key: cord-0729489-cdo7y3ob authors: Fthenakis, G.C.; Mavrogianni, V.S.; Gallidis, E.; Papadopoulos, E. title: Interactions between parasitic infections and reproductive efficiency in sheep date: 2015-02-28 journal: Vet Parasitol DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.12.017 sha: 651eef028c139973a5dbaad228810c798f9f6d1e doc_id: 729489 cord_uid: cdo7y3ob This review article summarises the many reports in the literature, confirming that, in sheep, parasitic infections can adversely affect reproductive efficiency; examples, which refer to all parts of the reproductive cycle of sheep, are as follows: trichostrongylosis in ewe-lambs (which can lead to delayed attainment of puberty), myiosis of the prepuce (which can cause impediment of mating), chorioptic mange or trypanosomosis in rams (which can lead to testicular degeneration or azoospermia, respectively), trypanosomosis or sarcoptic mange in pre-conceptual ewes (which can lead to poor conception rates or reduced number of ovulations, respectively), toxoplasmosis or neosporosis in pregnant ewes (which are causes of abortion), trichostrongylosis or trematode infections in lactating ewes (which can cause reduction of milk yield and can be a risk factor for mastitis, respectively), cryptosporidiosis in newborn lambs (which can be a cause of deaths), coccidiosis in growing pre-weaned lambs (which can cause suboptimal growth rate). In other cases, the reproductive status of the animal can influence the parasitic infection; examples are as follows: the increase in faecal parasitic output during the peri-parturient period (as a consequence of the peri-parturient relaxation of immunity), the heavier trichostrongylid infections of twin lambs compared to lambs from single parities (as a consequence of developmental origin issues in twin lambs). All the above examples support the idea of presence of interactions between parasitic infections and reproductive efficiency in sheep. In sheep, 'reproductive efficiency' includes the ability of ewes to ovulate, be mated, conceive with semen from fertile rams, carry foetuses to term and, finally, lamb live-born lambs, which will be weaned in the appropriate time at an optimal bodyweight. The term implies efficient conception through active gametes, uninterrupted pregnancy, normal delivery of the newborn(s) ('eutocia'), unimpaired lactation Within this frame, trichostrongylid gastrointestinal infections currently are among the major challenges in sheep health management, due to the widespread anthelmintic resistance in many parts of the world Torres-Acosta et al., 2012) , which increases potential adverse effects in health and welfare of animals. The present paper reviews and discusses interactions between parasitic infections and reproductive efficiency in sheep. The article focuses only on direct effects of parasites on the reproductive efficiency of sheep. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that many arthropods (flies, midges, ticks, etc.) can transmit various infective agents, which may adversely affect the reproductive efficiency of sheep. Examples of such agents include Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Stuen and Longbottom, 2011) , as well as various viruses, e.g., the Bluetongue virus (Osburn, 2007) , the Rift Valley Fever virus (Bath, 2007) and the Schmallenberg virus (Lievaart-Peterson et al., 2012) , which have a foetopathic and/or abortifacient effect. In this article, the topics are organised in a pattern according to the reproductive cycle of small ruminants. Puberty is the end point of a series of events affecting the development of the 'hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal' axis leading to reproductive competence. From a practical point of view, puberty for females is the age at which the animal can support pregnancy to term. Puberty is a complex mechanism involving primarily the reactivation of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretory system, affected by various factors (Senger, 2003; Ebling, 2005) . Among those, energy-deprived animals have been found to have a delayed puberty that has been attributed to a lesser frequency of GnRH pulses and accordingly of luteinizing hormone (LH) pulses I'anson et al., 1997; Polkowska et al., 2003) . The age at which ewe-lambs are mated, is crucial for productivity of a flock, since cost is high for maintaining unbred animals in a flock. Management of ewe-lambs for enhanced reproductive performance requires increased energy availability. This can be achieved by either increasing energy intake by the animal (i.e., availability of high-energy ration or increased quantity of feed) or by reducing its energy drains (e.g., anthelmintic treatment) . Possibly therefore, parasitic infections can have an effect in attainment of puberty through interaction with energy intake as discussed herebelow. There is evidence that parasitic infections, specifically gastrointestinal trichostrongylid or Trypanosoma congolense (Osaer et al., 1999) infections, can adversely affect onset of puberty and age at first lambing by depressing weight gain of affected animals. Administration of a long-acting nematocide anthelmintic, which effectively protected treated ewe-lambs for up to 85 days post-ram introduction, allowed treated animals to exhibit their full reproductive potential during that time . Treated ewe-lambs showed earlier reproductive activity, as expressed by short 'interval to first mating after ram introduction' and increased 'cycling rate'; this resulted in significantly younger 'age at first mating' . Anthelmintic-treated ewe-lambs reached heavier bodyweight, which is a determinant for puberty in sheep ; thus, they were mated and conceived earlier than untreated controls. There are also similar findings in cattle, showing that nematode-infected heifers reach puberty with a delay compared to uninfected animals (Díaz-Torga et al., 2001) . Genital myiosis caused by various dipteran insects, can lead to vulvar oedema and subcutaneous fistulae around the vulva in ewes and to difficult/partial exteriorising of penis and markedly thickened prepuce with subcutaneous fistulae along the tissue in rams (Fragkou et al., 2013) . These lesions can impede mating. Development of myiosis lesions takes place during the summer months (Wall, 2012) . At para-Mediterranean areas and other locations of similar (north hemisphere) or of respective (south hemisphere) geographical latitude, summer months coincide with the sheep reproductive season; at more northern (north hemisphere) or more southern (south hemisphere) latitudes, they precede that period (Abecia et al., 2011 (Abecia et al., , 2012 . Tick predilection for the genital organs (vulvar mucosa, scrotum) of sheep has been reported (Fourie and Kok, 1995; Mbuh et al., 2008) and may be responsible for local nuisance and/or inflammatory reaction, which may also adversely affect mating. One may also suggest that ectoparasitic infections with intense pruritus (e.g., heavy lice infestation, mange) could lead to reduced mating activity of rams, as these animals would be busy scratching rather than being sexually active. Ridler et al. (2012) have proposed that parasitic diseases can affect the scrotal circumference of rams and that parasite control is important for keeping rams sound for breeding. Scrotal circumference in rams has been associated with their reproductive performance (Kafi et al., 2004; Gouletsou and Fthenakis, 2010) . However, Gaglio et al. (2010) have not identified a significant effect of gastrointestinal trichostrongylid infection to semen parametres in rams. (Rhodes, 1975 (Rhodes, , 1976 has presented evidence that extensive chorioptic mange in the scrotum of rams led to reduced quality of their semen, due to seminal degeneration, as a consequence of long-standing increased intra-scrotal temperature due to the inflammation; semen quality was restored after cure of the skin lesions. Lopes et al. (2009) have identified that Toxoplasma gondii-infected rams have produced smaller volumes of ejaculate than healthy animals, whilst Sangare et al. (2010) have reported azoospermia in Tr. congolense-infected rams. Finally, Sarasa et al. (2011) have reported that sarcoptic mange can cause reduction of the testicular mass in Capra pyrenaica (a wild small ruminant); these findings may have implications for sheep, in which species sarcoptic mange is a significant health problem (Doukas et al., 2007) . Moreover, parasitic agents may be transmitted through the semen of rams. T. gondii shedding has been identified in the semen of rams (De Moraes et al., 2010a,b) and the possibility for transmission of the parasite to ewes during mating has been described (De Moraes et al., 2010a,b) depending on the tachyzoite content of semen. In a recent study, DNA of Neospora caninum was detected in the semen of experimentally infected rams (Syed-Hussain et al., 2013) , although none of the ewes mated with those rams developed the disease. No relevant studies are available regarding Besnoitia infection of rams. Nevertheless, experimental work performed in bucks has indicated that Besnoitia caprae can affect their genital system, with cysts of the protozoon identified in the testicular parenchyma and the scrotum (Oryan et al., 2011) . Other clinical studies have indicated that Besnoitia besnoiti can affect the testicular parenchyma and scrotum of bulls (Sekoni et al., 1992; Dubey et al., 2013) , leading to reduced libido and suboptimal semen quality, although in subsequent studies the protozoon could not be detected in the semen of affected bulls (Esteban-Gil et al., 2014) . In general, there is still little published evidence to corroborate an adverse association between parasitism and testicular function (which is reflected in semen quality), although available results point out to that direction. Possibly, parasitic infections can directly affect semen quality of rams and, hence, influence conception rates in a flock. Alternatively, changes in testicular function can lead to reduced production of testosterone, which is a determinant of a ram's sexual behaviour and social ranking within a flock (Parkinson, 1996) ; this may lead to changes in social interactions and behaviours during mating period. All the above can affect conception rates in a flock, especially if the ram:ewe ratio is at the lower acceptable level or if reproductive management techniques are applied in the flock. This is an area where further work will elucidate mechanisms and potential interactions between parasitism and reproduction. The period immediately before and around conception is a potentially vulnerable period. During that period, adverse developmental origin of the foetus might initiate, as the result of reduced availability of nutrients to the female animal (Fleming et al., 2012) . The significance of increased energy available to ewes in the pre-conception period has been recognised for a long time (Clark, 1934; Walkden-Brown et al., 1999; Dobson et al., 2012) . Increased energy is provided to ewes by means of modifying the nutritional regime in the period before ewes would be put with rams for mating. At the start of the mating season, ewes should have a body-condition score of '3' to '3.5' on the five-point scale (Lovatt, 2010) . 'Flushing' consists of administration of an additional quantity of concentrate feed mixture, on top of the ration administered to cover maintenance requirements of the animals and should commence at least 35 days before start of the mating period; that interval is equivalent to the length of two full oestrous cycles of sheep. In animals with appropriate body-condition score, this increased energy feeding aims to producing higher ovulation numbers, leading to greater number of lambs born per ewe. In animals at lower body condition score, there is a benefit to other reproductive parametres (e.g., earlier start of the annual reproductive activity, improved cycling and lambing rate), but no significant improvement in their fecundity (Heasman et al., 1998; Fthenakis et al., 2012) . The converse is also true. Poor body condition of ewes is associated with reduced fertility, characterised by delayed oestrus development and reduced 'cycling rate' in a flock. Ovulation rates decrease as body condition score of the animals deteriorates (Dobson et al., 2012) , whilst embryo mortality at the early stages of pregnancy is higher in undernourished animals (Gunn and Doney, 1975) . In general, decreased energy availability around the peri-conceptional period, depresses reproductive performance of extensively (Hill Farming Research Organisation, 1979) or intensively (Orskov, 1982) managed sheep and leads to reduced cyclic activity, reduced ovulation rates and suboptimal ova survival, as well as increased risk of early embryonic deaths (Gunn, 1967) . Decreased energy availability at the post-conception period leads to compensatory changes in the gravid uterus later in pregnancy, e.g., increased vascular density of the placentomes (Zhu et al., 2007) , which in turn can lead to higher risk of foetal infection with parasitic abortifacient agents (Section 6.1), especially in multiple pregnancies; health of the lamb(s) after birth is also adversely affected (Fleming et al., 2012) . Lambs from multiple parities were found to be more heavily infected with trichostrongylids than lambs from single parities (Hayward et al., 2010) . Twin foetuses develop a between-them competition for nutrients, are enveloped by a smaller placenta than single foetuses and live in a restricted physical space . The findings of Hayward et al. (2010) are in line with the 'Developmental Origins of Health and Disease' concept (formerly known as foetal programming or the Barker hypothesis), which implicates early in utero development and the maternal environment experienced during that period as being of significance to development of disease in adulthood (Fleming et al., 2012) . The most significant energy-drain of clinically healthy sheep is parasitism by gastrointestinal helminths. The effects of these parasites in reducing energy availability for their hosts have been well documented (Coop and Kyriazakis, 1999) . These authors have proposed that gastrointestinal nematodes can reduce nutrient availability to the host, through a reduction in voluntary feed intake and/or a reduction in the efficiency of absorbed nutrients; the relative contribution of each of these two mechanisms depend on the species of parasite and its location in the gastrointestinal tract (Coop and Kyriazakis, 1999) . With regard to trematode infections, reduced feed conversion efficiency, present even in low burden infections (Hawkins and Morris, 1978) , as well as depressed appetite and feed intake, also occurring in these helminthoses (Taylor et al., 2007; Rojo-Vázquez et al., 2012) , contribute to decreased energy availability for affected sheep. It thus becomes evident that parasitism by the above helminths may affect reproductive efficiency in ewes during the peri-conception period, mostly through the decreased energy availability for the animals. The precise adverse effects can vary depending on the level of parasitism and the general condition of the animal. It is also noteworthy that reduced feed intake occurring in such cases, would reduce the benefits of supplementation with high-energy feed before mating ('flushing'), as animals would not benefit from all energy provided. Similar results have been published in cases of T. congolense infection (Osaer et al., 1998) . Affected animals showed lower rates of conception and pregnancy and had lower concentrations of progesterone, which is a major factor in establishment of pregnancy, with a function to synchronise development of the maternal endometrium with intrauterine arrival of the embryo (Wilmut and Sales, 1981; Lawson and Cahill, 1983) . As an association between luteal phase progesterone blood concentrations and embryo survival has been suggested (Noakes, 1996) , perhaps the reduced progesterone levels may be responsible for the conception problems in affected ewes. Fthenakis et al. (2001) reported that Sarcoptes scabieiinfested ewes had fewer ovulations than uninfested animals and attributed that to nutrient availability at the pre-conception period. Nevertheless, when progesterone and equine chorionic gonadotrophin were administered exogenously, no differences were evident between infested and healthy animals. This indirectly suggests reduced hormone concentrations in the parasitised animals during the peri-conceptional period, which lends further support to the idea of sarcoptic mange influencing embryo implantation and survival. In sheep, there are no reports directly associating quality of female gametes (ova) with parasitism. Nevertheless, some relevant results have been published in cattle. Tritrichomonas foetus has been reported to damage oocytes (Benchimol et al., 2007) . Also, N. caninum has been detected in bovine follicles during assisted reproduction manipulations (Silva et al., 2012) , as well as in bovine foetuses (Marques et al., 2011) , although there are reports suggesting that embryo transfer is a safe method to avoid vertical transmission of these protozoon (Landmann et al., 2002; Moskwa et al., 2008) . These implications should be borne in mind, as assisted reproductive technologies for sheep are developing and being applied in larger numbers of animals (Amiridis and Cseh, 2012) . In view of the above, one should consider the strategic administration of anthelmintic drugs before the start of the mating period, with a view to improve reproductive efficiency. In fact, Mavrogianni et al. (2011) have reported that ewes given a broad-spectrum long-acting anthelmintic before the start of the mating period had a higher 'cycling rate' reflecting better functionality of the genital system of the treated animals and higher 'total lambs born per ewe' and 'liveborn lambs per ewe' indicating increased number of ovulations during the peri-conceptional period. In dairytype production systems, anthelmintic administration at the pre-conception period (which coincides with the end of a lactation period) would also contribute to maintaining a longer persistency of lactation (another energy-dependent function), although drug withdrawal periods (Athanasiou et al., 2009 ) should be taken into account when designing strategic treatments. Finally, anthelmintic administration before the mating season has the added advantage of avoiding the inadverted administration of albendazole or netobimin, broad-spectrum anthelmintics with confirmed embryotoxic properties (Delatour et al., 1981; Navarro et al., 1998) , to ewes at the first stage of pregnancy. As sheep have a seasonal pattern of reproductive activity, depending on the geographical latitude, the pre-mating period would also differ according to location. Hence, administration of anthelmintics at that period would have differing effects from a parasitological viewpoint, resulting from the difference in season. This should be taken into account when strategic treatments are carried out at the pre-mating period. Furthermore, one should have in mind the possibility of promoting anthelmintic resistance that way and should consider an appropriate cost-benefit analysis. One should always take into account that in para-Mediterranean areas and locations of similar latitude (in the north hemisphere), as well as in locations of respective latitude in the south hemisphere, reproductive activity of sheep would start at the beginning of the summer (hence, anthelmintic administration should be planned for late spring). Moreover, in more northern (north hemisphere) or more southern (south hemisphere) areas, reproductive activity of sheep would start in the autumn (hence, anthelmintic administration should be planned for late summer). Foetopathies and abortions are significant problems in pregnant ewes and major sources of financial losses in sheep flocks (Menzies, 2012) . Various protozoa can cause abortion in ewes. The principal problem by parasites in pregnant ewes is toxoplasmosis, caused by the intracellular protozoon T. gondii, which is a confirmed abortifacient agent (Buxton and Rodger, 2007) . Ewes often become infected through consumption of oocyst-contaminated concentrate feed, given to the animals as an energy-supplement (Buxton and Rodger, 2007) . If infection takes place before the 61st-80th day of gestation, embryonic death occurs, followed by absorption or expulsion of small embryos, rarely being noticed. If infection takes place later, up to the 110th-115th day of gestation, then abortion takes place. Finally, if infection takes place after that, congenitally infected lambs are born. In embryos, the organism causes coagulative necrosis in the placental cotyledons, as well as microglial foci, representing an immune response (Buxton and Rodger, 2007) . Toxoplasmosis has been well-studied around the world, with many scientific references describing all aspects of the disease (Buxton and Rodger, 2007; Dubey, 2009) . Neosporosis, caused by the protozoon N. caninum, is an emerging reproductive problem in ewes; many facets of the disease still remain unclear (Dubey and Schares, 2011) . In the initial literature, the infection had not been always associated with abortion (Otter et al., 1997; Chanton-Greutmann et al., 2002) , despite evidence showing the abortifacient role of the organism in experimental infections (Buxton et al., , 2001 . Progressively, however, reports from various parts of the world have associated the parasite with abortion in ewes (Masala et al., 2007; Spilovská et al., 2009; Howe et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2012) , although frequency and clinical significance of the problem require further elucidation (Dubey and Schares, 2011) . The organism establishes itself in the maternal caruncular septum, before crossing to the foetal placental villi. A direct foetopathic effect of the organism has been described to be the cause of abortion (Innes, 2007; Gibney et al., 2008) , although further studies are necessary to fully clarify the pathogenesis of the infection. Other protozoa that have been reported with an abortifacient role, include Sarcocystis ovicanis (S. tenella), S. arieticanis, Trypanosoma brucei subsp. brucei, T. congolense, T. vivax and Theileria spp. (Buxton, 1998; Heckeroth and Tenter, 1998; Bawa et al., 2000; Nagore et al., 2004; Batista et al., 2009 ). The relaxation of acquired immunity to parasites around lambing and its consequences have been well documented (Armour, 1980; Gibbs, 1986; Barger, 1993) . This is manifested with a rise in faecal parasitic output and had initially, for nematode infections, been associated with increased prolactin concentrations. Fleming, 1993 Fleming, , 1996 investigated the potential role of prolactin and prostaglandin F 2␣ (two hormones, the concentrations of which increase at the end of pregnancy); they found that total egg production by Haemonchus contortus in infected sheep increased after administration of prolactin, but not after 'administration of prostaglandin F 2␣ , to those animals. Prolactin is a peptide hormone, responsible for initiating and sustaining lactation in ewes (Castro et al., 2011) . It acts in a cytokine-like manner and as an important regulator of the immune system (Rovensky et al., 1991) . Blood concentrations of prolactin in pregnant ewes start to increase from the 115th-135th day of gestation (Banchero et al., 2006) . Beasley et al. (2010a,b) reported that, in ewes experimentally infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis, the rise in faecal egg counts at the end of pregnancy had been preceded by a decrease in the immunological competence of the ewes; this was shown by reduced numbers of circulating eosinophils and by decreased total antibody and IgG 1 titres. The changes coincided with increased prolactin concentrations at the end of pregnancy, but, nevertheless, the authors considered that they were unrelated to hormonal effects; this confirmed a similar earlier hypothesis by Coop et al. (1990) . As significant differences have been reported in blood concentrations of prolactin according to season (Gomez Brunet and Lopez Sebastian, 1991) , the peri-parturient rise in faecal parasitic output should have differed in accord with time of the year. According to Coop and Kyriazakis (1999) , this relaxation of immunity and the ensuing increase in faecal egg counts appear to have a nutrition-based background. Under the conditions of high metabolic demand, which occur at the end of pregnancy, susceptibility of ewes to gastrointestinal parasites is increased (Kahn et al., 2003) . Finally, Coop and Kyriazakis (1999) proposed a nutritional, rather than an endocrinological, involvement in the relaxation of immunity during that period and presented the following arguments: (a) grade of immunity expression in pregnant ewes is consistent with the reproductive effort, i.e., the number of foetuses borne, (b) termination of pregnancy leads to abrupt restoration of immunity and (c) nutritional management of pregnant ewes can alter the time of first observation of the relaxation. Beasley et al. (2012) reported that feeding ewes a low quality diet resulted in a peri-parturient rise in faecal parasitic output starting 24 days before lambing and increasing substantially thereafter, whilst in ewes fed a high quality diet there was only a short rise of small magnitude; these findings lend further support to the above theory. A peri-parturient increase of oocyst/cyst output has also been recorded in Cryptosporidium (Xiao et al., 1994; Ortega-Mora et al., 1999) and Giardia (Xiao et al., 1994) infections of pregnant ewes. In both cases, the authors recorded an increase of oocyst/cyst numbers in faeces of pregnant ewes, as well as an increase in the number of ewes, which excreted oocysts/cysts in their faeces. Perhaps, a combination of all above factors may determine the whole process. The parasites can also play a role in increasing the metabolic pressure in pregnant ewes. The increased parasitic output during the pre-partum period has significant consequences for the epidemiology of the respective diseases. Lambs are born in a contaminated environment and, thus, are exposed to the infective forms of the various parasites at a very young age. In sheep, pregnancy is a metabolically demanding period. During the first 100 days of pregnancy, there is a slow foetal growth (Blanchart and Sauvant, 1974; Economides and Louca, 1981) ; during the second month of pregnancy, when foetal attachment has been established and placental growth has been completed, foetus(es) can acquire up to 15-25% of their future birth bodyweight; finally, at the last stage of pregnancy, the ovine foetus(es) can develop rapidly, to acquire up to 75-80% of their future birth bodyweight . Hence, energy requirements of pregnant ewes increase, as the end of pregnancy is approaching. In the final month of gestation, protein requirements of pregnant ewes also increase, due to foetal requirements and the need to prepare colostrum in the mammary glands . The situation may be aggravated in cases of heavy parasitic infections, as parasites increase the energy requirements of their hosts (Coop et al., 1977; Dakkak, 1990) , as well as protein synthesis by the host, and consequently protein requirements, due to tissue invasion and damage (Solomons, 1993) . Recently, Papadopoulos et al. (2013) have shown that trematode infections (Fasciola hepatica and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) in pregnant adult ewes led to increased ␤hydroxybutyrate concentrations in blood, thus indicating a potential association between trematode infections and pregnancy toxaemia. The authors attributed that on the direct effects that trematodes exert on the liver of affected sheep, as well as on the general energy drain effects of parasitism on the pregnant animals; they suggested that in flocks where many risk factors for pregnancy toxaemia would accumulate (e.g., suboptimal feeding), synergistic effect of those, coupled with trematode infection, could lead to clinical cases of pregnancy toxaemia. Valderrábano et al. (2006) took the opposite approach and reported that increased feeding allowance during pregnancy resulted in improved response of pregnant sheep against H. contortus infection. The findings support the idea that response of pregnant ewes to parasitic infections during pregnancy may be enhanced by increased nutrition planes in the earlier stages (Valderrabano and Uriarte, 2003) . Potential metabolic problems caused by parasitic infections are expressed, ultimately, in the birth bodyweight of lambs born. Osaer et al. (1999) have reported that lambs born from T. congolense-infected ewes were of smaller bodyweight than those born from healthy animals. Moreover, Gatongi et al. (1997) and Fthenakis et al. (2005) have administered a nematocidal treatment to ewes at the end of pregnancy and found that birthweight of lambs from treated ewes was higher than that of lambs from untreated animals. Albendazole and the respective pro-benzimidazole, netobimin, have a confirmed teratogenic effect to sheep embryos, causing skeletal, renal and/or vascular malformations (Navarro et al., 1998) , when administered to ewes during the first stage of gestation. Active metabolites of these drugs can cross the placenta and reach the foetal blood circulation (Capece et al., 2002) . Often, the affected foetuses are absorbed or expelled, so ewes will be seen as barren animals at the end of the lambing season. Consequently, if there is a need for administration of these drugs, they should be given before start of the mating period, as pre-conception administration of the drug does not appear to cause a foetopathic effect during the subsequent pregnancy (Teruel et al., 2011) . Otherwise, anthelmintic drugs with no foetopathic effects must be used. The precaution should extend to later stages of the breeding season, if rams remain with ewes for a long period of time, as there is always the possibility for some ewes to have been mated later in the season . Levamisole has also been reported to potentially cause abortion if administered in late pregnancy (Braun, 1997) , hence, it should better be avoided at that period. Tissue lesions caused by genital myiosis may result to development of connective tissue in the vaginal and vulvar regions; these lesions can cause dystocia at lambing, due to possible foetomaternal disproportion, as a result of the lesions narrowing the birth canal (Arthur and Bee, 1996) . Also, presence of connective tissue can lead to difficulties in dilatation of the birth canal, which may also lead to dystocia. Dystocia may also occur in cases of births of malformed embryos, formed consequently to albendazole/netobimin administration at the first stage of pregnancy (Section 6.4). Finally, Leontides et al. (2000) have postulated that D. dendriticum-infection may act as a risk factor for retention of foetal membranes in ewes during the subsequent lambing; they attributed the effect to the reduced energy availability of parasitised ewes, which may affect leucocyte function of ewes, a determinant of placental retention (Azawi, 2008) , that way potentially associating the parasitic infection with the increased incidence of the reproductive disorder in ewes. 8.1. Peri-parturient rise in faecal parasitic output: Post-partum period The increase in faecal parasitic output ('peri-parturient egg rise') continues after lambing and contributes to lambs for acquiring the infective forms of the various parasites at a young age. Beasley et al. (2012) found that increased parasitic output from infected ewes was evident for up to 1.5 months after lambing, but, again, suggested that an association with endocrinological factors was unlikely (bar, possibly, a potential role for cortisol), concluding that some other factor(s) would be contributing to the relaxation of immunity to nematodes and the consequent increase in faecal parasitic output during the post-partum period (Beasley et al., 2012) . Suarez et al. (2009) and Cruz-Rojo et al. (2012) have documented that gastrointestinal nematode parasitism can cause 10-15% reduction in milk yield of affected ewes, as well as shorter persistency of lactation. Anthelmintic treatment has also been found to increase milk production (Rinaldi et al., 2007) . More specifically, Fthenakis et al. (2005) and Cringoli et al. (2009) have reported that administration of an anthelmintic with a long persistent activity at the final stage of pregnancy, resulted in a significant (up to 40%) increase in total milk production throughout the subsequent lactation period. Finally, Fthenakis et al. (2000) have identified a lower milk production in ewes with sarcoptic mange: up to 18% compared to healthy animals. The situation regarding potential effects on milk composition is not clear. Cruz-Rojo et al. (2012) have described that milk from ewes with gastrointestinal nematode parasitism had lower fat and total protein content during the last stage of lactation, but Sechi et al. (2010) have not found a significant effect of parasitism on milk composition. It is clear that parasitism leads to reduction in milk production of affected animals. The above studies have been carried out in dairy breeds, with a view to estimate milk production and financial effects of parasitism for dairy farmers. Results of direct studies of potential milk yield reduction due to parasitism, in the growth of lambs of the affected ewes are not available and can only inferred from the above reports. Reduced milk yield of ewes leads to suboptimal growth rate of lambs (Fthenakis and Jones, 1990) and, during the neonatal period, even to increased death rate of lambs (Dwyer, 2008; Brozos et al., 2011) . In this context, it is noteworthy the report by Juste Jordán and García Pérez (1991) , who found that adverse effects of parasitism in milk yield were more pronounced at the final stage of lactation, when, however, there is little dependence of lambs on maternal milk, as they consume solid feed. The nutritive value of milk is also dependent upon its composition. Nevertheless, a variety of factors can influence milk composition (e.g., nutrition, genetics, stage of lactation, mammary health), which may be difficult to control in order to test potential adverse effects of parasitism; that may explain the unclear results among the respective studies. The major defence mechanism against bacteria invading into the mammary gland is phagocytosis (Craven and Williams, 1985) . The process is regulated through a variety of factors, among them energy resources of the host (Greenberg and Grinstein, 2002; Stuart and Ezekowitz, 2005) , which may indicate a potential adverse role for parasites. In two recent publications, Mavrogianni et al. (2012 Mavrogianni et al. ( , 2014 have shown the effects of gastrointestinal parasitic infections to development of mastitis in ewes. In a field study, trematode infections (F. hepatica and D. dendriticum) in lactating multiparous ewes have led to increased incidence of clinical or subclinical mastitis during the first two weeks post-partum (Mavrogianni et al., 2014) . In an experimental study, deposition of Mannheimia haemolytica into the teat duct of trichostrongylid-infected ewes resulted to development of clinical mastitis, whilst healthy controls developed only subclinical disease after challenge . The above studies were the first to confirm that parasitic infections predispose ewes to mastitis, both diseases being significant health and welfare problems in sheep flocks. It is interesting to note that in one of these studies (Mavrogianni et al., 2014) , the association between trematode infection and mastitis was shown in the immediately post-partum period, when relaxation of immunity (Sections 6.2 and 8.1) would be present. In the other one of the above papers , the authors have presented evidence of impaired local defence mechanisms in the mammary glands of parasitised ewes, which might explain pathways for the association observed. During infections with the various abortifacient parasitic agents, foetuses may survive depending upon their age at infection (Section 6.1). In such cases, weak lambs, usually congenitally infected with the respective agent, may be born. Such lambs may die soon after birth, from attacks of predators or from hypothermia, as often they are unable to stand up on time, suck and respond to external stimuli (Wilsmore, 1984) . A significant and well documented (De Graaf et al., 1999; Fayer, 2004; Taylor et al., 2007; Shahiduzzaman and Daugschies, 2013) health problem in newborn and young lambs is cryptosporidiosis. The disease is an infectious enteritis that causes high morbidity and mortality of affected animals. It is caused by the enteric protozoa Cryptosporidium spp., which can affect newborns alone or in mixed infection with Escherichia coli or viruses affecting the intestinal tract (e.g., Rotavirus, Coronavirus) (Chatzopoulos et al., 2013) . Cryptosporidium spp. are located at the microvilli in the intestine of affected lambs and impair intestinal function. The disease causes suboptimal growth rate and often death of affected animals, leading to heavy economic losses in the sheep industry. Lambs which survive infection at a young age, remain asymptomatic carriers and shed oocysts, contributing to increased environmental contamination and infection of newborn lambs. Giardia spp. is an intestinal protozoon affecting lambs at the end of the neonatal period (O'Handley and Olson, 2006) . Infection is often asymptomatic, although it can cause diarrhoea, which becomes severe and life-threatening in cases of co-infection with other enteric pathogens (Andrew Thompson et al., 2008) . Specific works in lambs have not been reported. In calves, infection with Giardia duodenalis can lead to loss of the epithelial barrier function, villus atrophy and crypt hyperplasia in the small intestine, changes which may result in clinical disease usually characterised by intermittent diarrhoea (Ruest et al., 1997) . In any case, the lesions would cause malabsorption, leading to suboptimal weight gain, reduced feed-efficiency and ill-thriftiness of the affected animals (Olson et al., 1995; Buret, 2007; Sweeny et al., 2012) . In general, the significance of this infection has not yet been fully elucidated and further studies are needed. Eimeria spp. are well-described enteric protozoa (Taylor et al., 2007; Andrews, 2011; Taylor, 2012) , which can affect growing lambs from the age of 20 days onwards, causing coccidiosis. Up to 11 different species have been reported to affect lambs; E. crandallis and E. ovinoidalis are considered to be the most pathogenic, perhaps because they cause extensive damage in both the small and the large intestine. Infections usually remain inapparent, although affected lambs may not be thriving as expected. Watery, haemorrhagic diarrhoea can occur and may result to death, if the infection is not properly managed. The onset of intense infection of lambs with gastrointestinal helminths (tapeworms and nematodes) coincides with the start of consumption of solid feed by these animals, specifically grazing. Tapeworms (Moniezia spp., Avitellina spp., Stilesia spp., Thysaniezia spp.) are regarded of little pathogenic significance, only in heavy infections causing suboptimal growth rate and possibly clinical signs (Taylor et al., 2007) . The effects of gastrointestinal nematode parasitism on the growth of unweaned lambs have been well documented. These parasites are of importance in mutton-type production systems, where lambs remain with their dams for over 100 days of age (Sargison, 2009) . In contrast to that, in dairy-type production systems, lambs are weaned at a younger age (Gelasakis et al., 2010) and, usually, are taken for slaughter; hence, chances for building up a significant production-limiting parasitic burden are minimal. Gastrointestinal nematode infections cause significant growth retardation or delay in age of slaughter, which have been documented repeatedly in the older to the more recent scientific literature (Coop et al., 1984; Sweeny et al., 2012) . The significant financial losses associated with the growth retardation of unweaned lambs have led to the need for frequent anthelmintic treatments in these animals, which, in turn, have led to development of widespread anthelmintic resistance in sheep flocks around the world Torres-Acosta et al., 2012) . Currently, many strategies for anthelmintic treatment of lambs in mutton-type production systems have been advocated, with emphasis given to strategic administration of the drugs (Sargison, 2011 (Sargison, , 2012 . The review has covered many aspects of interaction between parasitic infections and reproduction in sheep. In the majority of cases, parasitic infections lead to reduced reproductive efficiency, although there are a few cases where the reproductive stage of the animal influences the parasitic infection. Further collaboration of parasitologists with obstetricians, endocrinologists and immunologists will contribute to deeper investigations into these topics and the elucidation of potential relationships, in order to improve health, welfare and production of sheep. Pharmaceutical control of reproduction in sheep and goats Hormonal control of reproduction in small ruminants Assisted reproductive technologies in the reproductive management of small ruminants Reproductive health management of sheep and goats The public health and clinical significance of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in domestic animals Some aspects of coccidiosis in sheep and goats Epidemiology of helminth disease in farm animals Maternal dystocia: treatment Proposals for withdrawal period of sheep milk for some commonly used veterinary medicinal products: a review Postpartum uterine infection in cattle Endocrine and metabolic factors involved in the effect of nutrition on the production of colostrum in female sheep Influence of sex and reproductive status on susceptibility of ruminants to nematode parasitism Rift valley fever Infection by Trypanosoma vivax in goats and sheep in the Brazilian semiarid region: from acute disease outbreak to chronic cryptic infection Effects of Trypanosoma vivax on pregnancy of Yankasa sheep and the results of homidium chloride chemotherapy The periparturient relaxation of immunity in Merino ewes infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis: endocrine and body compositional responses. Vet. Parasitol The periparturient relaxation of immunity in Merino ewes infected with Trichostrongylus colubriformis: parasitological and immunological responses. Vet. Parasitol The influence of reproductive physiology and nutrient supply on the periparturient relaxation of immunity to the gastrointestinal nematode Trichostrongylus colubriformis in Merino ewes Tritrichomonas foetus damages bovine oocytes in vitro Consequences of pregnancy on the evolution of lactation Non-infectious prenatal pregnancy loss in the doe Treatment and control of peri-parturient metabolic diseases: pregnancy toxemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia Mechanisms of epithelial dysfunction in giardiasis Protozoan infections (Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis spp.) in sheep and goats: recent advances The pathogenesis of experimental neosporosis in pregnant sheep Toxoplasmosis and neosporosis Immunity to experimental neosporosis in pregnant sheep Placental transfer of albendazole sulphoxide enantiomers in sheep Management effects on colostrogenesis in small ruminants: a review Abortion in small ruminants in Switzerland: investigations during two lambing seasons (1996-1998) with special regard to chlamydial abortions Rotavirus infections in domestic animals Studies of reproduction in sheep. 1. The ovulation rate of the ewe as affected by the plane of nutrition Effect of anthelmintic treatment on the productivity of lambs infected with the intestinal nematode Nutrition-parasite interaction Teladorsagia circumcincta egg output at the outset of natural and induced lactation in ewes The effect of a daily intake of Ostertagia circumcincta larvae on body weight, food intake and concentration of serum constituents in sheep Defences of the bovine mammary gland against infection and prospects for their enhancement The effect of moxidectin 0.1% vs ivermectin 0.08% on milk production in sheep naturally infected by gastrointestinal nematodes Effect of infection with Teladorsagia circumcincta on milk production and composition in Assaf dairy sheep. Vet. Parasitol Gastrointestinal strongylosis and malabsorption of nutrients A review of the importance of cryptosporidiosis in farm animals Experimental infection by Toxoplasma gondii using contaminated semen containing different doses of tachyzoites in sheep Characterization of reproductive disorders in ewes given an intrauterine dose of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites during the intrauterine insemination Albendazole: a comparison of relay embryotoxicity with embryotoxicity of individual metabolites Metabolic cues for puberty onset in free grazing Holstein heifers naturally infected with nematodes Effects of stress on reproduction in ewes Ovine sarcoptic mange: clinical features and economic impact Toxoplasmosis in sheep-the last 20 years Neosporosis in animals-the last five years Development of early tissue cysts and associated pathology of Besnoitia besnoiti in a naturally infected bull (Bos Taurus) in South Africa The welfare of the neonatal lamb The neuroendocrine timing of puberty The effects of the quantity and quality of feed on the performance of pregnant and lactating goats No detection of Besnoitia besnoiti DNA in the semen of chronically infected bulls Cryptosporidium: a water-borne zoonotic parasite Acute or chronic administration of prolactin alters ovine infections of Haemonchus contortus Effects of exogenous reproductive hormones on Haemonchus contortus populations in lambs Nutrition of females during the peri-conceptional period and effects on foetal programming and health of offspring Attachment preferences of Hyalomma truncatum and Hyalomma marginatum rufipes ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on two sheep breeds Effect of restricted nutrition on puberty in the lamb: patterns of tonic luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion and competency of the LH surge system Internal and external determinants of the timing of puberty in the female Observations in ovine myiosis in Greece, with special reference to clinical findings and treatment of genital myiosis Health management of ewes during pregnancy The effect of experimentally induced subclinical mastitis on milk yield of ewes and on the growth of lambs Effects of sarcoptic mange on the reproductive performance of ewes and transmission of Sarcoptes scabiei to newborn lambs Effects of three anthelmintic regimes on milk yield of ewes and growth of lambs Efficacy of moxidectin against sarcoptic mange and effects on milk yield of ewes and growth of lambs Influence of gastrointestinal trichostrongylidosis on ram fertility Effects of three nematode anthelmintic treatment regimes on flock performance of sheep and goats under extensive management in semi-arid Kenya Farm conditions and production methods in Chios sheep flocks Hypobiosis and the periparturient rise in sheep The extent of parasite-associated necrosis in the placenta and foetal tissues of cattle following Neospora caninum infection in early and late gestation correlates with foetal death Effect of season on plasma concentrations of prolactin and cortisol in pregnant, non-pregnant and lactating ewes Clinical evaluation of reproductive ability of rams Phagocytosis and innate immunity Dietary energy and ovulation rate in sheep The interaction of nutrition and body condition at mating on ovulation rate and early embryo mortality in Scottish Blackface ewes Depression of productivity in sheep infected with Fasciola hepatica Maternal effects and early-life performance are associated with parasite resistance across life in free-living Soay sheep Influence of restricted maternal nutrition in early to mid gestation on placental and fetal development at term in sheep Comparison of immunological and molecular methods for the diagnosis of infections with pathogenic Sarcocystis species in sheep Science and Hill Farming HFRO 1954-1979 Potential involvement of Neospora caninum in naturally occurring ovine abortions in New Zealand The host-parasite relationship in pregnant cattle infected with Neospora caninum Effect of treatment with netobimin on milk production of sheep Regional differences in the distribution of gonadotropin-releasing hormone cells between rapidly growing and growth-restricted prepubertal female sheep Seasonal variation in semen characteristics, scrotal circumference and libido of Persian Karakul Enhancing immunity to nematode parasites in single-bearing Merino ewes through nutrition and genetic selection Confirmation of the prevention of vertical transmission of Neospora caninum in cattle by the use of embryo transfer Modification of the embryo-maternal relationship in ewes by progesterone treatment early in the oestrous cycle A matched case-control study of factors associated with retention of fetal membranes in dairy ewes in Southern Greece Schmallenberg virus infection in small ruminants-first review of the situation and prospects in Northern Europe Aspects of toxoplasma infection on the reproductive system of experimentally infected rams (Ovis aries) Clinical examination of sheep Neospora caninum: evaluation of vertical transmission in slaughtered beef cows (Bos indicus) Administration of a long-acting antiparasitic to pre-pubertal ewe-lambs in Greece results in earlier reproductive activity and improved reproductive performance Pre-existing gastrointestinal trichostrongylosis predisposes ewes to clinical mastitis after experimental mammary infection Trematode infections in pregnant ewes can predispose to mastitis during the subsequent lactation period Vaccination programs for reproductive disorders of small ruminants Parasites of sheep and goats and their prevalence in Bokova, a rural area of Buea Sub Division Occurrence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infections in ovine and caprine abortions Studies on Neospora caninum DNA detection in the oocytes and embryos collected from infected cows Identification, genetic diversity and prevalence of Theileria and Babesia species in a sheep population from Northern Spain Anthelmintic induced congenital malformations in sheep embryos using netobimin Infertility in the cow: general considerations, anatomical, functional and management causes Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis in ruminants Effects of giardiasis on production in a domestic ruminant (lamb) Very intensive systems Role of adult sheep in transmission of infection by Cryptosporidium parvum to lambs: confirmation of periparturient rise Histopathologic and ultrastructural studies on experimental caprine besnoitiosis Effects of Trypanosoma congolense and nutritional supplements on establishment and outcome of pregnancy in trypanotolerant Djallonké ewes Effects of Trypanosoma congolense infection and diet on puberty, age at first lambing and haematology changes in Djallonké ewe lambs Bluetongue Results of a survey to determine whether Neospora is a significant cause of ovine abortion in England and Wales Update on parasitic diseases of sheep Anthelmintic resistance in sheep in Europe: a selected review Potential association between trematode infections and development of pregnancy toxaemia in sheep Normal reproduction in male animals The effect of dietary protein restriction on the secretion of LH and FSH in pre-pubertal female lambs Seminal degeneration associated with chorioptic mange of the scrotum of rams The effect of extensive chorioptic mange of the scrotum on reproductive function of the ram Ram and buck management Dairy goat production and the importance of gastrointestinal strongyle parasitism Update on trematode infections in sheep Evidence for immunomodulatory properties of prolactin in selected in vitro and in vivo situations Morphological changes in the jejunum of calves naturally infected with Giardia spp and Cryptosporidium spp Influence of an experimental Trypanosoma congolense infection on the reproductive function of Djallonke and Sahelian rams in subhumid zone Negative effect of the arthropod parasite, Sarcoptes scabiei, on testes mass in Iberian ibex, Capra pyrenaica Pharmaceutical control of endoparasitic helminth infections in sheep Pharmaceutical treatments of gastrointestinal nematode infections of sheep-future of anthelmintic drugs Effects of anthelmintic treatment on milk production in Sarda dairy ewes naturally infected by gastrointestinal nematodes Loss of libido and terminal sterility in a Friesian bull naturally infected with Besnoitia besnoiti in Northern Nigeria. A case report Puberty Therapy and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in animals Increased incidence of DNA amplification in follicular than in uterine and blood samples indicates possible tropism of Neospora caninum to the ovarian follicle Pathways to the impairment of human nutritional status by gastrointestinal pathogens The first finding of Neospora caninum and the occurrence of other abortifacient agents in sheep in Slovakia Phagocytosis: elegant complexity Treatment and control of chlamydial and rickettsial infections in sheep and goats Epidemiology and effects of gastrointestinal nematode infection on milk productions of dairy ewes Impacts of naturally acquired protozoa and strongylid nematode infections on growth and faecal attributes in lambs Transmission of Neospora caninum to sheep by transfer through semen Emerging parasitic diseases of sheep Veterinary Parasitology Albendazole sulphoxide administered prior to mating and its relation with fertilization and mouse embryo development Anthelmintic resistance in sheep farms: update of the situation in the American continent Management of pre-pubertal small ruminants: physiological basis and clinical approach Effect of nutritional status and fat reserves on the periparturient immune response to Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep Effect of nutrition in early pregnancy on the periparturient relaxation of immunity to gastro-intestinal parasitism in prolific ewes Role of male-female interaction in regulating reproduction in sheep and goats Ovine cutaneous myiasis: effects on production and control Effect of an asynchronous environment on embryonic development in sheep Perinatal Mortality in Sheep with Special Reference to Ovine Enzootic Abortion. The Royal Veterinary College Periparturient rise in the excretion of Giardia sp. cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts as a source of infection for lambs Periconceptional nutrient restriction in the ewe alters MAPK/ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt growth signaling pathways and vascularity in the placentome The authors have nothing to disclose.