key: cord-0719935-pmekotb6
authors: Agrawal, Piyush; Sambaturu, Narmada; Olgun, Gulden; Hannenhalli, Sridhar
title: A path-based analysis of infected cell line and COVID-19 patient transcriptome reveals novel potential targets and drugs against SARS-CoV-2
date: 2022-03-21
journal: Res Sq
DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1474136/v1
sha: eeeb1d35312f06e1860fc780fc386b3d2d75a1d2
doc_id: 719935
cord_uid: pmekotb6

Most transcriptomic studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection have focused on differentially expressed genes, which do not necessarily reveal the genes mediating the transcriptomic changes. In contrast, exploiting curated biological network, our PathExt tool identifies central genes from the differentially active paths mediating global transcriptomic response. Here we apply PathExt to multiple cell line infection models of SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses, as well as to COVID-19 patient-derived PBMCs. The central genes mediating SARS-CoV-2 response in cell lines were uniquely enriched for ATP metabolic process, G1/S transition, leukocyte activation and migration. In contrast, PBMC response reveals dysregulated cell-cycle processes. In PBMC, the most frequently central genes are associated with COVID-19 severity. Importantly, relative to differential genes, PathExt-identified genes show greater concordance with several benchmark anti-COVID-19 target gene sets. We propose six novel anti-SARS-CoV-2 targets ADCY2, ADSL, OCRL, TIAM1, PBK, and BUB1, and potential drugs targeting these genes, such as Bemcentinib, Phthalocyanine, and Conivaptan.

COVID-19, a serious respiratory disease caused by the zoonotic virus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, or SC2 for short), has emerged as a global pandemic leading to ~315 million infections and 5 million deaths (data till date January 10 th , 2022, as per WHO dashboard). Despite a huge body of research investigating the SC2 biology (1), host-virus mechanisms (2) , potential drug targets and their inhibitors (3) have been tried on COVID-19 patients (4) . Remdesivir, a viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor used in the treatment of Ebola virus, was the first FDA-approved drug for the treatment of COVID-19 (5) ; however, it has not been broadly effective. More recently approved Paxlovid was found to be effective against multiple SC2 variants including Omicron (6) . While several effective vaccines are now in general use, there continues to be an urgent need for more effective therapeutic options for infected patients, especially considering the highly varied, and sometimes long-term effects as well as side effects of the current therapies.

Viruses hijack the host system for their own survival and proliferation, especially by exploiting and manipulating host transcriptional machinery and gene regulation (7) . A better understanding of the host transcriptomic response to the viral infection is thus widely recognized as critical in designing better therapeutics strategies (4) . Most previous studies investigating infection-induced transcriptomic changes in the host tissues and immune cells focus on genes that are differentially expressed (DEGs) upon infection and perform a series of downstream analyses to decipher the underlying mechanisms (8) . One issue with the DEG-centric approach is that certain genes are known to be differentially expressed in a wide variety of contexts and represent generic transcriptional response and are not specific to SC2 infection (9) . Moreover, it is now well recognized that differential expression ought to be interpreted in the context of genetic networks and pathways, and indeed some of the works have investigated SC2 transcriptomic response data from a network perspective (10, 11) . These approaches nevertheless rely on gene-level differential expression as the lynchpin for the downstream network-assisted analyses. An alternative approach -PathExt -that we have recently shown to be superior to DEG-centric approaches (12) , instead integrates transcriptomic data with curated gene networks and instead of identifying differentially expressed genes, identifies differentially active paths in the integrated network, and then identifies the central genes mediating the differential activities of the most perturbed paths. This alternative approach is based on the recognition that (i) gene expression is noisy and DEGs can therefore lead to false positives, and (ii) key regulatory genes that mediate global transcriptomic changes and thus present a potent target may themselves not be differentially regulated and will thus be missed by DEG-centric approaches.

Here, using PathExt, we comprehensively analyze and compare transcriptomic response to SC2 and other respiratory viruses (SARS-CoV-1, MERS, Influenza, RSV, and HPIV3) in multiple cell lines (A549, A549-ACE2, Calu3, Vero, MRC5 and NHBE), as well as in COVID-19 patient-derived peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). While PathExt identifies largely distinct sets of central genes across cell lines and viruses, these genes nevertheless converge on common processes such as cytokine signaling, cell cycle, metabolism, etc.; however, we observe a much greater similarity in response across cell lines for the same virus than across viruses in the same cell line. We assess the complementarity and unique advantages of using PathExt compared to the conventional DEG-based approach and find that PathExt genes capture experimentally identified anti-SC2 targets more accurately than DEGs, while also providing an overall greater enrichment of key biological processes. In PBMC data, we find that PathExt-identified central genes are associated with patient severity. Finally, we propose novel anti-SC2 therapeutic targets and their potential inhibitors that are either FDA-approved or currently in clinical trials.

PathExt is our recently published tool; here we provide a brief intuitive overview of the approach.

The aim of PathExt is to identify differentially active paths, in a prior knowledge-based gene network, while comparing transcriptomic data in two conditions, and shortlist genes among those paths which might be critically mediating the observed phenotypic change. As noted above, in contrast to conventional DEG-centered approaches, such mediating genes may not be differentially expressed themselves. The PathExt workflow is illustrated in Fig. 1A . PathExt starts by integrating a knowledge-based curated gene network with sample-specific omics data from the conditions of interest; we employed a curated network -HPPIN -which integrates physical, regulatory, and metabolic interactions between genes or proteins (13) . In each sample separately, nodes and edges of the network are weighted such that interactions involving differentially expressed genes are preferentially traversed by a shortest path algorithm. This integration is done in two ways, to emphasize either differential activation or repression. Shortest paths whose weights are statistically significant (based on permutation) can then be interpreted as statistically significant differentially active (or repressed) paths. Such paths are then cast as a sub-network referred to as the TopNet, either activated or repressed, based on the weighting scheme. PathExt then identifies central genes in each TopNet based on ripple centrality (14) , which captures genes that can reach a large part of the TopNet along highly active (or repressed) paths. TopNet and the central genes are identified independently for each transcriptomic sample. integrates the inputs such that edges connecting genes with substantial change in expression are preferentially traversed by a shortest paths algorithm (Methods), illustrated here using wider arrows. Shortest paths which are statistically significant (permutation based) now represent differentially active (or repressed) paths and make up the TopNets in which PathExt identifies central genes based on ripple centrality. (B) We apply PathExt to analyze RNa-seq data from SARS-CoV-2 infection in both cell lines and patient PBMC data. PathExt outputs from the cell line data are used to compare cross-cell-line variation in SC2 infection response, and within-cell-line variation in response to other viruses. In patient PBMC data, we identify associations between PathExt results and demographics. We then validate all the results against benchmarks and use the TopNets and central genes to propose novel drug targets, as well as novel drugs for known targets.

Here, we apply PathExt to analyze how the impact of SC2 infection (as well as other respiratory viruses) can vary in different cell lines, as well as in patient derived PBMCs (Fig. 1B) . We first compare SC2 infection across cell lines, and with other viral infections in the same cell lines. In PBMC data, we identify associations between PathExt results and patient demographics. We then show a high concordance between the results from both cell line and PBMC data, and benchmarks such as genes previously shown to be affected by SC2 infection as well as experimentally screened drugs. Based on this, we use the output of PathExt to propose novel drug targets as well as drugs against them.

We compared the transcriptional responses between five cell lines infected by SC2. These included three lung epithelium derived cell lines --A549, A549 with increased ACE2 expression (A549-ACE2), and Calu3, Vero cell line derived from African monkey kidney, and primary bronchial epithelium cell line -NHBE (15, 16) . In each case, we applied PathExt to identify the top 100 central genes each in the activated and repressed TopNets (Supplementary Table S1 ); no repressed TopNet was detected in NHBE. We found that the top 100 genes were largely disjoint across cell lines ( Fig. 2A and 2B ) with one exception, where the top 100 genes from the activated TopNets in Calu3 and Vero cell lines shared 79 common genes; indicating a high cell-type specificity in response to SC2 infection. A list of the top 100 upregulated and downregulated DEGs is provided in the Supplementary Table S2. We then performed functional enrichment on the top 100 genes identified from each dataset using PANTHER (17) , and consolidated (Methods) the enriched biological process terms using REVIGO (18) . In case of activated TopNets (Fig. 2C) , as expected, Calu3 and Vero cells show similar upregulated pathways such as I-kappaB kinase/NF-kappaB signaling, regulation of transcription factor (TF) activity, cytokine mediated signaling pathway, and response to stimulus.

These processes are well supported by previous studies. Regulation of immune signaling pathways is another process prominently observed in COVID-19, especially production of various cytokines and chemokines (19, 20) . Likewise, hyperactivation of NF-kappaB signaling pathway post SARS-CoV-2 infection has been observed (21) and NF-kappaB has been recognized as a potential pharmacological target to treat COVID-19 (22) . Several host TF binding sites (TFBS) are present in SARS-CoV-2 genome which the virus exploits for its replication (23) . Calu3, Vero, and A549

were enriched for inflammatory response, specifically, tyrosine kinase signaling, recapitulating previously established links between SARS-CoV-2 and tyrosine kinase signaling (24, 25) . In A549 cells with high ACE2 expression, the strongest enrichment was seen for the post-translational protein modification process. Although inflammatory and immune response pathways were not statistically enriched among the top 100 genes in A549-ACE2 cell line, key immune response genes were among the top 100 central genes, e.g., STAT3, STAT5A, NFKB1, NFKBIA, etc.

Other enriched processes such as metabolism and cell differentiation also have known roles in viral infections. These results suggest that the host response to viral infection may depend on the infection and replication rates in various cell lines. For instance, the differential response in A549 may be because A549 cells are relatively less permissive to SARS-CoV-2 replication owing to lower concentration of ACE2 receptor protein required for viral entry (26) , while Calu3 and Vero cell lines exhibit a much higher expression of ACE2. This difference in infection rate leads to differences in the host immune responses, which is consistent with previous studies (16, 27) . Key genes in NHBE (bronchial epithelium cell line) were strongly associated with small molecule and nucleoside phosphate metabolic processes, known to be central for viral replication and survival (28) . A complete list of all the upregulated enriched terms as well as the parent-child relations identified for various SARS-CoV-2 infected cell lines is provided in Supplementary Table S3 .

In addition to biological process, we also looked at the molecular function associated with the top 100 central genes present in the Activated TopNets across these cell lines (Supplementary Table   S4 ). In the case of A549, we saw the enrichment of molecular functions associated with DNAbinding transcription factor activity, calcium-dependent protein kinase C activity, protein binding, etc. All these processes have been shown to be important for SC2 infection. For instance, the complex of viral S protein and host ACE2 receptor binds to calcium ions (EF-hand domain) and

shows protein kinase activity (29) . After binding, the spike protein is further cleaved by TMPRSS2, a transmembrane protein serine 2 leading to further downstream signaling processes (30, 31) . As observed with biological processes, molecular functions for Vero and Calu3 cell lines were very similar. They were enriched for the functions such as protein kinase activity, TNF receptor superfamily binding, cytokine receptor binding, etc. These findings are supported by previous published literatures (32, 33) . Lastly, for NHBE cell line, we saw molecular functions such as small molecule binding, carbohydrate derivative binding, etc. as shown in previous works (34, 35) .

In stark contrast, for top 100 DEGs, only one statistically significant molecular function was enriched across all cell lines, namely, "sequence specific DNA binding function" in the Vero cell line. The enrichment of regulatory and signaling molecules among the PathExt genes underscores the rationale that PathExt attempts to identify key genes mediating the transcriptional response. Table   S5 .

We also performed molecular function analysis for the top 100 central genes in repressed TopNets (Supplementary Table S6 ). For A549 cell line, functions such as catalytic activity and single-strand DNA binding, were enriched. These processes are associated with SC2 attachment, infection and downstream signaling events as shown in various studies (40, 41) . Likewise, for A549 cell line with high ACE2 expression, "single-stranded DNA binding" was enriched. Genes associated with this function (e.g., ATM and ATR) are essential for response to DNA damage and repair, DNA metabolism, and maintaining genomic stability (42, 43) . In case of Calu3 cell lines, enriched functions included kinase activity, purine ribonuclease triphosphate binding, signaling receptor binding, etc. There are various reports which explain how these functions plays an important role in viral entry, membrane trafficking, signaling, etc. (32, 44) .

We investigated the commonality between the activated and repressed TopNets for the cell lines.

We first confirmed that the top 100 central genes of the activated and repressed TopNets of the same cell line were disjoint, with a few exceptions: out of 100 genes, 1 is common in Calu3 cell line, 2 in A549, 3 in A549 with high ACE2 expression, and 5 in the Vero cell line, suggesting dual activation and repressive roles of certain key genes; for instance, ATM, a protein kinase which plays key roles in many processes such as cell cycle progression, cell metabolism and growth, oxidative stress and chromatin remodeling, and is upregulated as well as downregulated in different cancers (45) . Indeed, ATM is known to regulate these pathways in COVID-19, as shown in previous study (46) . Despite disjoint central genes between activated and repressed TopNets, the enriched pathways among the central genes show greater commonality, such as protein phosphorylation, suggesting that these key processes may be involved in both activation and repression of different downstream processes. Next, we assessed the similarity in responses between SC2 and other viruses at the pathway level, using PANTHER and REVIGO. Given the enriched terms in the TopNets for all the viruses, we computed the semantic similarity using the GOSemSim package in R (48) . For the activated TopNet, SC2 shares high similarity with nearly all the viruses considered in the study (Fig. 3C ).

Highest similarity of 0.97 is observed between the processes enriched in SC2-infected A549 with high ACE2 expression, and Influenza-infected NHBE. Activated TopNets across viruses share cytokine signaling, NF-kappaB signaling, inflammatory response, DNA binding transcription factor activity, and protein phosphorylation, all of which are well established host responses to respiratory viral infections. The processes which were uniquely enriched for SC2 infection include ATP metabolic process, G1/S transition of mitotic cell cycle, post-translational protein modification, and carbohydrate derivative metabolic process. Some recent published studies also account for these processes associated with SC2 infection (46, 49, 50) . A complete list of enriched biological pathways in activated TopNets for SC2 and other viruses is provided in the Supplementary Table S3. Compared to activated TopNets, repressed TopNets exhibited greater divergence in terms of enriched processes (Fig. 3D ), but consistent with activated TopNets, we observed a greater similarity across different cell lines infected by SARS-CoV-2. Key enriched processes across viruses include DNA replication, telomere organization, DNA metabolic process, cellular response to DNA damage stimulus, regulation of MAPK cascade, negative regulation of apoptotic process, regulation of cell migration, nuclear division, regulation of cell cycle, etc., all of which have literature support (51, 52) . However, the unique processes enriched with SC2 infection include activation of phospholipase C activity, cardiomyocyte differentiation, leukocyte activation and migration, and phagocytosis. Complete list of the enriched biological pathways in repressed TopNets for SC2 and other viruses is provided in the Supplementary Table S5 . Overall, while as expected the functional response to SC2 infection is similar with the response to other respiratory viruses, our analysis reveals unique aspects of SC2 response. Functional relevance of the unique processes enriched among central genes in host response to SC2 response, however, will require further experimental follow up. 

Next, to assess advantage or complementarity of PathExt relative to DEG-centric approach, we compared the genes and pathways identified by PathExt with DEGs and their enriched pathways.

Recall that PathExt identifies central genes that potentially mediate differential expression of other genes but may not be differentially expressed themselves. To test this, we selected the SC2- Table S7 ); in Vero cell line only one process was enriched and is therefore not discussed. As expected, pathways enriched among upregulated DEGs in Calu3 showed highest similarity with those in activated TopNet in Calu3 (Fig. 4D) , despite very little overlap in terms of genes. In Calu3, while the common pathways among PathExt and DEGs ( Supplementary Fig. S2) includes response to cytokine production, and immune system process, several pathways were uniquely revealed by PathExt, including regulation of DNA binding transcription factor activity, I-kappaB kinase/NF-kappaB signaling, regulation of cell death, and cellular response to organic substances. These pathways are well-associated with the COVID-19 infection as shown in multiple studies (19, 23, 53) , highlighting the relative advantage of PathExt over the conventional DEG approach. Table S10 ).

In contrast, pathways enriched among the frequent central genes in the repressed TopNets included response to cytokine, regulation of cytokine production, regulation of defense response and icosanoid metabolic process (Fig. 5B) . Suppression of regulatory mechanisms that keep cytokine production in check is consistent with observed cytokine storms in COVID-19 patients and ensuing damage of organs such as the liver leading to downregulation of various metabolic processes (60, 61) . Likewise, SC2 can suppress the host immune defense by downregulating the T-cell function (62) , cytokine production and cell-cell adhesion (60, 63) . Complete list of enriched terms associated with the top 100 most frequent central gene is provided in the Supplementary Table   S11 . Molecular functions associated with top 100 central genes include receptor ligand activity, heme binding, chemokine binding, etc. Once again, these are well known functions which occur post SC2 infection (64, 65) . However, downregulated DEGs were found to be enriched only for retinol binding function. Complete list of molecular function associated with repressed TopNet in PBMC is provided in Supplementary Table S12. Supplementary Table S14. Next, we investigated the association between PathExt-identified most frequent central genes in PBMCs and the available demographics and clinical features of the patients --age (<= 60 years or >60 years), sex (male vs female), and severity (ICU vs non-ICU). We found that most frequent genes in activated TopNets were more frequently observed in severe cases (Fig. 6A) . We did not see a direct association between frequent central genes and sex or age. Frequency and distribution of the PathExt identified genes in patients with severe illness is consistent with previous findings (54, 72) . To further probe into association of frequent central genes with severity, we identified genes that were uniquely central in either ICU or non-ICU patients, with a minimum frequency of Table S15 Table S16 ).

The analysis above identifies frequent central genes in ICU and non-ICU patients. We further aimed to assess whether the TopNet neighbors of the central genes are similar across samples, which would indicate a homogeneity in the perturbed paths mediated by a central gene. Toward this, we quantified, for each central gene independently, all sample-pair overlap (quantified by Jaccard Index or JI) between the sample-specific TopNet neighbors of the central gene. We did this separately for ICU and non-ICU patients; Supplementary Figure S3 shows the distribution of JIs for the central genes in ICU and non-ICU patients separately, suggesting a greater homogeneity of response mediated by the central genes in the ICU patients.

We did not notice any association between frequent genes in the repressed TopNets and demographic features (Fig. 6B ). For DEGs, top central genes were more associated with male in activated TopNets and with severe cases in repressed TopNets (Supplementary Fig. S4) As a point of comparison, we also identified the upregulated and downregulated DEGs from the COVID-19 patients. As above, we selected the top 100 upregulated and downregulated genes in each patient sample and then the top 100 most frequent upregulated and downregulated genes across all 100 patients. First, we note that while frequent central genes in activated TopNets exhibit slightly lower fold changes compared to frequent DEGs, the frequent central genes in repressed TopNets exhibit far lower fold changes compared to DEGs (Supplementary Fig. S5 ). Next, we analyzed the commonality among the PathExt and DEGs top 100 genes. We found 28 genes to be common among the activated TopNets and upregulated DEGs and 8 were common among the repressed TopNets and downregulated DEGs. Next, we analyzed the similarity at the pathway level. While many processes enriched among frequent central genes were also enriched among upregulated DEGs (e.g., cell cycle) ( Supplementary Fig. S6) , the PathExt central genes uniquely revealed cellular response to DNA damage stimulus, regulation of transferase activity, regulation of fibroblast proliferation, establishment of chromosome localization, etc. However, the frequent downregulated DEGs did not identify any significant enriched process, underscoring the relative advantage of the PathExt approach.

Next, we assessed the extent to which the PathExt-identified genes and DEGs recapitulate previously proposed anti-SC2 target genes based on experimental screens. Toward this, we compared the top 100 central genes identified in SC2-infected cell lines and patient PBMC data against previously published benchmark datasets of anti-SC2 targets. In total, we compiled 11 gene sets from our study: 6 for activated TopNets (5 for the cell lines and 1 for the PBMC cohort) and 5 for repressed TopNets (4 for the cells lines and 1 for the PBMC cohort); while for each cell line we considered the top central genes, for PBMC, we selected the 100 most frequent central genes across patients. We compiled 9 benchmark genes sets from previously published reports which includes CRISPR gene-knockout studies (73) (74) (75) (76) , viral-host protein-protein interactions (PPI) (77) (78) (79) and targets associated with experimentally screened drugs in various cell lines and animal models (76, (80) (81) (82) (Methods). Next, we assessed overlap between our 11 gene sets and the 9 different benchmark datasets using Fisher's Exact test, resulting in 99 tests. In 18 of the 99 comparisons (expectation is ~5 at p-value threshold of 0.05) PathExt gene sets significantly overlapped with the benchmark gene sets (Fig. 7A) . In sharp contrast, analogous sets of DEGs significantly overlapped with gold sets in only 5 cases, as expected by random chance (Fig. 7B) , again underscoring the relative advantage of PathExt. 

Next, to identify novel drug targets against SC2, we removed the already known targets (Methods) against SC2 and other viruses (considered in this study) from the TopNets (activated & repressed).

Based on the frequency of these unique genes in the TopNets of various SC2 infected cell lines, we proposed novel anti-SC2 targets namely ADCY2, ADSL (mediating activated TopNet), and Table 1 . (94) and conivaptan targets viral non-structural protein 9 (Nsp9) (95) . Phthalocyanine has been shown to be effective against preventing covid-19 in randomized trials (96) . Bemcentinib has been shown to be effective against SC2 (97) and is being tested (trial NCT04890509) for efficacy in hospitalized covid-19 patients. Bemcentinib was designed for targeting AXL, a tyrosine kinase which signals via PI3K (98); however, our analysis identifies it as a lead molecule against ADSL and PBK. We use GeneMANIA software (99) to probe potential relationship between ADSL or PBK with AXL. As shown in Fig. 8A , there is a physical interaction between AXL and PBK via PIK3R2. Likewise, interaction can be seen among AXL and ADSL in Fig. 8B , suggesting that Bemcentinib's effect may be mediated by multiple genes within a closely linked gene module. Based on our virtual screening study, we identified, Bemcentinib as a potential inhibitor for PBK and ADSL. Bemcentinib is a well-known drug against AXL, and we saw that this gene (AXL) is connected to our proposed target PBK (Fig. 8A) and ADSL (Fig. 8B) suggesting that the drug effect may be mediated by multiple genes within a closely linked gene module.

We applied PathExt to investigate the response to SC2 infection in different cell lines (lung epithelium, bronchial epithelium and kidney cells), as well as in patient derived PBMCs. We also compared the response to SC2 with those for other respiratory viruses. Some of the key processes Previous studies have noted that genes with variable expression are more likely to be detected as differentially expressed in multiple contexts and do not reveal context-specific functional responses (9) . Compared to reliance only on the differential expression, by exploiting the knowledge-based gene networks, and focusing on identifying key genes associated with significantly perturbed paths, PathExt represents a complementary, and in important ways, more effective approach. While previous works have exploited protein networks to infer transcriptomic perturbations, they have still relied on significantly differentially expressed genes and interpreted them in the context of the network (101, 102) . We have previously demonstrated (12) , superiority of PathExt over such integrative approaches that nevertheless rely on significant differential expression.

In summary, our work (1) 

We collected 12 datasets from 2 studies, one published (16) and another unpublished (103) HPIV3, and Influenza virus). In addition, we also obtained PBMC transcriptomes from 100 COVID-19 patients and 26 non-infected individuals as controls (54) . In total, we had 13 datasets from 3 different studies, details of which are provided in Table 2 . For each dataset (except Vero and PBMCs), we downloaded the raw reads using prefetch (104) ; most datasets were single end reads except Vero for which paired end reads were provided. Files were split using fastq-dump command (104) trimmed using Trim Galore-0.6.6 (105) at default parameters and the reads mapped to the human transcriptomic index version hg38 using SALMON v.1.12. (106) . We proceeded only with those samples for which at least 60% of the reads were mapped. In the case of Vero cell line and patient PBMC data, we directly downloaded the TPM (transcripts per million) values provided from the GEO. 

For every cell line, mean gene expression was computed for the treated and control samples. Genes with TPM value 0 or greater than 100 were removed. For patient PBMC data, each case was analyzed individually and for the control, we took the mean expression of 26 control samples. Data was further filtered by removing the genes whose expression value was either 0 or above 100 in at least 50% of the PBMC case samples. Lastly, we also excluded the genes from the cell lines and PBMC data, which were not present in our human protein-protein interaction network. After the above filters, there were a total of 7,740 genes for cell lines (except Vero), 6,852 for Vero cell line.

In case of patient PBMC datasets, the main dataset comprises 12,417 genes (Supplementary Table   S18 ). All data was quantile normalized as done in previous studies (107, 108) . Lastly, the normalized data was used to compute node weights which was then used to compute differentially Given the node weights across samples, the PathExt tool computes the significant paths in two steps: (1) Top 0.1% shortest paths are selected and (2) Statistical significance of those selected paths is estimated based on data randomization and multiple testing corrected q-value threshold.

We selected those percentiles and q-values which provide at least 300 nodes for a given TopNet.

Once the TopNets were generated, we computed the ripple centrality score for each gene in the TopNet and top 100 central genes were selected for the further analysis. All the scripts used in this study are available in at https://github.com/hannenhalli-lab/covid19_project.

Enriched pathways in a given TopNet (activated and repressed) were analyzed using the top 100 central genes using PANTHER software. Customized reference was used as a background during the enrichment analysis, where we considered only those genes which were used for the TopNet creation in this study. The reference was different for the Vero cell line, cell lines other than Vero and the patient PBMC data. 'GO biological process complete' was selected as Annotation Data Set, 'Fisher's Exact' as Test Type, and 'Calculate False Discovery Type' as Correction method.

As there could be redundant terms present in the result, we removed them by performing parentchild relation study using REVIGO software. The GO term and its corresponding FDR value was provided as an input with the resulting list option to be 'Medium (0.7)'. Also, in the 'Advanced options', we selected 'Yes' in the remove obsolete GO terms, 'Homo sapiens' as the working species, and the 'SimRel' as semantic similarity measures. Finally, the circular plot representing the parent-child GO terms was created using the CirGo software (110) . This tool requires the output of the REVIGO as an input. 'GOSemSim' package was used to compute the semantic similarity among the processes enriched in various cell lines, among different viruses and the patient PBMC data. In GOSemSim package, to calculate the similarities between two GO terms, we used Wang method which uses the topology of GO DAG graph structures to compute the semantic similarities. To combine two sets of GO terms, we utilized 'rcmax' method which considers the average of maximum similarity on each row and column on the matrix consisting of the similarities among two sets of GO terms. Heatmap plots for the similarity analysis are visualized using ggplot2 R package (111) .

Upset plot was generated by providing the list of genes of all the samples in a csv file format as an input to the server. Intervene server (112) at default parameters was used for generating the upset plots. For gene enrichment heatmap, we computed the Observed/Expected score. 'pheatmap' package in R was used for generating the heatmaps (113) . with the targets unique to SC2 and we then prioritized the remaining central TopNet genes based on their frequency across cell line samples as novel potential drug targets. Similar approach was followed for the PBMC data.

Next, to propose potential inhibitors against our proposed novel targets, we performed a virtual screening process using Autodock Vina software (114) . The 3D structures of the targets were downloaded from the RCSB-PDB (115) and further refined using Open Babel software (116) .

Active site information of the protein molecules was computed using P2RANK software (117) .

Next, a drug library was created for the virtual screening process, where we considered only those drug molecules which are either FDA approved or are under clinical trials; SMILES formatted files of these drugs were downloaded from the ZINC database (118) and were further converted to MOL2 file format using openbabel. The ligand and the receptor files were prepared in the 'pdbqt' file format required by vina for the docking purpose. The center and the grid size of the receptor molecules was computed using UCSF Chimera software (119) 

Not Applicable

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

This work was supported by funding from the Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research.

The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

Structural biology of SARS-CoV-2 and implications for therapeutic development

Transcriptional and proteomic insights into the host response in fatal COVID-19 cases

COVID-19: Drug Targets and Potential Treatments

Overview of Immune Response During SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Lessons From the Past

A Review of Virus-Host Interactions. Diseases

Immunophenotyping of COVID-19 and influenza highlights the role of type I interferons in development of severe COVID-19

Predictability of human differential gene expression

Transcriptome network analyses in human coronavirus infections suggest a rational use of immunomodulatory drugs for COVID-19 therapy

Integrated network analysis reveals new genes suggesting COVID-19 chronic effects and treatment

PathExt: a general framework for path-based mining of omics-integrated biological networks

Efficacy of β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combination is linked to WhiB4-mediated changes in redox physiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

EpiTracer -an algorithm for identifying epicenters in condition-specific biological networks

Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19

PANTHER version 14: more genomes, a new PANTHER GO-slim and improvements in enrichment analysis tools

REVIGO summarizes and visualizes long lists of gene ontology terms

The interplay between inflammatory pathways and COVID-19: A critical review on pathogenesis and therapeutic options. Microbial pathogenesis

SARS-CoV-2 Causes a Different Cytokine Response Compared to Other Cytokine Storm-Causing Respiratory Viruses in Severely Ill Patients

SARS and MERS: recent insights into emerging coronaviruses

NF-κB Pathway as a Potential Target for Treatment of Critical Stage COVID-19 Patients

A SARS-CoV-2 host infection model network based on genomic human Transcription Factors (TFs) depletion

The Interference between SARS-CoV-2 and Tyrosine Kinase Receptor Signaling in Cancer

Overactive Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling Leads to Increased Fibrosis after Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 from Patient with Coronavirus Disease, United States. Emerging infectious diseases

SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor

Proteomics of SARS-CoV-2-infected host cells reveals therapy targets

COVID-19: the CaMKII-like system of S protein drives membrane fusion and induces syncytial multinucleated giant cells

The role of growth factor receptors in viral infections: An opportunity for drug repurposing against emerging viral diseases such as COVID-19? FASEB bioAdvances

Structural and functional properties of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein: potential antivirus drug development for COVID-19

The Global Phosphorylation Landscape of SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Novel signaling pathways regulate SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 infectious disease

Identification of Novel Gene Signatures using Next-Generation Sequencing Data from COVID-19 Infection Models: Focus on Neuro-COVID and Potential Therapeutics

Genome Scale-Differential Flux Analysis reveals deregulation of lung cell metabolism on SARS-CoV-2 infection

Dysregulation in Akt/mTOR/HIF-1 signaling identified by proteotranscriptomics of SARS-CoV-2 infected cells. Emerging microbes & infections

Network pharmacology approach to decipher signaling pathways associated with target proteins of NSAIDs against COVID-19

The Role of Lipid Metabolism in COVID-19 Virus Infection and as a Drug Target

Dissecting lipid metabolism alterations in SARS-CoV-2. Progress in lipid research

Coronavirus infection and PARP expression dysregulate the NAD metabolome: An actionable component of innate immunity

Polyphosphate Reverses the Toxicity of the Quasi-Enzyme Bleomycin on Alveolar Endothelial Lung Cells In Vitro

Coronavirus infection induces DNA replication stress partly through interaction of its nonstructural protein 13 with the p125 subunit of DNA polymerase δ

Human singlestranded DNA binding proteins are essential for maintaining genomic stability

The Role of Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate Kinases during Viral Infection

ATM signalling and cancer

Review on Cell Cycle Regulation of Coronavirus Infection. Frontiers in veterinary science

SARS-CoV-2 infection initiates interleukin-17-enriched transcriptional response in different cells from multiple organs

GOSemSim: an R package for measuring semantic similarity among GO terms and gene products

COVID-19 and metabolic syndrome: could diet be the key? BMJ evidencebased medicine

Changes in Glycolytic Pathway in SARS-COV 2 Infection and Their Importance in Understanding the Severity of COVID-19

Host metabolism dysregulation and cell tropism identification in human airway and alveolar organoids upon SARS-CoV-2 infection

SARS-CoV-2 Spike Impairs DNA Damage Repair and Inhibits V(D)J Recombination In Vitro

Gene Expression Profiling Reveals the Shared and Distinct Transcriptional Signatures in Human Lung Epithelial Cells Infected With SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, or SARS-CoV: Potential Implications in Cardiovascular Complications of COVID-19

Large-Scale Multi-omic Analysis of COVID-19 Severity

Immune characterization and profiles of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients reveals potential host therapeutic targets and SARS-CoV-2 oncogenesis mechanism. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology

The Impact of COVID-19 on Cancer Risk and Treatment. Cellular and molecular bioengineering

COVID-19 and Cancer: a Comprehensive Review

The intersection of COVID-19 and cancer: signaling pathways and treatment implications

A divergent cyclin/cyclindependent kinase complex controls the atypical replication of a malaria parasite during gametogony and transmission

Potential Effects of COVID-19 on Cytochrome P450-Mediated Drug Metabolism and Disposition in Infected Patients

Cardiovascular Implications of Fatal Outcomes of Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

The Immune Response and Immunopathology of COVID-19

The differential immune responses to COVID-19 in peripheral and lung revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing

Erythroid precursors and progenitors suppress adaptive immunity and get invaded by SARS-CoV-2. Stem cell reports

Viral load dynamics and disease severity in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Zhejiang province

Traces of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Peripheral Blood Cells of Patients with COVID-19

SARScoronavirus replicates in mononuclear cells of peripheral blood (PBMCs) from SARS patients

T-cell dysregulation in COVID-19. Biochemical and biophysical research communications

A blood transcriptome-based analysis of disease progression, immune regulation, and symptoms in coronavirus-infected patients

Severe Adaptive Immune Suppression May Be Why Patients With Severe COVID-19 Cannot Be Discharged From the ICU Even After Negative Viral Tests

Differential Expression of Viral Transcripts From Single-Cell RNA Sequencing of Moderate and Severe COVID-19 Patients and Its Implications for Case Severity

Genome-wide CRISPR Screens Reveal Host Factors Critical for SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Identification of Required Host Factors for SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Human Cells

Genome-Scale Identification of SARS-CoV-2 and Pan-coronavirus Host Factor Networks

The COVID-19 Drug and Gene Set Library. Patterns

A SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing

Multilevel proteomics reveals host perturbations by SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV

Drug repurposing screens reveal cell-typespecific entry pathways and FDA-approved drugs active against SARS-Cov-2

Identification of Antiviral Drug Candidates against SARS-CoV-2 from FDA-Approved Drugs

DrugBank: a comprehensive resource for in silico drug discovery and exploration

Reconstructed signaling and regulatory networks identify potential drugs for SARS-CoV-2 infection. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology

Prostaglandin D 2 as a mediator of lymphopenia and a therapeutic target in COVID-19 disease

SARS-CoV-2 Restructures the Host Chromatin Architecture. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology

Cytochrome P450-mediated drug interactions in COVID-19 patients: Current findings and possible mechanisms

PPARγ Cistrome Repression during Activation of Lung Monocyte-Macrophages in Severe COVID-19. iScience

The Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib and promising new agents against Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias

Naberhuis-Stehouwer, Tirilazad mesylate in acute ischemic stroke: A systematic review

Ergotamine in the acute treatment of migraine: a review and European consensus

Repurposing drugs for treatment of COVID-19. The Lancet. Respiratory medicine

The tyrosine kinase inhibitor nilotinib inhibits SARS-CoV-2 in vitro

Mousavi-Nasab, Computation screening and molecular docking of FDA approved viral protease inhibitors as a potential drug against COVID-19. Gastroenterology and Hepatology From Bed to Bench

Structure-based drug repurposing for targeting Nsp9 replicase and spike proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Beneficial effects of a mouthwash containing an antiviral phthalocyanine derivative on the length of hospital stay for COVID-19: randomised trial

Phosphatidylserine receptors enhance SARS-CoV-2 infection

Molecular Pathways: AXL, a Membrane Receptor Mediator of Resistance to Therapy

GeneMANIA update

Induction of interferon response by high viral loads at early stage infection may protect against severe outcomes in COVID-19 patients

Discovering regulatory and signalling circuits in molecular interaction networks

Integrative approaches for finding modular structure in biological networks

Download : Software : Sequence Read Archive : NCBI/NLM/NIH

A wrapper around Cutadapt and FastQC to consistently apply adapter and quality trimming to FastQ files, with extra functionality for RRBS data

Salmon provides fast and bias-aware quantification of transcript expression

The Impact of Normalization Methods on RNA-Seq Data Analysis

A systematic evaluation of normalization methods in quantitative label-free proteomics

CirGO: an alternative circular way of visualising gene ontology terms

Create Elegant Data Visualisations Using the Grammar of Graphics • ggplot2

Intervene: a tool for intersection and visualization of multiple gene or genomic region sets

The Protein Data Bank

Open Babel: An open chemical toolbox

P2Rank: machine learning based tool for rapid and accurate prediction of ligand binding sites from protein structure

ZINC: A free tool to discover chemistry for biology

UCSF Chimera--a visualization system for exploratory research and analysis

Supplementary Figure S1 . PBMC_Act_DEGs GO1 defense response to virus, 19.1% GO2 regulation of cell cycle process, 12.0% GO3 cell cycle, 8.7% GO4 mitotic cell cycle, 8.7% GO5 DNA replication, 6.1% GO6 regulation of cell cycle, 6.0% GO7 chromosome segregation, 4.3% GO8 regulation of nuclear division, 4.1% GO9 nuclear division, 3.2% regulation of ribonuclease activity, 3.0% regulation of chromosome segregation, 2.9% cell division, 2.9% response to stimulus, 2.3% biological process involved in interspecies interaction between organisms, 2.0% signaling, 2.0% meiotic cell cycle, 2.0% immune system process, 1.9% regulation of viral genome replication, 1.9% cell communication, 1.8% cell population proliferation, 1.4% regulation of cellular component organization, 1.3% positive regulation of pattern recognition receptor signaling pathway, 1.2% regulation of reproductive process, 1.2%

This is a list of supplementary les associated with this preprint. Click to download.