key: cord-0019352-8s2zt5o6
authors: Gurung, Arun Bahadur; Ali, Mohammad Ajmal; Lee, Joongku; Farah, Mohammad Abul; Al-Anazi, Khalid Mashay
title: Molecular docking and dynamics simulation study of bioactive compounds from Ficus carica L. with important anticancer drug targets
date: 2021-07-14
journal: PLoS One
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254035
sha: ad864e5890441cbe8e4edd4a1fad1edbe3121a9c
doc_id: 19352
cord_uid: 8s2zt5o6

Ficus carica L., commonly known as fig, has been used in traditional medicine for metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and cancer. Various bioactive compounds have been previously isolated from the leaves, fruit, and bark, which have different pharmacological properties, but the anticancer mechanisms of this plant are not known. In the current study we focused on understanding the probable mechanisms underlying the anticancer activity of F. carica plant extracts by molecular docking and dynamic simulation approaches. We evaluated the drug-likeness of the active constituents of the plant and explored its binding affinity with selected anticancer drug target receptors such as cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK-2), cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK-6), topoisomerase-I (Topo I), topoisomerase-II (Topo II), B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2). In silico toxicity studies revealed that thirteen molecules out of sixty-eight major active compounds in the plant extract have acceptable drug-like properties. Compound 37 (β-bourbonene) has a good binding affinity with the majority of drug targets, as revealed by molecular docking studies. The complexes of the lead molecules with the drug receptors were stable in terms of molecular dynamics simulation derived parameters such as root mean square deviation and radius of gyration. The top ten residues contributing significantly to the binding free energies were deciphered through analysis of molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area (MM-PBSA) and molecular mechanics generalized Born surface area (MM-GBSA). Thus, the results of our studies unravel the potential of F. carica bioactive compounds as anticancer candidate molecules against selected macromolecular receptors.

Introduction Cancer continues to be one of the major causes of death worldwide and is the second leading cause of mortality after cardiovascular diseases [1, 2] . The number of deaths from cancer around the world is estimated to increase from 7.1 million in 2002 to 11.5 million in 2030 [1] . Of the 36 different types of cancer, colorectal, lung, liver, prostate, and stomach cancers mainly affect men, whereas breast, colorectal, cervical, lung, and thyroid cancers are common among women [3] . Many conventional and modern techniques, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery, have been used for the treatment of cancer [4] . However, these techniques have many limitations, such as side effects and toxicities associated with the use of conventional chemicals for the treatment of cancer [5] . The failure of conventional chemotherapeutic approaches necessitates the discovery of new efficient drugs for the prevention and cure of this disease with minimal side effects, and plants can be an important source of these promising molecules [6] . Among natural products, plants have played a significant role in the treatment of several diseases, including cancer. It is estimated that approximately 25%-28% of all modern medicines are directly or indirectly sourced from higher plants, underlining the tremendous potential of plants that have been used for many years [7] . Furthermore, approximately 60% of anticancer drugs are derived from the plant kingdom [8] .

Ficus carica L. is an important member of the genus Ficus and belongs to the Moraceae family, which comprises over 1,400 species [9] . Specimens of F. carica are generally shrubs or small deciduous trees. The plant is commonly known as "fig" and is native to southwest Asia and the eastern Mediterranean [10] . The important harvestable product of the plant is the fruit, which is eaten both fresh and after drying. The dried fruit of the plant is a vital source of carbohydrates, organic acids, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and minerals [11, 12] . Significant amounts of polyphenols and fiber are present in both fresh and dried figs [13] . The fruits, leaves, and roots of F. carica have traditional medicinal values and have been used for the treatment of many diseases, such as respiratory (sore throats, coughs, and bronchial problems), gastrointestinal (colic, indigestion, loss of appetite, and diarrhea), cardiovascular disorders, and as an anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic remedy [14] . The fruit juice of this plant mixed with honey has anti-hemorrhagic properties. The fruits of F. carica have also been used as a mild laxative, expectorant, and diuretic in Indian medicine [15] . In addition, they are important food supplements for the treatment of diabetes. Fruit paste is also used as a pain reliever when applied to inflammation, swellings, and tumors [10] . F. carica is a rich source of various bioactive molecules, such as phenolic compounds, organic acids, phytosterols, anthocyanins, triterpenoids, coumarins, and volatile compounds, including hydrocarbons and aliphatic alcohols, which can be extracted from different parts of the plant [16, 17] .

Many previous studies have demonstrated the anticancer activity of the crude extract of F. carica. Jacob et al. synthesized silver nanoparticles using the extract of dried F. carica fruit and demonstrated a significant cytotoxic effect of the biosynthesized nanoparticles on MCF7 cell lines [18] . Ghanbari et al. (2019) studied the plausible molecular mechanisms of anticancer activity of F. carica fruit latex on human papillomavirus (HPV)-related cervical cancer cells and demonstrated that latex inhibits the growth and invasion of HPV-positive cervical cancer transformed cells with downregulation of p16 and HPV oncoproteins [19] . Boyacioglu et al. demonstrated the cytotoxicity of n-hexane extracts of the dried leaves of two fig cultivars in PC3 human prostate cancer cells [20] . Soltana et al. investigated the antitumor activity of F. carica extracts (peel, pulp, leaves, whole fruit) and latex on HCT-116 and HT-29 human colorectal cells and found that the extracts and latex have antiproliferative effects and induce apoptosis in cancer cells [21] . Purnamasari et al. examined the anticancer activity of F. carica leaf and fruit methanolic extracts using Huh7it liver cancer cells and their studies revealed a higher percentage of Huh7it apoptosis and necrosis in leaf extracts than in fruit extracts [22] . AlGhalban et al. studied the anti-cancer potential of F. carica and F. salicifolia leaf latex in MDA-MB-231 cells and demonstrated that both species significantly affect cell morphology with different molecular mechanisms of action [23] . Azami et al. investigated the anti-cancer and immunomodulatory effects of F. carica fruit latex on an array of cancer cells, including K562 leukemia cells, and showed that the latex extracts exhibited cytotoxicity and reduced lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production at lower concentrations [24] . In the present study, we have made an in silico attempt to explore the possible molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer properties of F. carica extract. We investigated the molecular interactions and binding affinities of selected phytocompounds of F. carica with six biological receptors that play key roles in cell cycle, cell growth, and DNA replication; that is, cyclin-dependent protein kinase 2 (CDK-2), cyclin-dependent protein kinase 2 (CDK-6), DNA topoisomerase I (Topo I) and II (Topo II), B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) using absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) calculations, molecular docking, binding free energy calculation, and molecular dynamics simulation.

Structural information about the bioactive compounds isolated from the leaves, fruit, and bark of F. carica was retrieved from the literature review [10] . The structures of sixty-eight major compounds of F. carica were modeled using ACD/ChemSketch 2019.1.2, and energy-optimized with Merck molecular force field 94 (MMFF94) [25] using our previously described protocol [26] . These optimized structures were used in the molecular docking studies.

The molecules were subjected to a virtual screening procedure based on Lipinski's "rule of five" filters and toxicity parameters. The physicochemical properties of the selected compounds, such as drug-likeness and toxicity, were calculated using the DataWarrior program version 4.6.1 [27] .

The three-dimensional structures of six protein receptors, CDK-2, CDK-6, Topo I, Topo II, Bcl-2, and VEGFR-2 were retrieved from the Protein Data Bank (PDB) using PDB IDs: 1DI8, 1XO2, 1T8I, 1ZXM, 2O2F, and 2OH4, respectively. The receptors were prepared for molecular docking using a previously described protocol [26] . The binding sites were defined by choosing grid boxes of suitable dimensions around the bound co-crystal ligands.

The suitability of molecular docking parameters and algorithms to reproduce the native binding poses was verified using a redocking experiment using co-crystal ligands. The Lamarckian Genetic Algorithm in AutoDock4.2 was used to execute molecular docking studies [28] with docking parameters derived from our previously described protocol [26] . In total, 50 independent docking runs were performed for each compound. Conformations were clustered by considering a root mean square deviation (RMSD) value of less than 2.0 Å. The most favorable binding pose was chosen based on the lowest free energy of binding (ΔG) and the lowest inhibition constant (K i ). The molecular interactions between the compounds and receptors were studied using LigPlot+ v 1.4.5 [29] .

Molecular dynamics simulations of the protein-ligand complexes were performed using the AMBER16 program available on ligand and receptor molecular dynamics (LARMD) (http:// chemyang.ccnu.edu.cn/ccb/server/LARMD/). The interactional binding mode (Int_mod) was considered for a 4-ns MD simulation in an explicit water model [30] . The binding free energy (ΔG bind ) was calculated using the following Eq (1):

where ΔE bind is the binding energy, TΔS sol is the solvation entropy, and TΔS conf is the conformational entropy. The entropy was derived using an empirical method [31, 32] , and the enthalpy was calculated using the MM/PB (GB) SA method [33] .

The three-dimensional structures of sixty-eight major bioactive compounds from F. carica were modeled and optimized. These optimized structures were used for virtual screening of drug-like molecules (Fig 1) . Out of a set of 68 molecules, 13 molecules were found to obey Lipinski's rule of five and were found to be non-mutagenic, non-irritant, non-tumorigenic, and without any adverse effects on reproductive health (Table 1) . A compound is considered to be orally bioactive if it follows Lipinski's rule of five, which is based on four criteria: molecular weight (MW) �500, cLogP (partition coefficient between n-octanol and water) �5, number of hydrogen bond donors (HBD) �5, and number of hydrogen bond acceptors (HBA) �10 [34] . We validated the docking protocol and algorithm before performing molecular docking studies through a redocking experiment. In all cases, a root mean square deviation (RMSD) of less than 2 Å was observed between the docked and native co-crystal positions. This suggests that the docking protocols and parameters used in this study could consistently predict the native conformations of the compounds. The selected drug-like molecules of F. carica were docked with six different target receptors, namely CDK-2, CDK-6, Topo I, Topo II, Bcl-2, and VEGFR-2 ( Table 2 ). Compound 44 was best docked to CDK-2 with ΔG of -7.03 kcal/mol and K i of 6.98 μM. LigPlot+ results, as shown in Fig 2A, indicated that compound 44 was able to establish hydrophobic interactions with CDK-2 via Val18, Ala31, Lys33, Val64, Phe80, Glu81, Asn132, Leu134, Ala144, and Asp145. Compound 59 was best docked to CDK-6 with a binding energy of -7.86 kcal/mol and K i of 1.74 μM. It formed one hydrogen bond with Lys43 and residues involved in hydrophobic interactions, including Ile19, Val27, Ala41, Phe98, Gln149, Asn150, Leu152, Ala162, and Asp163 ( Fig 2B) . Compound 37 was found to be best docked to topoisomerase-I with a binding energy of -7.92 kcal/mol and K i of 1.58 μM. It formed hydrophobic interactions with residues Ile355, Pro357, Glu356, Lys374, Arg375, Ile377, Trp416, Glu418, Asn419, Ile420, and Lys425 ( Fig 2C) . Compound 37 is also best docked to topoisomerase-II with a binding energy of -7.36 kcal/mol and K i of 4.06 μM. Hydrophobic interactions were formed via residues Ile88, Asn91, Ala92, Asn95, Phe142, Asn120, Ile125, Thr215, and Ile217 ( Fig 2D) . The best-docked compound for Bcl-2 was found to be compound 46, with a binding energy of -7.71 kcal/mol and K i of 2.24 μM. Hydrophobic interactions were established via residues Phe101, Tyr105, Asp108, Phe109, Met112, Val130, Leu134, Ala146, Phe147, and Phe150 (Fig 2E) . Compound 37 was also best docked to VEGFR-2, with a binding energy of -8.42 kcal/mol and K i of 672.49 nM. It showed good interaction with VEGFR-2 through hydrophobic interactions with residues Val846, Ala864, Val865, Lys866, Glu883, Leu887, Val897, Val912, Val914, Leu1033, Cys1043, Asp1044, and Phe1045 (Fig 2A) .

The binding modes of best docked molecules with their respective macromolecular receptors (CDK-2, CDK-6, Topo I, and Topo II, Bcl-2, and VEGFR-2) were further studied using a molecular dynamics simulation study in an aqueous system for a simulation time of 4 ns. The geometric properties of the protein-ligand complexes, such as root mean square deviation (RMSD), radius of gyration (Rg), and fraction of native contacts (Q), were calculated to examine the stability of the system. The RMSD estimates the measurement of root mean square deviation of atomic positions, which is used to determine the average distance between the atoms of superimposed structures of protein and ligand over a period of time [35] . The average RMSD of the Cα atoms of CDK-2 and heavy atoms of cmpd44 in the CDK-2_cmpd44 complex was found to be 1.559498±0.232397 Å and 0.174891±0.060711 Å, respectively (Fig 3A) . In contrast, the CDK-6_cmpd59 complex had an average RMSD of 1.740415 ±0.218868 Å for the 

Potential anticancer drug candidate molecules from Ficus carica L.

Cα atoms of CDK-6 and 0.185211±0.083988 Å for heavy atoms of cmpd59 ( Fig 3B) . The average RMSD of the Cα atoms of topoisomerase-I and heavy atoms of cmpd37 in the topoisomerase-I _cmpd37 complex were 3.116561±0.722935 Å and 0.276983±0.135451 Å, respectively, with respect to the starting structures ( Fig 3C) . In the case of the topoisomerase-II _cmpd37 complex, the average RMSD of the Cα atoms of topoisomerase-II and heavy atoms of cmpd37 were 1.972004±0.471036 Å and 0.328078±0.083054 Å, respectively (Fig 3D) . The average RMSD of the Cα atoms of Bcl-2 and heavy atoms of cmpd46 in the Bcl-2_cmpd46 complex were 2.319564±0.325168 Å and 0.689324±0.270106 Å (Fig 3E) . In contrast, the VEGFR-2_cmpd37 complex had an average RMSD of 1.690797±0.285273 Å for the Cα atoms of VEGFR-2 and 0.834802±0.161182 Å for heavy atoms of cmpd37 (Fig 3F) . Rg can be explained as the root mean square distance from each atom of the system to its center of mass [36] . Fig 4) . The Q value is an indication of the conformational dynamics and the transition states of a protein with a folding free energy barrier [37] . The Q values for CDK-2_cmpd44, CDK-6_ 

Potential anticancer drug candidate molecules from Ficus carica L.

cmpd59, topoisomerase-I_cmpd37, topoisomerase-II_cmpd37, Bcl-2_cmpd46 and VEGFR-2_ cmpd37 were found to be 0.952026±0.017649, 0.958836±0.010746, 0.944669±0.01412, 0.964054±0.008782, 0.925953±0.02119 and 0.958814±0.01329, respectively (Fig 5) . Essential dynamics (ED) or principal component analysis is considered a robust method for clustering the conformations of a protein and separating the large concerted modes of fluctuations from trajectories of MD simulations [38] . The contribution of eigenvector 1 (PC1) to the total mean square fluctuations was found to be 144.654 Å 2 (41.291%), 59.443 Å 2 (22.049%), 776.711 Å 2 (41.721%), 267.268 Å 2 (42.163%), 54.666 Å 2 (34.250%), and 142.945 Å 2 (31.644%) for CDK-2_cmp44, CDK-6_cmpd59, topoisomerase-I _cmpd37, topoisomerase-II _cmpd37, Bcl-2_cmpd46, and VEGFR-2_cmpd37, respectively (Fig 6) . Eigenvector 2 contributed to the total mean square fluctuations for CDK-2_cmp44, CDK-6_cmpd59, topoisomerase-I _cmpd37, topoisomerase-II _cmpd37, Bcl-2_cmpd46, and VEGFR-2_cmpd37 were calculated as 31.703 Å 2 (9.049%), 29.478 Å 2 (10.934%), 339.379 Å 2 (18.228%), 81.949 Å 2 (12.928%), 20.965 Å 2 (13.136%), and 68.608 Å 2 (15.188%), respectively. Eigen vector 3 (PC3) also contributed significantly to the total mean square fluctuations in CDK-2_cmp44, CDK-6_cmpd59, topoisomerase-I _cmpd37, topoisomerase-II _cmpd37, Bcl-2_cmpd46, and VEGFR-2_cmpd37 complexes with their corresponding eigenvalues of 24.848 Å 2 (7.093%), 17.462 Å 2 (6.477%), 138.529 Å 2 (46.745%), 46.745 Å 2 (7.374%), 10.422 Å 2 (6.5301%), and 41.536 Å 2 (9.195%).

The binding free energies between CDK-2 and cmpd44 (ΔPB = -7.96 kcal/mol, ΔGB = -15.95 kcal/mol), CDK-6 and cmpd59 (ΔPB = -8.74 kcal/mol, ΔGB = -16.14 kcal/mol), (Table 3 ). In all six protein-ligand complexes, the major contribution to the binding energy is the van der Waals energy component. The top ten residues contributing towards the binding interaction between CDK-2 and cmpd44 include Leu134 (-1.72 kcal/mol), Val18 (-1.52 kcal/mol), Phe80 (-1.52 kcal/mol), Phe82 (-0.84 kcal/mol), Ile10 (-0.78 kcal/mol), Ala31 (-0.78 kcal/mol), Ala144 (-0.58 kcal/mol), Lys33 (-0.56 kcal/mol), Val64 (-0.5 kcal/mol), and Leu83 (-0.37 kcal/mol) (Fig 7A) . The residues such as Val27 (-1.74 kcal/mol), Asp163 (-1.68 kcal/mol), Phe98 (-1.63 kcal/mol), Leu152 (-1.02 kcal/mol), Ala162 (-0.9 kcal/mol), Val77 (-0.64 kcal/mol), Ile19 (-0.55 kcal/mol), Lys43 (-0.52 kcal/mol), Gly20 (-0.39 kcal/mol), and Ala41 (-0.37 kcal/mol) contribute significantly to the total binding energy between CDK-6 and cmpd59 (Fig 7B) . Similarly, the top ten residues contributing towards the binding interaction between topoisomerase-I and cmpd37 include Glu418 (-1.44 kcal/mol), Lys374 (-1.33 kcal/ mol), Lys425 (-1.1 kcal/mol), Ile377 (-1.04 kcal/mol), Ile420 (-0.86 kcal/mol), Ile355 (-0.59 kcal/mol), Phe361 (-0.38 kcal/mol), Asn419 (-0.08 kcal/mol), Trp416 (-0.27 kcal/mol) and Glu356 (-0.19 kcal/mol) (Fig 7C) . In case of topoisomerase-II and cmpd37 complex, the residues such as Ile141 (-1.45 kcal/mol), Ile125 (-1.03 kcal/mol), Arg98 (-0.95 kcal/mol), Phe142 (-0.83 kcal/mol), Ser148 (-0.79 kcal/mol), Gly164 (-0.58 kcal/mol), Asp94 (-0.52 kcal/mol), 

Potential anticancer drug candidate molecules from Ficus carica L.

Ala167 (-0.44 kcal/mol), Arg162 (-0.35 kcal/mol), and Lys168 (-0.3 kcal/mol) contribute significantly to the total binding energy (Fig 7D) . The top ten residues contributing towards the binding interaction between Bcl-2 and cmpd46 include Arg143 (-1.8 kcal/mol), Tyr105 (-0.99 kcal/mol), Leu134 (-0.92 kcal/mol), Asp108 (-0.85 kcal/mol), Met112 (-0.82 kcal/mol), Phe109 (-0.73 kcal/mol), Phe101 (-0.67 kcal/mol), Ala146 (-0.50 kcal/mol), Gly142 (-0.39 kcal/mol), and Val145 (-0.14 kcal/mol) (Fig 7E) . In the case of VEGFR-2 and cmpd37 complex, the residues such as Leu887 (-1.71 kcal/mol), Glu883 (-1.18 kcal/mol), Ile886 (-1.02 kcal/mol), Phe1045 (-0.90 kcal/mol), Lys866 (-0.80 kcal/mol), Cys1043 (-0.71 kcal/mol), Val914 (-0.71 kcal/mol), Val912 (-0.59 kcal/mol), Leu880 (-0.48 kcal/mol) and Ile890 (-0.44 kcal/mol) contribute significantly to the total binding energy (Fig 7F) .

Natural products offer a significant contribution towards the treatment of several human diseases, such as cancer-the second leading cause of death worldwide after cardiovascular diseases [39] . Among the natural products are the many anticancer drugs, such as paclitaxel (brand name Taxol), that are derived from extracts of the Pacific yew tree Taxus brevifolia and camptothecin, a quinoline alkaloid isolated from the stem of the Chinese ornamental tree Camptotheca acuminate [40] . With the emergence of drug resistance in cancer and the adverse effects of conventional treatments, plant-based drugs are the best possible alternatives [39, 41] . In the present study, we explored the binding potential of bioactive compounds from F. carica with important anticancer drug targets. F. carica has been used in the traditional treatment of 

Potential anticancer drug candidate molecules from Ficus carica L. many diseases. Previous studies have demonstrated the anti-cancer properties of the crude extract of this plant, but the molecular mechanisms underlying their actions are still unclear. Because cancer is a complex disease, a single drug target approach may not be quite effective; therefore, targeting multiple receptors regulating the proliferation of cells is an ideal strategy. It has been advocated that the challenges due to intrinsic and acquired resistance to anti-cancer drugs can be mitigated through multi-target therapy approaches [42, 43] . A few examples 

of multi-target anticancer drugs are duvelisib, which is a novel oral dual inhibitor of phosphoinositide-3 kinase δ/γ [44] , and lapatinib, which is a reversible ATP-competitive inhibitor of the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinases [45] . The structure-based drug design allows the virtual selection of probable drug candidate molecules by evaluating their binding affinity with their receptors before they are tested in in vitro or in vivo conditions. In the present study, we explored the binding affinity of drug-like molecules from F. carica to macromolecular receptors such as CDK-2, CDK-6, Topo I, Topo II, Bcl-2, and VEGFR-2. CDK-2 is a serine/threonine-protein kinase that regulates the G1/S transition, initiation of DNA synthesis, and S/G2 transition [46] . Cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6), a promising target for anti-cancer therapy, is the catalytic subunit of the CDK6-cyclin D complex, which promotes G1/S cell cycle progression and negatively regulates cell differentiation [47] . Topoisomerases are ubiquitous enzymes that resolve the topological problems encountered during replication or transcription by either making a transient break in a single strand of DNA (topoisomerase-I) or by introducing transient double-strand breaks (topoisomerase-II) [48] . B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) is an anti-apoptotic protein that promotes cell proliferation, survival, and resistance to therapy by evading apoptosis [49] . Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) is a well-established target for the development of novel anticancer agents that play a key role in physiological and pathological angiogenesis, including tumor angiogenesis [50] . In our molecular docking and dynamics simulation study, β-bourbonene was found to be a common bioactive molecule interacting with the majority of the selected target proteins. The pharmacological effect of βbourbonene, a sesquiterpene, has been previously investigated in human prostate PC-3M cells and revealed that it has both anti-proliferative and apoptotic properties [51] .

Using an integrated approach of virtual screening, molecular docking, and dynamics simulation studies, we gained structural insights into possible binding modes of drug-like bioactive compounds of Ficus carica against key molecular targets that play a vital role in the pathogenesis of cancer. Compound 37 (β-Bourbonene) was found to be best docked to three targets: topoisomerase-I, topoisomerase-II, and VEGFR-2, whereas compounds 44, 46, and 59 were the best-docked compounds for CDK-2, CDK-6, and Bcl-2, respectively. These compounds may be developed into promising multi-target drug candidates that can inhibit proliferation and simultaneously induce apoptosis of cancer cells.

Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030

Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data

Global cancer statistics 2018: GLO-BOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries

Current and future approaches for effective cancer imaging and treatment

Natural compounds for cancer treatment and prevention

Plant derived substances with anti-cancer activity: from folklore to practice

Drug discovery from natural sources

Natural products as leads to anticancer drugs

Sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacers (ITSs) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) in fig cultivars

Ficus carica L.(Moraceae): Phytochemistry, traditional uses and biological activities. Evidence-Based Complement Altern Med

Effect of drying of figs (Ficus carica L.) on the contents of sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds

Internal fruit quality of figs (Ficus carica L.) in the Northern Mediterranean Region

Dried fruits: excellent in vitro and in vivo antioxidants

Handbook of medicinal herbs

Antioxidant activities and anthocyanin content of fresh fruits of common fig (Ficus carica L.)

Ficus carica L.: Metabolic and biological screening

Volatile compounds from extracts of figs of Ficus carica

Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using dried fruit extract of Ficus carica-Screening for its anticancer activity and toxicity in animal models

Biological activities of Ficus carica latex for potential therapeutics in human papillomavirus (HPV) related cervical cancers

Leaf Hexane Extracts of Two Turkish Fig (Ficus carica L.) Cultivars Show Cytotoxic Effects on a Human Prostate Cancer Cell Line

Antitumoral activity of Ficus carica L. on colorectal cancer cell lines

Anticancer activity of methanol extract of Ficus carica leaves and fruits against proliferation, apoptosis, and necrosis in Huh7it cells

Comparative anticancer activities of Ficus carica and Ficus salicifolia latex in MDA-MB-231 cells

Antitumor Activity and Immunomodulatory Effects of Ficus carica Latex

Merck molecular force field. I. Basis, form, scope, parameterization, and performance of MMFF94

Exploring the physicochemical profile and the binding patterns of selected novel anticancer Himalayan plant derived active compounds with macromolecular targets

DataWarrior: an open-source program for chemistry aware data visualization and analysis

AutoDock4 and Auto-DockTools4: Automated docking with selective receptor flexibility

LigPlot+: multiple ligand-protein interaction diagrams for drug discovery

LARMD: integration of bioinformatic resources to profile ligand-driven protein dynamics with a case on the activation of estrogen receptor

Understanding the mechanism of drug resistance due to a codon deletion in protoporphyrinogen oxidase through computational modeling

Modeling the catalysis of anti-cocaine catalytic antibody: competing reaction pathways and free energy barriers

Assessing the performance of the MM/PBSA and MM/GBSA methods. 1. The accuracy of binding free energy calculations based on molecular dynamics simulations

Lead-and drug-like compounds: the rule-of-five revolution

Significance of root-mean-square deviation in comparing three-dimensional structures of globular proteins

Radius of gyration as an indicator of protein structure compactness

Native contacts determine protein folding mechanisms in atomistic simulations

Identification of potential SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors by targeting the interface region between the spike RBD and human ACE2

Medicinal plants and cancer chemoprevention

Medicinal plants commonly used against cancer in traditional medicine formulae in Sri Lanka

Anticancer plants: A review of the active phytochemicals, applications in animal models, and regulatory aspects

Cancer drug resistance: an evolving paradigm

Drug resistance and the role of combination chemotherapy in improving patient outcomes

Duvelisib, a novel oral dual inhibitor of PI3K-δ, γ, is clinically active in advanced hematologic malignancies

Activity of the dual kinase inhibitor lapatinib (GW572016) against HER-2-overexpressing and trastuzumab-treated breast cancer cells

Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) is a key mediator for EGF-induced cell transformation mediated through the ELK4/c-Fos signaling pathway. Oncogene

Targeting CDK6 in cancer: State of the art and new insights

DNA topoisomerases as targets for anticancer drugs

Identification of a novel Bcl-2 inhibitor by ligandbased screening and investigation of its anti-Cancer effect on human breast Cancer cells

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR-2)/KDR inhibitors: medicinal chemistry perspective

β-Bourbonene attenuates proliferation and induces apoptosis of prostate cancer cells

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP-2021/154), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.