key: cord-0040105-dpj4tc5a
authors: Coles, Brian H.
title: Galliformes
date: 2009-10-30
journal: Handbook of Avian Medicine
DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7020-2874-8.00013-4
sha: 0954ad75a5aa79d0a61a46fb79b179bf4fa36b4b
doc_id: 40105
cord_uid: dpj4tc5a

nan

The order Galliformes (fowl-like birds), in line with the most up-to-date taxonomic information derived from DNA and other biochemical techniques (Sibley & Ahlquist 1990) , is now divided into three families:

1. Phasianidae 2. Numididae 3. Odontophoridae.

These families, showing various representative species and the general characteristics, are listed in Table 13 .1.

Until comparatively recently, taxonomists included within the order Galliformes two other avian families, the Cracidae (i.e. guans, chachalacas and curassows) and the Megapodiidae (megapodes, scrub fowl and brushturkeys). However, the latest taxonomic information now places these families in a separate order, the Craciformes. Both Galliformes and Craciformes are now included in the superorder Gallomorphae (or Gallomorphs). Within this super order there are some 283 species, the original representatives of which were found in all the world's continents except Antarctica, and on many islands except those of Polynesia and New Zealand.

Although the Galliformes range in size from the relatively small Chinese painted quail (body length 13 cm) to the much larger turkeys and peafowl (approximately 117 cm), most are medium-sized birds similar in size, body form and behavioural characteristics to domestic chickens. The Galliformes are considered to be rather primitive, unspecialized birds that probably evolved early in the evolutionary cycle. They all have relatively large stout legs and feet, with three forward-pointing digits and a smaller hind digit. Many of these birds are mostly terrestrial, and are incapable of prolonged sustained flight. In most species within the order the mode of flight is a short but rapid take-off, and then gliding or fluttering for short distances. The majority of these birds are nonmigratory. However, both grouse and guinea fowl can fly quite strongly, and the Old World quail and some species living in high altitudes do undergo a partial migration to better feeding grounds in winter.

The skeleton This is similar in all Galliformes to that of the domestic chicken, with well-developed muscular legs consistent Brian H. Coles 13 with the relatively stout legs needed for a terrestrial lifestyle and scratching the ground in search of food. Some species (e.g. turkeys) have ossified leg tendons. All Galliformes have an anisodactyl foot with three cranially directed digits and a fourth, the hallux, situated somewhat higher up the tarsometatarsus and directed caudomedially. In some families or subfamilies (e.g. jungle fowl, turkeys, pheasants) the cock birds have an extra osseous sharp-pointed spur situated above the hallux and directed medially, which is used for fighting and territorial dominance. In the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), annual rings are formed at the base of the spur and can be used for ageing the bird. Care must be taken when handling such birds, since they can injure the handler. The green peacock will make a positive attack on humans and other animals using the spurs, and turkey cocks will fight to the death.

Some breeds of domestic chicken (e.g. Chinese silks, Dorkings and Houdans) have five digits, with the extra digit situated medial to the hallux.

The skull of the sand grouse (Pteroclidae spp.) has a well-developed fossa that contains the large salt gland, which acts as a supplementary excretory organ in these species. The helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) carries a spongy bone extension situated at the junction of the nasal and frontal bone, which is covered by pigmented skin. This structure, together with the wattles, is better developed in male birds.

In Galliformes, there are two deeply and cranially directed non-ossified incisions covered in fibrous sheets on each side of the sternal plate. It should be noted that these leave the underlying liver exposed and vulnerable to deep intramuscular injection if due care is not exercised. The furcula (i.e. the 'wishbone') in the crested and plumed guinea fowl and in the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is cup-shaped to receive the elongated trachea.

The most obvious characteristic of the Galliformes is the presence of well-developed eye combs, wattles and 'beard' (in the common turkey), all of which are highly coloured (usually red) and inflatable. Some grouse also have inflatable coloured cervical air sacs. In some species (jungle fowl, pheasants, turkeys and some grouse) the tail feathers are well developed for display purposes, but the tail of the peacock is not formed of true rectrices but of elongated coverts. Most Galliformes moult Table 13 .1a-c families, genera and representative species within the order Galliformes. The following are most likely to be encountered by the veterinarian, as they are often kept in captive collections a. Family: Phasianidae i. Subfamily Phasianinae (pheasants); 8 genera containing 21 species in most species the male bird has highly coloured plumage whilst the female is more dowdy. most cock pheasants have exceptionally long tails which are vaulted, i.e. in cross-section they are like an inverted v. The tail is used by the cock bird for display purposes when courting. The fourth digit (the hallux) is located more proximally on the metatarsus than the three forward-directed digits. in many species there is a pointed spur placed proximal to this fourth digit on the metatarsus. This appendage is used by the male birds for fighting to gain territory. Some species of pheasant have coloured facial skin on the head. most pheasants make a whirring wing noise during territorial display and are also quite vocal. The guinea fowl: there are four genera and seven species, all of which are found only on continental africa and the adjacent island of madagascar. all are medium-sized birds tending to be rather plump and heavy bodied with a fairly long neck, which together with the head is naked and the skin variously coloured. Some species have casques (e.g. helmeted and tufted guinea fowl) or occipital feather crests or wattles. Their plumage is mostly dark or grey. The tail of guinea fowl is small and drooping. although mainly terrestrial birds that tend to run rather than walk, the guinea fowl can fly quite strongly. annually after the breeding season, but ptarmigan moult three times yearly in line with the changes in colour of their sub-Arctic habitat (Jones 1998). They also moult the claws. The capercaillie and ptarmigan also fractionally moult the horn of the beak. When handled, grouse tend to shed some feathers as a normal defence reaction against attack. Most Galliformes have a bilobed preen gland with an associated wick of feathers, but its presence in grouse and turkeys is variable. Sand grouse have modified breast feathers during the breeding season for carrying water to the chicks left in desert nest sites.

In some species the trachea is elongated into loops, particularly in the male bird. This occurs in crested and plumed guinea fowl and in the capercaillie. The extended section of the trachea lies subcutaneously over the thorax and abdomen. The presence of an extended trachea may be important for the anaesthetist, because if respiration becomes depressed these birds may require assisted positive pressure ventilation in a much shorter time span than where a similar situation occurs in other species. Normal respiratory rates in the common turkey (28-49 per minute) are approximately twice the rate in the domestic fowl (12-37 per minute); also, the common turkey has no caudal thoracic air sac.

Heart rates in the domestic turkey (93-163 per minute), in contrast to respiratory rates, are much lower than in the domestic fowl (220-360 per minute). Respiratory and cardiac rates are not documented for other species.

In the grouse, the beak is more robust than in most other Galliformes, being adapted to dealing with coarse vegetation. The New World quail have a 'toothed' lower beak. All Galliformes except snowcocks have a well-developed crop, which is, of course, an expansion of the oesophagus; in snowcocks its absence is compensated for by a dilatable oesophagus. Some male North American grouse (sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus; blue grouse, Drenragapus obscurus; prairie chickens, Tympanuchus cupido) have an inflatable diverticulum of the oesophagus covered with featherless, brightly coloured skin (red or yellow), and this is used during courtship and territorial displays.

The ventriculus (gizzard) is well developed muscularly in all Galliformes except for the sage grouse, which consumes softer food. Muscular development of the ventriculus is particularly pronounced in most other grouse because of their coarse vegetable diet. Also, certainly in the red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus), the length of the intestine changes seasonally in line with the seasonal change in diet and its digestibility, a physiological adaptation also recorded in species other than Galliformes.

A gall bladder and well-developed caeca are present in all Galliformes, and the latter organs are commonly involved in infectious processes, especially coccidiosis.

Although usually white or buff in colour, the testicles of some Galliformes such as the capercaillie and some breeds of poultry are pigmented a darker colour. The cock birds in all Galliformes have a non-intromittent phallus formed by two lateral folds (the lymphatic phallic bodies) situated on the ventral lip of the vent. During ejaculation, which is very rapid, the lymphatic bodies are momentarily engorged with lymph and the protruding vent is quickly applied to the protruding oviduct of the female. Semen is channelled between the two dilated lateral lymphatic phallic bodies.

Young wild turkeys are sexually mature at 2 years of age. New World quail are sexually mature at 1 year, although amongst the Old World quail (and certainly the Japanese quail, Coternix japonica), some are developed and able to breed at 6 weeks! Grouse mature at 1 year. The male peafowl is not sexually active until 3 years, whilst the hen is mature at 2 years. The common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is sexually mature at 1 year; in the golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) the male bird is not mature until 2 years whilst the hen breeds at 1 year. Differential sexual maturity between the sexes may be an adaption to limit breeding between siblings and so disperse the gene pool.

Hybridization occurs between some species. The grey jungle fowl (Gallus sonneratii) hybridizes with the red jungle fowl (G. gallus), and of course the latter will breed with domestic chickens. The grey hen (Lyrus tetrix) will hybridize with the male capercaillie. Some other hybrids may occur between some species of wild grouse.

The Galliformes are mainly terrestrial birds, and are found in a variety of habitats (Table 13 .1). However, all these birds feed mainly on the ground, searching for food by scratching with the feet (except for the eared and monal pheasants, which prefer to use the beak for digging) for seeds, fallen fruit, nuts, roots and invertebrates. The latter are particularly important for growing chicks. Some adult birds are more specialized feeders, such as red and willow grouse, which eat freshly growing shoots of heather (Calluna spp.); the spruce grouse, which consume pine shoots; or the sage grouse, which feed on sage tips (Artemisia spp.).

Although spending much of their time on the ground, Galliformes, except for those species inhabiting treeless landscape (tundra, moorland, prairie or desert), all prefer to roost in trees.

In all cases the nest is simple, with the grouse, guinea fowl and quail being satisfied with a scrape in the ground. Pheasants and turkeys will embellish the scrape with a few leaves or twigs. In all cases, the eggs are white or monochrome. Average clutch size and incubation times are indicated in Table 13 .2. The downy chicks are nidifugous and able to feed themselves from the time of hatching. In all cases the remiges of the chicks grow rapidly, and all chicks can fly before they are fully grown. Quail fly at 7 days and grouse at 10 days of age, whilst wild turkey chicks are 2 weeks old before they fly.

All Galliformes need dry frost-and weatherproof shelters or huts placed away from prevailing wind and direct hot sunshine. Some species, such as the Siamese fireback pheasant, are particularly liable to frostbite. For some species the birds need to be indoors in more substantial buildings supplied with supplementary heating during the winter months: this applies to bobwhite and Chinese quail and also to Palawan peacock pheasants. Some guinea fowl and francolins also need good winter protection, although the helmeted guinea fowl, a domesticated bird, is fairly tough provided it has frost protection. In contrast, some of the pheasants (such as Swinhoe's, silver, golden, Lady Amherst's and monal pheasants) are much more hardy and need only an open-fronted shelter with high off-the-ground perches, situated away from direct wind and hot sunshine. The common peafowl is also a hardy bird, in contrast to the green peafowl and the Congo peafowl, both of which need good protection and supplementary heat in severe winter weather.

All shelters and housing should provide appropriate perches, which, in the case of Reeves's and argus pheasants and peafowl, need to be well above ground level so that the long tail feathers do not become damaged. Also, all such shelters and housing should be attached to suitably sized and spacious aviaries. These should provide a minimum of 2-3 square metres of floor space per bird for birds the size of pheasants. About half this floor space should be provided for shelter accommodation. Outside aviaries should be on dry and well-drained ground and preferably have a concrete base, which can be covered with a good layer of sand or peagravel that can periodically be cleared out. However, some species (such as the eared and monal pheasants) like to dig with their beaks in the ground in search of roots and invertebrates. This activity helps to maintain the beak to the correct length, and if these birds cannot dig the bill tends to become overgrown.

The mesh of aviaries should be small enough to prevent the entry of rodents and small predators such as rats and weasels. Loose nylon fish netting placed across the top of an aviary (height approximately 2 m) instead of the more rigid wire netting may help to prevent startled birds that suddenly take off from injuring themselves by collision with an unyielding obstruction.

Galliformes do not require water in which to bathe, but most species appreciate a dust bath. Dust baths are particularly important for francolins and Roul Roul partridge.

The aviary can be provided with suitable plants, shrubs and grasses, preferably planted in tubs or shallow pots. These will give some shade and security, enabling birds to hide if they feel the need. This facility is particularly appreciated by such species as Bob White, harlequin and rain quail.

In general it is not good avicultural practice to mix species, although with experience and foreknowledge large mixed aviaries can successfully be maintained. In mixing species there is always a risk of inter-species aggression. There is also the danger of the transmission of infectious disease from a species that is relatively resistant and a latent carrier of a pathogen to a species that is much more susceptible (e.g. turkeys can be latent carriers of Histomonas, to which other species are more susceptible).

Jungle fowl usually mix well with any of the pheasants, and most pheasants and the blue and California quail are safe with arboreal Passeriformes. In contrast, bobwhite quail, Japanese quail and partridges are not safe with any other birds. The Chukar partridge will even attack larger species. The male green peafowl is a particularly aggressive bird which not only attacks other birds but also mammals and even humans, using its spurs with devastating effect. In some species the male birds are not safe even to members of their own species, especially to the chicks when the cock bird is in breeding condition. This applies to blue, Californian and Chinese painted quail, and also to the monal pheasants. The cock silver pheasant will try to fight through the wire of an adjoining aviary, and some monogamous grouse will even attack the female bird if the two are confined in too small an aviary. Breeding pairs of some species need to be housed out of sight and sound of similar pairs. In contrast to these aggressive species, all species of guinea fowl do much better if kept in family groups. 

The diet provided for captive birds should be as near to their natural diet as possible. However, apart from the domesticated species (domestic chickens, turkeys and, to some extent, guinea fowl, quail and reared pheasants and partridge) for which commercial diets at various age ranges, etc. are available, little scientifically based information is documented. Much of the following data is derived from the practical experience of aviculturists (Woolham 1987) and the staff of the North of England Zoological Society. For Galliformes the following general principles apply:

1. Birds should not be overfed. Obese birds do not breed. Captive grouse species do better if the diet has plenty of roughage during the winter nonbreeding period. 2. Protein needs to be increased during the breeding season and for growing chicks, then gradually reduced. 3. Any changes to the diet should be made gradually, since all birds tend only to accept food that they recognize. 4. Commercial poultry foods containing coccidiostats may upset the caecal autochronous flora of some species for which they were not designed, and may even prove toxic.

For instance, in the wild, Chukar partridge and grouse will take many kinds of invertebrates such as small snails, slugs and earthworms, and the larvae or pupa of a variety of insects. As the chick grows it gradually changes from a protein-dominated diet to one containing more energy-producing constituents, which again reduces as the bird reaches adult weight.

As an alternative to live food, some aviculturists use cottage cheese or hard-boiled egg for growing chicks.

The following give an indication of suitable diets for more specific groups of Galliformes.

Diet A -suitable for adult pheasants, monals, guinea fowl, wild turkeys, jungle fowl and peafowl Equal parts of cereal grains composed of wheat, maize, corn and barley together with game bird pellets. It is probably best to feed late in the day and let the birds actively search the ground for food early in the day. Some green food such as spinach, cabbage, lettuce, diced carrot, dandelion leaves, clover, chickweed, chives and wild berries (e.g. rowan and bilberry) should be included.

Four parts of plain canary seed (i.e. mixed millet), four parts of chick starter crumbs, three parts of wheat, three parts of split or kibbled maize (i.e. corn) and one part groats (i.e. crushed oats). Some fresh green food such as cress, spinach leaves and a little lettuce should also be included. A vitamin-mineral supplement manufactured for avian species should also be given.

This diet can also be used for Chukar and red-legged partridge, francolins and peacock pheasants if some live food and wild berries (when available) are added. Live food, either by itself or mixed with a commercial live food substitute (e.g. Nekton Products), can be used. Suitable live food includes mealworms reared on a bran diet, wax moth larvae (these are soft bodied and easily digestible), crickets, locusts and fruit flies. Note that both mealworms and maggots pupate and eventually produce adult insects and, if maggots are fed to birds kept inside, the flies will infest the building. Maggots are probably best avoided because of the danger of botulism, especially if they have been cultured on carcasses. If they are used, let the maggots pupate and then feed the pupae to the birds; however, it may take birds some time to recognize these pupae as food.

Three parts of each of canary seed, yellow millet, white millet and panicum millet. Green food and a vitaminmineral supplement should be included as in Diet B.

This diet is also suitable for the Roul Roul partridge if some mixed fruit (for example, four parts diced pear or apple together with three parts sliced tomato and one part sliced grape) is included. Live food should also be provided as in Diet B.

All these birds feed almost entirely on fairly coarse vegetation. They can be fed on branches of willow and birch (catkins and leaves), raspberry plants (leaves and berries), grass, berries, fresh vegetables, fruit (apple), spinach, lettuce and cucumber. A little grain (e.g. oats) or commercial game bird pellets can be added.

All species need an adequate supply of mixed composition grit of a size suitable for the particular species concerned. This should regularly be completely changed, as the birds tend to select the parts they require. Mixed grit should be composed of limestone chips, oyster shell and cuttlefish bone.

Unlike pheasants and partridge, grouse for game shooting cannot be reared and subsequently successfully released onto the moor. Numbers of grouse for shooting have to be encouraged by the management of their natural habitat. Red grouse feed predominantly on heather (Calluna vulgaris and Erica spp.), but will also eat the shoots and flower heads of other plants and the berries of bilberry (Vaccinium spp.). The flower heads of cotton grass (Eriophorum spp.), which is really a sedge and not a grass, are particularly important for the egg-laying female bird, as the plant contains twice the amount of crude digestible protein as heather.

To encourage the new growth of heather for the grouse to feed on, controlled burning of the plant takes place in the late winter or early spring. The top growth is burnt off, leaving the root stock unharmed. The heather is fired in strips approximately 40 m wide, and this is carried out on a 12-15-year cycle so that a patchwork of varying growth is produced. Fresh nutritious shoots are produced in the spring, whilst taller stands of heather are left for cover in which the grouse can nest. Mammals, especially sheep, carry ticks (Ixodes ricinus), and these arthropods carry louping ill virus, which affects both sheep and grouse. The population density of ticks varies regionally, and is affected by moisture, temperature and the underlying vegetation. In some regions louping ill in grouse can be reduced by vaccinating the sheep. In other areas the ticks are maintained at too high a density by feeding on deer, hares and other small mammals.

Another important factor affecting the numbers of grouse on the moor is predation. Predators have traditionally been controlled by gamekeepers, but this activity is now limited in the UK by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Principal among the predators is the fox, the numbers of which tend to be influenced by the availability of rabbits. The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) is also an important predator, as is the occasional hen harrier (Circus eyaneus). Both bird species are fully protected by law in the UK.

Grouse numbers are influenced by the nematode Trichostrongylus tenuis, which infects the birds' caeca and can prove fatal in heavy infections -or at least reduce fertility in female birds. Heavily parasitized birds are also more liable to predation. Survival of the parasite is favoured by warm, moist conditions, and its numbers tend to rise as the grouse population increases. The larvae of the worm crawl up the heather plants and are ingested by the grouse.

In conclusion, it can be appreciated that the numbers of grouse on the moor can be affected by a complex web of influences. These include the many single-interest human activity groups such as sheep farmers, foresters, deer stalkers, hill walkers, bird protection societies interested in the protection of falcons and hen harriers and, of course, the gamekeepers.

During the nineteenth century large numbers of grey partridge (Perdrix perdrix) were shot as game birds on big private estates in the UK, and hand rearing of some birds occurred up to the beginning of the Second World War. However, with the reduction in the numbers of gamekeepers employed together with the legal restrictions of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (amended by the Countryside and Rights of Way (CRoW) Act 2000 in England & Wales and the Nature Conservation -Scotland -Act 2004), there has been a consequent increase in the numbers of natural predators such as foxes, stoats, weasels and aerial raptors. This change has occurred simultaneously with changes in farming practice, such as the removal of hedgerows and the marginal land surrounding arable crops, and the intensive use of selective herbicides to control weeds -which has at the same time reduced insect food suitable for partridge chicks. Furthermore, all types of insect life have been reduced by the use of pesticides on crops. The net result is fewer and less-suitable cover and nesting sites for partridge, with little, if any, insect larvae for growing chicks.

Grey partridge are not an easy species to rear in captivity and release successfully. On the other hand, the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is in some ways less vulnerable to these changes and easier to hand rear. The chicks are much less dependent on insect food from the time of hatching, and will eat grass and search for weed seeds. Red-legged partridge hens will lay two separate clutches of eggs, one of which she will incubate whilst her mate, the cock bird, simultaneously incubates the second clutch. Productivity is therefore doubled. In the wild, however, red-legged partridge are not so good at hiding their nests, so they are more susceptible to predation. Up until 1992, red-legged partridge were crossed with the related Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and the hybrids were very successfully released; however, this practice has now been stopped because it was having a detrimental effect on wild-bred red-legged partridge.

Undoubtedly the most important game bird to be hand reared in large numbers is the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). These birds can be reared intensively using the techniques of the commercial poultry industry, with artificial incubators and large hatchers dealing with up to 1500 eggs at a time. The newly hatched chicks can then be placed in heated brooders and gradually given access to outside runs. They are subsequently placed in release pens at 6-7 weeks, where they can familiarize themselves with the surrounding habitat. Eventually the birds are released into suitable woodland and game crops. Throughout this period the chicks will be fed on a variety of commercially developed diets, and some feeding often continues after release to retain birds on the estate. Many pheasants still breed in the wild on shooting estates, particularly where farming practices are such that suitable cover for nesting birds is provided and the ground living predators controlled, and where modern farming procedures have not devastated the insect life.

A suitable balance between hand-reared and wildbred birds has to be maintained, as evidence suggests that artificially reared birds are not so viable for the following reasons:

1. Truly wild birds are more alert and will react quicker to predators. 2. Wild birds take and survive better on a greater range of wild foods. 3. Hand-reared birds are less resistant to the parasite Heterakis spp.

heavier and take-off flight is therefore less rapid and at a shallower angle.

In the past game birds' eggs have been incubated and hatched under bantam hens, but it has been shown that the behavioural responses to predator attack learned from the bantam hen may be inappropriate to the game bird chick; hence mortality rates were higher.

When investigating disease in all game birds, it is essential that the veterinarian takes a broad holistic view and is aware of the complexity of environmental influences on the overall health of these birds.

Most species of Galliformes are markedly sexually dimorphic, with the male having more colourful plumage, often a larger body size, a longer tail and the presence of combs or wattles. In a few species of Phasianidae, which are not so easy to distinguish, the cock birds have spurs on their legs. In guinea fowl that are not sexually dimorphic the male usually has a voice with a greater range of sound, and in the helmeted and plumed guinea fowl the appendage on the head is slightly larger. In many Old and New World quail, the sexes are similar in appearance but have behavioural differences. Most galliform chicks are not sexually dimorphic and can only be sexed, like domestic poultry, by the meticulous examination of the cloaca by a skilled technician. However, grouse chicks are distinguishable, the males being slightly larger.

Some species of Galliformes are monogamous, whilst in other species a cock bird can be kept with several hens. In some species the cock birds are particularly aggressive during the breeding season, not only to other species of birds but also to their own hen birds -particularly if they can see or hear another cock.

1. When introducing a new cock bird to an unfamiliar hen, always place the hen in the aviary first. 2. Many male birds will chase the female during normal courtship behaviour, but the female does need a sufficiently large aviary to escape if she so desires. It also may be helpful to clip the cock bird's wings. If there is a definite difference in size between male and female, the two sexes can be kept in adjoining aviaries with a connecting passage only just large enough for the hen bird to pass through. This system can be used for capercaillie.

nest on the ground but some species are tree nesters, and these should be provided with a flat wooden tray or basket containing hay, moss and dried leaves and situated approximately 1-2 m above the ground level. Typical tree-nesting species include the Congo peafowl, bronze-tailed peacock pheasant and crested argus pheasant. All nesting sites, whether in trees or on the ground, should be provided with visual security. 4. In some species, greater breeding success is achieved if the eggs are incubated artificially. Such species include the New World quail, blue quail, Californian quail, bobwhite quail and also Japanese quail from the Old World. 5. Fostering using a broody bantam or Japanese silky hen to incubate and rear the chicks is a practice used by many aviculturists when a particular species is difficult to breed in captivity. If the foster hen is sitting quietly and tight, her eggs are exchanged for those to be hatched after 3 days. Species where this technique has been used include the common pheasant, partridges (Chukar, redlegged, Roul Roul and green wood), tragopans and Palawan peacock pheasants, and grouse. 6. After the chicks have hatched and dried, they should be placed in boxes approximately 50  100 cm with a heat source so as to maintain a floor temperature of 40°C. A 150 W infrared lamp can be used. Damp cloths can be used on the sides of the box to maintain a relative humidity of 60%. Placing the chicks on towels (changed frequently) spread on the floor will help to prevent splayed legs. After 8-12 days, the chicks can be placed in a large rearing pen outside if the weather is suitable. This is best provided with a wire mesh floor to prevent slipping and splayed legs. 

The important infectious diseases of Galliformes are listed in Table 13 .3 and organized according to their presenting clinical signs. Each disease in these notes has been numbered to make cross-referencing easier.

First consider whether the problem is primarily management related or a serious epizootic disease of birds. The latter, particularly viral infection, is usually seen in birds kept in flocks through which disease can spread rapidly Rarely is any disease syndrome entirely due to a single pathogen. Often bacteria isolated and identified on a culture may not be the primary pathogen but are only secondary invaders. Usually the condition originates from a multiplicity of causes, some of which may be management related. It is essential to consider all possible predisposing factors.

Standards of hygiene are not always high, nor is prophylactic vaccination or regular systemic control of parasites always routinely carried out. However, it should be noted that current thinking by some workers is that an ongoing low level of parasitic infection may be conducive to a healthy immune system in the host.

Inadequate housing, hygiene and diet can predispose to disease.

Housing must be suitable for the species. Some species require supplementary heating in winter. Overcrowding of birds in a corner of a house in cold weather not only results in smothering but can also lead to a localized build-up of ammonia fumes, causing coryza, corneal ulceration, blindness and a predisposition to respiratory problems. Accommodation should be completely windand weather-proof. Perches must provide adequate space between perched birds, be periodically renewed and be the correct height from the ground. There should be sufficient floor space and space in the outside aviaries. Overcrowding leads to increased stress, aggression, feather picking and cannibalism, which in some cases may need to be controlled by plastic spectacles or beak clipping. Overcrowding in aviaries can also result in an unsustainable parasite load. However, in cases with low parasite levels and in otherwise healthy stock this can sometimes confer a degree of resistance to parasitism.

Before new stock is introduced the housing should be thoroughly cleaned out and disinfected and the outside aviaries sufficiently rested so they become free of living parasites or their eggs. Very many pathogens (see disease Nos. 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 12, 18, 19 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 38, 44, 45, 48, 70, 76 and 77 in Table 13 .3) are environmentally persistent in dirty wooden buildings with faeces, exudate and fomites. Water supplies and food containers easily become contaminated, particularly by some pathogens (e.g. disease Nos. 2, 4, 6, 10, 17, 22, 23, 37, 38, 52, 54 and 70) . Invertebrate vectors may help in maintaining disease in empty enclosures by either transmitting or themselves causing disease (e.g. disease Nos. 12, 15, 34, 47, 49, 66, 67, 70 and 77) . Vermin and wild free-living wild birds may carry disease, and can infect an aviary with their faeces or exudate if these are allowed to enter the bird enclosure (e.g. disease Nos. 4a, 6, 20, 23 and 39).

This must be adequate in quantity and properly balanced, particularly for the growing stage of chicks or in relation to the breeding cycle. Food should be stored properly so that it is not mouldy or contaminated with the droppings of vermin or with forage mites (note: some mycotoxins, besides being overtly poisonous, can be immunosuppressive). A sudden increase in the number of cases of visceral gout in a flock may be the result of a faulty water supply or dietary imbalance. All fresh vegetables must be adequately washed (they may be contaminated by wild bird faeces, very small minute molluscs, industrial aerial pollution, pesticides or herbicides used during cultivation). Chicks from hatching up to approximately 10 days of age Some of these chicks may be weak, not feeding properly and failing to thrive. This can be due to faulty incubation (humidity may be wrong), or they may just be genetically small. Small chicks easily get chilled (or can overheat) if in the brooder or with a bad hen. The artificial brooder ventilation may be faulty; there may be a build-up of fumes (ammonia, possibly carbon monoxide). All these predisposing causes may be presented as an E. coli or aspergillosis infection. Alternatively, poor incubator hygiene may be seen as umbilical or yolk sac infection. Chicks in this age group that fail to thrive may be affected by an acute form of runting syndrome (see disease No. 67 in Table 13 .3). Sudden death in very young quail chicks may be caused by an adenovirus (disease No. 8). Sudden death in young chicks of all species in outside aviaries could be due to spirochaetosis (disease No. 39).

These birds are also liable to Runting syndrome (disease Nos. 67 and 68), Marek's disease (disease No. 44) and Gumboro disease (disease No. 38). All these diseases are immunosuppressive, so the clinical signs may be caused by a secondary infection. Other disease problems in this age range include coccidiosis (disease No. 30), necrotic enteritis (disease Nos. 24 and 28) and infectious bronchitis (disease No. 10). Hexamitiasis can be a problem in turkey poults (disease No. 23) . The possibility of mycotoxins should always be considered.

This age group may also be affected by Marek's disease (disease No. 44), particularly if they are female birds coming up to lay. However, they are more likely to be affected by the avian sarcoma leucosis virus (disease No. 45). Pheasants in this age group are often severely affected with marble spleen disease (disease No. 29). Both candidiasis (disease No. 36) and trichomoniasis (disease No. 37) can be a problem in young growing birds, particularly turkeys, pheasants, partridge and captive grouse.

Mixing widely different taxa of birds is never a good idea because some species are much more susceptible to certain diseases, whilst others can be asymptomatic and act as latent sources of infection (e.g. disease Nos. 4, 7, 10 and 34).

Owners of backyard flocks often purchase their stock from a variety of sometimes dubious sources -markets, pet shops or poultry shows -or acquire them from friends or relations. Most of these birds will be unvaccinated, and many will be carrying parasites. Some will be sero-positive for adenoviruses and mycoplasma, and may be latent carriers of disease. All new stock should be adequately quarantined from the main flock for at least 90 days. When newly acquired chicks are all obtained from one source, a period of 30 days may sufficient.

Appropriate prophylactic vaccination is good practice, but some live vaccines may exacerbate a problem if given to birds infected with an immunosuppressive virus. A vaccine administered in the water supply may be inactivated by chlorine. The vaccine used should always be licensed for the particular species concerned.

Some diseases, particularly those transmitted by biting insects, only occur or are prevalent when the weather and/or the presence of nearby standing water is conducive to an increase in the number of insects (for instance the mosquito Simulium spp.), e.g. disease Nos 39, 47, 49, 52, 66, 67, 75 and 77.

To make differential diagnosis easier, these diseases are listed in Table 13 .3 according to their commonly presented clinical signs. Zoonotic diseases and suggested diagnostic routines for each disease are also indicated.

The following causes can be responsible for a drop in egg production and production of malformed eggs: No. 5 10. Diet -take into account the nutritional content of the diet 11. Husbandry -is the husbandry, housing, etc. satisfactory? Are stressors operative? 12. Egg stealing -always note the possibility of egg stealing, particularly in backyard flocks 13. Neoplasms and torsions -in single birds, note the possibility of neoplasms and torsion of the oviduct and other causes of egg binding.

The normal moulting process in birds

Phylogeny and classification of birds

Woolham f 1987 The handbook of aviculture