key: cord-0707927-xvnxkcxq
authors: Dellinger, R. P.; Levy, Mitchell M.; Rhodes, Andrew; Annane, Djillali; Gerlach, Herwig; Opal, Steven M.; Sevransky, Jonathan E.; Sprung, Charles L.; Douglas, Ivor S.; Jaeschke, Roman; Osborn, Tiffany M.; Nunnally, Mark E.; Townsend, Sean R.; Reinhart, Konrad; Kleinpell, Ruth M.; Angus, Derek C.; Deutschman, Clifford S.; Machado, Flavia R.; Rubenfeld, Gordon D.; Webb, Steven; Beale, Richard J.; Vincent, Jean-Louis; Moreno, Rui
title: Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock, 2012
date: 2013-01-30
journal: Intensive Care Med
DOI: 10.1007/s00134-012-2769-8
sha: 55778d994860bccebb03856ec5234434b1bf3b0c
doc_id: 707927
cord_uid: xvnxkcxq

OBJECTIVE: To provide an update to the “Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock,” last published in 2008. DESIGN: A consensus committee of 68 international experts representing 30 international organizations was convened. Nominal groups were assembled at key international meetings (for those committee members attending the conference). A formal conflict of interest policy was developed at the onset of the process and enforced throughout. The entire guidelines process was conducted independent of any industry funding. A stand-alone meeting was held for all subgroup heads, co- and vice-chairs, and selected individuals. Teleconferences and electronic-based discussion among subgroups and among the entire committee served as an integral part of the development. METHODS: The authors were advised to follow the principles of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system to guide assessment of quality of evidence from high (A) to very low (D) and to determine the strength of recommendations as strong (1) or weak (2). The potential drawbacks of making strong recommendations in the presence of low-quality evidence were emphasized. Recommendations were classified into three groups: (1) those directly targeting severe sepsis; (2) those targeting general care of the critically ill patient and considered high priority in severe sepsis; and (3) pediatric considerations. RESULTS: Key recommendations and suggestions, listed by category, include: early quantitative resuscitation of the septic patient during the first 6 h after recognition (1C); blood cultures before antibiotic therapy (1C); imaging studies performed promptly to confirm a potential source of infection (UG); administration of broad-spectrum antimicrobials therapy within 1 h of the recognition of septic shock (1B) and severe sepsis without septic shock (1C) as the goal of therapy; reassessment of antimicrobial therapy daily for de-escalation, when appropriate (1B); infection source control with attention to the balance of risks and benefits of the chosen method within 12 h of diagnosis (1C); initial fluid resuscitation with crystalloid (1B) and consideration of the addition of albumin in patients who continue to require substantial amounts of crystalloid to maintain adequate mean arterial pressure (2C) and the avoidance of hetastarch formulations (1B); initial fluid challenge in patients with sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion and suspicion of hypovolemia to achieve a minimum of 30 mL/kg of crystalloids (more rapid administration and greater amounts of fluid may be needed in some patients (1C); fluid challenge technique continued as long as hemodynamic improvement is based on either dynamic or static variables (UG); norepinephrine as the first-choice vasopressor to maintain mean arterial pressure ≥65 mmHg (1B); epinephrine when an additional agent is needed to maintain adequate blood pressure (2B); vasopressin (0.03 U/min) can be added to norepinephrine to either raise mean arterial pressure to target or to decrease norepinephrine dose but should not be used as the initial vasopressor (UG); dopamine is not recommended except in highly selected circumstances (2C); dobutamine infusion administered or added to vasopressor in the presence of (a) myocardial dysfunction as suggested by elevated cardiac filling pressures and low cardiac output, or (b) ongoing signs of hypoperfusion despite achieving adequate intravascular volume and adequate mean arterial pressure (1C); avoiding use of intravenous hydrocortisone in adult septic shock patients if adequate fluid resuscitation and vasopressor therapy are able to restore hemodynamic stability (2C); hemoglobin target of 7–9 g/dL in the absence of tissue hypoperfusion, ischemic coronary artery disease, or acute hemorrhage (1B); low tidal volume (1A) and limitation of inspiratory plateau pressure (1B) for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); application of at least a minimal amount of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in ARDS (1B); higher rather than lower level of PEEP for patients with sepsis-induced moderate or severe ARDS (2C); recruitment maneuvers in sepsis patients with severe refractory hypoxemia due to ARDS (2C); prone positioning in sepsis-induced ARDS patients with a Pao (2)/Fio (2) ratio of ≤100 mm Hg in facilities that have experience with such practices (2C); head-of-bed elevation in mechanically ventilated patients unless contraindicated (1B); a conservative fluid strategy for patients with established ARDS who do not have evidence of tissue hypoperfusion (1C); protocols for weaning and sedation (1A); minimizing use of either intermittent bolus sedation or continuous infusion sedation targeting specific titration endpoints (1B); avoidance of neuromuscular blockers if possible in the septic patient without ARDS (1C); a short course of neuromuscular blocker (no longer than 48 h) for patients with early ARDS and a Pao (2)/Fi o (2) <150 mm Hg (2C); a protocolized approach to blood glucose management commencing insulin dosing when two consecutive blood glucose levels are >180 mg/dL, targeting an upper blood glucose ≤180 mg/dL (1A); equivalency of continuous veno-venous hemofiltration or intermittent hemodialysis (2B); prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis (1B); use of stress ulcer prophylaxis to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with bleeding risk factors (1B); oral or enteral (if necessary) feedings, as tolerated, rather than either complete fasting or provision of only intravenous glucose within the first 48 h after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (2C); and addressing goals of care, including treatment plans and end-of-life planning (as appropriate) (1B), as early as feasible, but within 72 h of intensive care unit admission (2C). Recommendations specific to pediatric severe sepsis include: therapy with face mask oxygen, high flow nasal cannula oxygen, or nasopharyngeal continuous PEEP in the presence of respiratory distress and hypoxemia (2C), use of physical examination therapeutic endpoints such as capillary refill (2C); for septic shock associated with hypovolemia, the use of crystalloids or albumin to deliver a bolus of 20 mL/kg of crystalloids (or albumin equivalent) over 5–10 min (2C); more common use of inotropes and vasodilators for low cardiac output septic shock associated with elevated systemic vascular resistance (2C); and use of hydrocortisone only in children with suspected or proven “absolute”’ adrenal insufficiency (2C). CONCLUSIONS: Strong agreement existed among a large cohort of international experts regarding many level 1 recommendations for the best care of patients with severe sepsis. Although a significant number of aspects of care have relatively weak support, evidence-based recommendations regarding the acute management of sepsis and septic shock are the foundation of improved outcomes for this important group of critically ill patients. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00134-012-2769-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Abstract Objective: To provide an update to the ''Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock,'' last published in 2008. Design: A consensus committee of 68 international experts representing 30 international organizations was convened. Nominal groups were assembled at key international meetings (for those committee members attending the conference). A formal conflict of interest policy was developed at the onset of the process and enforced throughout. The entire guidelines process was conducted independent of any industry funding. A stand-alone meeting was held for all subgroup heads, co-and vicechairs, and selected individuals. Teleconferences and electronic-based discussion among subgroups and among the entire committee served as an integral part of the development. Methods: The authors were advised to follow the principles of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system to guide assessment of quality of evidence from high (A) to very low (D) and to determine the strength of recommendations as strong (1) or weak (2) . The potential drawbacks of making strong recommendations in the presence of lowquality evidence were emphasized. Recommendations were classified into three groups: (1) those directly targeting severe sepsis; (2) those targeting general care of the critically ill patient and considered high priority in severe sepsis; and (3) pediatric considerations. Results: Key recommendations and suggestions, listed by category, include: early quantitative resuscitation of the septic patient during the first 6 h after recognition (1C); blood cultures before antibiotic therapy (1C); imaging studies performed promptly to confirm a potential source of infection (UG); administration of broad-spectrum antimicrobials therapy within 1 h of the recognition of septic shock (1B) and severe sepsis without septic shock (1C) as the goal of therapy; reassessment of antimicrobial therapy daily for de-escalation, when appropriate (1B); infection source control with attention to the balance of risks and benefits of the chosen method within 12 h of diagnosis (1C); initial fluid resuscitation with crystalloid (1B) and consideration of the addition of albumin in patients who continue to require substantial amounts of crystalloid to maintain adequate mean arterial pressure (2C) and the avoidance of hetastarch formulations (1B); initial fluid challenge in patients with sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion and suspicion of hypovolemia to achieve a minimum of 30 mL/kg of crystalloids (more rapid administration and greater amounts of fluid may be needed in some patients (1C); fluid challenge technique continued as long as hemodynamic improvement is based on either dynamic or static variables (UG); norepinephrine as the first-choice vasopressor to maintain mean arterial pressure C65 mmHg (1B); epinephrine when an additional agent is needed to maintain adequate blood pressure (2B); vasopressin (0.03 U/min) can be added to norepinephrine to either raise mean arterial pressure to target or to decrease norepinephrine dose but should not be used as the initial vasopressor (UG); dopamine is not recommended except in highly selected circumstances (2C); dobutamine infusion administered or added to vasopressor in the presence of (a) myocardial dysfunction as suggested by elevated cardiac filling pressures and low cardiac output, or (b) ongoing signs of hypoperfusion despite achieving adequate intravascular volume and adequate mean arterial pressure (1C); avoiding use of intravenous hydrocortisone in adult septic shock patients if adequate fluid resuscitation and vasopressor therapy are able to restore hemodynamic stability (2C); hemoglobin target of 7-9 g/dL in the absence of tissue hypoperfusion, ischemic coronary artery disease, or acute hemorrhage (1B); low tidal volume (1A) and limitation of inspiratory plateau pressure (1B) for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); application of at least a minimal amount of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in ARDS (1B); higher rather than lower level of PEEP for patients with sepsis-induced moderate or severe ARDS (2C); recruitment maneuvers in sepsis patients with severe refractory hypoxemia due to ARDS (2C); prone positioning in sepsis-induced ARDS patients with a PaO 2 /FiO 2 ratio of B100 mm Hg in facilities that have experience with such practices (2C); head-of-bed elevation in mechanically ventilated patients unless contraindicated (1B); a conservative fluid strategy for patients with established ARDS who do not have evidence of tissue hypoperfusion (1C); protocols for weaning and sedation (1A); minimizing use of either intermittent bolus sedation or continuous infusion sedation targeting specific titration endpoints (1B); avoidance of neuromuscular blockers if possible in the septic patient without ARDS (1C); a short course of neuromuscular blocker (no longer than 48 h) for patients with early ARDS and a PaO 2 /FIO 2 \150 mm Hg (2C); a protocolized approach to blood glucose management commencing insulin dosing when two consecutive blood glucose levels are [180 mg/dL, targeting an upper blood glucose B180 mg/dL (1A); equivalency of continuous venovenous hemofiltration or intermittent hemodialysis (2B); prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis (1B); use of stress ulcer prophylaxis to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with bleeding risk factors (1B); oral or enteral (if necessary) feedings, as tolerated, rather than either complete fasting or provision of only intravenous glucose within the first 48 h after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (2C); and addressing goals of care, including treatment plans and end-of-life planning (as appropriate) (1B), as early as feasible, but within 72 h of intensive care unit admission (2C). Recommendations specific to pediatric severe sepsis include: therapy with face mask oxygen, high flow nasal cannula oxygen, or nasopharyngeal continuous PEEP in the presence of respiratory distress and hypoxemia (2C), use of physical examination therapeutic endpoints such as capillary refill (2C); for septic shock associated with hypovolemia, the use of crystalloids or albumin to deliver a bolus of 20 mL/kg of crystalloids (or albumin equivalent) over 5-10 min (2C); more common use of inotropes and vasodilators for low cardiac output septic shock associated with elevated systemic vascular resistance (2C); and use of hydrocortisone only in children with suspected or proven ''absolute''' adrenal insufficiency (2C). Conclusions: Strong agreement existed among a large cohort of international experts regarding many level 1 recommendations for the best care of patients with severe sepsis. Although a significant number of aspects of care have relatively weak support, evidence-based recommendations regarding the acute management of sepsis and septic shock are the foundation of improved outcomes for this important group of critically ill patients.

Keywords Sepsis Á Severe sepsis Á Septic shock Á Sepsis syndrome Á Infection Á Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation criteria Á GRADE Á Guidelines Á Evidence-based medicine Á Surviving Sepsis Campaign Á Sepsis bundles Sepsis is a systemic, deleterious host response to infection leading to severe sepsis (acute organ dysfunction secondary to documented or suspected infection) and septic shock (severe sepsis plus hypotension not reversed with fluid resuscitation). Severe sepsis and septic shock are major healthcare problems, affecting millions of people around the world each year, killing one in four (and often more), and increasing in incidence [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] . Similar to polytrauma, acute myocardial infarction, or stroke, the speed and appropriateness of therapy administered in the initial hours after severe sepsis develops are likely to influence outcome.

The recommendations in this document are intended to provide guidance for the clinician caring for a patient with severe sepsis or septic shock. Recommendations from these guidelines cannot replace the clinician's decision-making capability when he or she is presented with a patient's unique set of clinical variables. Most of these recommendations are appropriate for the severe sepsis patient in the intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU settings. In fact, the committee believes that the greatest outcome improvement can be made through education and process change for those caring for severe sepsis patients in the non-ICU setting and across the spectrum of acute care. Resource limitations in some institutions and countries may prevent physicians from accomplishing particular recommendations. Thus, these recommendations are intended to be best practice (the committee considers this a goal for clinical practice) and not created to represent standard of care. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign (SSC) Guidelines Committee hopes that over time, particularly through education programs and formal audit and feedback performance improvement initiatives, the guidelines will influence bedside healthcare practitioner behavior that will reduce the burden of sepsis worldwide.

Definitions Sepsis is defined as the presence (probable or documented) of infection together with systemic manifestations of infection. Severe sepsis is defined as sepsis plus sepsis-induced organ dysfunction or tissue hypoperfusion (Tables 1, 2) [6] . Throughout this manuscript and the performance improvement bundles, which are included, a distinction is made between definitions and therapeutic targets or thresholds. Sepsis-induced hypotension is defined as a systolic blood pressure (SBP)\90 mmHg or mean arterial pressure (MAP) \70 mmHg or a SBP decrease[40 mmHg or less than two standard deviations below normal for age in the absence of other causes of hypotension. An example of a therapeutic target or typical threshold for the reversal of hypotension is seen in the sepsis bundles for the use of vasopressors. In the bundles, the MAP threshold is C65 mmHg. The use of definition versus threshold will be evident throughout this article. Septic shock is defined as sepsis-induced hypotension persisting despite adequate fluid resuscitation. Sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion is defined as infection-induced hypotension, elevated lactate, or oliguria.

These clinical practice guidelines are a revision of the 2008 SSC guidelines for the management of severe sepsis and septic shock [7] . The initial SSC guidelines were published in 2004 [8] and incorporated the evidence available through the end of 2003. The 2008 publication analyzed evidence available through the end of 2007. The most current iteration is based on updated literature search incorporated into the evolving manuscript through fall 2012.

The selection of committee members was based on interest and expertise in specific aspects of sepsis. Co-chairs and executive committee members were appointed by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine governing bodies. Each sponsoring organization appointed a representative who had sepsis expertise. Additional committee members were appointed by the co-chairs and executive committee to create continuity with the previous committees' membership as well as to address content needs for the development process. Four clinicians with experience in the GRADE process application (referred to in this document as GRADE group or Evidence-Based Medicine [EBM] group) took part in the guidelines development.

The guidelines development process began with appointment of group heads and assignment of committee members to groups according to their specific expertise. Each group was responsible for drafting the initial update to the 2008 edition in their assigned area (with major additional elements of information incorporated into the evolving manuscript through year-end 2011 and early 2012) .

With input from the EBM group, an initial group meeting was held to establish procedures for literature review and development of tables for evidence analysis. Committees and their subgroups continued work via phone and the Internet. Several subsequent meetings of subgroups and key individuals occurred at major international meetings (nominal groups), with work continuing via teleconferences and electronic-based discussions among subgroups and members of the entire committee. Ultimately, a meeting of all group heads, executive committee members, and other key committee members was held to finalize the draft document for submission to reviewers.

A separate literature search was performed for each clearly defined question. The committee chairs worked with subgroup heads to identify pertinent search terms that were to include, at a minimum, sepsis, severe sepsis, septic shock, and sepsis syndrome crossed against the subgroup's general topic area, as well as appropriate key words of the specific question posed. All questions used in the previous guidelines publications were searched, as were pertinent new questions generated by general topic-related searches or recent trials. The authors were specifically asked to look for existing meta-analyses related to their question and search a minimum of one general database (i.e., MEDLINE, EM-BASE) and the Cochrane Library [both The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) and Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness (DARE)]. Other databases were optional (ACP Journal Club, Evidence-Based Medicine Journal, Cochrane Registry of Controlled Clinical Trials, International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Registry (http://www.controlled-trials.com/ isrctn/) or metaRegister of Controlled Trials (http://www. controlled-trials.com/mrct/). Where appropriate, available evidence was summarized in the form of evidence tables.

We advised the authors to follow the principles of the GRADE system to guide assessment of quality of evidence from high (A) to very low (D) and to determine the strength of recommendations (Tables 3, 4) [9] [10] [11] . The SSC Steering Committee and individual authors collaborated with GRADE representatives to apply the system during the SSC guidelines revision process. The members of the GRADE group were directly involved, either in person or via e-mail, in all discussions and deliberations among the guidelines committee members as to grading decisions.

The GRADE system is based on a sequential assessment of the quality of evidence, followed by assessment of the balance between the benefits and risks, burden, and cost, leading to development and grading of a management recommendation. Keeping the rating of quality of evidence and strength of recommendation explicitly separate constitutes a crucial and defining feature of the GRADE approach. This system classifies quality of evidence as high (grade A), moderate (grade B), low (grade C), or very low (grade D). Randomized trials begin as high-quality evidence but may be downgraded due to limitations in implementation, inconsistency, or imprecision of the results, indirectness of the evidence, and possible reporting bias ( Table 3) . Examples of indirectness of the evidence include population studied, interventions used, outcomes measured, and how these relate to the question of interest. Well-done observational (nonrandomized) studies begin as low-quality evidence, but the quality level may be upgraded on the basis of a large magnitude of effect. An example of this is the quality of evidence for early administration of antibiotics. References to supplemental digital content appendices of GRADEpro Summary of Evidence Tables appear throughout this document. Table 1 Diagnostic criteria for sepsis Infection, documented or suspected, and some of the following: General variables Fever ([38.3°C) Hypothermia (core temperature \36°C) Heart rate [90 min -1 or more than two SD above the normal value for age Tachypnea Altered mental status Significant edema or positive fluid balance ([ 20 mL/kg over 24 h) Hyperglycemia (plasma glucose [140 mg/dL or 7.7 mmol/L) in the absence of diabetes Inflammatory variables Leukocytosis (WBC count [12,000 lL -1 ) Leukopenia (WBC count \4,000 lL -1 ) Normal WBC count with greater than 10 % immature forms Plasma C-reactive protein more than two SD above the normal value Plasma procalcitonin more than two SD above the normal value Hemodynamic variables Arterial hypotension (SBP \90 mmHg, MAP \70 mmHg, or an SBP decrease [40 mmHg in adults or less than two SD below normal for age) Organ dysfunction variables Arterial hypoxemia (PaO 2 /FiO 2 \300) Acute oliguria (urine output .5 mL kg -1 h -1 for at least 2 h despite adequate fluid resuscitation) Creatinine increase [0.5 mg/dL or 44.2 lmol/L Coagulation abnormalities (INR [1.5 or aPTT [60 s) Ileus (absent bowel sounds) Thrombocytopenia (platelet count \100,000 lL -1 ) Hyperbilirubinemia (plasma total bilirubin [4 mg/dL or 70 lmol/L) Tissue perfusion variables Hyperlactatemia ([1 mmol/L) Decreased capillary refill or mottling SD standard deviation, WBC white blood cell, SBP systolic blood pressure, MAP mean arterial pressure, INR international normalized ratio, aPTT activated partial thromboplastin time Diagnostic criteria for sepsis in the pediatric population are signs and symptoms of inflammation plus infection with hyper-or hypothermia (rectal temperature [38.5 or \35°C), tachycardia (may be absent in hypothermic patients), and at least one of the following indications of altered organ function: altered mental status, hypoxemia, increased serum lactate level, or bounding pulses Adapted from [6] Table 2 Severe sepsis Severe sepsis definition = sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion or organ dysfunction (any of the following thought to be due to the infection)

The GRADE system classifies recommendations as strong (grade 1) or weak (grade 2). The factors influencing this determination are presented in Table 4 . The assignment of strong or weak is considered of greater clinical importance than a difference in letter level of quality of evidence. The committee assessed whether the desirable effects of adherence would outweigh the undesirable effects, and the strength of a recommendation reflects the group's degree of confidence in that assessment. Thus, a strong recommendation in favor of an intervention reflects the panel's opinion that the desirable effects of adherence to a recommendation (beneficial health outcomes; lesser burden on staff and patients; and cost savings) will clearly outweigh the undesirable effects (harm to health; more burden on staff and patients; and greater costs). The potential drawbacks of making strong recommendations in the presence of lowquality evidence were taken into account. A weak recommendation in favor of an intervention indicates the judgment that the desirable effects of adherence to a recommendation probably will outweigh the undesirable effects, but the panel is not confident about these tradeoffs-either because some of the evidence is low quality (and thus uncertainty remains regarding the benefits and risks) or the benefits and downsides are closely balanced. A strong recommendation is worded as ''we recommend'' and a weak recommendation as ''we suggest.' ' Throughout the document are a number of statements that either follow graded recommendations or are listed as stand-alone numbered statements followed by ''ungraded'' in parentheses (UG). In the opinion of the committee, these recommendations were not conducive for the GRADE process.

The implications of calling a recommendation strong are that most well-informed patients would accept that intervention and that most clinicians should use it in most situations. Circumstances may exist in which a strong recommendation cannot or should not be followed for an individual because of that patient's preferences or clinical characteristics that make the recommendation less applicable. A strong recommendation does not automatically imply standard of care. For example, the strong recommendation for administering antibiotics within 1 h of the diagnosis of severe sepsis, as well as the recommendation for achieving a central venous pressure (CVP) of 8 mmHg and a central venous oxygen saturation (ScvO 2 ) of 70 % in the first 6 h of resuscitation of sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion, although deemed desirable, are not yet standards of care as verified by practice data.

Significant education of committee members on the GRADE approach built on the process conducted during 2008 efforts. Several members of the committee were trained in the use of GRADEpro software, allowing more formal use of the GRADE system [12] . Rules were distributed concerning assessing the body of evidence, and GRADE representatives were available for advice throughout the process. Subgroups agreed electronically on draft proposals that were then presented for general discussion among subgroup heads, the SSC Steering Committee (two co-chairs, two co-vice chairs, and an atlarge committee member), and several selected key committee members who met in July 2011 in Chicago. The results of that discussion were incorporated into the next version of recommendations and again discussed with the whole group using electronic mail. Draft recommendations were distributed to the entire committee The higher the quality of evidence, the more likely a strong recommendation. Certainty about the balance of benefits versus harms and burdens (is there certainty?)

The larger the difference between the desirable and undesirable consequences and the certainty around that difference, the more likely a strong recommendation. The smaller the net benefit and the lower the certainty for that benefit, the more likely a weak recommendation Certainty in or similar values (is there certainty or similarity?)

The more certainty or similarity in values and preferences, the more likely a strong recommendation Resource implications (are resources worth expected benefits?)

The lower the cost of an intervention compared to the alternative and other costs related to the decision-i.e., fewer resources consumedthe more likely a strong recommendation and finalized during an additional nominal group meeting in Berlin in October 2011. Deliberations and decisions were then recirculated to the entire committee for approval. At the discretion of the chairs and following discussion, competing proposals for wording of recommendations or assigning strength of evidence were resolved by formal voting within subgroups and at nominal group meetings. The manuscript was edited for style and form by the writing committee with final approval by subgroup heads and then by the entire committee. To satisfy peer review during the final stages of manuscript approval for publication, several recommendations were edited with approval of the SSC executive committee group head for that recommendation and the EBM lead.

Since the inception of the SSC guidelines in 2004, no members of the committee represented industry; there was no industry input into guidelines development; and no industry representatives were present at any of the meetings. Industry awareness or comment on the recommendations was not allowed. No member of the guidelines committee received honoraria for any role in the 2004, 2008, or 2012 guidelines process. A detailed description of the disclosure process and all author disclosures appear in Supplemental Digital Content 1 in the supplemental materials to this document. Appendix 2 shows a flowchart of the COI disclosure process. Committee members who were judged to have either financial or nonfinancial/academic competing interests were recused during the closed discussion session and voting session on that topic. Full disclosure and transparency of all committee members' potential conflicts were sought.

On initial review, 68 financial conflict of interest (COI) disclosures and 54 non-financial disclosures were submitted by committee members. Declared COI disclosures from 19 members were determined by the COI subcommittee to be not relevant to the guidelines content process. Nine who were determined to have COI (financial and non-financial) were adjudicated by group reassignment and requirement to adhere to SSC COI policy regarding discussion or voting at any committee meetings where content germane to their COI was discussed. Nine were judged as having conflicts that could not be resolved solely by reassignment. One of these individuals was asked to step down from the committee. The other eight were assigned to the groups in which they had the least COI. They were required to work within their group with full disclosure when a topic for which they had relevant COI was discussed, and they were not allowed to serve as group head. At the time of final approval of the document, an update of the COI statement was required. No additional COI issues were reported that required further adjudication.

Initial resuscitation and infection issues (Table 5) A. Initial resuscitation 1. We recommend the protocolized, quantitative resuscitation of patients with sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion (defined in this document as hypotension persisting after initial fluid challenge or blood lactate concentration C4 mmol/L). This protocol should be initiated as soon as hypoperfusion is recognized and should not be delayed pending ICU admission. During the first 6 h of resuscitation, the goals of initial resuscitation of sepsis-induced hypoperfusion should include all of the following as a part of a treatment protocol (grade 1C): (a) CVP 8-12 mmHg (b) MAP C65 mmHg (c) Urine output C0.5 mL kg h -1 (d) Superior vena cava oxygenation saturation (ScvO 2 ) or mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO 2 ) 70 or 65 %, respectively. 2. We suggest targeting resuscitation to normalize lactate in patients with elevated lactate levels as a marker of tissue hypoperfusion (grade 2C).

Rationale. In a randomized, controlled, single-center study, early quantitative resuscitation improved survival for emergency department patients presenting with septic shock [13] . Resuscitation targeting the physiologic goals expressed in recommendation 1 (above) for the initial 6-h period was associated with a 15.9 % absolute reduction in 28-day mortality rate. This strategy, termed early goaldirected therapy, was evaluated in a multicenter trial of 314 patients with severe sepsis in eight Chinese centers [14] . This trial reported a 17.7 % absolute reduction in 28-day mortality (survival rates, 75.2 vs. 57.5 %, P = 0.001). A large number of other observational studies using similar forms of early quantitative resuscitation in comparable patient populations have shown significant mortality reduction compared to the institutions' historical controls (Supplemental Digital Content 2). Phase III of the SSC activities, the international performance improvement program, showed that the mortality of septic patients presenting with both hypotension and lactate C4 mmol/L was 46.1 %, similar to the 46.6 % mortality found in the first trial cited above [15] . As part of performance improvement programs, some hospitals have lowered the lactate threshold for triggering quantitative resuscitation in the patient with severe sepsis, but these thresholds have not been subjected to randomized trials. The consensus panel judged use of CVP and SvO 2 targets to be recommended physiologic targets for resuscitation. Although there are limitations to CVP as a marker of intravascular volume status and response to fluids, a low CVP generally can be relied upon as supporting positive response to fluid loading. Either intermittent or continuous measurements of oxygen saturation were judged to be acceptable. During the first 6 h of resuscitation, if ScvO 2 less than 70 % or SvO 2 equivalent of less than 65 % persists with what is judged to be adequate intravascular volume repletion in the presence of persisting tissue hypoperfusion, then dobutamine infusion (to a maximum of 20 lg kg -1 min -1 ) or transfusion of packed red blood cells to achieve a hematocrit of greater than or equal to 30 % in attempts to achieve the ScvO 2 or SvO 2 goal are options. The strong recommendation for achieving a CVP of 8 mmHg and an ScvO 2 of 70 % in the first 6 h of resuscitation of sepsisinduced tissue hypoperfusion, although deemed desirable, are not yet the standard of care as verified by practice data. The publication of the initial results of the international SSC performance improvement program demonstrated that adherence to CVP and ScvO 2 targets for initial resuscitation was low [15]. . At least 2 sets of blood cultures (both aerobic and anaerobic bottles) be obtained before antimicrobial therapy with at least 1 drawn percutaneously and 1 drawn through each vascular access device, unless the device was recently (\48 h) inserted (grade 1C) 2. Use of the 1,3 b-D-glucan assay (grade 2B), mannan and anti-mannan antibody assays (2C), if available and invasive candidiasis is in differential diagnosis of cause of infection. 3. Imaging studies performed promptly to confirm a potential source of infection (UG) D. Antimicrobial therapy 1. Administration of effective intravenous antimicrobials within the first hour of recognition of septic shock (grade 1B) and severe sepsis without septic shock (grade 1C) as the goal of therapy 2a. Initial empiric anti-infective therapy of one or more drugs that have activity against all likely pathogens (bacterial and/or fungal or viral) and that penetrate in adequate concentrations into tissues presumed to be the source of sepsis (grade 1B) 2b. Antimicrobial regimen should be reassessed daily for potential deescalation (grade 1B) 3. Use of low procalcitonin levels or similar biomarkers to assist the clinician in the discontinuation of empiric antibiotics in patients who initially appeared septic, but have no subsequent evidence of infection (grade 2C) 4a. Combination empirical therapy for neutropenic patients with severe sepsis (grade 2B) and for patients with difficult to treat, multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens such as Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas spp. (grade 2B). For patients with severe infections associated with respiratory failure and septic shock, combination therapy with an extended spectrum beta-lactam and either an aminoglycoside or a fluoroquinolone is for P. aeruginosa bacteremia (grade 2B). A combination of beta-lactam and macrolide for patients with septic shock from bacteremic Streptococcus pneumoniae infections (grade 2B) 4b. Empiric combination therapy should not be administered for more than 3-5 days. De-escalation to the most appropriate single therapy should be performed as soon as the susceptibility profile is known (grade 2B) 5. Duration of therapy typically 7-10 days; longer courses may be appropriate in patients who have a slow clinical response, undrainable foci of infection, bacteremia with S. aureus; some fungal and viral infections or immunologic deficiencies, including neutropenia (grade 2C) 6. Antiviral therapy initiated as early as possible in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock of viral origin (grade 2C) 7. Antimicrobial agents should not be used in patients with severe inflammatory states determined to be of noninfectious cause (UG) E. Source control 1. A specific anatomical diagnosis of infection requiring consideration for emergent source control be sought and diagnosed or excluded as rapidly as possible, and intervention be undertaken for source control within the first 12 h after the diagnosis is made, if feasible (grade 1C) 2. When infected peripancreatic necrosis is identified as a potential source of infection, definitive intervention is best delayed until adequate demarcation of viable and nonviable tissues has occurred (grade 2B) 3. When source control in a severely septic patient is required, the effective intervention associated with the least physiologic insult should be used (e.g., percutaneous rather than surgical drainage of an abscess) (UG) 4. If intravascular access devices are a possible source of severe sepsis or septic shock, they should be removed promptly after other vascular access has been established (UG) F. Infection prevention 1a. Selective oral decontamination and selective digestive decontamination should be introduced and investigated as a method to reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia; This infection control measure can then be instituted in health care settings and regions where this methodology is found to be effective (grade 2B) 1b. Oral chlorhexidine gluconate be used as a form of oropharyngeal decontamination to reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in ICU patients with severe sepsis (grade 2B)

In mechanically ventilated patients or those with known preexisting decreased ventricular compliance, a higher target CVP of 12-15 mmHg should be achieved to account for the impediment in filling [16] . Similar consideration may be warranted in circumstances of increased abdominal pressure [17] . Elevated CVP may also be seen with preexisting clinically significant pulmonary artery hypertension, making use of this variable untenable for judging intravascular volume status. Although the cause of tachycardia in septic patients may be multifactorial, a decrease in elevated pulse rate with fluid resuscitation is often a useful marker of improving intravascular filling. Published observational studies have demonstrated an association between good clinical outcome in septic shock and MAP C65 mmHg as well as ScvO 2 C70 % (measured in the superior vena cava, either intermittently or continuously) [18] . Many studies support the value of early protocolized resuscitation in severe sepsis and sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] . Studies of patients with shock indicate that SvO 2 runs 5-7 % lower than ScvO 2 [25] . While the committee recognized the controversy surrounding resuscitation targets, an early quantitative resuscitation protocol using CVP and venous blood gases can be readily established in both emergency department and ICU settings [26] . Recognized limitations to static ventricular filling pressure estimates exist as surrogates for fluid resuscitation [27, 28], but measurement of CVP is currently the most readily obtainable target for fluid resuscitation. Targeting dynamic measures of fluid responsiveness during resuscitation, including flow and possibly volumetric indices and microcirculatory changes, may have advantages [29] [30] [31] [32] . Available technologies allow measurement of flow at the bedside [33, 34]; however, the efficacy of these monitoring techniques to influence clinical outcomes from early sepsis resuscitation remains incomplete and requires further study before endorsement.

The global prevalence of severe sepsis patients initially presenting with either hypotension with lactate C4 mmol/L, hypotension alone, or lactate C4 mmol/L alone, is reported as 16.6, 49.5, and 5.4 %, respectively [15] . The mortality rate is high in septic patients with both hypotension and lactate C4 mmol/L (46.1 %) [15] , and is also increased in severely septic patients with hypotension alone (36.7 %) and lactate C4 mmol/L alone (30 %) [15] . If ScvO 2 is not available, lactate normalization may be a feasible option in the patient with severe sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion. ScvO 2 and lactate normalization may also be used as a combined endpoint when both are available. Two multicenter randomized trials evaluated a resuscitation strategy that included lactate reduction as a single target or a target combined with ScvO 2 normalization [35, 36]. The first trial reported that early quantitative resuscitation based on lactate clearance (decrease by at least 10 %) was noninferior to early quantitative resuscitation based on achieving ScvO 2 of 70 % or more [35] . The intention-to-treat group contained 300, but the number of patients actually requiring either ScvO 2 normalization or lactate clearance was small (n = 30). The second trial included 348 patients with lactate levels C3 mmol/L [36] . The strategy in this trial was based on a greater than or equal to 20 % decrease in lactate levels per 2 h of the first 8 h in addition to ScvO 2 target achievement, and was associated with a 9.6 % absolute reduction in mortality (P = 0.067; adjusted hazard ratio, 0.61; 95 % CI, 0.43-0.87; P = 0.006).

B. Screening for sepsis and performance improvement 1. We recommend routine screening of potentially infected seriously ill patients for severe sepsis to increase the early identification of sepsis and allow implementation of early sepsis therapy (grade 1C). Application of the SSC sepsis bundles led to sustained, continuous quality improvement in sepsis care and was associated with reduced mortality [15] . Analysis of the data from nearly 32,000 patient charts gathered from 239 hospitals in 17 countries through September 2011 as part of phase III of the campaign informed the revision of the bundles in conjunction with the 2012 guidelines. As a result, for the 2012 version, the management bundle was dropped and the resuscitation bundle was broken into two parts and modified as shown in Fig. 1 . For performance improvement quality indicators, resuscitation target thresholds are not considered. However, recommended targets from the guidelines are included with the bundles for reference purposes. In addition, if equivalent volumes of blood drawn for culture and the vascular access device is positive much earlier than the peripheral blood culture (i.e., more than 2 h earlier), the data support the concept that the vascular access device is the source of the infection [36, 51, 52] . Quantitative cultures of catheter and peripheral blood may also be useful for determining whether the catheter is the source of infection. The volume of blood drawn with the culture tube should be C10 mL [53] . Quantitative (or semiquantitative) cultures of respiratory tract secretions are often recommended for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) [54], but their diagnostic value remains unclear [55] .

The Gram stain can be useful, in particular for respiratory tract specimens, to determine if inflammatory cells are present (greater than five polymorphonuclear leukocytes/ high-powered field and less than 10 squamous cells/lowpowered field) and if culture results will be informative of lower respiratory pathogens. Rapid influenza antigen testing during periods of increased influenza activity in the community is also recommended. A focused history can provide vital information about potential risk factors for infection and likely pathogens at specific tissue sites. The potential role of biomarkers for diagnosis of infection in patients presenting with severe sepsis remains undefined. The utility of procalcitonin levels or other biomarkers (such as C-reactive protein) to discriminate the acute inflammatory pattern of sepsis from other causes of generalized inflammation (e.g., postoperative, other forms of shock) has not been demonstrated. No recommendation can be given for the use of these markers to distinguish between severe infection and other acute inflammatory states [56] [57] [58] .

In the near future, rapid, non-culture-based diagnostic methods (polymerase chain reaction, mass spectroscopy, microarrays) might be helpful for a quicker identification of pathogens and major antimicrobial resistance determinants [59] . These methodologies could be particularly useful for difficult-to-culture pathogens or in clinical situations where empiric antimicrobial agents have been administered before culture samples were been obtained. Clinical experience remains limited, and more clinical studies are needed before recommending these non-culture molecular methods as a replacement for standard blood culture methods [60, 61].

2. We suggest the use of the 1,3 b-D-glucan assay (grade 2B), mannan and anti-mannan antibody assays (grade 2C), when invasive candidiasis is in the differential diagnosis of infection. 3. We recommend that imaging studies be performed promptly in attempts to confirm a potential source of infection. Potential sources of infection should be sampled as they are identified and in consideration of patient risk for transport and invasive procedures (e.g., careful coordination and aggressive monitoring if the decision is made to transport for a computed tomography-guided needle aspiration). Bedside studies, such as ultrasound, may avoid patient transport (UG).

Rationale. Diagnostic studies may identify a source of infection that requires removal of a foreign body or drainage to maximize the likelihood of a satisfactory response to therapy. Even in the most organized and well-staffed healthcare facilities, however, transport of patients can be dangerous, as can be placing patients in outside-unit imaging devices that are difficult to access and monitor. Balancing risk and benefit is therefore mandatory in those settings.

1. The administration of effective intravenous antimicrobials within the first hour of recognition of septic shock (grade 1B) and severe sepsis without septic shock (grade 1C) should be the goal of therapy. Remark: Although the weight of the evidence supports prompt administration of antibiotics following the recognition of severe sepsis and septic shock, the feasibility with which clinicians may achieve this ideal state has not been scientifically evaluated. If antimicrobial agents cannot be mixed and delivered promptly from the pharmacy, establishing a supply of premixed antibiotics for such urgent situations is an appropriate strategy for ensuring prompt administration. Many antibiotics will not remain stable if premixed in a solution. This risk must be taken into consideration in institutions that rely on premixed solutions for rapid availability of antibiotics. In choosing the antimicrobial regimen, clinicians should be aware that some antimicrobial agents have the advantage of bolus administration, while others require a lengthy infusion. Thus, if vascular access is limited and many different agents must be infused, bolus drugs may offer an advantage. 2a. We recommend that initial empiric anti-infective therapy include one or more drugs that have activity against all likely pathogens (bacterial and/or fungal or viral) and that penetrate in adequate concentrations into the tissues presumed to be the source of sepsis (grade 1B).

Rationale. The choice of empirical antimicrobial therapy depends on complex issues related to the patient's history, including drug intolerances, recent receipt of antibiotics (previous 3 months), underlying disease, the clinical syndrome, and susceptibility patterns of pathogens in the community and hospital, and that previously have been documented to colonize or infect the patient. The most common pathogens that cause septic shock in hospitalized patients are Gram-positive bacteria, followed by Gramnegative and mixed bacterial microorganisms. Candidiasis, toxic shock syndromes, and an array of uncommon pathogens should be considered in selected patients. An especially wide range of potential pathogens exists for neutropenic patients. Recently used anti-infective agents should generally be avoided. When choosing empirical therapy, clinicians should be cognizant of the virulence and growing prevalence of oxacillin (methicillin)-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and resistance to broad-spectrum beta-lactams and carbapenem among Gram-negative bacilli in some communities and healthcare settings. Within regions in which the prevalence of such drug-resistant organisms is significant, empiric therapy adequate to cover these pathogens is warranted. Clinicians should also consider whether candidemia is a likely pathogen when choosing initial therapy. When deemed warranted, the selection of empirical antifungal therapy (e.g., an echinocandin, triazoles such as fluconazole, or a formulation of amphotericin B) should be tailored to the local pattern of the most prevalent Candida species and any recent exposure to antifungal drugs [78] . Recent Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines recommend either fluconazole or an echinocandin. Empiric use of an echinocandin is preferred in most patients with severe illness, especially in those patients who have recently been treated with antifungal agents, or if Candida glabrata infection is suspected from earlier culture data. Knowledge of local resistance patterns to antifungal agents should guide drug selection until fungal susceptibility test results, if available, are performed. Risk factors for candidemia, such as immunosuppressed or neutropenic state, prior intense antibiotic therapy, or colonization in multiple sites, should also be considered when choosing initial therapy.

Because patients with severe sepsis or septic shock have little margin for error in the choice of therapy, the initial selection of antimicrobial therapy should be broad enough to cover all likely pathogens. Antibiotic choices should be guided by local prevalence patterns of bacterial pathogens and susceptibility data. Ample evidence exists that failure to initiate appropriate therapy (i.e., therapy with activity against the pathogen that is subsequently identified as the causative agent) correlates with increased morbidity and mortality in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock [68, 71, 79, 80] . Recent exposure to antimicrobials (within last 3 months) should be considered in the choice of an empiric antibacterial regimen. Patients with severe sepsis or septic shock warrant broad-spectrum therapy until the causative organism and its antimicrobial susceptibilities are defined. Although a global restriction of antibiotics is an important strategy to reduce the development of antimicrobial resistance and to reduce cost, it is not an appropriate strategy in the initial therapy for this patient population. However, as soon as the causative pathogen has been identified, deescalation should be performed by selecting the most appropriate antimicrobial agent that covers the pathogen and is safe and cost-effective. Collaboration with antimicrobial stewardship programs, where they exist, is encouraged to ensure appropriate choices and rapid availability of effective antimicrobials for treating septic patients. All patients should receive a full loading dose of each agent. Patients with sepsis often have abnormal and vacillating renal or hepatic function, or may have abnormally high volumes of distribution due to aggressive fluid resuscitation, requiring dose adjustment. Drug serum concentration monitoring can be useful in an ICU setting for those drugs that can be measured promptly. Significant expertise is required to ensure that serum concentrations maximize efficacy and minimize toxicity [81, 82].

2b. The antimicrobial regimen should be reassessed daily for potential de-escalation to prevent the development of resistance, to reduce toxicity, and to reduce costs (grade 1B).

Rationale. Once the causative pathogen has been identified, the most appropriate antimicrobial agent that covers the pathogen and is safe and cost-effective should be selected. On occasion, continued use of specific combinations of antimicrobials might be indicated even after susceptibility testing is available (e.g., Pseudomonas spp. only susceptible to aminoglycosides; enterococcal endocarditis; Acinetobacter spp. infections susceptible only to polymyxins). Decisions on definitive antibiotic choices should be based on the type of pathogen, patient characteristics, and favored hospital treatment regimens. Narrowing the spectrum of antimicrobial coverage and reducing the duration of antimicrobial therapy will reduce the likelihood that the patient will develop superinfection with other pathogenic or resistant organisms, such as Candida species, Clostridium difficile, or vancomycinresistant Enterococcus faecium. However, the desire to minimize superinfections and other complications should not take precedence over giving an adequate course of therapy to cure the infection that caused the severe sepsis or septic shock.

3. We suggest the use of low procalcitonin levels or similar biomarkers to assist the clinician in the discontinuation of empiric antibiotics in patients who appeared septic, but have no subsequent evidence of infection (grade 2C).

Rationale. This suggestion is predicated on the preponderance of the published literature relating to the use of procalcitonin as a tool to discontinue unnecessary antimicrobials [58, 83]. However, clinical experience with this strategy is limited and the potential for harm remains a concern [83]. No evidence demonstrates that this practice reduces the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance or the risk of antibiotic-related diarrhea from C. difficile. One recent study failed to show any benefit of daily procalcitonin measurement in early antibiotic therapy or survival [84] .

4a. Empiric therapy should attempt to provide antimicrobial activity against the most likely pathogens based upon each patient's presenting illness and local patterns of infection. We suggest combination empiric therapy for neutropenic patients with severe sepsis (grade 2B) and for patients with difficult-to-treat, multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens such as Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas spp. (grade 2B). For selected patients with severe infections associated with respiratory failure and septic shock, combination therapy with an extended spectrum beta-lactam and either an aminoglycoside or a fluoroquinolone is suggested for P. aeruginosa bacteremia (grade 2B). Similarly, a more complex combination of beta-lactam and a macrolide is suggested for patients with septic shock from bacteremic Streptococcus pneumoniae infections (grade 2B).

Rationale. Complex combinations might be needed in settings where highly antibiotic-resistant pathogens are prevalent, with such regimens incorporating carbapenems, colistin, rifampin, or other agents. However, a recent controlled trial suggested that adding a fluoroquinolone to a carbapenem as empiric therapy did not improve outcome in a population at low risk for infection with resistant microorganisms [85].

4b. We suggest that combination therapy, when used empirically in patients with severe sepsis, should not be administered for longer than 3-5 days. De-escalation to the most appropriate single-agent therapy should be performed as soon as the susceptibility profile is known (grade 2B). Exceptions would include aminoglycoside monotherapy, which should be generally avoided, particularly for P. aeruginosa sepsis, and for selected forms of endocarditis, where prolonged courses of combinations of antibiotics are warranted.

A propensity-matched analysis, meta-analysis, and meta-regression analysis, along with additional observational studies, have demonstrated that combination therapy produces a superior clinical outcome in severely ill, septic patients with a high risk of death [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] . In light of the increasing frequency of resistance to antimicrobial agents in many parts of the world, broadspectrum coverage generally requires the initial use of combinations of antimicrobial agents. Combination therapy used in this context connotes at least two different classes of antibiotics (usually a beta-lactam agent with a macrolide, fluoroquinolone, or aminoglycoside for select patients Rationale. Although patient factors may influence the length of antibiotic therapy, in general, a duration of 7-10 days (in the absence of source control issues) is adequate.

Thus, decisions to continue, narrow, or stop antimicrobial therapy must be made on the basis of clinician judgment and clinical information. Clinicians should be cognizant of blood cultures being negative in a significant percentage of cases of severe sepsis or septic shock, despite the fact that many of these cases are very likely caused by bacteria or fungi. Clinicians should be cognizant that blood cultures will be negative in a significant percentage of cases of severe sepsis or septic shock, despite many of these cases are very likely caused by bacteria or fungi. 6 . We suggest that antiviral therapy be initiated as early as possible in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock of viral origin (grade 2C).

Rationale. Recommendations for antiviral treatment include the use of: a) early antiviral treatment of suspected or confirmed influenza among persons with severe influenza (e.g., those who have severe, complicated, or progressive illness or who require hospitalization); b) early antiviral treatment of suspected or confirmed influenza among persons at higher risk for influenza complications; and c) therapy with a neuraminidase inhibitor (oseltamivir or zanamivir) for persons with influenza caused by 2009 H1N1 virus, influenza A (H3N2) virus, or influenza B virus, or when the influenza virus type or influenza A virus subtype is unknown [97, 98] . Susceptibility to antivirals is highly variable in a rapidly evolving virus such as influenza, and therapeutic decisions must be guided by updated information regarding the most active, strain-specific, antiviral agents during influenza epidemics [99, 100]. The role of cytomegalovirus (CMV) and other herpesviruses as significant pathogens in septic patients, especially those not known to be severely immunocompromised, remains unclear. Active CMV viremia is common (15-35 %) in critically ill patients; the presence of CMV in the bloodstream has been repeatedly found to be a poor prognostic indicator [101, 102]. What is not known is whether CMV simply is a marker of disease severity or if the virus actually contributes to organ injury and death in septic patients [103] . No treatment recommendations can be given based on the current level of evidence. In those patients with severe primary or generalized varicella-zoster virus infections, and in rare patients with disseminated herpes simplex infections, antiviral agents such as acyclovir can be highly effective when initiated early in the course of infection [104]. 7 . We recommend that antimicrobial agents not be used in patients with severe inflammatory states determined to be of noninfectious cause (UG).

Rationale. When infection is found not to be present, antimicrobial therapy should be stopped promptly to minimize the likelihood that the patient will become infected with an antimicrobial-resistant pathogen or will develop a drug-related adverse effect. Although it is important to stop unnecessary antibiotics early, clinicians should be cognizant that blood cultures will be negative in more than 50 % of cases of severe sepsis or septic shock if the patients are receiving empiric antimicrobial therapy; yet many of these cases are very likely caused by bacteria or fungi. Thus, the decisions to continue, narrow, or stop antimicrobial therapy must be made on the basis of clinician judgment and clinical information.

E. Source control 1. We recommend that a specific anatomical diagnosis of infection requiring consideration for emergent source control (e.g., necrotizing soft tissue infection, peritonitis, cholangitis, intestinal infarction) be sought and diagnosed or excluded as rapidly as possible, and intervention be undertaken for source control within the first 12 h after the diagnosis is made, if feasible (grade 1C). 2. We suggest that when infected peripancreatic necrosis is identified as a potential source of infection, definitive intervention is best delayed until adequate demarcation of viable and nonviable tissues has occurred (grade 2B). 3. When source control in a severely septic patient is required, the effective intervention associated with the least physiologic insult should be used (e.g., percutaneous rather than surgical drainage of an abscess) (UG). 4. If intravascular access devices are a possible source of severe sepsis or septic shock, they should be removed promptly after other vascular access has been established (UG).

Rationale. The principles of source control in the management of sepsis include a rapid diagnosis of the specific site of infection and identification of a focus of infection amenable to source control measures (specifically the drainage of an abscess, debridement of infected necrotic tissue, removal of a potentially infected device, and definitive control of a source of ongoing microbial contamination) [ An RCT comparing early to delayed surgical intervention for peripancreatic necrosis showed better outcomes with a delayed approach [111] . Moreover, a randomized surgical study found that a minimally invasive, step-up approach was better tolerated by patients and had a lower mortality than open necrosectomy in necrotizing pancreatitis [112] , although areas of uncertainty exist, such as definitive documentation of infection and appropriate length of delay. The selection of optimal source control methods must weigh the benefits and risks of the specific intervention as well as risks of transfer [113] . Source control interventions may cause further complications, such as bleeding, fistulas, or inadvertent organ injury. Surgical intervention should be considered when other interventional approaches are inadequate or when diagnostic uncertainty persists despite radiologic evaluation. Specific clinical situations require consideration of available choices, the patient's preferences, and the clinician's expertise.

F. Infection prevention 1. We suggest that selective oral decontamination (SOD) and selective digestive decontamination (SDD) should be introduced and investigated as a method to reduce the incidence of VAP; this infection control measure can then be instituted in healthcare settings and regions where this methodology is found to be effective (grade 2B). 2. We suggest oral chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) be used as a form of oropharyngeal decontamination to reduce the risk of VAP in ICU patients with severe sepsis (grade 2B).

Rationale. Careful infection control practices (e.g., hand washing, expert nursing care, catheter care, barrier precautions, airway management, elevation of the head of the bed, subglottic suctioning) should be instituted during the care of septic patients as reviewed in the nursing considerations for the SSC [114] . The role of SDD with systemic antimicrobial prophylaxis and its variants (e.g., SOD, CHG) has been a contentious issue ever since the concept was first developed more than 30 years ago. The notion of limiting the acquisition of opportunistic, often multiresistant, healthcare-associated microorganisms has its appeal by promoting ''colonization resistance'' from the resident microbiome existing along mucosal surfaces of the alimentary tract. However, the efficacy of SDD, its safety, propensity to prevent or promote antibiotic resistance, and cost-effectiveness remain debatable despite a number of favorable meta-analyses and controlled clinical trials [115] . The data indicate an overall reduction in VAP but no consistent improvement in mortality, except in selected populations in some studies. Most studies do not specifically address the efficacy of SDD in patients who present with sepsis, but some do [116] [117] [118] .

Oral CHG is relatively easy to administer, decreases risk of nosocomial infection, and reduces the potential concern over promotion of antimicrobial resistance by SDD regimens. This remains a subject of considerable debate, despite the recent evidence that the incidence of antimicrobial resistance does not change appreciably with current SDD regimens [119-121]. The grade 2B was designated for both SOD and CHG as it was felt that risk was lower with CHG and the measure better accepted despite less published literature than with SOD. Supplemental Digital Content 3 shows a GRADEpro Summary of Evidence Table for the use of topical digestive tract antibiotics and CHG for prophylaxis against VAP.

Hemodynamic support and adjunctive therapy ( We suggest the use of albumin in the fluid resuscitation of severe sepsis and septic shock when patients require substantial amounts of crystalloids (grade 2C).

Rationale. The absence of any clear benefit following the administration of colloid solutions compared to crystalloid solutions, together with the expense associated with colloid solutions, supports a high-grade recommendation for the use of crystalloid solutions in the initial resuscitation of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Three recent multicenter RCTs evaluating 6 % HES 130/0.4 solutions (tetra starches) have been published. The CRYSTMAS study demonstrated no difference in mortality with HES versus 0.9 % normal saline (31 vs. 25.3 %, P = 0.37) in the resuscitation of septic shock patients; however, the study was underpowered to detect the 6 % difference in absolute mortality observed [122] . In a sicker patient cohort, a Scandinavian multicenter study in septic patients (6S Trial Group) showed increased mortality rates with 6 % HES 130/0.42 fluid resuscitation compared to Ringer's acetate (51 vs. 43 %. P = 0.03) [123] . The CHEST study, conducted in a heterogenous population of patients admitted to intensive care (HES vs. isotonic saline, n = 7000 critically ill patients), showed no difference in 90-day mortality between resuscitation with 6 % HES with a molecular weight of 130 kD/0.40 and isotonic saline (18 vs. 17 %, P = 0.26); the need for renal replacement therapy was higher in the HES group [7.0 vs. 5.8 %; relative risk (RR), 1.21; 95 % confidence interval (CI), 1.00-1.45; P = 0.04] [124]. A meta-analysis of 56 randomized trials found no overall difference in mortality between crystalloids and artificial colloids (modified gelatins, HES, dextran) when used for initial fluid resuscitation [125]. Information from 3 randomized trials (n = 704 patients with severe sepsis/septic shock) did not show survival benefit with use of heta-, hexa-, or pentastarches compared to other fluids (RR, 1.15; 95 % CI, 0.95-1.39; random effect; I 2 = 0 %) [126] [127] [128] . However, these solutions increased substantially the risk of acute kidney injury (RR, 1.60; 95 % CI, 1.26-2.04; I 2 = 0 %) [126] [127] [128] . The evidence of harm observed in the 6S and CHEST studies and the meta-analysis supports a highlevel recommendation advising against the use of HES solutions in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock, particularly since other options for fluid resuscitation exist. The CRYSTAL trial, another large prospective clinical trial comparing crystalloids and colloids, was recently completed and will provide additional insight into HES fluid resuscitation.

The SAFE study indicated that albumin administration was safe and equally as effective as 0.9 % saline [129] . A meta-analysis aggregated data from 17 randomized trials (n = 1977) of albumin versus other fluid solutions in patients with severe sepsis/septic shock [130]; 279 deaths occurred among 961 albumin-treated patients versus 343 deaths among 1,016 patients treated with other fluids, thus favoring albumin [odds ratio (OR), 0.82; 95 % CI, 0.67-1.00; I 2 = 0 %]. When albumin-treated patients were compared with those receiving crystalloids (7 trials, n = 1441), the OR of dying was significantly reduced for albumin-treated patients (OR, 0.78; 95 % CI, 0.62-0.99; I 2 = 0 %). A multicenter randomized trial (n = 794) in patients with septic shock compared intravenous albumin (20 g, 20 %) every 8 h for 3 days to intravenous saline solution [130]; albumin therapy was associated with 2.2 % absolute reduction in 28-day mortality (from 26.3 Table 6 Recommendations: hemodynamic support and adjunctive therapy to 24.1 %), but did not achieve statistical significance. These data support a low-level recommendation regarding the use of albumin in patients with sepsis and septic shock (personal communication from J.P. Mira and as presented at the 32nd International ISICEM Congress 2012, Brussels and the 25th ESICM Annual Congress 2012, Lisbon). 4 . We recommend an initial fluid challenge in patients with sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion with suspicion of hypovolemia to achieve a minimum of 30 mL/ kg of crystalloids (a portion of this may be albumin equivalent). More rapid administration and greater amounts of fluid may be needed in some patients (see Initial Resuscitation recommendations) (grade 1C). 5. We recommend that a fluid challenge technique be applied wherein fluid administration is continued as long as there is hemodynamic improvement either based on dynamic (e.g., change in pulse pressure, stroke volume variation) or static (e.g., arterial pressure, heart rate) variables (UG). from the evidence-based target of 65 mmHg used in this recommendation. In any case, the optimal MAP should be individualized as it may be higher in patients with atherosclerosis and/or previous hypertension than in young patients without cardiovascular comorbidity. For example, a MAP of 65 mmHg might be too low in a patient with severe uncontrolled hypertension; in a young, previously normotensive patient, a lower MAP might be adequate. Supplementing endpoints, such as blood pressure, with assessment of regional and global perfusion, such as blood lactate concentrations, skin perfusion, mental status, and urine output, is important. Adequate fluid resuscitation is a fundamental aspect of the hemodynamic management of patients with septic shock and should ideally be achieved before vasopressors and inotropes are used; however, using vasopressors early as an emergency measure in patients with severe shock is frequently necessary, as when diastolic blood pressure is too low. When that occurs, great effort should be directed to weaning vasopressors with continuing fluid resuscitation.

2. We recommend norepinephrine as the first-choice vasopressor (grade 1B). 3. We suggest epinephrine (added to and potentially substituted for norepinephrine) when an additional agent is needed to maintain adequate blood pressure (grade 2B). 4. Vasopressin (up to 0.03 U/min) can be added to norepinephrine with the intent of raising MAP to target or decreasing norepinephrine dosage (UG). 5. Low-dose vasopressin is not recommended as the single initial vasopressor for treatment of sepsisinduced hypotension, and vasopressin doses higher than 0.03-0.04 U/min should be reserved for salvage therapy (failure to achieve an adequate MAP with other vasopressor agents) (UG). 6. We suggest dopamine as an alternative vasopressor agent to norepinephrine only in highly selected patients (e.g., patients with low risk of tachyarrhythmias and absolute or relative bradycardia) (grade 2C). 7. Phenylephrine is not recommended in the treatment of septic shock except in the following circumstances: (a) norepinephrine is associated with serious arrhythmias, (b) cardiac output is known to be high and blood pressure persistently low, or (c) as salvage therapy when combined inotrope/vasopressor drugs and lowdose vasopressin have failed to achieve the MAP target (grade 1C).

Rationale. The physiologic effects of vasopressor and combined inotrope/vasopressors selection in septic shock are set out in an extensive number of literature entries [135-147]. Table 7 depicts a GRADEpro Summary of Evidence Table comparing dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of septic shock. Dopamine increases MAP and cardiac output, primarily due to an increase in stroke volume and heart rate. Norepinephrine increases MAP due to its vasoconstrictive effects, with little change in heart rate and less increase in stroke volume compared with dopamine. Norepinephrine is more potent than dopamine and may be more effective at reversing hypotension in patients with septic shock. Dopamine may be particularly useful in patients with compromised systolic function but causes more tachycardia and may be more arrhythmogenic than norepinephrine [148] . It may also influence the endocrine response via the hypothalamic pituitary axis and have immunosuppressive effects. However, information from five randomized trials (n = Although some human and animal studies suggest epinephrine has deleterious effects on splanchnic circulation and produces hyperlactatemia, no clinical evidence shows that epinephrine results in worse outcomes, and it should be the first alternative to norepinephrine. Indeed, information from 4 randomized trials (n = 540) comparing norepinephrine to epinephrine found no evidence for differences in the risk of dying (RR, 0.96; CI, 0.77-1.21; fixed effect; I 2 = 0 %) [142, 147, 154, 155] . Epinephrine may increase aerobic lactate production via stimulation of skeletal muscles' b 2 -adrenergic receptors and thus may prevent the use of lactate clearance to guide resuscitation. With its almost pure a-adrenergic effects, phenylephrine is the adrenergic agent least likely to produce tachycardia, but it may decrease stroke volume and is therefore not recommended for use in the treatment of septic shock except in circumstances where norepinephrine is: (a) associated with serious arrhythmias, or (b) cardiac output is known to be high, or (c) as salvage therapy when other vasopressor agents have failed to achieve target MAP [156] . Vasopressin levels in septic shock have been reported to be lower than anticipated for a shock state [157] . Low doses of vasopressin may be effective in raising blood pressure in patients, refractory to other vasopressors and may have other potential physiologic benefits [158-163]. Terlipressin has similar effects but is long acting [164] . Studies show that vasopressin concentrations are elevated in early septic shock, but decrease to normal range in the majority of patients between 24 and 48 h as shock continues [165] . This has been called relative CI confidence interval, RR risk ratio a The assumed risk is the control group risk across studies. The corresponding risk (and its 95 % CI) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95 % CI) b Strong heterogeneity in the results (I 2 = 85 %), however, this reflects degree of effect, not direction of effect. We have decided not to lower the evidence quality c Effect results in part from hypovolemic and cardiogenic shock patients in [152] vasopressin deficiency because in the presence of hypotension, vasopressin would be expected to be elevated. The significance of this finding is unknown. The VASST trial, a randomized, controlled trial comparing norepinephrine alone to norepinephrine plus vasopressin at 0.03 U/min, showed no difference in outcome in the intent-to-treat population [166] . An a priori defined subgroup analysis demonstrated that survival among patients receiving \15 lg/min norepinephrine at the time of randomization was better with the addition of vasopressin; however, the pretrial rationale for this stratification was based on exploring potential benefit in the population requiring C15 lg/min norepinephrine. 

Cardiac output measurement targeting maintenance of a normal or elevated flow is desirable when these pure vasopressors are instituted. 8 . We recommend that low-dose dopamine not be used for renal protection (grade 1A).

A large randomized trial and meta-analysis comparing low-dose dopamine to placebo found no difference in either primary outcomes (peak serum creatinine, need for renal replacement, urine output, time to recovery of normal renal function) or secondary outcomes (survival to either ICU or hospital discharge, ICU stay, hospital stay, arrhythmias) [171, 172]. Thus, the available data do not support administration of low doses of dopamine solely to maintain renal function. 9 . We recommend that all patients requiring vasopressors have an arterial catheter placed as soon as practical if resources are available (UG).

Rationale. In shock states, estimation of blood pressure using a cuff is commonly inaccurate; use of an arterial cannula provides a more appropriate and reproducible measurement of arterial pressure. These catheters also allow continuous analysis so that decisions regarding therapy can be based on immediate and reproducible blood pressure information.

I. Inotropic therapy 1. We recommend that a trial of dobutamine infusion up to 20 lg kg -1 min -1 be administered or added to vasopressor (if in use) in the presence of: (a) myocardial dysfunction, as suggested by elevated cardiac filling pressures and low cardiac output, or (b) ongoing signs of hypoperfusion, despite achieving adequate intravascular volume and adequate MAP (grade 1C). 2. We recommend against the use of a strategy to increase cardiac index to predetermined supranormal levels (grade 1B).

Rationale. Dobutamine is the first choice inotrope for patients with measured or suspected low cardiac output in the presence of adequate left ventricular filling pressure (or clinical assessment of adequate fluid resuscitation) and adequate MAP. Septic patients who remain hypotensive after fluid resuscitation may have low, normal, or increased cardiac outputs. Therefore, treatment with a combined inotrope/vasopressor, such as norepinephrine or epinephrine, is recommended if cardiac output is not measured. When the capability exists for monitoring cardiac output in addition to blood pressure, a vasopressor, such as norepinephrine, may be used separately to target specific levels of MAP and cardiac output. Large prospective clinical trials, which included critically ill ICU patients who had severe sepsis, failed to demonstrate benefit from increasing oxygen delivery to supranormal targets by use of dobutamine [173, 174] . These studies did not specifically target patients with severe sepsis and did not target the first 6 h of resuscitation. If evidence of tissue hypoperfusion persists despite adequate intravascular volume and adequate MAP, a viable alternative (other than reversing underlying insult) is to add inotropic therapy.

J. Corticosteroids 1. We suggest not using intravenous hydrocortisone as a treatment of adult septic shock patients if adequate fluid resuscitation and vasopressor therapy are able to restore hemodynamic stability (see goals for Initial Resuscitation). If this is not achievable, we suggest intravenous hydrocortisone alone at a dose of 200 mg per day (grade 2C).

Rationale. The response of septic shock patients to fluid and vasopressor therapy seems to be an important factor in selection of patients for optional hydrocortisone therapy. One French multicenter RCT of patients in vasopressor-unresponsive septic shock (hypotension despite fluid resuscitation and vasopressors for more than 60 min) showed significant shock reversal and reduction of mortality rate in patients with relative adrenal insufficiency [defined as postadrenocorticotropic hormone When only these six studies are analyzed, we found that in ''low risk'' patients from three studies (i.e., those with a placebo mortality rate of less than 50 %, which represents the majority of all patients), hydrocortisone failed to show any benefit on outcome (RR 1.06). The minority of patients from the remaining three studies, who had a placebo mortality of greater than 60 %, showed a nonsignificant trend to lower mortality by using hydrocortisone. See Supplemental Digital Content 4, Summary of Evidence Table. 2. We suggest not using the ACTH stimulation test to identify the subset of adults with septic shock who should receive hydrocortisone (grade 2B).

Rationale. In one study, the observation of a potential interaction between steroid use and ACTH test was not statistically significant [175] . Furthermore, no evidence of this distinction was observed between responders and nonresponders in a recent multicenter trial [178] . Random cortisol levels may still be useful for absolute adrenal insufficiency; however, for septic shock patients who suffer from relative adrenal insufficiency (no adequate stress response), random cortisol levels have not been demonstrated to be useful. Cortisol immunoassays may over-or underestimate the actual cortisol level, affecting the assignment of patients to responders or nonresponders [184] . Although the clinical significance is not clear, it is now recognized that etomidate, when used for induction for intubation, will suppress the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis [185, 186] . Moreover, a subanalysis of the CORTICUS trial [178] revealed that the use of etomidate before application of low-dose steroids was associated with an increased 28-day mortality rate [187] . An inappropriately low random cortisol level (\18 lg/dL) in a patient with shock would be considered an indication for steroid therapy along traditional adrenal insufficiency guidelines.

3. We suggest that clinicians taper the treated patient from steroid therapy when vasopressors are no longer required (grade 2D).

Rationale. There has been no comparative study between a fixed-duration and clinically guided regimen or between tapering and abrupt cessation of steroids. 4. We recommend that corticosteroids not be administered for the treatment of sepsis in the absence of shock (grade 1D).

Rationale. Steroids may be indicated in the presence of a history of steroid therapy or adrenal dysfunction, but whether low-dose steroids have a preventive potency in reducing the incidence of severe sepsis and septic shock in critically ill patients cannot be answered. A preliminary study of stress-dose level steroids in community-acquired pneumonia showed improved outcome measures in a small population [190] , and a recent confirmatory RCT revealed reduced hospital length of stay without affecting mortality [191] . 5 . When low-dose hydrocortisone is given, we suggest using continuous infusion rather than repetitive bolus injections (grade 2D).

Rationale. Several randomized trials on the use of lowdose hydrocortisone in septic shock patients revealed a significant increase of hyperglycemia and hypernatremia [175] as side effects. A small prospective study demonstrated that repetitive bolus application of hydrocortisone leads to a significant increase in blood glucose; this peak effect was not detectable during continuous infusion. Furthermore, considerable inter-individual variability was seen in this blood glucose peak after the hydrocortisone bolus [192] . Although an association of hyperglycemia and hypernatremia with patient outcome measures could not be shown, good practice includes strategies for avoidance and/or detection of these side effects.

Supportive therapy of severe sepsis (Table 8) K. Blood product administration 1. Once tissue hypoperfusion has resolved and in the absence of extenuating circumstances, such as myocardial ischemia, severe hypoxemia, acute hemorrhage, or ischemic coronary artery disease, we recommend that red blood cell transfusion occur when the hemoglobin concentration decreases to \7.0 g/dL to target a hemoglobin concentration of 7.0-9.0 g/dL in adults (grade 1B).

Rationale. Although the optimum hemoglobin concentration for patients with severe sepsis has not been specifically investigated, the Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care trial suggested that a hemoglobin level of 7-9 g/dL, compared with 10-12 g/dL, was not associated with increased mortality in critically ill adults [193] . No significant differences in 30-day mortality rates were observed between treatment groups in the subgroup of patients with severe infections and septic shock (22.8 and 29.7 %, respectively; P = 0.36), Although less applicable to septic patients, results of a randomized trial in patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass support a restrictive transfusion strategy using a threshold hematocrit of \24 % (hemoglobin & 8 g/dL) as equivalent to a transfusion threshold of hematocrit of \30 % (hemoglobin & 10 g/ dL) [194] . Red blood cell transfusion in septic patients increases oxygen delivery but does not usually increase oxygen consumption [195] [196] [197] . The transfusion threshold of 7 g/dL contrasts with early goal-directed resuscitation protocols that use a target hematocrit of 30 % in patients with low ScvO 2 during the first 6 h of resuscitation of septic shock [13].

2. We recommend not using erythropoietin as a specific treatment of anemia associated with severe sepsis (grade 1B).

Rationale. No specific information regarding erythropoietin use in septic patients is available, but clinical trials of erythropoietin administration in critically ill patients show some decrease in red cell transfusion requirement with no effect on clinical outcome [198, 199] . The effect of erythropoietin in severe sepsis and septic shock would not be expected to be more beneficial than in other critical conditions. Patients with severe sepsis and septic shock may have coexisting conditions that meet indications for the use of erythropoietin.

3. We suggest that fresh frozen plasma not be used to correct laboratory clotting abnormalities in the absence of bleeding or planned invasive procedures (grade 2D).

Rationale. Although clinical studies have not assessed the impact of transfusion of fresh frozen plasma on outcomes in critically ill patients, professional organizations have recommended it for coagulopathy when there is a documented deficiency of coagulation factors (increased prothrombin time, international normalized ratio, or partial thromboplastin time) and the presence of active bleeding or before surgical or invasive procedures [200] [201] [202] [203] . In addition, transfusion of fresh frozen plasma usually fails to correct the prothrombin time in nonbleeding patients with mild abnormalities [204, 205] . No studies suggest that correction of more severe coagulation abnormalities benefits patients who are not bleeding.

4. We recommend against antithrombin administration for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock (grade 1B).

A phase III clinical trial of high-dose antithrombin did not demonstrate any beneficial effect on 28-day all-cause mortality in adults with severe sepsis and septic shock. High-dose antithrombin was associated with an increased risk of bleeding when administered with heparin [206] . Although a post hoc subgroup analysis of patients with severe sepsis and high risk of death showed better survival in patients receiving antithrombin, this agent cannot be recommended until further clinical trials are performed [207].

5. In patients with severe sepsis, we suggest that platelets be administered prophylactically when counts are B10,000/mm 3 (10 9 10 9 /L) in the absence of apparent bleeding, as well when counts are B20,000/mm 3 (20 9 10 9 /L) if the patient has a significant risk of bleeding. Higher platelet counts [C50,000/mm 3 (50 9 10 9 /L)] are advised for active bleeding, surgery, or invasive procedures (grade 2D).

Rationale. Guidelines for transfusion of platelets are derived from consensus opinion and experience in patients with chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia. Patients with severe sepsis are likely to have some limitation of platelet production similar to that in chemotherapy-treated patients, but they also are likely to have increased platelet consumption. Recommendations take into account the etiology of thrombocytopenia, platelet dysfunction, risk of bleeding, and presence of Table 8 Recommendations: other supportive therapy of severe sepsis K. Blood product administration 1. Once tissue hypoperfusion has resolved and in the absence of extenuating circumstances, such as myocardial ischemia, severe hypoxemia, acute hemorrhage, or ischemic heart disease, we recommend that red blood cell transfusion occur only when hemoglobin concentration decreases to \7.0 g/dL to target a hemoglobin concentration of 7.0-9.0 g/dL in adults (grade 1B). 2. Not using erythropoietin as a specific treatment of anemia associated with severe sepsis (grade 1B). 3. Fresh frozen plasma not be used to correct laboratory clotting abnormalities in the absence of bleeding or planned invasive procedures (grade 2D). 4. Not using antithrombin for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock (grade 1B). 5. In patients with severe sepsis, administer platelets prophylactically when counts are B10,000/mm 3 (10 9 10 9 /L) in the absence of apparent bleeding. We suggest prophylactic platelet transfusion when counts are B20,000/mm 3 (20 9 10 9 /L) if the patient has a significant risk of bleeding. Higher platelet counts (C50,000/mm 3 [50 9 10 9 /L]) are advised for active bleeding, surgery, or invasive procedures (grade 2D). L. Immunoglobulins 1. Not using intravenous immunoglobulins in adult patients with severe sepsis or septic shock (grade 2B). M. Selenium 1. Not using intravenous selenium for the treatment of severe sepsis (grade 2C). N. History of Recommendations Regarding Use of Recombinant Activated Protein C (rhAPC) A history of the evolution of SSC recommendations as to rhAPC (no longer available) is provided. O. Mechanical ventilation of sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) 1. Target a tidal volume of 6 mL/kg predicted body weight in patients with sepsis-induced ARDS (grade 1A vs. 12 mL/kg). 2. Plateau pressures be measured in patients with ARDS and initial upper limit goal for plateau pressures in a passively inflated lung be B30 cm H 2 O (grade 1B). 3. Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) be applied to avoid alveolar collapse at end expiration (atelectotrauma) (grade 1B). 4. Strategies based on higher rather than lower levels of PEEP be used for patients with sepsis-induced moderate or severe ARDS (grade 2C). 5. Recruitment maneuvers be used in sepsis patients with severe refractory hypoxemia (grade 2C). 6. Prone positioning be used in sepsis-induced ARDS patients with a PaO 2 /FIO 2 ratio B100 mm Hg in facilities that have experience with such practices (grade 2B). 7. That mechanically ventilated sepsis patients be maintained with the head of the bed elevated to 30-45 degrees to limit aspiration risk and to prevent the development of ventilator-associated pneumonia (grade 1B). 8. That noninvasive mask ventilation (NIV) be used in that minority of sepsis-induced ARDS patients in whom the benefits of NIV have been carefully considered and are thought to outweigh the risks (grade 2B). 9. That a weaning protocol be in place and that mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis undergo spontaneous breathing trials regularly to evaluate the ability to discontinue mechanical ventilation when they satisfy the following criteria: a) arousable; b) hemodynamically stable (without vasopressor agents); c) no new potentially serious conditions; d) low ventilatory and end-expiratory pressure requirements; and e) low FIo 2 requirements which can be met safely delivered with a face mask or nasal cannula. If the spontaneous breathing trial is successful, consideration should be given for extubation (grade 1A). 10. Against the routine use of the pulmonary artery catheter for patients with sepsis-induced ARDS (grade 1A). 11. A conservative rather than liberal fluid strategy for patients with established sepsis-induced ARDS who do not have evidence of tissue hypoperfusion (grade 1C). 12. In the absence of specific indications such as bronchospasm, not using beta 2-agonists for treatment of sepsis-induced ARDS. (Grade 1B). P. Sedation, analgesia, and neuromuscular blockade in sepsis 1. Continuous or intermittent sedation be minimized in mechanically ventilated sepsis patients, targeting specific titration endpoints (grade 1B). 2. Neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs) be avoided if possible in the septic patient without ARDS due to the risk of prolonged neuromuscular blockade following discontinuation. If NMBAs must be maintained, either intermittent bolus as required or continuous infusion with train-of-four monitoring of the depth of blockade should be used (grade 1C). 3. A short course of NMBA of not greater than 48 hours for patients with early sepsis-induced ARDS and a PaO 2 /FIO 2 \150 mm Hg (grade 2C). Q. Glucose control 1. A protocolized approach to blood glucose management in ICU patients with severe sepsis commencing insulin dosing when 2 consecutive blood glucose levels are [180 mg/dL. This protocolized approach should target an upper blood glucose B180 mg/dL rather than an upper target blood glucose B110 mg/dL (grade 1A). 2. blood glucose values be monitored every 1-2 hrs until glucose values and insulin infusion rates are stable and then every 4 hrs thereafter (grade 1C). 3. glucose levels obtained with point-of-care testing of capillary blood be interpreted with caution, as such measurements may not accurately estimate arterial blood or plasma glucose values (UG). R. Renal replacement therapy 1. Continuous renal replacement therapies and intermittent hemodialysis are equivalent in patients with severe sepsis and acute renal failure (grade 2B). 2. Use continuous therapies to facilitate management of fluid balance in hemodynamically unstable septic patients (grade 2D). concomitant disorders [200, 202, 203, 208, 209] . Factors that may increase the bleeding risk and indicate the need for a higher platelet count are frequently present in patients with severe sepsis. Sepsis itself is considered to be a risk factor for bleeding in patients with chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia. Other factors considered to increase the risk of bleeding in patients with severe sepsis include temperature higher than 38°C, recent minor hemorrhage, rapid decrease in platelet count, and other coagulation abnormalities [203, 208, 209] . Patients with severe sepsis be treated with a combination of pharmacologic therapy and intermittent pneumatic compression devices whenever possible (grade 2C). 3. Septic patients who have a contraindication for heparin use (eg, thrombocytopenia, severe coagulopathy, active bleeding, recent intracerebral hemorrhage) not receive pharmacoprophylaxis (grade 1B), but receive mechanical prophylactic treatment, such as graduated compression stockings or intermittent compression devices (grade 2C), unless contraindicated. When the risk decreases start pharmacoprophylaxis (grade 2C). U. Stress ulcer prophylaxis 1. Stress ulcer prophylaxis using H2 blocker or proton pump inhibitor be given to patients with severe sepsis/septic shock who have bleeding risk factors (grade 1B). 2. When stress ulcer prophylaxis is used, proton pump inhibitors rather than H2RA (grade 2D) 3. Patients without risk factors do not receive prophylaxis (grade 2B). V. Nutrition 1. Administer oral or enteral (if necessary) feedings, as tolerated, rather than either complete fasting or provision of only intravenous glucose within the first 48 hours after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (grade 2C). 2. Avoid mandatory full caloric feeding in the first week but rather suggest low dose feeding (e.g., up to 500 calories per day), advancing only as tolerated (grade 2B). 3. Use intravenous glucose and enteral nutrition rather than total parenteral nutrition (TPN) alone or parenteral nutrition in conjunction with enteral feeding in the first 7 days after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (grade 2B). 4. Use nutrition with no specific immunomodulating supplementation rather than nutrition providing specific immunomodulating supplementation in patients with severe sepsis (grade 2C). W. Setting goals of care 1. Discuss goals of care and prognosis with patients and families (grade 1B). 2. Incorporate goals of care into treatment and end-of-life care planning, utilizing palliative care principles where appropriate (grade 1B). 3. Address goals of care as early as feasible, but no later than within 72 hours of ICU admission (grade 2C). of bias or did not state their criteria for the assessment of study quality, found significant improvement in patient mortality with IVIG treatment [219, 220] . In contrast to the most recent Cochrane review, Kreymann et al. [219] classified five studies that investigated IgM-enriched preparation as high-quality studies, combining studies in adults and neonates, and found an OR for mortality of 0.5 (95 % CI, 0.34-0.73).

Most IVIG studies are small, some have methodological flaws; the only large study (n = 624) showed no effect [210] . Subgroup effects between IgM-enriched and nonenriched formulations reveal substantial heterogeneity. In addition, indirectness and publication bias were considered in grading this recommendation. The lowquality evidence led to the grading as a weak recommendation. The statistical information that comes from the high-quality trials does not support a beneficial effect of polyclonal IVIG. We encourage conducting large multicenter studies to further evaluate the effectiveness of other polyclonal immunoglobulin preparations given intravenously in patients with severe sepsis.

M. Selenium 1. We suggest not using intravenous selenium to treat severe sepsis (grade 2C).

Rationale. Selenium was administered in the hope that it could correct the known reduction of selenium concentration in sepsis patients and provide a pharmacologic effect through an antioxidant defense. Although some randomized controlled trials are available, the evidence on the use of intravenous selenium is still very weak. Only one large clinical trial has examined the effect on mortality rates, and no significant impact was reported on the intent-to-treat population with severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis, or septic shock (OR, 0.66; 95 % CI, 0.39-1.10; P = 0.109) [221]. Overall, there was a trend toward a concentration-dependent reduction in mortality; no differences in secondary outcomes or adverse events were detected. Finally, no comment on standardization of sepsis management was included in this study, which recruited 249 patients over a period of 6 years (1999) (2000) (2001) (2002) (2003) (2004) [221]. A French RCT in a small population revealed no effect on primary (shock reversal) or secondary (days on mechanical ventilation, ICU mortality) endpoints [222] . Another small RCT revealed less early VAP in the selenium group (P = 0.04), but no difference in late VAP or secondary outcomes such as ICU or hospital mortality [223] . This is in accordance with 2 RCTs that resulted in reduced number of infectious episodes [224] or increase in glutathione peroxidase concentrations [225]; neither study, however, showed a beneficial effect on secondary outcome measures (renal replacement, ICU mortality) [224, 225] .

A more recent large RCT tried to determine if the addition of relatively low doses of supplemental selenium (glutamine was also tested in a two-factorial design) to parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients reduces infections and improves outcome [226] . Selenium supplementation did not significantly affect the development of a new infection (OR, 0.81; 95 % CI, 0.57-1.15), and the 6-month mortality rate was not unaffected (OR, 0.89; 95 % CI, 0.62-1.29). In addition, length of stay, days of antibiotic use, and modified Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score were not significantly affected by selenium [227] .

In addition to the lack of evidence, the questions of optimal dosing and application mode remain unanswered. Reported high-dose regimens have involved a loading dose followed by an infusion, while animal trials suggest that bolus dosing could be more effective [227] ; this, however, has not been tested in humans. These unsolved problems require additional trials, and we encourage conducting large multicenter studies to further evaluate the effectiveness of intravenous selenium in patients with severe sepsis. This recommendation does not exclude the use of low-dose selenium as part of the standard minerals and oligo-elements used during total parenteral nutrition (TPN). [7, 8] .

By the time of publication of the 2008 SSC guidelines, additional studies of rhAPC in severe sepsis (as required by regulatory agencies) had shown it ineffective in less severely ill patients with severe sepsis as well as in children [229, 230] . The 2008 SSC recommendations reflected these findings, and the strength of the rhAPC recommendation was downgraded to a suggestion for use in adult patients with a clinical assessment of high risk of death, most of whom will have Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II scores C25 or multiple organ failure (grade 2C; quality of evidence was also downgraded from 2004, from B to C) [7] . The 2008 guidelines also recommended against use of rhAPC in low-risk adult patients, most of whom will have APACHE II scores B20 or single organ failures (grade 1A), and against use in all pediatric patients (grade 1B).

The results of the PROWESS SHOCK trial ( High tidal volumes that are coupled with high plateau pressures should be avoided in ARDS. Clinicians should use as a starting point the objective of reducing tidal volume over 1-2 h from its initial value toward the goal of a ''low'' tidal volume (&6 mL/kg PBW) achieved in conjunction with an end-inspiratory plateau pressure B30 cmH 2 O. If the plateau pressure remains [30 cmH 2 O after reduction of tidal volume to 6 mL/kg PBW, tidal volume may be reduced further to as low as 4 mL/kg PBW per protocol. (Appendix 3 provides ARDSNet ventilator management and formulas to calculate PBW.) Using volume-and pressure-limited ventilation may lead to hypercapnia with maximum tolerated set respiratory rates. In such cases, hypercapnia that is otherwise not contraindicated (e.g., high intracranial pressure) and appears to be tolerated should be allowed. Sodium bicarbonate or tromethamine (THAM) infusion may be considered in selected patients to facilitate use of limited ventilator conditions that result in permissive hypercapnia [246, 247] .

A number of observational trials in mechanically ventilated patients have demonstrated a decreased risk of developing ARDS when smaller trial volumes are used [248] [249] [250] [251] . Accordingly, high tidal volumes and plateau pressures should be avoided in mechanically ventilated patients at risk for developing ARDS, including those with sepsis.

No single mode of ventilation (pressure control, volume control) has consistently been shown to be advantageous when compared with any other that respects the same principles of lung protection.

3. We recommend that PEEP be applied to avoid alveolar collapse at end expiration (atelectotrauma) (grade 1B). 4. We suggest strategies based on higher rather than lower levels of PEEP for patients with sepsis-induced moderate to severe ARDS (grade 2C). Although the patients did receive continuous sedative infusions in this study, the daily interruption and awakening allowed for titration of sedation, in effect making the dosing intermittent. In addition, a paired spontaneous awakening trial combined with a spontaneous breathing trial decreased the duration of mechanical ventilation, length of ICU and hospital stay, and 1-year mortality [284] . More recently, a multicenter randomized trial compared protocolized sedation with protocolized sedation plus daily sedation interruption in 423 critically ill mechanically ventilated medical and surgical patients [311] . There were no differences in duration of mechanical ventilation or lengths of stay between the groups; and daily interruption was associated with higher daily opioid and benzodiazepines doses, as well as higher nurse workload. Additionally, a randomized prospective blinded observational study demonstrated that although myocardial ischemia is common in critically ill ventilated patients, daily sedative interruption is not associated with an increased occurrence of myocardial ischemia [ An association between NMBA use and myopathies and neuropathies has been suggested by case studies and prospective observational studies in the critical care population [315, 319-322], but the mechanisms by which NMBAs produce or contribute to myopathies and neuropathies in these patients are unknown. Although no studies are specific to the septic patient population, it seems clinically prudent, based on existing knowledge, that NMBAs not be administered unless there is a clear indication for neuromuscular blockade that cannot be safely achieved with appropriate sedation and analgesia [315] .

Only one prospective RCT has compared peripheral nerve stimulation and standard clinical assessment in ICU patients [323] . Rudis et al. randomized 77 critically ill ICU patients requiring neuromuscular blockade to receive dosing of vecuronium based on train-of-four stimulation or on clinical assessment (control group). The peripheral nerve stimulation group received less drug and recovered neuromuscular function and spontaneous ventilation faster than the control group. Nonrandomized observational studies have suggested that peripheral nerve monitoring reduces or has no effect on clinical recovery from NMBAs in the ICU [324, 325] .

Benefits to neuromuscular monitoring, including faster recovery of neuromuscular function and shorter intubation times, appear to exist. A potential for cost savings (reduced total dose of NMBAs and shorter intubation times) also may exist, although this has not been studied formally. . This lack of consensus about optimal dosing of intravenous insulin may reflect variability in patient factors (severity of illness, surgical vs medical settings), or practice patterns (e.g., approaches to feeding, intravenous dextrose) in the environments in which these protocols were developed and tested. Alternatively, some protocols may be more effective than others, conclusion supported by the wide variability in hypoglycemia rates reported with protocols [128, 326-333]. Thus, the use of established insulin protocols is important not only for clinical care but also for the conduct of clinical trials to avoid hypoglycemia, adverse events, and premature termination of trials before the efficacy signal, if any, can be determined. Several studies have suggested that computer-based algorithms result in tighter glycemic control with a reduced risk of hypoglycemia [355, 356] . Further study of validated, safe, and effective protocols for controlling blood glucose concentrations and variability in the severe sepsis population is needed.

1. We suggest that continuous renal replacement therapies and intermittent hemodialysis are equivalent in patients with severe sepsis and acute renal failure because they achieve similar short-term survival rates (grade 2B In summary, the evidence is insufficient to draw strong conclusions regarding the mode of replacement therapy for acute renal failure in septic patients.

The effect of dose of continuous renal replacement on outcomes in patients with acute renal failure has shown mixed results [374, 375] . None of these trials was conducted specifically in patients with sepsis. Although the weight of evidence suggests that higher doses of renal replacement may be associated with improved outcomes, these results may not be generalizable. Prophylaxis is generally effective. In particular, nine placebo-controlled RCTs of VTE prophylaxis have been conducted in general populations of acutely ill patients [381-389]. All trials showed reduction in DVT or pulmonary embolism, a benefit that is also supported by meta-analyses [390, 391] . Thus, the evidence strongly supports the value of VTE prophylaxis (grade 1A). The prevalence of infection/sepsis was 17 % in those studies in which this could be ascertained. One study investigated only ICU patients only, and 52 % of those enrolled had infection/sepsis. The need to extrapolate from general, acutely ill patients to critically ill patients to septic patients downgrades the evidence. That the effect is pronounced and the data are robust somewhat mitigate against the extrapolation, leading to a grade B determination. Because the patient's risk of administration is small, the gravity of not administering may be great, and the cost is low, the strength of the recommendation is strong [1] .

Deciding how to provide prophylaxis is decidedly more difficult. The Canadian Critical Care Trials Group compared UFH (5000 IU twice daily) to LMWH (dalteparin, 5000 IU once per day and a second placebo injection to ensure parallel-group equivalence) [392] . No statistically significant difference in asymptomatic DVTs was found between the two groups (hazard ratio, 0.92; 95 % CI, 0.68-1.23; P = 0.57), but the proportion of patients diagnosed with pulmonary embolism on CT scan, high-probability ventilation perfusion scan, or autopsy was significantly lower in the LMWH group (hazard ratio, 0.51; 95 % CI, 0.30-0.88; P = 0.01).The study did not account for the use of other forms of LMWH. These data suggest that LMWH (dalteparin) is the treatment of choice over UFH administered twice daily in critically ill patients. Also, because the study included septic patients, the evidence supporting the use of dalteparin over twice daily UFH in critically ill, and perhaps septic, patients is strong. Similarly, a meta-analysis of acutely ill, general medical patients comparing UFH twice and thrice daily demonstrated that the latter regimen was more effective at preventing VTE, but twice daily dosing produced less bleeding [393] . Both critically ill and septic patients were included in these analyses, but their numbers are unclear. Nonetheless, the quality of evidence supporting the use of three times daily, as opposed to twice daily, UFH dosing in preventing VTE in acutely ill medical patients is high (A). However, comparing LMWH to twice daily UFH, or twice daily UFH to three times daily UFH, in sepsis requires extrapolation, downgrading the data. No data exist on direct comparison of LMWH to UFH administered three times daily, nor are there any studies directly comparing twice daily and thrice daily UFH dosing in septic or critically ill patients. Therefore, it is not possible to state that LMWH is superior to three times daily UFH or that three times daily dosing is superior to twice daily administration in sepsis. This downgrades the quality of the evidence and therefore the recommendation.

Douketis et al.

[394] conducted a study of 120 critically ill patients with acute kidney injury (creatinine clearance \30 mL/min) who received VTE prophylaxis with dalteparin 5,000 IU daily for between 4 and 14 days and had at least one trough anti-factor Xa level measured. None of the patients had bio-accumulation (trough antifactor Xa level lower than 0.06 IU/mL). The incidence of major bleeding was somewhat higher than in trials of other agents, but most other studies did not involve critically ill patients, in whom the bleeding risk is higher. Further, bleeding did not correlate with detectable trough levels [394] . Therefore, we recommend that dalteparin can be administered to critically ill patients with acute renal failure (A). Data on other LMWHs are lacking. Consequently, these forms should probably be avoided or, if used, anti-factor Xa levels should be monitored (grade 2C). UFH is not renally cleared and is safe (grade 1A).

Mechanical methods (intermittent compression devices and graduated compression stockings) are recommended when anticoagulation is contraindicated [395-397]. A meta-analysis of 11 studies, including six RCTs, published in the Cochrane Library concluded that the combination of pharmacologic and mechanical prophylaxis was superior to either modality alone in preventing DVT and was better than compression alone in preventing pulmonary embolism [398] . This analysis did not focus on sepsis or critically ill patients but included studies of prophylaxis after orthopedic, pelvic, and cardiac surgery. In addition, the type of pharmacologic prophylaxis varied, including UFH, LMWH, aspirin, and warfarin. Nonetheless, the minimal risk associated with compression devices lead us to recommend combination therapy in most cases. In very-high-risk patients, LMWH is pre- U. Stress ulcer prophylaxis 1. We recommend that stress ulcer prophylaxis using H 2 blocker or proton pump inhibitor be given to patients with severe sepsis/septic shock who have bleeding risk factors (grade 1B).

2. When stress ulcer prophylaxis is used, we suggest the use of proton pump inhibitors rather than H 2 receptor antagonists (H2RA) (grade 2C). 3. We suggest that patients without risk factors should not receive prophylaxis (grade 2B).

Rationale. Although no study has been performed specifically in patients with severe sepsis, trials confirming (if necessary) feedings, as tolerated, rather than either complete fasting or provision of only intravenous glucose within the first 48 h after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (grade 2C). 2. We suggest avoiding mandatory full caloric feeding in the first week, but rather suggest low dose feeding (e.g., up to 500 kcal per day), advancing only as tolerated (grade 2B). 3. We suggest using intravenous glucose and enteral nutrition rather than TPN alone or parenteral nutrition in conjunction with enteral feeding in the first 7 days after a diagnosis of severe sepsis/septic shock (grade 2B). 4. We suggest using nutrition with no specific immunomodulating supplementation in patients with severe sepsis (grade 2C).

Rationale. Early enteral nutrition has theoretical advantages in the integrity of gut mucosa and prevention of bacterial translocation and organ dysfunction, but also concerning is the risk of ischemia, mainly in hemodynamically unstable patients. Unfortunately, no clinical trial has specifically addressed early feeding in septic patients. Studies on different subpopulations of critically ill patients, mostly surgical patients, are not consistent, with great variability in the intervention and control groups; all are of low methodological quality [418-427] and none was individually powered for mortality, with very low mortality rates [418-420, 423, 426]. Authors of previously published meta-analyses of optimal nutrition strategies for the critically ill all reported that the studies they included had high heterogeneity and low quality [418] [419] [420] [421] [422] [423] [424] [425] [426] [427] [428] [429] [430] . Although no consistent effect on mortality was observed, there was evidence of benefit from some early enteral feeding on secondary outcomes, such as reduced incidence of infectious complications [ [428] . No evidence of harm was demonstrated in any of those studies. Therefore, there is insufficient evidence to issue a strong recommendation, but the suggestion of benefit and absence of harm supports a suggestion that some enteral feeding is warranted.

Studies comparing full caloric early enteral feeding to lower targets in the critically ill have produced inconclusive results. In four studies, no effect on mortality was seen [431-434]; one reported fewer infectious complications [431], and the others reported increased diarrhea and gastric residuals [433, 434] and increased incidence of infectious complications with full caloric feeding [432]. In another study, mortality was greater with higher feeding, but differences in feeding strategies were modest and the sample size was small [435] . Therefore, evidence is insufficient to support an early target of full caloric intake and, indeed, some possibility of harm exists. Underfeeding (60-70 % of target) or trophic feeding (upper limit of 500 kcal) is probably a better nutritional strategy in the first week of severe sepsis/septic shock. This upper limit for trophic feeding is a somewhat arbitrary number, but based in part on the fact that the two recent studies used a range of 240-480 kcal [433, 434].

Underfeeding/trophic feeding strategies did not exclude advancing diet as tolerated in those who improved quickly.

Some form of parenteral nutrition has been compared to alternative feeding strategies (e.g., fasting or enteral nutrition) in well over 50 studies, although only one exclusively studied sepsis [436] , and eight meta-analyses have been published [429, [437] [438] [439] [440] [441] [442] [443] . Two of the metaanalyses summarize comparisons of parenteral nutrition versus fasting or intravenous glucose [437, 438], and 6 look at parenteral versus enteral nutrition [429, 439-443], two of which attempted to explore the effect of early enteral nutrition [441, 442] . Recently, a study much larger than most earlier nutrition trials compared ICU patients randomized to early use of parenteral nutrition to augment enteral feeding versus enteral feeding with only late initiation of parenteral nutrition if necessary [444] .

No direct evidence supports the benefits or harm of parenteral nutrition in the first 48 h in sepsis. Rather, the evidence is generated predominantly from surgical, burn, and trauma patients. None of the meta-analyses reports a mortality benefit with parenteral nutrition, except one suggesting parenteral nutrition may be better than late introduction of enteral nutrition [442] . Several suggested that parenteral nutrition had higher infectious complications compared both to fasting or intravenous glucose and to enteral nutrition [429, 431, 438, 439, 442]. Enteral feeding was associated with a higher rate of enteral complications (e.g., diarrhea) than parenteral nutrition [438] . The use of parenteral nutrition to supplement enteral feeding was also analyzed by Dhaliwal et al. [440] , who also reported no benefit. The trial by Casaer et al.

[444] reported that early initiation of parenteral nutrition led to longer hospital and ICU stays, longer duration of organ support, and higher incidence of ICU-acquired infection. One-fifth of patients had sepsis and there was no evidence of heterogeneity in treatment effects across subgroups, including the sepsis subjects. Therefore, no studies suggest the superiority of TPN over enteral alone in the first 24 h. In fact, there is a suggestion that enteral nutrition may in fact be superior to TPN vis a vis infectious complications and possibly requirement for intensive care and organ support.

Immune system function can be modified through alterations in the supply of certain nutrients, such as arginine, glutamine, or omega-3 fatty acids. Numerous studies have assessed whether use of these agents as nutritional supplements can affect the course of critical illness, but few specifically addressed their early use in sepsis. Four meta-analyses evaluated immune-enhancing nutrition and found no difference in mortality, neither in surgical nor medical patients [445-448]. However, they analyzed all studies together, regardless of the immunocomponent used, which could have compromised their conclusions. Other individual studies analyzed diets with a mix of arginine, glutamine, antioxidants, and/or omega-

Arginine. Arginine availability is reduced in sepsis, which can lead to reduced nitric oxide synthesis, loss of microcirculatory regulation, and enhanced production of superoxide and peroxynitrite. However, arginine supplementation could lead to unwanted vasodilation and hypotension [452, 453] , but the relevance of these findings in the face of potential harm is unclear.

Glutamine. Glutamine levels are also reduced during critical illness. Exogenous supplementation can improve gut mucosal atrophy and permeability, possibly leading to reduced bacterial translocation. Other potential benefits are enhanced immune cell function, decreased proinflammatory cytokine production, and higher levels of glutathione and antioxidative capacity [452, 453] . However, the clinical significance of these findings is not clearly established.

Although a previous meta-analysis showed mortality reduction [ The omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) are eicosanoid precursors. The prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes produced from EPA/GLA are less potent than their arachidonic acid-derived equivalents, reducing the proinflammatory impact on the immune response [452, 453] . Three early studies were summarized in a meta-analysis that reported a significant mortality reduction, increased ventilator-free days, and reduced risk of new organ dysfunction [470] . However, only one study was in septic patients [471] , none was individually powered for mortality [472, 473] , and all three used a diet with high omega-6 lipid content in the control group, which is not the usual standard of care in the critically ill. The authors who first reported reduced mortality in sepsis [471] conducted a follow-up multicenter study and again found improvement in nonmortality outcomes, though notably with no demonstrable effect on mortality [474] . Other studies using enteral [475] [476] [477] Pediatric considerations in severe sepsis ( 2. We suggest that the initial therapeutic endpoints of resuscitation of septic shock be capillary refill of B2 s, normal blood pressure for age, normal pulses with no differential between peripheral and central pulses, warm extremities, urine output [1 mL kg -1 h -1 , and normal mental status. Thereafter, ScvO 2 saturation greater than or equal to 70 % and cardiac index between 3.3 and 6.0 L min -1 m -2 should be targeted (grade 2C).

Rationale. Adult guidelines recommend lactate clearance as well, but children commonly have normal lactate levels with septic shock. Because of the many modalities used to measure ScvO 2 and cardiac index, the specific choice is left to the practitioner's discretion [506-512].

3. We recommend following the American College of Critical Care Medicine-Pediatric Advanced Life Support guidelines for the management of septic shock (grade 1C).

Rationale. The recommended guidelines are summarized in Fig. 2 [510-512 ].

4. We recommend evaluating for and reversing pneumothorax, pericardial tamponade, or endocrine emergencies in patients with refractory shock (grade 1C).

Rationale. Endocrine emergencies include hypoadrenalism and hypothyroidism. In select patients, intraabdominal hypertension may also need to be considered [513-515]. Table 9 Recommendations: special considerations in pediatrics A. Initial resuscitation 1. For respiratory distress and hypoxemia start with face mask oxygen or if needed and available, high flow nasal cannula oxygen or nasopharyngeal CPAP (NP CPAP). For improved circulation, peripheral intravenous access or intraosseus access can be used for fluid resuscitation and inotrope infusion when a central line is not available. If mechanical ventilation is required then cardiovascular instability during intubation is less likely after appropriate cardiovascular resuscitation (grade 2C). 2. Initial therapeutic end points of resuscitation of septic shock: capillary refill of B2 s, normal blood pressure for age, normal pulses with no differential between peripheral and central pulses, warm extremities, urine output [1 mL kg -1 h -1 , and normal mental status. ScvO 2 saturation C70% and cardiac index between 3.3 and 6.0 L/min/m 2 should be targeted thereafter (grade 2C). 3. Follow American College of Critical Care Medicine-Pediatric Life Support ( ACCM-PALS) guidelines for the management of septic shock (grade 1C). 4. Evaluate for and reverse pneumothorax, pericardial tamponade, or endocrine emergencies in patients with refractory shock (grade 1C).

B. Antibiotics and source control 1. Empiric antibiotics be administered within 1 hr of the identification of severe sepsis. Blood cultures should be obtained before administering antibiotics when possible but this should not delay administration of antibiotics. The empiric drug choice should be changed as epidemic and endemic ecologies dictate (eg H1N1, MRSA, chloroquine resistant malaria, penicillin-resistant pneumococci,recent ICU stay, neutropenia) (grade 1D). 2. Clindamycin and anti-toxin therapies for toxic shock syndromes with refractory hypotension (grade 2D). 3. Early and aggressive source control (grade 1D). 4. Clostridium difficile colitis should be treated with enteral antibiotics if tolerated. Oral vancomycin is preferred for severe disease (grade 1A).

C. Fluid resuscitation 1. In the industrialized world with access to inotropes and mechanical ventilation, initial resuscitation of hypovolemic shock begins with infusion of isotonic crystalloids or albumin with boluses of up to 20 mL/kg crystalloids (or albumin equivalent ) over 5-10 minutes, titrated to reversing hypotension, increasing urine output, and attaining normal capillary refill, peripheral pulses, and level of consciousness without inducing hepatomegaly or rales. If hepatomegaly or rales exist then inotropic support should be implemented, not fluid resuscitation. In non-hypotensive children with severe hemolytic anemia (severe malaria or sickle cell crises) blood transfusion is considered superior to crystalloid or albumin bolusing (grade 2C). D. Inotropes/vasopressors/vasodilators 1. Begin peripheral inotropic support until central venous access can be attained in children who are not responsive to fluid resuscitation (grade 2C).

inotropes (grade 2C).

E. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) 1. Consider ECMO for refractory pediatric septic shock and respiratory failure (grade 2C). 2. We suggest the use of clindamycin and antitoxin therapies for toxic shock syndromes with refractory hypotension (grade 2D).

Rationale. Children are more prone to toxic shock than adults because of their lack of circulating antibodies to toxins. Children with severe sepsis and erythroderma and suspected toxic shock should be treated with clindamycin to reduce toxin production. The role of IVIG in toxic shock syndrome is unclear, but it may be considered in refractory toxic shock syndrome [520-527].

3. We recommend early and aggressive infection source control (grade 1D). Rationale. In adults, metronidazole is a first choice; however, response to treatment with C. difficile can be best with enteral vancomycin. In very severe cases where diverting ileostomy or colectomy is performed, parenteral treatment should be considered until clinical improvement is ascertained [539-541].

1. In the industrialized world with access to inotropes and mechanical ventilation, we suggest that initial resuscitation of hypovolemic shock begin with infusion of isotonic crystalloids or albumin, with boluses of up to 20 mL/kg for crystalloids (or albumin equivalent) over 5-10 min. These should be titrated to reversing hypotension, increasing urine output, and attaining normal capillary refill, peripheral pulses and level of consciousness without inducing hepatomegaly or rales. If hepatomegaly or rales develop, inotropic support should be implemented, not fluid resuscitation. In children with severe hemolytic anemia (severe malaria or sickle cell crises) who are not hypotensive, blood transfusion is considered superior to crystalloid or albumin bolusing (grade 2C).

Rationale. Three RCTs compared the use of colloid to crystalloid resuscitation in children with hypovolemic dengue shock with near 100 % survival in all treatment arms [542] [543] [544] . In the industrialized world, two beforeand-after studies observed tenfold reductions in mortality when children with purpura/meningococcal septic shock were treated with fluid boluses, inotropes, and mechanical ventilation in the community emergency department [545, 546] . In one randomized trial, septic shock mortality was reduced (40-12 %) when increased fluid boluses, blood, and inotropes were given to attain a ScvO 2 monitoring goal of greater than 70 % [511]. A quality improvement study achieved a reduction in severe sepsis mortality (from 4.0 to 2.4 %) with the delivery of fluid boluses and antibiotics in the first hour in a pediatric emergency department to reverse clinical signs of shock [547]. Children normally have a lower blood pressure than adults, and a fall in blood pressure can be prevented by vasoconstriction and increasing heart rate. Therefore, blood pressure alone is not a reliable endpoint for assessing the adequacy of resuscitation. However, once hypotension occurs, cardiovascular collapse may soon follow. Thus, fluid resuscitation is recommended for both normotensive and hypotensive children in hypovolemic shock [542] [543] [544] [545] [546] [547] [548] [549] [550] [551] [552] [553] [554] . Because hepatomegaly and/or rales occur in children who are fluid overloaded, these findings can be helpful signs of hypervolemia. In the absence of these signs, large fluid deficits can exist, and initial volume resuscitation can require 40-60 mL/kg or more; however, if these signs are present, then fluid administration should be ceased and diuretics should be given. Inotrope infusions and mechanical ventilation are commonly required for children with fluid refractory shock. H. Blood products and plasma therapies 1. We suggest similar hemoglobin targets in children as in adults. During resuscitation of low superior vena cava oxygen saturation shock (\70 %), hemoglobin levels of 10 g/dL are targeted. After stabilization and recovery from shock and hypoxemia, then a lower target [7.0 g/dL can be considered reasonable (grade 1B).

Rationale. The optimal hemoglobin for a critically ill child with severe sepsis is not known. A recent multicenter trial reported no difference in mortality in hemodynamically stable critically ill children managed with a transfusion threshold of 7 g/dL compared with those managed with a transfusion threshold of 9.5 g/dL; however, the severe sepsis subgroup had an increase in nosocomial sepsis and lacked clear evidence of equivalence in outcomes with the restrictive strategy [584, 585]. Blood transfusion is recommended by the World Health Organization for severe anemia, hemoglobin value \5 g/ dL, and acidosis. A RCT of early goal-directed therapy for pediatric septic shock using the threshold hemoglobin of 10 g/dL for patients with a SvcO 2 saturation less than 70 % in the first 72 h of pediatric ICU admission showed improved survival in the multimodal intervention arm [511].

2. We suggest similar platelet transfusion targets in children as in adults (grade 2C). 3. We suggest the use of plasma therapies in children to correct sepsis-induced thrombotic purpura disorders, including progressive disseminated intravascular coagulation, secondary thrombotic microangiopathy, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (grade 2C).

Rationale. We give plasma to reverse thrombotic microangiopathies in children with thrombocytopenia-associated multiple organ failure and progressive purpura because fresh frozen plasma contains protein C, antithrombin III, and other anticoagulant proteins. Rapid resuscitation of shock reverses most disseminated intravascular coagulation; however, purpura progresses in some children in part due to critical consumption of antithrombotic proteins (e.g., protein C, antithrombin III, ADAMTS 13). Plasma is infused with the goal of correcting prolonged prothrombin/ partial thromboplastin times and halting purpura. Large volumes of plasma require concomitant use of diuretics, continuous renal replacement therapy, or plasma exchange to prevent greater than 10 % fluid overload [586-611].

1. We suggest providing lung-protective strategies during mechanical ventilation (grade 2C).

Rationale. Some patients with ARDS will require increased PEEP to attain functional residual capacity and maintain oxygenation, and peak pressures above 30-35 cmH 2 O to attain effective tidal volumes of 6-8 mL/kg with adequate CO 2 removal. In these patients, physicians generally transition from conventional pressure control ventilation to pressure release ventilation (airway pressure release ventilation) or to high-frequency oscillatory ventilation. These modes maintain oxygenation with higher mean airway pressures using an ''open'' lung ventilation strategy. To be effective, these modes can require a mean airway pressure 5 cmH 2 O higher than that used with conventional ventilation. This can reduce venous return leading to greater need for fluid resuscitation and vasopressor requirements [612] [613] [614] [615] [616] .

J. Sedation/analgesia/drug toxicities 1. We recommend use of sedation with a sedation goal in critically ill mechanically ventilated patients with sepsis (grade 1D).

Rationale. Although there are no data supporting any particular drugs or regimens, propofol should not be used for long-term sedation in children younger than 3 years because of the reported association with fatal metabolic acidosis. The use of etomidate and/or dexmedetomidine during septic shock should be discouraged, or at least considered carefully, because these drugs inhibit the adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system, respectively, both of which are needed for hemodynamic stability [617] [618] [619] [620] .

2. We recommend monitoring drug toxicity labs because drug metabolism is reduced during severe sepsis, putting children at greater risk of adverse drug-related events (grade 1C).

Rationale. Children with severe sepsis have reduced drug metabolism [621] .

K. Glycemic control 1. We suggest controlling hyperglycemia using a similar target as in adults (B180 mg/dL). Glucose infusion should accompany insulin therapy in newborns and children (grade 2C).

Rationale. In general, infants are at risk for developing hypoglycemia when they depend on intravenous fluids. This means that a glucose intake of 4-6 mg kg -1 min -1 or maintenance fluid intake with dextrose 10 % normal saline containing solution is advised (6-8 mg kg -1 min -1 in newborns). Associations have been reported between hyperglycemia and an increased risk of death and longer length of stay. A retrospective pediatric ICU study reported associations of hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, and glucose variability with increased length of stay and mortality rates. An RCT of strict glycemic control compared to moderate control using insulin in a pediatric ICU population found a reduction in mortality with an increase in hypoglycemia. Insulin therapy should only be conducted with frequent glucose monitoring in view of the risks for hypoglycemia which can be greater in newborns and children due to a) relative lack of glycogen stores and muscle mass for gluconeogenesis, and b) the heterogeneity of the population with some excreting no endogenous insulin and others demonstrating high insulin levels and insulin resistance [622] [623] [624] [625] [626] [627] [628] .

L. Diuretics and renal replacement therapy 1. We suggest the use of diuretics to reverse fluid overload when shock has resolved and if unsuccessful, then continuous venovenous hemofiltration or intermittent dialysis to prevent greater than 10 % total body weight fluid overload (grade 2C).

A retrospective study of children with meningococcemia showed an associated mortality risk when children received too little or too much fluid resuscitation [549, 553] . A retrospective study of 113 critically ill children with multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome reported that patients with less fluid overload before continuous venovenous hemofiltration had better survival [629] [630] [631] ,

1. We make no graded recommendations on the use of DVT prophylaxis in prepubertal children with severe sepsis.

Rationale. Most DVTs in young children are associated with central venous catheters. Heparin-bonded catheters may decrease the risk of catheter-associated DVT. No data exist on the efficacy of UFH or LMWH prophylaxis to prevent catheter-related DVT in children in the ICU [632, 633] .

1. We make no graded recommendations on stress ulcer prophylaxis.

Rationale. Studies have shown that clinically important GI bleeding in children occurs at rates similar to those of adults. Stress ulcer prophylaxis is commonly used in children who are mechanically ventilated, usually with H 2 blockers or proton pump inhibitors, although Its effect is not known [634, 635] .

1. Enteral nutrition should be used in children who can tolerate it, parenteral feeding in those who cannot (grade 2C).

Rationale. Dextrose 10 % (always with sodium-containing solution in children) at maintenance rate provides the glucose delivery requirements for newborns and children [636] . Patients with sepsis have increased glucose delivery needs which can be met by this regimen. Specific measurement of caloric requirements are thought to be best attained using a metabolic cart as they are generally less in the critically ill child than in the healthy child.

Although this document is static, the optimum treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock is a dynamic and evolving process. Additional evidence that has appeared since the publication of the 2008 guidelines allows more certainty with which we make severe sepsis recommendations; however, further programmatic clinical research in sepsis is essential to optimize these evidence-based medicine recommendations. New interventions will be proven and established interventions may need modification. This publication represents an ongoing process. The SSC and the consensus committee members are committed to updating the guidelines regularly as new interventions are tested and results published.

Acknowledgments The revision process was funded through a grant from the Gordon and Betty Irene Moore Foundation. We would also like to acknowledge the dedication and untold hours of donated time of committee members over the last 2 years; the sponsoring organizations that worked with us toward the reality of a consensus document across so many disciplines, specialties, and continents; and those that contribute in so many ways to create the new science to move us forward in treating this potentially devastating disease: the funders of research, the investigators, the subjects, and those associated with the evidence publishing bodies. Finally, we thank Deborah McBride for the incredible editorial support provided persistently over months that brought the manuscript to life and finalization.

Conflicts of interest Dr. Dellinger consulted for Biotest (immunoglobulin concentrate available in Europe for potential use in sepsis) and AstraZeneca (anti-TNF compound unsuccessful in recently completed sepsis clinical trial); his institution received consulting income from IKARIA for new product development (IKARIA has inhaled nitric oxide available for off-label use in ARDS) and grant support from Spectral Diagnostics Inc (current endotoxin removal clinical trial), Ferring (vasopressin analog clinical trial-ongoing), as well as serving on speakers bureau for Eisai (anti-endotoxin compound that failed to show benefit in clinical trial). Dr. Levy received grant support from Eisai (Ocean State Clinical Coordinating Center to fund clinical trial [$500 K]), he received honoraria from Eli Lilly (lectures in India $8,000), and he has been involved with the Surviving Sepsis Campaign guideline from its beginning. Dr. Rhodes consulted for Eli Lilly with monetary compensation paid to himself as well as his institution (Steering Committee for the PROWESS Shock trial) and LiDCO; travel/accommodation reimbursement was received from Eli Lilly and LiDCO; he received income for participation in review activities such as data monitoring boards, statistical analysis from Orion, and for Eli Lilly; he is an author on manuscripts describing early goal-directed therapy, and believes in the concept of minimally invasive hemodynamic monitoring. Dr. Annane participated on the Fresenius Kabi International Advisory Board (honorarium 2000€). His nonfinancial disclosures include being the principal investigator of a completed investigator-led multicenter randomized controlled trial assessing the early guided benefit to risk of NIRS tissue oxygen saturation; he was the principal investigator of an investigator-led randomized controlled trial of epinephrine versus norepinephrine (CATS study)-Lancet 2007; he also is the principle investigator of an ongoing investigator-led multinational randomized controlled trial of crystalloids versus colloids (Crystal Study). Dr. Gerlach disclosed that he has no potential conflicts of interest; he is an author of a review on the use of activated protein C in surgical patients (published in the New England Journal of Medicine, 2009). Dr. Opal consulted for Genzyme Transgenics (consultant on transgenic antithrombin $1,000), Pfizer (consultant on TLR4 inhibitor project $3,000), British Therapeutics (consultant on polyclonal antibody project $1,000), and Biotest A (consultant on immunoglobin project $2,000). His institution received grant support from Novartis (Clinical Coordinating Center to assist in patient enrollment in a phase III trial with the use of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor (TFPI) in severe community acquired pneumonia (SCAP) $30,000 for 2 years), Eisai ($30,000 for 3 years), Astra Zeneca ($30,000 for 1 year), Aggenix ($30,000 for 1 year), Inimex ($10,000), Eisai ($10,000), Atoxbio ($10,000), Wyeth ($20,000), Sirtris (preclinical research $50,000), and Cellular Bioengineering Inc. ($500). He received honoraria from Novartis (clinical evaluation committee TFPI study for SCAP $20,000) and Eisai ($25,000). He received travel/accommodations reimbursed from Sangart (data and safety monitoring $2,000), Spectral Diagnostics (data and safety monitoring $2,000), Takeda (data and safety monitoring $2,000) and Canadian trials group ROS II oseltamivir study (data and safety monitoring board (no money). He is also on the Data Safety Monitoring Board for Tetraphase (received US $600 in 2012). Dr. Sevransky received grant support to his institution from Sirius Genomics Inc; he consulted for Idaho Technology ($1,500); he is the co-principal investigator of a multicenter study evaluating the association between ICU organizational and structural factors, including protocols and in-patient mortality. He maintains that protocols serve as useful reminders to busy clinicians to consider certain therapies in patients with sepsis or other life threatening illness. Dr. Sprung received grants paid to his institution from Artisan Pharma ($25,000-$50,000), Eisai, Corp ($1,000-$5,000 ACCESS), Ferring Pharmaceuticals A/S ($5,000-$10,000), Hutchinson Technology Incorporated ($1,000-$5,000), Novartis Corp (less than $1,000). His institution receives grant support for patients enrolled in clinical studies from Eisai Corporation (PI. Patients enrolled in the ACCESS study $50,000-$100,000), Takeda (PI. Study terminated before patients enrolled). He received grants paid to his institution and consulting income from Artisan Pharma/ Asahi Kasei Pharma America Corp ($25,000-$50,000). He consulted for Eli Lilly (Sabbatical Consulting fee $10,000-$25,000) and received honoraria from Eli Lilly (lecture $1,000-$5,000). He is a member of the Australia and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group for the NICE SUGAR Study (no money received); he is a council member of the International Sepsis Forum (as of Oct. 2010); he has held long time research interests in steroids in sepsis, PI of Corticus study, end-of-life decision making and PI of Ethicus, Ethicatt, and Welpicus studies. Dr. Douglas received grants paid to his institution from Eli Lilly (PROWESS Shock site), Eisai (study site), National Institutes of Health (ARDS Network), Accelr8 (VAP diagnostics), CCCTG (Oscillate Study), and Hospira (Dexmedetomidine in Alcohol Withdrawal RCT). His institution received an honorarium from the Society of Critical Care Medicine (Paragon ICU Improvement); he consulted for Eli Lilly (PROWESS Shock SC and Sepsis Genomics Study) in accordance with institutional policy; he received payment for providing expert testimony (Smith Moore Leatherwood LLP); travel/accommodations reimbursed by Eli Lilly and Company (PROWESS Shock Steering Committee) and the Society of Critical Care Medicine (Hospital Quality Alliance, Washington DC, four times per year 2009-2011); he received honoraria from Covidien (non-CME lecture 2010, US$500) and the University of Minnesota Center for Excellence in Critical Care CME program (2009, 2010); he has a pending patent for a bed backrest elevation monitor. Dr. Jaeschke disclosed that he has no potential conflicts of interest. Dr. Osborn consulted for Sui Generis Health ($200). Her institution receives grant support from the National Institutes of Health Research, Health Technology Assessment Programme-United Kingdom (trial doctor for sepsis related RCT). Salary paid through the NIHR government funded (nonindustry) grant. Grant awarded to chief investigator from ICNARC. She is a trial clinician for ProMISe. Dr. Nunnally received a stipend for a chapter on diabetes mellitus; he is an author of editorials contesting classic tight glucose control. Dr. Townsend is an advocate for healthcare quality improvement. Dr. Reinhart consulted for EISAI (Steering Committee member-less then US $10,000); BRAHMS Diagnostics (less than US $10,000); and SIRS-Lab Jena (founding member, less than US $10,000). He received honararia for lectures including service on the speakers' bureau from Biosyn Germany (less than €10,000) and Braun Melsungen (less than €10,000). He received royalties from Edwards Life Sciences for sales of central venous oxygen catheters (*$100,000). Dr. Kleinpell received monetary compensation for providing expert testimony (four depositions and one trial in the past year). Her institution receives grants from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and the Prince Foundation (4-year R01 grant, PI and 3-year foundation grant, Co-l). She received honoraria from the Cleveland Clinic and the American Association of Critical Care Nurses for keynote speeches at conferences; she received royalties from McGraw Hill (co-editor of critical care review book); travel/accommodations reimbursed from the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and American Association of Critical Care Nurses (one night hotel coverage at national conference). Dr. Angus consulted for Eli Lilly (member of the Data Safety Monitoring Board, Multicenter trial of a PC for septic shock), Eisai Inc (Anti-TLR4 therapy for severe sepsis), and Idaho Technology (sepsis biomarkers); he received grant support (investigator, long-term followup of phase III trial of an anti-TLR4 agent in severe sepsis), a consulting income (anti-TRL4 therapy for severe sepsis), and travel/accommodation expense reimbursement from Eisai, Inc; he is the primary investigator for an ongoing National Institutes of Health-funded study comparing early resuscitation strategies for sepsis induced tissue hypoperfusion. Dr. Deutschman has nonfinancial involvement as a coauthor of the Society of Critical Care Medicine's Glycemic Control guidelines. Dr. Machado reports unrestricted grant support paid to her institution for Surviving Sepsis Campaign implementation in Brazil (Eli Lilly do Brasil); she is the primary investigator for an ongoing study involving vasopressin. Dr. Rubenfeld received grant support from nonprofit agencies or foundations including National Institutes of Health ($10 million), Robert Wood Johnson Foundation ($500,000), and CIHR ($200,000). His institution received grants from for-profit companies including Advanced Lifeline System ($150,000), Siemens ($50,000), Bayer ($10,000), Byk Gulden ($15,000), AstraZeneca ($10,000), Faron Pharmaceuticals ($5,000), and Cerus Corporation ($11,000). He received honoraria, consulting fees, editorship, royalties, and Data and Safety Monitoring Board membership fees paid to him from Bayer ($500), DHD ($1,000), Eli Lilly ($5,000), Oxford University Press ($10,000), Hospira ($15,000), Cerner ($5,000), Pfizer ($1,000), KCI ($7,500), American Association for Respiratory Care ($10,000), American Thoracic Society ($7,500), BioMed Central ($1,000), National Institutes of Health ($1,500), and the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research ($250). He has database access or other intellectual (non-financial) support from Cerner. Dr. Webb consulted for AstraZeneca (anti-infectives $1,000-$5,000) and Jansen-Cilag (ani-infectives $1,000-$5,000). He received grant support from a NHMRC project grant (ARISE RECT of EGDT); NHMRC project grant and Fresinius-unrestricted grant (CHEST RCT of voluven vs saline); RCT of steroid versus placebo for septic shock); NHMRC project grant (BLISS study of bacteria detection by PRC in septic shock) Intensive Care Foundation-ANZ (BLING pilot RCT of betalactam administration by infusion); Hospira (SPICE programme of sedation delirium research); NHMRC Centres for Research Excellent Grant (critical illness microbiology observational studies); Hospira-unrestricted grant (DAHlia RCT of dexmedetomidine for agitated delirium). Travel/accommodations reimbursed by Jansen-Cilag ($5,000- 

ARDSnet ventilator management Assist control mode-volume ventilation Reduce tidal volume to 6 mL/kg lean body weight Keep plateau pressure \30 cmH 2 O Reduce tidal volume as low as 4 mL/kg predicted body weight to limit plateau pressure Maintain SaO 2 /SpO 2 between 88 and 95 % Anticipated PEEP settings at various Fio 2 requirements 

Crystalloids as the initial fluid of choice in the resuscitation of severe sepsis and septic shock (grade 1B)

Against the use of hydroxyethyl starches for fluid resuscitation of severe sepsis and septic shock (grade 1B)

Albumin in the fluid resuscitation of severe sepsis and septic shock when patients require substantial amounts of crystalloids (grade 2C)

Initial fluid challenge in patients with sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion with suspicion of hypovolemia to achieve a minimum of 30 mL/kg of crystalloids (a portion of this may be albumin equivalent). More rapid administration and greater amounts of fluid may be

Fluid challenge technique be applied wherein fluid administration is continued as long as there is hemodynamic improvement either based on dynamic (e.g., change in pulse pressure, stroke volume variation) or static (eg, arterial pressure

Vasopressors 1. Vasopressor therapy initially to target a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 65 mm Hg (grade 1C)

Norepinephrine as the first choice vasopressor (grade 1B)

Epinephrine (added to and potentially substituted for norepinephrine) when an additional agent is needed to maintain adequate blood pressure (grade 2B)

Vasopressin 0.03 units/minute can be added to norepinephrine (NE) with intent of either raising MAP or decreasing NE dosage (UG)

Low dose vasopressin is not recommended as the single initial vasopressor for treatment of sepsis-induced hypotension and vasopressin doses higher than 0.03-0.04 units/minute should be reserved for salvage therapy (failure to achieve adequate MAP with other vasopressor agents

Dopamine as an alternative vasopressor agent to norepinephrine only in highly selected patients (eg, patients with low risk of tachyarrhythmias and absolute or relative bradycardia) (grade 2C)

Phenylephrine is not recommended in the treatment of septic shock except in circumstances where (a) norepinephrine is associated with serious arrhythmias, (b) cardiac output is known to be high and blood pressure persistently low or (c) as salvage therapy when combined inotrope/vasopressor drugs and low dose vasopressin have

Low-dose dopamine should not be used for renal protection (grade 1A)

All patients requiring vasopressors have an arterial catheter placed as soon as practical if resources are available (UG)

Inotropic therapy

A trial of dobutamine infusion up to 20 micrograms/kg/min be administered or added to vasopressor (if in use) in the presence of (a) myocardial dysfunction as suggested by elevated cardiac filling pressures and low cardiac output, or (b) ongoing signs of hypoperfusion

Not using a strategy to increase cardiac index to predetermined supranormal levels (grade 1B)

Not using intravenous hydrocortisone to treat adult septic shock patients if adequate fluid resuscitation and vasopressor therapy are able to restore hemodynamic stability (see goals for Initial Resuscitation)

Not using the ACTH stimulation test to identify adults with septic shock who should receive hydrocortisone (grade 2B)

Corticosteroids not be administered for the treatment of sepsis in the absence of shock (grade 1D)

When hydrocortisone is given, use continuous flow (grade 2D)

He is chair of the ANZICS Clinical Trials Group and is an investigator in trials of EGDT, PCR for determining bacterial load and a steroid in the septic shock trial. Dr. Beale received compensation for his participation as board member for Eisai, Inc, Applied Physiology, bioMérieux, Covidien, SIRS-Lab, and Novartis; consulting income was paid to his institution from PriceSpective Ltd, Easton Associates (soluble guanylate cyclase activator in acute respiratory distress syndrome/acute lung injury adjunct therapy to supportive care and ventilation strategies), Eisai (eritoran), and Phillips (Respironics)

Covidien (Global Advisory Board CNIBP Boulder USA), Eli Lilly and Company (development of educational presentations including service on speaker' bureaus (intensive care school hosted in department); travel/accommodations were reimbursed from bio-Merieux (GeneXpert Focus Group, France) and LiDCO (Winter Anaesthetic and Critical Care Review Conference)

Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee R

Co-Chair)

Winfried Kern, 12 Ruth M

18 Tiffany M

Treatment of septic shock with continuous plasma filtration and hemodiafiltration (in Spanish)

Plasma exchange as rescue therapy in multiple organ failure including acute renal failure

Evaluation of early detection and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation among Alexandria University pediatric intensive care patients

Purpura fulminans in a child as a complication of chicken pox infection

Fresh frozen plasma in the pediatric age group and in congenital coagulation factor deficiency

Abnormalities in coagulation and fibrinolysis in septic shock with purpura (in Spanish)

Age-related differences in outcome and severity of DIC in children with septic shock and purpura

Intensive blood and plasma exchange for treatment of coagulopathy in meningococcemia

Guidelines for the use of fresh frozen plasma. British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Working Party of the Blood Transfusion Task Force

Recommendations for the use of therapeutic plasma

Pediatric critical care management of septic shock prior to acute kidney injury and renal replacement therapy

British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Blood Transfusion Task Force. Practical guidelines for the clinical use of plasma

Guideline for the use of fresh-frozen plasma. Medical Directors Advisory Committee, National Blood Transfusion Council

Plasma exchange therapy for thrombotic microangiopathies

Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management

Plasmapheresis for meningococcemia with disseminated intravascular coagulation

Plasma and whole blood exchange in meningococcal sepsis

Meningococcal septicaemia treated with combined plasmapheresis and leucapheresis or with blood exchange

Plasmapheresis in the treatment of severe meningococcal or pneumococcal septicaemia with DIC and fibrinolysis: preliminary data on eight patients

Plasmapheresis for fulminant meningococcemia

Sonoclot coagulation analysis and plasma exchange in a case of meningococcal septicaemia

The outcome of children admitted to intensive care with meningococcal septicaemia

Plasma exchange and haemodiafiltration in fulminant meningococcal sepsis

Antithrombin concentrate with plasma exchange in purpura fulminans

Plasmapheresis in severe sepsis and septic shock: a prospective, randomised, controlled trial

Management of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in children

Airway pressure release ventilation: a pediatric case series

Is highfrequency ventilation more beneficial than low-tidal volume conventional ventilation?

Is permissive hypercapnia a beneficial strategy for pediatric acute lung injury?

High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric patients with acute respiratory failure

Propofol infusion syndrome

Metabolic acidosis and fatal myocardial failure after propofol infusion in children: five case reports

One single dose of etomidate negatively influences adrenocortical performance for at least 24 h in children with meningococcal sepsis

Dexmedetomidine: pediatric pharmacology, clinical uses and safety

Cytochrome P450 mediateddrug metabolism is reduced in children with sepsis-induced multiple organ failure

Glucose level and risk of mortality in pediatric septic shock

Persistent hyperglycemia in critically ill children

Intensive insulin therapy in severely burned pediatric patients: a prospective randomized trial

Hyperglycemia is associated with morbidity in critically ill children with meningococcal sepsis

Glycemic control and insulin therapy in sepsis and critical illness

Pathophysiological aspects of hyperglycemia in children with meningococcal sepsis and septic shock: a prospective, observational cohort study

Intensive insulin therapy for patients in paediatric intensive care: a prospective, randomised controlled study

Fluid overload before continuous hemofiltration and survival in critically ill children: a retrospective analysis

Clinical course and mortality risk factors in critically ill children requiring continuous renal replacement therapy

Renal supportive therapy for pediatric acute kidney injury in the setting of multiorgan dysfunction syndrome/sepsis

Catheter-related thrombosis in critically ill children: comparison of catheters with and without heparin bonding

Clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding acquired in a pediatric intensive care unit: a prospective study

The impact of clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding in a pediatric intensive care unit

Maximal parenteral glucose oxidation in hypermetabolic young children: a stable isotope study