key: cord-0787361-ii2ijz6s authors: Cahigas, Maela Madel; Prasetyo, Yogi Tri; Persada, Satria Fadil; Ong, Ardvin Kester S.; Nadlifatin, Reny title: Understanding the perceived behavior of public utility bus passengers during the era of COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines: Application of social exchange theory and theory of planned behavior date: 2022-05-23 journal: nan DOI: 10.1016/j.rtbm.2022.100840 sha: 5bab8bfe548da91d9ccaabaf9407edf2f4949820 doc_id: 787361 cord_uid: ii2ijz6s Over the years, passengers in the Philippines have relied on public utility bus (PUB) to reach a destination. However, PUB has been greatly affected by the adverse effects of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Therefore, the study analyzed passengers' behavior using PUB during the COVID-19 pandemic by integrating social exchange theory (SET) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB). A total of 505 PUB users completed the online questionnaire containing sixty-seven (67) measures. Through confirmatory factor analysis – structural equation modeling (CFA-SEM), all the twelve (12) hypotheses were found significant. Accessibility, safety, economic benefit, and crisis management had a significant and positive influence on passengers' trust. Moreover, passengers' trust produced a significant positive influence on attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Additionally, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control generated a significant positive influence on the intention to use PUB. Furthermore, perceived behavioral control had a significant positive influence on perceived passenger behavior. Lastly, the intention to use PUB developed a substantial and positive influence on perceived passenger behavior. PUB companies and policymakers can utilize these findings to develop additional PUB reforms for the benefit of passengers, drivers, operators, companies, and the government during the COVID-19 pandemic. Currently, there is a distinct lack of comprehensive academic research focusing on Social Exchange Theory (SET) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) with the application of confirmatory factor analysisstructural equation modeling (CFA-SEM) to the Filipino passenger's behavior using PUB during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although there are studies that analyzed the Philippines' public transport services, they only focused on habits, convenience, cost, reliability, socio-demographic characteristics, travel purpose, and community quarantine protocol. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, several researchers published studies associated with the Philippines' public transportation system. Specifically, the studies investigated PUB (Guillen et al., 2013; Mayo & Taboada, 2020) , public utility jeepney (PUJ) (Guillen et al., 2013; Mayo & Taboada, 2020; Mateo-Babiano et al., 2020; Tiglao et al., 2020) , taxi (Guillen et al., 2013; Mayo & Taboada, 2020) , motorcycle (Mayo & Taboada, 2020) , tricycle (Guillen et al., 2013; Mayo & Taboada, 2020) , pedicab (Guillen et al., 2013) , and Metro Manila's Light Rail Transit Line 1 (LRT-1) (Lu et al., 2018) . Moreover, Mayo et al. (2021) focused on Cebuanos' (one of the largest Filipino ethnic groups) travel behavior despite the pandemic and Chuenyindee et al. (2022) evaluated public utility vehicles and passenger satisfaction during the era of COVID-19. Since this current study aims to identify the PUB passengers' behavior, the inclusion of specific public transportation (PUB) and travel behavior changes introduce the novelty compared to the past studies. Furthermore, none of the aforementioned studies used theories with a strong foundation to support the variables. There are also repetitive and inconsistent variables presented in the past studies. Hence, their variables lack data reliability, which is crucial to assess the relevance of variables in the studies' objectives. In addition, SEM is not commonly utilized in transportrelated studies in the Philippine setting. As of this writing, only Tiglao et al. (2020) focused on SEM but used the EFA approach. EFA produces a lesser significance and model fit, contributing to disadvantaged results (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) . Nonetheless, many international researchers used SEM in the transportation sector. They used SEM to identify the intention to The unprecedented impact of COVID-19 forced PUB passengers to adapt to the new normal. Since the new normal may lead to either positive or negative implications, several researchers assessed the different types of public transport modes. For instance, van Wee & Witlox (2021) discussed that individuals transitioned from public to private or active transportation (cycling/walking). This instance was perceived as a long-term effect of the COVID-19 because of personal attitude and social norm changes. Bian et al. (2021) investigated the public transport demand (subway, bus, and bike) and traffic volume due to the COVID-19 restriction policies. The past study utilized data concerning COVID-19 cases and travel patterns to assess policy lags and effects on the transportation sector in New York City and Seattle City, United States. Cusack (2021) explored the employees' alternative transport modes aside from public transits and private vehicles. They found that almost half of the employees residing in Philadelphia City, Pennsylvania, United States transitioned from public transits to active transportation (bicycling and walking). The study utilized the theory of planned behavior and social-ecological model to identify the factors affecting behavioral dynamics. Kartal et al. (2021) assessed the relationship between transportation purposes and the active COVID-19 patients and death in Turkey. However, they found a lack of causal relationship when individuals use private vehicles, active transits, and public transits. Currie & Aston (2021) discovered the current and future impacts of COVID-19 on public transportation in Melbourne, Australia. They found that public transportation users declined during the pandemic. If the virus is gone, the situation is not expected to return to the pre-pandemic situation because commuters are expected to shift from public transport to private car. Thomas et al. (2021) studied the domestic travel behavior (air and road transportation) in New Zealand and Australia before, during, and after the COVID-19 travel restrictions. The study examined passenger's perception of road public transport, private vehicle, and air transport. Deveci et al. (2022) examined the short-term and long-term effects of the Turkey aviation industries' COVID-19 early and late responses. It was expected that airlines would suffer in the coming years, and the researchers proposed guidelines to help the airlines recover. There were also past studies that focused on bus passengers and systems. Deveci et al. (2019) identified the technical requirements that Instanbul, Turkey's public bus operators must meet to satisfy the passengers' demands. They distinguished that capacity, scheduling, and realtime tracking must be systematic because passengers prioritized the environment, waiting time, and travel time. Deveci et al. (2021) inspected the COVID-19 impacts and protocols on passengers of public transport modes (bus, train, and ferry) in Istanbul, Turkey. The results unveiled that passengers of public transits decreased by at least 90%. Nonetheless, the study ensured that the COVID-19 protocols effectively addressed the protection of passengers. He et al. (2021) proposed customized bus services to help passengers in Shanghai, China adapt to the COVID-19 aftermaths. Since long-term effects are anticipated, the researchers developed guidelines that will cater to the needs of passengers. Kim et al. (2021) identified the COVID-19 impacts on private vehicles and public buses and their corresponding relationships with land use and land price. They found that road users in Daejeon, South Korea were lessened during the daytime and weekends. They also noted that commercial areas with higher foot traffic and land price had fewer visitors than non-commercial areas with lower foot traffic and land price. Chen et al. (2021) developed an optimal bus passenger boarding and deboarding system. This approach guaranteed bus efficiency dependent on the passenger volume and routes. Nguyen & Pojani (2021) assessed the bus passenger's compliance with the implemented COVID-19 protocols in Hanoi, Vietnam. The researchers disclosed a higher level of compliance equated to low COVID-19 cases compared to other cities worldwide. Cheranchery et al. (2021) observed the differences between pre-pandemic and post-lockdown passenger behavior in Kerala, India. They disclosed that bus companies must prioritize cleanliness, low crowding level, and satisfactory pedestrian environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cheng et al. (2022) scrutinized the exposure dose, infection risk, and effect on the passengers who were affected by the COVID-19 from riding two buses in Hunan, China. The results suggested that COVID-19 was transmitted through air and the buses' poor ventilation system played a significant role. In India, Naveen & Gurtoo (2022) used clustering to segment bus passengers based on travel behavior changes. The past study also suggested strategies to help public transportation passengers widen their routes. Aside from the public transportation system, past researchers also evaluated the behavior of passengers during the COVID-19. Mayo et al. (2021) evaluated the travel behavior of Cebuanos around the cities of Metro Cebu, Philippines. They found that individuals frequently traveled to work pre-pandemic but shifted to buying necessities a year after the onset of the pandemic. In addition, the demographic characteristics of participants (educational attainment, employment status, monthly salary, and household size) were statistically significant. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021 assessed the tourists' willingness to support a travel destination and post-pandemic travel intention in ten different countries. This study used the cognitive destination image to develop the necessary variables. Lee et al. (2021) utilized the theory of reason action to identify the public transport behavior of passengers before the pandemic, during the rising COVID-19 cases, and after the rising COVID-19 cases ended in Pakistan. They discovered that passengers lost intention to ride public transport during the rising COVID-19 cases. Shamshiripour et al. (2020) determined the changes in individual's travel attitudes, behaviors, and habits for daily activities. Specifically, they explored the individual's travel perception pre-pandemic, during the pandemic, and post-pandemic in Chicago City, Illinois, United States. Parady et al. (2020) explored travel behavior changes dependent on COVID-19 risk perception and social influence for individuals residing in Kanto, Japan. The variables considered are essential and non-essential activities performed alone or by the group. Aghabayk et al. (2021) compared the passenger's crowding behavior on Tehran's metro rail before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results showed that passengers were uncomfortable when crowding levels increased and passengers preferred to sit than stand. The presented studies discussed several types of public transport modes, the short-term and long-term effects of the COVID-19 on the transportation sector, and the passengers' travel behavior changes. Table 1 reflects the summary of past studies' contributions. However, none of the studies evaluated the PUB passenger's behavior through CFA-SEM supported by SET and TPB. The CFA-SEM approach plays a role in determining significant variables affecting passenger's behavior. It serves as the foundation for the reliability of data and the combined theories. Furthermore, there was a lack of studies on SET and TPB applications on the PUB sector and passenger's behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. These theories consider the guidelines for policymakers and PUB stakeholders to help the recovery of the public transport sector. Determining PUB travel behavior changes during the COVID-19 contributes a substantial impact, and none of the Philippine-related studies evaluated this matter. Given the presented gaps, the inclusion of SET and TPB bounded by CFA-SEM approach was overlooked in the Philippines' PUB system and PUB passenger's behavior. PUB ranks among the Philippines' top 3 economic public transport services (Guillen et al., 2013; Tiglao et al., 2020; Mayo & Taboada, 2020) . It is mainly found all over the country, both in rural and urban areas. Moreover, PUB offers city-to-city and long-distance travel. Guillen et al. (2013) disclosed that most passengers depend on PUB and that women prefer to use PUB because it is safer than other public transport services. Due to the pandemic, the PUB system changed. Several PUB system restrictions and COVID-19 preventive measures are implemented. Passengers expressed difficulties accessing public transport services in the pandemic era compared to the pre-pandemic period (Social Weather Stations, 2021a) . This digital media also specified that passengers who experienced significant hardship came from Mindanao (60%), followed by Visayas (48%), then Metro Manila (36%), and lastly by other parts of Luzon (27%). J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f SET focuses on people's social behavior in exchanging resources, be it tangible or intangible, which only occurs when a substantial reward is present (Ap, 1992; Lambe et al., 2001) . Tangible aspects pertain to any form of materials with physical existence such as money, vehicle, and land. Meanwhile, intangible aspects have no physical form, and some examples include emotion, relationship, and experience. Additionally, SET has direct connection with economics in view of people's instincts to measure value and cost simultaneously (Homans, 1958) . In this study, the representative variables of value and cost are accessibility, safety, economic benefit, and crisis management in using PUB. SET validates that people carefully weigh determining factors before one concludes a decision (Ap, 1992; Blau, 1965; Emerson, 1976) . Mulley & Daniels (2012) emphasized the importance of the accessibility of bus services. Tiglao et al. (2020) conducted a public transportation study and concluded that passengers positively trusted accessibility of public transits while safety had negative results. Another study verified that safety (security) and economic benefit (affordability) were factors affecting trust in using PUB (Atombo & Wemegah, 2021) . Moreover, it was highlighted by Rasoolimanesh et al. (2015) that economic benefit had positively influenced people's trust in travel reforms. These travel reforms are associated with the Philippines' PUB reforms and projects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, PUB and private vehicles used the same road lanes. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the government implemented exclusive PUB lanes with corresponding loading and unloading system (Sy, 2021) . All PUB companies and operators enhanced the vehicle's design by conforming to the safety protocols (Sy, 2021) . The Philippine railway's cashless payment was adapted to the PUB system to reduce physical contact (Sy, 2021) . The salaries of PUB drivers and operators were initially dependent on the ridership. Fortunately, the government promised a fixed salary according to their performance and distance traveled (Sy, 2021) . The government exercised its authority over the PUB operators and companies to comply with the recommended reforms and projects (Yap, 2021) . They aim to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus and accommodate more passengers. Due to the ongoing pandemic, crisis management is identified as part of the latent variables. Crisis management aims to determine the efficacy of government strategies during the pandemic era, which should be followed by passengers, drivers, and bus companies (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021) . Based on the study of Khan et al. (2021) , government strategies significantly reduced the J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f psychological distress caused by the pandemic. In parallel, the reduction of psychological distress is highly connected to people's trust. Through supporting studies, this study hypothesized that: H1. Accessibility of PUB has a significant positive influence on passengers' trust. H2. Safety measures of PUB have a significant positive influence on passengers' trust. H3. Economic benefit of using PUB has a significant positive influence on passengers' trust. H4. Crisis management relative to COVID-19 preventive measures has a significant positive influence on passengers' trust. Past studies that integrated SET and TPB accentuated knowledge sharing through personal experience (Wang & Noe, 2010; Wang et al., 2015; Razak et al., 2016) . Since this study is fixated on the COVID-19 pandemic, the experiences of all PUB stakeholders absolutely matter. PUB stakeholders are the passengers, government, drivers, bus operators, and bus companies. According to Ajzen (1991) , trust is considered a positive perception gained through social experiences. The study of Breckler & Wiggins (1989) demonstrated that a person who had a positive emotional experience would most likely repeat its attitude but a person who experienced negatively tends to execute a different attitude. Individuals commonly share their experiences through the subjective norm (Wang & Noe, 2010) . Subjective norm is defined as the individual's probable behavior influenced by other people's insights (Devika et al., 2020; Ong et al., 2021a) . Meanwhile, perceived behavioral control determines a person's capability to perform a specific behavior (Ajzen, 1991) . One study proposed an extended TPB to evaluate car owners' perception of public transit (Borhan et al., 2019) . In the aforementioned study, passenger's trust significantly influenced attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Contrary to the study of Chen & Chao (2011) , passengers who own a car had a negative perception towards public transits, and this demeanor is considerably associated with perceived behavioral control. The occurrence of conflicting results from past studies has paved the way for this study to evaluate the connection of trust to other variables. Based on these relevant studies, the following hypotheses were formulated: H5. Passengers' trust in using PUB has a significant positive influence on attitude. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f H6. Passengers' trust in using PUB has a significant positive influence on subjective norm. Passengers' trust in using PUB has a significant positive influence on perceived behavioral control. TPB has been widely used in transportation and COVID-19 related studies. According to Ajzen (1991) , the purpose of TPB is to identify motivational factors that affect an individual's intention to perform a specific behavior. These motivational factors comprised of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. In Lee et al. (2021) (Shaaban & Maher (2019) and education purposes (Bamberg et al., 2003) . Hence, these hypotheses were proposed: H8. Passengers' attitude has a significant positive influence on intention to use PUB. Subjective norm has a significant positive influence on intention to use PUB. Perceived behavioral control has a significant positive influence on intention to use PUB. Gao et al. (2018) suggested that perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention contributed to the students' use of public transits. Among the two, behavioral intention produced a greater direct effect. New York City and Seattle City, the most affected cities by the COVID-19 in the United States, encountered a downtrend in public transits usage (Bian et al., 2021) . In another study, Thomas et al. (2021) H12. Intention to use PUB has a significant positive influence on perceived passenger behavior. Several studies utilized theories to analyze public transport services and people's travel behavior. SET is commonly used in developing travel and tourism sector (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2015) and public transportation systems (Santoso & Nelloh, 2018) . On the other hand, Zailani et al. (2016) and Forward (2019) used TPB to identify passengers' intention to use public transits for essential and non-essential purposes. In this study, SET and TPB were considered to determine passengers' behavior contingent on the varying Philippines' public transportation system due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Figure 1 shows the study's initial theoretical framework derived from integrating SET and TPB. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f The purposive sampling technique, a non-probability sampling method, was used to strategize data collection by targeting specific participants. The study also employed a multiple cross-sectional design to collect samples easily. According to Yamane (1967) , Slovin's formula guides researchers to find an acceptable sample size. Tejada & Punzalan (2012) believed that 5% error is the most optimal solution. Hence, this study incorporated the same principle and it was expected to collect at least 399 responses (German et al., 2022) . In conclusion, the form accumulated 505 participants who experienced riding PUB during the pandemic era in the Philippines. None of the participants were disregarded because everyone met the required criteria. Figure 2 shows the demographic characteristics of the 505 participants. This research collected a more significant number of female participants (82.57%) than male participants (17.43%). Females were more inclined to use PUB because riding it was safer than other public transport modes. In the Philippines, PUB was considered a formal type of public transportation because it provided an organized system than informal public transport modes (Guillen et al., 2013) . More than half of the study's participants ranged in age from 18 to 24 years old (52.87%), followed by 25 to 34 years old (29.11%), 35 to 44 years old (9.31%), ≤ 17 years old (6.14%), 45 to 54 years old (1.78%), and ≥ 55 years old (0.79%). Moreover, 35.05% were students, 29.70% were unemployed, 23.96% were full-time employees, 6.73% were self-employed, and 4.55% were part-time employees. Students and unemployed individuals aged 18 to 44 years old were the primary users of PUB because PUB was inexpensive and offered comfortability. They would minimize their expenses and care for comfort and safety since they lacked financial resources. Meanwhile, full-time employees ranked 3 rd in the most frequent users of PUB because PUB could provide long-distance travel. Some employees were required by their employers to work onsite; hence, they had to ride PUB because other public transport modes were not allowed on the main road. Moreover, riding a PUB was safer during the COVID-19 pandemic than jeepney (minibus). Although jeepney could offer long-distance travel, jeepney passengers were unprotected because they would have physical contact due to poor jeepney design. In addition, this demographic result transpired due to the Philippines COVID-19 quarantine restrictions that allowed 18 to 65 years old to go out of their residences. In contrast, younger and older J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f individuals were not permitted. Individuals aged 45 and above had a higher risk of death, while 17 years old and below were more susceptible to the COVID-19 virus because they were unvaccinated (Thompson, 2021) . Similarly, Mayo et al. (2021) found that individuals aged 18 to 44 years old who were students, unemployed, and full-time employees frequently traveled despite the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the education level of participants varies from high school to college level. College students (32.08%) and bachelor's degree holders (31.09%) ranked 1 st and 2 nd , respectively. High school level (27.52%) ranked 3 rd and associate degree holders (9.31%) ranked 4 th . Since the study mostly comprised college students and bachelor's degree holders, the education level coincided with the aforementioned ages and occupations of the participants. Additionally, 77.43% of the participants disclosed that household members did not own a car whereas 22.57% mentioned that some household members own a car. An individual who did not own a car had no other option but to use a public transport mode to move around the area. The study's participants mainly used PUB for personal and essential purposes (40%). This result supported the current COVID-19 situation since people preferred going out for important matters such as grocery shopping. The participants' second reason was for work purposes (21%) since essential workers (healthcare/food/logistics/public administration) were still mandated to work onsite due to the nature of their jobs. The third reason was family (17%) to visit a family member, go to important occasions, and plan for relocation. The fourth reason was for school demands (16%). Although face-to-face classes have not resumed yet, some students prefer coworking spaces, cafes, and other places suitable for online learning. They also needed to purchase school materials to comply with academic requirements. There were only a few PUB users for leisure purposes (6%) because buses were mainly found on busy roads, and leisure places were commonly found in secluded areas. Finally, at least 80% of the participants chose the smallest amount for allowances and expenses. Most of the participants allotted at most ₱500 for daily allowance and at most ₱200 for daily PUB expenses. This result suggested that individuals prioritize inexpensive public transport mode because the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the global economy and individual's resources. Passengers were inclined to save money since they realized the importance of needs over wants. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Following the demographic profile of participants, cross-tabulation analysis was developed, as seen in Table 2 . This analysis helped further understand the relationship of PUB passengers' expenses, allowances, and employment status. Among all the groupings, the combination of students, ≤ ₱200/day of PUB expenses, and ≤ ₱500/day of allowances gained the highest frequency (144 participants = 28.51%). It was followed by the combination of unemployed individuals, ≤ ₱200/day of PUB expenses, and ≤ ₱500/day of allowances (110 J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f participants = 21.78%). The third-highest frequency was the combination of employed individuals, ≤ ₱200/day of PUB expenses, and ≤ ₱500/day of allowances (71 participants = 14.06%). Compared to the top three aforementioned combinations, other combinations produced trivial percentages (< 5.0% for each combination). Due to the COVID-19 community restrictions, participants were asked to respond through a cloud-based platform. Specifically, the questionnaire was created through Google form J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f and it was disseminated from September 12, 2021 to October 10, 2021. The questionnaire comprised two parts: (1) Demographic profile of participants; and (2) Passengers' perception of using PUB during the pandemic era. The first part asked nine (9) questions related to participants' personal information. It includes gender, age, employment status, education level, common days of using PUB during the pandemic, objectives in using PUB during the pandemic, average daily allowance, average daily cost of riding PUB, and car ownership among household members. The second part of the questionnaire followed 5-point Likert scale format wherein one (1) was considered "strongly disagree" and five (5) was considered "strongly agree". (67) Since Thomas et al. (2021) disclosed positive mean ratings in using public transport, we combined the results presented by Thomas et al. (2021) and Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency (2020). Some of the results from Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency (2020) were mentioned in the manuscript of Thomas et al. (2021) , while others were indirectly reported. But we realized that Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency (2020) was not appropriately cited in our manuscript. Hence, we properly cited them in Table 3 . Their findings also emphasized that many commuters perceived riding a bus provided their primary public transportation needs during the pandemic. PPB7 (I believe that following appropriate social practices can lessen the negative implications on public utility bus system) and PPB8 (I believe that following COVID-19 precautions can lessen the negative implications on public utility bus system) were formulated accordingly: This study utilized Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to determine the model fit based on the proposed framework. According to Anderson & Gerbing (1988) , CFA identifies causal relationships between the observed latent variables complemented by theories. One of the CFA's assumptions is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) (Curran & West, 1996) . SEM is a multivariate technique that determines factor loadings, correlations between latent variables, and correlations between errors (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Gumasing et al., 2022) . Since this study aims to identify the significant variables from the integrated SET and TPB, CFA ensures a valid and reliable research method. Thus, CFA helps further develop the existing theories by incorporating hypotheses and variables. Although CFA had substantial contributions, a past study itemized the disadvantages of CFA. First, large sample size is needed to ensure reliable data (Prudon, 2015) . The same author acknowledged that the number of latent variables is J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f unstandardized and highly exposed to subjective opinion. Therefore, this study collected numerous participants, and past studies supported the utilized latent variables. The validity of latent variables and measures was supported through factor loading (FL), Cronbach's alpha (α), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). First, the minimum suggested value for factor loading is 0.50 but 0.70 indicates strong support for the corresponding measure or indicator (Hair et al., 2010) . Second, α measures internal consistency and the recommended value is at least 0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 2010) . Next, CR signifies data consistency and the suggested value is least 0.70 (Hair et al., 2010) . Lastly, AVE identifies the amount of variance for each latent variable and the minimum cutoff is 0.50 (Hair et al., 2010; Ong et al., 2021b) . After consistency checking and data validation, the SEM framework was administered via SmartPLS 3. Through the maximum likelihood estimation approach, SEM fit indices were generated. Normed Fit Index (NFI) was measured to evaluate the correlation and covariance estimates in the model (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Hair et al., 2010) . The least acceptable value for NFI is 0.80 (Gefen et al., 2000) . Additionally, Standardized Root Mean squared Residual (SRMR) was employed to assess the model fit and the recommended value is less than 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Hair et al., 2010) . The initial framework presented in Figure 1 was modified to adhere to the CFA-SEM method. Table 4 shows that the collected data signifies internal consistency and data reliability. All measures with FL of less than 0.70 (<0.70) were removed since these values implied a weak relationship (Hair et al., 2010) . Next, the generated α and CR for all latent variables were greater than or equal to 0.70 (≥ 0.70), which supported acceptable internal consistency (Hair et al., 2010; Nunnally & Bernstein, 2010) . Additionally, the AVE of all latent variables passed the suggested value of 0.50 (Ong et al., 2021b; Hair et al., 2010) . For easier interpretation, Figure 3 demonstrates that FL, α, CR, and AVE passed the minimum cutoff. Finally, R-squared (R²) of all the endogenous variables (trust, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f to use, and perceived passenger behavior) were at least 0.40 (≥ 0.40) and this value was considered an acceptable model predictor (Latan & Ramli, 2013) . Journal Pre-proof connection path is presented in Figure 4 . There was no minimum cutoff for the β, but a value closer to 1.00 indicated a strong positive direct relationship. The CFA-SEM fit indices were determined through the goodness of fit measures, specifically the NFI and SRMR. These indices were generated through SmartPLS 3. According to Gefen et al. (2000) , 0.8 is a critical NFI value. This study produced 0.81 NFI value which was deemed acceptable. Moreover, Hu & Bentler (1999) and Hair et al. (2010) stated that SRMR must be less than or equal to 0.08 (≤ 0.08). The produced SRMR for this study is 0.05, suggesting that a lower value yielded a better result. Therefore, the results suggested that the data fit the final SEM framework well. The final SEM framework was developed through these significant results, as seen in Figure 5 . 6. Discussion The exogenous variables of SET were accessibility, safety, economic benefit, and crisis management. Thus, H1, H2, H3, and H4 were bounded by SET principles. This study J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f incorporated SET to determine the fundamental factors affecting passengers' behavior using PUB. Aside from passengers' perceptions, SET principles also effectively identified the perceptions of other PUB stakeholders such as drivers, operators, bus companies, and the DOTR. Interestingly, all four (4) hypotheses passed the required p-value and thus supported the SEM framework. The effect of accessibility to passengers' trust had a direct effect coefficient (β) of 0.12 and p-value of 0.008. Although the generated β was weak, the p-value passed the 0.01 minimum cutoff. Hence, H1 was significant and this research verified that accessibility of PUB positively influenced passengers' trust. This research claimed that waiting time at bus stops became relatively shorter. PUB stops are also located within a reasonable distance since the DOTR has started implementing exclusive PUB lanes and appropriate bus stops. Unlike the pre-pandemic situation where unsystematic waiting lines and inappropriate PUB loading and unloading were practiced, the current situation has developed despite the pandemic's restrictions. Passengers also believed that the deployed number of PUB is sufficient to cater to the public needs. If these PUB reforms are continuously followed by PUB stakeholders and adamantly implemented by the DOTR, then passengers will most likely trust the Philippines' PUB system. Tiglao et al. (2020) evaluated one of the Philippines' public transits; the researchers suggested that passengers appreciated the availability of public transits. Among all the measures, they emphasized that weekday and daytime availability were the most significant measures. Meanwhile, this research removed measures related to time because they had weak factor loading values (< 0.70). Another study claimed that accessibility is a supportive variable promoting public transport equity which posits fairness and trust among passengers (Wang et al., 2020) . In contrast to a PUB-related study, Atombo & Wemegah (2021) found that PUB was not accessible in Ghana, and the accessibility factor negatively affected passengers' actual experience. Contrasting results are plausible due to differences in the country's PUB system. This research also adopted an accessibility indicator from Atombo & Wemegah (2021) relevant to the payment method. Both studies concluded that the PUB payment method needs improvement. Next, H2 was supported because safety positively influenced trust (β:0.32, p:0.001). PUB stakeholders, including the passengers, drivers, operators, bus companies, and DOTR, were involved in PUB safety measures. According to the results, passengers wanted PUB drivers and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f operators to practice safe driving. It was highly advised to check the vehicle's battery, lights, oil, water, brake, tire, gas, and engine before PUB drivers and operators look for passengers. PUB drivers and operators should be mentally stable, not intoxicated nor sleepy. The seatbelt must be worn appropriately as well. In the Philippines, PUB speed limits were dependent on the type of roads and country's regions; hence, PUB drivers must be equipped with knowledge and follow the guidelines. Although PUB is a shared public space, most passengers felt safe riding PUB. In a past study, passengers prioritized safety before choosing a public transit (Atombo & Wemegah, 2021) . Safety was also positively trusted by the passengers, but safety's β produced the smallest influence among all exogenous variables (Shen et al., 2015) . However, this study disclosed that safety had the 2 nd highest β among four (4) exogenous variables leading to trust. Moreover, other studies highlighted safety-related factors such as crime (Gao et al., 2018; Atombo & Wemegah, 2021 ) and accident (Gao et al., 2018; Borhan et al., 2019; Atombo & Wemegah, 2021 ) that generated significant factor loading. Nevertheless, this study disregarded crime and accident measures because they had weak factor loading (< 0.70). Therefore, passengers who value PUB drivers' and operators' work ethics and safe driving plans trust the PUB system. Economic benefit had a significant and positive influence on passengers' trust (β:0.19, p:0.001). Hence, this study supported that H3 was substantial in the SEM framework. Passengers believed that the current PUB fares were affordable and that one could easily manage transportation allowance. The demographic characteristics of participants also supported the affordability of the PUB fares. It appeared that 81.98% of the participants spent the least PUB daily expenses (≤ ₱200) among all choices. In addition, 64.75% of the participants were students, fresh graduates, and unemployed. Thus, more than half of the participants have limited income and they could only allocate a small amount of transportation expenses from their allowance. Participants of this study also thought that riding PUB would equally help the finances of PUB drivers and operators. In the Philippines, the compensation of drivers and operators is dependent on fixed income, ridership, and safety record (Sunio et al., 2019) . Due to ridership incentives, drivers and operators typically gain more than the minimum wage. At the moment, ridership incentives were not maximized because the DOTR only allowed PUB to operate at 50% to 75% capacity depending on the region's quarantine restrictions. Hence, it was highly recommended to add incentive programs related to proper adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures to help the finances of PUB drivers and operators. Past studies also suggested that the economic benefit J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f or affordability positively affected passengers' trust in PUB (Santoso & Nelloh, 2017; Wang et al., 2020; Atombo & Wemegah, 2021) . Crisis management, another exogenous variable, significantly and positively influenced passengers' trust (β:0.31, p:0.001). It was hypothesized that crisis management would greatly impact the framework since this study focused on its setting during the pandemic era. According to Thomas et al. (2021) , people's travel behavior is dependent on the restrictions imposed in their country. In this study, passengers agreed that the drivers, operators, and DOTR must follow and implement appropriate COVID-19 preventive measures. These measures were deemed effective to prevent the spread of COVID-19 while using PUB. Although there were insufficient studies that considered the importance of PUB drivers and operators during the pandemic, this study concluded that PUB drivers and operators played a significant role in crisis management. All passengers were required to wear face mask and face shield at all times. Before passengers get on the PUB, operators check their temperature and those with ≤ 37.4°C are allowed to ride the PUB. However, passengers with > 37.4°C are advised to rest in an isolated area or PUB stop. Furthermore, one-seat-apart setup and unpermitted standing passengers are social distancing methods implemented by the DOTR. Another study also verified that the government strategies were significant and positively influenced social distancing (Khan et al., 2021) . Indeed, trust in public transits is contingent on COVID-19 preventive measures . The next three (3) hypotheses (H5, H6, and H7) connected SET and TPB. Results showed that H5, H6, and H7 were significant. As stated in the results, passengers' trust in using PUB positively influenced their attitude, hence H5 was significant (β:0.76, p:0.001). H6 was supported as well because passengers' trust in using PUB positively influenced subjective norm (β:0.63, p:0.001). Moreover, H7 was deemed significant since passengers' trust in using PUB positively influenced perceived behavioral control (β:0.71, p:0.001). Trust produced a relatively high R-squared (R²:0.61), which implied that 61% of the data connected to trust fit the model. Consequently, trust was a reliable SET variable linked to TPB primary variables, which were attitude, significant norm, and perceived behavioral control. The generated results were also similar to the study of Borhan et al. (2019) . Specifically, trust directly and positively influenced passenger's attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. Borhan et al. (2019) evaluated Libya's high-speed rail, which is considered a public transport mode. The current J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f study also assessed a public transportation mode in the Philippines. Both Libyan and Filipino passengers trusted the public transport's safety, reliability, and efficiency. These factors contributed to a positive personal perception, social acceptance, and ease of riding public transportation. Trust was also considered a multifaceted principle because it involves entities other than the subject . In this case, PUB stakeholders were the entities and passengers were the primary subject of trust. Additionally, Rasoolimanesh et al. (2021) revealed that trust in the COVID-19 preventive measures implemented by the government minimized people's uncertainties. Mora Cortez & Johnston (2020) also suggested that trust was intensified through positive outcomes affecting the interlinked variables. Therefore, the participants of this study trusted a PUB system that was reliable, comfortable, dependable, and adherent to COVID-19 preventive measures. The succeeding hypotheses (H8, H9, H10, H11, and H12) were developed through TPB principles. The main variables of TPB are attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention to use PUB, and perceived passenger behavior. TPB was applied to determine the current PUB system in the Philippines. It was also supported that TPB strongly contributed to the results of this study by generating significant hypotheses. Consequently, the imperative inclusion of TPB helped the analysis of perceived passenger behavior, which was the study's objective. Based on H8, passengers' attitude significantly and positively influenced intention to use PUB (β:0.21, p:0.001). In parallel with the findings of Devika et al. (2020) and Lee et al. (2021) , attitude positively influenced the intention to use public transits despite the pandemic. Although the study of Borhan et al. (2019) was conducted pre-pandemic era, they confirmed that attitude was the most significant variable influencing passengers' intention to use public transits. Interestingly, Thomas et al. (2021) Bamberg et al. (2003) and Devika et al. (2020) . Country of residence also influenced the passengers' intention to use public transits (Thomas et al. 2021 ). Meanwhile, an indicator related to the single choice of public transit was insignificant. This implied that PUB was not the only public transit option in the Philippines. Aside from PUB, researchers from the Philippines identified that jeepney, taxi, motorcycle, multicab, tricycle, and ferry boat were the common public transits in the Philippines (Mayo & Taboada, 2020) . Additionally, measures associated with mitigating negative implications on the PUB system were insignificant. Hence, the participants were unconvinced that COVID-19 preventive measures helped lessen the negative perceptions relevant to the PUB system. Therefore, stricter implementation of COVID-19 preventive measures shall be imposed to identify the significance of the removed measures under perceived passenger behavior. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f This study intends to help all the PUB stakeholders, including passengers, drivers, operators, policymakers, and the government. Table 6 shows the detailed contributions derived from the study's results. It is suggested that all PUB stakeholders follow the recommended strategies. These strategies ensure that everyone can quickly adapt to the new normal of riding PUB and mitigate COVID-19 cases in the Philippines. Therefore, the problematic PUB systems and COVID-19 cases in the Philippines are addressed by applying the CFA-SEM tool bounded by SET and TPB principles. Table 6 . Practical implications. PUB companies The drivers and operators must undergo training programs at least once a month. PUB companies should spearhead the training, consisting of etiquette and refresher technical courses. The training program will improve drivers' and operators' professionalism and technical skills. It will also bring a harmonious employer-employee relationship among PUB companies, drivers, and operators. If drivers and operators continuously receive appropriate training, they will help mitigate road accents and increase passenger satisfaction and safety. The drivers and operators should ensure that every passenger riding the PUB adheres to the COVID-19 preventive measures. A passenger whose temperature is above 37.5 degrees Celsius is not permitted to ride PUB. The drivers and operators should also disinfect passengers' hands prior to onboarding the transportation mode. Also, they must ensure that passengers wear a face mask and face shield before onboarding and while riding PUB. Lastly, passengers cannot stand and must maintain a one-seat-apart setup, which drivers and operators must check throughout the journey. The governing body should check the passengers' behavior at bus stops and while riding PUB. They should also ensure that PUB companies, drivers, and operators adhere to the COVID-19 protocols. PUB system. Overall, it aims to check the drivers' and operators' capability and the passengers' attitude, given the COVID-19 protocols. Policymakers and Department of Transportation (DOTR) Develop and implement sanctions for the violators of COVID-19 protocols. For instance, first-time offenders must pay ₱1000 ($20). Second-time offenders must pay ₱2000 ($40). Third-time offenders must pay ₱5000 ($100) and up to ten (10) days imprisonment for passengers, or ten (10) days suspension for drivers. It is expected that people will follow COVID-19 protocols when negative consequences are present. This strategy will also ensure that the spread of COVID-19 is mitigated. The PUB fare must be maintained at its current price since everyone is struggling during the pandemic. Fare increase is not encouraged at the moment. If an unprecedented situation affects the oil prices in the country, the DOTR should ensure that PUB companies, drivers, and operators receive subsidies while waiting for the situation to normalize. By maintaining an affordable PUB fare, passengers can save money that can be used for other essential products. Passengers' productivity may also increase because they do not need to drive their private cars; this instance is also associated with a sustainable environment. It also improves the country's economy because a reasonable price is equated to higher demand. Increase the number of PUBs deployed on the road due to the limited public transport modes and increasing number of passengers. This strategy contributes a positive impact on passengers because some companies start to ask employees to return to the office. There should be an adequate number of PUBs to accommodate increasing passenger demand. It is also expected to decrease waiting time and mitigate virus transmission among the waiting passengers. This approach will also create employment opportunities for PUB drivers and operators. Department of Transportation (DOTR) Fast-track the PUB and other road construction projects because they are the leading cause of traffic congestion. The DOTR should ensure a satisfactory workforce and apply Once the DOTR has finished PUBrelated projects, PUB exclusive lanes will benefit everyone because drivers can quickly transport passengers to their respective J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f project management principles. destinations. Thus, passengers have lower exposure to possible COVID-19 transmission due to lesser travel and waiting time. The passengers' demands, such as accessibility, safety, economic benefit, and crisis management are met. The adverse effects of COVID-19 in the Philippines' PUB sector have affected passengers, the economy, and the business sectors. The COVID-19 situation affected everyone's quality of life, resulting in social and economic changes. PUB passengers developed negative perceptions of sharing space with other people. Since PUB passengers were the primary revenue sources of PUB companies, all PUB stakeholders were affected. The research gap was addressed by utilizing CFA-SEM to the combined SET and TPB. This study aimed to determine the factors affecting PUB passengers' behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. SET and TPB were the theories utilized to evaluate accessibility, safety, economic benefit, crisis management, trust, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention to use, and perceived passenger behavior. This study acknowledged limitations that could help other researchers further investigate the passengers' perception of the Philippines' PUB system. The study could be extended by evaluating the passengers' behavior in different Philippine cities since each city's PUB system may vary. It was also recommended to compare several time points (before, during, and after the pandemic) to identify travel behavior changes depending on the COVID-19 situation. Additionally, the demographic characteristics of participants could be used as SEM moderating effects to compare the generated results. Lastly, it was suggested to include service quality variables for a more comprehensive theoretical framework. Furthermore, the study provided practical implications to help the PUB stakeholders adjust to the passengers' needs. Passengers' negative perceptions of PUB would be mitigated through strict implementation and adherence to the appropriate COVID-19 and safe driving protocols. In addition, Filipinos' socio-economic status and residence were crucial factors in using PUB during the pandemic. Finally, the DOTR and policymakers played a critical role since J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Overall, PUB companies, drivers, and operators assisted the projects implemented by the government (policymakers and DOTR). 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