key: cord-0007850-oyzf71s3
authors: Roy, Kunal; Kar, Supratik
title: In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals
date: 2016-01-02
journal: In Silico Methods for Predicting Drug Toxicity
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3609-0_12
sha: 39aad597f477cbf702e31c5791fbe5f55e64d7bd
doc_id: 7850
cord_uid: oyzf71s3

Pharmaceuticals and their active metabolites are one of the significantly emerging environmental toxicants. The major routes of entry of pharmaceuticals into the environment are industries, hospitals, or direct disposal of unwanted or expired drugs made by the patient. The most important and distinct features of pharmaceuticals are that they are deliberately designed to have an explicit mode of action and designed to exert an effect on humans and other living systems. This distinctive feature makes pharmaceuticals and their metabolites different from other chemicals, and this necessitates the evaluation of the direct effects of pharmaceuticals in various environmental compartments as well as to living systems. In this background, the alarming situation of ecotoxicity of diverse pharmaceuticals have forced government and nongovernment regulatory authorities to recommend the application of in silico methods to provide quick information about the risk assessment and fate properties of pharmaceuticals as well as their ecological and indirect human health effects. This chapter aims to offer information regarding occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment, their persistence, environmental fate, and toxicity as well as application of in silico methods to provide information about the basic risk management and fate prediction of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Brief ideas about toxicity endpoints, available ecotoxicity databases, and expert systems employed for rapid toxicity predictions of ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals are also discussed.

A signifi cant amount of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites have been found in the various environmental compartments causing damage to the environment and hazard to the living systems. Due to an increase in application of human and veterinary medicines manyfold, pharmaceuticals and their metabolite residues have been found in rivers, sewage effl uents, streams and in surface, ground, and potable water, creating a big concern for the ecologists [ 1 ] . The primary routes of entrance of pharmaceuticals into the environment are domestic, hospital, and industrial wastes [ 2 ] . Pharmaceuticals are excreted in urine or feces as a mixture of unchanged chemicals and metabolites and enter into the environment through septic tank and sewage systems [ 1 ] . On the other hand, ecotoxicity data of pharmaceuticals are available in the literature for less than 1 % of the drugs, and only a small number of pharmaceuticals and their residues have been subjected to risk assessment employing ecotoxicological tests.

Pharmaceuticals are intentionally designed to have a specifi c mode of action and exert an effect on specifi c organs, tissues, cells, or biomolecules in humans, mammals, or other vertebrates, and many of them are persistent in the body [ 3 ] . As a consequence, when pharmaceuticals and their unaltered metabolites enter into the environment by different means, they can affect humans as well as other living species. There are many drugs whose specifi c effects or modes of action are not well known, and they often produce effects through several modes of action. These distinguished features make pharmaceuticals dissimilar from others and this is the sole reason to assess the potential acute and chronic effects of pharmaceuticals in diverse environmental compartments. It is quite apparent that the toxic effects of pharmaceuticals on diverse organisms in aquatic as well as nonaquatic environment are due to their long persistent and bio-accumulative nature [ 4 ] . In view of the serious issue of pharmaceutical toxicity to the environment, it is vital to categorize the proper source, occurrence, effects, and fate of each individual pharmaceutical product as well as to perform the risk assessment and risk management of ecotoxicological effects of the pharmaceutical chemicals and their metabolites [ 1 , 2 ] .

Antibiotics are one of the majorly used pharmaceuticals in human and veterinary medicines. The world consumption of antibiotics has risen radically in the last decade, also increasing the elimination of their metabolites in their original form. Most antibiotics are poorly metabolized after ingestion, probably resulting in a fraction of antibiotics from 25 to 75 % leaving the bodies in an unaltered form after consumption [ 5 ] . Additionally, a high percentage of the antibiotics added to the animal feed are excreted in urine or manure. In some cases, as much as 90 % of the antibiotic administered orally may pass through the animal unchanged and excreted in urine and manure. Thereafter, these antibiotics can enter surface and groundwater and be strongly adsorbed in soils and are not readily degradable [ 6 ] . Vidaver [ 7 ] estimates that 53,000 ha of fruit and vegetable plants are sprayed annually with antibiotics. For example, streptomycin and oxytetracycline are registered by the US Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) for use in plant agriculture. Utilization of transgenic plants to produce inexpensive antibiotics may also be a cause of environmental hazards due to the existence of crop residues, roots, and root exudates in the soil which can act as a continuous source of residual antibiotics to soil fauna and fl ora [ 8 ] .

While pharmaceuticals and their metabolite residues are detected in rivers, streams, sewage infl uents and effl uents, surface, Kunal Roy and Supratik Kar ground, and potable waters [ 9 ] , it may be noted that the drinking water treatment methods reduce residues, but they are incapable of removing the contaminant pharmaceuticals absolutely. According to a nationwide study of "emerging pollutants" in waters, the US Geological Survey (USGS) tested for pharmaceuticals in 139 rivers in 30 states of the USA, detecting diverse therapeutic classes of biologically active compounds [ 10 ] . The cardiovascular drug propranolol has been reported downstream from the sewage treatment plant [ 11 ] . The antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine and clofi brate are two most persistent pharmaceuticals which have been detected in the environment [ 2 ] . Major detected drugs in rivers were beta blockers (e.g., metoprolol up to 1.54 μg/l) and betasympathomimetics, estrogens (e.g., 17β-estradiol up to 0.013 μg/l) [ 12 ] , analgesic and anti-infl ammatory drugs (e.g., Diclofenac up to 1.2 μg/l) [ 13 ] , and also antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin up to 1.7 μg/l) [ 12 ] , as well as lipid-lowering agents (e.g., clofi brinic acid up to 0.2 μg/l) [ 14 ] and antiepileptic drugs (e.g., carbamazepine up to 2.1 μg/l) [ 13 ] . Presence of clofi bric acid, propylphenazone, and diclofenac has been reported in the drinking water of Berlin in the concentration range of several hundreds of nanograms per liter [ 15 ] . Paracetamol, diclofenac, and carbamazepine were monitored in drinking water in Southern France [ 16 ] , and clofi bric acid and diazepams were detected in treated drinking water in Milan, Italy [ 17 ] . Psychoactive and illicit drugs amphetamine, cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine, morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, methadone and its main metabolite 2-ethylidene-1,5dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine have been detected in surface and waste waters [ 18 ] . Schultz and Furlong found highest concentrations of antidepressant drugs venlafaxine, citalopram, and bupropion 1000 ± 400 ng/l, 90 ± 20 ng/l, and 60 ± 40 ng/l, respectively, in samples collected downstream from a water reclamation plant [ 19 ] . The maximum determined concentration of fl uoxetine was 0.099 ng/l in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effl uents in Canada [ 20 ] .

Nonprescription drugs like caffeine, cotinine, and acetaminophenone are found in samples of potable water collected near Atlanta, Georgia [ 21 ] . Tauber detected carbamazepine and gemfibrozil in drinking waters in ten cities in Canada that were examined for a 44-drug subset consisting pharmaceuticals including sulfonamides, quinolones, tetracyclines, and macrolide antibiotics [ 22 ] . Oraine and Pettigrove identifi ed and quantifi ed ibuprofen (0.93 μg/l) and ibuprofen methyl ester (4.95 μg/l) in fi nished water in alarming quantity [ 23 ] . Median concentrations of 0.02 μg/l and 0.12 μg/l were reported for ciprofl oxacin and norfl oxacin, respectively, for samples from 139 surface streams across the USA. Ciprofl oxacin in the range 0.7-124.5 μg/l was found in wastewater of a Swiss hospital [ 24 ] . Hellweger et al. [ 25 ] claimed In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals that environmental concentrations of tetracycline in surface waters are usually less than 0.11 mg/l, although higher values of up to 6.8 mg/l have been observed. Estrogens, a sex hormone, have been detected in plasticizers and preservatives, while 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) used as a component of contraceptive pills has been identifi ed in ground and tap water samples [ 26 ] .

The presence of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals and their residues into the environment has impelled the introduction of different risk assessment guidelines in the European Union by the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) and in the USA by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). According to the European Commission guideline [ 27 ] , a medicinal product for human use must be accompanied by environmental risk assessment data. The EMEA has released a guideline for the assessment of potential environmental risks in 2006 [ 28 ] . According to the US FDA guidelines for the risk assessments of human drugs, applicants have to provide an environmental assessment report when the expected concentration of the active pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is ≥1 μg/l [ 29 ] . Additionally, the FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) issued a guidance document " Guidance for Industry for the Submission of an Environmental Assessment in Human Drug Application and Supplements " in 1995 [ 30 ] . In case of veterinary medicines, environmental risk assessments have been required in the USA since about 1980 and Europe since 1997 [ 31 ] .

The need for a practical approach in gathering data on the environmental toxic effects of pharmaceuticals has been identifi ed by the European Union Commission's scientifi c committee on toxicity, ecotoxicity, and environment (CSTEE). The four classes of special environmental feature-specifi c concerns, which are stereotypically not evaluated in traditional ecotoxicity testing under EU directive 1488/94 [ 28 ] are antibiotics [resistance issue], antineoplastics [mutagenicity], sex hormones [endocrine disruption], and cardiovascular high potential hazard. Therefore, it is acknowledged that a prioritization technique needs to be developed for environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals, and this should follow the general scheme for chemicals according to the REACH guidelines [ 27 ] , where the implication of in silico methods specifically the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) method is stressed.

In this perspective, to make the information regarding ecotoxicity of diverse pharmaceuticals available, different government and nongovernment regulatory authorities are recommending the application of fast and economical in silico methods for prediction of the elementary physicochemical and fate properties of pharmaceuticals as well as their ecological and direct human health effects before they reach into market for usage. Computer-aided toxicity models allow for the effects of pharmaceuticals (physicochemical properties, toxicological activity, distribution, fate, etc.) to be easily predicted. These predictions may be obtained from the knowledge of chemical structure alone, provided that the structure can be described in two or three dimensions. Employing these methods, ecotoxicity information on pharmaceuticals may be obtained without toxicity testing, and/or even before synthesis of the compound. Therefore, use of QSAR as one of the non-experimental methods is signifi cant in order to lessen time, animal usage and cost involvement in design, development, and discovery process of drugs and/or pharmaceuticals.

There is a signifi cant lack of knowledge about the environmental fate of a huge number of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites. On the contrary, only a limited number of in silico models have been developed so far to predict the risk of pharmaceuticals to the environment. This chapter aims to provide information regarding occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their residues in the environment, their persistence, environmental fate, and toxicity as well as application of in silico methods to predict risk and fate properties of pharmaceuticals to the environment. Concise ideas about ecotoxicity endpoints, available ecotoxicity databases and expert systems employed for rapid ecotoxicity predictions of pharmaceuticals are discussed in this chapter.

Identifi cation of proper sources and routes of entry of pharmaceuticals into diverse environmental compartments is the fi rst step to get a proper view of the ecotoxicity problem due to pharmaceuticals. The most obvious and common pathways for environmental contamination of pharmaceuticals are discussed below.

(a) Urine and feces : Major and most common entry routes for pharmaceuticals into the environment are via urine and feces of the patients. Not only active ingredients, but also the metabolites are excreted through the urine and feces as many drugs are metabolized into hydrophilic compounds for excretion. The risk of these metabolites is completely different from the parent drugs in majority of cases which make the risk assessment study more critical one.

(b) Direct exposure of diagnostic compounds : Contrast media like diatrizoate, iohexol, iomeprol, and iopromide are used as diagnostic tools for capturing detailed X-ray images of soft tissues. Iodinated X-ray contrast media are highly hydrophilic substances which are extensively applied and eliminated without proper treatment; as a result they persist for a long time in the environment [ 32 ] .

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals (c) Household disposal : Either out-of-date or unwanted medicines are discarded through the sink/toilet or via waste collection, before being taken to landfi ll sites where they appear as terrestrial ecosystem contaminants. Less than 20 % users had ever been given instructions about medication dumping by a health care provider. In a study, causes for possessing unused medication were found to be due to an alteration of medication by the doctor (48.9 %), or self-discontinuation (25.8 %) [ 33 ] . The most common method of disposal was to throw unused medicines in the trash (76.5 %) or fl ush them down the drain (11.2 %) [ 33 ] .

(d) Manufacturers : According to the regulation of the Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), the active pharmaceutical emissions during manufacturing have been thought to be insignifi cant. But recently it has been found that in Asian countries concentrations up to several milligrams per liter can be found in effl uents for single compounds [ 34 ] .

(e) Hospital infl uent and effl uent : Point sources such as hospital effl uents are likely to be another signifi cant source. There are up to 16 pharmaceuticals including antiepileptics and antiinfl ammatories which were found in the hospital waste water according to a study [ 35 ] . Several studies suggested the existence of the pharmaceuticals in the effl uent and infl uent of the sewage treatment plants and it was proved that the elimination of the pharmaceuticals is partial [ 35 ] .

(f) Animal husbandry and veterinary medicine : Veterinary medicines and their metabolites are also excreted through urine and feces. Apart from the potential for direct soil contamination, there is also the risk of run-off with heavy rain, thus potentially contaminating both the surrounding surface and groundwater. Other sources include direct application in aqua farming, manure run-off, run-off from the application of sewage sludge and manure on farmland as fertilizers, or, fi nally, via landfi ll leaching [ 36 ] .

(g) Aquaculture : Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) sludge is habitually employed as fertilizer on agricultural land which is a rich source of non-suspected drugs [ 37 ] . According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), antibiotics have been utilized in aquaculture primarily for therapeutic purposes and as prophylactic agents. Antibiotics authorized for use in aquaculture are fl orfenicol, oxytetracycline, sarafl oxacin, premix, erythromycin sulfonamides potentiated with ormethoprim, or trimethoprim [ 38 ] .

(h) Plant agriculture : Antibiotics are comprehensively employed to control bacterial diseases of plants. Streptomycin with oxytetracycline to a minor extent is very commonly used antibiotic in plant agriculture in controlling bacterial diseases of tree fruits. Primary uses are on apple, pear, and related fruit trees for the control of fi re blight caused by Erwinia amylovora . According to a report, antibiotics applied to plants account for less than 0.5 % of total antibiotic use in the USA [ 39 ]. In Fig. 1 The most concerning issue is that under the environmental conditions, these molecules can be neutral, cationic, anionic, or zwitterionic which make the risk assessment study of pharmaceuticals more diffi cult.

In Table 1 we have presented the reported concentrations of The presence of pharmaceuticals in the various waterbodies in the environment has been quite extensively studied by different research groups. Quinolones (predominantly ciprofl oxacin) and other pharmaceuticals have been detected in the effl uent of hospitals up to a low μg/l range. Another study reveals that β-lactams (including penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, monobactams, β-lactamase inhibitors) were detected in the lower μg/l range in hospital effl uent and in the infl uent of a municipal STP [ 69 ] .

NSAIDs have the higher concentrations recorded in surface water, ranging between 0.4 ng/l and 15 μg/l, diclofenac, paracetamol, and ibuprofen being the most quantitatively found [ 70 ] . Drugs like caffeine with a maximum concentration of 6 μg/l and sulfamethoxazole with 1.9 μg/l in the USA, carbamazepine up to 1.3 μg/l in Germany and in Canada, gemfi brozil up to 790 ng/l, ranitidine up to 580 ng/l, atenolol with 241 ng/l in Italy, and metformin up to 150 ng/l are detected in surface water [ 71 ] . In the effl uent of WWTP and STP, the concentrations of estrogenic compounds usually are below 50 ng/l, but there are unexpected high concentrations of estriol and 17α-estradiol (about 590 ng/l and 180 ng/l respectively) found in the USA [ 72 ] .

Antibiotics have been detected in soil in concentrations in the mg/kg range [ 73 ] . Generally, the concentrations of pharmaceuticals detected in the soils are quite low when compared with that of pharmaceuticals in water resource. According to the literature, the six most common pharmaceuticals found in soil are the antibacterials (trimethoprim, sulfadiazine, and triclosan), analgesics (ibuprofen and diclofenac) and antiepileptic (Carbamazepine). Extensive studies have detected tetracyclines and sulfonamides in liquid manure at concentrations of up to 20 and 40 mg/l, respectively. Antibiotics like virginiamycin, sarafl oxacin, tetracycline, oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, and cyclosporine A have quite slow biodegradability in soil. Tylosin disappeared soon after the application of manure. Hamscher et al. [ 74 ] detected tetracycline and chlortetracycline in 10 out of 12 soil samples. The highest average concentration of 86.2 μg/kg (0-10 cm), 198.7 μg/kg (10-20 cm), 171.7 μg/ kg (20-30 cm) tetracycline, and 4.6-7.3 μg/kg (in all three sublayers) chlortetracycline were found. Carbamazepine is the most frequent compound detected in soil among fi ve studies [ 75 ] .

Several comprehensive reports have been published on environmental concentrations of antibiotics in dust originating from a pigfattening house [ 76 ] . In a large-scale pig production, veterinary antibiotics are hugely used. This production system is represented as a considerable source of dust.

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals Pharmaceuticals may have potential adverse effects on aquatic and terrestrial organisms by directly reaching into the environment. Organisms like bacteria, fungi, and microalgae are primarily affected as antibiotics are designed to inhibit the microorganisms. Antibiotics have the potential to affect the microorganisms in sewage systems and waste water treatment plant too. The inhibition of wastewater bacteria may seriously affect organic matter degradation and nitrifi cation process which is a vital step in wastewater purifi cation and elimination of toxic ammonia [ 77 ] . Lincomycin showed signifi cant inhibition of the nitrifi cation activity [ 78 ] . Ciprofl oxacin was found to be active against Vibrio fi scheri at a concentration of 5 mg/l [ 79 ] . Thomulka and McGee [ 80 ] have performed two bioassays to evaluate the toxicity of antibiotics like novobiocin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, ampicillin, and streptomycin to Vibrio harveyi, and approximately no toxic effects were identifi ed after short incubation times where the employed endpoint was luminescence. Common receptors have been identifi ed in plants for a number of antibiotics affecting transcription and translation (tetracyclines, macrolides, lincosamides, aminoglycosides, and pleuromutilins), metabolic pathways such as folate biosynthesis (sulfonamides), chloroplast replication (fl uoroquinolones), and fatty acid biosynthesis (triclosan) [ 81 ] . Antimicrobials can affect the degradation of organic matter in large extent as well as have effects upon sediment's microbial community [ 82 ] . Strong inhibitory effects on several bacteria and diminution in the length of the hyphae of lively molds in forest soil have been observed when antibiotics are added in concentrations of 10 mg/kg soil. A transitory effect on sulfate reduction was detected when antibiotics were mixed to sediment [ 83 ] . Allergic risks may arise from the high exposure of antibiotics dust particle in the air. Tylosin and sulfamethazine, which occurred in 80 % and 65 % of the samples respectively, are drugs with known allergic potential. Therefore, the high incidence of the asthma disease occurred among children living on farms. A survey on dust in pig fattening buildings in Europe exposed an average concentration of inhalable airborne dust of 2.2 mg/m 3 [ 84 ] . Chloramphenicol is extensively employed in farming resulting in severe hazardous effects including myelosuppression to farmers; that is why it was totally banned for food-producing animals within the EU and the USA in 1994 [ 85 ] .

Another important aspect is the emergence of resistance due to enormous application of antibiotics in human medicine, veterinary medicine, and animal husbandry. Resistance is one of the most concerning issue in medical fi eld due to its accumulating and accelerating nature. On the contrary, the techniques combating resistance are diminishing in power and number. Antibiotics in sub-inhibitory concentrations can have an infl uence on cell Cleuvers [ 45 ] evaluated that acute toxicities of NSAIDs were relatively low, with half-maximal effective concentration (EC 50 ) values obtained using Daphnia in the range from 68 to 166 mg/l and from 72 to 626 mg/l in the algal test. With EC 50 values of 23.6 mg/l (ibuprofen), 23.8 mg/l (diclofenac), and 38.2 mg/l (naproxen), chronic ecotoxicity was somewhat higher, but still the values are far above the concentrations detected in surface water. A prominent confi rmation of diclofenac residues in dead cattle has been observed in Pakistan [ 87 ] . Only in Germany, in 2002, 93.5 million prescriptions for NSAIDs were made with a transaction volume of about 1562 million Euros [ 88 ]. Due to higher usage and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, analgesics and anti-infl ammatory drugs can reach considerable (up to >1 μg/l) concentrations in the environment. Few NSAIDs are detected in very low doses even in drinking water. Reports suggested the presence a concerning amount of diclofenac and ibuprofen in Swiss lakes and rivers, as well as in water bodies from the UK, Spain, Brazil, Greece, and the USA [ 15 ] .

Diclofenac seems to be the compound having the highest acute toxicity with the effective concentrations below 100 mg/l within the class of NSAIDs. Short-term acute toxicity was analyzed in algae and invertebrates, phytoplankton was found to react more sensitively . Water fl ea Daphnia magna population growth rate was considerably reduced for concentrations ranging from 0 to 80 mg/l due to chronic toxicity of ibuprofen. Acute toxicity tests showed that naproxen had LC 50 and EC 50 values within the 1-100 mg/l range for the water fl ea Ceriodaphnia dubia , the rotifer Brachionus calycifl orus , and the fairy shrimp Thamnocephalus platyurus . But the most sensitive reported species was D. magna for which EC 50 values were 30.1 or 50 mg/l. Another most commonly prescribed NSAID is paracetamol which is present in concentration below to 20 ng/l to 4.3 μg/l in STP effl uents; in surface waters, the values can reach 78.17 μg/l, which are values higher than the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of 9.2 μg/l [ 3 ] . Hence, paracetamol might represent a threat for nontarget organisms.

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals Statins have the capability to subdue synthesis of the juvenile hormone in insects and may also produce detrimental effect to protozoan parasites, inhibiting growth and development. Reports suggested that a proliferation of peroxisomes in rodent livers is caused by fi brates. Embryonic development of nontarget organisms that share these receptors can be stopped by simply inhibiting cellular differentiation. Fibrates present in the micromolar concentration range are suffi cient to cause it in zebrafi sh ( Danio rerio ) and amphibians [ 3 ] . Quinn et al.

[ 91 ] classifi ed gemfi brozil as toxic (EC 50 between 1 and 10 mg/l) and bezafi brate as harmful for nontarget organisms (EC 50 between 10 and 100 mg/l).

Clofi brate is classifi ed as harmful to aquatic organisms as it showed LC 50 values in the range of 7.7-39.7 mg/l. The fi sh Gambusia holbrooki [LC 50 (96 h) = 7.7 mg/l] seems to be the most sensitive organism to acute clofi brate concentrations [ 92 ] . Clofi brate has an immunosuppressive action in mammalian hosts, suppressing the production of IgM but not IgE antibodies, allowing an amplifi ed number of encysted larvae of the nematodes T. spiralis and Trichinella nelsoni to occur and a decrease in the rate of exclusion of adult worms from the intestines, although the effects differed between parasite species and host strain [ 93 ] . . Clofi brate was observed to produce no effect on in vitro growth of T. bruceii but did reduce the incidence of P. berghei and the invasiveness and development of Acanthomoeba culbertsoni in exposed mammalian hosts [ 95 ] . Lovastatin hinders the egg production of the trematode S. mansoni and subsequently there is a decline in pathogenic granulomas typically associated with the eggs in the mammalian liver [ 96 ].

Beta-blockers act by competitive inhibition of beta-adrenergic receptors which is critical for normal functioning in the sympathetic branch of the vertebrate autonomic nervous system. Among beta-blockers, propranolol shows the highest acute toxicity and highest log K ow which proves the fact that it is a strong membrane stabilizer than other examined beta-blockers [ 97 ] . Undefi ned antagonists such as propranolol may be active in fi sh as they contain β 2 -receptors in heart and liver as well as in reproductive tissues [ 98 ] . There is a prominent evidence that propranolol not only has chronic cardiovascular toxicity, but also has toxic effect on reproduction system. The NOEC and lowest-observed-effectconcentration (LOEC) of propranolol affecting reproduction in C. dubia were 125 and 250 μg/l, and reproduction was affected after 27 days of exposure in H. azteca at 100 μg/l [ 97 ].

Beta-blockers may also affect parasite functional biology. Aqueous exposure of propranolol may negatively affect swimming behavior, survival, and phototaxis of free living aquatic stages of trematodes. Propranolol may also considerably decrease the number of Dirofi laria immitis nematode larvae capable of fi nishing third-stage molt, and in vitro prevent the growth of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum [ 99 ] . Fathead minnows exposed to atenolol throughout embryo-larval growth showed NOEC and LOEC values for growth rate of 3.2 mg/l and 10 mg/l, respectively [ 3 ] . At 48-h exposure to propranolol, LC 50 values of 29.8, 1.6, and 0.8 mg/l were obtained for H. azteca , D. magna , and C. dubia , respectively, while acute exposure to nadolol did not affect the survival of the invertebrates [ 3 ] . Encystment of the protozoan Entamoeba invadens was inhibited in the presence of metoprolol [ 100 ].

Antineoplastic drugs are designed to kill the proliferating cells in cancer. As a consequence, a parallel effect can be expected on normally growing eukaryotic organisms. It is expected that antineoplastic drugs possess mutagenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, and fetotoxic properties, and 14-53 % of the administered drugs can be excreted in unchanged form through urine [ In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals most acute toxic human pharmaceutical with toxicity ranging from EC 50 (48 h, alga) = 0.024 mg/l to LC 50 (48 h) = 2 mg/l so far [ 2 ]. Sertraline exhibits highly toxic properties to rainbow trout (LC 50 of 0.38 mg/l) at a 96-h exposure [ 109 ] . SSRIs were also tested on algae by evaluating the growth inhibition induced. Chronic toxicity tests proved that the organisms were sensitive with NOEC values below 1 mg/l [ 110 ]. C. vulgaris was shown to be the least sensitive species for all SSRIs tested. Fluvoxamine provided escalation to the highest EC 50 values for all algae species tested (3563-10,208 μg/l).

Under the category of benzodiazepines, diazepam and nitrazepam were identifi ed to increase the number of microfi lariae of Setavia cervi liberated from the lungs into the peripheral blood circulation in rats [ 111 ] . Caffeine was found to stimulate the growth of Plasmodium gallinaceum and P. falciparum , while the antipsychotic haloperidol and the mood stabilizer valproic acid effectively inhibited the in vitro growth of T. gondii [ 112 ] . Diazepam and carbamazepine (antiepileptics) are classifi ed as potentially detrimental to aquatic organisms as most of the acute toxicity data are below 100 mg/l. Conventional toxicity studies showed chronic toxicity of carbamazepine in C. dubia [NOEC Sex hormones are one of the extremely important biologically active compounds emerged as most serious aquatic environmental toxicants due to extensive use of human contraceptives. Exposure of mammalian hosts infected with the blood trematode S. mansoni to contraceptive pills resulted in a noteworthy modifi cation in a range of liver cell's ultrastructure and function. Ethinylestradiol (EE2) is a synthetic estrogen found in oral contraceptive pills with noticeable estrogenic effects in fi sh. The life-cycle exposure of fathead minnows to EE2 concentrations below 1 ng/l produced a noteworthy decline in fertilization success, an increased egg production and decreased expression of secondary male sex characteristics. Life-long exposure of zebrafi sh to 5 ng/l to EE2 has led to reproductive failure due to the nonexistence of secondary male sex characteristics [ 63 ] . Exposure to 17β-estradiol caused an increased susceptibility to the protozoan T. gondii in mice, while increased pathology occurred in mammals infected with Leishmania mexicana amazonensis and exposed to either estradiol or testosterone [ 114 ] . Estradiol increased the susceptibility of cyprinids to hemofl agellates by the suppression of lymphocyte proliferation [ 115 ] . At relatively high concentrations, hydrocortisone can cause an increase in the intensity of ectoparasitic infections in fi sh.

A study was performed on farms in the UK and the report suggested that concentrations of antiparasitic compounds of 0.112 mg/kg (doramectin) to 1.85 (ivermectin) mg/kg in dung were found. On the contrary, in same place, concentrations of these drugs in soil were considerably lower up to 0.046 mg/kg [ 116 ] . In a study performed in Slovenia, it was found that high concentrations of abamectin and doramectin were found in feces (0.2-0.8 mg/kg and 0.4-1.2 mg/kg, respectively) during the fi rst 20 days after treatment, reaching concentrations of about 0.2 mg/ kg after 70 and 50 days, respectively [ 117 ] . Grønvold et al. [ 118 ] found that ivermectin and fenbendazole affect the survival of the nematode Pristionchus maupasi at concentrations higher than 3 mg dung/kg (w/w) and 10-20 mg dung/kg, respectively. Svendsen et al. [ 119 ] showed that ivermectin and the fenbendazole did not affect earthworms. However, the disappearance of dung was affected by the avermectin but not by the fenbendazole. . Tamifl u tablet largely dominated Relenza (disk inhaler) due to its relative ease of administration. Tamifl u is a prodrug, which is converted to the active drug oseltamivir carboxylate (OC) in the liver. About 80 % of an oral dose of Tamifl u is excreted as OC in the urine and the remaining portions are excreted as OP in the feces. Therefore, both the parent chemical and its bioactive metabolite eventually are projected to reach a mean of 2-12 mg/l in WWTPs during a moderate and severe pandemic [ 122 ] . Current evidences suggested that rivers receiving WWTP effl uent would also be exposed to OC throughout a pandemic. The OC concentrations between 293 and 480 ng/l have been recorded in rivers receiving WWTP effl uent during the 2009 pandemic [ 123 ] .

Pharmaceuticals are identifi ed as multicomponent mixtures rather than isolated pure substance in diverse environmental compartments. Majority of pharmaceuticals will either be transformed by physical and chemical means and/or subsequently biotransformed

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals 264 by some organisms. Multicomponent mixtures are the foremost concerning issue for the ecotoxicity. The following characteristics also make their joint toxic effects a major issue for hazard and risk assessment:

1. The toxicity of a mixture has always a synergistic effect than the effects produced by a single component.

A mixture can have a substantial ecotoxicity, even if all components exist only in low concentrations that do not aggravate noteworthy toxic effects if acting separately on the exposed systems.

A combination of fl uoxetine and clofi bric acid is lethal for more than 50 % of a water-fl ea ( Daphnia ) population after an exposure of 6 days, although the individual drugs did not show any signifi cant effect when present separately at same concentrations [ 124 ] . A substantial swing in sex ratio was perceived after an exposure to a three-component mixture of erythromycin, triclosan, and trimethoprim. Again, individual components did not elicit significant individual effects. These studies are very important to show that mixture effects have to be taken into consideration to identify the effects of pharmaceuticals.

Exposure assessment is the procedure of determining or assessing the intensity, frequency, and extent of environment and human exposure to an existing pharmaceutical product, or of estimating theoretical exposure that might rise from the discharge of new pharmaceuticals into the environment. The concept of "exposomics," which integrates a top-down and bottom-up approach to identifi cation of relevant exposure biomarkers, will be an important component of future exposure science [ 125 ] . The major aims of environmental risk assessment (ERA) should be risk mitigation and risk management. In order to alleviate or accept risks, a risk assessment has to be performed both for products and for activities followed by generation of report based on the characteristics of the product, its possible environmental exposure, fate and effects, and risk extenuation strategies. The inference of the report should be based on sound scientifi c reasoning supported by adequate studies. If other applicable data are accessible, they should also be submitted.

The outline of the registration process and the ERA consist of European Commission and Council directives and regulations on registration, European policy, case law, and global (trade) agreements. The decision-making process and the risk models should elevate the expenses to society in terms of ecotoxicity and fi nancial loss. Also the assessment method itself should obstruct neither product development nor timely action to eradicate hazards.

The most commonly employed approaches for risk assessment are hazard identifi cation, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization of pharmaceuticals and its metabolites in various environment compartment [ 126 ] .

The fi rst step for risk assessment is hazard identifi cation which supports the intensity of risk for a particular product. Although in vitro test studies provide useful data on the toxicity of environmental hazards, the majority of scientists rely heavily on the outcome of animal toxicity tests for hazard identifi cation. As a consequence, a greater stress should be provided on the implication of in vitro assays in human cells and QSAR analysis, as well as the use of computational techniques in systems biology [ 127 ] .

Identifi cation of the threshold dose of the toxic effect of any product is very much essential for scientifi c risk assessment. Doseresponse information over a wide range of test concentrations should be assessed employing Quantitative high throughput screening (q-HTS). There should be availability of sensitive assays capable of detecting toxicity at very low doses or below environmental levels experienced by human populations. Statistical approaches can be used to estimate yardstick concentrations for adaptive and adversarial responses and to assess critical concentrations [ 128 ] . As discussed in subheading "Hazard Identifi cation", the extrapolation techniques will be required to interpret in vitro test results to in vivo utilizing an appropriate internal tissue dose metric [ 129 ] .

The major problems of risk assessment are low-dose and interspecies extrapolation. In silico models and expert systems have supported such extrapolations, including linear and threshold models for low-dose extrapolation and body weight or surface area alterations for interspecies extrapolation. New extrapolation complications are dose extrapolation of molecular and cellular pathway responses, and extrapolation from the short-term in vitro to longer term in vivo exposure. In vitro to in vivo extrapolation and physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models are amenable to sensitivity, variability, and uncertainty analysis employing conventional tools [ 130 ] . Computational biology systems will back the application of tools for determining variability and uncertainty from the pharmacologically based pharmacokinetics (PBPK) information as the pathway components imitate more targeted molecular elements and their interactions [ 131 ] .

In present scenario, human exposure assessment is made principally on the measured levels of environmental agents in the human environment [ 132 ] . In few cases, internal dose measures may also be calculated using biomonitoring [ 133 ] or pharmacokinetic modeling [ 134 ] . For superior exposure assessment, the focus should be

Hazard Identifi cation Dose-Response Assessment

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals more on direct measures of critical toxicity pathway agitations in humans by employing innovative biomonitoring techniques coupled with advanced new high throughput approaches [ 135 ] . The risk assessment model consists of the risk assessment process, including their harmonization and communication with the risk management process. The risk model interprets the safety issues in quantities like probabilities, concentrations, dosages, and risk quotients of each pharmaceutical product. The simplest approaches to estimating concentrations of a pharmaceutical in diverse compartments are provided in the guidance for environmental assessments for regulatory drug approvals by the US FDA [ 30 ] or the EU EMA [ 28 ] . In Fig. 2 , the risk assessment is harmonized with risk management process.

Before designing or modeling a toxicological study, it is very benefi cial to assess exposure of any pharmaceutical by the following way [ 136 ] :

• The exposure is measured in form of the environmental concentration (occurrence) to which the biological system is exposed, the duration and frequency being not on the concentrations to which each individual is actually exposed. The actual exposure is subjected to many other factors such as, the fate, sorption effects, metabolism and transformation processes.

The life stage and behavioral patterns should also be taken into account for any organism or living system. The bioavailability and toxicokinetics of the drug are studied.

The pathways and target sites in the biological system are explored.

• The mode of action which depicts steps and processes to molecular and functional effects is determined.

• As pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics can infl uence the dose of pharmaceuticals, one has to consider these aspects to assess the dose which ultimately reaches the environment taking into account possible absorption, distribution, and elimination mechanisms.

The hazard due to the inherent toxicity of the pharmaceutical according to its chemical properties is also studied.

Risk management is "the process of identifying, evaluating, selecting, and implementing actions to reduce risk to human health and to ecosystems. The goal of risk management is scientifi cally sound, cost-effective, integrated actions that reduce or prevent risks while taking into account social, cultural, ethical, political, and legal considerations" [ 137 ] . For eco-friendly risk management, one may select a combination of apposite tactics to balance risks, costs and benefi ts, taking into account social values and economic considerations.

The application of pharmaceuticals and their after use toxic effects cannot be stopped but the probable risk of pharmaceutical products related to environmental can be controlled by implementing proper precaution and safety measures. The EMEA 2006 guideline demonstrates following steps as safety measures for risk management: To diminish the occurrence of pharmaceuticals into the different compartments of the environment, one has to follow the principle of sustainability where the entire life cycle of a pharmaceutical has to be taken into consideration to categorize the opportunities for risk management. For diminishing the input of pharmaceuticals into the environment, following steps can employed effectively [ 138 ] . The most important step to reduce the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment is proper training and awareness of users who are the major source points. A proper usage and disposal of pharmaceutical is the responsibility of the shareholders and people using the compounds, including patients, doctors and nurses, and pharmacists. Industrial sectors should have the major role to treat the failed active pharmaceutical under quality control category properly before it reach to the environment. Additionally, each pharmaceutical product should consist of materials safety data sheet (MSDS) intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with procedures for handling or working with that substance in a safe manner, information such as physical data, toxicity, health effects, fi rst aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures. Appropriate and effective risk management strategies need basic knowledge of entry routes of pharmaceuticals. Therefore, one has to identify the bulk of drug fl ows connected with the diverse sources of pharmaceuticals such as households, industries, hospitals and pharmacy.

The most technical and extensively considered approach for risk management is improvement of sewage treatment. Analyzing Table 1 , one can easily identify the presence of threatening amount of pharmaceutical wastes after sewage and waste water treatment also. The purpose of advanced and improved sewage and waste water treatment is to further reduce the ecotoxicity, hormonal effects and pathogenic effects of the effl uent. In recent years, advanced effl uent treatment has been studied extensively. The advanced treatment of sewage infl uents and effl uents as well as waste water treatment can be done employing photochemical oxidation processes, fi ltration, and application of powdered charcoal and constructed wetlands [ 139 ] .

The third approach is evolving from the knowledge of green and sustainable pharmacy which states that substitution of the compound with a more environmentally benign compound [ 138 ] . Though this approach is less practiced, in terms of sustainability, it appears to be the most encouraging one in the long run. The prime principle of green chemistry is easy and fast degradability of pharmaceuticals after their application. Understanding of full life cycle of drugs will lead to a different understanding of the functionality necessary for a pharmaceutical. Additionally, other crucial issues like (a) development of improved drug delivery systems so that lower doses are required; (b) upgradation of packaging and package sizes to prolong shelf life and lessen the amount of the product that expires and rejection of unused products; and (c) changes in prescription and animal farming practices are substantial options for minimizing or 

Immense exposure of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites to the environment is a matter of concern and a burning global issue at recent times. The risk effects are not only related with the environment, it is also directly related to human health to a large extent. As a consequence, release of these pharmaceutical products, their risk assessment as well as risk management are controlled and regulated at local, national and international levels by different governments and regulatory agencies worldwide. As experimental data of environmental fate and toxicity of pharmaceuticals are absent or some time not suffi cient, there is a strong urge to predict physical and chemical properties, environmental fate, ecological effects and health effects of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites. Several In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals government organizations have been applying the approaches of structure-activity relationship (SAR) and QSAR to develop the predictions for untested existing as well as newly introduced pharmaceuticals. To establish proper identifi cation of environmental hazards, their risk assessment and fate modeling, SAR and QSAR approaches along with other predictive in silico tools are employed by Australian, Canadian, Danish, European, German, Japanese, Dutch, and US Government organizations [ 28 , 30 , 140 -144 ] .

QSAR models can be generated for prediction of the following ecotoxicity related properties or effects : 9. Construction of effi cient interspecies models to extrapolate data from one species to another species when data of a particular species is absent. Global regulatory authorities and agencies [ 28 , 30 , 140 -144 ] for the risk identifi cation, risk assessment and fi nally risk management of ecotoxicity pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 2 .

• Physical-chemical properties : Most commonly evaluated properties are melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, octanol-water partition coeffi cient, organic carbon-water partition coeffi cient, and water solubility. Table 2 Global regulatory bodies and agencies for the hazard and risk assessment of ecotoxicity pharmaceuticals Regulatory agencies Note EMEA (European agency for the evaluation of medicinal products) The EMEA has prepared a draft guideline for the environmental risk assessment of human medicinal products. It demonstrates the scope and legal basis for risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and outlines the general considerations and the recommended step-wise procedure for their risk assessment. As the risks cannot be excluded completely, this guideline outlines precautionary and safety measures to be considered. The guideline is based on the risk assessment paradigms for industrial chemicals and biocides, but it also considers the specifi c features of pharmaceuticals, e.g., the use of available pharmacological information. Previously environmental risk assessments were mainly based on acute ecotoxicity data, but in recent times EMEA draft has proposed to include pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data for environmental risk assessment. Such an approach is presently also taken within the European Union project ERA Pharm.

The phased approach in the environmental risk assessment by EMEA is divided into three different Phases: 1. Phase I: Pre-screening and estimation of exposure based only on the drug substance, irrespective of its route of administration, pharmaceutical form, metabolism and excretion.

Screening and initial prediction of risk. In this phase, all relevant data should be taken into account, e.g., data on physical-chemical properties, primary and secondary pharmacodynamics, toxicology, metabolism, excretion, degradability, and persistence of the drug substance and/or relevant metabolites.

Extended and substance and compartment-specifi c risk assessment . At the end of Tier B, information from the refi ned data set is available comprising information on route(s) of excretion; and qualitative and quantitative information on excreted compounds, and possibly additional long-term toxicity data EU-CSTEE (European Union Commission's scientifi c committee on toxicity, ecotoxicity and environment) The CSTEE identifi ed the need for a proactive approach in obtaining data on the environmental effects of pharmaceuticals.

Thus, it is recognized that a prioritization procedure needs to be developed for environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals, and that this should follow the general scheme for chemicals described in the White Paper for the EU chemicals policy, i.e., REACH guideline, where the uses of QSTRs are stressed. QSTR is the fi rst step in gaining more general knowledge on the risk assessment issue as an alternative to non-animal method. In contrast to the amount of analytical data, information about the ecotoxicological effects of drug residues is scrubby. To create a broader basis for the evaluation of the ecotoxicological relevance of pharmaceutical compounds, proper documentation of their effects and the reason should be identifi ed. In addition, the Organization for Pharmaceutical Safety and Research (OPSR) conducted compliance reviews on application data. This was followed by the integration of the aforementioned Evaluation Center, OPSR, and part of the Medical Devices Center to form a new independent administrative organization, the Pharmaceutical and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA). The MHLW and PMDA handle a wide range of activities from clinical studies to approval reviews, reviews throughout post-marketing stage, and pharmaceutical safety measures. 

Agency) The AEA applies the latest methodologies to environmental risk assessment. It advises clients on the environmental hazards and potential risks associated with the production, use, and disposal of chemicals. AEA has undertaken extensive reports for the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPaC), particularly with respect to their environmental assessments performed on new and existing agricultural and veterinary chemicals for the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Authority (APVMA), and industrial chemicals for the National Industrial Chemicals Notifi cation and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS). OECD's database on risk assessment models :

In silico models that are employed by the OECD countries to predict health or environmental hazards, exposure potential, and probable effects were organized into a searchable database. This database is intended as an information resource only. The models are listed by countries and by the property or effect included. The models can be useful as a screening tool, when there is a lacking of chemical-specifi c data, for establishing priorities for chemical assessment and for identifying issues of potential concern [ 140 ] . Areas of assessment and category of information for predicting human health and environment according to OECD's guidelines are represented in Figs. 4 and 5 , respectively. 

The toxic potential of large quantities of industrial chemicals including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, pesticides and other synthetic or semisynthetic chemicals is often required to be assessed by using standard animal models, comprising the basic test protocol for risk assessments for their approval as a registered product to launch into the market. With increasing concern about the environmental pollution and human health, the manufacture, storage, distribution, and release of these hazardous substances after their application to the environment are controlled and regulated at various levels by different governments and regulatory agencies worldwide. Applications of analogues, SAR and QSAR of different pharmaceuticals are also providing useful information in a regulatory decision making context in the absence of experimental data [ 140 ] . Most commonly employed predictive in silico tools are depicted in Fig. 6 .

Among the available in silico predictive models for ecotoxicity, majority of the models are constructed employing QSAR techniques. Therefore, in this book chapter, a special importance is given to the discussion of QSAR models. The QSAR approach

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals attempts to correlate structural/molecular properties with biological activities/toxicities, for a set of compounds by means of statistical methods. As a result, a simple mathematical relationship is established:

Biological activity or toxicity chemical structure or property = ( f ) ).

Applications of QSAR can be extended to any molecular design purpose, prediction of different kinds of biological activities and toxicities, lead compound optimization, classifi cation, diagnosis, and elucidation of mechanisms of drug action, toxicity prediction of environmental toxicants (pollutant pharmaceuticals, chemicals, gas, etc.), and prediction of drug-induced toxicity [ 145 ] . The major objective of structure-activity/toxicity relationship modeling is to investigate and identify the decisive factors for the measured activity/toxicity for a particular system, in order to have an insight of the mechanism and behavior of the studied system. For such a purpose, the employed strategy is to generate a mathematical model that connects experimental measures with a set of chemical descriptors determined from the molecular structure for a set of compounds. The derived model should have as good predictive capabilities as possible to predict the studied biological/toxicological or physicochemical behavior for new compounds. The factors governing the events in a biological system are represented by a 

Additionally, the development of 3D-QSAR models includes two more steps for their successful execution: conformation analysis of the molecules and their alignment status with respect to the most active compound. The most important feature for an acceptable and reliable QSAR model is predictive capability for new set of compounds. The predictive quality of the developed model is determined based on different validation statistics. Thus, validation of QSAR models plays the most crucial role in defi ning the applicability of the QSAR model for the prediction of untested compounds. Initially, verifi cation of the correlation between chemical features of the molecules and the biological activity/toxicity was of prime interest during the development of a QSAR model. Later, the focus gradually shifted toward the predictive power of the model than simply unveiling the quantitative relationships [ 146 ] .

To validate a QSAR model, one has to follow OECD principles for acceptable predictions in order to make the model as a reliable screening tool for future toxicity prediction of untested pharmaceuticals. A meeting of QSAR experts held in Setúbal, Portugal in March 2002 reported guidelines for the validation of QSAR models for regulatory purposes. The OECD principles were agreed by OECD member countries, QSAR and regulatory communities at the 37th Joint Meeting of the Chemicals Committee and Working Party on Chemicals, Pesticides and Biotechnology in November 2004. These principles are listed here: Principle 1: a defi ned endpoint; Principle 2: an unambiguous algorithm; Principle 3: a defi ned domain of applicability; Principle 4: appropriate measures of goodness-of fi t, robustness, and predictivity; Principle 5: a mechanistic interpretation, if possible [ 147 ] . Different quality metrics for QSAR models can be categorized into two classes: one determining the fi tting ability of the model while the other analyzing the predictive potential of the developed model [ 146 ] .

The 3R concept represents three words "Reduction," "Replacement," and "Refi nement". The concept brought about an imperative notifi cation about animal experimentation in the scientifi c communities. The word 'Reduction' refers to the diminution in number of animals used to get results of a defi ned precision. Next, 'Replacement' corresponds to the use of nonliving resources to replace conscious living higher animals, and 'Refi nement' means decline in the severity or cruelty of inhuman methodologies applied to the experimental animals [ 148 ] . As a consequence, to establish the 3R concept, in silico techniques are one of the front runners.

There are different social as well as governmental organizations that consider reduction or complete ban of animal experimentations [ 149 ] . Here, we have listed a few of them: 6. India and Israel have also banned animal testing for cosmetic products, while the USA has no such ban in place [ 151 ] .

7. China is the only major market where testing all cosmetics on animals is required by law, and foreign companies distributing their products to China must also have them tested on animals. [ 152 ] China has announced that its animal testing requirement will be waived for shampoo, perfume, and other so-called "non-special use cosmetics" manufactured by Chinese companies after June 2014. "Special use cosmetics," including hair regrowth, hair removal, dye and permanent wave products, antiperspirant, and sunscreen, will continue to warrant mandatory animal testing.

SARs and QSARs are employed to predict aquatic toxicity, physical or chemical properties, and environmental fate parameters as well as to predict specifi c health effects of organic chemicals by Australian, Canadian, Danish, European, German, Japanese, Dutch, and US Government organizations.

Acceptable toxicity data of pharmaceuticals to environment and human health is considerably less than 5 % [ 153 ] . Computer-aided prediction has the competency to assist in the prioritization of pharmaceuticals for testing, and for predicting specifi c toxicities to allow for classifi cation. As the number of reliable models for toxicity predictions is increasing, they can be employed as one of the major sources for fi lling the missing data of pharmaceutical toxicity to ecosystem.

In the modeling of acute toxicological endpoints, much has been gained regarding mechanisms of action. For many modeling approaches, it may be assumed that compounds fi tting the same QSAR are acting by the same mechanism of action. This has allowed workers to defi ne the chemical domain of certain mechanisms. There are countless examples where knowledge of biology and chemistry has been advanced by modeling in the fi eld of toxicological and fate effects [ 154 ] .

Toxicity study is very costly in terms of the animals employed for testing and time taken. Even a simple ecotoxicological assay may cost several thousand dollars, and a 2-year carcinogenicity assay may cost several million dollars. Cost is a clear issue to fi ll the data gaps for the many new compounds that have not been tested. On the other hand, prediction of various toxicity endpoints for pharmaceuticals at an early stage of design can save a large amount of expenses for such compounds which may be found toxic at a later stage of drug development program [ 155 ] .

The development of computational techniques not only allows for the prediction of the potential risk of pharmaceuticals but also allows for rational direction to be given to the testing programs.

Kar and Roy [ 156 ] have constructed robust quantitative interspecies toxicity correlation models for Daphnia magna and fi sh evaluating the ecotoxicity of structurally diverse 77 pharmaceuticals. They have demonstrated that the keto group and the (aasC) fragment are principally responsible for higher toxicity of pharmaceuticals to D. magna . On the other hand, for fi sh toxicity, along with the keto group, structural fragments like X=C=X, R-C(=X)-X, and 

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals R-C≡X are largely responsible for the toxicity. The interspecies models were also used to predict fi sh toxicities of 59 pharmaceuticals (for which Daphnia toxicities were present) and Daphnia toxicities of 30 pharmaceuticals (for which fi sh toxicities were present). They established that the interspecies correlation study would permit an improved and inclusive risk assessment of pharmaceuticals for which toxicity data was missing for a particular endpoint.

Das et al. [ 157 ] attempted to develop interspecies correlation models taking rodent toxicity as dependent variable so that any drug without reported rodent toxicity can be predicted using fi sh, daphnia, or algae toxicity data which can be further extrapolated to human toxicity. Interspecies extrapolation QSAR models were developed employing multiple validation strategies. Analyzing the models, the authors concluded that heteroatom atom count and charge distribution were signifi cant determinants of the rodent toxicity, and that the atom level log P contributions of various structural fragments and various extended topochemical atom (ETA) indices refl ecting electronic information and branching pattern of molecules were important determinants for the rodent toxicity. In addition, from interspecies aquatic toxicity modeling, it was established that apart from the algae toxicity, atom level log P contributions of different fragments, charge distribution, shape, and ETA parameters were important in describing the daphnia and fi sh toxicities in the interspecies correlation models with algae toxicity. The toxicity of chemicals to rodents bears minimum interspecies correlation with other mentioned nonvertebrate and vertebrate toxicity endpoints.

The acute toxicity was predicted (>92 %) using a generic quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) model developed by Sanderson and Thomsen [ 158 ] suggesting a narcotic mechanism of action (MOA) of 275 pharmaceuticals. An analysis of model prediction error suggests that 68 % of the pharmaceuticals have a nonspecifi c MOA. Authors have compared the measured effect data to the predicted effect concentrations using ECOSAR regarding the predictability of ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals and accurate hazard categorization relative to Global Harmonized System (GHS). Molecules were predicted using the model resulting in 71 % algae, 74 % daphnia, 83 % fi sh datasets that could be compared.

Escher et al. [ 159 ] constructed QSAR models with the total toxic potential of mixtures of the β -blockers and related human metabolites for the phytotoxicity endpoint. They have assumed two scenarios for this study. In the fi rst scenario, the metabolites lose their explicit activity and act as baseline toxicants. In the second scenario, the metabolites reveal the identical specifi c mode of action like their parent drug. β-Blockers are secondary amines and are, therefore, fully protonated at environmental pH. The authors accounted for their positive charge in the QSAR analysis and have experimentally determined the liposome-water partition ratios at pH 7 to make QSAR analysis more robust.

Berninger and Brooks [ 160 ] considered the mammalian Acute to Therapeutic Ratio (ATR) to predict pharmaceuticals which may result in comparatively high Acute to Chronic Ration (ACR) in fi sh models. The authors identifi ed a statistically signifi cant relationship between mammalian ATRs and fi sh ACRs ( p < 0.001, r 2 = 0.846). In this model, they only included chronic responses of fi sh to pharmaceuticals which appear to have been elicited through a therapeutic MOA for calculating ACRs and for statistical analysis of the relationship with mammalian ATRs. Utilizing this approach, mammalian ATR values can be used for predicting pharmaceuticals with higher fi sh ACRs if the chronic response used in ACR calculation is reasonably linked to the therapeutic MOA of a pharmaceutical.

Sanderson et al. [ 161 ] employed the US EPA generic aquatic (Q)SAR model ECOSAR to screen more than 2800 pharmaceuticals and provided a baseline to fi ll the screening data regarding parent pharmaceuticals environmental toxicity. The model can be used to predict both acute and chronic aquatic toxicity.

Sanderson and Thomsen [ 162 ] overestimated the toxicity for 70 % of the 59 pharmaceuticals by ECOSAR v3.20 which contains both measured and modeled data. For the remaining 30 % pharmaceuticals, more than 94 % of the predictions underestimated toxicity by less than a factor of 10. This is an indication that a narcosis based model is conservative relative to experimental values around 70 % of the time, thus implying that for at least 70 % of the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), the acute mode of action (MOA) can be elucidated by baseline toxicity. The authors have observed determination coeffi cients ( r 2 ) ranging from 0.73 to 0.76 between all the modeled Log EC 50 and Log K ow . The slopes of the Log EC 50 -Log K ow regressions based on measured data from the USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) database for both fi sh and daphnia equal −0.86 which suggest a narcotic MOA.

Lienert et al. [ 163 ] assessed the ecotoxicological risk potential of 42 pharmaceuticals from 22 therapeutic classes, including metabolites formed in humans. They considered each parent drug and its metabolites as a mixture of equally acting compounds, and in case when effect data were missing, they estimated these with QSAR models. They have collected data on the identity and excretion pathways of human metabolites and, where available, experimental ecotoxicity data (EC/LC 50 ) from pharmaceutical compilations and from diverse literature sources. They have compiled physicochemical data like structure, molecular weight, octanol-water partition coeffi cient K ow , acidity constant p K a mainly from the Physical Properties Database ( http://www.syrres.com/ esc/physprop.htm ). Moreover, they have generated a risk quotient (RQ mixture ) using simple predictions of drug concentrations in wastewater which can be useful for risk assessment of pharmaceuticals.

Christen et al. [ 164 ] developed VirtualTox Lab [ 165 ] to predict the effects of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic system. The study leads to the inference that the mode of action perception is most appropriate for the identifi cation of highly active compounds (HC). As suggested by the authors, modifi cation can be done by balancing this concept by the QSAR model (VirtualTox Lab), whereas the fi sh plasma model seemed to be less apposite due to the requirement of environmental concentration above 10 ng/l for the identifi cation of a risk. The practice of the VirtualTox Lab will support the mode of action concept and may be benefi cial to recognize surplus targets of the pharmaceutical to assess the ecotoxicity.

Escher et al. [ 166 ] predicted baseline toxicity of the 100 molecules using established QSARs for algae, daphnia, and fi sh. The QSARs were selected from the Technical Guidance Document of the EU. The logarithm of D lipw (liposome water distribution coeffi cient) was employed in the model development for baseline toxicity to calculate the toxicity of the compound towards the stated species.

The environmental risk assessment of 26 pharmaceuticals and personal care products have been performed by De García et al. [ 167 ] based on the ecotoxicity values generated by bioluminescence and respirometry assays. Then the compounds were classifi ed following the Globally Harmonized System of Classifi cation and Labelling of Chemicals by predictions using the US EPA ecological structure-activity relationship (ECOSAR™). The real risk of impact of these pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and in the aquatic environment was predicted according to the criteria of the European Medicines Agency. According to their studies, in at least two ecotoxicity tests, 65.4 % of the PPCPs showed prominent toxicity to aquatic organisms. There study showed some type of risk for the aquatic environments and/or for the activated sludge of WWTPs for pharmaceuticals like acetaminophen, ciprofl oxacin, clarithromycin, clofi brate, ibuprofen, omeprazole, triclosan, parabens, and 1,4-benzoquinone.

Here we have discussed available in silico models on ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals. Due to the limited availability of the in silico models on ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals, there is a need to develop more in silico models in order to reduce time and cost involvement as well as reduction of animal usage in getting relevant data and for better and fast risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. It is not possible to experimentally study toxic effects of each pharmaceutical in different species. Most active pharmaceutical ingredients have available rodent toxicity information. As a result, if this data could be extrapolated or modeled to different other species, this would be a noteworthy resource for prioritization of pharmaceuticals with regards to diverse environment hazards. However, very limited papers have been published on interspecies models to predict environmental toxicity for pharmaceuticals, and there are relatively few statistical models available to bridge the chronic toxicity data information gap [ 168 , 169 ] .

Toxicity of a molecule should be assayed on specifi c toxicity endpoints for the generation of data which are employed commonly to develop in silico models. This why a clear concept is required about the endpoints or test batteries as they are employed for the experimental toxicity studies and for understanding the mode of toxicity with respect to that particular endpoint [ 110 ] . We list the most commonly employed endpoints for this purpose in Table 3 .

A good quality of ecotoxicological data of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites is required for the development of accurate and reproducible in silico models. A signifi cant number of chemical/ drug/agrochemical/pesticide toxicity databases towards environment are publicly accessible, and such numbers are growing. But one cannot deny that the existing databases are very few compared to drug discovery compound libraries. Recent initiatives requiring superior use of in silico technologies have called for transparency and expansion of toxicity database information that is available to the public at no cost. Table 4 represents publicly available toxicity databases describing environmental as well as human health effects of pharmaceuticals useful in risk assessment, risk management, safety evaluation, and hazard characterization.

Expert systems allow for the direct entry of a structure into software followed by the calculation or prediction without the requirement to compute descriptors and re-perform the modeling process. This makes expert system a more convenient option for toxicity prediction over traditional QSARs. Expert systems have been frequently employed by regulatory agencies, academia and industries worldwide for more effi cient and fast prediction. The foremost criterion of toxicity prediction is to differentiate between toxicologically active and inactive molecules. Multiple mechanisms can lead to the identical toxic effect and this intricacy requires the In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals Table 3 Most commonly employed test batteries (endpoints) for the modeling of ecotoxicity Endpoints

Algae

Chlorella is a unicellular green alga comprising a major component of the phytoplankton.

subcapitata ( Selenastrum capricornutum ) One of the prime producers of the aquatic ecosystem and ideal test organisms for toxicological studies.

Ecotoxicity is measured by growth rate inhibition of green alga P. subcapitata .

Scenedesmus obliquus (Chlorophyta, Chlorococcales) is a common cosmopolitan green alga, often occurring as almost a pure culture in fresh water plankton. It can grow in industrial wastewaters of different origins showing good adaptation ability and it is a very versatile microalga as a test battery.

A green alga of the Chlorophyceae. It is colonial and non-motile. The species has been used in the prediction of photoinduced toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by in silico modelers. Also, Predictive modeling studies has been performed for the ecotoxicity of ionic liquids (ILs) towards the Scenedesmus vacuolatus .

A gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Escherichia. E. coli is frequently used as a model organism in microbiology and modeling studies.

A g ram-negative rod-shaped bacterium found globally in marine environments which has bioluminescent properties and is found predominantly in symbiosis with various marine animals. Predominantly employed in the research of microbial bioluminescence , quorum sensing , and bacterial-animal symbiosis.

and Vibrio natriegens They are good model systems for studying marine biofouling.

Crustaceans Daphnia magna Daphnia are members of the order Cladocera , and are one of the small aquatic crustaceans commonly called water fl eas . These invertebrate species in aquatic food webs have been used as a representative test species for ecotoxicological evaluation of industrial chemicals. Generally, immobilization test is done by Daphnia.

Small crustaceans employed as a biological species for ecological toxicity testing of chemicals.

Duckweed Lemna minor L. minor , one form of aquatic vascular plant, is most commonly used among duckweeds for in silico models. Growth inhibition tests of duckweeds are used to identify the chemical toxicity.

Lemna gibba is used in testing the phytotoxicity of pesticides and other environmental chemicals to higher plants. Zebrafi sh ( Danio rerio ) Zebrafi sh plays an important role in ecotoxicology as a prominent model vertebrate. It is standardized under the OECD and is employed to test chemicals, pharmaceuticals as well as industrial effl uents.

Fathead minnow ( Pimephales promelas ) Pimephales promelas is the EPA recommended vertebrate species for freshwater chronic toxicity tests. In these tests, larvae are exposed for 7 days to different concentrations of effl uent or to receiving water. Test results are based on the survival and weight of the larvae. As the fathead minnow is fairly tolerant of harsh conditions, it can be found in bodies of water that may be uninhabitable to other fi sh, such as waste drainage sites. It has also been studied to investigate the effects of these waste materials on the aquatic life. Effects induced by progestins are largely studied employing Fathead minnow.

(continued)

In Silico Models for Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals Human malignant melanoma (Fem-X) Not so popular, but recently used by group of authors to derive QSAR models.

HT-29 HT-29 is a human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line with epithelial morphology. These cells are sensitive to the chemotherapeutic drugs used in standard treatment for colorectal cancer.

Rat cell line-IPC-81 Promyelotic leukemia rat cell line IPC-81 is frequently used in cytotoxicity assays of ILs.

Free-living unicellular ciliate d protozoa and one of the largely employed endpoint for the assessment of the environmental toxicity.

Tadpoles Bufo vulgaris formosus Rana japonica (Japanese brown frog) Tadpoles, a common and sensitive species, the larva of the frogs. They are typical amphibious animals bridging the gap between aquatic and terrestrial animals. They are recurrently used for toxicity testing purposes and risk assessments and have been recommended by the EU-TGD.

One form of budding yeast and one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology . Small in size, accessible, reproduction time quick, and potentially economic. Considered as important species for ecotoxicity prediction.

Portrayal Table 3 (continued) accessibility of predictive tools that are able to discriminate manifold regions in the activity space. This necessitates the development of so-called expert systems, which try to cover broader structural and activity regions in comparison to the local models. Table 5 summarizes different freely available and commercial expert systems to predict endpoints related toxicity predictions.

The role of green chemistry and principles are very important for risk management of pharmaceuticals. The principles of green chemistry state that the functionality of a chemical should not only comprise the properties of a chemical essential for its application, but also quick and trouble free degradability after its usage. Improvement of synthesis and renewable feedstock are very important issues for preparation of environment friendly pharmaceuticals. Employing these principles and the awareness of green chemistry to pharmaceuticals are necessary [ 138 ] . In this perspective, a system called "benign by design" can be considered which means easy degradability after application is considered even before a pharmaceutical's synthesis. This approach is not completely new. For instance, it is a general practice during the development of pharmaceuticals that adverse side effects are to be taken into consideration. This can also result in economic rewards in the long run and will fi t into green pharmacy [ 170 ] . But one has to note that a pharmaceutical may also lose its specifi c therapeutic action due to the structural modifi cation while introducing green chemistry. However, this approach can be employed at least for the optimized and new synthesis routes [ 170 ] . Again, it is true that fi nding good lead compounds is a major task even without considering the environment toxicity issue. However, there is no requirement to fi nd a new lead compound at fi rst. The modifi cation of known lead structures can be the best option to do. Responding to the green and justifi able pharmacy challenge may also result in new marketing opportunities with help of appropriate and scientifi c research within industry and academia.

A huge number of reports and publications have been published in the last decade about the ecotoxicity due to human and veterinary pharmaceuticals, but it is still too meager to permit us to execute a systematic and precise risk assessment and appropriate risk management. There is still a huge need of fi lling the missing data gaps in our knowledge. Due to biologically active and persistence nature of pharmaceuticals, they are one of the most serious threats to http://www.ibmh.msk.ru SARETbase and SARETmodel are used as computer programs for computation of descriptors. SARETbase includes the information on more than 190 characteristics for 8500 substances: chemical structure, physicochemical properties (density, boiling and melting points, partition coeffi cients of octanol-water, etc.), adverse effect doses and concentrations for acute and chronic exposure. The SARETmodel is prepared for statistical analysis of data and calculation of unknown parameters of substances on the basis of (Q)SARs. The application of SARET provides the information essential to assess the hazard of chemicals and to approximate their unknown characteristics. Marketed by LMC University "As Zlatarov," Bourgas, Bulgaria TIMES-SS is a hybrid expert system which can encode structure toxicity and structure metabolism relationships through a number of transformations simulating skin metabolism and interaction of the generated reactive metabolites with skin proteins. The skin metabolism simulator mimics metabolism using 2D structural information. The covalent reactions with proteins are described by 47 alerting groups. human health and environment stability. Additionally, their specifi c modes of action and specific effects on living systems make pharmaceuticals distinctly different from other chemicals. This sole feature is suffi cient reason to assess the potential effects of pharmaceuticals in diverse environmental compartments. The problem is more horrifying as the occurrence level of pharmaceuticals in different environmental compartments is largely varied. The variations in drug occurrences from country to country and also within the different regions of a country make the assessment of pharmaceuticals a troublesome job for the environmental scientist. The interactions between pharmaceuticals and natural stressors of aquatic and terrestrial communities remain to be unexplained. Along with that, the proper risk assessment of mixtures of pharmaceutical products is another area where more introspection is required in present times. In this book chapter, the hazardous effects of the most common therapeutic classes of pharmaceutical to the living ecosystems and environment are discussed. Furthermore, specifi c information on the sources, fate, and effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment and their possible negative impact on different ecosystems are explored. There is a lack of suffi cient information and scientifi c data on effects of long-term exposure to nontarget organisms. It is also important to assess the presence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites and transformation products in several environmental compartments. One can fi nd only a few reports on the quantitative effects of pharmaceuticals, but the effects of metabolites are not suffi ciently explored by the scientifi c community. One has to accept that the identifi cation of risk assessment and management are not suffi cient if they are not properly implemented in right way. In these perspectives, the major role should be played by government authorities and agencies by implementing various guidelines and rules for the reduction of toxicity of pharmaceuticals to the environment.

Scarcity of adequate ecotoxicity data related to the diverse classes of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites has stalled appropriate computational modeling and development of expert systems. As a consequence, there are only a very limited number of models developed so far for the risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites as well as for the pharmaceutical mixtures. Hence, a suffi cient number of models should be developed to address the risk assessment and risk management in an effi cient way by minimizing the requirement of time, animal testing and cost. This will also help in gathering the ecotoxicity data as soon as a new pharmaceutical product comes to the market. In this perspective, expert systems are more reliable and results may be easily available in no time. There is a need of more expert systems for prediction of toxicity of pharmaceuticals from diverse classes of therapeutic actions and their metabolites against different endpoints. It is true 

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Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment

Occurrence, sources, and fate of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environment and soil

Application of advanced oxidation processes to doxycycline and norfl oxacin removal from water

Antibiotic use in agriculture and its impact on the terrestrial environment

Uses of antimicrobials in plant agriculture

Environmental antimicrobial contamination from terraccumulation and diffuse pollution pathways

Determination of neutral pharmaceuticals in wastewater and rivers by liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change?

Distribution of natural and synthetic estrogenic steroid hormones in water samples from southern and middle Germany

Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers

Occurrence and fate of fl uoroquinolone, macrolide, and sulphonamide antibiotics during wastewater treatment and in ambient waters in Switzerland

Tracking persistent pharmaceutical residues from municipal sewage to drinking water

Consequence of wastewater disposal on the contamination of the water resource by pharmaceuticals in a Mediterranean basin

Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment

Mass spectrometric analysis of illicit drugs in wastewater and surface water

Trace analysis of antidepressant pharmaceuticals and their select degradates in aquatic matrixes by LC/ ESI/MS/MS

Distribution of acidic and neutral drugs in surface waters near sewage treatment plants in the lower Great Lakes

Presented at the Georgia Water Resources Conference

Quantitative analysis of pharmaceuticals in drinking water from ten Canadian cities

Seasonal variations in concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in drinking water and reclaimed wastewater in Southern California

that in silico techniques cannot substitute "wet" experiments but both of them can be utilized together for a better risk management of pharmaceuticals in near future

Enrofl oxacin oxidative degradation facilities by metal oxide nanoparticles

Applicability of standard antibiotic toxicity testes to the ambient aquatic environment

Pharmacodynamic activity of drugs and ecotoxicology can the two be connected?

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Are veterinary medicines causing environmental risks

Occurrence and behavior of X-ray contrast media in sewage facilities and the aquatic environment

Handling of unused prescription drugsknowledge, behaviour and attitude among Swedish people

Determination and fate of oxytetracycline and related compounds in oxytetracycline production wastewater and the receiving river

Determination of pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic classes by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis in hospital effl uent wastewaters

Test plat studies on runoff of sulfonamides from manured soil after sprinkler irrigation

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in biosolids

Responsible use of antibiotics in aquaculture. Fisheries technical paper 469

Aquatic ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals including the assessment of combination effects

Acetaminopheninduced proliferation of breast cancer cells involves estrogen receptors

Algal toxicity of antibacterial agents used in intensive farming

Ecotoxicological impact of pharmaceuticals found in treated wastewaters: study of carbamazepine, clofi bric acid, and diclofenac

Mixture toxicity of the anti-infl ammatory drugs diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen and acetylsalicylic acid

Determination of acidic drugs and caffeine in municipal wastewaters and receiving waters by gas chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceutically active compounds in the environment, a case study: Höje River in Sweden

Strategic survey of therapeutic drugs in the Rivers Po and Lambro in Northern Italy

Multi-residue analysis of steroids at sub-ng/L levels in surface and ground-waters using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry

Determination of estrogenic steroids in surface water and wastewater by liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

Effects of 17α-ethinylestradiol in a fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) gonadal recrudescence assay

Defi ning the chronic impacts of atenolol on embryo-larval development and reproduction in the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas)

Fluoxetine effects assessment on the life cycle of aquatic invertebrates

Occurrence of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in sewage and receiving waters at Spitsbergen and in Norway

Environmental assessment of Norwegian priority pharmaceuticals based on the EMEA guideline

Environmental contamination by fl uoroquinolones

Trace analysis of trimethoprim and sulfonamide, macrolide, quinolone, and tetracycline antibiotics in chlorinated drinking water using liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry

Determination of endocrine disrupting compounds and acidic drugs in water by coupling of derivatization, gas chromatography and negative-chemical ionization mass spectrometry

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceutical products and by-products, from resource to drinking water

Occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewater and sludge from wastewater treatment plants: removal and ecotoxicological impact of wastewater discharges and sludge disposal

Environmental monitoring study of selected veterinary antibiotics in animal manure and soils in Austria

Determination of persistent tetracycline residues in soil fertilized with liquid manure by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Simultaneous determination of veterinary antibiotics and hormone in broiler manure, soil and manure compost by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Antibiotics in dust originating from a pig fattening farm: a new source of health hazard for farmers?

Standardized tests fail to assess the effects of antibiotics on environmental bacteria

Biodegradability and toxicity of pharmaceuticals in biological wastewater treatment plants

Toxicity evaluation with Vibrio fi sheri test of organic chemicals used in aquaculture

Detection of biohazardous materials in water by measuring bioluminescence reduction with the marine organism Vibrio harveyi

Microcosm evaluation of the effects of an eight pharmaceutical mixture to the aquatic macrophytes Lemna gibba and Myriophyllum sibiricum

Bacterial antibiotic resistance levels in farmland as a result of treatment with pig slurry

Effects of the antibiotics oxytetracycline and tylosin on soil fauna

Concentrations and emissions of airborne dust in livestock buildings in northern Europe

Chloramphenicol toxicity

Levels of antivirals and antibiotics in the River Thames, UK, during the pandemic

Effects of pharmaceuticals on Daphnia survival, growth, and reproduction

Implications of the exposome for exposure science

Risk assessment in the Federal Government: managing the process

Toxicity testing in the 21st century: a vision and a strategy

Standardizing benchmark dose calculations to improve science-based decisions in human health assessments

In vitro to in vivo extrapolation of cell-based toxicity assay results

Integration of dosimetry, exposure, and high-throughput screening data in chemical toxicity assessment

Computational systems biology and dose-response modeling in relation to new directions in toxicity testing

Environmental Protection Agency) (2010) Exposure assessment tools and models: what is an exposure assessment?

Using biomonitoring equivalents to interpret human biomonitoring data in a public health risk context

Characterizing uncertainty and variability in physiologically based pharmacokinetic models: state of the science and needs for research and implementation

Nutritional metabolomics: progress in addressing complexity in diet and health

Mixture toxicity: linking approaches from ecological and human toxicology

Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment Risk Management (1997) Risk assessment and risk management in regulatory decision-making

Sustainable from the very beginning: rational design of molecules by life cycle engineering as an important approach for green pharmacy and green chemistry

Quantifi cation and modeling of the elimination behavior of ecologically problematic wastewater micropollutants by adsorption on powdered and granulated activated carbon

Directions in QSAR modeling for regulatory uses in OECD member countries, EU and in Russia

The EU-project ERAPharm-Incentives for the further development of guidance documents?

Aquatic ecotoxicology of selected pharmaceutical agents-algal and acute Daphnia tests

International cooperation on harmonization of the technical requirements for registration of veterinary medicinal products

History of quantitative structure-activity relationships

How to judge predictive quality of classifi cation and regression based QSAR models?

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Risk assessment for ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals-an emerging issue

Bans cosmetics with animal-tested ingredients

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Predicting chemical toxicity and fate

Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) in toxicology: a historical perspective

Predictive toxicology using QSAR: a perspective

First report on interspecies quantitative correlation of ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals

Preliminary studies on model development for rodent toxicity and its interspecies correlation with aquatic toxicities of pharmaceuticals

Comparative analysis of pharmaceuticals versus industrial chemicals acute aquatic toxicity classifi cation according to the United Nations classifi cation system for chemicals. Assessment of the (Q)SAR predictability of pharmaceuticals acute aquatic toxicity and their predominant acute toxic mode-of-action

Comparative ecotoxicological hazard assessment of beta-blockers and their human metabolites using a mode-of-action-based test battery and a QSTR approach

Leveraging mammalian pharmaceutical toxicology and pharmacology data to predict chronic fi sh responses to pharmaceuticals

Ranking and prioritization of environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in surface waters

Ecotoxicological quantitative structure-activity relationships for pharmaceuticals

Screening method for ecotoxicological hazard assessment of 42 pharmaceuticals considering human metabolism and excretory routes

Highly active human pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems: a concept for their identifi cation based on their mode of action

Environmental toxicology and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals from hospital wastewater

Ecotoxicity and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in aquatic environments and wastewater treatment plants

Challenges and directions for regulatory use of QSARs for predicting active pharmaceutical ingredients environmental toxicity

Can Toxicity for Different Species be Correlated? The Concept and Emerging Applications of Interspecies Quantitative StructureToxicity Relationship

The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment due to human use-present knowledge and future challenges