key: cord-0952842-fch0kgk7
authors: Dale, Elizabeth; Conigrave, Katherine M.; Kelly, Peter J.; Ivers, Rowena; Clapham, Kathleen; Lee, K. S. Kylie
title: A Delphi yarn: applying Indigenous knowledges to enhance the cultural utility of SMART Recovery Australia
date: 2021-01-06
journal: Addict Sci Clin Pract
DOI: 10.1186/s13722-020-00212-8
sha: 64147cea8c69d1aab483942cddf78f68f9fa4df0
doc_id: 952842
cord_uid: fch0kgk7

BACKGROUND: Mutual support groups are a popular treatment for substance use and other addictive behaviours. However, little is known about the cultural utility of these programmes for Indigenous peoples. METHODS: A three-round Delphi study, utilising Indigenous research yarning methods was conducted to: (1) Obtain expert opinion regarding the cultural utility of an Indigenous SMART Recovery handbook; (2) Gain consensus on areas within the SMART Recovery programme that require cultural modification and; (3) Seek advice on how modifications could be implemented in future programme design and delivery. The panellists were 11 culturally, geographically, and professionally diverse Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing experts. A group consensus level of 80% was set prior to each survey round. RESULTS: There was 100% participant retention across all three Delphi rounds. The panel reached consensus on five key programme modifications (composition of a separate facilitator and group member handbook; culturally appropriate language, terminology, and literacy level; culturally meaningful programme activities; supplementary storytelling resources; and customisation for diverse community contexts). The panel also developed a series of practical implementation strategies to guide SMART Recovery through a modification process. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight the importance of involving Indigenous peoples in the design, delivery and validation of mainstream mutual support programmes. Indigenous-led programme modifications could help improve accessibility and usefulness of mutual support groups for Indigenous peoples worldwide. This study is an example of how Indigenous research methods can be used alongside the Delphi technique. This approach demonstrated a way that Indigenous peoples from culturally and geographically diverse locations can participate in research anonymously, autonomously and without added burden on personal, community or professional obligations.

Mutual support group programmes are a popular treatment for problems arising from substance use and other behaviours of addiction (e.g. gambling) [1, 2] . Such groups offer non-clinical, community-based meetings that harness experiential knowledge and mobilise member-to-member social, emotional, and informational support [3] . Treatment offered by such programmes is free to attend and offered on an ongoing basis [4] .

The most prevalent mutual support group programmes are the 12-step modalities (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Gamblers Anonymous (GA)) and SMART Recovery. Research help build personal insight [5] , enhance problem-solving skills [6] and promote long-term abstinence [7] . However, a recent systematic review by Dale et al. found that few studies have examined the 'cultural utility' of these popular programmes for Indigenous peoples (defined as perceived suitability and helpfulness) [8] .

Underpinned by western knowledge and empiricism, there are tenets of the 12-step programmes and SMART Recovery that appear counter-cultural for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples (hereafter referred to as "Indigenous Australians"). For example, AA is built upon western religious ideologies [9] that differ from Indigenous Australians' notions of spirit and spirituality [10] . SMART Recovery is centred on western psychological theories (i.e., cognitive behavioural therapy and motivational interviewing) [11] [12] [13] [14] that have not undergone cultural validation to demonstrate their therapeutic benefits for Indigenous peoples [15] [16] [17] [18] .

A small group of studies show that Indigenous Australians and First Nations American and Canadian peoples have begun to informally embed their cultures in AA [19] [20] [21] [22] and SMART Recovery [23] . This has included linguistic substitutions [24] , replacing western religious practices for traditional ceremonies [25] , and omitting programme components perceived as being inconsistent with an Indigenous worldview of health and wellness [23] . Of these studies, just one [23] provided detailed examples of how SMART Recovery could be adjusted to better suit Indigenous Australians (based on Indigenous facilitators' and group members' feedback). One key recommendation was the need for culturally appropriate programme materials.

In 2014, SMART Recovery Australia received a small, one-off non-government grant to modify their original programme handbook for Indigenous Australian facilitators and group members. The resulting handbook contains the same core programme tools and operational features as the mainstream resource but is supplemented with Indigenous Australian artwork and words (e.g., "yarndi" (cannabis)). The handbook was co-created with Indigenous Australian health professionals who, at the time, were completing SMART Recovery facilitator training (n = 5; of which n = 4, New South Wales; n = 1, Victoria). However, since then, this Indigenous Australian handbook has not been formally integrated into the SMART Recovery programme (personal communication with SMART Recovery Australia). Neither has it been reviewed by a broader group of Indigenous Australians.

Therefore, the aim of this study was to consult with Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing experts to: (1) Obtain expert opinion regarding the cultural utility of the SMART Recovery Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander programme handbook; (2) Gain consensus on areas within the programme that require cultural modification; and (3) Seek advice on how modifications could be implemented in future programme design and delivery.

The Delphi technique [26] was used to coordinate an iterative Indigenous research topic yarn [27] with a culturally, geographically and professionally diverse panel of Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing experts. The Delphi technique uses a series of questionnaire rounds to solicit consensus opinions from a group of experts [28] . Indigenous research topic yarning is a relational and culturally acceptable method for obtaining Indigenous peoples perspectives on a research topic [29] . Yarning was used instead of traditional interviews to avoid a question-answer dialogue and to ensure participants' cultural safety.

The Delphi technique was chosen over other consensus methods (e.g. focus groups) because it enabled our panellists to participate despite differing geographical locations, time zones and professional, community or personal obligations [30] . The anonymity, autonomy and relational nature of the Delphi technique [31] was also compatible with Indigenous research principles (relationality, reciprocity and respect) [32] [33] [34] . The combination of Indigenous and western research methods helps strengthen the cultural and scientific credibility of findings [35] .

The study design ( Fig. 1 ) adhered to the four fundamental Delphi requirements: anonymity, iteration, controlled feedback, and statistical analysis of group responses [36] . Research topic yarning (conducted 1:1 with each panellist and ED via phone) was incorporated into the design to establish respectful and reciprocal relationships between the researcher and panellists prior to initiating the Delphi process. Yarning was continued (via phone, text and email) in between survey rounds to promote maximum contribution of the expert voice [27] . The decision to conduct three Delphi rounds was made in collaboration with panellists to determine a level of involvement that did not compromise cultural, community or professional obligations or the integrity of the Delphi technique. A similar approach to reduce participant burden was used in a New Zealand study involving both Maori and non-Maori panellists [37] . Three Delphi rounds has been shown to be sufficient to achieve group consensus [38] . Collaborative yarning [27] (yarning purposed to share and explore research ideas) was also conducted after each Delphi round to enable panellists to contribute to study write up. 

In the absence of literature confirming an optimal Delphi panel size [39] , we sought to recruit panellists with sufficient expertise [28] and within the recommended panel size of 8-12 experts [31, 40] .

Selection criteria for the panellists were: (1) aged 18+ ;

(2) self-identify as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent; (3) a minimum of two years of work or academic experience in an Indigenous-specific drug and alcohol, mental health and/or related health and wellbeing field (not necessarily continuous); and (4) basic computer proficiency with reliable access to a computer and internet for the study duration. Panellists were not required to have prior experience with SMART Recovery or other mutual support group programmes. This was because impartiality can strengthen Delphi results [28] . Efforts were made to recruit even numbers of women and men and Indigenous peoples from different community contexts.

All panellists were recruited using purposive sampling.

Panellists were invited to participate by a personalised email or phone call (ED). Four panellists had professional or academic connections with the research team (ED, KL, KCo, JC, RI, KCl and PK). Another six panellists were trained SMART Recovery facilitators who were known to the researchers via other studies. The remaining panellist was recruited via recommendation from another panellist. Anonymity was protected by de-identifying all data and corresponding with panellists individually.

Ethical approval was granted by the University of Wollongong (#2018/398), the Aboriginal Health Council of South Australia (#04-19-845), the Western Australian Aboriginal Health Ethics Committee (#939) and the Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of New South Wales (#1447/18). All participants provided written and verbal consent through an informed process.

All data were collected between March and July 2020 (by ED). Qualitative and quantitative data were collected across each of the three sequential rounds. Round 1 involved 1:1, telephone-based, research topic yarning (yarns). Rounds two and three used an electronic survey. A portion of panellists (n = 5) provided additional qualitative information in between the Delphi rounds (e.g. justifications for responses and suggestions regarding research implications). These data were aggregated into the accumulating pool of data and analysed accordingly. An a priori consensus level of 80% was set prior to each survey round.

Individual research topic yarns were conducted (by ED with each panellists) to build rapport and to initiate the Delphi process. Because research topic yarning can either be unstructured or semi-structured [27] , all yarns involved an open dialogue to obtain panellists' freely expressed views and opinions [41] . Yarns also comprised of a series of pre-planned yarning questions to ensure qualitative and quantitative information was systematically collected. Yarning questions were piloted (by ED) with an Aboriginal Elder prior to administrations. All yarns were transcribed using hand-recorded notes (ED).

To ensure transcript accuracy, care was taken to record responses verbatim [42] and verbal confirmation was sought from each panellist of the written accounts as the yarns progressed. Three panellists asked to see the yarning script prior to participating in a yarn. Each panellist provided written responses to the script (via email) in addition to participating in a 1:1 phone yarn.

Panellists were asked to prepare for their yarn by reviewing an electronic version of the SMART Recovery Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander programme handbook (provided to them by ED). The structured yarning questions asked panellists to provide their biographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, Indigeneity, educational background, professional experience, and level of familiarity with SMART Recovery). Panellists were then asked two quantitative questions: (1) How culturally appropriate is the handbook? and (2) How well do you think the handbook communicates the elements of the SMART Recovery programme for an Indigenous audience? Responses used a ranking scale (0-10).

Yarning was then used to elicit panellists' impressions of the handbook and to generate a list of modifications (i.e. adaptations, omissions, inclusions) they felt would enhance its cultural utility for Indigenous Australians. A series of prompts sought panellists' views on culturally appropriate ways to use imagery, language, literacy and programme activities-in relation to programme content, design and delivery. These prompts were drawn from previous research that showed these are areas of mutual support group programmes most commonly modified by Indigenous peoples [23] [24] [25] .

Each survey was pilot tested for accuracy, usability and timeliness prior to dissemination by members of the research team (n = 3) and by Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples not involved in the study (n = 5).

Both survey rounds were initiated by email to panellists (ED; individually and simultaneously). Each email contained a unique electronic survey link and a visual feedback report detailing the previous round's group responses. Each survey was available for two weeks. Reminder emails were sent manually after seven days to non-responders.

The aim for Round 2 was to: (1) Achieve group consensus on the list of proposed programme modifications (derived from Round 1); and (2) Solicit suggestions for how each modification could be practically implemented.

Panellists used a 5-point Likert scale to rate 15 proposed programme modifications. They were asked to indicate their level of agreement on each modification's ability to enhance the cultural utility of the programme (strongly agree through to strongly disagree). Panellists were then given a free-text box to suggest how each modification could be practically implemented. These text boxes also allowed panellists to make other comments as needed.

The aim of Round 3 was to obtain consensus on an accepted set of strategies to enable implementation of the suggested programme modifications. The panellists were presented with a table divided into five key programme modifications. They were asked to either "accept" or "reject" a series of implementation strategies assigned to each. A free-text box was provided for panellists to list reasons why an implementation strategy was rejected. Panellists were also asked to: re-rate two items that did not reach consensus (during Round 2); order their preferences for four proposed handbook titles; and answer four closed questions about this Delphi experience. A free-text box asked for suggestions on how the Delphi 

Yarning transcripts were prepared for analysis by deidentifying and converting each from handwritten notes into electronic files (Microsoft Word: qualitative data; Excel: quantitative). Qualitative data were analysed manually (ED) using thematic content analysis [28, 31, 43] . This involved an initial open-coding phase of each transcript to identify themes, followed by a focused phase to collapse themes into major categories. All transcripts were checked for coding (KL) and discussed (ED, KL) to reach agreement. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics.

All survey data were collected using REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture) [44] .

Panellists were 11 Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing experts representing six communities spanning rural, remote and urban contexts (Yuin, Gadigal and Bunjalung-New South Wales, NSW; Nyungar-Western Australia, WA; Nukunka and Kaurna-South Australia, SA). As shown in Table 1 , there were six men and five women, with a mean age of just under 50 years (range: 33-65 years). Just over half of the panellists (n = 6/11) were trained SMART Recovery facilitators, and of these, four were facilitating Indigenous-specific SMART Recovery groups. Of the remaining panellists, four had prior knowledge of SMART Recovery (and of AA) via their professional networks. One panellist had no knowledge or experience with any mutual support group programmes.

Panellists had a range of clinical and research expertise that collectively offered more than 190 years of Indigenous health-related work experience. The panellists were working in a variety of settings including a state-funded health service (n = 3), university (n = 3), non-government welfare organisation (n = 1), and an Aboriginal Community-Controlled health service (n = 4). Educational qualifications ranged from diploma level (n = 3) to Doctor of Philosophy (n = 1 completed; n = 2 candidates).

There was 100% participant retention rate across all three Delphi rounds. The panellists scored the cultural appropriateness of the handbook as 4.3 out of 10 (SD = 2.5).

Their rating for how well the handbook communicated the elements of the SMART Recovery programme for an Indigenous Australian context was slightly higher at 5.5 out of 10 (SD = 2.9). Fifteen proposed modifications emerged following thematic analysis of the yarning transcripts (see Table 2 ).

During Round 2, almost all of the proposed modifications achieved group consensus (n = 13/15; ≥ 80%). Just over half of the modifications (n = 8/15) achieved perfect consensus. Table 2 shows the different levels of agreement achieved for each of the 15 proposed modifications. Two modifications did not reach consensus (each scoring 72%). These were: "The handbook should have the capacity for each community to use locally relevant scenarios as examples of applying SMART tools and techniques" and "Creating an audio version of the handbook(s) would be useful for some people/communities". All panellists used the free-text survey boxes provided to offer suggestions for how the proposed modifications could be practically implemented. Their responses generated an initial list of 80 implementation strategies that were reduced to 29 items by removing duplicates and during thematic content analysis (See Table 3 ). Themes were checked (by KL) and discussed (ED, KL) to reach consensus. Emerging themes were verified with panellists (n = 6) who utilised a 1:1 yarning opportunity (with ED) in between survey rounds.

Between Rounds 2 and 3, the endorsed list of 13 modifications was refined by grouping similar concepts together. This created five core categories defining key aspects of the programme that the panel recommended be changed (see Table 3 ). The 29 implementation strategies were then arranged according to the modification they related to.

In this round, all but one of the 29 implementation strategies were accepted (n = 28/29) ( Table 3 ). The one strategy that was rejected (by n = 4/11) was: to "Prepare handbook(s) as generic templates with no imagery and simple language". This related to the key modification "strategy for localised customisation". The panellists' reasons for rejecting this strategy was the belief that being responsible for customising SMART Recovery programme materials would be a burden on local facilitators. Two alternative strategies were proposed by these four panellists: (1) To create a customised handbook during facilitator training and, (2) For SMART Recovery to [practically and financially] support facilitators to create a handbook on return to their communities after training is completed. The final set of accepted implementation strategies are presented in Table 4 . The two items from Round 2 that did not reach group consensus were re-rated and both achieved a group consensus (91%). These were then amalgamated into a final set of endorsed programme modifications Panellists preferred the handbook titles: "Stay solid, stay grounded" and "Getting strong and living long" (equal first place); then "SMART Recovery for me and my community" and lastly; "The SMART way to give up".

Panellists were positive about their experience of being a Delphi study participant:

"I think the Delphi style was user friendly, clear understanding of what was expected from the participant. Well set out" "It has been a pleasure to be involved" "Look forward to the end product" "Thank you for giving me the opportunity to have my say"

Almost all panellists (n = 10/11) answered "yes" to: (1) having had enough opportunity to offer their expertise;

(2) that their opinions were incorporated and; (3) that they could participate with minimal disruption to their daily work demands. Nine of the eleven panellists felt that a Delphi study was an appropriate method for obtaining Indigenous knowledges. Only one panellist offered a suggestion for how the Delphi method could be improved for future research with Indigenous peoples:

"Go out to communities and speak with key Elders, get their input, listen to them and expand on what they are trying to achieve".

To our knowledge this is the first study to combine an Indigenous research method with the Delphi technique to explore the cultural utility of mutual support group programmes. This study assembled a culturally, geographically, and professionally diverse panel of 11 Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing experts. The panel was tasked with reviewing and commenting on the suitability and helpfulness (i.e. cultural utility) of an Indigenous Australian SMART Recovery programme handbook. Over three Delphi rounds the panel reached consensus on five key programme modifications and developed a set of strategies to help SMART Recovery integrate them into future programme planning and design. These findings offer

a Item was re-rated during round 2 and reached consensus (90%) b Item was re-rated during round 2 and reached consensus (90%)

The handbook should be divided into a separate facilitator guide and attendee workbook The handbook(s) have the capacity to use artwork and images representative of different communities The handbook(s) convey a progressive storyline of a person applying SMART Recovery meetings and program tools within their recovery journey The handbook should include cultural symbolism (e.g. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander flags) Include activities that incorporate family and community Include activities that promote healthy cultural identities Translate the core SMART Recovery tools and activities using Aboriginal validated and/or designed resources (e.g. The Stages of Change model developed from the NT Living with Alcohol program with artists from Titjikala community -Terry Simmons and Sophia Conway)

Use strengths-based wording Use gender images respectfully (i.e. be considerate when presenting images of women within a men's group)

Rewrite the handbook to accompany varying levels of literacy Use language that is localised to different communities The handbooks should be short

The handbook should have the capacity for each community to use locally relevant scenarios as examples of applying SMART tools and techniques a Creating an audio version of the handbook(s) would be useful for some people/communities b promise for improving Indigenous Australians' access to SMART Recovery [45, 46] and is an important first step in determining cultural validity of this programme for Indigenous peoples, globally. They also contribute to creating a more equitable mainstream health care sector [47] . Culture is a critical part of Indigenous people's health and wellbeing [16, 48] . As such it is vital that When we talk about terms like 'meetings' or 'program tools' it does not apply to our ontology, terms to need to define in our way of knowing, being and doing" 8. Is clearly written "Any piece of writing that is simple and concise will be able to communicate it's intended message across easier" 9. Is strengths based, "Strength based wording would hopefully give people a sense of empowerment"

10. Is empowering "I would love to see the shame taken out of recovery and empower participants to own their story and their journey wherever they may be on it. " 11. Is engaging "The attendee workbook must be written in language that conveys the voice and perspective of ATSI peoples or we won't engage with it" 14. That encourage positive social, family and community support networks "It is proven that Aboriginal people confront and tackle serious issues/problems collectively, the reason for this is so we can add identity, family kinship and culture to everything we do"

15. Promote holistic concepts of health and wellbeing "What we were doing was running fitness programmes for the clients as they progress this helps them deal with their cravings and urges etc. "

4. Create supplementary storytelling resources 16. Co-created with a range of different community ambassadors "I would like to see the [new] handbook be co-created by consumers on how they view the world, which would inform the language that should be used. I find it interesting that we talk about consumer-centred care but when we develop intervention strategies it neglects the voice of the consumer who live their experience and that intervention strategies should be about facilitation of change not a forceful direction of change"

17. Narratives reflect diverse culture and community groups internationally available programmes like SMART Recovery consider their cultural utility as this will help to ensure they can meet the recovery needs of Indigenous peoples worldwide [49] [50] [51] . Prior to this study, just one other [23] had considered the role of culture within SMART Recovery. Consistent with Dale et al. [23] , the current study identified aspects within the model (contents, design and delivery) that, if modified, could improve the programme's suitability and perceived helpfulness for Indigenous Australians. The need for similar adaptations to improve the cultural utility of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) has been highlighted by First Nations peoples in the United States of America [21, 25, 52] Common among the endorsed programme modifications were strategies designed to reduce access and engagement barriers. For example, more than a third of implementations strategies (n = 11/29) related to reducing cross-cultural language and literacy barriers [45, 47, 53] . Another seven strategies were focused on how artwork, symbolism, and imagery could make the programme more appealing to a diverse group of Indigenous Australians [54] [55] [56] [57] .

The panel recommended that the group member handbook be supplemented with storytelling resources and testimonials from recovered Indigenous group members. Storytelling, is a traditional form of therapy used by Indigenous peoples around the world to promote health and healing [58] . Research supports healing narratives (re-storying) as an effective and culturally validated form of treatment for Indigenous [59, 60] and non-Indigenous peoples in recovery from problematic substance use and behavioural addictions [61, 62] . In light of this, SMART Recovery could consider including narrative therapy alongside their current therapeutic approach (of cognitive behaviour therapy and motivational interviewing) [12] .

One aspect of the modification process that SMART Recovery may find challenging would be accommodating localised programme customisations [13, 14, 63] . Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population includes over 250 distinct language and cultural groups [64] . Each community has diverse needs and aspirations [65] and is impacted on uniquely by historical, political and socio-economic determinants of health and wellbeing [66] . As such, the panellists were firm in their recommendation that any future amendments be co-designed, collaboratively implemented and continually co-evaluated via partnerships with representatives from diverse community groups.

All panellists felt that the Delphi technique was a culturally appropriate method to undertake Indigenousfocused research. The Delphi technique has been used in previous studies with Indigenous health and wellbeing professionals from Australia, New Zealand, American and Canada to identify health priorities [67, 68] and develop culturally appropriate treatment guideline and rating scales [37, [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] . As methodological adaptations to the Delphi technique are permissible we synthesised Indigenous research methods (collaborative and research topic yarning) [27] alongside the Delphi technique [74] . This was done to maximise contribution of the Indigenous voice, and adhere to the principles of Indigenous research: respect, relationship and reciprocity [32, 33, 75] . This approach is vital to ensure the cultural safety of Indigenous peoples participating in research [76] . It is also an effective way that Indigenous knowledges can be translated into health promoting policies and practices [77] .

This study is limited by a small sample size of experts primarily located in New South Wales (n = 6/11). Indigenous voices from regions of Tasmania, Victoria, Northern Territory, Queensland, and the Torres Strait Islands are missing. Likewise, the voices of Indigenous health professionals experienced in non-substance related addictions are would further strengthen the findings. Social desirability bias may have affected some panellists (n = 4) who were known to the research team. However, actions taken to mitigate this included maintaining anonymity between panellists [31] , explicit reminders made in each round of data collection that there were no right or wrong answers [78] , and by ED positioning herself as a guardian [79] of the Indigenous knowledge holders and knowledges represented within this study.

This study contributes to a small but growing body of research showing the need to modify mainstream mutual support groups to be more suitable and helpful for Indigenous Australians. By consulting with Indigenous Australian health and wellbeing professionals, this study makes explicit the areas within the SMART Recovery programme that require cultural modification. A developed set of implementation strategies are offered to help SMART Recovery prioritise areas for change.

Future research is needed to expand our understanding of how the SMART Recovery programme could be most relevant and helpful for Indigenous peoples worldwide. This would require drawing on the knowledges of Indigenous health and wellbeing professionals and Indigenous SMART Recovery facilitators and groups members from more diverse Indigenous communities. It would be important to include Indigenous peoples internationally who have not yet had the chance to provide their perspective of the SMART Recovery programme. Future research is also needed to determine the cultural utility of other popular mutual support groups programmes (e.g. AA and GA). Once cultural utility has been determined it will be important to culturally validate these programmes to ensure the needs and preferences of all Indigenous peoples (Australian and worldwide) are being supported. The cross-cultural methodology used within this study could assist such work.

This Indigenous-lensed Delphi study appeared to be a culturally appropriate and practical method for conducting Indigenous-focused research. Future studies could consider the role of video conferencing (1:1) which has particular relevance given difficulties engaging in face-to-face data collection due to COVID-19. Video (i.e. face-to-face) rather than phone conferencing, is also more aligned to Indigenous ways of communicating [29] , and could help establish trust and rapport between participant and researcher [80] .

This study helps fill important empirical gaps in how to improve the cultural utility of mainstream mutual support groups for Indigenous peoples. The study findings highlight the importance of involving Indigenous peoples in the design, delivery and validation of mainstream mutual support programmes. Programmes that lack Indigenous input can perpetuate biases within mainstream health care approaches and impede Indigenous peoples' access to equitable and appropriate care.

By embedding Indigenous research methods (yarning) with the Delphi technique, this study offers a culturally appropriate, efficient, and collaborative way that Indigenous cultural knowledges can be integrated into health care policy and practice. It is possible that this approach could help give voice to Indigenous peoples more globally. This study design may also help other mainstream mutual support groups programmes (like AA) evaluate and enhance their cultural utility and validity for Indigenous peoples in similarly colonised countries (i.e. United States of America, Hawaii, Canada and New Zealand).

Abbreviations AA: Alcoholics anonymous; GA: Gamblers anonymous.

Estimating the effect of helpseeking on achieving recovery from alcohol dependence

The gambling behavior of Indigenous Australians

Improving mutual aid engagement: a professional development resource. London: Public Health England

How do people recover from alcohol dependence? A systematic review of the research on mechanisms of behavior change in Alcoholics Anonymous

A Swedish mutual support society of problem gamblers

Use of mutual support to counteract the effects of socially constructed stigma: gender and drug addiction

Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programs for alcohol use disorder

Systematic review of addiction recovery mutual support groups and Indigenous people of Australia

United States of America: Simon and Schuster

A history of aboriginal psychology. In: Working together: aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practices

About SMART Recovery

Systematic review of SMART Recovery: outcomes, process variables, and implications for research

Issues and challenges in the design of culturally adapted evidence-based interventions

Can CBT be effective for Aboriginal Australians? perspectives of Aboriginal practitioners trained in CBT

Culture in treatment, culture as treatment. A critical appraisal of developments in addictions programs for indigenous North Americans and Australians

Indigenous traditional knowledge and substance abuse treatment outcomes: the problem of efficacy evaluation

Strong Spirit Strong Mind model informing policy and practice. In: Working together: aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practice

Substance abuse prevalence and treatment utilization among American Indians residing on-reservation

An integrative therapeutic approach to the treatment of a depressed American Indian client

Culture and the restoration of self among former American Indian drinkers

Help seeking for substance use problems in two American Indian reservation populations

A mixed methods yarn about SMART Recovery: first insights from Australian Aboriginal facilitators and group members

Rebuilding Native American communities

The Native American healing experience

The Delphi Method: techniques and applications

Yarning about yarning as a legitimate method in Indigenous research

The Delphi technique: myths and realities

Yarning" as a method for community-based health research with indigenous women: the indigenous women's wellness research program

The Delphi method and health research. Health Educ

The Delphi technique in nursing and health research

What is an indigenous research methodology?

Research is ceremony: indigenous research methods. illustrated. Canada: Fernwood Publishing

Yarn with me: applying clinical yarning to improve clinician-patient communication in Aboriginal health care

Understanding health and illness: research at the interface between science and indigenous knowledge

Consensus measurement in Delphi studies: review and implications for future quality assurance

Cognitive-load of activities for Māori and non-Māori: a New Zealand consensus

Delphi: myths and reality

Consulting the oracle: ten lessons from using the Delphi technique in nursing research

Stability of response characteristics of a Delphi panel: application of bootstrap data expansion

Engaging the practice of yarning in action research

How to use the nominal group and Delphi techniques

The qualitative content analysis process

Research electronic data capture (REDCap)-a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support

Review of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander alcohol, tobacco and other drugs treatment service sector: harnessing good intentions (Revised Version)

Barriers and enablers to the provision of alcohol treatment among Aboriginal Australians: a thematic review of five research projects

Improving access to hard-to-reach services: a soft entry approach to drug and alcohol services for rural Australian Aboriginal communities

Decolonising Psychology: validating social and emotional wellbeing

A bibliometric review of drug and alcohol research focused on Indigenous peoples of Australia

Ways Forward: National Consultancy Report on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service

Cultural respect strategies in Australian Aboriginal primary health care services: beyond education and training of practitioners

Alcohol problems in Native America

Barriers and enablers to the provision of alcohol treatment among Aboriginal Australians: a thematic review of five research projects

Improving services for prevention and treatment of substance misuse for Aboriginal communities in a Sydney Area Health Service

Achieving cultural appropriateness in health promotion programs: targeted and tailored approaches

Real men are safe-culturally adapted: utilizing the Delphi process to revise real men are safe for an ethnically diverse group of men in substance abuse treatment

The role of an Aboriginal women's group in meeting the high needs of clients attending outpatient alcohol and other drug treatment

Conversational methods in Indigenous research. First Peoples Child Fam Rev

What potential might narrative therapy have to assist Indigenous Australians reduce substance misuse? Aust Aboriginal Stud

16:2 • fast, convenient online submission • thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field • rapid publication on acceptance • support for research data, including large and complex data types • gold Open Access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations maximum visibility for your research: over 100M website views per year submit your research ? Choose BMC

A story I never heard before: Aboriginal young women, homelessness and restoring connections

Narrative therapy for treating video game addiction

A meaning-based intervention for addiction: using narrative therapy and mindfulness to treat alcohol abuse

Evidential preferences: cultural appropriateness strategies in health communications

Indigenous Australians: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies 2020

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Determinants of wellbeing for Indigenous Australians. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

Establishing need and population priorities to improve the health of homeless and vulnerably housed women, youth, and men: a Delphi consensus study

Principles and strategies for improving the prevention of cardiometabolic diseases in indigenous populations: an international Delphi study

Mental health first aid for Indigenous Australians: using Delphi consensus studies to develop guidelines for culturally appropriate responses to mental health problems

Development of mental health first aid guidelines for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people experiencing problems with substance use: a Delphi study

Providing culturally appropriate mental health first aid to an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander adolescent: development of expert consensus guidelines

Re-development of mental health first aid guidelines for supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders who are engaging in non-suicidal self-injury

Assisting an Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander person with gambling problems: a Delphi study

How should we measure addiction recovery? Analysis of service provider perspectives using online Delphi groups

Keeping research on track II: a companion document to "Ethical conduct in research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and communities: Guidelines for researchers and stakeholders

Improving the practice of evaluation through indigenous values and methods

What do we mean by decolonizing research strategies? Lessons from decolonizing, Indigenous research projects in New Zealand and Latin America

HRM as a strategic business partner: The contributions of strategic agility, knowledge management and management development in multinational enterprises-empirical insights from India. Asia Pacific Human Resource Management and Organisational Effectiveness

Protocols: devices for translating moralities, controlling knowledge, defining actors in Indigenous research, and critical ethical reflection

Putting 'justice' in recovery capital: Yarning about hopes and futures with young people in detention

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations