key: cord-0801874-5bsat6o1 authors: Sogbe, Eugene title: The evolving impact of coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on public transportation in Ghana date: 2021-09-04 journal: Case Stud Transp Policy DOI: 10.1016/j.cstp.2021.08.010 sha: 57dc084b309cbb004905b9b643676766ebe4a468 doc_id: 801874 cord_uid: 5bsat6o1 BACKGROUND: People's mobility improves as a result of transportation, allowing for greater accessibility. However, the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, has had a significant effect on mobility and accessibility to public transport. OBJECTIVES: Looking at the nature of public transports in Ghana with passengers sitting close to each other coupled with the restrictions on mobility, this paper sought to investigate the effect of the pandemic on public transportation in Ghana. METHOD: The study attempts to use an online and paper-based questionnaire that included questions on usual mode of transportation, usual mode of public transportation prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19, factors influencing public transport mode option prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19 from 1005 commuters. Statistical analysis included descriptive analysis and in addition quantitative comparative analysis. Non-parametric tests were used for inferential statistical analysis. To understand whether usual mode of transportation has evolved due to COVID-19, Wilcoxon signed-ranked test was used to contrast factors influencing mode option prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. RESULTS: Results explained that the major impact of COVID-19 on public transportation were social distancing and increase in the cost of transportation. There was a sharp decline in the use of para transit services with high occupancy such as “trotro” to the use of taxis. Commuters considered physical distancing, occupants wearing face masks, cleanliness of vehicle and safety from traffic accidents as essential factors influencing public transport mode choice during COVID-19. The results of the cross-tabulation analysis, which looked at the relationship between the effect of COVID-19 on transportation and the effect of COVID-19 on social, economic and religious activities showed these variables were insignificant, X(2) (2, N = 1005) = 3.057, p = .217. CONCLUSION: On the basis of the study findings, some recommendations were made for policymakers and stakeholders in the transport industry in order to make it much safer and conducive to travel on public transport in a pandemic in the country. The novel Coronavirus (now called SARS-COV-2, and responsible for the disease COVID-19) has spread across China to a large number of countries all over the world (Lipsitch et al., 2020) . According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), national authorities have registered over 32.7 million COVID-19 confirmed cases and 991,000 deaths. During the week of September 21-27, more than 2 million new cases and 36, 000 new deaths were recorded and reported by September 28, 2020 (World Health Organization, 2020a). On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak a pandemic due to the serious threat posed by COVID-19, as well as the sudden panic and pace of spread (de Haas et al., 2020) . Because COVID-19 is able to be passed on from one person to another, the Government of Ghana imposed limiting conditions to curb the spread of COVID-19 by reducing person-to-person contact (Affran et al., 2020) . The COVID-19 pandemic was first confirmed on March 12, 2020 in Ghana with 2 imported cases (Ministry of Health, 2020). The Government of Ghana, like many other countries, implemented World Health Organization guidelines such as avoiding or restricting physical touch, daily hand washing with soap under running water, rubbing hands with alcohol-based sanitizers with a 70% alcohol intensity for rubbing hands, and minimizing or limiting large gatherings among the general population (World Health Organization, 2020b) . The President of Ghana announced a partial lockdown in a broadcast, which was set to begin at 1 a.m. on March 30, 2020, 48 h after the announcement. Residents of Greater Accra and Greater Kumasi were required to stay at home for the next two weeks due to the partial lockdown (Asante and Mills, 2020) . In addition, all passenger travel between the restricted areas and the rest of Ghana was forbidden. A total of 51,667 cases have been confirmed, with 323 deaths (Ministry of Health, 2020). Transportation is an important part of modern society, and vehicular transportation in Ghana has developed in tandem with the country's economic growth (Akple et al., 2020) . According to Oluwaseyi and Olawunmi (2016) , transportation is the backbone of urban life and one of the factors that influence a city's shape and socio-economic growth. People's mobility improves as a result of transportation, allowing for greater accessibility (Mbara, 2002) . Transportation Research Board research into public transportation safety found that public transportation vehicles in African and Asian countries are poorly maintained and often overloaded, with drivers receiving insufficient instruction (Joewono and Kubota, 2006) . In several African cities, public transportation is provided not only by buses but also by para transit vehicles. Many of the public transport stations in Ghana usually do not have a lot of space and have high vehicular and human activity. Many passengers at these stations would often queue to use public transportation to get to their different destinations. This situation leaves many stations overcrowded with passengers on-board usually seating in close proximity to each other which inhibits the practice of social distancing. Infectious diseases can spread more easily in confined and crowded settings, such as public transportation (Goscé and Johansson, 2018) . In view of the above, it is feared that COVID-19 could spread fast in public transports. Owing to rising financial losses, mismanagement, and stiff competition from the private sector, the government's public transportation system has been unable to provide regular, convenient, and safe services to commuters (Poku-Boansi, 2020) . "Trotro" is a Ghanaian word that means "three pence," which was the fare paid for local truck trips in the late 1950 s and 1960s (Hotor, 2016) . The word "trotro" today refers to any kind of vehicle engaged in commercial transport. Depending on the size of the bus and the number of seats manufactured for a bus by local metalsmiths, the service, which is solely operated by the informal sector, seats between 15 and 21 passengers. Stationed and shared taxis, motorcycle taxis, tricycles ('Pragya'), and bus rapid transit services are among the other modes of public transportation available in Ghana (Dzisi and Dei, 2020) . Economists predict that the virus's effects would result in the insolvency of many industries, the closing of factories, and the removal or suspension of long-term investment in both developing and developed countries (Shakibaei et al., 2020) . Ramelli and Wagner (2020) showed how a rare disaster such as COVID-19 transformed from what seems to be health crisis into economic crisis. According to Haleem et al. (2020) , COVID-19 has had a rapid effect on daily life, industries, and global trade and movement. The authors argued that industries and sectors of the economy such as pharmaceutical industries, tourism, information and electronic industry and solar power sector have been affected. The COVID-19 outbreak across the globe and the preventive measures provided by advisory and regulatory agencies aimed at containing the virus's spread have hitherto affected economic, religious and social activities. Empirical studies have shown a major effect on people's mobility during viral outbreaks (Fenichel et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2017) . The number of studies examining the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the transportation sector is increasing steadily. Schlosser et al (2020) analyzed structural differences in mobility patterns using cell phone data in Germany. The authors observed substantial reduction in mobility and substantial changes in the structural properties of the mobility network. Besides, the authors highlighted a decline in long-distance trips. Using data from traffic counters, public transportation (ITS) Intelligent Transport Systems, environmental sensors, and videos from traffic control cameras, Aloi et al (2020) investigated the effect of COVID-19 lockdown and restrictions on urban mobility in Santander, Spain. According to the authors, total mobility has decreased by 76 percent, with public transportation users down by 93 percent. They also reported that the lockdown altered the motivation for travelling and done on a need basis with travel to work being the most essential reason. Focusing on impact of COVID-19 on travel behavior and transport system as a result of policies put in place by the Columbian government to mitigate the spread, Arellana et al. (2020) analyzed data using official and secondary data from Colombia's seven most populous metropolises and found a decline in trips across all these cities. Using cell phone location data, Lee et al. (2020) investigated human mobility trends by juxtaposing the day-by-day disparities across the United States. According to the authors, a significant number of people have reduced their everyday movements since the outbreak. Moreover, the percentage of people staying at home rose rapidly from 20% on normal days to 35%; out-of-county trips decreased from 28% to 23%. Based on panel data collected through web survey, Parady et al (2020) evaluated factors affecting travel behaviour during the outbreak of COVID-19 in the Kanto region including Tokyo metropolis and found an appreciable decline in activity levels. Additionally, they reported severe reduction for leisure activities, eating out and moderate reduction for grocery shopping. This finding is corroborated by Shamshiripour et al (2020) stating a 65% increase in online purchases. In this research which focused on the dynamics of individual's activity-travel behaviour using a stated preference-revealed preference (SP-RP) survey through an online platform in Chicago metropolitan area during and after COVID-19 in the United States, the authors observed that fear of exposure was strongly linked to travel modes, with nearly 93% of respondents believing that taking public transportation poses a high risk of COVID-19 exposure. Moreover, the authors noted that teleworking increased significantly during the epidemic, with participants reporting a considerable reduction in possible plane travel. Focusing on travel behaviour, Pawar et al (2020) studied mode choice among commuters in India during the transition to lockdown time using a decision tree approach. The authors reported that 41.65% of commuters stopped commuting. Whereas one of the precautionary behaviour during COVID-19 was keeping away from public transportation (Yıldırım et al., 2020) , this outcome did not play an important role in their mode choice resulting in only 5.3% of commuters switching from public to private mode. Bucsky (2020) investigated modal share shifts in Budapest, Hungary as a result of COVID-19 by collecting daily transport volumes by mode of transport and found that public transportation use fell by 80% while the use of cars increased from 43% to 65%. de Haas et al (2020) studied the impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on travel behaviour and attitude using, longitudinal or retrospective data from Netherland Mobility Panel (MPN). According to the authors, the use of public transportation was the most affected, with over 90% of trips being reduced. Besides, 80% of Dutch citizens reduced their outdoor activities with older people staying more at home. Abdullah et al (2020) also came to the same conclusion about age and distance travelled during COVID-19. Contrary to this finding, Fatmi (2020) observed an increase in travel for recreational/social activities among a higher number of older adults in Kelowna region of British Columbia, Canada. The issue of difference in transit ridership was investigated by line, use of stops, key origin-destination flows, changes in transit supply, service time, and reliability of the city bus network of A Coruna, Spain by Orro et al (2020) . The authors compared data from the first half of 2020 to data from the same time period in 2017-2019 and found a sharp decline in ridership during the time of lockdown. Furthermore, the new normal period saw a switch in modal share. This former outcome was also reported by (Jenelius and Cebecauer, 2020; Wilbur et al., 2020) . In evaluating the effect of COVID-19 on human travel behaviour, Abdullah et al (2020) used online questionnaire survey in South and South-East Asian countries and found out that people who travelled longer distances prior to COVID-19 were less likely to prefer private transportation over public or para transit. However, during COVID-19, they were less likely to choose public or para transit relative to private transport. Socio-economic characteristics of commuters were also found to affect transportation during COVID-19. By comparing high-income areas to low-income areas of Nashville, USA, Wilbur et al (2020) found a 77% decline in ridership for high-income areas and 58% for lowincome areas. This latter outcome is also reported by Almlöf et al (2021) . Mode choice is associated with the gender of commuters during the pandemic (Abdullah et al., 2020; Jiao and Azimian, 2021) . Campisi et al. (2020) explained this outcome by stating that women were less likely than males to walk during the pandemic. Taken together, these studies show that mobility behaviour amid a pandemic is quite different and factors such as socio-economic characteristics i.e. (gender and income) impact changes in travel behaviour. Most of these studies have been conducted in developed countries. In recent years, the influence of COVID-19 pandemic has become a hot topic of substantial interest among researchers. There have been extensive research on public transportation in Ghana (Abane, 1993; Abane, 2011; Agyeman and Cheng, 2020; Agyemang, 2013; Amoh-Gyimah and Aidoo, 2013; Nyarku et al., 2017; Ojo and Suleman, 2014; Poku-Boansi and Adarkwa, 2014; Poku-Boansi and Adarkwa, 2011; Yobo et al., 2018) . To date, studies that have focussed on the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on public transportation in low or middle income countries in Africa have been lacking. Only one related study (Mogaji, 2020) come in handy. Thus, this study will fill the gap. Understanding changes in travel patterns, forecasting mobility behaviours, and the public's attitude toward public transportation systems are critical for transportation planning, decision making, and policy formulation during pandemic scenarios based on people's travel demands. For example, the Ministry of Transport and its affiliated departments and agencies could use such knowledge to improve on accessibility of sanitation services on public transports and rescheduling public transport operations. This paper aims to investigate the evolving impact of coronavirus on public transportation in Ghana and establishes the relationship between the influence of COVID-19 on public transportation and the effects of the pandemic on social, economic and religious activities. It also examined the factors influencing public transport mode option prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. The research was carried out in Ghana's three major cities: Accra, Kumasi, and Ho. Accra is the epicentre of the pandemic and is also the national capital of Ghana. Kumasi is Ghana's second-largest city after Accra recording a high number of confirmed cases. Ho has also recorded a number of confirmed cases. Many transportation-related events occur in these cities, resulting in vehicular traffic. The information for this analysis was gathered through a questionnaire survey. The questionnaire was designed using Google forms and was circulated by means of electronic mail and social media platforms specifically Facebook and Whatsapp in Accra and Kumasi. A limited number of paper-based questionnaire was self-administered in Ho. The survey questionnaire was circulated between September 1, 2020 and October 31, 2020. The responses were collected using the snowball sampling technique. One thousand and five (1005) samples were obtained. The samples comprised 500 from Accra, 420 from Kumasi and 85 from Ho. In this study, the questionnaire was split into two sections: the first part contained descriptive information such as age, gender, educational background, marital status, employment and car ownership. The second part evaluated the impact of COVID-19 on public transportation. The impact of COVID-19 on public transportation was evaluated by respondents answering the question: "What is your usual mode of transportation before COVID-19", "What is your usual mode of public transportation before COVID-19", "What is your usual mode of public transportation during COVID-19" "For you, what is the major impact of COVID-19 on transportation", "Has COVID-19 impacted your social, economic and religious activities", and "What factors influence public transport mode choice before and during COVID-19"? People may change transport mode during a pandemic and probably may be coerced to stop the use of public transport due to the fear of contagion. This would in turn have adverse effect on social, economic and religious activities as all of these involve transportation. Hence, it is important to emphasize on the mode of transportation prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. Information on the major effect of COVID-19 on transportation was also quizzed. Furthermore, the importance respondents attached to factors such as physical distancing, cleanliness of vehicle, safety from traffic accidents, cost of fare, occupants wearing masks, access to seat, physical condition/appearance of vehicle, and availability of buses that influence public transport mode option was interrogated. At the time of conducting the survey, the COVID-19 had spread across the country and hit hard especially in the two big cities; Accra and Kumasi. Respondents have become aware of the threat posed by the pandemic and trying hard to live with it hence the need to circulate the questionnaire online in these two cities. In this paper, IBM SPSS statistics version 26 software was used for statistical analysis. Statistical analysis included descriptive analysis and in addition quantitative comparative analysis. Non-parametric tests were used for inferential statistical analysis. To understand whether usual mode of transportation has evolved due to COVID-19, Wilcoxon signed-ranked test was used to compare public transportation mode prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19 in order to evaluate if there were any changes in mode preference. Wilcoxon signed-ranked test was also used to investigate factors influencing public transportation mode choice prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. Extreme outliers in the data have no impact on non-parametric analyses and do not have restrictions on assumptions concerning distribution and variance. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is well suited to repeated measure designs in which the same subjects are assessed under two disparate circumstances (Scheff, 2016) . It is a non-parametric alternative to the paired Student's t-test that does not make the assumption that the samples are normally distributed. It is also useful in determining the time course of an impact (Xia, 2020) . The impact of COVID-19 on transportation, as well as the effect of COVID-19 on social, economic, and religious practices, was studied using cross-tabulation. The null hypothesis, that the influence of COVID-19 on economic, religious, and social activities is not substantially different from the impact of COVID-19 on these activities, was tested by comparing the p-value to the significance level. The study found that most of the respondents (65.9%) were males who were between the ages of 18-35 years (66.6%). Table 1 summarizes the demographic profiles of respondents. The usual mode of transportation is shown in Fig. 1 . The majority of respondents (74.7%) said they take public transportation. 24% mentioned that they commute with private car/motorbike. Participants were quizzed to show their preferred mode of public transportation prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. It can be noted from Fig. 2 that majority of respondents (61.3%) use para transit services ("trotro") as their preferred mode of public transport for commuting before COVID-19. This agrees well with previous studies (Hotor, 2016) which found para transit services to dominate mode of public transportation in Ghana. However, there was a decline in its usage by almost half of the respondents (38.3%). In contrast to this, there was a surge in the use of taxis which is the other preferred mode of public transportation from 31.3% prior to COVID-19 to 51.8% throughout the time of COVID-19. This result mirrors the study by (Addo, 2002 ) that a close alternative to the use of "trotro" presents commuters the option to share taxis, which may charge two or three times the "trotro" fare. A statistically significant change in preference was discovered using the Wilcoxon signed rank test (Z = − 14.383, p < .000). As shown in Fig. 3 above, it is evident that the major impact of COVID-19 on public transportation is social distancing. 50.4% of respondents fear they might contract the virus due to the close proximity of seating in a public transport. This result corroborates the findings of earlier studies (De Vos, 2020) that in order to observe social distancing, movement and travel restrictions have been implemented by many countries which has led to a drop in travel demand. The pandemic's other big effect on transportation is cost of transportation. 41.9% of those polled have seen an increase in transportation cost which would automatically translate into a high cost of living. This result adds support to the findings of earlier studies (Mogaji, 2020 ) that COVID-19 has had a major effect on transportation in Lagos, Nigeria. These effects of the pandemic on transportation saw a decline in ridership as the directive was in force during the partial lockdown and also due to the fear of contracting the virus during post-lockdown. Respondents reported varied responses on the influence of the pandemic on activities they undertake. A cross-tabulation was used to investigate the relationship between the influence of COVID-19 on transportation and its effects on activities. The Chi-square test was used to determine if the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on transportation differed significantly from the impact on social, economic, and religious activities. The null and alternative hypotheses were tested using a Chisquare dependent measure: H 0 : The effect of COVID-19 on transportation and the impact of COVID-19 on social, economic and religious activities are unrelated. H 1 : The null hypothesis is not true. The results of the cross-tabulation analysis, which looked at the relationship between the two variables, are shown in Table 2 . The Table 2 Cross-tabulation Analysis of the Correlation between COVID-19 Impact on Transportation and COVID-19 Impact on Social, Economic, and Religious Activities. relationship between these variables were insignificant, X 2 (2, N = 1005) = 3.057, p = .217. The null hypothesis was evaluated by comparing the p-value to the significance level. COVID-19 ′ s effect on transportation, as well as its impact on social, economic, and religious practices, is statistically unrelated and independent to each other. As a result, the null hypothesis was not refuted. This explains why the proportion of respondents whose transportation has been impacted by the pandemic is similar to the proportion of respondents whose economic, social and religious activities have been impacted by the pandemic. This result contradicts the results of Mogaji (2020) . Respondents who use public transport regularly were quizzed on influencing factors for mode option prior to and throughout the time of the outbreak of COVID-19. Respondents who responded that they do not use public transport were removed. Consequently, 751 responses were used for Wilcoxon signed rank test in comparing factors affecting public mode option prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19. Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 show factors influencing public transport mode choice prior to and throughout the time of the pandemic respectively. Respondents attached more importance to factors such as cost of fare (price), safety from traffic accidents (safety) and availability of buses (accessibility) before COVID-19. The result confirms previous studies which showed factors such as affordability, safety and comfort (Sam et al., 2018) , fare (Eboli and Mazzulla, 2008) , play vital role in mode choice. High on the list of influencing factors during the pandemic were physical distancing, occupants wearing face masks, cleanliness of vehicles (aesthetics) and safety from traffic accidents. This finding resonates with a recent study (Abdullah et al, 2020) which pointed out that factors such as social distance, passengers with face masks, cleanliness and safety and security were of high priority to commuters. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to contrast factors influencing mode option prior to and throughout the time of COVID-19 pandemic, as presented in Table 3 . The test revealed that commuters attached more importance to factors such as occupants wearing masks, physical distancing, cleanliness and safety from traffic accidents during the pandemic. Of less importance to respondents were availability of buses, physical condition/appearance of vehicle (vehicle condition), access to seat (comfort) and cost of fare. The outbreak of the pandemic and subsequent imposition of restrictions has taken a toll on individuals and families with some businesses folding up and its attendant job losses. Changes in outdoor activities, religious activities, work, and education have impacted people's mobility pattern. This study was set out to conduct an inquiry into the evolving effect of the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic on public transportation in Ghana through an online and paper based questionnaire survey. A finding from this study which requires adequate attention in policy and practice was social distancing which was observed as the significant effect of the pandemic on public transportation. The fear of contracting the virus due to the close proximity of seating in a "trotro" was a major worry and concern for majority of public transport users. Consequently, this impact led to a switch of public transport mode. The social fear of being infected when using mass public transportation with high occupancy such as "trotro" resulted in the switch to taxis which will usually take on-board 3 passengers or perhaps 1 if you can afford to pay extra charges. It was observed that commuters who use public transport considered factors such as occupants wearing masks, physical distancing on the bus and cleanliness of the vehicle as weightier factors which influenced public transport mode choice during the pandemic instead of factors such as cost of fare, availability of buses etc. before COVID-19. Even though the road transport coordinating committee and the transport union had implemented the Ministry of Transport's directives to minimize the number of passengers per car and a need for physical distancing in vehicles, regular washing of buses and individual commuters use face masks (Ansah, 2020) , these were not being adhered to especially putting on of face masks. Compliance to putting on of face mask on public transport was most of the time partially complied with among commuters (Dzisi and Dei, 2020) . It is recommended that the government directs the officers manning the Police, Immigration and Customs check points at various parts of the country to help enforce the use of face masks on public transports. In addition, the research further propounds that sanitation services should also be accessible on public transportation and at different terminals. Payment of transport fare on the bus could increase person-to-person contact although the likelihood of transfer of virus through banknotes are low. Moving forward, the Ministry of Transport and the Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) should introduce electronic ticketing systems to reduce handling of banknotes across the various terminals in the country. Majority of the vehicles used for public transport have additional seats that have been fabricated in addition to the seats already on the vehicle resulting in congestion. The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) should rein in on these public transport drivers and owners by carefully inspecting the seats on these vehicles before licensing and consequently issuing road worthiness certificates to them to ply the road. The research was constrained, however, by the fact that the majority of the survey data was obtained through an online questionnaire. As a result, commuters who are not technologically inclined, computer illiterate, or do not own a smartphone may have been left out of the data collection process. Eugene Sogbe: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing -original draft, Writing -review & editing. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. 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