key: cord-1033388-7wbobl1s authors: Ganesh, Balasubramanian; Rajakumar, Thangarasu; Malathi, Mathiyazhakan; Manikandan, Natesan; Nagaraj, Jaganathasamy; Santhakumar, Aridoss; Elangovan, Arumugam; Malik, Yashpal Singh title: Epidemiology and pathobiology of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in comparison with SARS, MERS: An updated overview of current knowledge and future perspectives date: 2021-01-14 journal: Clin Epidemiol Glob Health DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2020.100694 sha: 6c73566d398173feb0a7407d25763d5cadfa524f doc_id: 1033388 cord_uid: 7wbobl1s Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative etiology of ‘Coronavirus Disease-2019’ (COVID-19); formerly referred as ‘novel-Coronavirus-2019’. It was originated in Wuhan city, Hubei province, China in early December 2019. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared it as ‘Public Health Emergency of International Concern’ due to their rapid transmission and causing public and health-care-related casualties worldwide. This review provides an updated overview of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), in comparison with the etiologies of the same group viz. SARS and MERS and also, its future perspectives for planning appropriate strategies for prevention, control and treatment modalities to avert similar catastrophe in near future. Crown), hence it was termed as Coronavirus (Rabi et al., 2020) . Commonly, CoVs spread 24 extensively among humans, birds and other mammals and cause respiratory, neurologic, enteric 25 and hepatic diseases (Weiss and Leibowitz, 2011) . At present, seven human CoVs (HCoVs) 26 types were identified that infect humans, causing diseases ranging from mild form or common 27 cold to severe and/or fatal infections (Dhama et al., 2020) . Among them, four HCoVs including 28 HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, HCoV-HKU1 and HCoV-NL63 are sporadically attributed to 29 infections similar to common cold, but in rare cases can cause serious infections in infants, 30 adolescents and elderly populations. Table-I. 38 2. Classification of CoVs: 39 CoVs are a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus with a genome length 40 from 20 to 32 kb and about 125 nm in diameter that belongs to the Coronaviridae family 41 (subfamily Coronavirinae) of the Nidovirales Order (Shereen et al., 2020) . Based on the genomic 42 structure, CoVs are divided into 4 subgroups namely, α-CoVs, β-CoVs, γ-CoVs and δ-CoVs 43 (Yin and Wunderink, 2018) . Among them, the α and β-CoVs infect only mammals, generally 44 leading to respiratory illness in humans and gastroenteritis in other animals (Zhou et al., 2018) . 45 The other two subgroups,γ and δ-CoVs, infect birds and mammals (Chen et al., 2020a) . (Peng et al., 2003) . The 53 infection that was first presented with mild respiratory difficulties and acute fever, quickly 54 developed into severe pneumonia within days of infection (Tsang et al., 2003) . The infection 55 spread from human-to-human causing 'cluster of cases' or groups of illnesses among the health 56 care personnel and was termed as SARS. The SARS-CoV was the causative agent of SARS and 57 has quickly spread to 29 countries across the world. In total, 8098 patients and 774 deaths were The process of ACE2 receptor and S protein binding of SARS-CoV-2 is very similar to that of 176 SARS-CoV, demonstrating that they have the same mechanism for entry into host cells.But, 177 SARS-CoV-2 S binding to ACE2 has around 10-20 times increased binding capacity compared infection, marked by mild febrile illness with dry cough, sore throat, etc., (Xu et al., 2020a) .In 199 severe cases, the rate of respiration will be more than 30/minute due to dyspnea, productive The endothelial cells (ECs) play a major role in several physiologic processes in humans. Conversely, adverse cases must be hospitalized and serious cases must be admitted immediately 360 to the ICU for appropriate treatment and medical care. CoV-2 spike S1 protein receptor binding domain (SARS-CoV-2 S1 RBD) and heparin, propose that coronaviruses cause an enduring threat to human life even in the modern era. The 531 best hopewe can rely on is that the outbreak will ultimately come to a controland the 532 population's immune memory for the coronavirus i.e., 'herd immunity' will naturally control Childhood COVID-19: a 593 multicentre retrospective study Transmission 595 characteristics of MERS and SARS in the healthcare setting: a comparative study lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings SARS-CoV-2 endothelial infection causes COVID-19 chilblains: 602 histopathological, immunohistochemical and ultraestructural study of 7 paediatric cases Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses Acute pulmonary embolism and COVID-607 19 pneumonia: a random association? Alisporivir inhibits MERS-and SARS-coronavirus replication in cell culture, but 610 not SARS-coronavirus infection in a mouse model SARS and MERS: recent 612 insights into emerging coronaviruses COVID-19, an 614 emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing 615 vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics The spike protein of SARS-CoV-a 617 target for vaccine and therapeutic development A tug-of-war between severe acute 619 respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and host antiviral defence: lessons from other 620 pathogenic viruses Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: the species and its viruses-a 623 statement of the coronavirus study group Anti-platelet therapy: phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Br 625 Isolation and 627 characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern 628 The origin, transmission 630 and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak -an update on 631 the status Immune modulation in COVID-19: Strategic 633 considerations for personalized therapeutic intervention Coronavirus disease 2019: What we know? Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus seroprevalence in domestic livestock in 638 Saudi Arabia First Case of 640 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States Clinical features of patients 642 infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China Novel peptide 644 inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 Close relative of human Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bat A quantitative assessment of the efficacy 649 of surgical and N95 masks to filter influenza virus in patients with acute influenza 650 infection The Use 652 of TKM-100802 and Convalescent Plasma in 2 Patients With Ebola Virus Disease in the 653 United States A crucial role of angiotensin 655 converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: a functional 658 receptor for SARS coronavirus Identifying SARS-CoV-660 2 related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins SARS transmission, risk factors, and prevention in 663 Emerging threats from zoonotic coronaviruses-from SARS and 665 MERS to 2019-nCoV Structure, Function, and Evolution of Coronavirus Spike Proteins Bats are natural reservoirs of 669 SARS-like coronaviruses Transmission dynamics and 671 evolutionary history of 2019-nCoV Who Caused Tertiary Transmission of COVID-19 Infection in Korea: the Application of 674 Lopinavir/Ritonavir for the Treatment of COVID-19 Infected Pneumonia Monitored by 675 Quantitative RT-PCR The novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak: think the 677 unthinkable and be prepared to face the challenge Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, 680 China: The mystery and the miracle The effectiveness of convalescent plasma and hyperimmune immunoglobulin for the 683 treatment of severe acute respiratory infections of viral etiology: a systematic review and 684 exploratory meta-analysis The 2019 686 coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) surface protein (Spike) S1 receptor binding domain 687 undergoes conformational change upon heparin binding Ribavirin and interferon-690 beta synergistically inhibit SARS-associated coronavirus replication in animal and 691 human cell lines Controlled Trial of Ebola Virus Disease Therapeutics Characterization of the heparin-binding properties of IL-6 Transmission of the 698 severe acute respiratory syndrome on aircraft Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2a for severe Middle East respiratory syndrome 701 coronavirus infection: a retrospective cohort study Epidemiological study on 705 severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province Immune responses in COVID-19 and potential 710 vaccines: Lessons learned from SARS and MERS epidemic The life cycle of 713 SARS coronavirus in Vero E6 cells Dipeptidyl 717 peptidase 4 is a functional receptor for the emerging human coronavirus-EMC SARS vaccines: where are we? Wild animal 722 mortality monitoring and human Ebola outbreaks, Gabon and Republic of Congo SARS: Severe acute respiratory syndrome Pangolin was found to be a potential intermediate-host of new 726 coronavirus Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses COVID-19 infection: Origin, 732 transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus using reverse transcription loop-mediated 735 isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) From SARS to MERS, Thrusting 737 Coronaviruses into the Spotlight Cytokine storm in 739 COVID-19: pathogenesis and overview of anti-inflammatory agents used in 740 treatment Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with 742 poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia A cluster of cases 745 of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong CoV-2 and the Ongoing Clinical Trials Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread mRNA cap-1 methyltransferase in the 752 SARS genome Remdesivir and chloroquine 754 effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro WHO: Home care for patients with suspected novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection 760 presenting with mild symptoms and management of contacts (ncov)-infection-presentingwithmild-symptoms-and-management-of-763 contacts WHO: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)-Saudi Arabia WHO: SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) WHO: World health organization: Coronavirus Cryo-EM 771 structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation A new coronavirus associated 774 with human respiratory disease in China Middle East respiratory syndrome 776 coronavirus (MERS-CoV) entry inhibitors targeting spike protein Efficacy of dipyridamole in the treatment of 116 children with acute upper 779 respiratory tract infections Insight into 2019 novel coronavirus -An updated interim review and 781 lessons from SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV Antibodies and vaccines against 783 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus Systematic Comparison of Two 785 Animal-to-Human Transmitted Human Coronaviruses: SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome The deadly coronaviruses: The 791 2003 SARS pandemic and the 2020 novel coronavirus epidemic in China COVID-19: what has been learned and to be 794 learned about the novel coronavirus disease SARS and other coronaviruses as causes of pneumonia The Fight against the 2019-nCoV Outbreak: an Arduous March Has Just 798 Isolation of a 800 novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia The utility of preemptive mass influenza vaccination in 803 controlling a SARS outbreak during flu season Current status of potential therapeutic candidates for the 805 COVID-19 crisis Fatal swine acute diarrhoea 807 syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin A Novel Coronavirus from 810 Patients with Pneumonia in China Table-1: Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of SARS Year of origin