key: cord-0780372-0xcdnnbb authors: Antwi, Sarpong Hammond; Getty, David; Linnane, Suzanne; Rolston, Alec title: COVID-19 water sector responses in Europe: A scoping review of preliminary governmental interventions date: 2020-10-22 journal: Sci Total Environ DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143068 sha: 336c1ad643aa89b3c87851295e1f78180c70165e doc_id: 780372 cord_uid: 0xcdnnbb The unprecedented scale and impact of COVID-19 pandemic, and the accompanying lockdown implemented across many countries, has exacerbated water scarcity and security globally. Many European governments have introduced policy interventions to mitigate and protect their economies. Yet, water resources, which are a potential enabler in revitalising Europe’s economy, have received few of such policy interventions since the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak as a public health emergency only in January 2020. Our scoping review of preliminary government responses of 27 European countries revealed that only 11 (40.7%) of these countries implemented at least one policy intervention that considered the water sector. These interventions were typically short-term measures involving either full cost absorption or deferment of water bills. Much attention on water governance and management processes, policies and financial investments required to augment the resilience of the water sector amid a growing scarcity of freshwater, triggered by extreme climate variation and also by COVID-19 pandemic should therefore be central to post COVID-19 recovery efforts in Europe. This paper also proposes future research directions, including a study that will harmonise water demand and consumption trends during the pandemic in Europe and an assessment on how the water sector can withstand possible external shocks in future. drought and perennial water shortages more acute in countries like Ireland, UK, Turkey, Ethiopia, Kenya, Syria, Poland, Romania, Kosovo and India already suffering from climate variation and continuous decline in rainfall patterns [13]- [17] . It has been estimated that about 11% of Europe's population is at risk of water scarcity, with an unsafe water supply currently contributing to the death of 14 people every day [18] . Additionally, in Europe 31 million people do not have access to basic sanitation, while about 48 million people do not have even access to piped water in their homes [19] , [20] . These statistics signify an unsatisfactory level of water resources management and supply in parts of Europe. However, despite the unquestionable importance of the water sector to COVID-19 pandemic mitigation, and the urgency for policy interventions, much of the attention of water-related COVID-19 literature has been focused on tracing COVID-19 in public waterways, particularly relating to wastewater and sewage infrastructure [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] . Thus far, scholarly studies on COVID-19 impact and water policy interventions, particularly in Europe, have not received much attention although, water policy measures and interventions are imperative, particularly because clean flowing water is central in promoting hygienic practices towards mitigating COVID-19's spread [11] , [29]- [31] . This study, therefore, reviews water sector government interventions in A scoping review is a comparatively new approach in assessing emerging evidence, that relies on a preliminary body of literature to identify knowledge gaps with its essence connected to factors like time and location [31] - [32] . A scoping review method is also beneficial in gathering data in a synthesis approach as research papers on COVID-19 are consistently emerging, particularly on topics that focus on policy reforms and measures in the water sector [34] . The keywords used in these search were a combination of (Coronavirus disease 2019* OR "COVID-19") AND ("Water resources"* OR "Policy interventions") AND ("Europe" OR" European Union*"). Documents otherwise in English were translated with the aid of google chrome translator extension. A total of 247 documents were initially retrieved with the time scope spanning from February 2020 to June 2020. Titles, keywords, abstract and location restricted to European Union member states were the criteria used in selecting 160 documents for further review [35] . It was revealed that many of the reports carried by websites and blogs were sourced from either press statements or information disseminated by public agencies or institutions like the WHO, EU and their communication units. In order to avoid duplication, the J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f original sources of this information and data were preferred for authenticity purposes. The authenticity test brought the final set of documents to 107 pieces of literature which were found to be relevant to this study. The considered sources were: Google scholar and Scopus databases (23) , published documents by EU governments and agencies (39) , sustainability/finance/policy/environment based websites (28), multinational organisations/agencies (17). The impact of COVID- 19 France sometime in January 2020 [6] , [37] , [38] . Spain, Italy, UK and France were among countries that recorded the highest number of COVID-19 cases in Europe [39] . The introduction of a restriction on travelling and large meetings, physical distances and lockdowns contributed to a decline in the number of people affected by the COVID-19, nevertheless, April 2020 was Europe's highest peak with COVID-19 cases [40] . On April 4th, 2020 alone, over 40,000 new COVID-19 cases were recorded across Europe [40] . To mitigate the socio-economic impact of COVID-19, the European Union initiated several interventions, including a €540 billion financial package to support businesses and workers in the EU [41] . Our scoping review shows that most of these J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f interventions were limited to immediate fiscal impulse, deferrals and liquidity provisions and guarantees. These included deferment of payments like taxes and social security, and credit facilities through national banks for both the public and private sectors. Additional government spending on medical supplies and the health sectors, wages and salaries adjustments were also prevalent amongst the various measures taken [42] [43] [44] . These measures are still evolving, with plans underway to develop an European recovery fund which will be closely linked to the upcoming multiannual financial framework for 2021-2027 to deal with the COVID-19 crisis [45] . Our review indicates that efforts within the EU to address COVID-19 are concentrated on economic recoveries with limited focus on environment resources like water. The limited focus on the environment and its resources may possibly lengthen COVID-19 recovery for countries as economic, social, health, ecological and environmental resource management are interrelated with development [44] , [46] [47] [48] . Although the immediate impact of COVID-19 on the water sector is in its formative stages, its effect on the sector is already manifesting. This is evident from changes in water demand and underlying challenges with water supply. Irish Water-Ireland's national water utility for instance, reported that water usage increased by 24 litres per person, per day resulting in 20% increment in overall residential water demand in the Republic of Ireland during the lockdown period from March 2020 to June 2020 [48] - [49] . In the state of Baden-Wurthemberg in Germany, municipal water utility-Stadtwerke Karlsruhe (SWKA) also revealed that variations in water consumption were observed at different times of the day after restrictions were implemented in Germany [51] . The observed changes in consumption patterns were attributed to the closure of schools and non-essential activities, increase in homeworking, and other social restrictions introduced by the government. Records from Portsmouth in England also showed a 15% increase in water demand among domestic consumers and a 17% reduction for non-domestic consumers during the peak period of the pandemic [52] . The variation in water demand among domestic and non-domestic consumers were attributed to the number of consumers who had to stay home due to lockdown restrictions, including smaller businesses that had to operate from homes and restrictions of some site works and operations. As a result, activities like washing, cooking, flushing, handwashing, gardening and filling of pools became prevalent during the implementation of lockdown restrictions, which directly contributed to an increment in domestic water consumption [17], [52] . Nonetheless, revenue collections for water companies fell by 40% when the pandemic started due to suspension of water charges by some countries or municipalities as a strategy to cushion consumers from the effect of COVID-19 on personal finances [53] . The severity of drought and water shortages, triggered by limited rainfall and increase domestic water demands also raised concerns in places like Ireland As of June 2020, some European countries had announced measures to support their water sector (Table 1) (Insert Table 1 ) Table 1 : Country-specific water-related interventions in Europe during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although 16 (59.3%) countries were found not to have implemented any water-related intervention during the timeframe of this paper ( Figure.1) , due to either difference in water governance and management structures or to peculiar sectorial problems or the resilience of the sector and COVID-19 mitigation strategies, they all had other tailored economic measures in place to cushion their economies [74] , [101] . These individual economic measures to mitigate the overall impact of COVID-19 may be due to economic forecast that predicts that the EU economy will shrink by 7.75% in 2020 and experience 6.25% drop in 2021 as a result of the pandemic [102] . This means that the economic impact of COVID-19 may be worse than the 2009 financial crises [103] . pandemic indicate that water sector challenges and the adaptation and implementation of policy interventions varies among countries, it is still essential to increase attention to the water sector given that water is of significant importance to combating the spread of COVID-19 and for the revitalisation of the economy of Europe post-COVID-19 [46] . Reforms are needed by countries to ensure, therefore, that their water sector can withstand future pandemics, and also move away from crisis management of water resources to risk management approaches. Reforms such as digitalisation of the water sector, water leakage reduction, citizen engagement and participation in water governance and management as well as water-efficiency in product design and monitoring of emerging pollutants are needed to ensure sustainable growth and development, as part of post-COVID-19 economic recovery efforts in Europe [46] , [106] , [107] . Support for gender equality, inclusiveness and human rights and water recycle and use are also among reformations needed [46] . The Although, water sector challenges do vary among countries, given the importance of water in combating the spread of COVID-19 and for ecological system efficiency and socio-economic development, there is the need for institutions, governments, non-governmental organisations and stakeholders in the EU to address its impact through an interlinked approach. An interlinked approach is necessary as water consumption patterns between domestic and commercial users are changing amid plummeting water revenues, inadequate investment for infrastructural expansion, coupled with the increasing scarcity of freshwater also becoming a concern in Europe due to factors like extreme climate variation and water leakages. As such, enhance approaches to water governance and management that allows participatory No direct support for the water sector. [45] The government of Belgium undertook a series of social and economic reforms, including a €160 million fund to support technically unemployed persons to pay their utility bills. [66], [67] Bulgaria Water bill, among other utilities, were suspended under a COVID-19 Emergency Act (COVID-19 Act 2020). The Bulgarian water utility ViK Plovdiv also suspended a €41.9 million water supply and sewage infrastructure upgrade tender due to COVID-19. [68], [69] Croatia Governmental support and interventions were based on the approval of loans to finance wages, utility cost and working capital with reduced interest rates starting from 0% on loans from Croatian Bank for Reconstruction and Development (HBOR). [70], [71] Czech Republic No direct intervention in the water sector; however, the payment of bills was delayed due to restrictions, which did not allow reading of domestic utility meters. [72] No direct intervention for the water sector, but a reduction of electricity prices by 10% for two months for start-ups existed. [73] No water-related interventions despite numerous fiscal and economic measures introduced by the government. [74], [75] Estonia The entire utility sector was also not considered in a €2 billion relief package announced by the Estonian government. [76] No water-related interventions despite numerous fiscal and economic measures introduced by the government. [74], [75] France A €3 billion financial package towards the social and fiscal cost to utility including deferred payment of water bills. [65], [76] , [77] Germany There was no known policy intervention in the water sector. However, the German government during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic injected funds into climate-friendly mobility or car manufacturing companies, as well as in renewable energy development and energy-efficient buildings. [79] Greece No direct support for the water sector during the [80] J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f period of the pandemic. The government cancelled interest on some unpaid taxes and introduced an extension of loan repayment moratorium for households, but there was no direct intervention on water or other utilities. [81] No direct support for the water sector during the period of the pandemic. [82] Italy A €0.6 billion fiscal package to help reduce utility bills on small production and commercial activities were introduced by the government as well as suspension of water and other utility bills during the peak of the pandemic. [46] , [82] , [83] Latvia Extension on the payment of utilities including water bills. [85], [85] Lithuania Municipalities were encouraged by the government to allow for either instalment basis or reschedule payments for utility bills. [87] No direct support for the water sector during the period of the pandemic. [88] Malta Electricity prices were reduced by 10% but no direct intervention for the water sector. [89] Over €0.650 billion financial support to the agricultural sector that targeted agricultural-based firms and € 1.5 million loan per company to assist those affected during the pandemic. A temporary extension of payment of bills by regional authorities were also implemented. [81], [89] , [90] Poland Three-month break for the payment of utilities and credit payment, but emphasis had been on electricity and not water. The special liquidity guarantee fund also made no mention of government intent to suspend or absorb water bills. [92] Portugal A temporary suspension of electricity, water and gas bills. [93] No direct support for the water sector during the period of the pandemic. [94], [95] Spain A ban on restricting water, electricity and gas supplies to households during the peak of the COVID-19 crises. Under the stability programme of Spain, a €58 million fund to support deferral of expenses for business and self-employed workers and vulnerable households was also announced. [96], [97] Slovakia No water-related interventions, despite numerous fiscal and economic measures introduced. [98] No direct support for the water sector during the period of the pandemic. 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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.