key: cord-0283817-2wa490zd authors: Nejati, Amir; Bradtmueller, Anna; Shepley, Elise; Vasseur, Elsa title: Technology applications in bovine gait analysis: a scoping review date: 2022-03-18 journal: bioRxiv DOI: 10.1101/2022.03.18.484936 sha: a30693ba1ea0d410b2761fb9c52dabba9716da6b doc_id: 283817 cord_uid: 2wa490zd Quantitative bovine gait analysis using technology has evolved significantly over the last two decades. However, subjective methods of gait assessment using visual locomotion scoring remain the primary on-farm and experimental approach. The objective of this review is to map research trends in quantitative bovine gait analysis and to explore the technologies that have been utilized to measure biomechanical parameters of gait. A scoping literature review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. A search algorithm based on PICO framework generated three components – bovine, gait, and technology – to address our objectives. Three online databases were searched for original work published from January 2000 to June 2020. A two-step screening process was then conducted, starting with the review of article titles and abstracts based on inclusion criteria. A remaining 125 articles then underwent a full-text assessment, resulting in 82 final articles. Thematic analysis of research aims resulted in four major themes among the studies: gait/claw biomechanics, lameness detection, intervention/comparison, and system development. Lameness detection (55 % of studies) was the most common reason for technology use. Studies in the field of bovine gait analysis used three main technologies: force and pressure platforms (FPP), vision-based systems (VB), and accelerometers. FPP were the first and most popular technologies to evaluate bovine gait and were used in 58.5 % of studies. They include force platforms, pressure mapping systems, and weight distribution platforms. The second most applied technology was VB (34.1 % of studies), which predominately consists of video analysis and image processing systems. Accelerometers, another technological method to measure gait characteristics, were used in 14.6 % of studies. A strong demand for automatic lameness detection influences the path of development for quantitative gait analysis technologies. Although progress has been made, more research is needed to achieve more accurate, practical, and user-friendly technologies. 103 references that were missed by the database searches. Subsequently, the reference lists of each of 104 the documents found to meet the inclusion criteria were also screened to identify any additional 105 documents of interest. 106 Selection of sources of evidence 107 All references were imported into the Endnote X9 reference management software (13) 108 and duplicates were removed. All literature was then uploaded to Covidence, an online 109 systematic review management program (14). The review was then performed in two steps. The Articles included in this review were published across 23 scientific journals. Journal of 158 Dairy Science was the journal with the most articles included in this review (n = 33 articles; 159 40%), followed by Computers and Electronics in Agriculture (n = 10 articles; 12%). 160 Thematic analysis of research aim 161 To understand the importance of using technology in bovine gait analysis, it is necessary 162 to first examine the objectives of studies that have used these technologies. Therefore, a thematic 163 analysis of research aims was conducted based on the stated objective(s) of the studies. Table 2 164 shows the thematic classification of research aims/themes, each theme was coded and described. 172 Leg swing/movement has been another target for the kinematic studies using vision-377 based technologies. One study evaluated ROM of leg's touch and release angles while another 378 analyzed leg swing to generate six features referring to the gait asymmetry, speed, tracking up, 379 stance time, and stride length (48, 86). Also, a different work adopted an object detection system 380 to detect leg movement and measured the relative step size characteristic vector (89). Gait analysis in cattle has also been done using accelerometers which are attached to the 383 cow's leg to measure acceleration data. The output from accelerometers in bovine studies are 384 generally classified as either behavior measures, including step activity, lying, and standing 385 behaviors or as gait measures, including kinematics and kinetics of a gait cycle and symmetry 386 between the legs. The current review focuses only on the gait measurement aspects of using 387 accelerometers. There were 12 studies that have utilized the wearable sensors (i.e., 3D 388 accelerometers) to measure gait variables. The details of these studies are shown in table 6. 389 Table 6 . Overview of studies included in the review that used accelerometers. The trend of technology use in bovine gait analysis has changed throughout the last two 417 decades (Fig 4) . 520 kinematic analysis which includes several limitations by comparison to three-dimensional (3D) 521 analysis, where multiple synchronized cameras are being used. Some of these limitations include 522 parallax error and perspective error that occur when subjects move away from the optical axis of 523 the camera and subjects are restricted to movement within the plane of calibration and accuracy 524 is compromised. Also, 2D angular data are limited to one degree of freedom (DOF) for joint 525 rotation within the sagittal plane, while 3D kinematic data allow the researcher to explore the full 526 range of motion (ROM) and orientation of segments and joints within 3D space (103). Therefore, 527 although the use of VA techniques is challenging, the high accuracy of these systems, especially 528 the 3D video analysis systems, makes them a reliable reference for the future works of using 529 marker-less VA technologies. By comparison to VA systems, the downside of the IP methods is that, since they usually 532 focus on one anatomical region as a lameness indicator, their outcomes are limited to the targeted 533 region and the other facets of lameness will be missed. However, use of machine learning 534 algorithms and eliminating the requirement of animal preparation (e.g., with reflective markers) 535 allows them to be utilized as automated systems on commercial farms. Also, the use of overhead Force, pressure, and weight -along with their derivatives -are the main kinetic 198 attributes measured by floor-sensitive plates. These measures are taken either when an animal is 199 walking over the plates (dynamic measurements) or when standing on them (static 200 measurements) Overview of studies included in the review that used force and pressure platforms (FPP) not applicable; WDP: weight 207 distribution platforms; SD: system development; LD: lameness detection; GCB: gait/claw biomechanics Technology trends in bovine gait analysis plotted in 5-year bins from Force platforms (FP), pressure mapping system (PMS), weight distribution platforms 424 (WDP), video analysis (VA), image processing (IP), and accelerometer (AC) The field of bovine gait analysis stems from equine gait analysis and human movement 427 research, adapting technologies that initially were developed in horses or humans such as force 428 and pressure platforms, video analysis techniques, and wearable sensors. Theoretically, the training centers with the goal of improving equine performance, optimizing 439 training, and enhancing the horse-rider relationship (98, 100). In cows, however, as a livestock 440 animal, lameness and identifying impaired locomotion remains the primary topics Research aim analysis shows that efforts have been made to employ FP as an automatic 472 lameness detection system, generally using a commercial version of force platform for on-farm 473 use Unlike the FP, pressure mapping systems (PMS) can distinguish and segment individual Research aim 483 analysis shows that PMS have been utilized to address different aims including evaluation the 484 effects of hoof trimming, local analgesics, and flooring type on cows/claws' biomechanics Animal board invited review: Dairy cow lameness expenditures, 578 losses and total cost Assessment of the welfare of dairy caftle 580 using animal-based measurements: direct observations and investigation of farm records. Vet 581 Rec Manual and automatic locomotion scoring systems in dairy cows: A 584 review Lameness Detection in Dairy Cows: Part 1. How to Distinguish between Non-Lame and Lame 587 Cows Based on Differences in Locomotion or Behavior The effects of early treatment for 589 hindlimb lameness in dairy cows on four commercial UK farms Producer 592 estimates of prevalence and perceived importance of lameness in dairy herds with tiestalls, 593 freestalls, and automated milking systems Locomotion scoring and lameness detection in dairy cattle The effect of housing tie-stall 597 dairy cows in deep-bedded pens during an eight-week dry period on gait and step activity Influence of floor type on the locomotion of dairy cows Reliability 602 of a subjective lamess scoring system for dairy cows Assessment of observer performance in a 604 subjective scoring system: visual classification of the gait of cows The 607 PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews PA: Clarivate Comparison of pressure plate 611 and force plate gait kinetics in sound Warmbloods at walk and trot. The Veterinary Journal A system for 614 identifying lameness in dairy cattle The 616 development of an objective lameness scoring system for dairy herds: Pilot study The Pressure Distribution Under the Bovine Claw During Square Standing on a Flat Substrate The Vertical Ground Reaction Force and the Pressure Distribution on the Claws of Dairy Cows 623 While Walking on a Flat Substrate Braam 627 CR, et al. The Effect of Preventive Trimming on Weight Bearing and Force Balance on the 628 Claws of Dairy Cattle Effects of trimming on dairy 630 cattle hoof weight bearing and pressure distributions during the stance phase. Transactions of the 631 ASAE Comparison of models to identify lame cows based on gait and lesion scores, and limb 634 movement variables Hoof 636 discomfort changes how dairy cattle distribute their body weight Assessing Cows' 639 Welfare: weighing the Cow in a Milking Robot Association Between a Visual and an Automated Locomotion Score in Lactating Holstein Cows Gait Pattern of Heifers Before and After Claw 643 Trimming: A High-Speed Cinematographic Study on a Treadmill Early detection of 645 lameness in heifers with hairy heel warts using a pressure plate A Probabilistic Neural Network Model for Lameness Detection Validation of two measures of lameness in dairy 649 cows Detecting cow's 651 lameness using force sensors. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Flooring Systems on Weight and Pressure Distribution on Claws of Dairy Cows Use of force sensors to detect and analyse lameness in 656 dairy cows Application of CUSUM charts to detect lameness in a milking 658 robot. Expert Systems with Applications Automatic 660 observation of cow leg health using load sensors. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Enhancing the prediction 663 accuracy of bovine lameness models through transformations of limb movement variables Analgesic 666 efficacy of sodium salicylate in an amphotericin B-induced bovine synovitis-arthritis model Cow gait scores and kinematic 669 gait data: Can people see gait irregularities? Effects of two trimming 671 methods of dairy cattle on concrete or rubber-covered slatted floors Weight distribution and gait in dairy cattle are 674 affected by milking and late pregnancy Assessment of dairy cow locomotion in a 676 commercial farm setting: The effects of walking speed on ground reaction forces and temporal 677 and linear stride characteristics Automated methods for detecting 679 lameness and measuring analgesia in dairy cattle Measures of weight distribution of 681 dairy cows to detect lameness and the presence of hoof lesions Diversity in the magnitude of 683 hind limb unloading occurs with similar forms of lameness in dairy cows Modeling bovine lameness with 686 limb movement variables Development of a real time cow gait tracking and analysing tool to assess lameness using a 689 pressure sensitive walkway: The GAITWISE system Effect of flunixin 692 meglumine on the amelioration of lameness in dairy steers with amphotericin B-induced 693 transient synovitis-arthritis Lameness 695 scoring system for dairy cows using force plates and artificial intelligence Automatic 698 measurement of touch and release angles of the fetlock joint for lameness detection in dairy 699 cattle using vision techniques Validation of an automated method to count steps while cows 701 stand on a weighing platform and its application as a measure to detect lameness Computerized identification and classification of stance phases as made by front or hind feet of 705 walking cows based on 3-dimensional ground reaction forces Exploration of measurement variation of gait variables for early lameness detection in cattle 709 using the GAITWISE Assessment of biometric 711 tools for quantitative gait analysis in Holstein calves Short communication: Changes in gait symmetry in healthy and lame dairy cows based on 714 3-dimensional ground reaction force curves following claw trimming Impact 717 of oral meloxicam administered alone or in combination with gabapentin on experimentally 718 induced lameness in beef calves1 Predictive models of lameness in dairy cows achieve high sensitivity and specificity with force 721 measurements in three dimensions Influence of Soft or Hard Floors before and after First Calving on Dairy Heifer Locomotion, Claw and Leg Health. Animals (Basel) Analysis of Automatic cow lameness detection with a pressure mat: Effects of mat length and sensor 730 resolution. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Objective assessment of 732 lameness in cattle after foot surgery Kinetic effect of different ground 737 conditions on the sole of the claws of standing and walking dairy cows Use of validated 740 objective methods of locomotion characteristics and weight distribution for evaluating the 741 efficacy of ketoprofen for alleviating pain in cows with limb pathologies Investigating locomotion of dairy cows by use of high speed 744 cinematography Hoof pathologies influence kinematic measures of 746 dairy cow gait Changes in walking parameters of Effects of milking on dairy cow gait Dairy 752 cattle linear and angular kinematics during the stance phase. Agricultural Engineering 753 International Softer, higher-friction 755 flooring improves gait of cows with and without sole ulcers Automatic detection 757 of lameness in dairy cattle (1)--gait analysis in dairy cattle by vision Automatic detection 760 of lameness in dairy cattle-Vision-based trackway analysis in cow's locomotion. Computers 761 and Electronics in Agriculture Evaluation of step 766 overlap as an automatic measure in dairy cow locomotion Real-time automatic 768 lameness detection based on back posture extraction in dairy cattle: Shape analysis of cow with 769 image processing techniques. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Impact of lameness on gait characteristics and 771 lying behaviour of zero grazed dairy cattle in early lactation Use of three-dimensional acceleration 774 sensing to assess dairy cow gait and the effects of hoof trimming Associations between locomotion score Automatic 783 lameness detection based on consecutive 3D-video recordings Comparison of a three-dimensional and two-dimensional camera system for automated 787 measurement of back posture in dairy cows. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Kinematic 790 gait analysis and lactation performance in dairy cows fed a diet supplemented with zinc, 791 manganese, copper and cobalt Lameness 796 detection in dairy cattle: Single predictor v. multivariate analysis of image-based posture 797 processing and behaviour and performance sensing Early and non-intrusive lameness 799 detection in dairy cows using 3-dimensional video Implementation of an automatic 3D vision monitor for dairy cow locomotion in a commercial 802 farm. (Special Issue: Advances in the engineering of sensor-based monitoring and management 803 systems for precision livestock farming Performance of human observers and an automatic 3-dimensional computer-vision-based 806 locomotion scoring method to detect lameness and hoof lesions in dairy cows Automatic lameness detection in dairy cattle based on 809 leg swing analysis with an image processing technique Agriculture Lameness detection of dairy cows based on a double normal 812 background statistical model. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture Does the range of 814 motion in the bovine interphalangeal joints change with flooring condition? A pilot study using 815 biplane high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography Lameness detection of dairy cows 817 based on the YOLOv3 deep learning algorithm and a relative step size characteristic vector A wireless accelerometer system with 820 wavelet analysis for assessing lameness in cattle Measurement of acceleration while walking as an automated method for gait assessment in dairy 823 cattle Development and validation of a novel pedometer algorithm to quantify extended characteristics 826 of the locomotor behavior of dairy cows Use of 828 extended characteristics of locomotion and feeding behavior for automated identification of lame 829 dairy cows The cow pedogram-831 Analysis of gait cycle variables allows the detection of lameness and foot pathologies Technical note: Validation of a semi-834 automated software tool to determine gait-cycle variables in dairy cows Locomotion 837 characteristics of dairy cows walking on pasture and the effect of artificial flooring systems on 838 locomotion comfort A wearable sensor system for lameness 840 detection in dairy cattle Research trends in equine movement analysis, future 842 opportunities and potential barriers in the digital age: A scoping review from Indicators of Horse Welfare: State-of-the-Art. Animals (Basel) Practical uses of quantitative gait analysis in horses Effect of 849 Lameness on Culling in Dairy Cows Lameness in Beef 851 Cattle: UK Farmers' Perceptions, Knowledge, Barriers, and Approaches to Treatment and 852 Control Electromyographic evaluation of muscle firing patterns in the ridden horse 854 during jumping as an objective method of informing current jump training programmes 855 Invited review: Cattle lameness 857 detection with accelerometers Using the Footfall Sound of Dairy Cows for Detecting 859