key: cord-0757251-ot2ii13m
authors: Patil, Sharanagouda S.; Shinduja, Rajamani; Suresh, Kuralayanapalya Puttahonnappa; Phukan, Sulekha; Kumar, Sachin; Sengupta, Pinaki Prasad; G. Amachawadi, Raghavendra; Raut, Ashwin; Roy, Parimal; Syed, Asad; Marraiki, Najat; Elgorban, Abdallah M.; Al-Harthi, Helal F.; Bahkali, Ali H.; Shivamallu, Chandan; Shiva Prasad, Kollur
title: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of infectious diseases of Duck: A world perspective
date: 2021-05-24
journal: Saudi J Biol Sci
DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.05.034
sha: 6a6c65fd33ae724a98fe5ece53b0fb3dad878f85
doc_id: 757251
cord_uid: ot2ii13m

The Indian poultry industry is one of the fast-growing sectors of which duck farming plays an important role. Duck population in India is 33.51 million that is concentrated towards north-east and southern parts of the country who rears mainly for eggs and meat. Duck diseases are of great concern as they badly affect the financial status of the small, landless farmers. Databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, J gate were used to search articles between 2000 and 2019 that showed the prevalence of viral, bacterial, and parasitic duck diseases. R open source software was used to derive forest plots by statistical analysis. Pooled prevalence estimates of duck diseases worldwide was found to be 20% (95%-CI:15–26). Also, continent-wise analysis of all duck diseases has revealed highest prevalence in North America, followed by Asia, Africa, Europe,Oceania and South America. This prevalence of data would be helpful to the policymakers to develop appropriate intervention strategies to prevent and control diseases in their respective locations.

Ducks constitute a major part of the poultry industry worldwide. Very little information is available on the duck population in different countries. As per FAO, 2017 there were 1.15 billion ducks (Anas spp.) worldwide and 1.0 billion (88 percent) were in Asia. The largest duck populations are found in China, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Indonesia (FAO, 2017) . In India, the poultry industry is one of the fastest growing agricultural sectors today. Presently, the production of crops has been rising at a rate of 1.5 to 2% per annum while that of production of eggs and meat has been rising at a rate of 8 to 10% per annum (Indian mirror, 2019) . According to the 20th Indian livestock census, the total poultry in India is 851.81 million, registered an increase of 16.8% over the previous census (DAHD, 2019). There are 33.51 million of ducks as per 20th livestock census against 23.53 million in 19th livestock census that shows a change of 42.36% which means that there is an increase in demand of duck and duck farming which further warrants the need for proper surveillance and monitoring of diseases affecting ducks thereby controlling them. Small, marginal farmers and nomadic tribes practice duck farming in India which is sometimes seasonal (Jeyathilakan et al., 2016) . Ducks play an important role in rural livelihood as they cater to sustained meat and egg production. One of the important criteria is to keep the ducks healthy to prevent disease outbreaks and in cases where ducks encounter infection, administration of appropriate treatment is practiced to minimize the rate of mortality and morbidity.

The distribution and demographic dynamics of the duck population revealed that they are concentrated in East, North-East, and Southern states of the country. The leading states in the duck population are West Bengal, Assam, Kerala, Manipur, Jharkhand, Tripura, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, UP, and Orissa (DAHD, 2019) . Traditionally, West Bengal and Kerala are the major consumer states for duck egg and meat and one of the reasons is that duck egg and meat highly suits and remain tastier for their fish based culinary preparations (Rajput et al., 2014) . In India, farmers practice different systems of duck rearing viz., free range system, confined system, indoor system, integrated duck rearing system, duck keeping combined with paddy cultivation, duck keeping combined with fish ponds (Rajput et al., 2014) Among the diseases affecting ducks in India, viral diseases have been known to have more serious repercussions to duck production. Farm workers are thus essential in ensuring that strict biosecurity are observed to reduce potential transmission of the disease. Of the most infectious include avian influenza (HPAI/LPAI), duck viral enteritis, West Nile disease, Japanese Encephalitis, Newcastle Disease, duck plague, duck viral hepatitis. Usually, ducklings between the age of 1-28 days are most susceptible to diseases and gradually become immune as they grow older. It would be mandatory to establish and maintain good and viable biosecurity programs that will prevent the invasion of disease in the duck farms.

This study concentrates on estimating the prevalence of the infectious disease of duck in the world including India. The comprehensive information generated from this study would assist the policymakers to formulate prevention and control measures.

A comprehensive systematic literature search was conducted in electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, J gate, BioMed databases from 2000 to 2019 using a combination of keywords ''Duck", ''Disease", ''prevalence", ''India". Meanwhile, for the studies of different countries, the database was searched randomly without any restrictions imposed on year. Bibliographies/cross references of eligible studies were also manually searched to identify additional significant articles. The search was restricted to articles in English. Articles were extracted individually by two authors to avoid bias. All the search and scrutiny was conducted according to the PRISMA protocol (http:// www.prisma-statement.org) (Table S1) 

All the articles that described the prevalence rate of various Duck diseases were considered eligible and included in the study. A total of 1,163 articles were identified, of which 1,032 were excluded following the exclusion criteria described above. This comprehensive database searches returned 124 potential articles based on the search for combination of keywords. A total of 55 articles were selected suitable for the study including 80 studies for systematic review and meta-analysis (Fig. 1 ). Articles were restricted to the English language only. One of the major drawbacks of duck diseases are under-reporting; hence we have tried to pool data as much as possible.

The data was extracted from qualified studies that included first author, year of publication, total sample size, the location where the study was conducted, detection technique, and the type of infection (viral, bacterial, or parasitic) . Articles were stratified according to individual diseases including the studies from India and World. Continent-wise stratification of articles was also performed. Data was extracted independently from each selected article and inconsistency in data was rectified by double-checking the articles until consensus was reached.

The quality assessment of different studies was done on a fixed rating scale (Suresh et al., 2019) . The scoring was on a scale of 0 to 5, which included evaluation of author and year of study, representativeness of the sample used in the study, ascertainment of the exposure, comparability, and outcome, with each section having the maximum number of two stars. Hence, the overall quality assessment has a maximum score of 5 and a minimum score of 3 (Table 1) .

Meta-analysis was carried out using the R Open source scripting software (version 3.4.3, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/). This analysis facilitates generating a weighted average proportion of prevalence of various studies that provides a way forward for proper planning. Metafor, metaprop, and Meta of R packages were used for statistical analysis. Tau square, I 2 (Higgin's I 2 ), and p value were computed to determine the percentage of variation due to heterogeneity among various reports included in this study. Both the random effect and fixed effect model were used to calculate the pooled prevalence of individual diseases since substantial heterogeneity was expected. The funnel plot generated with the y-axis showing the Standard Error (SE) of each study, with larger studies plotted on top of the y-axis indicates indicates publication bias and subsequently, the x-axis showed the effect of each study. The studies with high precision concentrate along the line of average when the publication bias is almost nil, whereas those with low precision distribute evenly on either side of the average line, creating generally a funnel shaped scatter (Egger et al., 1997) . The symmetry of the funnel plot was adjusted by the Trim-and-fill method. Graphical representation of the data was depicted in Forest Plot. The restricted maximum-likelihood estimator was used to determine between study variance s 2 . The prevalence estimates for duck diseases was expressed as a percentage with a Confidence Interval (CI) at the 95% level. Subgroup analysis was conducted based on species affected, a diagnostic method used, zones of India and continents of the world for determining the heterogeneity in each group and their comparison. In the present study, the data was stratified based on type of diseases and forest plots generated using the R software.

Articles reporting the prevalence of duck diseases were thoroughly screened and irrelevant ones were excluded. A total of 55 articles were selected suitable for the study including 80 studies for systematic review and meta-analysis. All the articles described the prevalence of various duck diseases of bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections. Systematic Review was conducted to study the reported duck diseases worldwide including those in India. Articles retrieved were from countries belonging to Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania regions. All articles used in our study were restricted to the English language only and the study period selected was between 2000 and 2019.

The worldwide percentage prevalence of different duck diseases was estimated statistically using R software to generate forest and funnel plots, of which, the viral diseases were found to be the most Wang et al., 2010 Zhang et al., 2011 Cong et al., 2012 Yang et al., 2012 Zhao et al., 2013 Yun et al., 2015 Chen et al., 2016 Yeh et al., 2017 Li et al., 2017Liu et al., 2010 , 2018 Duck Parvovirus, T. gondii, Duck Parvovirus, Duck Circovirus, DHAV, Avian Influenza, DEV/DP, Respiratory enteric orphan virus, Cryptosporiodiosis, Colibacillosis, Duck Reovirus, Newcastle disease Nepal Karki et al., 2014 Avian Influenza Japan Kamomae et al., 2017 DHAV Bangladesh Mondal et al., 2008Islam et al., 2009 Hoque et al., 2011; Khatun et al., 2013; Das et al., 2005; Ahmed et al., 2015 Colibacillosis, Duck Cholera, DEV/DP, DHAV, Coccidiosis, Salmonellosis, avian Influenza India Mishra et al., 2012; OIE, 2015a OIE, , 2015b Kalaiyarasu et al., 2016; Mandal et al., 2017; Neher et al., 2019 West prevalent. Articles retrieved were from the countries belonged to Asia (9 countries), Europe (2 countries), Africa (4 countries), North America (3 countries), South America (7 countries), and Oceania (Australia) regions (Table 2 ). The pooled prevalence of duck diseases worldwide was found to be 20% (95%-CI: 15-26%), I 2 = 100%, and s 2 value was 0.0990, p = 0 (Fig. 2) . Continent-wise analysis of all duck diseases has revealed highest prevalence in North America 29% (95% CI = 13-49%) , followed by Asia 23% (95% CI = 16-31%) , Africa 23% (95% CI = 8-41%) , Europe 16% (95% CI = 10-25%) , Oceania 5.43% and South America 2% . (Fig. 3) The total number of studies included for meta-analysis was 55 with 438,518 samples for the period 2000-2019. The meta-analysis indicated that the heterogeneity was high between studies, I 2 = 100% (s 2 = 0.0990 with P = 0), and hence the random effect model was considered. With the available reports on the prevalence of duck diseases from India, the pooled prevalence of various diseases of duck were also calculated. The prevalence rate of duck diseases reported in India during 2000-2019 was found to be 22% (95%-CI: 4-48%), with I 2 = 99% and s 2 value 0.1357, p < 0.01 (Fig. 4) .

The prevalence avian influenza was 9% (95%-CI: 4-15%), I 2 = 100%, s 2 value was 0.0387p = 0 (Fig. 5) , Meanwhile, studies on duck tembusu virus infection revealed a prevalence of 23% (95%-CI: 18-28%) in Bangkok. Whereas, prevalence of Newcastle Disease was found to be 23% (95%-CI: 7-46%), I 2 = 97%, s 2 value was 0.0737, p < 0.01 (Fig. 6) . Prevalence of West Nile virus infection was found to be 13% (95%-CI: 0-40%), I 2 = 97%, s 2 value was = 0.0725, p < 0.01 as shown in Fig. 7 . Two articles of duck circovirus from South Korea and China showed 52% (95%-CI: 3-98%) prevalence (Fig. 8) . Duck parvovirus infection from China (3 articles) revealed a prevalence of 49% (95%-CI: 2-97%) (Fig. 9) , whereas the duck hepatitis A virus infection showed a prevalence of 28% (95%-CI: 3-63%) (Fig. 10) . In the case of duck plague infection in Asian countries showed a prevalence of 35% (95%-CI: 14-59%) (Fig. 11) . A single article on Japanese encephalitis from India showed a 10% prevalence (95%-CI: 6-15%). Infectious bursal disease and infectious laryngotracheitis showed a prevalence estimate of 6% (95%-CI: 3-9%) and 52% (95%-CI: 7-94%) respectively. Duck respiratory enteric orphan virus infection and duck reovirus infection, both articles from China showed a prevalence of 1% and 58% respectively, while avian coronavirus infection showed 21% prevalence in ducks from Sweden.

Six bacterial diseases of ducks were analysed in this study. Prevalence of salmonellosis in ducks was found to be 20% (95%-CI: 8-35%) with heterogeneity I 2 = 96%, s 2 value was 0.0432, p < 0.01 (Fig. 12) , whereas duck campylobacteriosis showed prevalence of 53% (95%-CI: 6-97%) with heterogeneity I 2 = 99%, s 2 value was 0.2493, p < 0.01 (Fig. 13) . Duck colibacillosis revealed the prevalence of 10% (95%-CI: 1-29%) with heterogeneity I 2 = 94%, s 2 value was 0.0579, p < 0.01 (Fig. 14) . A total of three articles on duck cholera reported from Bangladesh showed a prevalence of 11% (95%-CI: 2-25%) with heterogeneity I 2 = 97%, s 2 value was 0.0273, p < 0.01 (Fig. 15 ). Prevalence of duck Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection was found to be 7% (95%-CI: 1-20%). Prevalence of a single study on three bacterial diseases viz., Riemerella infection, listeriosis, and yersiniosis was found to be 2%, 20%, and 27% respectively.

Two studies on parasitic diseases of ducks were selected in this study viz., toxoplasmosis, and coccidiosis whose prevalence was found to be 17% (95%-CI: 6-31%) and 29% (95%-CI: 0-1%) respectively .

To assess the heterogeneity between-study reports, a Galbraith plot was generated (Fig. 18) . The standardized effect estimates against inverse standard error were shown as scattered points in the plot. The points representing the study reports outside confidence bounds may be contributing to the heterogeneity. In the absence of heterogeneity, all points (reports) are expected to lie within the confidence limits centring around the line. S.S. Patil, R. Shinduja, Kuralayanapalya Puttahonnappa Suresh et al. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28 (2021) 5131-5144 practiced by economically disadvantaged people of the society in some countries. Duck meat contributes to food security in low and middle-income countries. Vast majority of the ducks are raised in households or subsistence-based production system (backyard or small flocks) There are no systematic reports of the occurrence of infectious diseases in ducks in India and elsewhere. Hence the efforts were made to gather information on prevalence of duck disease available in public domains. The information on duck diseases was reviewed and analysed using different statistical tools/methods including meta-analysis. A meta-analysis combines the results from two or more studies conducted by different individuals to provide a single value with high statistical power. In the present study, a systematic review of scientific publications on the prevalence of duck diseases was conducted for 19 years (2000) (2001) (2002) (2003) (2004) (2005) (2006) (2007) (2008) (2009) (2010) (2011) (2012) (2013) (2014) (2015) (2016) (2017) (2018) (2019) .

After the screening of articles, data was extracted from 55 crosssectional studies published in peer-reviewed journals that reported the prevalence of various duck diseases, reviewed systematically, and conducted a meta-analysis. Meta-analysis showed high heterogeneity, I = 100%, s 2 = 0.0990 indicating a true heterogeneity among the studies. Further, asymmetry in the funnel plot showed heterogeneity of studies since very few studies on the pre- valence of different duck diseases were available in a limited number of countries within the continents.

In the present study, articles on the prevalence of infectious diseases of duck in different countries between 2000 and 2019 were analysed. The reports were scanty. The continent-wise analysis revealed a diversified prevalence of duck diseases. In the Asian continent (23% prevalence), China reported the majority of duck diseases that may be due to the highest population of ducks in that country, followed by India, Bangladesh, South Korea, Malaysia, Bangkok. India and Bangladesh have reported a maximum of duck diseases. West Bengal and Assam states of India shares border with Bangladesh which is porous in nature. There is no restriction of movement of men and materials hence there are possibilities of transboundary movement of ducks without proper health records in these borders. Meanwhile, only one report per country was retrieved from Nepal, Japan, and Iran. The articles from Norway and Sweden reporting on the prevalence of Avian influenza in ducks were from Europe (16% prevalence). In Africa (23% prevalence), reports on the prevalence of duck diseases were from Mali, Egypt, Burkina Faso, and Nigeria. North America reported a 29% prevalence of duck diseases from Canada, Maryland, and Alaska, whereas South America including Latin America reported a 2% prevalence of duck diseases from Peru, Columbia, Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala, and West Indies. There was only a report on prevalence (5.43%) of avian Influenza from Australia (Oceania continent).

During 2000-2007, duck diseases were under reported and gradually a number of reports on disease prevalence showed an increasing trend from 2008 to 2015 that may be due to adoption of more precise tools in disease diagnosis (Fig. 19) , thereafter a declining trend was observed 2016 onwards that may be due to better health care management.

From the analysis, it is evident that the viral disease remains predominant when compared to bacterial, and parasitic infections. It was found that the viral disease incidence is highly concentrated towards the eastern countries such as China, Korea, Japan and Bangladesh. This may be due to the robust disease reporting system available. However, under reporting of the disease is one of the major drawbacks. During our study, we observed that the reports of duck disease are very scanty which causes the poor availability of previous references. This causes hindrance in evaluating out a strategic plan to control the diseases.

Despite being an important factor in the poultry industry, duck diseases often tend to bring great economic loss to the farmers. Hence, it is important to take precautionary measures by vaccination, better health management practices and also other farm related biosecurity procedures to avoid infections.

Further to meta-analysis, barring selection bias, systematic reviews helps the revision of all the scientific evidence on a given topic. Based on the output, the summarized information can be used to propose hypotheses that explain the behaviour of the data and to identify areas of gaps where further research is needed (Afanador-Villamizar et al., 2017; Moher et al., 2010) . However, it is a controversial tool because several conditions are critical and even small violations of these can lead to misleading conclusions. While designing and performing a meta-analysis, several decisions concerning personal judgment and expertise need to be made that may eventually create bias or expectations that influence the result (Greco et al., 2013) .

This meta-analysis indicated that pooled prevalence of various duck diseases worldwide during the period 2000-2019 was found to be 20% (95% CI = 15-26%) and the pooled prevalence estimate for India was found to be 22% (95% CI: 4-48%) which might be due to increased reporting of duck disease during recent years using precise tools for disease diagnosis. Concerning viral diseases, it was observed that the disease occurrence was concentrated towards the Asian subcontinent especially countries like India, China, and Korea as they have a high number of ducks. Among the viral diseases reported, Avian Influenza was found to be the most predominant followed by Duck Plague and Duck Hepatitis Viral Infections. In the case of bacterial infections in ducks, Salmonellosis was the most prevalent in Bangladesh, North Korea, China, and Malaysia. Among Parasitic diseases, Toxoplasma gondii infection was found to be most prevalent in China. Very little information is available concerning parasitic infection of ducks. Although there is an increase in the total duck population, India still faces a high threat of economic loss due to infectious diseases. Furthermore, awareness amongst farmers about disease reporting to their nearest veterinary doctors, following prevention, control measures, and biosecurity practices can drastically help to reduce duck mortality.

Not applicable as the study utilised the published data available in the web.

Not applicable since the data used in this study was from peerreviewed published articles and are available in the public domain for which DOI is mentioned against each reference.

Not applicable since the entire study utilised the published data available in the internet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Authors acknowledge the guidance provided by the Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi, Government of India. Authors thank Dr. Mahesh, Director and Dr. Abhijit of CPDO & TI, Hessarghatta, Bengaluru for providing duck population data. Thanks are due to Dr. Siju, Scientist, ICAR-NIVEDI for providing world map shape files. Authors are grateful to the Director ICAR-NIVEDI for his constant help and support during the work. Authors acknowledge the Head of the Institute, JSS Academy of Higher Education, Mysuru and the Director, Amrita School of Arts and Sciences, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Mysuru Campus, Mysuru for the support.

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Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.05.034.