Zara or Libya Deserta, anciently counted likewise as part of Libya Interior, ly's South of Biledulgerid.  
South of that you will find the Negro's Land, which runs also a great way from the Atlantic Eastward, and is divided into several Kingdoms. And Southward is Guinea, a Sea Coast Country. The first of note, amongst other Things, for the Negroes that are commonly employed in the New World, to do the Europeans Drudgery. This, for the Gold that is brought from thence.  
Congo, Cafraria, Monomotapa, and Monomugi went all amongst the Ancients under the name of Aethiopia Inferior; Zanguebar and Abissinia, under that of Aethiopia Superior.  
Congo contains several Kingdoms, which I forbear to mention, because of no great Note. Cafraric is a Sea-Coast Country that extends itself from Angola (part of Congo) as far as the Cape, of Good. Hope Southward, and from thence as far as Zanguebar Eastward.  
Monomotapa and Monomugi are two Inland Country's of afric, lying, within the Compass of Cafraria. But Zanguebar is a Sea-Coast Country towards the East.  
Abissinia is a vast Empire, divided into several Kingdoms, and whereof the Western part is watered by the River Nilus. Nubia ly's West and North of Abissinia; and the Desert of Barca, or Libya Marmarica, North of Nubia.  
Egypt, which next to Barbary is the most noted and frequented Country of afric, is bounded Eastward with the Isthmus of Sues and the Red-Sea, Westward with Barca and the Desert of that name, Northward with the Mediterranean, and Southward with Nubia and Abissinia.  
Thus much for the Old World. And now I come to the New, otherwise known by the Name of America, or else the West Indies.  Phil. 
I remember you told me before, the New World was called New, for the late Discovery; and World, for the vast Greatness of it. Pray, how long is it since it was first discovered?  Sophr. 
'Tis almost two hundred years ago, and the first Discoverer of it was Christopher Columbus, an Italian born, of Genoa. He being a Man of great ability's, and born to undertake great Matters, could not persuade himself, when he considered the Motion of the Sun, but that there was another World to which this Glorious Planet did impart both his Light and Heat, when he went from us. This World he resolved to seek after, and accordingly in the year 1486. he opened his Design to the State of Genoa. But, the business being slighted there, he sent his Brother to the Court of England. Who unluckily fell in his way hither into the hands of Pirates, and was by them detained a long while. However he got his Liberty at last, and so came over to England, where his Proposition was so well relished, that Columbus was sent for to take measures with him. But he, not having heard a long time from his Brother, conceived the Offer of his Service to have been neglected, and had already made his Address to the Court of Spain. At that time Reigned King Henry VII. here, and Queen Isabella in Spain. Where Columbus at last, with much ado, and after many delays, had three Ships furnished, not so much for Conquest as for Discovery.  Phil. 
How came he at last to compass his Design?  Sophr. 
Being furnished with the Ships aforesaid, he ventured upon the main Ocean, steering his Course to the Westward. Two whole Months did he float upon this unknown Sea, before he could see any Land. Insomuch that his Men began to Mutiny, and refused at last to go on. He promised them to return again, if they did not see Land in three days. They agreed. And, as Providence would have it, on the third day, they discovered the Island Guanahani, in the 24th Degree of Northern Latititude. There having Landed, he took possession of it for the Crown of Spain, October 11. Anno 1492. and called it St. Salvador, which is S. Saviour. Afterwards he discovered and took possession of Hispaniola, and with much treasure and applause returned into Spain. Preferred for this good Service, first to be Admiral of these Indies, and afterwards to a Coat of Arms with this Motto, For Castille and Leon Columbus has got a New World, and in conclusion to the Title of Duke de la Vega.  
The next year he returned thither, discovered the Islands of Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola, and in this last built the Town now called St. Domingo. In the Year 1497. (the same year that Vasquez de Gama found out the Passage by Sea to the East Indies, a happy Time for Discovery's) he went another Voyage, in which he discovered amongst other Places Paria in the Firm Land. And in the year 1500. he began his fourth and last Voyage, which he performed without adding much to his former Discoveries. At last he died in Spain, in the year 1506; and was honourably Interred at Sevil.  
But, though Columbus be dead, yet Columbus' Fame shall live to all Posterity. 'Tis he we are indebted to for the Advantage we have of seeing clearly those Things which either were Unknown, or but blindly guessed at by the Ancients.  
Next to Columbus, John Cabot a Venetian (the Father of Sebastian Cabot) discovered a great part of this Continent, in behalf of Henry VII of England. For in the year 1497. he found out all the North-East Coasts hereof from Florida Southward to Newfoundland and Terra di Laborador in the North. Then came Americus Vesputius, a Florentine, employed therein by Emanuel King of Portugal, Anno 1501. on a design of finding out a nearer way to the Molucca's than by the Cape of Good Hope. And, though he passed not further than the Cape of St. Augustine in Brasil, yet from him (to the great Injury and Neglect of the first Discoverers) this Continent has got the Name of America.  Sic Vos non Vobis fertis Aratra Boves. Phil. 
Indeed this is a great piece of Ingratitude. But Usus invaluit, and now it is past cure.  Sophr. 
I have but this more to tell you upon the Subject of this Discovery, that after Americus there came several private Adventurers and Undertakers out of all parts of Europe bordering on the Ocean. Amongst whom Magellan was the first that compassed the whole World, and found the South Passage called from him the straits of Magellan. Wherein he was followed by Drake and Cavendish of England. Thus this New World became a Prey to Europe, but to Spain especially. Thus the Natives were invaded, and (till the time of Charles V) Millions of them destroyed by the Spaniards Cruelty, who, to secure their Usurpation, and satiate their Avarice, laid aside all sense of Religion and Humanity itself, and so made Christianity a  to those naked Heathens.  Auri Sacra Fames, quid non mortalia cogis Pectora? 
But the Blood of these poor People cries for Vengeance still. And 'tis observable already how the Monarchy of Spain, which was so formidable but in the last Century, has been almost ever since Charles the Fifth's time in a declining condition. First overpowred by the Hollanders, then by the English, and lately by the French.  Phil. 
I love to take notice of great Men. Pray, what was that Magellan who first Sailed round about the World?  Sophr. 
He was a noble Portugueze, well skilled in Navigation. Who, upon some Discontents received in the Court of Emanuel King of Portugal, made offer of his Service to Charles the fifth King of Spain, and undertook the finding out a shorter cut to the Molucca's than had been discovered. Which he effected in the year 1520. by his Discovery of those narrow Seas, from him called the straits of Magellan, whereby he at last entered from the North into the South-Sea.  
And, to give you a Description of those straits, I shall tell you in the first place, that they are in the 53. Degree of Southern Latitude, about 100 Leagues in length, with high Hills on both sides always covered with Snow. The Passage, as it is tedious and unpleasant, so it is very dangerous. For here the Sea ebbs and flows with a violent swiftness, and the very first fall into it is extremely doubtful and hazardous. And then it is a Place of that Nature, that which way soever a man Steer his Course, (as I told you before, speaking of the Winds) he shall be sure to have the Wind against him. Besides that the Course of the Water, says John Davis, is so full of Turn and Change, and those so violent, that when a Ship is entered there is no returning. To which add, that the Channel is so very deep (in some places no less than 300. fathoms) that there's no hope of Anchorage.  
In short, it was a whole month, (viz. from the latter end of October to the end of November) before Magellan could be clear of these Narrow Seas. From whence he sailed at last to the East-Indies. But there he was the year following unfortunately slain. And, of five Ships that he set out with, there was but one (by a happy Omen called Victoria) that returned to Spain in safety. The Commander of that Ship was Sebastian del Canon, who after a very long and dangerous Voyage (wherein it was thought he had Sailed at least 14000. Leagues,) had the happiness to bring home the welcome News of his good Success.  
But, to return to our Americans, they are credibly supposed to descend from the Tartars of Asia. For, besides that the West side of America is disjoined from Tartary but by a very small Streight, so that there is thence into these Country's a very quick and ready Passage; 'tis certain the Americans are most like the Tartars of any, in the whole course of their Life. To which add, that the West side of America is far more populous than the East towards Europe or afric; Which argues that those Western Parts were first Inhabited, and that from hence the rest was Peopled.  
What remain now is to give you, Philalethes, first the Division of the Northern America, and then that of the Southern, both of them according to the present State of those two great Peninsules.  
The Northern America, may be fitly divided into these principal Parts;  
Viz. 

Mexico, or  
New Spain,  
New Mexico,  
Florida,  
Virginia,  
Canada, or  
New France,  
Estotiland.    
Mexico, the most Southern, the best, and most populous Part of all this Peninsule, has on the East the Gulf of Mexico, and on the West the South Sea. The same reaches from the Isthmus of Panama Southward to Rio deal Norte in New Mexico Northwestward above 400. Leagues, but the breadth of it is not proportionable. It is called Mexico, from the chief Province of that name, as this is from the chief City, the whole Kingdom is divided into three great Prefectures, or Governments, called by the Spaniards Audiencas; viz. of Mexico, of Guadalajara or New Gallicia, and of Guatimala, which comprehend several Provinces. And, as the Gulf borrows its name from hence, so the whole Peninsule is sometimes called from it Mexicana. This rich Kingdom belongs solely to Spain, since the Conquest of it by Ferdinand Cortes, Anno 1519.  
North of this Mexico you will find Nuevo Mexico, or the New Mexico; bounded Eastward with Florida, and Westward with Mare Vermejo, which parts it from California.  
Florida ly's full North of the Gulf of Mexico, and Carolina is counted part of it, lying near the Sea, and South of Virginia.  
By Virginia, as a general Name, I mean all that Sea-Coast Country, which reaches Northeastward from Florida as far as the Gulf (or Bay) of S. Laurence. And so it contains chief Virginia properly so called, New Sweden, the New Netherlands, New-England, and Acadia.  
Canada, or New France, ly's on both sides of the River Canada. And on the West side you will find the Saguenay, a part of New France so called from a River of that name which runs into the Canada.  
Estotiland comprehends those Regions that lie most towards the North and East. Bounded Eastward with the main Ocean; Northwards, with Hudsons' straits; Westward, with Hudson's Bay; and on the South, with Canada or New France. There is nothing but the Sea-Coast of it discovered. The same is also called Terra Corterealis, or Corterealis Ora, from Corterealis, a Portugueze, who in the year 1500 left his name unto it. It has likewise got the name of Terra de Labrador; and now the French call it Nouvelle Bretagne, that is, New Britain, from a French Province of that name.  
One Thing is Observable concerning this Peninsule, that most of the Western Parts (as being furthest from Europe) are still undiscovered. But Northwards you will find some Parts of it, bearing the Name of New North-wales, New South-Wales, and West of these New Denmark.  
The Southern America I divide into these chief Parts.  
Viz. 

Terra firma,  
Brasil,  
Paraguay,  
Magellanica,  
Chili,  
Peru,  
Amazonia.    
Terra Firma, in Spanish Tierra, Firm, comprehends those Regions which lie most towards the North. As Terra firma properly and specially so called, the Governments (or Country's) of Popayan, Cartagena, S. Martha, Rio de la Hacha, and Venezuela, the new Realm of Granada, Paria, Caribana, and Guiana. All which belong for the most part to Spain.  
Brasil, which takes up the most Eastern Parts, and does chief belong to Portugal, is divided into several Capitanias (as the Portugueze call them) or Prefectures, the Principal of which is Capitania de Siara. The Rest are of a less compass, and bear for the most part the names of their chief places, or Principal Rivers. As Capitania de Para, de Maragnan, de Rio grande, Parayba, Tamaraca, Pernambuco, Bahia, Ilheos, Porto Seguro, Spiritu Santo, Rio Janeiro, and S. Vincente. But all this is only by the Seaside, the Inland Parts being left (I suppose) for our Posterity to plant.  
Paraguay ly's South and West of Brasil, and doth chief belong to the Spaniards. It is called Paraguay, from the great River of that name, otherwise named Rio de la Plata, which runs through the midst of it. The same is at present divided into Paraguay properly so called, Guayra, Parana, Uraguay, the Province of Rio de la Plata, Chaco, and Tucuman.  
Magellanica ly's South of Paraguay, and reaches to the very straits of Magellan, where this Peninsule (like afric) draws towards a point not unlike that of a Pyramid This wild Country has the Prospect, not only of the straits aforesaid Southwards, but also of the North-Sed. Eastward, and part of if of the South Sea Westward.  
Chili is a Sea-Coast Country, upon the South-Sea, West of Magellanica. Most part of which, and that towards the North, is subject to the Crown of Spain.  
Peru, a Country famous for its Gold and Silver Mines, lies Northward of Chili, East of the South (or Pacifick) Sea; and is parted from North to South, almost in the midst, by the huge Mountains called Andes. The Country is about 600. Leagues in length from North to South, but the breadth from East to West is not proportionable. From hence it is that some can the whole Peninfule by the name of Peruana, as they call the other from Mexico Mexicana.  
This great and rich Kingdom was Conquered by the Spaniards ten years after that of Mexico, viz. in the year 1522. Pizarro was the Man employed in Chief in the Conquest of it, a Man basely extracted, and as sordidly brought up, who was fain at last to steal for shelter into America. Where being grown Rich and Bold by his Adventures, and being well informed of the Wealth of Peru, he undertook the Conquest of it, and at last per fas & nefas got it for the Crown of Spain.  
Since which Time the Spaniards have divided it into three Audiencas, or Prefectures. Viz. Audienca de Quito, which takes up the Northern Parts; Audienca de los Reyes, which contains the middle Parts, where you will find Peru properly so called; and Audienca de los Charcas, which takes up the Southern Parts.  
By Amazonia I mean all those Inland and Unknown Countries which lie betwixt Peru on the West and Brasil on the East, bounded North-wards with Terrafirma, Southward with Paraguay and Part of Peru. Called Amazonia from the Amazon, that great and prodigious River, which runs through the North Parts of this Country from West to East into Mar del Nor, or North Sea.  
Thus you have, Philalethes, a general Account of the Known Parts of the World. In Terra Polaris Ar●ctica you will find Greenland, first discovered in the year 982: by Ericus Rufus; but little of it, besides the Sea-Coast, is known. Famous most of all for the Fishing of Whales hereabouts. East of Greenland lies Nova Zemla, of which nothing is discovered as yet besides the Western Shore. So that it is not known, whether it be an Island; or part of the Continent.  
In Terra Australis, or towards it, you will find these Country's as imperfectly discovered as those. Viz. the Land of Papous, East of the Molucca's; and New Guinea, East of that. But some take the Land of Papous to be part of New Guinea. South of these is New Holland, not long since discovered by the Hollanders. But, whether it is an Island or Continent, we are as yet to seek.  Phil. 
I think we have run pretty well over the World. It is high time for us to rest ourselves. But I desire, next time we meet, to learn the Meaning of the Circles, that so I may understand the use of Globes and Maps.  Sophr. 
With all my heart.   

The Seventh Discourse.  
Of the Use of Globes and Maps, with their several Circles.  SOphronius. 
In our former Discourses you have had a general Account of the Real Parts of the Earth. Now I come to the Imaginary ones, I mean those Lines or Circles, supposed to go about the World, and accordingly drawn in Terrestrial Globes and Maps, for the better teaching and learning of Geography.  Phil. 
Pray, let me have their Definition.  Sophr. 
A Globe is a compendious Representation of the Earth in its round Figure, with several Circles, and an exact Situation with the Names of its several Country's, Seas, chief Lakes and Rivers, Hills, Towns or City's.  
A Map is either general, or particular. By a general Map is meant a Planisphere, or a Map of the whole Earth, describing the Old and New World by themselves, the first on the right hand, and the other on the left.  
A particular Map is a Representation of a particular Part of the World, as of Europe, Asia, on Africa, the Northern, or Southern America. Which are but particular Maps in respect of a Map of the whole World.  
'Tis true there are Maps indeed more particular, such as give an account of a particular Country, or of one Province or more of that Country. In which respect the Maps of Europe, Asia, afric, and America be said to be general.  
And so I come to the Circles. But first I begin with the Axletree of the World, which is a right Line imagined to pass through the Centre or midst of the World, from one end of it to the other. The upper end of which Axletree is called the Pole Arctic, or North Pole; and the nether end opposite to that, the Pole Antarctick, or South Pole.  Phil. 
How many Circles are there?  Sophr. 
There are eight principal Circles, four greater, and four lesser.  
The greater Circles are 

The Equinoxial,  
The great Meridian,  
The Zodiac,  
The Horeon.    
The lesser Circles, 

The Tropic of Cancer,  
The Tropic of Capricorn,  
The Arctic.  
The Antarctick.    
The Equinoctial, otherwise called Aequator, and by Mariners the Line, is a great Circle going round the. Globe in the very midst betwixt the two Poles. It is called Equinoctial, because when the Sun is come to this Circle, then is the Equinox, that is, the day and night are of an equal length. And it hath the name of Aequator, because it divides the World into two equal Parts, the one Northwards, the other Southwards. From whence comes the Distinction of Northern and Southern Latitude, that reaching from this Circle as far as the North Pole, and this from the same Circle as far as the South-Pole. Now this Circle is divided into 360. Parts called Degrees of Longitude, as showing the Length of the World. Whereof the first 90. Degrees run from West to East, than 180. Degrees by the backside of the Globe from East to West, and at last 90. Degrees more from West to East, all which make up the number of 360. Degrees.  
The great Meridian is a Circle that goes round the Poles, and so divides the World likewise into two equal Parts. In Globes it is made commonly of Brass. The same has got the name of Meridian from the Latin Meridies, that is Noon day, because when the Sun is come to that Circle then 'tis Noon in the Place whereof it is the Meridian. And it is called great Meridian, in opposition to those lesser Meridian's which are to be seen in Globes and Maps. This is the Circle wherein are set down the 360. Degrees of Latitude, or Breadth of the World, divided into four times 90.  
Now the Question is, which is the most proper place for the great or first Meridian to pass through. For our Modern Geographers differ much about it, which causes a great Confusion. Some follow still Ptolemy, who placed it in the Canary Islands; others have removed it more Westward to the Azores. Neither do these agree amongst themselves. For some will have it pass through S. Michael and S. Mary, others through Corvo and Flores. For my part I don't admire an Innovation that causes so much Distraction; and, whatever they pretend to, the Remedy to be sure is worse than the Disease. Therefore it were much to be wished, that they would agree in this particular, and unanimously fix their Meridian somewhere, without which we cannot agree as to the Longitude of Places. One should think, that el Pico in Tenariffe might be a Place very fit for that purpose.  
The Zodiac is a Circle to be seen in Globes, and general Maps, but not in particular ones. The same is a sloping Circle, crossing the Equinoctial in two places, and dividing it into two equal Parts. It is called Zodiac, from the Greek word Zodion, that signifies a living Creature. For it consists of Twelve Signs which are (as I said in a former Discourse) the Twelve chief Constellations of all the fixed Stars, and most of which are represented to us under the name and figure of living Creatures. The Use of this Circle is to show the natural Motion of the Sun, which in a years time runs over those Twelve Signs, and therefore those Signs are called the Houses of the Sun. Amongst which Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, are Northern; and the other six, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, Southern.  Phil. 
I desire to know the Course of the Sun through those Signs.  Sophr. 
Supposing you remember what I told you formerly of the Equinoxes and Solstices, I shall only add, that those Twelve Signs answer to the Twelve Months of the Year, Aries to March, Taurus to April, and so forth; with this difference, that when the Sun comes to Aries for exemple 'tis about the 10th of March, and then is our Vernal Equinox. From whence the Sun proceeds to Taurus and Gemini, till it comes to Cancer, and then is our Summer-Solstice. From Cancer it comes through Leo and Virgo to Libra, and there we have our Autumnal Equinox. From Libra it goes on through Scorpio and Sagittarius to the Sign of Capricorn, and then is our Winter-Solstice. From whence it comes up again, through Aquarius and Pisces, to Aries aforesaid. Thus the Sun passes every Month from one Sign to another, and Seasons follow one another. Thus we have the Vernal Equinox in March when the Sun is come to Aries, the Summer-Solstice in June when the Sun is come to Cancer, the Autumnal Equinox in September when it is come to Libra, and the Winter Solstice in December when it is come to the Sign of Capricorn. And, as the Twelve Signs answer to the Twelve Months of the Year, so the Degrees into which each of them is divided do answer pretty well to the Days of the Month. For every Sign contains 30. Degrees, so that all of them together make up 360. Degrees.  Phil. 
Now you made it out to me as clear as the Sun. But what Circle is the Horizon?  Sophr. 
'Tis an outside Circle, not to be seen in Maps, but only in Globes and Spheres. And it is called Horizon, because it confines our sight, and divides both Heaven and Earth into two parts called Hemispheres, the one seen, and the other not seen. The Use of it is to show the Rising and Setting of the Stars, and the four Quarters of the World. But, as we generally conceive a Horizon, it is a movable Circle. For we can never so little remove from any place, but we make a new Horizon. So that it is with Orisons as with Meridian's, of both which we may fancy an infinite number, whereof the Vertical or Perpendicular point hanging over our heads is called Zenith, and that over the heads of our Antipodes Nadir.  
In short, there are two kinds of Horizon, the one Rational or Intelligible, and the other Sensible. That reaches to the Firmament, and divides the whole World into two equal Parts, the one above and the other beneath our. Dwelling Place. Whereas the Sensible Horizon is only that part of the World which our sight can reach in a Plain, the rest of the World by reason of the Rotundity of the Globe being out of our sight.  Phil. 
And what are the Tropic Circles?  Sophr. 
They are two Circles at an equal Distance from the Aequator, that is 23. Degrees and and a half; that of Cancer in the Northern, and the other of Capricorn in the. Southern Latitude. The same are called. Tropic from the Greek word Tropos, which signifies Return; because, when the Sun is come to either of these Circles, it goes no further Northward or Southward, but goes back to the Aequator▪ For (as I told you before) when the Sun comes to the Tropic of Cancer, then, we have our Summer Solstice; and, when it gets to that of Capricorn, then is our Winter-Solstice. So that these Circles do mark the greatest Declination of the Sun, that, is its furthest Distance from the Aequator. Now they borrow, their Names of Cancer and Capricorn from the two Signs so called, through which the Sun passes when he comes to those Circles.  
As for the Arctic and Antarctick, they are two lesser Circles, each of them 66. Degrees and a half distant from the Aequator, the Arctic Northward, and the Antarctick Southward. And, there being but 90. Degrees from the Aequator to each Pole, it follows that these Circles are each of them but 23. Degrees and a half from their respective Poles, viz. the Arctic from the Northern, and the Antarctick from the Southern Pole. Therefore some call them otherwise me Polar Circles, because nearest to the Poles.  
Now the said four lesser Circles, viz. the Tropics and Polar, serve to divide the World into five Parts called Zones.  Phil. 
I long to know the Meaning of these Zones.  Sophr. 
Then you must know there is one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones. The Torrid Zone reaches from one Tropic Circle to another, and so takes up 47. Degrees of Latitude, which (at the rate of 20. leagues, or 60. miles, a Degree) comes to 940. leagues, or 2820. miles. In this Zone it is that almost all Africa, and the better part of the Southern America, lie; besides a small part of Asia, and of the Northern America. And it is called Torrid, or Overhot, because of the great and constant Heat of it, caused by the Sun's continual course and return betwixt the two Tropics where this Zone is placed. Which made the Ancients believe, that it could not be inhabited for heat. But 'tis found since by experience, that it is not only Inhabited, but in some places most fruitful and pleasant to live in.  Phil. 
What d'ye call then the Temperate Zones?  Sophr. 
There's one Northern, and the other Southern. The Northern, wherein we live, lies betwixt the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle; and the Southern, betwixt the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctick Circle. Each of them takes up 43. Degrees of Latitude, which comes to 860. Geometrical Leagues, or 2580. miles. Both called Temperate Zones, because lying (as they do) betwixt the Torrid Zone and the Frigid, they are so tempered with heat and cold, that neither of them is so hot as the Torrid, or so cold as the Frigid. In the Northern Temperate Zone lies almost all Europe and Asia, and the greatest part of the Northern America; and in the Southern, a small part of afric, and almost one half of the Southern America, besides what has been discovered of Terra Australis.  Phil. 
Now for the Frigid Zones.  Sophr. 
These are also one Northern, the other Southern. And they both lie in the utmost Parts of the World, the Northern betwixt the Arctic Circle and the Arctic Pole, and the Southern betwixt the Antarctick Circle and the Antarctick Pole. So that each of them contains 23. Degrees and a half, which comes to 470. Geometrical Leagues, or 1340. miles. And they are called Frigid, or Over-cold, because being extremely remote from the Course of the Sun through the Zodiac they partake but a little of its heat, and have Its beams but obliqne, and without any reflection. For which Reason, and because of their constant Darkness in Wintertime for several Months; the Ancient Geographers and Historians could not imagine these Zones to be at all Inhabited, no more than the Torrid for its exceeding Heat. But it proves a Mistake; though 'tis confessed, as to the Northern Frigid Zone which is, partly known to us, that it is, but thinly Peopled. In which Zone part of Norway and Lapland in Europe is situate, some part of Tartary in Asia, and Terra Borealis.  
Thus much for the eight principal Circles, and the Use of them, Now let us take a view of those inferior Circles, which are called Meridian's and Parallels.  
The Meridian's, or Circles of Longitude, are those Lines which (like the great Meridian) go round the Globe from one Pole to the other. And the Parallels, or Circles of Latitude, are those which cross the Globe on both sides of the Aequator.  
You may suppose, if you please, as many of either sort as there are Degrees. But, lest the Names of Places and Country's should be darkened with so many Lines, therefore in Globes and Maps these Circles do commonly lie at ten Degrees distance of each other.  
And, as by the Meridian's you may find out the longitude of any Place in a Globe or Map; so by the Paralles, you may know the Latitude.  Phil. 
How so, Sophronius?  Sophr. 
The Longitude you'll find thus, with a pair of Compasses. First, set one foot of your Compass in the place the Longitude whereof you desire to know, and the other in the next Meridian to it, whether it be on the right hand or the left. From thence draw down your Compasses, following still that Meridian till you come to the Aequator, and there mark upon what Degree of the Aequator the foot of your Compasses which was upon the Place does rest. Then see upon the Aequator how many Degrees that is distant from the first Meridian, and that is the true Longitude of the Place.  Phil. 
But than one must be ruled right or wrong by the great Meridian that's set down in the Globe or Map.  Sophr. 
If you doubt like it, 'tis but adding or bating the number of Degrees which makes the difference.  
The Latitude is to be taken thus. First set one foot of your Compasses upon the Place of which you design to take the Latitude, and the other upon the next Parallel, whether above or beneath. Then draw your Compasses from that Place, following still that Parallel till you come to the Meridian which is marked with the Degrees of Latitude, and mark upon what Degree the foot of your Compasses which you did draw from the Place doth rest. That you will find to be the true Latitude of the Place. And of that Latitude are all Places Parallel to that, how far soever they lie asunder, East and West.  
From, what is said 'tis to be concluded, that all Places just under the great Meridian have no Longitude, and those under the Aequator no Latitude.  Phil. 
I apprehend you. Now I desire to know what is the meaning of Climates.  Sophr. 
A Clime, or Climate, is such a Space of the Terr-Aqueous Globe as is included betwixt two Parallels.  Phi. 
How many Climes than do you reckon?  Sophr. 
The Ancient reckoned but fourteen, that is, seven in the Northern, and as many in the Southern Latitude. Those in the Northern Latitude they called by the name of some famous City, Island, River, or Hill, through which the middle Parallel of the Climate passeth; As 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And the Southern Climes, opposite to those, they called by the same Names, by putting only before them the Particle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, etc.  
But, to those fourteen Climes some, Geographers have added two more, some five, and others ten.  Phil. 
What is the Use of those Climes?  Sophr. 
To find out how long is the longest Day in any Place whatsoever. For you must know, that the longest Day under the Aequator is equal with the night, that is 12. hours of Day and as many of Night. But the further you go from the Aequator, either Northwards or Southwards, the longest Day is longer by half an hour in every Clime, till they come to the length of 24 hours, that is, without any night. Which length attained, they increase no more by hours, but by Months, till they come to the length of half a year, which is just under the Poles.  
But this Division of the Earth into Climes is not generally approved of, and that for these two Reasons. First, because it is as easy to find out the Length of Days for any Place as to find out the Climates; and secondly, because of their vast Inequality.  
Therefore, if we must divide the Terr-aqueous Globe into Climes, the best way will be to divide each Latitude into nine Climes, and so each Clime shall equally consist of ten Degrees. Thus the Situation of any Place will be presently found out by the Degrees of Latitude. As for Exemple, Paris, Rome, and Venice, being situate betwixt 40 and 50 Degrees of Northern Latitude, shall be counted in the fifth Climate; London and Amsterdam, betwixt 50 and 60, in the sixth Clime.  Phil. 
But then how shall one find out the Length of Days?  Sophr. 
By the Degrees of Latitude, without any more ado; as you have it in the following Table. Where by the 30 Minutes you must understand half an hour; For, as a Degree, so is an Hour divided into 60 Minutes.  

A Table showing the Length of Days by the Degrees of Latitude.  Latitude. Longest Day. Deg. Min. Hours. Min. 8 34 12 30 16 43 13 00 23 10 13 30 30 47 14 00 36 30 14 30 41 22 15 00 45 29 15 30 49 21 16 00 51 58 16 30 54 29 17 00 56 37 17 30 58 26 18 00 59 59 18 30 61 18 19 00 62 25 19 30 63 22 20 00 64 06 20 30 64 49 21 00 65 21 21 30 65 47 22 00 66 06 22 30 66 20 23 00 66 28 23 30 66 31 24 00  
Now, from 66 Degrees 31 Minutes to the Pole itself set at 90 Degrees, we must account by the Months. As Latitude.  Deg. Min. Months. 67 15 1 00 69 30 2 00 73 20 3 00 78 20 4 00 84 00 5 00 90 00 6 00  
Now, Philalethes, you must know there are several Ways of measuring the Earth. As by Miles, in most part of Europe; by Leagues, in France and Spain; and by Versts, in Moscovy. Neither does any Nation make use every where exactly of one and the same Measure. For the Leagues in France, as the Miles in England, are in some places very short, and in others as long again. But, according to the Geometrical Measure a League is to contain 3000. Paces, a Germane Mile 4000, and other Miles (as English and Italian) 1000 So that there go three of our Miles to a League, and four to a Germane Mile. Whereas they reckon four Moscovian Versts to League. Thus a Degree is 20 Leagues, which comes to 60 English or Italian Miles, and but 15 German. And so the Compass of the Earth being 360 Degrees comes to 7200 Leagues, 21600 English or Italian Miles, 5400 Germane.  Phil. 
But how shall I do, Sophronius, to find out the true Distance of any two Places, either in a Globe or Map?  Sophr, 
In order to that you must first understand, that two Places may differ three manner of ways, that is in Latitude only, in Longitude only, or in both.  
If they differ only in Latitude, 'tis but taking with a pair of Compasses the difference of Latitude, then summing up the Degrees it comes to, and multiplying the said Degrees by Miles or Leagues, according to the foresaid Geometrical Measure. And, if there be any odd Minutes, allow for every Minute an English Mile, or for every three Minutes a League.  
But, if the two Places be in the same Latitude, and differ only in the Longitude, then take with your Compasses 5 or 10 Degrees of Longitude, more or less, according to the distance of the Places. Take them upon the Equinoctial, in the Longitude answering to the said Distance. Then look how many times the Distance taken with your Compasses is comprehended in the space that lieth betwixt the two Places, and so compute how many Degrees it comes to. And, if so be there remains any odd space not fully answering the first wideness of your Compasses, then take that odd space with your Compasses being straightened and made fit to it. That done, multiply the whole by Leagues or Miles, and you will find the Product to be the true Distance of the Places.  
Lastly, if the two Places differ both in Longitude and Latitude, do but take with your Compasses the true Distance of the two Latitudes upon the first Meridian. Then look, as before, how many times the foresaid Distance taken with your Compasses is comprehended in the space that lieth betwixt the two Places, and multiply the Distance accordingly. Which being multiplied again by 20 for Leagues, or 60 for Miles, you will find the Product thereof to be the true Distance of the one Place from the other. And, if there be any odd space remaining, do in this Case as in the former.  
Thus you may take the Distance of any two Places in a Globe, or General Map, as also in the Maps of Europe, Asia, afric, the Northern, or Southern America. As for other particular Maps, they have Scales, whereby you may readily find out the Distance of any two Places therein mentioned. And so I have done with this Part of Geography.  
What remains is to give you a short Description  
Of 

Amphiscii,  
Periscii,  
Heteroscii,  
Antoeci,  
Perioeci,  
Antipodes.    Phil. 
I have heard indeed of Antipodes, but I know not what's meant by the rest.  Sophr. 
First you must know, the first three are so called in respect of their Shadows, and the other three in respect of their Site and Position.  
Those are called Amphiscii, that dwell in the Torrid Zone, between the two Tropics. For their Shadows are both ways, sometimes to the South, and sometimes to the North.  
Periscii are such as dwell beyond the Polar Circles, whose Shadows are on all sides of them.  
Heteroscii are those that dwell in either of the two Temperate Zones. Called Heteroscii, because their Shadows reach but one way; viz. in own Zone to the North only, as in the other to the South only.  
Those we call Antoeci that dwell under the same Meridian, and are equally remote from the Aequator; but with this difference, that the one is in the Northern, and the other in the Southern Latitude. So that the Summer of the one is the others Winter.  
Perioeci are those that dwell in the same Parallel, or Circle of Latitude; but so distant   scheme 
Schema Incolarum Terra, ratione Umbrarum &c Sitûc.  
Septentrio  
Oriens  
Meridies.  
Occidens.  
East and West, that (though the Season of the Year and the Length of Days be to both alike, yet) it falls out the one's Midnight is the others Noon.  
By the Antipodes we mean those that dwell feet to feet, so that a right Line drawn from the one into the other passeth from North to South through the Centre of the World. And these are distant 180 Degrees from each other, it being half the Compass of the Earth. They differ in Seasons of the Year, Length of Days, Rising and Setting of the Sun.  Phil. 
These Antipodes are odd kind of Creatures, and I do nor yet understand them thoroughly. My Brains are a little giddy, and methinks I see them tumbling down to Heaven.  Sophr. 
So our Antipodes might think of us, and yet you see we stand upon our Legs, and every where the Heavens above (not under) us.  Phil. 
Well, I will beat it (if I can) into my head.  Sophr. 
Do but mind the following Scheme; and, if that do not convince you, nothing will.  
See the Scheme.  Phil. 
This is pretty, and now I see clearly what a gross Error I was in.  Sophr. 
It is, I confess, an unpardonable Error in these Times, when the World has in a manner Through-Lights made in it. But, before the New World was found out, the Doctrine of the Antipodes was counted an incredible ridiculous Fable. S. Augustine, Lactantius, and some others of the Ancient Writers made no more of it. Venerable Beda joined with them in their Error. And 'tis observable, that Virgilius Bishop of Saltzburg in Germany was condemned of Hereresy by Pope Zachary in the year 745. for having writ a Book inducing the belief of the Antipodes. For which he was complained of by Boniface Archbishop of Mentz, as if some damnable Doctrine had been designed under hand by it. And so the poor Bishop of Saltzburgs Misfortune was to be Learned in a Time of Ignorance.  Phil. 
Well. But you don't tell me all this while how I shall find my Antipodes.  Sophr. 
When you have a Globe, and desire to know your Antipodes, it is but turning the Globe East and West, till you bring your Dwelling Place just to the Horizon. And then observe the Degree. If the Place in the Northern Latitude be West from the Meridian, 'tis but telling so many Degrees on the East side of the Meridian, and there will be your Antipodes.   
FINIS