key: cord-0787651-4vheanli
authors: Baxter, Kimberley A.; Nambiar, Smita; So, Tsz Hei Jeffrey; Gallegos, Danielle; Byrne, Rebecca
title: Parental Feeding Practices in Families Experiencing Food Insecurity: A Scoping Review
date: 2022-05-05
journal: Int J Environ Res Public Health
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095604
sha: 3351c4340fe8f7fb3d7adcef3af62ec1d525f416
doc_id: 787651
cord_uid: 4vheanli

Parental feeding practices and styles influence child diet quality and growth. The extent to which these factors have been assessed in the context of disadvantage, particularly household food insecurity (HFI), is unknown. This is important, as interventions designed to increase responsive practices and styles may not consider the unique needs of families with HFI. To address this gap, a scoping review of studies published from 1990 to July 2021 in three electronic databases was conducted. A priori inclusion criteria were, population: families with children aged 0–5 years experiencing food insecurity and/or disadvantage; concept: parental feeding practices/behaviours/style; and context: high income countries. The search identified 12,950 unique papers, 504 full-text articles were screened and 131 met the inclusion criteria. Almost all the studies (91%) were conducted in the United States with recruitment via existing programs for families on low incomes. Only 27 papers assessed feeding practices or styles in the context of HFI. Of the eleven interventions identified, two assessed the proportion of participants who were food insecure. More research is required in families outside of the United States, with an emphasis on comprehensive and valid measures of HFI and feeding practices. Intervention design should be sensitive to factors associated with poverty, including food insecurity.

Parental feeding practices and styles play an important role in the development of child diet quality, eating behaviours and healthy growth [1] . Children are born with an innate ability to self-regulate their energy intake, which allows them to follow their own hunger and satiety cues [2] . This can be easily overridden by parental practices such as pressure to eat or the use of rewards for eating. These parent behaviours, referred to as 'coercive control' or non-responsive feeding practices, "teach" children to eat for reasons other than hunger [3] . Conversely, responsive feeding refers to prompt, emotionally supportive, contingent, and developmentally appropriate reciprocity between the child and their caregiver in relation to feeding and food intake [4] . Responsive practices fall broadly under the higher-order constructs of 'structure' and 'autonomy support or promotion' [3] , whereby parents provide safe, nutritious, and developmentally appropriate foods and the child decides how much is eaten [1, 5] . While practices are the specific goal-oriented actions a parent takes in relation to child feeding and eating, these sit within a broader construct known as feeding styles. Feeding style refers to the general way that parents interact with a child during meal and snack times [6] . An authoritative style is considered most appropriate, characterized by high levels of warmth and responsiveness to a child's needs, along with high levels of age-appropriate reasoning and structure [7] .

Over the last three decades, the global rise in the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity prompted extensive research into the associations between parental feeding practices and styles with child outcomes. Responsive feeding practices are considered a protective factor in the prevention of excess weight and obesity [8, 9] , via the impact on a child's ability to self-regulate their appetite and intake. Feeding practices also influence diet quality, for example, a pressure to eat has largely been associated with poorer quality diets in children, while parental modelling and encouragement are associated with improved diet quality, such as increased vegetable intake [10] . Such findings have led to the development of interventions aimed to modify feeding practices. Indeed, systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials of interventions found that promotion of responsive feeding is the most promising avenue for obesity prevention for children under two years [11, 12] . However, exactly what components of interventions are most effective, and what components are most appropriate for different populations remains unclear [13] . This is particularly true for families experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage, who are disproportionally impacted by poor diet, suboptimal nutrition, and poor growth, including obesity [14] .

Disadvantage, which includes financial and material hardship (low income, poor living conditions) and/or social isolation [15] has been strongly linked to poorer physical, cognitive, and social development in children [16] . The environmental conditions and adversity children experience during critical periods is known to impact on both immediate and long-term health. This has led to the nurturing framework linked to the sustainable development goals that posits that early child development is supported by seven key dimensions: good health, adequate nutrition, safety and security, responsive caregiving and learning and stimulation [17] . Within the context of responsive feeding, the nurturing framework is relevant; however, two circumstances may have particular significance for families living with disadvantage, that is, food insecurity and household chaos. Food insecurity is defined as the limited financial, physical, and social access to food of sufficient quality and quantity for a healthy and active life [18] and has been linked to poor child outcomes [19] . Food insecurity has a prevalence of around 12% at a population level in high income countries [20] , with much higher rates in more disadvantaged communities. For example, in the USA 35.3% of households with incomes below the Federal poverty level were food insecure in 2020 [21] , and in Australia up to 25% of households in low-income areas are affected [22, 23] . A recent review of the literature by Gallegos et al. (2021) found that both persistent and transient household food insecurity were associated with suboptimal child development outcomes [24] . Chaotic households that are prone to high noise and crowding, with low levels of routine, organisation and overall stability have been linked to poorer child development, overweight and obesity and food insecurity [25] . Household chaos and a lack of meal planning are potential mediating factors in food insecurity [26] . In contrast, responsive feeding is contingent on environments being pleasant, structured and without distractions, such that parents can recognize and respond to child cues in a prompt, developmentally appropriate way [4] .

A narrative review by Arlinghaus and Laksa (2021) [27] argued that there are considerable structural constraints, such as the ability to access food and the cost of food, which influence how parents experiencing food insecurity feed their children. Those experiencing food insecurity have significantly more time constraints, particularly if they are single parents [27] . One of the benefits of responsive feeding, is that it promotes the development of healthy food preferences. Often, repeated exposure to novel foods is required before the child gains acceptance of a new food, but parents who are food insecure, may not offer foods that are not accepted immediately, particularly if they are expensive. The authors noted that low fruit and vegetable consumption may be the result of trying to prevent food wastage and the higher cost of such foods.

Food insecurity can also be experienced intergenerationally, where chronic food insecurity shapes the way in which children learn about, acquire, and prepare food. There may be an emphasis on consuming foods with a high satiety value (that is, energy dense) over foods that are of higher quality (nutrient dense). Thus, interventions designed to support responsive feeding in households experiencing food insecurity, who may also have high levels of chaos, may require a different approach to commonly promoted strategies, such as repeated exposure to foods [28] .

Therefore, the aim was to undertake a scoping review of the evidence related to parental feeding practices in families experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage-and food insecurity-in high income countries. The scoping review methodology was deemed appropriate to map the evidence and synthesise the key concepts given this diverse topic [29] . The objectives were to describe what and how parental feeding practices and styles have been assessed amongst families experiencing disadvantage, understand the characteristics of studies examining parent feeding practices in families with household food insecurity (HFI); and to identify and describe the key components of interventions that aim to modify feeding practices in families living with disadvantage and/or HFI.

This review was compliant with the PRISMA checklist for scoping reviews [30] and the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) approach to scoping reviews [31] . The protocol was registered with the Open Science Framework (OSF) (doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/Q47VP) (created on 9 June 2021).

A priori eligibility inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed as follows:

• Population: families with children aged 0-5 years experiencing HFI or disadvantage. Disadvantage could include a measure of HFI, poverty, low income, low education attainment, receiving welfare/food assistance or other indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage. • Concept: Parental feeding practices or styles. Papers were included if a measure of parental feeding practices and/or styles was used or identified as a theme in qualitative research. • Context: high income countries according to the World Bank definition [32] .

Full-text, peer-reviewed articles that were published in English were included in this scoping review according to the above criteria between the years 1990 and 2021 (database searches conducted on 2 September 2020 and updated 12 July 2021). Articles were excluded if the population group had a diagnosed illness/disorder that would impact feeding (e.g., cystic fibrosis, premature birth), or the focus was on infant feeding practices exclusively (i.e., breastfeeding, use of formula, age of introduction of solid foods). Opinion pieces, editorials, reviews, conference abstracts or protocol papers were also excluded.

A search strategy was developed by KB and SNM in consultation with an experienced academic librarian. The search was run in three electronic bibliographic databases by KB (CINAHL, Medline and PsycInfo). Key words for the search strategy used in each database are shown in Appendix A. Citations were exported into EndNote and then imported into Covidence; a web based systematic review production tool [33] . The reference lists of included sources and relevant reviews were also checked.

The title and abstract of each article were screened in Covidence using a priori eligibility criteria. All authors were involved in the screening process. Two authors screened citations for inclusion independently, with inter-rater conflicts resolved by another reviewer, and this task was shared across authors (KB, SNM, RB, DG, JS). This process was repeated to screen full-text articles. The final list of included articles can be found in Appendix B.

Data extraction was completed in Covidence using a modified version of their data extraction form. Extraction was done by one author and checked by a second author for completeness.

Descriptive statistics were used to describe the characteristics of included papers, namely, those that directly measured and reported household food insecurity (HFI) using a specific tool and those that did not, country of origin, study design, and assessment of feeding styles or practices. The number of different feeding practices assessed across all papers were tallied, using the Vaughn content map of food parenting practices [3] as a guide and a count made of the most frequently used tools to assess styles and practices.

Data from those papers that measured HFI were described in more detail including study design, primary objective, country of origin, sample characteristics (age, gender, recruitment details), measures and tools used and key findings. Similarly, a table describing intervention studies designed to modify feeding practices amongst families experiencing food insecurity was included. Given the search identified only two intervention studies with families that reported HFI, this table was expanded beyond the original objective, to also include interventions for families experiencing disadvantage. Findings were also synthesised descriptively to map the relevant aspects of the literature as related to our research question. Results of the review are presented in narrative form. Quality appraisal was not conducted as this was not deemed necessary to meet the objectives of the review.

Searches identified 12,950 unique records ( Figure 2 ). After screening, 131 met the inclusion criteria, with 27 studies (21%) assessing HFI within their population of interest (Table 1) . Almost all studies were conducted in the United States (119/131, 91%) with the next most frequent location being Australia (6/131, 5%).

One hundred and six papers examined feeding practices (81%). There was considerable heterogeneity in the types of practices assessed ( Figure 1 ) and the tools used to assess these. Practices were categorised under the three higher-order food parenting constructs defined by Vaughn et al. (2016)-coercive control, structure, and autonomy support [3] . 'Other' practices included feeding practices that do not fall within the above known classification systems, such as laboratory eating protocols and food exposure practices.

Practices representative of coercive control such as a pressure to eat and restriction were most often assessed, in 46% and 42% of papers, respectively. Meal and snack routines were the most frequently assessed practice under the construct of 'structure' at 28% of studies, followed by the practice of modelling. Practices that aligned with 'autonomy support and promotion' were assessed least often. Another 29 studies (27%) were classified as other, representing a disparate set of practices that parents used to influence child intake or eating behaviour, but could not be easily categorised within the Vaughn framework. More than thirty different questionnaires were used to assess feeding practices within the studies included in this review, the most frequent being the Child Feeding Questionnaire (n = 26 studies) [34] , followed by the Comprehensive Feeding Practice Questionnaire (n = 7) [35] and the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire (n = 5) [36] . Forty papers assessed feeding styles within a population experiencing disadvantage, with the most used questionnaire being the Caregiver Feeding Style Questionnaire (CFSQ) [7] in 25 papers, while another 10 papers used the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire (IFSQ) [37] .

Validation studies identified in this review provide evidence that the psychometric properties of the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ), Caregiver's Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) and the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire (IFSQ) have been assessed in disadvantaged populations in the United States, in particular Hispanic and African American populations; however, no specific methodological studies assessing the use of tools outside of the US were found. 

The 27 papers identified are described in detail in Table 2 . Twenty-three were conducted in the United States while the remaining four were in Australia.

In those studies that reported HFI (n = 27), a variety of tools were used to define HFI in their participant cohorts. Most studies (17/27, 63%) used a variation of the USDA Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM), namely, either the 6-item [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] , 10item [45] [46] [47] , or 18-item measure [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] ; followed by a 2-item measure by Hager et al. [59] [60] [61] . The Radimer/Cornell Scale was also used in one paper [62] , along with the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) in another one paper [63] . Lastly, the remaining two papers used less rigorous methods with one paper using a study specific question, 'Do you ever feel that you don't have enough food for your family?' (no evidence of validity or reliability provided) [64] and one paper describing food insecurity as a theme from focus group discussions with low-income parents [65] . Validation studies identified in this review provide evidence that the psychometric properties of the Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ), Caregiver's Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) and the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire (IFSQ) have been assessed in disadvantaged populations in the United States, in particular Hispanic and African American populations; however, no specific methodological studies assessing the use of tools outside of the US were found. 

The 27 papers identified are described in detail in Table 2 . Twenty-three were conducted in the United States while the remaining four were in Australia.

In those studies that reported HFI (n = 27), a variety of tools were used to define HFI in their participant cohorts. Most studies (17/27, 63%) used a variation of the USDA Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM), namely, either the 6-item [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] , 10-item [45] [46] [47] , or 18-item measure [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] ; followed by a 2-item measure by Hager et al. (2010) (3/27, 11%) [56] [57] [58] and a 1-item question from the Australian Health Survey (3/27, 11%) [59] [60] [61] . The Radimer/Cornell Scale was also used in one paper [62] , along with the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) in another one paper [63] . Lastly, the remaining two papers used less rigorous methods with one paper using a study specific question, 'Do you ever feel that you don't have enough food for your family?' (no evidence of validity or reliability provided) [64] and one paper describing food insecurity as a theme from focus group discussions with low-income parents [65] .

There was wide variation in the reported proportion of HFI experienced between the groups described in each of the papers, ranging between 0-80%.

The relationship between feeding practices and/or styles was most often examined within the context of child weight and obesity prevention [40, 41, 44, 49, 50, 54, 62, 64] . The relationship between HFI and practices varied with HFI being associated with non-responsive practices in twelve [39, 40, 44, 46, [49] [50] [51] 54, 56, 57, 62, 64] and non-responsive feeding styles in three [45, 48, 55] studies, respectively, with null findings in two others [41, 64] . Interestingly, , who found no relationship between feeding practices and styles, concluded that food insecurity may have a protective effect on dietary quality due to the adoption of coping mechanisms by mothers and grandmothers [41] .

Twelve studies described an intervention study that sought to modify early feeding practices amongst families who were categorised as low income, experiencing disadvantage and/or food insecure, these are summarised in Table 3 . Only two of the interventions sought to assess and report the proportion of participants who were food insecure [50, 58] . All the intervention studies identified originated from the US. Most of these research studies recruited participants via established programs for families on low incomes such as Head Start, Early Head Start or the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), with many research groups then utilising these existing programs and infrastructure to deliver the intervention.

Length of the interventions ranged from a one-off video to three years (although the paper describing the 3-year intervention reported early outcomes at 10 months [50] ). Interventions were largely aimed at mothers (10/12, 83% exclusively targeted mothers). Within one paper that included both mothers and fathers as participants, 92% were mothers [66] while the other paper reported participants as 'parents' and did not report the split of mothers to fathers [67] .

Mode of delivery ranged from intensive multiple face-to-face appointments to remotely provided content via mail or phone and a computer tablet-based intervention in one case. Visual media content was a commonly used mode to deliver messaging in the interventions, with video described in several studies (n = 6, 50%) [58, [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] as well as picture-based messaging [50] . In those papers using videos, these were described as short, curriculum-based videos, which included animation [72] , real footage of mothers feeding their children in a home environment [68] and were tailored for the ethnicity of the target audience [68] [69] [70] 72] .

With the exception of Horodynski et al. 2005 [66] , all the interventions described positive impacts on the intervention group in terms of the target feeding practices. Interventions largely targeted parental behaviours (feeding practices/styles), although Fisher et al. (2019) primary outcome was a reduction in calories from solid fat and added sugars (which was reduced by 23% at 12 weeks). Although many interventions had the underlying intention to prevent unhealthy weight gain among children, only Hughes et al. (2021) reported reduced child overweight/obesity compared to the control group [70] . showed a reduction in BMI among mothers in the intervention group compared with the control [72] .

Of the two intervention papers that reported HFI, found that HFI was significantly different at baseline between the intervention (HFI = 26%) and the control group (HFI = 60%) and, therefore, HFI was tested as a factor in their intention-to-treat analysis for health outcomes, with unchanged results. also reported the HFI rate of the participant cohort with 30.2% in the intervention and 34.5% in the control, which was found to be not significantly different at baseline. described tailoring content in the intervention to be sensitive to factors associated with poverty, including food insecurity [50] . TFBQ [74] Relative increases in HFI were indirectly related to increases in restrictive and decreases in responsive child feeding practices, mediated through increases in mothers' own restrained eating.

To determine the association between measures of HFI, maternal feeding practices, maternal weight, and child weight-for-length in low-income Mexican Americans. CFQ [34] Parents' weight, perceptions of child's weight, adherence to the Hispanic culture, and food insecurity appear to impact parental concerns and behaviours, particularly restrictive and pressure-to-eat behaviours. IFSQ-10 items [37] A social media intervention resulted in high engagement and modestly improved feeding behaviours. Intervention reported significantly healthier feeding behaviours.

To determine the differential and additive impacts of HFI during the prenatal and infancy periods on obesity-promoting maternal infant feeding styles and practices at infant age 10 months. IFSQ [37] Prolonged HFI was associated with greater pressuring, indulgent and laissez-faire styles. Prenatal food insecurity was associated with less vegetable and more juice intake.

To examine the role of parent concern in explaining nonresponsive feeding practices in response to child fussy eating in socioeconomically disadvantaged families.

Australia Socioeconomicaly disadvantaged urban community N = 208 3.6 (1.0) years 50% female BMI-z score 0. 67 (1.33) N = 416 (i.e., 208 mother and father pairs) Mothers: 33.4 (5.3) years. Fathers 35.9 (6.6) years. ATSI (mother 4.8%, father 3.8%) 8% food insecure 1-item from Australian Health Survey [78] FPSQ-28 [36] In socioeconomically disadvantaged families, when parents are concordant in avoiding nonresponsive feeding practices, less child "food fussiness" is reported. Children's fussy eating was associated with alternative meals in food insecure families. The availability of fruit was lower with HFI. Mothers' food exposure practices may be contingent on the resources available.

To test the interactive effects of caregiver feeding style (CFS) and familial psychosocial risk in the association BMI-score in pre-schoolers from low-income families CFSQ [7] HFI was correlated with caregiver depressive symptoms and dysfunctional parenting. Uninvolved feeding styles intensified the risk, and an authoritative feeding style muted the risk conferred by living in a poor, food insecure and depressed family. Higher food resource management skills and greater maternal presence when the child ate was significantly associated with lower child BMI z-scores Variables positively associated with child overweight were income, mother's BMI, child birth weight and juice intake. Biological and socioeconomic factors are more associated with overweight than self-reported child-feeding strategies.

To determine the impact of a primary care-based child obesity prevention intervention (StEP) beginning in pregnancy on maternal-infant feeding practices, knowledge, and styles at 10 months. StEP reduced obesity-promoting feeding practices and styles, and increased knowledge at 10 months. Integration into primary health care helped to reach high-risk families.

To explore relationships between HFI, food resource management skills (FRM) and child feeding practices of low-income parents. 2-item household food security screener [76] IFSQ-15 items [37] Feeding practices differed by HFI status.

Food-insecure households had increased odds of agreeing with some obesity promoting practices such as immediately feeding a baby when they cry.

To examine associations between HFI status and parental feeding behaviour, weight perception, and child weight status in a diverse sample of young children CFQ 28 [34] Both measures need continued psychometric work; group comparisons using some subscales should be interpreted cautiously. Subscales such as food responsiveness and restriction may be assessing behaviours that are less applicable in the context of HFI. Mothers of children with obesity may alter their feeding behaviour differentially based on food type.

To examine associations between child temperament and parents' structure-related feeding practices in a socioeconomically disadvantaged community. Mothers may perceive snacks as more important in managing children's behaviour than providing nutrition. Snacks have a powerful hedonic appeal for mother and child.

To learn more about the financial pressures and perceived effects on infant and toddler feeding amongst low-income Hispanic mothers with children in infancy and toddlerhood. Mothers' aspirations in feeding were compatible with obesity prevention strategies to limit portion size and intake of fats/sugars. Mothers faced many feeding challenges.

To explore parents' experiences of feeding 0-5-year-old children and food literacy behaviours. women from a similar background. "Strategies for Effective Eating Development (SEEDS)" RCT 6-and 12-month results As above 7 weeks As above As above As above As above INV had significant improvements in repeated exposure of new foods, measured portion sizes, child involvement in food prep, feeding responsiveness, knowledge of best feeding practices, and feeding efficacy, reduced feeding misconceptions and uninvolved feeding. Effects on child eating behaviour were minimal. At 12 months, children were less likely to be overweight/obese. Outcome data at 6 and 12 months showed maintained improvement in key outcomes. Facilitators promoted a learner-based approach rather than a didactic one. Group session were pilot tested. Videos showed diversity INV showed greater breastfeeding, reduced juice and cereal in the bottle, and increased family meals than controls.

INV had higher knowledge and lower nonresponsive feeding styles. High attendance at sessions.

Utilising primary care provided access to high-risk families;

built on-existing provider relationships; reduced costs; saved time Mothers reported improvements in food parenting practices following the INV. INV had a decrease in controlling practices, 'pressure to eat' and 'food as a reward' and an increase in supportive practices, 'involvement', 'environment' and 'modelling'. 93% of mothers 'strongly agreed' it was worth their effort to participate.

Most mothers found that watching themselves on video was informative and applicable to their own lives. Childcare was provided; INV conducted at times convenient to the mother 

This scoping review examined the evidence related to parental feeding practices and styles in families with a young child (aged 0-5 years) experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage (with and without food insecurity)-in high income countries. After using broad search terms of socioeconomic disadvantage, of the 131 papers identified, only 27 (21%) papers were found to address the issue of household food insecurity (HFI), and only two of these papers described an intervention to support responsive feeding in families experiencing HFI. Whilst the evidence on the direct impact of food insecurity on parental feeding practices is scant, the literature suggests that it does likely influence how and what parents feed their children. Parental feeding practices are sensitive to factors which influence the feeding environment such as food insecurity and, therefore, such factors are important to consider in parental feeding practice research and intervention design.

This review identified the most common measures used to assess feeding practices and styles, though there was little evidence that the validity and reliability of these tools have been assessed amongst families experiencing HFI. The practices most frequently assessed-pressure to eat and restriction-fall within the higher order construct known as 'coercive control', while fewer studies assessed 'structure' related feeding practices. In the future, studies could assess the aspects of structure to better elucidate the relationship between HFI, household chaos and a family's ability to implement responsive feeding practices. Very few papers examined practices related to 'autonomy support or promotion'. While the reasons for this cannot be determined from the review, it may be that practices such as educating children about the benefits of healthy eating or child involvement in meal planning and preparation may be considered less applicable in children under the age of five years.

Variation in the tools used to measure HFI makes describing and comparing HFI amongst populations challenging and there are calls for greater consistency in measuring food insecurity [24, 104] . This was reflected in this review, which found significant variation in the measures used to describe HFI. Several studies used short 1-or 2-item measures (7/27, 36%) . Whilst these measures provide an indication of HFI levels, they may be less reliable and may also underestimate HFI by 5-8% points when compared to more rigorous, multi-item tools [104, 105] . The most used HFI measure was the 18-item United States Department of Agriculture Household Food Security Survey Module (USDA HFSSM), which was the predominant tool cited in the literature [105, 106] . The 18-item USDA HFSSM includes eight child-related items and therefore may be the most relevant in the context of parental feeding practices and HFI research which focuses on child-related outcomes. In this review 8/27, 30% of the papers used the 18-item USDA HFSSM which includes the child specific items. The short form (6-item) and 10-item form USDA HFSSM were also found to be used among 9/27 (33%) of the included papers. Studies balance the burden of administering tools and surveys to their participant group and therefore may opt for shorter measures of HFI; however, choosing measures that account for HFI severity and allow for child specific measures may be advantageous in parenting feeding practice research, especially in the context of socioeconomic disadvantage where the prevalence of HFI is likely to be high. In addition, the degree of severity of HFI may influence the type and frequency of feeding practices used at any given time.

Another strong feature of the parental feeding practices and socioeconomic disadvantage/HFI literature summarised here is the heavy representation of US populations, which commonly draw on Head Start/Early Head Start and SNAP programs for recruitment. Studies conducted in the United States also tend to have a high proportion of Hispanic, Latina and/or African American participants. Perceptions of ideal body size, appropriate meal-time practices and family traditions vary across culture, and conceptualisations of "ideal" feeding practices in the scientific literature may clash with culture and community [107] . This may reduce the applicability of research findings to other countries or social and government assistance contexts outside of the US. Given that high-income countries, outside of the US, have evidence of significant HFI among their population, particularly in disadvantaged groups, this is of note and indicates the need for further research into HFI in other high-income countries. Whereas the US has readily identifiable groups among their population to recruit for research purposes (e.g., SNAP and Head Start), recruitment for such studies can be challenging in other countries due to the difficulty in identifying and successfully recruiting socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. In addition, food insecurity is monitored annually in the USA and has been identified as a significant public health issue, thus potentially highlighting it as an area of concern [108] . Further research may therefore also be warranted identifying successful avenues to recruit disadvantaged and HFI groups, which may also facilitate further research in this area.

A recent narrative review of parent feeding practices in the context of food insecurity identified no existing interventions that target parent feeding practices specifically addressing the context of food insecurity [27] . Our scoping review of the literature supports this finding and whilst two interventions were identified which reported HFI, only one of those appeared to take into account the poverty related challenges of food insecurity [50] . This review adds to the evidence by identifying some of the key features and characteristics of interventions targeting feeding practices in disadvantaged groups. The intervention studies identified in this review showed largely positive improvements in the parent and child outcomes measured subsequent to participation in the intervention.

A key feature identified in the interventions summarised was the high use of visual media content. Video and/or images are often used to convey messages to low health literacy groups. A systematic review has identified that pictorial information improves understanding and recall and is most impactful in the lowest health literacy groups [109] . developed a video which featured mothers from their target population, i.e., low-income adolescent African American mothers [68] . The video content, messaging and music was developed by an advisory panel of six African American adolescent mothers who were featured in the footage in their own homes feeding their babies. This culturally sensitive approach enhances the relatability of the messages. Other studies also adapted intervention content for their specific audience, including who developed an intervention for Chinese immigrant mothers and included videos in Cantonese featuring Chinese mothers with their children, including images, sample menus and foods which were also tailored to the Chinese culture [72] . reporting on the intervention, 'Strategies for Effective Eating Development (SEEDS)', also utilised short videos in their face-to-face group sessions [70] . Videos can also be used in interventions to moderate the content and direct the conversation to targeted positive parent behaviours, such as in the 'Grow2Gether' intervention by -an online social media group-based intervention that encouraged participation and discussion among peer mothers [58] . Videos were posted on closed social media groups, which acted to deliver positive feeding messages as well as to be a catalyst for productive discussion among participants around the content. Short, realistic, and relatable videos and media may be a successful feature to incorporate into interventions targeting parents from low income, disadvantaged backgrounds.

The summarised interventions also demonstrated that a range of modes of delivery can be successful in this group, including traditional approaches of intensive face-toface individual or group delivery of nutrition-based information, to remote modes of intervention delivery (i.e., video, mailed content, social media, and technology-based interventions). This is important given the context of COVID-19 impacting health service delivery and the engagement with families of young children [110] . Traditional, intensive, face-to-face interventions may not be practical or feasible in a post-COVID-19 environment and it may take some time until families are willing or able to attend such intensive faceto-face interventions. It is also important to note that the one intervention that showed no positive impact on parent behavior, , was the most intensive of the interventions described with 4 group sessions and 18 individual home visits over 6 months [66] . This suggests that interventions need to move beyond intensive face-to-face sessions and instead implement multi-modal strategies to engage families. This scoping review also identified aspects from the summarised papers that reported HFI (n = 27) that may be potential areas to explore or target in interventions. Some of the studies highlighted different strengths within families that could potentially protect parental feeding practices from the negative impact of HFI. Food resource management (FRM) skills is one area that could be further explored. showed that better FRM skills and parental presence at meals was associated with healthier weight among 2-5-year-old children in low-income families. The potential pathway between FRM skills and healthier child weight needs to be further elucidated, but the mechanisms suggested by McCurdy et al. (2014) may reduce takeaway consumption due to more home cooking, parent modelling of healthy eating, as well as an increased structure in feeding practices, e.g., more family meals and parent presence at mealtimes. The potential role of FRM skills was also described in , which reported that low FRM skills were associated with suboptimal child feeding with and without HFI. In this paper, parents in food insecure households who had high FRM skills used similarly positive feeding practices as parents from food secure households with high FRM skills [51] . also suggests that families may use coping strategies which may mitigate the negative consequences of HFI. This paper found that dietary quality improved over 18 months in HFI families which was unexpected and needs further research but may indicate the adoption of coping strategies among families [41] . These findings, although requiring further exploration and research, may suggest how interventions can be designed to incorporate the strategies and coping mechanisms families who are at high risk of HFI already use to mitigate the negative impact of HFI on their feeding practice.

It is also important to note that all the interventions identified within this review focused on individual behaviour change strategies, particularly that of mothers. This approach has been criticised for placing the responsibility for a child's health solely on the mother and failing to advocate for structural interventions (e.g., policy change) to support parent feeding practices [111] . Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to utilise a socioecological model to intervene across systems for maximum impact [24] . This review has several strengths. It followed best practice guidelines using an a priori protocol. Due to the inconsistency of terminology used in the literature to describe feeding practices and styles, a deliberate decision was made to use broad search terms to identify as many papers as possible; however, given that some included studies (e.g., qualitative studies employing interview or focus group methodologies) did not set out to assess or describe HFI and feeding practices or styles, but these issues were raised by participants and reported in the results, it is possible that similar papers were not identified and included. This should be considered as a limitation.

This scoping review highlights the lack of research at the crossover of parental feeding practices and food insecurity, especially in terms of interventions that target feeding practices among groups likely to have a high prevalence of food insecurity. More research is needed outside of the United States, with an emphasis on comprehensive and valid measures of HFI and feeding practices. Intervention design should be sensitive to factors associated with poverty, including food insecurity. Acknowledgments: The assistance of Peter Sondergeld, Liaison Librarian for the School of Exercise of Nutrition Sciences at the Queensland University of Technology is greatly appreciated.

The WCCNR is funded by Woolworths through the Children's Hospital Foundation. Woolworths has not been involved in the design or conduct of the research or in the evaluation of the scientific quality of the research projects or in the establishment of the Centre governance.

Appendix A Table A1 . Key words for the search strategy used in each database. weaning "eating behaviour" "food preferences" MeSH: feeding methods infant food eating weaning food preferences Keyword: "Food insecur *" "Food secur *" "Food shortage" "Food scarcity" "Food supply" Hunger "low income" poverty disadvantage * "food insufficiency" "low resource household" MeSH: Food Assistance Social security Food deprivation Working poor Health equity poverty Keyword: "Food insecur *" "Food secur *" "Food shortage" "Food scarcity" "Food supply" Hunger "low income" poverty disadvantage * "food insufficiency" "low resource household" "working poor" 

How low-income mothers manage child feeding with unpredictable work and family schedules

Cross-cultural equivalence of feeding beliefs and practices: the psychometric properties of the child feeding questionnaire among Blacks and Hispanics. Preventive medicine

Exploratory factor analysis of The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) in a low-income hispanic sample of preschool aged children

Authoritative parent feeding style is associated with better child dietary quality at dinner among low-income minority families

Hunger in the household: Food insecurity and associations with maternal eating and toddler feeding. Pediatric obesity

The influence of maternal psychosocial characteristics on infant feeding styles

Food security, maternal feeding practices and child weight-for-length

Maternal restrictive feeding and eating in the absence of hunger among toddlers: a cohort study. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Maternal feeding practices and childhood obesity: a focus group study of low-income mothers. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine

Maternal feeding practices and beliefs and their relationships to overweight in early childhood

Beliefs and practices regarding solid food introduction among Latino parents in Northern California

An Ecocultural Perspective on Eating-Related Routines Among Low-Income Families With Preschool-Aged Children. Qualitative health research

Obesity, Parent Perceptions, Child Feeding, and Food Security in First Generation Hispanic Families

A Bidirectional Analysis of Feeding Practices and Eating Behaviors in Parent/Child Dyads from Low-Income and Minority Households

Promoting mealtime communication between adolescent mothers and their infants through videotape

Conditioned to eat while watching television? Low-income caregivers' perspectives on the role of snacking and television viewing among pre-schoolers

Development and Validation of an Instrument Measuring Theory-Based Determinants of Monitoring Obesogenic Behaviors of Pre-Schoolers among Hispanic Mothers

Associations between Introduction of Age-Inappropriate Foods and Early Eating Environments in Low-Socioeconomic Hispanic Infants

Explaining infant feeding style of low-income black women

Effects of children's self-regulation of eating on parental feeding practices and child weight

Parenting around child snacking: development of a theoretically-guided, empirically informed conceptual model. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Depressive Symptoms and Perceptions of Child Difficulty Are Associated with Less Responsive Feeding Behaviors in an Observational Study of Low-Income Mothers

A Social Media Peer Group for Mothers To Prevent Obesity from Infancy: The Grow2Gether Randomized Trial

Title: efficacy of a food parenting intervention for mothers with low income to reduce preschooler's solid fat and added sugar intakes: a randomized controlled trial. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Snacks are not food". Low-income, urban mothers' perceptions of feeding snacks to their preschool-aged children

Predicting preschool children's eating in the absence of hunger from maternal pressure to eat: A longitudinal study of low-income, Latina mothers

Toddler feeding: expectations and experiences of low-income African American mothers

Familial psychosocial risk classes and preschooler body mass index: The moderating effect of caregiver feeding style

Nutrition education aimed at toddlers: an intervention study. Pediatric nursing

Low-income African American and non-Hispanic White mothers' self-efficacy, "picky eater" perception, and toddler fruit and vegetable consumption

How low-income mothers with overweight preschool children make sense of obesity. Qualitative health research

Potential Use of Food/Activity, Parenting Style, and Caregiver Feeding Style Measurement Tools with American Indian Families: A Brief Report, <Blank>: Springer Nature

Measuring feeding in low-income African-American and Hispanic parents

Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire. Establishing cutoff points

Short-Term Effects of an Obesity Prevention Program Among Low-Income Hispanic Families With Preschoolers

Twelve-Month Efficacy of an Obesity Prevention Program Targeting Hispanic Families With Preschoolers From Low-Income Backgrounds

Parent emotional distress and feeding styles in low-income families. The role of parent depression and parenting stress

Maternal feeding style and child weight status among Hispanic families with lowincome levels: a longitudinal study of the direction of effects

Maternal Feeding Styles and Food Parenting Practices as Predictors of Longitudinal Changes in Weight Status in Hispanic Preschoolers from Low-Income Families

Revisiting a neglected construct: parenting styles in a child-feeding context

Emotional climate, feeding practices, and feeding styles: an observational analysis of the dinner meal in Head Start families. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Child temperament, parent emotions, and perceptions of the child's feeding experience. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Indulgent feeding style and children's weight status in preschool

Systematic development and validation of a theory-based questionnaire to assess toddler feeding

Measurement invariance of the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire-28 among a community of socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers and fathers

Getting my child to eat the right amount. Mothers' considerations when deciding how much food to offer their child at a meal

Child feeding strategies in low-income Latino households: focus group observations

Acculturation of Mexican-American mothers influences child feeding strategies

Beliefs about the Role of Parenting in Feeding and Childhood Obesity among Mothers of Lower Socioeconomic Status

Indirect Effects of Food Insecurity on Body Mass Index Through Feeding Style and Dietary Quality Among Low-Income Hispanic Preschoolers

The associations of psychosocial factors and infant feeding beliefs and practices of young, first time, low income mothers. Issues in comprehensive pediatric nursing

Parental intuitive eating behaviors and their association with infant feeding styles among low-income families

Parentchild mealtime interactions in racially/ethnically diverse families with preschool-age children

Confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance of the Child Feeding Questionnaire in low-income Hispanic and African-American mothers with preschool-age children

Associations between maternal feeding style and food intake of children with a higher risk for overweight

Application of the multiphase optimization strategy to a pilot study: an empirical example targeting obesity among children of low-income mothers

Parental Child-feeding in the Context of Child Temperament and Appetitive Traits: Evidence for a Biopsychosocial Process Model of Appetite Self-Regulation and Weight Status

Latina mothers' beliefs and practices related to weight status, feeding, and the development of child overweight

Exploring How the Home Environment Influences Eating and Physical Activity Habits of Low-Income, Latino Children of Predominantly Immigrant Families: A Qualitative Study

Picky eating, pressuring feeding, and growth in toddlers

Evaluation of health educator consults in primary care

Low-income women's conceptualizations of food craving and food addiction

Associations between family food behaviors, maternal depression, and child weight among low-income children

Relationship of child-feeding practices to overweight in low-income Mexican-American preschool-aged children

Starting Early Program Impacts on Feeding at Infant 10 Months Age: A Randomized Controlled Trial

A Pilot Feasibility Study to Improve Food Parenting Practices

Exploring the effects of maternal eating patterns on maternal feeding and child eating

Higher weight status of only and last-born children. Maternal feeding and child eating behaviors as underlying processes among 4-8 year olds

Feeding behaviors of low-income mothers: directive control relates to a lower BMI in children, and a nondirective control relates to a healthier diet in preschoolers. The American journal of clinical nutrition

The impact of environmental, parental and child factors on health-related behaviors among low-income children

Head Start Parents With or Without Food Insecurity and With Lower Food Resource Management Skills Use Less Positive Feeding Practices in Preschool-Age Children

Improving Toddlers' Healthy Eating Habits and Self-regulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Healthy eating for rural low-income toddlers: Caregivers' perceptions

My child at mealtime: A visually enhanced self-assessment of feeding styles for low-income parents of preschoolers

Parental Feeding Beliefs and Practices and Household Food Insecurity in Infancy

Associations Between Food Insecurity and Parental Feeding Behaviors of Toddlers. Academic pediatrics

Just three more bites": an observational analysis of parents' socialization of children's eating at mealtime

Feeding style differences in food parenting practices associated with fruit and vegetable intake in children from low-income families

Does parenting help to explain socioeconomic inequalities in children's body mass index trajectories? Longitudinal analysis using the Growing Up in Scotland study

Measurement equivalence of child feeding and eating measures across gender, ethnicity, and household food security

Maternal encouragement and discouragement: Differences by food type and child weight status

Feeding styles among mothers of low-income children identified using a personcentered multi-method approach

Affective tone of mothers' statements to restrict their children's eating

Treats', 'sometimes foods', 'junk': a qualitative study exploring 'extra foods' with parents of young children. Public health nutrition

Feeding decisionmaking among first generation Latinas living in non-metropolitan and small metro areas

Observations of Maternal Feeding Practices and Styles and Young Children's Obesity Risk: A Longitudinal Study of Hispanic Mothers with Low Incomes

Feeding practices of low-income mothers: how do they compare to current recommendations? The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Obesity Risk in Children: The Role of Acculturation in the Feeding Practices and Styles of Low-Income Hispanic Families

Observed and self-reported assessments of caregivers' feeding styles: Variable-and personcentered approaches for examining relationships with children's eating behaviors

Maternal feeding strategies, child eating behaviors, and child BMI in low-income African-American preschoolers

Parents' beliefs about appropriate infant size, growth and feeding behaviour: implications for the prevention of childhood obesity

Factors affecting consumption of fruits and vegetables by low-income families

Assessment of infant feeding styles among low-income African-American mothers: comparing reported and observed behaviors

Maternal anthropometry and feeding behavior toward preschool children: association with childhood body mass index in an observational study of Chilean families. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

WIC mothers' depressive symptoms are associated with greater use of feeding to soothe, regardless of perceived child negativity. Pediatric obesity

What children bring to the table: The association of temperament and child fussy eating with maternal and paternal mealtime structure

Predictors of fruit and vegetable intake in lowincome and racially diverse preschoolers: does parental feeding style matter

Stability in the feeding practices and styles of low-income mothers: questionnaire and observational analyses. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity

Latina mothers' influences on child appetite regulation

Ethnic differences in the home food environment and parental food practices among families of low-income Hispanic and African-American preschoolers

Nutrition knowledge and behaviours of low-income Latino parents of preschoolers: Associations with nutrition-related parenting practices. Early Child Development and Care

Child disinhibition, parent restriction, and child body mass index in low-income preschool families

Home-Based and Technology-Centered Childhood Obesity Prevention for Chinese Mothers With Preschool-Aged Children

Longitudinal associations between eating and drinking engagement during mealtime and eating in the absence of hunger in low income toddlers

Exploring Feeding Practices and Food Literacy in Parents with Young Children from Disadvantaged Areas. International journal of environmental research and public health

Pressuring and restrictive feeding styles influence infant feeding and size among a low-income African-American sample

Development and validation of the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire

Cross-Sectional Relationships Between Household Food Insecurity and Child BMI, Feeding Behaviors, and Public Assistance Utilization Among Head Start Children From Predominantly Hispanic and American Indian Communities in the CHILE Study

Feeding practices and styles used by a diverse sample of low-income parents of preschool-age children

Food patterns and mealtime behaviors in low-income mothers and toddlers

Controlling parental feeding practices and child body composition in ethnically and economically diverse preschool children

Feeding Practices of Mothers from Varied Income and Racial/Ethnic Groups. Early child development and care

The feeding relationship

Parental Influences on Children's Self-Regulation of Energy Intake: Insights from Developmental Literature on Emotion Regulation

Fundamental constructs in food parenting practices: A content map to guide future research

Responsive feeding is embedded in a theoretical framework of responsive parenting

Feeding dynamics: Helping children to eat well

Feeding Styles, Feeding Practices, and Weight Status in 4-12 Year-Old Children: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Revisiting a neglected construct: Parenting styles in a child-feeding context

The role of responsive feeding in overweight during infancy and toddlerhood: A systematic review

A systematic review of responsive feeding and child obesity in high-income countries

Influences on the dietary intakes of preschool children: A systematic scoping review

Systematic review of randomised controlled trials of interventions that aim to reduce the risk, either directly or indirectly, of overweight and obesity in infancy and early childhood

Effects of healthcare professional delivered early feeding interventions on feeding practices and dietary intake: A systematic review

Unpacking the behavioural components and delivery features of early childhood obesity prevention interventions in the TOPCHILD Collaboration: A systematic review and intervention coding protocol

The impact of interventions to prevent obesity or improve obesity related behaviours in children (0-5 years) from socioeconomically disadvantaged and/or indigenous families: A systematic review

Deep and Persistent Disadvantage in Australia; Productivity Commission Staff Working Paper

The Biology of Adversity and Resilience

The principles of Nurturing Care promote human capital and mitigate adversities from preconception through adolescence

Security and Nutrition: Building a Global Narrative towards 2030; A Report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security

Food insecurity and hunger: A review of the effects on children's health and behaviour. Paediatr. Child Health

The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021: Transforming Food Systems for Food Security Improved Nutrition and Affordable Healthy Diets for All

Economic Research Service

Food insecurity in three socially disadvantaged localities in Sydney, Australia. Health Promot

Food insecurity among adults residing in disadvantaged urban areas: Potential health and dietary consequences

Food Insecurity and Child Development: A State-of-the-Art Review

The relationship between household chaos and child, parent, and family outcomes: A systematic scoping review

Family chaos and lack of mealtime planning is associated with food insecurity in low income households

Parent Feeding Practices in the Context of Food Insecurity

Feeding Practices and Parenting: A Pathway to Child Health and Family Happiness

Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach

Checklist and Explanation

Scoping Reviews

World Bank Country and Lending Groups

Veritas Health Innovation. Covidence Systematic Review Software Melbourne, Australia. Available online: www.convidence.org

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: A measure of parental attitudes, beliefs and practices about child feeding and obesity proneness

Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire: Validation of a New Measure of Parental Feeding Practices

The feeding practices and structure questionnaire: Construction and initial validation in a sample of Australian first-time mothers and their 2-year olds

Development and validation of the Infant Feeding Style Questionnaire

The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews

Hunger in the household: Food insecurity and associations with maternal eating and toddler feeding

Food security, maternal feeding practices and child weight-for-length

Indirect Effects of Food Insecurity on Body Mass Index Through Feeding Style and Dietary Quality Among Low-Income Hispanic Preschoolers

Conditioned to eat while watching television? Low-income caregivers' perspectives on the role of snacking and television viewing among pre-schoolers

Snacks are not food". Low-income, urban mothers' perceptions of feeding snacks to their preschool-aged children

A qualitative study of the aspirations and challenges of low-income mothers in feeding their preschool-aged children

Additive effects of household food insecurity during pregnancy and infancy on maternal infant feeding styles and practices

Food Insecurity During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding by Low-Income Hispanic Mothers

Maternal Stress and Infant Feeding in Hispanic Families Experiencing Poverty

Familial psychosocial risk classes and preschooler body mass index: The moderating effect of caregiver feeding style

Associations between family food behaviors, maternal depression, and child weight among low-income children

Starting Early Program Impacts on Feeding at Infant 10 Months Age: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Head Start Parents With or Without Food Insecurity and With Lower Food Resource Management Skills Use Less Positive Feeding Practices in Preschool-Age Children

Measurement equivalence of child feeding and eating measures across gender, ethnicity, and household food security

Maternal encouragement and discouragement: Differences by food type and child weight status

Appetitive Traits and Weight in Children: Evidence for Parents' Controlling Feeding Practices as Mediating Mechanisms

Parenting around child snacking: Development of a theoretically-guided, empirically informed conceptual model

Parental Feeding Beliefs and Practices and Household Food Insecurity in Infancy. Acad. Pediatr

Associations Between Food Insecurity and Parental Feeding Behaviors of Toddlers. Acad. Pediatr. 2020

A Social Media Peer Group for Mothers To Prevent Obesity from Infancy: The Grow2Gether Randomized Trial

Concern Explaining Nonresponsive Feeding: A Study of Mothers' and Fathers' Response to Their Child's Fussy Eating

A comparison of maternal feeding responses to child fussy eating in low-income food secure and food insecure households

What children bring to the table: The association of temperament and child fussy eating with maternal and paternal mealtime structure

Relationship of child-feeding practices to overweight in low-income Mexican-American preschool-aged children

Obesity, Parent Perceptions, Child Feeding, and Food Security in First Generation Hispanic Families

Cross-Sectional Relationships Between Household Food Insecurity and Child BMI, Feeding Behaviors, and Public Assistance Utilization Among Head Start Children From Predominantly Hispanic and American Indian Communities in the CHILE Study

Exploring Feeding Practices and Food Literacy in Parents with Young Children from Disadvantaged Areas

Nutrition education aimed at toddlers: An intervention study

Evaluation of health educator consults in primary care

Promoting mealtime communication between adolescent mothers and their infants through videotape

Short-Term Effects of an Obesity Prevention Program Among Low-Income Hispanic Families With Preschoolers

Twelve-Month Efficacy of an Obesity Prevention Program Targeting Hispanic Families With Preschoolers From Low-Income Backgrounds

A Pilot Feasibility Study to Improve Food Parenting Practices

Home-Based and Technology-Centered Childhood Obesity Prevention for Chinese Mothers With Preschool-Aged Children

The effectiveness of a short form of the Household Food Security Scale

Systematic Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Assess Toddler Feeding

Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide; Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project

Development and validity of a 2-item screen to identify families at risk for food insecurity

Guide to Measuring Household Food Security; Department of Agriculture FaNS

Australian Health Survey: Nutrition, State and Territory Results

Factor-analytic structure of food preferences in four-year-old children in the UK

Measuring family food environments in diverse families with young children

Development of indicators to assess hunger

Parental influences on children's eating behavior and relative weight

Mealtime interactions and family relationships of families with children who have cancer in long-term remission and controls

Interdisciplinary Assessments of Infants

Efficacy of a food parenting intervention for mothers with low income to reduce preschooler's solid fat and added sugar intakes: A randomized controlled trial

Eating-together' mealtimes with African-American fathers and their toddlers

The Children's Eating Behavior Inventory: Reliability and Validity Results

The Food Parenting Inventory: Factor structure, reliability, and validity in a low-income

Parents' and children's adiposity and eating style

Restricting access to foods and children's eating

Development of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire

Pass the sugar, pass the salt: Experience dictates preference

A longitudinal examination of the role of sensory exploratory behaviors in young children's acceptance of new foods

Children's food preferences: A longitudinal analysis

Application of the multiphase optimization strategy to a pilot study: An empirical example targeting obesity among children of low-income mothers

Infant Feeding Practices Study II: Study methods

Maternal and paternal controlling feeding practices: Reliability and relationships with BMI

Improving Toddlers' Healthy Eating Habits and Self-regulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Maternal Depression and Parenting: Implications for Children's Emergent Emotion Regulation and Behavioral Functioning

Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development

Vagal Regulation and Observed Social Behavior in Infancy

The Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity

Reliability and validity of the Family Eating and Activity Habits Questionnaire

Measuring and Understanding Food Insecurity in Australia: A Systematic Review

Single-item measure of food insecurity used in the National Health Survey may underestimate prevalence in Australia

Household food insecurity: A systematic review of the measuring instruments used in epidemiological studies

How (not) to feed young children: A class-cultural analysis of food parenting practices

Economic Research Service. Food Security Status of U.S. Households in 2020: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2021. Available on

Using pictures to convey health information: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects on patient and consumer health behaviors and outcomes

The impact of COVID-19 on the delivery of care by Australian primary health care nurses

The vulnerable-empowered mother of academic food discourses: A qualitative meta-synthesis of studies of low-income mothers and food provisioning