key: cord-0437136-crugigum authors: Harewood, Andr'e; Dettner, Franziska; Hilpert, Simon title: Open source modelling of scenarios for a 100% renewable energy system in Barbados incorporating shore-to-ship power and electric vehicles date: 2021-08-23 journal: nan DOI: nan sha: f2073a370cfbec24c10cf14b7a175362ab033165 doc_id: 437136 cord_uid: crugigum The high dependence on imported fuels and the potential for both climate change mitigation and economic diversification make Barbados' energy system particularly interesting for detailed transformation analysis. An open source energy system model is presented here for the analysis of a future Barbadian energy system. The model was applied in a scenario analysis, using a greenfield approach, to investigate cost-optimal and 100% renewable energy system configurations. Within the scenarios, the electrification of private passenger vehicles and cruise ships through shore-to-ship power supply was modelled to assess its impact on the energy system and the necessary investment in storage. Results show that for most scenarios of a system in 2030, a renewable energy share of over 80% is achieved in cost-optimal cases, even with a growing demand. The system's levelised costs of electricity range from 0.17 to 0.36 BBD/kWh in the cost-optimal scenarios and increase only moderately for 100% renewable systems. Under the reasonable assumption of decreasing photovoltaic investment costs, system costs of a 100% system may be lower than the current costs. The results show that pumped hydro-storage is a no-regret option for the Barbadian power system design. Overall, the results highlight the great potential of renewable energy as well as the technical and economic feasibility of a 100% renewable energy system for Barbados. Energy is key for the well-being and development of all societies. Especially Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are facing numerous social, economic and environmental challenges when it comes to energy. Smaller market size in comparison to larger developed nation counterparts makes diversifying conventional power generation almost impossible, which favours large utility monopolies. In addition, most SIDS lack natural fossil resources and have difficulty diversifying economically (UNDP, 2018) . Also, SIDS, including Barbados, are playing an increasingly important role pushing for climate action. With a dependence of more than 95 % on fossil fuel imports, Barbados faces economic vulnerabilities that translate into high electricity prices (Henderson, 2013) . At the same time, Barbados is the first island in the English-speaking Caribbean to commit to using 100 % renewable energy (Henry et al., 2015) . The heavy reliance on fuel imports for energy generation and transportation has affected and is affecting the nation's economic growth and social development. Barbados has favourable wind and solar resources to aim for a high share of renewable energy sources in the electricity sector as well as the potential to electrify other relevant fossil fuel based sectors. Most energy system modelling at the international level and in the SIDS is done with closed black-box energy system models (ESMs). Typically, these are pre-set models and the source code is unavailable for third party review Hilpert et al., 2018) . This makes the analysis of the raw data and the methods used impossible for external analysis, especially for policy planning agencies and researchers. However, under the principles of the Open Energy Modelling (openmod) initiative, the data,code and documenta-tion for the model used in this analysis is shared publicly. Open science should be the standard to promote transparency in scientific investigations. Increased openness is also significant to foster open and frank dialogue between SID state governments and the lending agencies that often require energy modelling investigations as a prerequisite for policy based loans (Atteridge & Savvidou, 2019) . Whereas only a few studies address the possibility of a 100 % RES for Barbados, none utilise an open source energy system model to create transparent and reproducible results. This study fills the above mentioned research gap by developing an open energy system model based on the Open Energy Modelling Framework (oemof) (Hilpert et al., 2018) for Barbados . This allows to determine, which share of renewable energies is technically and economically feasible in the future electricity system of Barbados in 2030, as well as modelling not yet electrified sectors, such as passenger transport and the cruise tourism sector. Applying a greenfield approach to energy system modelling, which removes all boundary conditions by today's systems to achieve the best overall system performance (Geidl et al., 2006) , the present analysis is an indispensable prerequisite for future, detailed power system planning. For an in depth analysis and a more profound understanding of the Barbadian energy system, including currently installed capacities, demand analysis, renewable energy potentials and political framework conditions please consult the supplementary material. The most relevant information is summarised below. Weather conditions in Barbados are promising for a cost efficient RES. The dynamic of average wind and solar daily capacity factors is shown in Figure C .11 based on selected weather years. The relevance of bioenergy for a 100 % RES in Barbados to complement the wind and solar potential has been noted in Espinasa et al. (2016) ; GOB (2019) and IRENA (2016), among others. Bagasse as a residue from the sugar production process can be used for the generation of bio-energy Marshall (2019) . As an island system aiming for a 100 % renewable energy supply, it is natural to include sectors traditionally powered by fossil fuels in the modelling. The passenger transport sector as well as the cruise sector as an important tourism (2002, 2004, 2010, 2014 ) based on Renewables.Ninja data for location at 13.32 latitude and -59.6321 longitude. sector with a total contribution of almost 40 % to the GDP as well as the national employment in 2015 is included in the modelling approach. The Barbadian situation puts a strong emphasis on climate change mitigation because of the small island characteristics and economical challenges connected to the fuel import dependency. The research questions in this paper are connected to a techno-economic assessment of the energy future of 2030 and built on section 2. A representative year was selected with perfect foresight to model the system and its costs. Neither the transition nor cost during transition are included, as this is not the goal of the chosen approach. This is a trade-off between complexity and simplicity. For this purpose, an open source model based on the Open Energy Modelling Framework (oemof) was developed, utilising a greenfield modelling approach, aiming to answer the following research questions: (1) What is the cost-optimal share of renewable energy sources technically feasible for the Barbadian electricity system? (2) What are suitable combinations of storage technologies and particularly the role of PHS in a 100 % RES for Barbados? (3) What are the techno-economic effects in the electricity system due to the electrification of the passenger transport sector and shore-to-ship power supply for cruise ships in Barbados? Several studies have highlighted the impact of fossil fuel dependency on the SID state characteristics that directly and indirectly exacerbate the need for sustainable development. This compromises the ability of Barbados to invest in sustainable development initiatives to reduce the dependency. According to Blechinger & Richter (2014) , Caribbean islands face several barriers for the development of renewable energy technologies, which can be clustered in technical, economic, political and social. Scenario analyses have been conducted on possible futures for the Barbadian electricity system solely in studies on behalf of the Government of Barbados. A first investigation was carried out under the Sustainable Energy Framework (SEF 2010) for Barbados (IADB, 2010a) . In 2010, a 100 % RES was not yet an official policy target for the Government and was therefore not analysed. The study results led to the initial policy target of 29 % of renewable energy in the electricity mix for Barbados in 2030 (IADB, 2010b . However, the report did not publish modelling code, tools or methodologies. The Government also consulted the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) for scenario analysis of the power generation sector, which recommended a share of 76 % renewable energy instead of a 100 % RES. The study did not consider pumped hydro-storage (PHS) as a viable storage option to support the 100 % RES, but battery storage technologies (IRENA, 2019). The viability of the 100 % RE scenario depends on utilising a biomass potential of 54 MW, which would require 16 million tonnes of sugarcane per year from 20,000 hectares of land (IRENA, 2016) . However, as recent as 2016, only 7,000 hectares of arable land for sugarcane production were available (Lind et al., 2018) . A study conducted by Hohmeyer (2017) examined the possibility of a 100 % RES using PHS to achieve a dispatch with lower levelised costs of electricity. All scenarios employed between 200 and 260 MW of wind and PV, as well as 11 MW of solid waste combustion. The scenarios varied only in the extent of biomass utilisation and technology for bio energy generation. Within the Barbados National Energy Policy (BNEP) 2019, scenario analysis was also conducted to examine possible dispatch options. Although, a 100 % RE system remains the goal for Barbados, the purpose of the scenario analysis was to examine possible dispatch options of a 76 % RE system, centred on IRENA (2016), using a multi-criteria approach based on environmental, economic and social considerations (GOB, 2019). IRENA (2016) is the only study to examine an optimised dispatch with renewables, conventional generators and battery storage using LEAP and OSe-MOSYS. Table A .3 summarises key figures of the previously introduced scenario analyses. Models of a 100 % RES for Barbados exist, are, however, based on closed energy system models, which pose challenges associated with the inability to reproduce the outputs for external examination. Previous studies are also heavily depended on external aid, without which investment in most SIDS energy sectors would be non-existent (Niles & Lloyd, 2013) . Donor agencies have the technical, legal and professional capacities to draft policies and review institutional structures. This may also lead to the development of energy policies as a prerequisite or condition to further access funds from the donor or loan agency. When using closed models as seen in the development of the SEF 2010 for Barbados, the findings are solely presented as final results, without scrutiny from third parties. Open access research may be more beneficial for the Barbadian energy sys-tem by improving transparency, generating and fostering the re-usability of results as well as adding scientific value to discussions on carbon neutral energy systems. The greater openness offered by oemof (Hilpert et al., 2018) , in the form of open source code and raw model results, can address the problem of external donor agencies and the possibility of biased results. As shown in section 2, none of the previous studies considered high shares of RE, the possibility of PHS nor a combination of multiple storage types. Additionally, the study at hand is the first to assess the possibility of electrifying one of the most relevant revenue sectors for Barbados, the cruise ship tourism sector. Analysing shoreto-ship renewable power can benefit the country and the society as a whole with lower GHG emissions as well as reduced air pollution levels and increased health standards. The investigation focuses on examining various possible scenarios for a cost-optimal integration of RE into the energy system, as well as analysing To assess the future energy system, a bottom-up optimisation linear programming model is applied. The model has been implemented based on the model generator oemof-solph (Krien et al., 2020) using the oemof-tabular interface , which are both part of the Open Energy Modelling Framework (oemof) (Hilpert et al., 2018) . A similar model has been applied for the analysis of the Jordanian energy system . The demand must equal the sum of supply of all producing units as described in Equation 4. Note, that for the storage units, p can also take negative values when the storage is charging. The total demand in every time step is composed of different loads such as households, electrical vehicles and cruise ships with their specific patterns and is assumed to be inelastic. For all investment units, the supply is limited by the installed nominal power p nom i described in Equation 5, which is bounded by a lower and upper investment limit as shown in Equation 6. The energy storage balance in Equation 7 is applied for all modelled storage types. The balance includes standing losses η loss as well as charge and discharge efficiencies η in/out . Additionally, the power of the storage is limited by the optimised nominal power shown in Equation 8. The dispatchable renewable units d ∈ D are modelled with a conversion process as described in Equation 12. The conversion process allows to introduce the input of fuel h, which can then be bounded for a time horizon within Equation 13. This equation allows to model (annual) resource limitations in biomass or waste. To model RE penetration within the system by an exogenously defined RE share, an additional constraint is introduced. The renewable energy share is defined within Equation 14 by the share of conventional technologies c ∈ C. t∈T c∈C Finally, the excess supply within the model is limited by two equations. Equation 15 limits the excess power in every time step by to 10 % of the peak demand d peak of the year, while Equation 16 limits the excess energy for the whole time horizon. The analysis considers ten scenarios, of which the main parameters are summarised in Table 1 . All scenarios are modelled in a cost-optimal (without Equation 14) and a 100 % renewable case, where Equation 14 applies with a value of 1 for the RE share parameter. A greenfield approach is applied, which is a standard procedure in energy system modelling. Greenfield planning largely neglects the constraints given by today's system and future planning, except for natural limits such as wind and solar resources (Geidl et al., 2006) . Most of the currently installed power plants will retire in 2030 due to age. The first scenario represents the status- fired with heavy fuel oil (hfo). A combination of fuel efficient lsce and smaller msce is considered as a viable solution for Barbados, according to (BL&P, 2014) . The model and the scenario input data are publicly available on GitHub (Hilpert & Harewood, 2021) . The demand profiles for electric vehicles and shore-to-ship charging for cruise ships were created as separate demand profiles, as depicted in Figure 2 . At the time of the present analysis, no information regarding the energy consumption nor the demand profile of cruise ships in Barbados were publicly available. However, Hoyte (2016) has conducted an extensive study of the cruise industry demand in Barbados, which is used in this research as well as information from the local port authority (BPI, 2020). Analysis of the port data shows, that cruise ships typically dock for a period of 5 to 20 hours, with 92 % docking longer than 10 hours. About 50 % of all recorded cruise arrivals (431 in 2018) docked between 10 and 12 hours, only 7.7 % stayed less than 10 hours. The large majority of all ships arrived between 5:00 and 10:00 am (see Figure C .9). A 12 hour demand profile for the docking time of one generic ship was applied, using a peak demand of 12 MW, multiplied by the actual arrival data from 2018 BPI (2020). Within the first two hours after docking with peak demand, the demand drops to low demand, increasing again to peak demand at the end of The electrification scenarios cause a higher total demand and an altered aggregated demand pattern. Figure The results of this study have to be critically read in the light of the used method and model. Figure 3 depicts the installed capacities per supply technology. In all scenarios, independent of the cost-optimal or the 100 % renewable energy (RE) case, RE sources are the substantial share of the overall installed capacity. Wind energy has the highest capacities ranging from around 168 MW in the LRC-scenario to 371 MW in the HD-100 scenario. Within the SQ scenario, 211 MW wind capacity compared to 269 MW in the REF scenario are necessary to cover the increased demand due to the electrification of passenger with a lower oil price (LOP) or higher investment cost of biomass (HBC Figure 4 . The cost-efficient investment of renewable energy leads to high RE-shares above 80 % in most cost-optimal scenarios (except for the LOP with 46 % and HBC with 68 %) with a maximum of around 93 % in the LRC scenario. With the favourable capacity factor of wind and its therefore large installed capacities, the demand is covered mainly by wind, followed by conventional supply in the costoptimal scenarios. Only with a reduction in PV cost (LRC, MRC), PV supplies the second largest share of electricity in the cost-optimal cases. Bagasse and waste supply only increase slightly from the cost-optimal to the 100 % cases. To analyse the system operation, PHS storage and bagasse dispatch is shown in Figure 5 Investment costs play a crucial role, due to the Barbadian economic challenges, such as debt accumulation due to increasing and volatile prices of fossil fuels, limited sources of foreign exchange and a heavy dependence on external aid and donors. Figure 6 shows the annualised investment cost per technology for all scenarios. 100 % RE systems typically require higher investment cost than the cost-optimal systems. Total annualised investment costs range With the base value of 7% wacc, the lowest LCOE for the cost-optimal case occurs in the LOP scenario (0.18 BBD/kWh), while the highest cost-optimal system LCOE can be identified for the HBC scenario with 0.25 BBD/kWh. In the 100% RE scenarios, low LCOE of 0.18 BBD/kWh can be identified within the LRC scenario. In the reference scenario REF-100 costs are higher with 0.25 BBD/kWh but still significantly lower than for HBC-100 with 0.33 BBD/kWh. The general pattern is the same for all wacc assumption. However it is clearly visible, that with wacc of 4% the LCOE decreases. On average the LCOE decrease by 22.6% for 100% RE cases and 18.2% in COPT scenarios. In contrast, higher wacc of 10% cause an average increase in LCOE of 24.21% (100% RE) and 16.5% (COPT) respectively. Figure 8 shows the impact of different wacc on the invested capacities. Generally, a varying wacc has a larger impact in COPT compared to 100% RE scenarios. In the COPT case, lower wacc of 4% causes a higher share of renewable energies, particularly noticeable in higher wind and PHS investment and decreased battery investment compared to the base case of a 7% wacc. compared to the reference case of 7% for the cost optimal (COPT) and the 100% RE case in all scenarios. Assuming a higher wacc of 10%, the opposite effect becomes apparent. How-ever, the NPHS scenario shows, that a higher wacc reduces investment in dispatchable units, bagasse and hfo, and wind capacities, which is compensated by increased battery capacity. With low wacc of 4%, fossil investment is reduced significantly in favour of higher PHS capacities. In a 100% RE system, the high wacc causes a shift from wind to PV investment, with the opposite effect for a low wacc. Analysing storage options, with a high wacc investment in battery is favoured over PHS. The opposite effect, albeit not as drastic, is visible in some scenario settings with a low wacc. As the chosen 7% wacc in the base case is already rather high, this underlines, that PHS is a robust solution on a way to 100% RE for Barbados . The sensitivity analysis furthermore shows the importance of low and solid renewable energy financing options, especially for countries like Barbados. The results clearly indicate high potential shares of renewable energies in cost-optimal energy systems for 2030. The electrification of the cruise ship and transport sector is possible but requires additional investment capital, particu- can also include detailed grid planning, electricity planning and stronger economic analysis. These can underline and strengthen the arguments for 100 % renewable energy. Estimates showed, that in 2013, fuel costs alone made up 73 % (0.413 BBD/kWh) of the total electricity production costs (0.566 BBD/kWh) in Barbados (Hohmeyer, 2017) . In 2015, the purchase of international oil cost the Barbadian economy 377 million BBD, resulting in high electricity costs passed to the public in the form of the Fuel Clause Adjustment (Hohmeyer, 2015 Lack of or expensive flexibility within an energy system can lead to significant problems, especially when demand increases, the flexibility potential is restricted. In Barbados, flexibility is provided by biomass (bagasse) and waste and will play a significant role for investment costs and LCOE in the future energy system. Further research is necessary to determine how much of the currently installed capacity might be used as flexible generation units. In addition, the use of biomass may be limited due to operational requirements in systems with high shares of RE. The results of this study have to be critically read in the light of the used The study describes shore-to-ship demand based on the annual arrival of cruises ships and varies with the tourist season over the course of the year. The cruise ship demand contributes significantly to the total energy demand of Barbados. The cruise ship demand pattern is almost complementary to the wind generation profile, which further supports the suitability of this resource for the Barbadian energy system. However, more research examining how renewable energy sources can optimally meet the daily cruise ship demand through e.g. scheduled docking times by the system operator, would be beneficial. Due to good renewable energy resources and future cost developments, a cost-optimal system design in Barbados already features a share of over 80 % renewable energy, assuming a future reduction in RE costs with current oil prices. Even with increased demand due the electrification of cruise ships and passenger transport, a renewable energy share of over 80 % is achieved, with only The study additionally underlines the feasibility of RE systems, even with an increasing demand including the electrification of sectors other than electricity generation. The model is available at https://github.com/znes/oemof-barbados/releases/tag/v0.2. The authors declare no known conflict of interest, financial or otherwise. Appendix A. Scenario studies summary Natural Gas n/a n/a n/a 49 MW 2037 Electrification rate vehicles -20% -50% EV 100% EV 100% EV Cruise ship demand n/a n/a n/a n/a Appendix B. Mathematical symbols Supplementary Material: Open source modelling of scenarios for a 100% renewable energy system in Barbados incorporating shore-toship power and electric vehicles Barbados is defined as a small island developing state (SIDS) and therefore has some unique characteristics. The UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 provided the first definition for this distinct group of developing nations geographically located in the Caribbean, Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans (Robinson, 2018) . They are characterised by small geographical areas, insularity, remoteness and are prone to natural disasters as well as the negative impacts of climate change (Pelling & Uitto, 2001 ). The small island character creates limited markets, often with erratic domestic revenues, which are further exacerbated by high costs of public services (Briguglio, 1995) . Many SIDS experience heavy fiscal burdens, limited sources of foreign exchange, dept accumulation and a heavy dependency on external aid and donors, while being almost 100 % reliant on fossil fuel imports (Atteridge & Savvidou, 2019) . Another crucial challenge is the financial dependence on bilateral or multinational loans (OECD, 2018) . These factors, along with the ubiquitous pressures of global warming and the need for CO 2 mitigation, urge SIDS to redirect fossil fuel spending to other critical areas. This twin challenge could be addressed through a sustainable transformation of the energy sector. According to Robinson (2018) , the main incentive behind a shift from (imported) fossil to (local) renewable energy sources is economic survival, rather than climate change mitigation. The Barbadian electricity system relies almost entirely on imported fossil fuels. In 2020, 95.4 % came from oil and diesel, with heavy fuel oil as the primary fuel source, followed by kerosene and diesel (Healey et al., 2020) . There is a total of three conventional generation sites referred to as Spring Garden (153.1 MW), Garrison Hill (13 MW) and Seawall (73 MW) (BL&P, 2014) . Fuel as input for generation changes depending on the annual oil price and the subsidy structure (GOB, 2019). Spring Garden therefore uses heavy fuel oil, whereas the gas turbine at Garrison Hill and Seawell are operated on diesel fuel (Espinasa et al., 2016) . Barbados, according to (Espinasa et al., 2016) , Weather conditions in Barbados are promising for a cost efficient RES. According to Alleyne (2014) , the wind resource is steady, constant and reliable in direction due to the trade winds. The wind speeds range between 4.8 and 8.0 m/s at 10 m hub height. For potential wind energy developments, based on data from 2000 to 2019, an average capacity factor of 36.97 % was calculated. However, during this period, the average capacity factor of all lowest months in each year is only 19.7 %. The reason for this difference is the specific characteristic within the temporal dynamic of wind, which drops in the months September and October. The dynamic is shown in Figure C .11 based on selected weather years. Hohmeyer (2015) April to August and falls of slightly from August to December (Alleyne, 2014) . This trend is in keeping with the rainy season that would be characterised by partly cloudy skies and a slight reduction in the solar irradiance (Field et al., 2015) . Presently, over 95 % of the installed renewable energy grid-connected systems on Barbados are PV installations (Caricom, 2018) , (2002, 2004, 2010, 2014 ) based on Renewables.Ninja data for location at 13.32 latitude and -59.6321 longitude. The relevance of bioenergy for a 100 % RES in Barbados to complement the wind and solar potential was stated inter alia within Espinasa et al. (2016) ; GOB (2019) and IRENA (2016). Considering that the island has an extensive natural gas network, that supplies one million cubic feet per day to the public, the Government of Barbados has recognised the possibility of supplementing the natural gas mix with biogas (GOB, 2019). Historically, Barbados has always been a high-cost sugar producer, due to the lack of economies of scale and costs associated with growing sugar cane locally (Mitchell, 2005) . Therefore, bagasse as a residue from the sugar production process can be used for the generation of bioenergy. Marshall The electrification of sectors, which are traditionally powered by fossil fuels is being pursued. According to Schuhmann et al. (2019) , tourism had a total contribution of almost 40 % to the GDP as well as the national employment in 2015. In 2018, more than 800,000 cruise ship passengers were recorded in Barbados (BPI, 2020) . The cruise ship industry is a substantial source of noise and air pollution, emitting NO X , SO X , GHG and particulate matter emissions, especially when the ships are berthed in the harbour (Lind et al., 2018; Endresen, 2003) . The increased health burden from the resulting air pollution can lead to increased cases of illnesses such as asthma and respiratory infections, which burden the health system and the well-being of the population in the country with additional costs (for further reading, please refer to inter alia (Zis et al., 2014; Tang et al., 2020; Viana et al., 2020; Rabl & Spadaro, 2000) ). A more sustainable alternative are shore-to-ship power connections, which use the onshore power grid to meet the berthing power demand of ships. This concept has the potential to reduce CO 2 and air pollutant emissions substantially. Considering the sector's importance for economic development and as a regular seasonal energy demand, it is vital to be incorporated into energy related studies and energy system modelling. However, according to IRENA (2016), cruise ship companies have expressed their doubt and reluctance to use such shore-to-ship power connections. Also, the Government of Barbados (GOB, 2019) doubts the possibility to electrify cruise tourism, arguing, that resulting GHG emissions are not attributable to the host country alone. As an island system aiming for 100 % renewable energy and due to air quality considerations, it is apparent to include the passenger transport sector in the modelling approaches. According to IRENA (2016) 81.5 % of all registered vehicles are privately owned passenger vehicles, which could easily be replaced by similar classed electric vehicles. As most SIDS, Barbados is highly vulnerable to climate change as the atmospheric temperature increases, sea levels rise and weather patterns change (UNDP, 2020). The island has therefore not only committed to several overall sustainable development goals as a member of the SID Group of Nations, but has also developed a Nationally Determined Contribution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Specifically, this includes the formulation of a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) as described in the Sustainable Energy Framework As the pursuit of higher shares of renewable energy sources is not primarily climate change related but also a facilitator to address economic and fiscal challenges caused by the high dependence on imported fossil fuels, the Government of Barbados has committed to transforming the entire energy sector, including electricity generation and transportation (IRENA, 2016; GOB, 2019) . Consequently, the most recently approved Barbados National Energy Policy (BNEP) for 2030 by the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources wants to diversify the energy sector, whilst aiming at a 100 % renewable energy-based system in 2030 under the keywords diversity, efficiency, affordability and collaboration (GOB, 2019). The 2030 agenda calls for an elimination of the use of fossil fuels for the local transport sector, switching to bio fuels or increased electrification. Within the context of 100 % renewable energy scenarios for Barbados, the study shows that high electricity costs will warrant further consideration of suitable market tools for ensuring the lowest energy system costs. Selecting suitable market instruments such as feed-in-tariffs, renewable energy portfolio standards and auctions are becoming more critical moving forward. A more detailed market analysis that considers the unique challenges for SID states, such as insularity and small market size, will lend more insight regarding achieving greater sustainable development. The Government of Barbados has concluded that the Barbadian energy system lacked the level of competition and capable local market participants required for energy auctions GOB (2019). Simultaneously, the country intends to prioritise local investment in the energy sector without significantly favouring foreign investors. Similarly, renewable portfolio standards would require an energy market for green certificates to produce renewable energy, which is also limited by the small market size of Barbados that favours vertically integrated monopolies such as the local utility. 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