key: cord-0730770-ucqpuo93
authors: Suthar, Surinder; Das, Sukanya; Nagpure, Ajay; Madhurantakam, Chaithanya; Tiwari, Satya Brat; Gahlot, Pallavi; Tyagi, Vinay Kumar
title: Epidemiology and diagnosis, environmental resources quality and socio-economic perspectives for COVID-19 pandemic
date: 2020-11-25
journal: J Environ Manage
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111700
sha: e96e518df56c23901ae2eeec153ee6225a7c2bb4
doc_id: 730770
cord_uid: ucqpuo93

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as a global issue of concern for public health, environment and socio-economic setup. This review addresses several aspects of epidemiology, and pathogenesis, environmental resource quality (air quality, hazardous waste management, and wastewater surveillance issues), and socio-economic issues worldwide. The accelerated research activity in the development of diagnostic kits for SARS-CoV-2 is in progress for the rapid sequencing of various strains of SARS-CoV-2. A notable reduction in air pollutants (NO2 and PM2.5) has been observed worldwide, but high air polluted cities showed intense mortalities in COVID-19 affected areas. The use of health safety equipment halted transportation, and work-from-home policy drastically impacted the quantity of solid and hazardous wastes management services. Wastewater appeared as another mode of enteric transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Thus, wastewater-based surveillance could act as a mode of the data source to track the virus’s community spread. The pandemic also had a substantial socio-economic impact (health budget, industrial manufacturing, job loss, and unemployment) and further aggravated the countries' economic burden.

The modes of transmission and precautionary measures, and survival times of SARS-CoV-2 on 123 various surfaces are illustrated in Figure 2 . The asymptomatic transmission has been extensively 124 studied to understand the escalation in infection (Steffens, 2020) . In this regard, the study on the 125 outbreak on board of the cruise ship-Diamond Princess revealed that ~18 % of total infections 126 documented were asymptomatic (Mizumoto et al., 2020) . Experimental studies on the viability of 127 SARS-CoV-2 in aerosols (stable for ~3 hours) and various surfaces (stable for ~72 hours) indicated that there will be a sustained transmission chain with continuous human-to-human transmission. 143

However, this R 0 value has been re-calibrated by the studies performed by Steven et al. 2020 to ~4.7 144 (yet to be published). The preventive measures so far for SARS-CoV-2 to arrest the spread have 145 been the three-pronged mechanism involving (i) an early detection and isolation, (ii) contact 146 tracing, and (iii) appropriate use of personal protective equipment (PPE). 147 The accelerated research activity in the development of diagnostic kits for SARS-CoV-2 is 168 in progress for the rapid sequencing of various strains of SARS-CoV-2. It is to be noted that SARS-169

CoV-2 infection leads to the production of anti-viral protein antigens and antibodies in the host 170 system, which can be utilized for diagnosing COVID-19. Serological testing mechanisms such as Almost 2.9 billion people globally use solid biomass for daily cooking and heating needs, 267 the primary source of household indoor air pollution. Every year more than four million people die 268 prematurely globally due to the exposure to this high indoor air pollution. The COVID-19 269 lockdown stay home norms have reduced the outdoor air pollution extensively. However, it is 270 difficult to say that people around the world have less exposure to air pollution, primarily those who 271 use solid fuel for cooking. The indoor PM2.5 concentration in households using solid fuel for 272 cooking ranges between 150 µg/m³ and 800 µg/m³, many times higher than the regular days' 273 outdoor PM2.5 concentration. Regular days on average solid fuel users population spend 20% of 274 their time outside the home where the PM2.5 level is less than the indoor level (NSSO, 1998) . 275

During COVID-19, lockdown stay home norms entire population have to remain inside the home, 276 which indicates that in this solid fuel user households more exposed to higher air pollution as 277 compared to pre-COVID-19 days. 278 279

Formulation of well-informed policies by the health sector duly owes its success to numerous 281 valuation studies that were performed globally in the past few decades. These valuation studies 282 were aimed at quantifying the adverse impacts of environmental degradation on human health 283 interrelationship between mortality rate and patient with SARS-CoV-2 in China. They found that 297 the death rate in areas with low pollution levels was 4.08, while areas with moderate and high air 298 pollution levels showed about 7.49 and 8.9 % mortality during this COVID-19 pandemic in China. 299

In contrary to these, few recent studies indicate the reduction in disease burden mainly due to NO 2 300 and PM 2·5 , mainly by improved air qualities under this COVID-19 lockdown period. For example, 301 suggested that it will be too early to prove a direct relationship between current air pollution 312 scenarios and incidences of COVID-19. The high pollution could have increased the risk in the first 313 level, but long-term monitoring is also needed to establish a correlation between urban air quality 314 and death rate during COVID-19 outbreak. 315 316

As per the WHO, SARS-CoV-2 does not easily outspread through the sewerage system. These samples reflect the whole community as everyone contributes to it, say, sewage from a 335 wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) or surface water sources (lakes, ponds, river stretch) in an 336 area. From these samples, biological or chemical compounds can be extracted, analysed, and 337 interpreted to test a hypothesis. These compounds, often called biomarkers, can be chemicals like 338 food toxicants and anthropogenic excretion products, like metabolites (Sims and Hordern, 2020). 339

For example, WBE was successfully applied to find the pattern of illicit drug consumption in a 340 community. Higher than expected concentration of illicit drugs was found in the sewage, which 341 helps to reveal the types and rates of drug usage and to trace the hotspots of drug usage more 342 precisely and possibly gauge the success of police countermeasures (Main et al., 2014) . 343 344 345

Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) and wastewater surveillance approach could be used as a 347 non-invasive early-warning tool to alert the public to new COVID-19 infections (Mallapaty, 2020) . 348 Table 2 summarizes the findings of testing SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater at different WWTPs, 349 sewerage systems, manholes, and surface waters during the year 2020. In a recent study in Australia 350 (2020b) concluded that SARS-CoV-2 has a poor survival rate in the water environment than non-385 enveloped viruses, and it is very sensitive to temperature (deactivate rapidly at 23°C -25 °C than at 386 contagious virion (virus particle 

Recently, a group from Cranfield Water Science Institute developed a small portable paper-based 395 device to detect SARS-CoV-2 on-site in wastewater and track disease carriers in the community 396 It has been recognized as an essential tool to detect an infectious disease outbreak previously 418 (WHO, 2013) for other viral diseases. Many countries like Australia, Israel, China, and many 419

As evident in current scenario, diseases can spread across borders very quickly. Hence, there is a 421 compelling case to operationalize it internationally, especially as it is it is much faster and cheaper 422 than clinical surveillance. For this, the researchers, industry, and government decision-makers must 423 work together. Figure S3 78 % of the total biomedical waste generated was treated at CBMWTFs and rest was buried at 510 landfill sites or disposed to unknown places. According to a post published by SUEZ, an 511 international firm associated with medical waste incineration business, indicates that biomedical 512 waste being treated has risen by 50 % and 40 % in France, and Netherlands during this COVID-19 513 pandemic (SUEZ, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic affected the waste management industry 514 drastically in terms of capital investment, working forces, and circular economy breakdowns.

Reuse and recycling practices have been recommended as key initiatives for solid waste 518 management programme worldwide to reduce the volume of waste reaching to landfill sites and to International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimated (as of 22 April 2020), that would be a significant 608 impact on 1.6 billion informal sector workers accounting around 76 % of informal employment 609 (ILO, 2020). Their estimates suggest that the income losses associated with them will be enormous Countries predominantly relying on the service sector, higher levels of informality and fragile 612 safeguards against the termination of employment experienced higher job losses (ILO, 2020). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic also had an impact on the environment. The urban 646 air quality significantly improved due to no vehicular emission as well as other closure of coal-647 based thermal power plants. Helm (2020) concluded that the intergenerational equity will be worse 648

where the future generations will be overburdened with-'appreciable debt to support consumption 649 levels now over national incomes. The debt associated with new fiscal stimuli to address the 650 negative economic consequences of the current pandemic; specific debt to fund investments 651 designed to reduce future pollution'. 652 653

The combined impact of health and economic crisis had a serious threat to economies and human 655 lives and have triggered rapid and remarkable policy action around the world (IMF, 2020). The responses targeting the impact on the environment due to COVID-19 crisis as suggested by IMF 671 (2020) may involve facilitating public green investment projects, introducing a carbon tax, green 672 financing, financial support from the high-income countries to the vulnerable ones which can assist 673 them in cutting their emission level and recharge their disaster funds which have been already 674 utilised to deal with COVID-19 pandemic.

The preventive measures adopted so far to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2 have been the three-678 pronged mechanism involving (i) an early detection and isolation, (ii) contact tracing, and (iii) 

Epidemiology and pathogenesis: Chaithanya Madhurantakam

• COVID-19 pandemic and global air quality: Some good news and some bad news: Surinder 704

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