key: cord-0853391-vmsyu6w7
authors: Krishnan, Commander S. Navaneetha; Ganesh, L.S.; Rajendran, C.
title: Entrepreneurial Interventions for crisis management: Lessons from the Covid-19 Pandemic's impact on entrepreneurial ventures
date: 2022-04-01
journal: Int J Disaster Risk Reduct
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.102830
sha: 12bc48af0b3196eef7e887807130b8553e8d7190
doc_id: 853391
cord_uid: vmsyu6w7

This article investigates both the negative and positive impacts of a crisis on Entrepreneurial Ventures. The behaviour of Entrepreneurial Ventures during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis is studied by undertaking a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) using Bibliometrics of 154 related publications. After analyzing the literature, the behaviour of Entrepreneurial Ventures during the crisis is synthesized and presented as a Phenomenon Structure Diagram, which highlights a combination of Entrepreneurial Actions (EAs) and Entrepreneurial Orientations (EOs), with Entrepreneurial Supports (ESs) employed by them to manage the crisis. This combination of EAs and EOs with ESs is contingent on the surrounding environment, and they aid in minimizing the risk of failure as well as leverage new opportunities. We propose and develop a conceptual model that a combination of EAs and EOs with ESs, referred to as Entrepreneurial Interventions, can better manage a crisis or disaster and improve organizational resilience. This multi-disciplinary study contributes towards theory development that Entrepreneurial Interventions can be made as a crisis and disaster management strategy.

Managing a crisis or disaster in organizations and businesses is an emerging research area [32, 39, 40, 60, 83, 98, 165, 167, 199, 202] . Crisis management is primarily considered as a response to adversity to bring back the disrupted system into alignment [13, 57, 85, 91, 98, 145, 199, 202] . There is an overlap between crisis management and resilience since resilience deals with the ability of an organization to get back to its original state and maintain reliable functioning despite adversity [32, 39, 40, 60, 83, 98, 165, 167, 199, 202] . Recent studies on organizational resilience highlight the following (a) resilience is beyond restoration and includes the development of new capabilities and an expanded ability to keep pace with and create new opportunities [177] , (b) resilience is an ability to develop 'proactive' and 'reactive' capabilities [39, 47, 60] to increase the level of readiness to respond to disruption during the various stages of crisis such as pre-crisis, during-crisis, and post-crisis [91] , (c) resilience is founded on four major pillars: preparedness, responsiveness, adaptability and learning [40] , (d) resilience consists of two dimensions, namely 'planned' and 'adaptive' resilience [32, 167, 184] , (e) 'absorptive' and 'adaptive' resilience can be considered as two paths for organizational resilience, and (f) dynamic capabilities are known to manage crises, disruptions, and unexpected events, and maximize the organizations' recovery speed, which is known as dynamic resilience [27] . The above studies and findings are significant from the perspective of crisis management and resilience (proactive, adaptive, and dynamic resilience). We propose to additionally contribute to this subject, in this paper. We intend to study the combined influence of negative and positive impacts, namely risk of failure and leveraging opportunities arising from a crisis, and this research since it comprehensively combines information, engendering new ideas/framework/models, and provides new research directions [189] in a transparent and reproducible manner [54] . SLR has been used to study similar subjects in the recent past, such as the dynamic perspective on the resilience of firms [213] , and linking resilience and entrepreneurship [214] . As Tranfield et al. [189] proposed, we have employed SLR, and it's five stages as listed vertically in Fig. 1 . For the fourth stage of 'analysis and synthesis', we have used Bibliometrics ('co-occurrence' and 'bibliographic coupling') to group and form clusters that will enable a systematic understanding of the publications on the subject. Bibliometrics is a popular statistical quantitative research tool to study existing publications and examine the evolution of research domains; it can be used to study the intellectual/conceptual structure of the research topic [43] . Such a combination of SLR and Bibliometrics has been used in recent publications in business and management to study SMEs' risks [50] , study the organization resilience [27] , and the impact of COVID-19 in business and management [196] .

For undertaking Bibliometrics, we used VOSviewer, an open-source software. VOSviewer is compatible with Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) bibliometric databases. Recent publications [35, 196] have used VOSviewer for Bibliometrics.

Scopus and WoS were used for locating literature to build a database of relevant documents on COVID-19 and EVs. Castriotta et al. (2019) [35] have recommended using more than one database to include a greater variety of journals. As we wanted to study the impact of the COVID-19 and the pandemic on EVs, we formulated search strings based on keywords identified in previous SLR/Bibliometrics-based research. For articles related to COVID-19, we referred to Verma and Gustafsson [196] , which guided us to use the following keywords, viz., COVID-19, Pandemic, Coronavirus, SARS virus, and Lockdown. Similarly, the articles on EVs [133] and emerging organizations [35] led to the following search string words: Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneur, Start-up, Spin-off, Silicon Valley enterprise/firm, High-Tech firm, New Technology-based firm (NTBF), SME, MSME, Small business, Family business, Lifestyle business, Marginal business, and Unorganized sector. These keywords were reviewed with two experts and finalized after three rounds of iterations for downloading journal citations and reviewing them. Using a combination of search strings (refer to Table 1), the citation details of documents were searched and downloaded from Scopus and WoS. This search process did not specify any start date since we wanted to capture the past research on the pandemic before COVID-19. The end date was the search date (18 Oct 20) of downloading the bibliographic data.

The search resulted in a total of 427 documents (331 from Scopus and 96 from WoS). The inclusion criteria used for the identification of appropriate documents are tabulated in Table 1 . The databases' results were superimposed on each other using DOI numbers, and 94 documents from WoS were available in the Scopus database. The two WoS documents not in the Scopus database were added to the latter so that the Scopus database could be used as the master database. Exclusion criteria were applied to this master database containing 333 documents. This resulted in 154 documents, as detailed in Table 1 .

These 154 documents were cleaned for uniformity. The correctness of the journal name, author name, and document title was checked and amended. The author keywords were studied and cleaned by performing the following: (a) converting plural to singular, (b) uniformity in hyphenation, (c) various authors have used different keywords to mean a single or similar idea/concept. For example, COVID-19 and Coronavirus convey similar ideas (in the context of this article). Such keywords were identified and replaced with one common keyword, and (d) author keywords were not listed in14 documents. Index keywords were used as surrogates of authors' keywords for nine, and for the remaining five documents, keywords were assigned from those used in the other 149 documents. The above cleaning of keywords was done by the first author and then rechecked by the second author to improve results' correctness [35] .

The shortlisted 154 articles were subjected to three types of analysis and synthesis, which are (1) Descriptive analysis, (2) Keyword, Co-occurrence and Cluster Analysis, and (3) Temporal analysis.

In the descriptive analysis, the following were analyzed (a) Journal analysis, (b) Citation analysis, (c) Country analysis. The details are placed in Appendix-A. 

The database of 154 documents contained 577 different keywords. Their frequency of occurrence was analyzed, and 62 keywords were used in more than two documents. Fig. 2 shows these keywords and their respective frequencies. 

VOSviewer applies text-mining techniques for Co-occurrence [192] . The co-occurrence map of author-keywords with the threshold set as two documents is presented in Fig. 3 . The 61 keywords (as one keyword, 'social innovation' is not a part of the cluster) are grouped into 12 clusters during co-occurrence processes by VOSviewer. Different colours represent each cluster. All the 61 keywords in Fig. 3 are represented cluster-wise in Fig. 4 because keywords close to each other in Fig. 3 are not visible. A cluster contains keywords that can be grouped to represent concepts, as seen in the bibliometric coupling of documents in the citation analysis, where the articles are grouped into 12 clusters.

A study of Fig. 3 (or its representation in Fig. 4 ) for various types of EVs reveals that the following types of firms have been studied in the currently published literature. These are, as we move from the left towards the right extreme, (1) Family business, (2) Start-up, (3) Lifestyle entrepreneur, (4) SME, (5) Small business, and (6) MSME. We have therefore considered these six different types of EVs in our further studies. Start-ups and Innovative Start-ups have been used interchangeably [26, 106] . Also, since firms such as hi-tech start-ups, university spin-offs, and innovative start-ups are grouped as Innovative Start-ups (ISs) [104] , we have used Innovative Start-up (ISs) in this article to refer to the above types of Start-ups.

From each of these 12 clusters, the keywords and their corresponding articles were identified and studied. The views expressed in each article were understood. To highlight the type of analysis undertaken by us using keyword co-occurrence, we have presented views for some clusters (with the keywords marked in bold):

(a) Cluster-3: This is the central cluster. There are seven keywords in this cluster. The views of authors connecting these keywords in their article are as follows. Article [142] mention that the "COVID-19 pandemic can be considered as a life-threatening war … and … it is essential to follow the lockdown protocols till the worldwide situation improves". Similar views are expressed by Refs. [52, 76] . Article [142] also highlight the need to "… tackle mental burden during the complete lockdown … and … there must be some effective strategy to reduce the mental burden". Similar views have been indicated by other authors [76, 86] . Debata et al. [52] , state that the pandemic and the subsequent lockdown has resulted in "The industrial sectorsmanufacturing and start-ups are temporarily closed leading to a significant revenue loss". Article [168] state that "The impact is severe on trade, manufacturing and MSME sectors". After reading all the relevant articles, the consolidated, integrated concept that emerges from cluster-3 is expressed in Fig. 5 . (b) Cluster-5: This cluster has six keywords. The authors' views related to these keywords are: Zahra [209] highlights that "When thinking about the global business environment and how it affects international ventures, it is clear that Covid has already brought about major changes that will profoundly impact these businesses for years to come". Ratten [152] also states that "Coronavirus has significantly affected international business particularly in terms of free movement". Ratten [156] highlights that the "(COVID-19) crisis brought about unintended cultural change". Ratten [156] elaborates that "the meaning of entrepreneurship changes over time with the concept broadening to include more lifestyle, cultural and social goals". Ratten [156] proposes that "Social entrepreneurship is needed more in times of a crisis because of the emphasis on societal well-being" and "Lifestyle entrepreneurship can mean lifestyle business opportunities are found that can be used to alleviate problems caused by the crisis". Similar views on Social, Cultural and Lifestyle entrepreneurship are expressed by Refs. [10, 55, 154, 157, 158] . The integrated concept for this cluster is presented in Fig. 5 . (c) Cluster-6: The author(s) views related to the six keywords are: Shepherd [179] states that "In the aftermath of the pandemic (and response), a lot of businesses have failed, but there is little they could have done to avoid this outcome" and "… these victim entrepreneurs can eventually drop the label victim and build back a better future for themselves and enhance resilience in the process.". Sawalha [174] states that "resilience should further reflect an ability to take advantage of these incidents to become even stronger." Salvato et al. [172] , state that "family firms' superior longevity is their resilience to mass emergencies and their ability to transform post-crisis threats into entrepreneurial opportunities". Similar views on small family business and resilience are expressed by Refs. [51, 65, 151] . Fossen [69] stated that "Self-employment will increase during recessions when unemployment is high …". The integrated concept for this cluster is presented in Fig. 5 . (d) Cluster-10: This cluster highlights that COVID-19 caused a financial crisis, which impacted entrepreneurial ventures such as SMEs. Brown and Rocha [25] illustrate in their article "how chronic uncertainty caused by crisis events affects the availability of entrepreneurial sources of finance for start-ups and SMEs". To come out of this financial crisis, Roper and Turner [163] highlight that SMEs need to focus on R&D and Innovation "The COVID-19 crisis seems likely to leave many firms financially weaker, with the most significant impacts on the willingness or ability of SMEs to sustain R&D and innovation". In addition to R&D and Innovation, disruptive technology, such as the Internet of things, is identified by Ref. [5] by stating that "… disruptive computing technologies, data analytics, and the Internet of Things (IoT) required to engineer new business models, reduce overheads, enhance competitive advantages, and digitize SMEs' business operations". A similar view has been expressed in the article [6] . Refer to Fig. 5 for the integrated concept. (e) Cluster-8: The focus of this cluster is on Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) to improve performance during an economic crisis.

Kuckertz et al. [106] , state "The COVID-19 pandemic has placed an unprecedented burden … and … have caused an economic crisis by bringing a vast amount of economic activity to an abrupt halt" and have identified "seven factors related to adversity and coping strategies". Article [193] highlights that "Taking into account the environment in which an organization operates, the choice and effective implementation of appropriate strategies should instinctively lead to better performance" and "business performance is a multi-dimensional phenomenon". Several articles have listed different strategies to overcome the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [2, 7, 107, 112, 122, 124, 190, 193] . Cannavale et al. [33] , have observed that "In the low-resilient (due to external shocks) sanctioned economy, Iran, EO-performance link is moderated by the level of CEOs' (leadership) self-transcendence value" and "higher level of CEO self-transcendence leads to stronger impact of EO on performance". Smith et al. [182] , suggest "EO may be viewed as the entrepreneurial strategy-making processes" and similar views are expressed by Refs. [33, 105] . Refer to Fig. 5 for the integrated concept. (f) Cluster-7: The focus of this cluster is on strategies for sustenance. Smith et al. [182] , state that "the organisational ability to be entrepreneurially orientated, grow, adapt and be a responsible and sustainable business is affected by factors … that include …" and they also state that Entrepreneurial Orientation "EO may be viewed as the entrepreneurial strategy-making processes that key decision-makers use to enact their firm's organisational purpose, sustain its vision and create competitive advantage". Ketchen and Craighead [101] highlight the need to "build knowledge about how to coordinate across entrepreneurship, supply chain management, and strategic management in order to better understand organizational success and failure and to better guide managers, especially in times of dire trouble". Similar views are expressed by Ref. [115] . Sawalha [174] states that "A number of contemporary disaster management studies started stressing the value of leadership and emphasize the need for leaders who possess innovative insight and entrepreneurial skills needed to mitigate disasters". Zahra [209] states that "The changes prompted by Covid are likely to fuel innovation worldwide as a means of finding solutions to the problems entrepreneurs encounter. Digital technology is likely to expedite this trend" and "digital technology has offered innovative solutions". Soto-Acosta [185] states that "companies can apply digital technologies to accelerate business processes, eliminate inefficiencies, and/or reduce costs or even to sell more". Refer to Fig. 5 for the integrated concept. (g) Cluster-11: The focus of this cluster is the Entrepreneurial ecosystem and Entrepreneurial action. Ratten [152] states that "the pandemic has impacted various entities of the (entrepreneurial) ecosystem …". Kuckertz et al. [106] , highlight that "some businesspeople in the entrepreneurial ecosystem already perceive entrepreneurial opportunity in a positive sense, that is, they see an opportunity to address current issues by employing entrepreneurial measures". Giones et al. [74] , state that "Entrepreneurial action must be situated in the entrepreneurs' assessment of the opportunities and environment where they operate" and they "… offer research-based evidence and associated insights focused on three perspectives (i.e., business planning, frugality, and emotional support) regarding entrepreneurial action under an exogenous shock". Similar views are expressed by Shepherd [179] , who states that "victims (affected entrepreneurs) of adversity engage in entrepreneurial actions that help themselves". Fisher et al. [68] also states that "Entrepreneurial action must be situated in the entrepreneurs' assessment of the opportunities and environment where they operate.". Viewing it from a country perspective, Kuckertz et al. [106] , state that "countries that have established resilient entrepreneurial ecosystems will be able to resume their pre-crisis level of activity more quickly than those that have not". Refer to Fig. 5 for the integrated concept. (h) Cluster-9: The integrated concept from this cluster is, supporting technologies and management skills help in overcoming the crisis. Ratten [155] states that "Covid-19 (coronavirus) has significantly affected education communities particularly in terms of the massive shift towards online learning. This has meant a quick transformation of the curriculum and learning styles to a digital platform". Adoption of technology is essential during a crisis, as highlighted by Akpan et al. [6] , "The strategies to survive the 'new normal' imposed by COVID-19 and fierce global competition includes a successful adoption of advanced technologies". Management skills are also essential for survival amidst the crisis, as highlighted by Akpan et al. [5] , "… decision-analytic framework for innovative marketing, management, and financial planning … are required … to avoid small business failure". Refer to Fig. 5 for the integrated concept. (i) Cluster-12: The importance of social media, information and communication technology (ICT) for business communities during the COVID crisis is highlighted in this cluster. Saleh [171] states that "ICTs and social media help these businesses to increase their overall performance and spread the business in different markets".

The condensed integrated concepts for all the 12 clusters are presented in Fig. 5 . This has evolved after analyzing and synthesizing multiple authors' views. These integrated concepts developed using bibliometrics form the backbone towards understanding the behaviour of Entrepreneurial ventures during a crisis. This is used in developing the PSD in the subsequent section.

Temporal analysis is performed to understand the evolution of a subject over a period of time [35] . Temporal analysis of the 154 documents reveals that 21 documents have been published before the onset of COVID-19. The details of the Temporal analysis are placed in Appendix-B. Interestingly, even before the advent of COVID-19, researchers have published articles highlighting the possible effect that pandemics could have on small businesses. The pre-COVID-19 era publications indicate (a) A pandemic can cause the failure of entrepreneurial ventures [93, 118, 197] , (b) Entrepreneurship has been identified as one strategy to reduce the unemployment crisis [120] , (c) Entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship have been identified as a saviour of lives while investigating the Ebola pandemic crisis-ridden communities [119] , and (d) Both entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship talk about proactivity, innovation, risk management, seeking and recognizing opportunities [119] .

The outcomes of the literature analysis are reported in the subsequent two sub-sections.

The current status of research for each type of EVs is consolidated using Bibliometrics and represented in Appendix-C. The nonavailability of research articles indicates a gap, and 295 gaps are identified. These gaps need further investigation [138] to establish research opportunities.

The integrated concepts, elaborated in Fig. 5 , are used in understanding the behavioural pattern of EVs during the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This understanding has been translated into a Phenomenon Structure Diagram (PSD) presented in Fig. 6 . This PSD provides a comprehensive graphical representation of the current status of research on the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on EVs. It reveals the phenomenon's conceptual structure in terms of the relationships among the entities related to the pandemic. The PSD has been developed after reviewing all the SLR articles and integrating the various concepts/ideas presented in them. The keywords used in the co-occurrence map (Fig. 4) have been used as the conceptual entities in the PSD. Each entity is represented within a circle in Fig. 6 . The link between these entities is parsimoniously indicated by short statements adjacent to the arrow connecting them. Fig. 6 should be read from one entity to its neighbouring entity, in the direction of the arrow along with the link word(s) marked adjacent to the arrow connecting the two entities. For example, in the top left corner, there are two entities, 'COVID-19' and 'Pandemic'; this should be read as 'COVID-19 became a pandemic'. The literary references corresponding to each link are marked as # with a number. This #number is linked with corresponding references in Fig. 7(a) . For example, the #1 below the arrow refers to select important references, which are [45, 51, 52] . Relevant statements from these reference(s) are listed in the last column in Fig. 7(a) . Such a PSD representation is a first attempt to portray the COVID-19 phenomenon and its impact on EVs graphically and presents the story sequentially as abstracted from the 154 articles in the database.

This PSD highlights the influences of the COVID-19 pandemic on EVs, based on various researchers' findings and views on this subject. The comprehensive understanding from this PSD presented in simple sentences is:

"COVID-19 became a pandemic. The pandemic forced national lockdowns that affect the human populations' mental health and well-being. The lockdown also reduced environmental pollution and helped to improve the climate. It also resulted in a crisis (Economic, Financial, and Business) affecting the entrepreneurial ecosystem, encompassing EVs that faced risk and uncertainty that could lead to their failure. The self-employed and women entrepreneurs were subjected to higher risks and uncertainty, leading to a higher probability of failure. In the same situation, some EVs attempted to capitalize on the new opportunities created by COVID-19. EVs that are likely to fail, and those which are seeing opportunities in this crisis, can employ appropriate entrepreneurial actions (EA), such as crisis/disaster planning, business model pivoting, Hustle/Idea blitz, being frugal, having financial prudence, networking, and social connecting, bricolage, effectuation, being agile, and undertaking R&D. Entrepreneurial actions (EA) are required to develop business continuity, sustainability, and resilience. Business strategies at the firm-level are known as entrepreneurial orientation (EO), whose components are Innovativeness, Proactiveness, Risk-taking, Competitive aggressiveness, and Autonomy. The EO supported with (a) Technology, (b) Digitalization/IoT, (c) Entrepreneurial mindset, (d) Finance and Investment, (e) Government policies, (f) Management tools, (g) Leadership, (h) Resources, and (i) Entrepreneurial team, will enhance entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship, when practiced in various sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, and services in urban/rural areas, could lead to business success contributing to economic growth. In the social sector, entrepreneurship could improve the well-being of people, further accelerating the national economy. A spur in economic growth will increase employment/self-employment opportunities and lead to a new normal that will help transcend the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic."

The PSD presented in Fig. 6 is entirely supported by published literature on COVID-19, which is tabulated in Fig. 7 (a).

From this PSD, the entrepreneurial behaviour of EVs during the COVID-19 pandemic can be understood. Entrepreneurial behaviour refers to the behaviour set during the entrepreneurial process. It generally denotes a series of acts with which entrepreneurial firms develop resources creatively to pursue opportunities and realize opportunity value [31, 80, 176] . Looking at how EVs are managing the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown, we observe that EVs employ some strategies to manage the crisis, minimize the risk of failure as well as attempt to leverage new opportunities created by the crisis. A critical analysis of the PSD reveals that a combination of Entrepreneurial Actions (EAs), Entrepreneurial Orientations (EOs), with assistance from various support-systems could probably be the reasons for the EVs to manage the crisis better. A further study on EA, EO, and Support-Systems is essential for formulating a proposition.

We investigate the contribution of EAs, EOs, and support-systems towards crisis management of EVs based on COVID-19 literature.

EAs can contribute to the restructuring and adaptation of an organization during and after a crisis [106] . Research-based evidence is available that EAs can be used to overcome the exogenous shock caused by COVID-19 [74] . These EAs are (1) crisis and disaster planning [74] , (2) pivoting [122] ), (3) Hustle/Idea blitz [12, 68] , (4) frugality [74] , (5) including financial prudence [74] , (6) emotional support (through networking and lobbying initiatives [74] . Other possible EAs that can be taken during the crisis are (7) bricolage [74, 101, 106] , (8) effectuation [74, 106] , (9) agility [101] , and (10) R&D [163] , which are justified below. Since resources are limited during a crisis/disaster, applying bricolage [74, 101, 106] helps in optimum resource utilization. Similarly, applying the principle of effectuation [74, 106] also helps to use the available resources to find a solution. Agility and quick decision-making are vital during a crisis/disaster [101] . Studies have also established that R&D is essential to quickly move out from a crisis into the post-crisis stage; in fact, R&D will lead to better survival chances, growth, and profitability [163] . In summary, the above-mentioned ten EAs, as identified from our SLR database, have been observed to manage a crisis/disaster better. The list of EAs can be further enhanced based on future publications.

EOs serve as a firm's driver towards improved performance and success [33] , which is essential to overcome the current and post-COVID crisis [209] . As per the multi-dimensional concept, the five components 3 of EO can co-exist or vary independently, and all of them need not co-exist in a firm [33, 182] . Researches [101] on entrepreneurship, supply chain management, and strategic management have highlighted the importance and role of EOs during the COVID-19 crisis and indicated the applicability of these five components: (1) the propensity to experiment through innovation, (2) being proactive in anticipating and acting on future opportunities and making strategic moves, (3) the ability to take calculated risks which shows the inclination to take bold actions, (4) possessing competitive aggressiveness, where a firm directly engages its competition, and (5) having autonomy, where the organization members have the freedom to develop an idea towards its completion. These five components of EOs are essential for managing a crisis/disaster.

EVs need supports from multiple sources. During the COVID-19, the following components were used as supports to manage the crisis: (1) Technology in the form of Digitalization, IoT, etc. [185, 212] , (2) Entrepreneurial mindset/thinking [11, 74] , (3) Finance/investment [25, 45] , (4) Supportive Government/Public policies [25, 90] , (5) Management tools and techniques [84, 88] , (6) Leadership [33] , (7) Resources [46, 74, 111] , and (8) Entrepreneurial team [188] . These supportive components are not exhaustive. Some more can be added; we have listed the above based on the information available in our SLR database. We call all these components together as Entrepreneurial Support (ES) and highlight that these ESs are essential to overcome the crisis.

From the study of the above literature, we observe that EVs combine entrepreneurial actions (EAs) and entrepreneurial orientations (EOs) with entrepreneurial supports (ESs) to overcome the crisis. We, therefore, propose to call the combination of EAs and EOs with ESs as Entrepreneurial Interventions (EIvs) and underscore that EIvs can be used to manage a crisis and disaster and improve organizational resilience. The above proposition will be strengthened and validated based on evidence from eleven case studies.

The proposition that Entrepreneurial Interventions (EIvs) can be used to manage a crisis has been developed based on the study of EVs, which experienced the crisis due to COVID-19. We first attempt to validate this proposition by checking its applicability for general management in large organizations, which experienced the COVID-19 pandemic. Then, we shall validate in the context of general management in large organizations, which experienced a crisis other than that caused by COVID-19.

Four articles containing case studies from quality journals (only A*, A, and B of ABDC ranking) were selected, in which organizations encountered crises due to the COVID-19 pandemic. These four articles cover large organizations [16, 34] and general management [42, 209] . They were analyzed to identify the components of EAs and EOs, with ESs employed to either minimize the risk of (continued on next page) failure or leverage the opportunity created by the crisis. The outcome of this study is presented in Table 2 . We observed some components of EA, EO, with ES employed to overcome the COVID-19 crisis for each case. The EAs'/EOs'/ESs' components have been highlighted in bold and italics in Table 2 . All the components indicated for EAs, EOs, with ESs in sub-section 6.1 are cumulatively present across all four cases.

To further validate that EIvs can be used to manage crises in general, we examine the application of this proposition in large organizations and general management by taking case studies unrelated to COVID-19. We explore these case studies to review if various components of EIvs have been employed. Seven case studies, two from an organizational [13, 89] and five from a general management perspective [73, 144 (3 separate cases), 100], were analyzed. After a complete analysis and synthesis of these cases, the outcome is summarized in Table 3 . For each case, the explicit crisis management approach adopted, as indicated by the respective author(s), is mentioned. The EA and EO, with ES components employed to overcome the crisis, are indicated (in bold and italics) separately. The above table considers cases from various sectors and contexts such as manufacturing, reconstruction projects, natural calamities such as earthquake, fire, tsunami, civil calamity, different types of businesses such as SMEs, large organizations, and corporates.

While developing Tables 2 and 3, we observed that some components of EAs, EOs, and ESs were explicitly or inherently used to manage the crisis. In a few instances, we performed thematic coding [170] to identify the use of EAs/EOs/ESs. The first and second authors did coding separately to confirm the correct interpretation. These case studies reinforce the observation that all the components of EAs/EOs/ESs need not be applied concurrently. To manage crisis/disaster better, a suitable combination of EAs/EOs/ESs needs to be employed, and it is contingent on the environmental condition.

After studying the behaviour of EVs during the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, a phenomenon structure diagram (PSD) has been developed ( Fig. 6Fig. 7(a) ). From this PSD, it is observed that EVs have used entrepreneurial actions (EAs) and entrepreneurial orientation (EOs), with entrepreneurial supports (ESs) to minimize the risk of failure as well as leverage the opportunities created during the crisis. Based on this, a proposition has been developed which states that Entrepreneurial Interventions (EIvs), which are a combination of EAs and EOs, with ESs, can be made to manage a crisis better by handling the negative and positive impacts of a crisis/disaster. The correctness of this proposition has been checked with eleven case studies on crises that affected large organizations and general management. In all these cases, it is observed that appropriate combinations of components of EAs and EOs, with ESs, were employed to minimize the negative effects of the respective crises and leverage the opportunities. The Temporal analysis (Section 4.3) of the pre-COVID-19 era shows that the failure rates of EVs were high during the earlier pandemics. Also, during those pandemics, entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship helped to reduce unemployment and saved certain communities. A conceptual model has been developed based on these studies (PSD, Temporal analysis, and case studies analysis). The conceptual model shows that EIvs, which are a combination of EAs and EOs, with ESs, can be made to manage the negative and positive impacts of a crisis. The negative impacts of a crisis could lead to the failure of enterprises, whereas the positive impacts of a crisis could facilitate these enterprises to leverage the crisis-given new opportunities. This conceptual model is presented in Fig. 8 .

In the above figure, we can observe that when an enterprise is impacted by a crisis or disaster (shown in the left corner), it can employ Entrepreneurial Interventions (EIvs). The components of EAs and EOs, with ESs, are listed in the center of the model. These components have been identified from the literature on EVs. The EIvs during a crisis/disaster will either (a) minimize the risk of failure of enterprises, or (b) help its management to recover faster, or (c) help enterprises to leverage the opportunities generated. Thus, Entrepreneurial Interventions can be used as a crisis management strategy and to improve organizational resilience.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time such a model has been developed for crisis/disaster management based on the behaviour observed in EVs during a crisis. This conceptual model is a unique outcome of the above multi-disciplinary study. It presents a pragmatic approach [3] by way of being a ready reckoner in managers' hands to manage an organizational crisis. It also appears that some of the above-identified components of EAs, EOs, and ESs can be applied during three different broad stages of a crisis, namely pre-crisis, during-crisis, and post-crisis stages; this would need further investigation. The strategy to resolve a crisis must be decided based on the environmental conditions. A single solution may not fit all conditions [84] . Crisis management needs custom-made strategies [84, 146] . This is in line with the view that crises do not follow a clear pattern, and every crisis could be unique and needs to be studied for its context and industry sector [84, 85] . Thus, a contingent approach towards crisis management [84] would be appropriate, and our proposed EIvs model would support such an approach. 1. Adopted a set of activities such as expanding its business, diversifying its customers, and renewing its technological infrastructure. (continued on next page) 

The SLR on COVID-19, Pandemic, and EVs has been undertaken based on the published works available in the Scopus and WoS databases till mid-Oct 2020 only. Research works beyond this time, and other databases have not been considered in this article. These published articles capture the initial period of the COVID-19 crisis, and thus they may not capture the complete behaviour. However, a quick review of subsequent publications reveals no major conceptual changes in the articles published subsequently. Therefore, our findings based on this SLR published works could be largely relevant. Secondly, the 295 research gaps identified through this SLR would need further investigations [138] to see if there are any research opportunities corresponding to each gap. Thirdly, the above research has been undertaken mainly based on published literature and case studies. Therefore, this would need further empirical validation. The existing component list of EAs, and ESs, has been developed based on the 154 published articles; this list can be further enhanced. 

The behaviour of EVs during the COVID-19 pandemic has been captured using a PSD. To the best of our knowledge, such development of PSD has been undertaken for the first time. Future researchers can develop similar PSDs to study (a) the impacts of crises on other types of organizations, and (b) the impacts of other types of crises, such as natural disasters, on different types of organizations. Secondly, from the behaviour of the EVs, a conceptual model is developed for EIvs, which are combinations of EAs and EOs with ESs for crisis/disaster management. Researchers can extend this study by empirically validating the EIvs model for (a) different stages of the crisis, namely pre-, during-and post-crisis stages, (b) linking the EIvs model with 'proactive' and 'reactive' resilience/capacity, and (c) studying resilience as a dynamic attribute. Thirdly, this paper points out and justifies the applicability of contingency theory as a crisis management strategy. Future researchers can use this paper to extend the existing knowledge on either 'contingency theory' or 'crisis management strategy'. In addition, this paper has identified 295 gaps in existing literature related to the COVID-19 pandemic and EVs. Future researchers can study these gaps for research potential [138] and undertake research.

This article has generated a pragmatic set of ten components of EAs, five components of EOs, and eight components of ESs to overcome crises/disasters as presented in Fig. 8 . Owners and/or managers can use this list to formulate crisis management strategies. In addition, our paper suggests owners and/or managers that crisis management strategies need to be formulated depending on the environmental condition and surrounding situation. The approach of 'one-size, fits for all' does not work.

In this article, based on a Structured Literature Review (SLR) using Bibliometrics of 154 publications, an understanding of Entrepreneurial Ventures' behaviours during the crisis caused by the pandemics is presented. An abstraction of the entrepreneurial behaviours during the COVID-19 crisis is diagrammatically represented in the form of a PSD, which shows that COVID-19, depending upon the context, causes either slowdowns or growth of EVs. This PSD also highlights the various combinations of Entrepreneurial Actions (EAs) and Entrepreneurial Orientations (EOs), with Entrepreneurial Supports (ESs) that can be employed on a contingency basis, depending upon the situation in the surrounding environment, to deal with the negative or positive impacts caused by a crisis. From the behaviours of EVs, a conceptual model of crisis management employing Entrepreneurial Interventions (EIvs) has been developed. EIvs, which are a combination of EAs and EOs with ESs, can be made to manage a crisis better by handling the negative and positive impacts of a crisis/disaster. The EIvs model highlights the applicability of contingency theory and provides a pragmatic solution for formulating a crisis management strategy and improving the dynamic resilience of an organization. This article has laid a theoretical foundation for crisis management and resilience based on evidence from entrepreneurship and has thus attempted to integrate different fields.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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