key: cord-0070049-p0sjxkaw
authors: Li, Mingliang; Chen, Yidong; Mao, Yujie; Jiang, Mingfeng; Liu, Yujun; Zhan, Yuefu; Li, Xiangying; Su, Caixia; Zhang, Guangming; Zhou, Xiaobo
title: Diagnostic Classification of Patients with Dilated Cardiomyopathy Using Ventricular Strain Analysis Algorithm
date: 2021-11-09
journal: Comput Math Methods Med
DOI: 10.1155/2021/4186648
sha: 62f77078cb33124ab8e167bfdb7ac0978e54dd8b
doc_id: 70049
cord_uid: p0sjxkaw

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a cardiomyopathy with left ventricle or double ventricle enlargement and systolic dysfunction. It is an important cause of sudden cardiac death and heart failure and is the leading indication for cardiac transplantation. Major heart diseases like heart muscle damage and valvular problems are diagnosed using cardiac MRI. However, it takes time for cardiologists to measure DCM-related parameters to decide whether patients have this disease. We have presented a method for automatic ventricular segmentation, parameter extraction, and diagnosing DCM. In this paper, left ventricle and right ventricle are segmented by parasternal short-axis cardiac MR image sequence; then, related parameters are extracted in the end-diastole and end-systole of the heart. Machine learning classifiers use extracted parameters as input to predict normal people and patients with DCM, among which Random forest classifier gives the highest accuracy. The results show that the proposed system can be effectively utilized to detect and diagnose DCM automatically. The experimental results suggest the capabilities and advantages of the proposed method to diagnose DCM. A small amount of sample input can generate results comparable to more complex methods.

As the most common cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a primary cardiac disease of unknown origin which can lead to impaired left ventricular systolic function, heart valve lesions, ventricular or supraventricular arrhythmia, thrombosis, progressive heart failure, and even sudden cardiac death [1, 2] . Patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCMP) have a poor prognosis and a five-year mortality rate of up to 20% [3] .

Although cardiomyocytes in DCMP are hypertrophy, the thickness of ventricular muscle wall may be normal or relatively thin due to the expansion of cardiac cavity. However, the ventricular muscle wall may also be thickened to different degrees in the early stage of the disease, which can occur at all ages, and the incidence rate in male is higher than that in female [4] . The echocardiogram images or image sequences often suffer with speckle noise, which degrades image contrast and blocks out the underlying cardiac anatomy. Therefore, it is difficult to judge a DCMP directly from original medicine images. In order for the cardiologist to achieve correct diagnosis, the echocardiogram images have to be despeckled [5, 6] . Some semiautomatic or automatic measurement techniques and framework have been applied in the diagnosis of cardiomyopathy. A diagnostic technique using Doppler ultrasound images was proposed to automatically detect cardiovascular abnormalities and enable practitioners to semiautomatically identify and quantify potential cardiovascular complications in patients. [7] . Besides, a neural network classifier, a Bayesian classifier, and a classifier based on hidden Markov chains were joined by means of a Behavior Knowledge Space fusion rule. The comparative evaluation was discussed in terms of both accuracy and required time, in which the time to correct the classifier errors by means of human intervention was also taken into account [8] . Moreover, an automatic method for detecting myocardial injury by echocardiographic sequence was proposed. This method proposed a heart wall boundary extraction system based on left ventricular image denoising, enhancement, and segmentation. Cardiac wall boundaries were used to calculate global left ventricular parameters, and then, statistical pattern recognition and classification were performed to identify myocardial damage or myocardial ischemia [9] . Accurate measurement of the right ventricle (RV) volume is important for the assessment of the ventricular function and a biomarker of the progression of any cardiovascular disease. However, the high RV variability makes it difficult to reach a proper delineation of the myocardium wall [10] .

Deep learning also has applications in the study of medical image segmentation and clinical research. In addition to processing cardiac imaging to noninvasively estimate its structural and functional parameters, the convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture has been used to cardiovascular diagnosis and disease management [11] . FCN performs pixel-level classification to efficiently solve semantic-level image segmentation. FCNs are designed to have an encoder-decoder structure so that they can accept an input of any size and produce an output of the same size and preserve the spatial information of the input [12] . U-Net is the most popular FCN variant for medical image segmentation. The authors propose a deep learning method called shape attentive U-Net to segment the ventricles. This method can extract deeper abstract information, focus on the interpretability and robustness of the model, and improve the accuracy of model segmentation [13] . In the deep learning training process, the deepening of the number of network layers caused a significant decline in the performance of the network. Therefore, the residual network (ResNet) was proposed to solve the problem of gradient degradation [14] . Residual neural network (ResNet) is used as the backbone to improve the segmentation accuracy of the left ventricle (LV). It also improves the network optimization process, thereby accelerating the convergence speed of the network [15] .

Although deep learning is widely used in image segmentation, and some of its research progress has reached a high level, there are still some shortcomings. According to our mission requirements, traditional methods may be more suitable. In this paper, the purpose of the automatic strain analysis algorithm is to provide a more accurate diagnosis method while reducing the workload of doctors. We will explain in detail the principle of the automatic strain algorithm and compare the classification results of different machine learning models for diagnosing DCM.

In this paper, we present an automatic diagnosing of DCM from cardiac Cine-MRI data, which is an end-to-end analysis pipeline with multiple stages for parameter extraction and disease diagnosis. A series of standard short-axis cines are acquired via positioning planes in the four-chamber and two-chamber. Midventricular slices with maximum and minimum area are utilized as surrogate for the enddiastole and end-systolic phases, respectively [16] . In total, cardiac Cine-MRI data of 70 normal subjects (NOR) and 64 DCMP are selected in this study. In this paper, left ventricle (LV) and right ventricle (RV) are segmented by parasternal short-axis cardiac MR image sequence. Then, related parameters are extracted in the end-diastole and endsystole phases of the heart. Finally, the strain of features extracted from end-diastolic (ED) and end-systole (ES) phases are used to classify the NOR and DCMP.

Step 1. Use the level set method to segment the endocardial counters of LVs in a cardiac Cine-MRI.

Step 2. Calculate the area of endocardial counters of LVs.

Step 3. Represent the slice with maximum LV area as ED phase; represent the slice with minimum LV area as ES phase.

Step 1. The level set algorithm is used to segment the endocardial and epicardial contours of LV and RV of heart, as shown in Figure 1 (a) [17] .

Step 2. Extract the red contours, as shown in Figure 1 (b).

Step 3. Binarize Figure 1 (b), as shown in Figure 1 (c). It should be noted that the red outline in Figure 1 (b) is the segmentation result of Figure 1 (a), and the black part in Figure 1 (b) is the background. For subsequent processing requirements, Figure 1 (b) needs to be binarized to obtain Figure 1 (c). Figure 2 (a), we find that the contour lines are not made up of single pixel, as shown in Figure 2 (b). In order to obtain a single-pixel contour, findcontour function is used to extract the outermost pixels of the contour [18, 19] , as shown in Figure 2 (c). Our algorithm uses the position of the pixel as a coordinate in the calculation process, which is why we convert the contour of the multipixel width to the contour of the single-pixel width.

Step 1. Iterate over the image file (start from the upper left corner) lines pixel by pixel and record the coordinates of the contour, which is represented by white pixels.

Step 2. Based on prior knowledge, the left contour is classified as the endocardial contour of RV, as shown in Figure 1 (c). After the first pixel on the contour is detected, the eight pixels surrounding it are also detected for the presence of white pixel [20] . If white pixels are detected around it, record the coordinates of these white pixels and classify them as RV contour.

Step 3. The newly detected white pixels are considered as the next detection center. Same procedure in Step 2 is performed on these pixels to detect adjacent white pixels. This procedure is repeated until all detectable white pixels are recorded into the RV set

Step 4. Classify and record the remaining white pixels into LV set.

2.5. Identify the Centroid of the LV. The centroid of the LV is determined as follows:

x = x 1 + x 2 +⋯+x n n , y = y 1 + y 2 +⋯+y 1n n :

So, we locate the centroid oðx o , y o Þ, as shown in Figure 3 . In order to better explain the subsequent parts, we have given a schematic diagram in Figure 3 , which helps to better understand the idea of the strain analysis algorithm.

Step 1. Randomly select two points on the RV set and form ∠ΑΟΒ with the LV centroid point O.

Step 2. The coordinates of points A and point B are ðx A , y A Þ and ðx B , y B Þ. The slopes k 1 and k 2 of lines OA and OB are calculated as follows:

Step 3. The maximum angle θ max = ∠ΑΟΒ is computed using the following function: 

And it is identified by iterating through the points in the RV set, which is used to locate the position of points A and B, as shown by the green circle in Figure 3 .

Step 1. If ∠ΑΟΒ < 120 ∘ , both points A and point B move to G and H along the line AB at the same time. The stride is one pixel, and s is the moving distance, as shown in Figure 4 (a).

Step 2. If ∠ΑΟΒ > 120 ∘ , both points A and point B move to G and H along the line AB at the same time. The stride is one pixel, and s is the moving distance, as shown in Figure 4 (b).

Step 3. When ∠ΑΟΒ = 120 ∘ , the coordinates of points A and B are obtained. Locate the center point M of AB, extend MO, and then divide LV into six equal parts, as shown in Figure 5 . The pseudo code of the program running process is in Algorithm 1. Clinical work is a very practical work, and patients have individual specificity. Clinicians need to make a correct diagnosis, mainly relying on clinical experience. After accumulating a lot of spiritual bed experience, doctors gave their own judgment experience: dividing LV into six equal parts is more conducive to the diagnosis of the disease.

Step 1. Calculate the LV radius and CD arc length using the following function:

where LV radius is the average of radius OC, OD, and ON.

Step 2. Calculate the LV area and RV area using the following function:

A LV = ∬ds,

where ds represents one pixel.

Step 3. Calculate CDEF area.

Calculate the number of pixels surrounded by CD, DF, FE, and EC, that is, the area of CDFE, as shown in Figure 6 . The pseudo code is shown in Algorithm 2. The area is computed using the following function:

where ds represents one pixel.

3.1. Feature Extraction. The ROIs of LV and RV are cropped and resized to 360 × 300 in order to make the feature extraction and classification easier. The performance of the level set in the epicardial segmentation of the heart mainly depends on the tissues or organs around the heart. Moreover, sometimes it is not easy to identify the epicardial contour with certainty because other tissues around the heart will affect the convergence of the level set function. It does not make much sense to measure the segmentation accuracy of the contour of the epicardial contour model in our algorithm, even if the segmentation result of the EF arc part is satisfactory. The dice coefficient of endocardial contour segmentation is 0.87. The parameters of LV radius, LV CD arc length, LV CDEF area, LV area, and RV area are extracted for DCM diagnosis [21, 22] . Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine parameters as a percentage of the original length of the myocardium. Strain directly reflects the local function of the myocardium and more accurately judges the actual state of local myocardial movement. It is relatively unaffected by breathing and heartbeat. The strain is calculated as follows: close, but there are still some differences. We cannot distinguish DCMP and NOR based on the size of the range. Therefore, it is necessary to use pattern recognition to better distinguish DCMP and NOR.

The extracted features are fed to the support vector machine, Adaboost, combined K nearest neighbor, and Random forest classifiers to classify the NOR and DCMP. These classifiers are further utilized in this study to see how the extracted features are helpful in accurate classification.

K nearest neighbor classifier (KNN) [23] is arguably the simplest machine learning and image classification algorithm. In fact, because it is too simple, the algorithm does not learn anything, instead, it directly depends on the distance between the feature vectors. Support vector machine (SVM) is a generalized linear classifier that classifies data in a binary manner according to supervised learning. The decision boundary is the maximum-margin hyperplane for solving the learning samples. SVM can perform nonlinear classification by the kernel method (kernel method), which is one of the common kernel learning methods [24] . Adaboost is an iterative algorithm. The core idea is to train different classifiers (weak classifiers) for the same training set and then combine these weak classifiers to form a stronger final classifier (strong classifier). Random forest is a type of Ensemble Learning of the Bagging type [25] . By combining multiple weak classifiers, the result is voted or averaged, making the overall model result with high accuracy and generalization performance. "Random" makes it resistant to overfitting, and "forest" makes it more accurate.

Although the importance of deep learning in image segmentation is increasing, and some of its research progress has reached a high level, there are still some shortcomings. Firstly, deep learning requires very large amount of data in order to perform better than other traditional methods. Obtaining clinical data is not easy, we only collected 70 normal subjects (NOR) and 64 DCMP, of which 67 subjects were used to train the model. Secondly, compared with traditional machine learning technology, deep learning requires high-performance multi-GPU-accelerated training and more training time. In this article, we select an end-diastolic (ED) and an end-systolic (ES) image from each subject cardiac Cine-MRI, so the traditional segmentation method is more suitable for ventricular segmentation. The segmented LV and RV region of end-diastole (ED) and end-systolic (ES) frame alone is used for feature extraction as it contains useful information compared to other frames.

In general, our segmentation method is relatively close to the current state-of-the-art method in performance. Our left ventricle segmentation method is developed in a variational framework using level sets, and shape constraints are introduced to process boundary information. Figure 7 shows the segmentation examples of DCMP and NORP in enddiastolic (ED) phase. Table 3 shows the comparison between our method and some other recent works, which involve a variety of segmentation methods. More detailed information can be found in their respective reference materials, and we will not do detailed comparisons here. Since the segmentation accuracy of the left ventricle has a greater impact on our method, only the dice coefficient of the left ventricle is given in Table 3 .

The extracted features are fed to the classifiers KNN, Adaboost, SVM, and Random forest to classify the normal heart and heart affected by DCM. The performance measures sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy are computed using the equations, and the confusion matrix shown in Input: CDEF={x i ,y i }, i∈ [1,n] {area contains n points} Output: area: the size of area Functions: c←map(b){find c to make y c =y b } Initialize: area←0 1 for P in DE do 2 Q ←map(P) 3 area←area+x P -x Q 4 end 5 for P in CD do 6 Q ←map(P) 7 area←area+x P -x Q 8 end 9 for P in FC do 10 Q←map (P)  11 area←area+x P -x Q 12 end19 M← midpoint of line AB Algorithm 2: Calculate CDEF area. 

where fp, fn, tp, and tn predicted values with respect to actual values. The sensitivity and specificity are the two significant metrics employed in medical image analysis. In a diagnostic test, sensitivity is a measure of how well a test can identify true positives and specificity is a measure of how well a test can identify true negatives. For all testing, both diagnostic and screening, there is usually a trade-off between sensitivity and specificity. In the example of a medical test used to identify a condition, the sensitivity (sometimes also named the detection rate in a clinical setting) of the test is the proportion of people who test positive for the disease among those who have the disease. A positive result in a test with high specificity is useful for ruling in disease. The test rarely gives positive results in healthy patients. In a set of measurements, accuracy is closeness of the measurements to a specific value whereas specificity handles only negative cases and sensitivity handles only positive cases. 32 DCMP and 35 NOR randomly selected from the data set are used as the training set, and the other is used as the testing data. The classification result is higher for Random forest classifier at an accuracy of 95.5%. The SVM classifiers give the second highest performance with an accuracy of 91.0%. The Adaboost classifier gives the performance with an accuracy of 88.1. The KNN classifier gives the worst performance with an accuracy of 71.4%, as shown in Table 5 . It can be observed that the Random forest can generally achieve better performance than the other methods do, suggesting that the proposed system performs well in classifying the hearts affected by DCM and normal hearts. Table 6 shows the classification results of our diagnosis of DCM, and the proposed method is still comparable to the current work. The main contributions are the cardiac strain parameters and the Random forest classification method. Furthermore, based on these patients can be diagnosed with 95.5% classification accuracy. This is because strain directly measures the deformability of the myocardium, is directly related to the physiological state of the myocardium, and is less affected by interfering factors such as gender and age.

The introduction of cardiac strain parameters improves the accuracy of DCM diagnosis. Strain can accurately reflect the occurrence of local myocardial contraction and diastolic activity throughout the cardiac cycle, reducing the difference caused by different observers, and is an important indicator for diagnosing DCM diseases. In addition, the absolute value of the left ventricular short-axis myocardial strain was significantly greater than the absolute value of the left ventricular long-axis myocardial strain.

Here, we have completed the segmentation of the cine MR image, the extraction of strain parameters, and the classification of DCMP and NORP. Our method still has some limitations. Firstly, due to the inevitable errors in the segmentation stage and the strain parameter extraction stage, 7 Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine the two-stage method may affect the classification accuracy. However, this impact is within an acceptable range [34] . Secondly, as a basic experiment, adding more data will further optimize our method. In the future, more samples are needed to further confirm our method. At last, in terms of parameter extraction, we can also try more types of parameters.

The automatic strain analysis algorithm system is proposed to automatically detect and diagnose DCM. The system performs three functions of ventricular segmentation, parameter extraction, diagnosis, and prediction. Our results suggest the capability and merits of the proposed method to diagnose DCM. Compared with deep learning methods, we do not need a large number of samples for training. The method requires a small number of samples generates results with quality comparable to more complex methods. This paper suggests a new efficient approach which can be used as an effective tool for detecting and diagnosing hearts affected with dilated cardiomyopathy.

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 

MR imaging detection of cerebral microbleeds: effect of susceptibilityweighted imaging, section thickness, and field strength

Genetics of human and canine dilated cardiomyopathy

Association of fibrosis with mortality and sudden cardiac death in patients with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy

New contribution to the study of ventricular remodeling and valve rings in dilated cardiomyopathy: anatomical and histological evaluation

Performance evaluation of various filtering techniques for speckle suppression in ultrasound images

Biomechanical identification of high-risk patients requiring permanent pacemaker after transcatheter aortic valve replacement

A tool for telediagnosis of cardiovascular diseases in a collaborative and adaptive approach

A semiautomatic system for segmentation of cardiac M-mode images

Detection of heart muscle damage from automated analysis of echocardiogram video

Automatic segmentation of right ventricle in cardiac cine MR images using a saliency analysis

Analytics pipeline for left ventricle segmentation and volume estimation on cardiac MRI using deep learning

Left ventricle segmentation in cardiac MRI images using fully convolutional neural networks

SAUNet: Shape Attentive U-Net for Interpretable Medical Image Segmentation

Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition

FR-NET: focal loss constrained deep residual networks for segmentation of cardiac MRI

Standardized image interpretation and post processing in cardiovascular magnetic resonance: Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (SCMR) board of trustees task force on standardized post processing

A level set method for image segmentation in the presence of intensity inhomogeneities with application to MRI

Topological structural analysis of digitized binary images by border following

A systematic approach to predicting the risk of unicompartmental knee arthroplasty revision

The optimal tetralogy of Fallot repair using generative adversarial networks

Velocity vector imaging in the measurement of left ventricular myocardial mechanics on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: correlations with echocardiographically derived strain values

Left ventricular regional wall stress in dilated cardiomyopathy

Artificial Neural Networks

Machine Learning Methods in the Environmental Sciences: Neural Networks and Kernels

The lessons and experiences that can be learned from China in fighting coronavirus disease 2019

Unifying statistical classification and geodesic active regions for segmentation of cardiac MRI

Left ventricle segmentation using a Bayesian approach with distance dependent shape priors

Max-flow segmentation of the left ventricle by recovering subject-specific distributions via a bound of the Bhattacharyya measure

Automatic quantification of the LV function and mass: a deep learning approach for cardiovascular MRI

A deep learning segmentation approach in free-breathing real-time cardiac magnetic resonance imaging

Detection and Diagnosis of Dilated and Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy by Echocardiogram Sequences Analysis

Automatic Segmentation and Disease Classification Using Cardiac Cine MR Images

Multi-modality imaging in dilated cardiomyopathy: with a focus on the role of cardiac magnetic resonance

Variability in cardiac MR measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction, volumes and mass in healthy adults: defining a significant change at 1 year