key: cord-0836804-gxhjceuz
authors: Huang, Sisi; Tian, Yuan; Wang, Yongjuan; García, Pilar; Liu, Banhong; Lu, Rui; Wu, Liting; Bao, Hongduo; Pang, Maoda; Zhou, Yan; Wang, Ran; Zhang, Hui
title: The Broad Host Range Phage vB_CpeS_BG3P Is Able to Inhibit Clostridium perfringens Growth
date: 2022-03-25
journal: Viruses
DOI: 10.3390/v14040676
sha: e00b8a0db2f8bee542bf5a4e1e85748dc51ac832
doc_id: 836804
cord_uid: gxhjceuz

Clostridium perfringens is an important pathogen for both humans and animals, causing human foodborne disease and necrotic enteritis in poultry. In the present study, a C. perfringens-specific phage, vB_CpeS_BG3P (designated as BG3P hereafter), was isolated from chicken farm sewage. Both electron microscopy and phylogenetic analysis suggested that phage BG3P is a novel phage belonging to Siphoviridae family. Phage BG3P exhibited a broad host range against different C. perfringens isolates (90.63% of strains were infected). Sequencing of the complete genome revealed a linear double-stranded DNA (43,528 bp) with 28.65% GC content. After sequence analysis, 73 open reading frames (orfs) were predicted, of which only 13 were annotated with known functions. No tRNA and virulence encoding genes were detected. It should be noted that the protein of orf 15 has 97.92% homology to C. perfringens-specific chloramphenicol resistance protein, which has not been reported for any C. perfringens phage. Phylogenetic analysis of the ssDNA binding protein demonstrated that this phage is closely related to C. perfringens phages phiSM101 and phi3626. In considering future use as an antimicrobial agent, some biological characteristics were observed, such as a good pH (3–11) stability and moderate temperature tolerance (<60 °C). Moreover, bacteriophage BG3P showed a good antimicrobial effect against C. perfringens liquid cultures. Thus, phage treatment with MOI ≥ 100 completely inhibited bacterial growth compared to untreated cultures. Although phage BG3P shows good lytic efficiency and broad host range in vitro, future development and application may need to consider removal of the chloramphenicol-like resistance gene or exploring its lysin for future antibacterial applications.

Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, strictly anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium that is widely distributed in nature [1] . Spores of the pathogen can persist in soil, feces or the environment, and the bacterium causes many severe infections in humans and animals, including food poisoning, gas gangrene, and non-foodborne gastrointestinal infections in humans, and necrotizing enteritis in animals [2] . C. perfringens is classified into one of five types (A, B, C, D, or E) based on the toxin production. All of these produce alpha-toxin "++" transparent, "+" semi-transparent, "-" negative. 

Isolation of phages was performed following the previously described method for C. perfringens phage enrichment from sewage suspensions [19] . Briefly, the 36 C. perfringens cultures were mixed with the centrifugally filtered sewage supernatant for 24-48 h and centrifuged at 10,000× g at 4 • C for 30 min. Then, the supernatant was filtered with a 0.22 µM to obtain enriched water samples. The double agar overlay method was then used to detect the presence of phages in the enriched water sample. A total of 0.5 mL host bacteria was mixed with 4 mL TY molten soft agar, which was distributed evenly to solidify on a TY standard agar plate. Aliquots (10 µL) of the enriched water sample were dropped on soft agar, and anaerobic culture was conducted overnight at 37 • C. Clear plaques will appear where the soft agar is dripped with enriched water samples containing phages. Lysis plaques were suspended into SM buffer (50 mM Tris-Cl, 100 mM NaCl, 8 mM MgSO 4 , pH 7.5), centrifuged, filtered, and stored as "spot filtrate" at 4 • C. Dilutions of spot filtrate were mixed with host bacteria in a molten TY soft agar, which was poured on a TY plate and incubated. Isolated plaques were suspended again into SM buffer to purify the phage. Purified phages were obtained after 3-5 rounds of purification. This purified phage was used to prepare high titer (10 8 -10 9 PFU/mL) phage stocks for further analyses.

High titer stocks were prepared in SM buffer by PEG-8000 precipitation [20] . The pellet was rinsed three times in 0.1 M ammonium acetate, the supernatant discarded, and the pellet gently resuspended in 0.5 mL distilled water, which was then filtered (0.22 µM) and stored under refrigeration until required. A drop (10 µL) of phage concentrate was applied to a 200-mesh grid and left for 1 min, excess was liquid drawn off with filter paper, and the grid was allowed to air dry. A drop of buffered 1%-phosphotungstic acid (aqueous, pH 6.5) was applied, blotted off immediately, and the grid was allowed to air dry. The grid was then loaded into a Hitachi H-7650 transmission electron microscope (Hitachi, Japan), and phages were examined at 300,000 magnification.

The one-step growth curve was obtained using the improved method described by Hyman et al. [21] . Briefly, host strains were cultured to the logarithmic growth stage, and then cultures were infected with the phage at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10. Infected host bacteria were incubated at 37 • C for 10 min and then centrifuged to remove culture medium and unadsorbed phages. After washing the pellet twice, preheated AML broth was added to resuspend the cells. Cultures were incubated with shaking at 37 • C, and samples were taken every 10 min for a total of 2 h. The double-layer method was used to determine the phage titer. All assays were performed in duplicate.

The host range of the phage was identified by testing the lytic ability in 32 C. perfringens strains, isolated from different regions in China by National Standard of China GB/T 26425-2010. The isolates were inoculated in TY agar by the double agar overlay assay.

Viruses 2022, 14, 676 5 of 18 Briefly, cultures of each strain (0.5 mL) were mixed with 4 mL TY molten soft agar and distributed on a TY standard agar plate. After the top agar was solidified, purified phage (10 µL) was dropped on the top agar. After 20 h of incubation at 37 • C, clear zones were recorded to reflect the inhibition of bacterial growth. Each experiment was repeated three times.

Multiplicity of infection was determined by reference to the improved method [22] . Host bacteria cultures were obtained by inoculating a single colony in the AML medium and incubated until the logarithmic growth phase (OD = 0.6, 2 × 10 7 CFU/mL) was reached. Aliquots (2 mL) of these cultures were mixed with the phage and incubated at 37 • C for 3.5 h. Multiplicity of infection (MOI) was calculated to be 1000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001. Cultures were centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 30 min, and the supernatant was used to determinate the phage titer.

For determining thermal stability, phage samples in SM buffer were incubated at 30 • C, 40 • C, 50 • C, 60 • C, 70 • C, and 80 • C. Aliquots were taken after 30 min and 60 min to determine the phage titer by the double-layer agar method. For analysis of pH stability, samples of the phage were mixed in a series of tubes containing SM of different pH values (2~13, adjusted using NaOH or HCl), incubated for 2 h at 37 • C, and then titered by the double-layer agar method.

Phage adsorption was performed as previously described [23] . Cells of C. perfringens BG3 (2 × 10 7 CFU/mL) were infected with the phage suspension (2 × 10 5 PFU/mL) to give an MOI of 0.01 and incubated at 37 • C. Aliquots (100 µL) were taken at specific time points of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min and immediately diluted in 0.9 mL of cold AML broth. Following centrifugation (12,000× g, 5 min), the supernatants containing un-adsorbed phages were diluted and titered by the double-layered agar assay. Adsorption was expressed as percent decrease of phage titer in the supernatant.

For the lytic activity of the phage, fresh C. perfringens cultures (OD 600 0.6, 2 × 10 7 CFU/mL) were mixed with the phage to reach an MOI of 100. Infected cultures were incubated statically at 37 • C, and OD 600 was measured every 30 min to reflect the growth of C. perfringens for a total of 6 h. Bacterial growth without the addition of phage was also determined for a period of 6 h. Each experiment was repeated three times, and the average data with standard deviation were presented.

In order to determine the lytic efficiency, we studied the lysis effect of the phage at different concentrations. Cells of C. perfringens BG3 (2 × 10 7 CFU/mL, 1 mL) were infected with diluted phage suspension (1 mL) to give an MOI of 1000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001 and incubated at 37 • C. The OD 600 was tested every 30 min and lasted for 6 h.

The genomic DNA of the phage was extracted using the Norgen Biotek Phage DNA Isolation Kit (Norgen Biotek Corp. Thorold, ON, Canada). Briefly, phage genomic DNA was obtained through 4 steps of propagating the phage in liquid cultures and preparing the phage supernatant containing 10 9 PFU/mL, lysate preparation, sample binding to column, column washing, and DNA elution. Genomic DNA sequencing was performed using the Illumina Novaseq platform (Shanghai Personalbio Technology Co., Ltd. Shanghai, China). The standard Illumina TruSeq Nano DNA LT library preparations (Illumina TruSeq DNA Sample Preparation Guide) were used to construct the required online genome libraries. Genemarks [24] software was used to predict the protein-coding genes of the genome, and the sequence alignment of the coding genes was completed by Diamond software [25] . The putative protein function of the ORFs was annotated using the NR Viruses 2022, 14, 676 6 of 18 database. Diamond BLASTp was used to compare the protein sequences encoded by genes with the protein sequences in the database, to identify the function of the presumed proteins. Non-coding RNAs in the genome were predicted by comparing the ncRNA annotation database http://rfam.xfam.org/ (accessed on 13 August 2021) [26] . Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using MEGA (version X _10.2.6, Auckland, New Zealand).

Gene transfer between phage and host bacteria was focused on bacteriophage orf 15, as the protein encoded by this orf was determined to be 97.92% similar to the chloramphenicol resistance protein of C. perfringens (WP_111946556.1). The primers were designed by orf 15, and the 32 clinical strains of C. perfringens were tested by PCR to observe whether they carried the orf 15 encoding gene.

In order to explore whether the chloramphenicol-like resistance gene orf 15 (Cm R ) would be transferred into host strain, phages were mixed (10 5 PFU/mL) with Cm R negative C. perfringens strains (ATCC 13124, CMCC 64722, BG5, RZ-5, BG1, BG3, BC8, BX5, BG4, and BX9-1) (10 7 CFU/mL) and incubated at 37 • C for 72 h. In addition, the mixture was streaked onto TSC plates with or without chloramphenicol (10 µg/mL) to further determine whether there was colony growth resistant to chloramphenicol. If single colonies could be observed, the DNA of the resistant host strain was amplified by PCR with primers of orf 5, orf 11, orf 25, and orf 28. The primers sets used are listed in Table 3 . Samples of this mixture (1 mL) were collected at 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h and washed with PBS 3 times by centrifugation. Total RNA of these centrifuged host strains were extracted, and the expression of the orf 15 was detected by RT-qPCR. In brief, total RNA was extracted from the mixture using Trizol (Vazyme Biotech, Nanjing, China) according to manufacturer's instructions. Reverse transcription was carried out using a Reverse Transcription Kit (Vazyme Biotech) according to the manufacturer s instructions. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to evaluate the transcription of orf 15. Quantitative PCR was performed using 5 µL of cDNA, 10 mM primer, and 10 µL of CHAMQ SYBR qPCR Master Mix (Vazyme Biotech, Nanjing, China) in a final volume of 20 µL per reaction. The cycling parameters for quantitative PCR were as follows: pre-denaturation step was 95°C for 30 s, followed by 40 cycles of 95 • C for 10 s, and 60 • C for 60 s. The dissolution curves were 95°C for 10 s, 60°C for 60 s, and 95°C for 15 s. All samples were characterized by a corresponding cycle threshold (Ct) value. Phage RNA was used as the standard curve template. Negative samples gave no Ct value. 

Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS software (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). Comparisons were analyzed using nonparametric one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni's multiple-comparison post-test. 

In this context, several C. perfringens strains were used to isolate specific phages from farm sewage. After enrichment and plaquing, only strain C. perfringens BG3 showed phage plaques. This phage, vB_CpeS_BG3P (designated as BG3P hereafter), was able to form clear lysis plaques on the host lawn, with a diameter of about 0.1 mm ( Figure 1A ). Morphological observation of particles under electronic microscopy showed that phage BG3P had an isometric polyhedral head (70.20 ± 1.25 nm in diameter) and long noncontractile tail (169.64 ± 1.84 nm) ( Figure 1B ). According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), phage BG3P was classified into the Siphoviridae family. Further characterization of the phage was obtained from the one-step growth curve using a MOI of 10 to infect C. perfringens BG3 cultures at 37 • C. Results showed a latent period of about 10 min and an explosion period of 70 min. The average burst size of phages for infected cells was about 18.7 PFU/infected cell ( Figure 2 ). 

To determine the host range of phage BG3P, C. perfringens strains and other Grampositive (Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes) and Gram-negative (E. coli and Salmonella Enteritidis) bacteria were tested using the spot assay. In addition to four collection strains, 32 C. perfringens strains from toxin type A were used. Four toxins were amplified by PCR of 32 strains of C. perfringens, and the results showed that only α toxins were amplified positive, so all 32 C. perfringens strains were type A C. perfringens (Table  1) . Phage BG3P exhibited a broad host range against C. perfringens isolates: 90.63% (29/32) isolates were inhibited by the phage to varying degrees (Table 1) . No lytic activity was 

To determine the host range of phage BG3P, C. perfringens strains and other Grampositive (Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes) and Gram-negative (E. coli and Salmonella Enteritidis) bacteria were tested using the spot assay. In addition to four collection strains, 32 C. perfringens strains from toxin type A were used. Four toxins were amplified by PCR of 32 strains of C. perfringens, and the results showed that only α toxins were amplified positive, so all 32 C. perfringens strains were type A C. perfringens (Table  1) . Phage BG3P exhibited a broad host range against C. perfringens isolates: 90.63% (29/32) isolates were inhibited by the phage to varying degrees (Table 1) . No lytic activity was 

To determine the host range of phage BG3P, C. perfringens strains and other Grampositive (Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes) and Gram-negative (E. coli and Salmonella Enteritidis) bacteria were tested using the spot assay. In addition to four collection strains, 32 C. perfringens strains from toxin type A were used. Four toxins were amplified by PCR of 32 strains of C. perfringens, and the results showed that only α toxins were amplified positive, so all 32 C. perfringens strains were type A C. perfringens (Table 1) . Phage BG3P exhibited a broad host range against C. perfringens isolates: 90.63% (29/32) isolates were inhibited by the phage to varying degrees ( detected against other tested bacteria, suggesting that this phage has a species-specific host range spectrum.

The exploitation of the phage as an antimicrobial requires that the host lysis activity be stable under stress conditions, including high temperature and low pH conditions. Thus, after incubation at 30 • C, 40 • C, and 50 • C, no significant change in the phage number was observed ( Figure 3A ). However, after incubation at 60 • C for 30 min and 60 min, the phage titer decreased by 2.28 log and 3.50 log, respectively ( Figure 3A) . A remarkable decrease in phage titer after incubation at 70 • C was observed (5.04 units log and 6.02 units log after 30 min and 60 min, respectively). Similarly, the phage titer fell below 2 log (p < 0.01) when treatment was carried out at 80 • C. These results suggest that phage BG3P is thermally stable at a temperature below 50 • C.

detected against other tested bacteria, suggesting that this phage has a species-specific host range spectrum.

The exploitation of the phage as an antimicrobial requires that the host lysis activity be stable under stress conditions, including high temperature and low pH conditions. Thus, after incubation at 30 °C, 40 °C, and 50 °C, no significant change in the phage number was observed ( Figure 3A ). However, after incubation at 60 °C for 30 min and 60 min, the phage titer decreased by 2.28 log and 3.50 log, respectively ( Figure 3A) . A remarkable decrease in phage titer after incubation at 70 °C was observed (5.04 units log and 6.02 units log after 30 min and 60 min, respectively). Similarly, the phage titer fell below 2 log (P < 0.01) when treatment was carried out at 80 °C. These results suggest that phage BG3P is thermally stable at a temperature below 50 °C.

With respect to pH sensitivity, phage BG3P was fairly stable in the range of pH 3 to 11 ( Figure 3B ). The phage titer decreased 1.88 units log at pH 11, and the titer was reduced sharply above this value. This indicated that phage BG3P is resistant to acidic environments and has an average tolerance to alkaline environments. With respect to pH sensitivity, phage BG3P was fairly stable in the range of pH 3 to 11 ( Figure 3B ). The phage titer decreased 1.88 units log at pH 11, and the titer was reduced sharply above this value. This indicated that phage BG3P is resistant to acidic environments and has an average tolerance to alkaline environments.

Adsorption of the phage to the host bacterium is the first step of its life cycle and is essential for its lytic activity. In this context, we determined the adsorption of phage BG3P to C. perfringens by measuring the free PFUs in the medium after incubating with C. perfringens BG3 cells. The results showed that the percentage of free phages decreased to 14% at 5 min, and less than 10% at 10 min, indicating that phage BG3P adsorbed to host cells quickly, and the adsorption rate reached more than 90% at about 10 min ( Figure 4A ).

The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B ). Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could be observed in the first 3 h for C. perfringens BG3. Overall, the inhibitory effect of the phage on the host is dose-dependent. 

Adsorption of the phage to the host bacterium is the first step of its life cycle a essential for its lytic activity. In this context, we determined the adsorption of phage B to C. perfringens by measuring the free PFUs in the medium after incubating wi perfringens BG3 cells. The results showed that the percentage of free phages decreas 14% at 5 min, and less than 10% at 10 min, indicating that phage BG3P adsorbed to cells quickly, and the adsorption rate reached more than 90% at about 10 min ( The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B ). Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B ). Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B ). Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could ), 1 × 10 6 ( of C. perfringens ATCC 13, 124 The in vitro lytic activ by challenge assays using teria removed over time. I and clinical isolate BG3) w Results showed that phage of C. perfringens ATCC 131 BG3 were similar and imp concentrations (MOIs rang the time and degree of acti strain was completely lyse of incubation for ATCC 13 tion of the growth of the seems that the BG3P displa when we compared the l showed that BG3P present < 100). It seems that a high 13124 completely. Howeve be observed in the first 3 h ), 1 × 10 6 ( of C. perfringens ATCC 13, 12 The in vitro lytic act by challenge assays usin teria removed over time. and clinical isolate BG3) Results showed that phag of C. perfringens ATCC 13 BG3 were similar and im concentrations (MOIs ran the time and degree of ac strain was completely lys of incubation for ATCC 1 tion of the growth of the seems that the BG3P disp when we compared the showed that BG3P presen < 100). It seems that a high 13124 completely. Howev be observed in the first 3 h The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could ) log PFU/mL. The initial concentration of C. perfringens BG3 is 10 7 CFU/mL ( The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic by challenge assays u teria removed over tim and clinical isolate BG Results showed that p of C. perfringens ATCC BG3 were similar and concentrations (MOIs the time and degree of strain was completely of incubation for ATC tion of the growth of seems that the BG3P d when we compared showed that BG3P pre < 100). It seems that a h 13124 completely. How be observed in the firs The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could ) log PFU/mL. The initial concentration of C. perfringens ATCC 13,124 is 10 7 CFU/mL ( The in vitro lytic activity of the phage against C. perfringens cultures was determined by challenge assays using a range of phage concentrations (MOIs) and determining bacteria removed over time. In addition, two different strains (reference strain ATCC 13124 and clinical isolate BG3) were tested in order to compare the effectiveness of the phage. Results showed that phage BG3P at MOI 100 to 1000 could completely inhibit the growth of C. perfringens ATCC 13124 within 6 h ( Figure 4C ). However, the results for C. perfringens BG3 were similar and improved slightly after 5 h ( Figure 4B) . Thus, although all phage concentrations (MOIs ranging from 0.001 and 1000) had an inhibitory effect on bacteria, the time and degree of action were different. Indeed, when the MOI reached 1000, the host strain was completely lysed within 30 min, and re-growth could not be observed after 6 h of incubation for ATCC 13124. A reduction of the MOI (MOI = 100) resulted in an inhibition of the growth of the bacterial culture until 4.5 h, with a light regrowth for BG3. It seems that the BG3P displays a better lytic effect on C. perfringens ATCC 13124. Moreover, when we compared the lytic efficiency with a low concentration of BG3P, the result showed that BG3P presents a weakly lytic ability against C. perfringens ATCC 13124 (MOI < 100). It seems that a high concentration of phage BG3P could inhibit C. perfringens ATCC 13124 completely. However, when the MOI was 1 or 10, no significant CUF increase could ). Values are the mean of three determinations.

The complete genome of phage BG3P is a linear double-stranded DNA with a length of 43,528 bp; it has high identity with the C. perfringens phage ΦCP3626 and ΦCPSM101 ( Figure 5) , with a low GC content of about 28.65% and a 90.33% coding rate. A total of 73 open reading frames (orf) with a minimum size of 123 bp were identified, and the average length of each orf was about 600.45 bp (Table 4 ). Non-coding RNA encoding genes were not predicted in the phage genome. Analysis of the predicted protein sequences by comparing with databases showed some match for 36 proteins, although a putative function only would be ascribed to 13 (17.81%) of them. Orfs were grouped on functional modules (replication, morphogenesis, packaging, and lysis), which were all transcribed on positive strand. Identity percentages were quite low for most of the proteins, ranging 31.4 to 100%. Remarkably, eight orfs showed similarity with phage phiSM101 (identity ranging from 44.7 to 100%), but all of them have unknown function, except the homology to orf 24 with autolytic activity. This protein was located near to holin and probably is the phage endolysin. Seven orfs were identified as structural protein encoding genes: portal protein (BG3P_05), head morphogenesis protein (BG3P_06), major capsid protein (BG3P_11), tail tape measure protein (BG3P_20), tail protein (BG3P_22), base plate protein (BG3P_24), and neck passage structure protein (BG3P_25). Downstream of the morphogenetic module, proteins identified as belonging to the lysis module were holin (BG3P_27) and lysozyme (BG3P_28), which had similarity with holin from phage phiCT9441A and the autolytic lysozyme encoded by Clostridium phage phiSM101, respectively. Moreover, as part of the packaging module we annotated orf BG3P_5 as encoding a putative terminase large subunit, because it was similar to Clostridioides phage phiSemix9P1 protein (KX905163.1). Portal protein (BG3P_05) and head morphogenesis protein (BG3P_06) were similar to proteins encoded by phiSemix9P1. Belonging to the replication module, nine gene encoding proteins were identified. BG3P_40 and BG3P_42 showed homology with a replication protein and a transcriptional regulator from Clostridium phages phiSM101 and phiSemix9P1, respectively. Orfs BG3P_50, BG3P_52, and BG3P_54 were identified as single-stranded DNA binding protein, nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase, and recombinase, respectively, as they were similar to Clostridium phage phiCP9O and Aeribacillus phage AP45 proteins. In addition, other proteins belonging to the replication module were BG3P_59, a metal dependent hydrolase; BG3P_60, a nuclease; BG3P_64, a DNA cytosine methyl transferase; and BG3P_68, similar to primase from Lactobacillus phage EV3. It should be noted that the BG3P_15 encoding sequence has 97.92% homology to C. perfringens-specific chloramphenicol resistance gene (WP_111946556.1). We did not identify any genes encoding virulence and integrase proteins, and there was no evidence that the phage can lysogenize C. perfringens. To examine the relationship between phage BG3P and other C. perfringens phages, phylogenetic trees were generated using MEGA10 with the amino acid sequences of the phage ssDNA binding protein (orf 50), among which only orf 50 had relatively high homology with the currently published data. When the identity was set to 30%, only six C. perfringens phage proteins were classified. In the ssDNA binding protein-based tree, phage BG3P formed a separate cluster together with phage phi3626 (NC_003524.1) ( Figure 6 ). These phylogenetic and genome homology analyses indicated that phage BG3P is a new member of the family Siphoviridae. 

The results showed that 72.72% of the clinical strains carried this Cm R gene, but it was not found in the genome of the host strain BG3 (Table 1 ). In order to determine whether the putative Cm R gene orf 15 would be transferred from phage BG3P into the host strain, 10 Cm R negative C. perfringens strains (ATCC 13124, CMCC 64722, BG5, RZ-5, BG1, BG3, BC8, BX5, BG4, and BX9-1) were infected with phage BG3P. The results showed that the expression of putative Cm R encoding gene (orf 15) could be detected only in two clinical C. perfringens, BG4 and BC8, during 72 h incubation, although the CT values were not very high (32.62 and 33.30). According to the standard curve run by phage BG3P DNA standard (y = −3.009X + 41.0779, R 2 = 0.9995, efficiency of the standard curve is 115%), the expression copy numbers of orf 15 in BG4 and BC8 could be calculated as 3.881 × 10 4 copies/mL and 2.307 × 10 4 copies/mL (Figure 7) .

Moreover, clones could be seen only in a mixture of C. perfringens BG4 and BC8 with phages from the TSC plate without chloramphenicol (10 µg/mL). The other eight strains were lysed after incubating with phage BG3P, and there was no clone growth on the TSC plate. The grown colonies from BG4 and BC8 were picked for anaerobic culture, and the DNA was amplified by PCR with orf 15 primers. The results showed that orf 15 gene could be detected in all these colonies, which suggested that the orf 15 gene could be transferred. We also detected the phage-borne gene orf 5, orf 11, orf 25, and orf 28 in BG4 and BC8 to confirm if phage BG3P could transfer into its host, and the results showed that orf 5, orf 11, orf 25, and orf 28 could be amplified from these clones but not the original BG4 and BC8. This may suggest that BG3P has a certain generalized transduction against C. perfringens, and there is no transduction phenomenon to other 8 Cm R negative C. perfringens strains. BG3, BC8, BX5, BG4, and BX9-1) were infected with phage BG3P. The results showed that the expression of putative Cm R encoding gene (orf15) could be detected only in two clinical C. perfringens, BG4 and BC8, during 72 h incubation, although the CT values were not very high (32.62 and 33.30) . According to the standard curve run by phage BG3P DNA standard (y = −3.009X + 41.0779, R 2 = 0.9995, efficiency of the standard curve is 115%), the expression copy numbers of orf15 in BG4 and BC8 could be calculated as 3.881 × 10 4 copies/mL and 2.307 × 10 4 copies/mL (Figure 7 ). Moreover, clones could be seen only in a mixture of C. perfringens BG4 and BC8 with phages from the TSC plate without chloramphenicol (10 μg/mL). The other eight strains were lysed after incubating with phage BG3P, and there was no clone growth on the TSC plate. The grown colonies from BG4 and BC8 were picked for anaerobic culture, and the DNA was amplified by PCR with orf15 primers. The results showed that orf15 gene could be detected in all these colonies, which suggested that the orf15 gene could be transferred. 

C. perfringens has become a significant problem in the poultry industry due to health issues associated with the consumption of contaminated chicken meat, but also due to significant economic losses derived from broilers with low weight gain and increased risk of mortality [27] . Taking into account that a 13% increase in meat production is estimated for the year 2027 (OECD-FAO, 2017), new strategies for controlling this bacterium are mandatory. In this context, C. perfringens strains were used to isolate specific phages from farm sewage. A novel C. perfringens phage BG3P was isolated and belongs to the Siphoviridae family. A few studies have characterized the morphology of C. perfringens phages [9, [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] , but they have revealed phages belonging to different families. Other phages belonging to the Siphoviridae family are the C. perfringens phages ΦSM101, Φ3626, ΦCP39O, ΦCP9O, ΦCP13O, and ΦCP26F [13, 33, 34] . The phage BG3P was different from C. perfringens phages ΦCPV1 and ΦCP24R, which were isolated from broiler chicken intestinal content in Russia and raw sewage from a human waste treatment facility in the U.S. Both C. perfringens phages ΦCPV1 and ΦCP24R belonged to the Podoviridae family and had an isometric polyhedral head of about 50 nm and a short tail [28, 29] .

Phage BG3P exhibited a broad host range against C. perfringens isolates: 90.63% (29/32) isolates were inhibited by the phage to a varying degree, which was different from the C. perfringens phages CPS2 [31] and HN02 [35] reported previously. The host range of phage CPS2 is relatively narrow, phage HN02 showed 42.86% (9/21), and both phages belong to the Podoviridae family. With fairly stable tolerance to extremely acidic and alkaline environments, phage BG3P could survive in the gastrointestinal tract of chickens (muscle stomach 2.33~3.52; intestines 6.25~7.21), and therefore, it is feasible to apply it to the biological control of pathogen C. perfringens. Moreover, BG3P showed quick adsorption: the adsorption rate reached more than 90% at about 10 min. Conversely, bacteriophage CPS2 took about 40 min to reach more than 90% adsorption, which suggests that phage BG3P displays shorter adsorption time and consequently could have higher efficiency [32] .

For the lytic ability, the phage showed different inhibition to the C. perfringens strains. C. perfringens host strain BG3 was able to completely restrain when infected with high concentration phage BG3P (MOI 1000). In this study, the inhibitory effect of the phage on the host was dose-dependent. Therefore, BG3P has potential for treating antibiotic-resistant C. perfringens.

We did not identify any genes encoding virulence and integrase proteins, and there was no evidence that the phage can lysogenize C. perfringens. It should be noted that the BG3P_15 encoding sequence had 97.92% homology to C. perfringens-specific chloramphenicol resistance protein. A detailed analysis of phage-encoded proteins showed that the protein of orf 15 is similar to the chloramphenicol resistance protein of C. perfringens. Studies have shown that the chloramphenicol resistance gene is carried on movable genetic elements, including the C. perfringens transposon Tn 4451 [36] and plasmid pIP401 [37] , but it has not been reported on any C. perfringens phage. Through the transfer test, orf 15 was able to transfer to 2 of 10 C. perfringens strains, which suggests that phage BG3P could mediate generalized transduction. This has also been reported in previous studies; numerous virulent phages, including Serratia phage φIF3 [38] , coliphages T1 [39] , T4 [40] , Salmonella typhi phage Vi I [41] , Pseudomonas phages φKZ [42] , and Bacillus phage SPP1 [43] , have been demonstrated to mediate generalized transduction. In addition, some phages are relatively difficult to isolate, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis [44] and Clostridium difficile [45] . Similarly, C. perfringens phages are also difficult to isolate due to the anaerobic and harsh growth conditions of the host strain. In future, we will further study the relevant mechanisms of orf 15 gene transfer, so as to further clarify whether it is sporadic or involves other transfer mechanisms.

C. perfringens is a pathogenic bacterium commonly present in soil and in the intestines of humans and animals. In this work, we isolated and characterized a new phage infecting this bacterium and evaluated it as an alternative for biocontrol. Phage BG3P belongs to the family Siphoviridae, and its genome sequence had few regions of similarity when compared with the related C. perfringens phages in the NCBI databases. In vitro, the lytic effect has the characteristics of wide host range and high lysis efficiency. Remarkably, this phage also has high stability in an alkaline environment. These are interesting properties for the development of intestinal phage applications. In view of the wide host range of phage BG3P and its high lytic activity to C. perfringens, in further study, we will consider knocking out the chloramphenicol-like resistance gene and evaluating its application effect and safety, so as to lay a foundation for the development of the C. perfringens phage. In addition, we also found that BG3P_27 and BG3P_28 encode holing and autolytic lysozymes. Therefore, we also will try to produce the enzyme in further work. 

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Clostridium perfringens in poultry: An emerging threat for animal and public health

Necrotic enteritis in broilers: An updated review on the pathogenesis

Growth/no growth boundary of Clostridium perfringens from spores in cooked meat: A logistic analysis

An update on alternatives to antimicrobial growth promoters for broilers

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Pre-optimized phage therapy on secondary Acinetobacter baumannii infection in four critical COVID-19 patients

Characterization of a novel bacteriophage phiCJ22 and its prophylactic and inhibitory effects on necrotic enteritis and Clostridium perfringens in broilers

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Characterization of bacteriophages virulent for Clostridium perfringens and identification of phage lytic enzymes as alternatives to antibiotics for potential control of the bacterium

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Pairwise sequence alignment below the twilight zone

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Villarruel-López, A. Clostridium perfringens as Foodborne Pathogen in Broiler Production: Pathophysiology and Potential Strategies for Controlling Necrotic Enteritis

The genome sequence and proteome of bacteriophage ΦCPV1 virulent for Clostridium perfringens

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Physical characterization of the Clostridium perfringens tetracycline-chloramphenicol resistance plasmid pIP401

A generalized transducing phage (phiIF3) for the genomically sequenced Serratia marcescens strain Db11: A tool for functional genomics of an opportunistic human pathogen

Isolation and genetic characterization of T1-transducing mutants with increased transduction frequency

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Detection of transduction by virulent bacteriophage phi KZ of Pseudomonas aeruginosa chromosomal markers in the presence of plasmid RMS148

Characterization of bacteriophage SPP1 transducing particles

Designing phage therapeutics

Phage therapy for plant disease control

The construction of the sequencing library and the control of the sequencing data quality were performed by Personalbio at Nanjing Personal Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.Viruses 2022, 14, 676