key: cord-0788011-a05e66in authors: Hamidi-Asl, Ezat; Heidari, Leila; Bakhsh Raoof, Jahan; Richard, Tara P.; Farhad, Siamak; Ghani, Milad title: A review on the recent achievements on coronaviruses recognition using electrochemical detection methods date: 2022-02-25 journal: Microchem J DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107322 sha: 710cc585f85610a886e28b77378cef70f9198d23 doc_id: 788011 cord_uid: a05e66in Various coronaviruses, which cause a wide range of human and animal diseases, have emerged in the past 50 years. This may be due to their abilities to recombine, mutate, and infect multiple species and cell types. A novel coronavirus, which is a family of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), has been termed COVID-19 by the World Health Organization (WHO). COVID-19 is the strain that has not been previously identified in humans. The early identification and diagnosis of the virus is crucial for effective pandemic prevention. In this study, we review shortly various diagnostic methods for virus assay and focus on recent advances in electrochemical biosensors for COVID-19 detection. Human coronaviruses (HCoVs) represent a major group of coronaviruses (CoVs) associated with multiple respiratory diseases of varying severity, including the common cold, pneumonia and bronchiolitis [1] . Since CoVs have inherently high mutation rates and high frequency of recombination, they manifest rapid adaptation to new host receptors with the ability to overcome interspecies barriers. HCoVs are globally distributed and the predominant species has diversity by region or year and may infect humans and a wide variety of animals. HCoVs are enveloped RNA viruses including the strains respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-HKU1. In the past 14 years, the onsets of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV have thrust HCoVs into the spotlight of the research community due to their high pathogenicity in humans. Today, HCoVs are recognized as one of the most rapidly evolving viruses owing to its high genomic nucleotide substitution rates and recombination [2] [3] [4] . The outbreak in Wuhan, China, first documented in December 2019, represents a beta coronavirus classified as novel severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), known as COVID-19, which belongs to the Coronaviridae family. SARS-CoV-2 is a spherical enveloped particle comprising a single positive stranded RNA associated with a nucleoprotein within a capsid of matrix protein [5] . Novel SARS-CoV-2 represents a significant similarity with previous coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV in 2002, China and MERS-CoV in 2015, Middle East [6] . The most conventional detection methods for COVID-19 include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Based on the recommendation of the WHO and the American Center for Disease Control (ACDC), RT-PCR, in comparison with traditional PCR, is the unique standard for recognition of COVID-19 [7, 8] . ELISA is a biochemical assay that uses antibodies and an enzyme-mediated color change to detect the presence of either antigen (proteins, peptides, hormones, etc.) or antibody in a given sample [9, 10] . PCR is an assay to detect genetic material from a specific organism, such as a virus. It can recognize the presence of a virus if the virus exists at the time of the test; also detect fragments of the virus even after the infectious symptom disappears. PCR has revolutionized the rapid analysis of mammalian genomic DNA [11, 12] . Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used to make many copies of a specific genetic sequence for analysis. The enzyme of reverse transcriptase is used to change a specific piece of RNA into a matching piece of DNA. After amplification of this piece of DNA (made in large numbers) by the enzyme of DNA polymerase, it can tell whether a specific mRNA molecule is being made by a gene. RT-PCR is useful to look for certain changes in a gene or chromosome or for activation of certain genes, which may help diagnose a disease and monitor an infection [13, 14] . In the standard PCR, the DNA template to be amplified and a thermocycler were used, while, in RT-PCR, RNA is used as a template and is reverse transcribed into complementary DNA. PCR is used for viruses that already contain DNA for amplification, while RT-PCR is used for those containing RNA that needs to be transcribed to DNA for amplification. Since the SARS-CoV-2 virus only contains RNA, RT-PCR is used to detect it. There are several published papers over viewing above mentioned techniques [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] . These detection methods suffer from some inconveniences such as the need for qualified personnel and the use of large quantities of costly reagents. Moreover, these conventional tests are complicated and unsuitable for large-scale diagnosis. Even with the high sensitivity of the methods, some research papers have exhibited that they may result in false negative responses. It should be noted that a diagnostic procedure sensitivity and limit of detection (LOD) are related to the SARS-CoV-2 virus minimum viral load and infective virus dose, which is a difficult issue for a diagnostic platform [21, 22] . Usually RT-PCR on nasopharyngeal samples, the standard method for COVID-19, demonstrates a LOD of ~100 copies of viral RNA per milliliter of transport media. However, LODs of other techniques vary over 10,000-fold [23, 24] . Electrochemical detection methods are the analytical platforms that can detect parameters like voltage, current, resistance, or charge generated from a reaction at the surface of an electrode [25] . Advantages of the electrochemical based assay like ease-of-use, instant detection, costeffectiveness and fast response are helpful to be considered viable advanced systems that can meet the demand for simple detection method to diagnose COVID-19 [26] . On the other hand, the analytical performance of electrochemical diagnosis methods has improved with nanostructure materials. Nanomaterials generate successful interactions between the analyte and the sensor because of their large surface-to-volume ratios that lead to the fast and accurate virus detection [27] [28] [29] [30] . In this study, we summarize conventional identification methods for viruses and current diagnosis techniques for COVID-19; then review recent achievements and application of electrochemical biosensors and nanomaterials on COVID-19 detection. Approximately 10 31 viruses exist on Earth that infects practically all organisms. These obligate parasites are a major cause of human suffering and economic loss. The genetic materials of the viruses contain the encoded biological information of the virus and are built from either DNA or RNA. Viruses are able to mutate and adapt to different viruses. The mutation causes an increase in genetic diversity [31, 32] . Viruses are divided into four groups including: a) riboviruses (which includes RNA viruses), b) retroviruses (RNA/DNA/RNA), c) DNA viruses (DNA/DNA) [33] and d) (DNA/RNA/DNA), which contains viruses that produce RNA as a replicative intermediate despite having DNA as their genetic material [10] . Coronaviruses (CoVs) (Figure 1 ), which are called for the crown-like spikes on their surface have been recognized by Dr J. Almeida in 1964 at her laboratory in St Thomas's Hospital in London [11, 12] . Coronaviruses are large, enveloped, spherical shapes, with a diameter of 80-120 nm, non-segmented and single positive stranded RNA viruses. There are presently seven CoVs known to cause human illness, which can be classified as low pathogenic or highly pathogenic [37] [38] [39] . Virus identification is the most important point in the control of the disease. The early determination of pathogenic agents like bacteria and viruses is crucial for clinical point-of-care purposes [40] . For diagnosing viral infections, the first step is viral culture. A variety of specimens such as swabs, nasal swabs, nasopharynx or trachea extracts, sputum or lung tissue, blood, and feces should be retained for testing in a timely manner, which gives a higher rate of positive detection of lower respiratory tract specimens. There are several immunological methods that are used to detect COVID-19. Immunofluorescence assay, protein microarray, direct fluorescent antibody assay, nucleocapsid protein detection, and the micro neutralization test are easy to operate rapidly but have a lower sensitivity and specificity [41, 42] . Preliminary identification of the virus was done through the classical Koch's Postulates or observing its morphology through an electron microscopy [43] . RT-PCR, ELISA, isothermal nucleic acid amplification methods referred to as the loop-mediated isothermal amplification technique (LAMP) that is performed at a constant temperature and microarray-based methods have been used so far [44] [45] [46] . A biosensor is an analytical device that measures biological reactions by producing signals proportional to the concentration of a substrate in the solution. Applications of biosensors include disease monitoring and drug discovery, recognition of disease-causing microorganisms and markers that are indicators of a disease in bodily fluids. Biosensors are classified two ways. The first type is based on biological signaling compounds or biorecognition elements. The second way is by the signal transduction methods. The biological signaling compounds, known as bioreceptors, are used because of their interactions with a specific target. On the basis of biorecognition principle, biosensors can be classified into several subcategories: antibody/antigen, enzyme catalyze, nucleic acid, cell-based and biomimetic molecules such as peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and affibody. Transducers are the transformers of the produced signal by the interaction of the specific analytes that can be more easily measured and quantified. In this way, biosensors can be further classified into optical [47, 48] , electrochemical [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] , piezoelectric [55, 56] , magnetic [57] , micromechanical [58] , and thermal [59, 60] for medical diagnosis. An electrochemical biosensor is a self-contained integrated device (Fig. 2 ) [61] , capable of providing specific quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biochemical receptor. The biochemical receptor is kept in direct spatial contact with an electrochemical transduction element [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] . Biosensors with an electrochemical transducer have advantages such as high sensitivity, simple instrumentation, cost effectiveness and capability of miniaturization, which is used for microliter sample volume. There are several reports of electrochemical transducers being utilized in order to detect viruses. features by an enzyme-amplified detection [70] . They labeled the biotinylated hybrid with a streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugate. All the experiment steps are optimized by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Afsahi. et al. fabricated a beneficial and portable graphene-enabled biosensor for Zika virus detection with a highly specific immobilized monoclonal antibody [71] . They covalently attached monoclonal antibodies to graphene for native Zika viral antigens detection. Moço et al. presented an electrochemical genosensor for detection of the genomic RNA of Zika virus, which has been used on real samples from infected patients. Modified graphite electrode is prepared by electrochemical reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and polytyramine, which plays the role of a conducting polymer [72] . Navakul et al. published a paper for the detection, classification and antibody screening of dengue virus based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The charge transfer resistance of a gold electrode coated with graphene oxide reinforced polymer was influenced by virus type and quantity exposed on the surface [73] . The analytical performance of biosensors has improved with nanotechnology methods. Nanomaterials (NMs) bring new possibilities for the extension of electrochemical biosensors [74] . Incorporation of NMs with promising novel approaches in biosensor design provides construction of biosensors and development of novel electrochemical assays [75] [76] [77] [78] . The advanced nanoscale biosensor can be utilized to achieve high sensitivity and selectivity of biological sensing for analytical purposes in various fields of research and technology [79] [80] [81] [82] . NMs have great potential due to its promoting electron transfer reactions, high surface area and electrical conductivity, good chemical stability, and mechanical robustness. Moreover, they can be used to enhance electrochemical reactions and promote signals of biorecognition systems [83, 84] . Various NMs, such as magnetic nanoparticles, metal NPs, carbon-based nanotubes, carbon allotropes, nanowire, and quantum dots with different biological recognition elements (enzymes, nucleic acids, antibodies, antigens, peptide), provide many opportunities for enhancing the performance of nanobiosensor [85, 86] . The electrochemical nanobiosensors were used in versatile areas of cancer diagnostics and diagnosis of infectious microorganisms, viruses, etc. [87, 88] . For example, Sayhi et al. produced a method with the purpose of isolation and identification of influenza A virus H9N2 subtype. They attached an anti-matrix protein 2 antibody to iron magnetic nanoparticles and used them for isolating the influenza virus from an allantoic fluid. Then, fetuin A was attached to an electrochemically detectable label, gold nanoparticles, to detect the virus taking advantage from fetuin-hemagglutinin interaction. Immobilization of the specific receptor was not necessary in this study. It was the most important point because usually this step was time consuming. Also, reproducibility and regeneration ability were benefits of the proposed research [89] . In another study, Layqah et al. developed an immunosensor for the determination of MERS-CoV based on a competitive assay on an array of electrodes nanostructured with gold nanoparticles to enable the multiplexed detection of different CoV. The base of biosensor was in indirect competition between the free virus in the sample and immobilized MERS-CoV protein with a fixed concentration of added antibody to the sample. The reduction peak current of ferro/ferricyanide redox couple at each step was measured. The assay was performed in 20 min with detection limit as low as 0.4 and 1.0 pg mL -1 for HCoV and MERS-CoV, respectively [90] . In addition to this, Nagar et al. developed an impedimetric sensing platform for detection of changes in Coxsackie B3 virus-specific ssDNA target by altering the electrode with graphene/gold nanoparticles composite. The biorecognition agent and ssDNA were mixed and stabilized on a substrate. Reduced graphene oxide was used as a more conductive substrate for gold nano particle deposition to aid in the immobilization of probe ssDNA suitable for hybridization with target ssDNA. The linear response was in the range of concentrations 0.01-20 µM [91] . The diagnosis of COVID-19 mainly relies on the detection of the coronavirus RNA. The various methods for identification of COVID-19 are stated: PCR has become a routine and reliable technique with great specificity and sensitivity. RT-PCR detection is currently applied for the diagnosis of coronaviruses. RT-PCR assay as a predominant method has advantages consisting of specific, and simple quantitative. The mutating nature of coronaviruses highlights the requirement for accurate detection of genetically diverse coronaviruses. Hence, to recuperate the ability to detect coronavirus exactly and reduce the risk of evoking false-negative results caused by genome sequence variations, researchers have established multiplex real-time RT-PCR methods with desirable sensitivity for multitarget detection of coronavirus [92, 93] . A novel isothermal nucleic acid amplification method is a low-cost alternative to detect certain diseases. It is a single-tube technique for the amplification of DNA; called loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Isothermal amplification is performed at a constant temperature and does not require a thermal cycler. This method is classified into various categories such as regular LAMP-based methods, sequence-specific LAMP-based methods and rolling circle amplification-based methods. The principle of detection is based on the templates designed to target SARS-CoV-2 RNA that amplify a unique region of the segment. Fluorescently-labeled molecular beacons are used to specifically identify each of the amplified RNA targets [94, 95] . The microarray is a detection method with fast and high throughput that can handle a high amount of material or items passing through the system. However, the high-cost limits its further application in the detection of coronavirus. In this procedure, complementary DNA (cDNA) labeled with specific probes through reverse is first produced by the coronavirus RNA transcription. These labeled cDNAs will be loaded into each well and hybridize with solid phase oligonucleotides firmed on the microarray followed by a series of washing steps to eliminate free DNAs. Finally, the coronavirus RNA can be diagnosed by the detection of specific probes. Owing to its privilege, the microarray assay has been broadly used in the detection of coronavirus [96, 97] . Symptoms of COVID-19 can include but are not limited to a fever, dry cough, myalgia, fatigue, hemoptysis and diarrhea. Less common symptoms include headaches, nausea and delirium. The majority of patients exhibit signs of pneumonia [98] . Preliminary data regarding a plausible infection can be provided by merely observing and evaluation of vital signs. Since being hypoxic is common in initial steps, a pulse oximeter is useful. The beginning of respiratory distress may be indicated by tachypnea, retractions, diaphoresis and lung sounds. Fine crackles in early pneumonia, then coarse rales and diffuse rhonchi can be heard as the disease progresses [99, 100] . Chest computed tomography (CT) scan is an important instrument to distinguish COVID-19 suspects because it has a potential role for prognostic disease at an early stage. However, COVID-19 patients may exhibit no pneumonia on thin-section CT. CT scans found that lesions in patients with COVID-19 were commonly located in the lower lobes of the lungs, and showed subpleural distribution. All patients showed ground-glass opacity (GGO) on thin-section CT, more than half of which were round GGO. 89.36% of the patients show the crazy-paving pattern, and air bronchogram can develop in GGO. Therefore, CT examination is important for confirmation to diagnose COVID-19 [101, 102] . Electrochemical transducers are used in the majority of the biosensors because they are simple to manufacture, require minimal reaction volumes and do not have ambient interferences such as red blood cells affecting the quantification. The measurement of current, charge buildup, or modification of electrode conduction induced by a reaction is the basis for creating a signal via an electrochemical transducer. Electrochemical detection methods may be classified into three groups including: a) amperometric or voltammetric (current is determined), b) impedance biosensors (conduction or resistance is determined) and c) potentiometric ones (potential is determined) based on the measured assay [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] . Table 1 summarized the notable reported articles for detection of SARS-CoV-2 via various electrochemical methods. Table 1 A steady voltage is provided to the working electrode in this detecting apparatus, causing an electrochemical oxidation or reduction that delivers a current. The generated current is corresponding to the target analyte concentration [110] . An electrochemical immunoassay in rapid analysis that was used for detecting COVID-19 was reported by Fabiani et al. Magnetic beads were applied as a support of an immunological chain and a secondary antibody with alkaline phosphatase was used as an immunological label for spike (S) protein and/or Nucleocapsid (N) protein detection. The enzymatic byproduct αnaphthol was found using screen printed electrodes modified with carbon black nanomaterials. Saliva was used by simply adding the sputum in the tube previously loaded with the reagents needed for the measurement, without requiring an extra task to the end-users. The analytical features of the electrochemical immunoassay were evaluated using the standard solution of S and N protein in buffer solution and untreated saliva with a detection limit equal to 19 ng mL -1 and 8 ng mL -1 in untreated saliva, respectively for S and N protein [111] . RGO to form Au@SCX8-TB-RGO-LP bioconjugate; iii) the sandwich structure of "CP targetlabel probed (LP)" produced; and iv) auxiliary probe (AP) was introduced to form long concatemers [112] . In another study, Yakoh et al. reported the use of a label-free, paper-based electrochemical platform that was used to target SARS-CoV-2 without the specific requirement of an antibody. In this study, an electrochemical paper-based analytical device for diagnosing COVID-19 had three parts: a working ePAD, a counter ePAD and a closing ePAD. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein containing receptor-binding domain was immobilized on the hydrophilic paper zone of the working ePAD through embedded graphene oxide (GO)-EDC/NHS chemistry in order to capture incoming SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. The square wave voltammetry (SWV) technique was used as the diagnostic step. After immunocomplex formation, the SWV response was decreased. Also, to demonstrate the practicality of the sensor, real clinical serum samples were tested and the results were compared by a commercial ELISA test kit and its function satisfactory was proved [113] . The aptamer-protein-nanoprobe sandwich electrochemical detection system had a wide linear range from 0.025 to 50 ng and great potential in the early diagnosis of COVID-19 [117] . In another research paper by Karakus and colleagues, a colorimetric and electrochemical detection of COVID-19 with a gold nanoparticle-based biosensor was reported. They stabilized SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen at the surface of gold nanoparticles (AuNP-mAb) and used it as the probe. The developed probe allowed visual detection (colorimetric) with a detection limit of 48 ng mL -1 and square wave voltammetry detection was applied using disposable screen printed gold electrodes with a detection limit of 1 pg mL -1 . Cross-reactivity with other viral proteins such as Influenza A, MERS-CoV and Streptococcus pneumonia was not detected in this method [118] . polymer with an appropriate film thickness that was essential to prevent the irreversible entrapment of the protein of SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and infeasibility of its removal during the subsequent washing out procedure [119] . A biosensor COVID-19 assay was created by Kim et al. A microelectrode array biosensor was coupled with recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) on a glass substrate using microfabrication. For on-chip RPA, a polydimethylsiloxane slab was prepared for a reaction chamber, and electrodes were coated with thiol-modified primers. The multi-microelectrode array allowed the detection of multiple target genes by differential pulse voltammetry. The outcomes were comparable to results obtained by gel electrophoresis without post-amplification purification [120] . The electrochemical impedance method works by sending an AC excitation signal to the appropriate electrode at a specified frequency. The characteristics of the conductivity and resistance of the electrode are determined in the following step by determining the in-phase and out-phase current responses [121] . The electron transfer may be assessed at high frequency values, whereas the mass transfer can be explored at low frequency values. EIS is utilized in label-free electrochemical biosensors for detection of the electrode surface coverage. The detecting procedure involved applying a predetermined potential, which resulted in a current flow and, as a result, an electron transfer. Since the target analyte binds to the bioreceptor, the electron transfer resistances at the electrode and at the bulk of the analyte interface are changed. The target concentration is proportional to the change in resistance of the electrode surface. The sensor in this platform is made up of two reference electrodes mounted to a substrate, whose potential change between the electrodes is detected when a selective charged ion is reacted with the electrodes. The charged ion is selected from a chosen analyte that is generated by an enzyme in a target reaction. This process causes the membrane to have a potential difference before and after the charge ion is generated. The field effect transistors (FET) biosensors are based on potentiometry [125] . bearing the human chimeric spike S1 antibody to detect the SARS-CoV-2 S1 spike protein expressed on the surface of the virus. The attachment of the protein to the membrane-bound antibodies resulted in a selective and considerable change in the cellular bioelectric properties measured by means of a potentiometric detector. In this setup, an eight-channel gold screenprinted electrode assembly was connected to the potentiometer device and the measurement via the electric signal was visualized through a voltage vs. time. The biosensor provided results very fast (3 min), with a semi-linear range of response between 10 fg and 1 µg mL -1 , without the cross-reactivity against the SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid protein [126] . The COVID-19 pandemic has thrust the need of highly accurate methods for the rapid identification of viruses such as SARS-CoV into the spotlight. [117] Screen printed gold electrode SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen 1 pg/mL [118] gold-based thin-film electrodes Gold screen-printed electrode (Au SPEs) SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 protein 1 fg/mL [126] Graphene SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody 1 fg/mL [127] Coronavirus 229E-related pneumonia in immunocompromised patients Neuropathogenic human coronaviruses: a review Human coronaviruses: General features, Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences Human coronavirus circulation in the United States Development of onestep, real-time, quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR assays for absolute quantitation of human coronaviruses OC43 and 229E Use of chest CT in combination with negative RT-PCR assay for the 2019 novel coronavirus but high clinical suspicion Real-time RT-PCR in COVID-19 detection, issues affecting the results Diagnosis of the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): rRT-PCR or CT? 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cancer diagnosis through online plasmonics Development of an optical biosensor for the detection of Trypanosoma evansi and Plasmodium berghei An improved electrochemical aptasensor for chloramphenicol detection based on aptamer incorporated gelatine Brilliant cresyl blue as electroactive indicator in electrochemical DNA oligonucleotide sensors Celestine blue as a new indicator in electrochemical DNA biosensors Indigo carmine as new label in PNA biosensor for detection of short sequence of p53 tumor suppressor gene A review on the electrochemical biosensors for determination of microRNAs Preparation of an electrochemical PNA biosensor for detection of target DNA sequence and single nucleotide mutation on p53 tumor suppressor gene corresponding oligonucleotide Sensing picornaviruses using molecular imprinting techniques on a quartz crystal microbalance Chemosensors for viruses based on artificial immunoglobulin copies Electrochemical detection of miRNA-222 by use of a magnetic bead-based bioassay Liposome Biosensor for Characterization of Protein-Membrane Interaction Development of a novel flexible polymer-based biosensor platform for the thermal detection of noradrenaline in aqueous solutions Label-free detection of Escherichia coli based on thermal transport through surface imprinted polymers Biosensor and Biochip Technologies, Handbook of Biosensors and Biochips Application of ethyl green as electroactive indicator in genosensors and investigation of its interaction with DNA A genosensor based on CPE for study the interaction between ketamine as an anesthesia drug with DNA A novel three-dimensional microTAS chip for ultraselective single base mismatched Cryptosporidium DNA biosensor Preparation of Ag/NaA zeolite modified carbon paste electrode as a DNA biosensor A genosensor for point mutation detection of P53 gene PCR product using magnetic particles Development of a DNA biosensor based on MCM41 modified screen-printed graphite electrode for the study of the short sequence of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in hybridization and its interaction with the flutamide drug using hemin as the electrochemical Sensitive electrochemical detection of tryptophan using a hemin/G-quadruplex aptasensor Ultrasensitive and reusable electrochemical aptasensor for detection of tryptophan using of [Fe (bpy) 3](p-CH3C6H4SO2) 2 as an electroactive indicator A novel electrochemical DNA biosensor for Ebola virus detection Barron, others, Novel graphene-based biosensor for early detection of Zika virus infection Madurro, others, Electrochemical Detection of Zika Virus in Biological Samples: A Step for Diagnosis Point-of-care A novel method for dengue virus detection and antibody screening using a graphene-polymer based electrochemical biosensor A comparative study of carbon nanotube paste electrode for development of indicator-free DNA sensors using DPV and EIS: human interleukin-2 oligonucleotide as a model Developing a Nano-Biosensor for DNA Hybridization Using a New 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diagnosis of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in fresh sputum by electrochemical tracing; correlation between COVID-19 and viral-induced ROS in lung/respiratory epithelium during this pandemic Label-Free Electrochemical Detection of DNA Hybridization: A Method for COVID-19 Diagnosis An electrochemical dual-aptamer biosensor based on metal-organic frameworks MIL-53 decorated with Au@Pt nanoparticles and enzymes for detection of COVID-19 nucleocapsid protein Colorimetric and electrochemical detection of SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen with a gold nanoparticle-based biosensor Development of a portable MIP-based electrochemical sensor for detection of SARS-CoV-2 antigen Sensitive electrochemical biosensor combined with isothermal amplification for point-of-care COVID-19 tests Rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using electrochemical impedance-based detector Sensing of COVID-19 Antibodies in Seconds via Aerosol Jet Nanoprinted Reduced-Graphene-Oxide-Coated 3D Electrodes 3D-Printed COVID-19 immunosensors with electronic readout Field-Effect Transistor Biosensors for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances and Future Prospects Development of a Portable, Ultra-Rapid and Ultra-Sensitive Cell-Based Biosensor for the Direct Detection of the SARS-CoV-2 S1 Spike Protein Antigen Rapid detection of COVID-19 causative virus (SARS-CoV-2) in human nasopharyngeal swab specimens using field-effect transistor-based biosensor  This review includes synopsis about corona virus and COVID-19.  Diagnostic methods and potential biosensors for coronavirus are described.  Clinically practiced and commercially available methods for COVID-19 are presented.  Electrochemical COVID-19 biosensing technologies are summarized.