Human liberty


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Libertas Humana

HUMAN LIBERTY

ENCYCLICAL LETTER

POPE LEO XIII
With Discussion Club OinunE

'Gerald CTreacySJ.





HUMAN LIBERTY

Encyclical Letter

of

Pope Leo XIII

Libertas Humana

(With Discussion Club Outline
by Rev. Gerald C. Treacy9 S.J.)

*

New York
THE PAULIST PRESS
401 West 59th Street



For Discussion Club Outline

Imprimi Potest:

James P. Sweeney, S.J.,
Provincial, Maryland-New York.

Discussion Club Outline, Copyright, 1941, by

Tile Missionary Society of St. Paul the Apostle in the

State of New York

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED IN THE U. S. A.

BY THE PAULIST PRESS, NEW YORK, N. Y.

Dtacfdied



LI BERTAS HUMANA
ENCYCLICAL LETTER OF OUR HOLY FATHER

BY DIVINE PROVIDENCE

POPE LEO XIII
ON

Human Liberty
To Our Venerable Brethren, All Patriarchs, Primates,

Archbishops and Bishops of the

Catholic World,

In Grace and Communion with the Apostolic See,

POPE LEO XIII
Venerable Brethren,

Health and Apostolic Benediction

Liberty Man's Greatest Gift

1. Liberty, the highest of natural endowment, being the por-

tion only of intellectual or rational natures, confers on man this
dignity—that he is in the hand of his counsel and has power over
his actions. But the manner in which such dignity is exercised

is of the greatest moment, inasmuch as on the use that is made
of liberty the highest good and the greatest evil alike depend.

Man, indeed, is free to obey his reason, to seek moral good, and
to strive unswervingly after his last end. Yet he is free also to

turn aside to all other things; and, in pursuing the empty sem-

blance of good, to disturb rightful order and to fall headlong into

the destruction which he has voluntarily chosen. The Redeemer
of mankind, Jesus Christ, having restored and exalted the original

dignity of nature, vouchsafed special assistance to the will of

man; and by the gifts of His grace here, and the promise of
heavenly bliss hereafter, He raised it to a nobler state. In like
manner this great gift of nature has ever been, and always will

be, deservingly cherished by the Catholic Church; for to her

alone has been committed the charge of handing down to all ages
the benefits purchased for us by Jesus Christ. Yet there are

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many who imagine that the Church is hostile to human liberty.
Having a false and absurd notion as to what liberty is, either

they pervert the very idea of freedom, or they extend it at their

pleasure to many things in respect of which man cannot rightly
be regarded as free.

So-Called Modern Liberties

2. We have on other occasions, and especially in Our En-
cyclical Letter Immortale Dei

,
in treating of the so-called mod-

ern liberties
,
distinguished between their good and evil elements;

and We have shown that whatsoever is good in those liberties is
as ancient as truth itself, and that the Church has always most

willingly approved and practiced that good: but whatsoever has

been added as new is, to tell the plain truth, of a vitiated kind,
the fruit of the disorders of the age, and of an insatiate longing

after novelties. Seeing, however, that many cling so obstinately
to their own opinion in this matter as to imagine these modern
liberties, cankered as they are, to be the greatest glory of our

age, and the very basis of civil life, without which no perfect

government can be conceived, We feel it a pressing duty, for the
sake of the common good, to treat separately of this subject.

Natural Liberty

3. It is with moral liberty, whether in individuals or in com-

munities, that We proceed at once to deal. But, first of all, it
will be well to speak briefly of natural liberty; for, though it is

distinct and separate from moral liberty, natural freedom is the

fountain-head from which liberty of whatsoever kind flows, sua

vi suaque sponte. The unanimous consent and judgment of men,
which is the trusty voice of nature, recognizes this natural liberty

in those only who are endowed with intelligence or reason; and
it is by his use of this that man is rightly regarded as responsible
for his actions. For, while other animate creatures follow their

senses, seeking good and avoiding evil only by instinct, man has
reason to guide him in each and every act of his life. Reason

sees that whatever things that are held to be good upon earth,

may exist or may not, and discerning that none of them are of
necessity for us, it leaves the will free to choose what it pleases.

But man can judge of this contingency
,
as We say, only because

he has a soul that is simple, spiritual, and intellectual—a soul,
therefore, which is not produced by matter, and does not depend

[ 4 ]



on matter for its existence; but which is created immediately by

God, and, far surpassing the condition of things material, has a

life and action of its own—so that, knowing the unchangeable and
necessary reasons of what is true and good, it sees that no par-

ticular kind of good is necessary to us. When, therefore, it is

established that man’s soul is immortal and endowed with reason

and not bound up with things material, the foundation of nat-

ural liberty is at once most firmly laid.

The Church the Defender of Liberty

4. As the Catholic Church declares in the strongest terms the

simplicity, spirituality, and immortality of the soul, so with un-

equalled constancy and publicity she ever also asserts its free-

dom. These truths she has always taught, and has sustained

them as a dogma of faith; and whensoever heretics or innovators
have attacked the liberty of man, the Church has defended it and

protected this noble possession from destruction. History bears

witness to the energy with which she met the fury of the

Manicheans and others like them; and the earnestness with which

in later years she defended human liberty in the Council of Trent,
and against the followers of Jansenius, is known to all. At no
time, and in no place, has she held truce with jatalism.

Liberty Defined

5. Liberty, then, as We have said, belongs only to those who
have the gift of reason or intelligence. Considered as to its na-

ture, it is the faculty of choosing means fitted for the end pro-
posed; for he is master of his actions who can choose one thing
out of many. Now, since everything chosen as a means is viewed
as good or useful, and since good, as such, is the proper object

of our desire, it follows that freedom of choice is a property of the

will, or rather is identical with the will in so far as it has in its

action the faculty of choice. But the will cannot proceed to act
until it is enlightened by the knowledge possessed by the intel-
lect. In other words, the good wished by the will is necessarily
good in so far as it is known by the intellect; and this the more,
because in all voluntary acts choice is subsequent to a judgment

upon the truth of the good presented, declaring to which good

preference should be given. No sensible man can doubt that
judgment is an act of reason, not of the will. The end, or ob-

[5]



ject, both of the rational will and of its liberty is that good only
which is in conformity with reason.

Defects in Reason and Will

6. Since, however, both these faculties are imperfect, it is

possible, as is often seen, that the reason should propose some-

thing which is not really good, but which has the appearance of

good, and that the will should choose accordingly. For, as the

possibility of error, and actual error, are defects of the mind and
attest its imperfection, so the pursuit of what has a false ap-
pearance of good, though a proof of our freedom, just as a dis-

ease is a proof of our vitality, implies defect in human liberty.
The will also, simply because of its dependence on the reason,
no sooner desires anything contrary thereto, than it abuses its

freedom of choice and corrupts its very essence. Thus it is that
the infinitely perfect God, although supremely free, because of

the supremacy of His intellect and of His essential goodness,

nevertheless cannot choose evil; neither can the angels and saints,

who enjoy the beatific vision. St. Augustine and others urged
most admirably against the Pelagians, that, if the possibility of

deflection from good belonged to the essence or perfection of lib-

erty, then God, Jesus Christ, and the angels and saints, who have
not this power, would have no liberty at all, or would have less

liberty than man has in his state of pilgrimage and imperfection.
This subject is often discussed by the Angelic Doctor in his

demonstration that the possibility of sinning is not freedom, but

slavery. It will suffice to quote his subtle commentary on the

words of our Lord: Whosoever committeth sin is the slave of
sin .

1 “Everything,” he says, “is that which belongs to it nat-

urally. When, therefore, it acts through a power outside itself,
it does not act of itself, but through another, that is, as a slave.

But man is by nature rational. When, therefore, he acts accord-
ing to reason, he acts of himself and according to his free will;

and this is liberty. Whereas, when he sins, he acts in opposition

to reason, is moved by another, and is the victim of foreign mis-

apprehensions. Therefore, Whosoever committeth sin is the slave

of sin.” Even the heathen philosophers clearly recognized this

truth, especially they who held that the wise man alone is free;
and by the term “wise man” was meant, as is well known, the

l John viii. 34.

[ 6 ]



man trained to live in accordance with his nature, that is, in
justice and virtue.

Liberty Needs Law

7. Such then being the condition of human liberty, it neces-
sarily stands in need of light and strength to direct its actions to

good and to restrain them from evil. Without this the freedom

of our will would be our ruin. First of all there must be law]

that is, a fixed rule of teaching what is to be done and what is to

be left undone. This rule cannot affect the lower animals in any

true sense, since they act of necessity, following their natural

instinct, and cannot of themselves act in any other way. On
the other hand, as was said above, he who is free can either act
or not act, can do this or do that, as he pleases, because his judg-

ment precedes his choice. And his judgment not only decides
that is right or wrong of its own nature, but also what is prac-
tically good and therefore to be chosen, and what is practically

evil and therefore to be avoided. In other words the reason pre-

scribes to the will what it should seek after or shun, in order to

the eventual attainment of man’s last end, for the sake of which

all his actions ought to be performed. This ordination of reason

is called law. In man’s free will, therefore, or in the moral neces-

sity of our voluntary acts being in accordance with reason, lies

the very root of the necessity of law. Nothing more foolish can

be uttered or conceived than the notion that because man is free
by nature, he is therefore exempt from law. Were this the case,
it would follow that to become free we must be deprived of rea-
son; whereas the truth is that we are bound to submit to law
precisely because we are free by our very nature. For law is the
guide of man’s actions; it turns him towards good by its rewards,

and deters him from evil by its punishments.

The Natural Law

8. Foremost in this office comes the natural law
,
which is

written and engraved in the mind of every man; and this is noth-
ing but our reason, commanding us to do right and forbidding
sin. Nevertheless all prescriptions of human reason can have
force of law only inasmuch as they are the voice and the inter-

preters of some higher power on which our reason and liberty

necessarily depend. For, since the force of law consists in the

imposing of obligations and the granting of rights, authority is

[ 7 ]



the one and only foundation of all law—the power, that is, of
fixing duties and defining rights, as also of assigning the neces-

sary sanctions of reward and chastisement to each and all of its

commands. But all this, clearly, cannot be found in man, if,

as his own supreme legislator, he is to be the rule of his own
actions. It follows therefore that the law of nature is the same

thing as the eternal law
,
implanted in rational creatures, and

inclining them to their right action and end; and can be nothing

else but the eternal reason of God, the Creator and Ruler of all

the world. To this rule of action and restraint of evil God has
vouchsafed to give special and most suitable aids for strengthen-

ing and ordering the human will. The first and most excellent
of these is the power of His divine grace

,
whereby the mind can

be enlightened and the will wholesomely invigorated and moved
to the constant pursuit of moral good, so that the use of our in-

born liberty becomes at once less difficult and less dangerous.

Not that the divine assistance hinders in any way the free move-
ment of our will; just the contrary, for grace works inwardly in

man and in harmony with his natural inclinations, since it flows
from the very Creator of his mind and will, by whom all things
are moved in conformity with their nature. As the Angelic Doc-
tor points out, it is because divine grace comes from the Author

of nature, that it is so admirably adapted to be the safeguard of

all natures^ and to maintain the character, efficiency and opera-

tions of each.

Human Law

9. What has been said of the liberty of individuals is no
less applicable to them when considered as bound together in
civil society. For, what reason and the natural law do for indi-

viduals, that human law
,
promulgated for their good, does for

the citizens of States. Of the laws enacted by men, some are

concerned with what is good or bad by its very nature; and they

command men to follow after what is right and to shun what is
wrong, adding at the same time a suitable sanction. But such

laws by no means derive their origin from civil society; because

just as civil society did not create human nature, so neither can
it be said to be the author of the good which befits human na-
ture, or of the evil which is contrary to it. Laws come before
men live together in society, and have their origin in the natural,
and consequently in the eternal, law. The precepts, therefore,

[ 8 ]



of the natural law, contained bodily in the laws of men, have not

merely the force of human law, but they possess that higher and
more august sanction which belongs to the law of nature and

the eternal law. And within the sphere of this kind of laws, the
duty of the civil legislator is, mainly, to keep the community in

obedience by the adoption of a common discipline and by put-
ting restrain upon refractory and viciously inclined men, so that,

deterred from evil, they may turn to what is good, or at any rate
may avoid causing trouble and disturbance to the State. Now
there are other enactments of the civil authority, which do not

follow directly, but somewhat remotely, from the natural law,

and decide many points which the law of nature treats only in a
general and indefinite way. For instance, though nature com-

mands all to contribute to the public peace and prosperity, still
whatever belongs to the manner and circumstances, and condi-

tions under which such service is to be rendered must be deter-

mined by the wisdom of men and not by Nature herself. It is
in the constitution of these particular rules of life, suggested by
reason and prudence, and put forth by competent authority, that
human law, properly so called, consists, binding all citizens to
work together for the attainment of the common end proposed to
the community, and forbidding them to depart from this end;

and in so far as human law is in conformity with the dictates
of nature, leading to what is good, and deterring from evil.

The Eternal Law and Liberty

10. From this it is manifest that the eternal law of God is
the sole standard and rule of human liberty, not only in each
individual man, but also in the community and civil society
which men constitute when united. Therefore, the true liberty
of human society does not consist in every man doing what he
pleases, for this would simply end in turmoil and confusion, and

bring on the overthrow of the State; but rather in this, that

through the injunctions of the civil law all may more easily con-
form to the prescriptions of the eternal law. Likewise, the lib-

erty of those who are in authority does not consist in the power
to lay unreasonable and capricious commands upon their sub-
jects, which would equally be criminal and would lead to the ruin

of the commonwealth; but the binding force of human laws is
in this, that they are to be regarded as applications of the eter-

[ 9 ]



nal law, and incapable of sanctioning anything which is not con-

tained in the eternal law, as in the principle of all law. Thus
St. Augustine most wisely says: “I think that you can see, at

the same time, that there is nothing just and lawful in that tem-
poral law, unless what men have gathered from this eternal law.” 2

If, then, by any one in authority, something be sanctioned out of

conformity with the principles of right reason, and consequently

hurtful to the commonwealth, such an enactment can have no

binding force of law, as being no rule of justice, but certain to

lead men away from that good which is the very end of civil
society.

God's Law Perfects Liberty

11. Therefore, the nature of human liberty, however it be
considered, whether in individuals or in society, whether in those

who command or in those who obey, supposes the necessity of
obedience to some supreme and eternal law, which is no other

than the authority of God, commanding good and forbidding evil.
And so far from this most just authority of God over men dimin-
ishing, or even destroying their liberty, it protects and perfects

it, for the real perfection of all creatures is found in the prose-

cution and attainment of their respective ends; but the supreme

end to which human liberty must aspire is God.

Effect of Church's Teaching on Liberty

12. These precepts of the truest and highest teaching, made
known to us by the light of reason itself, the Church, instructed
by the example and doctrine of her divine Author, has ever propa-

gated and asserted; for she has ever made them the measure of
her office and of her teaching to the Christian nations. As to

morals, the laws of the Gospel not only immeasurably „ surpass

the wisdom of the heathen, but are an invitation and an intro-

duction to a state of holiness unknown to the ancients; and,
bringing man nearer to God, they make him at once the possessor
of a more perfect liberty. Thus the powerful influence of the

Church has ever been manifested in the custody and protection

of the civil and political liberty of the people. The enumera-
tion of its merits in this respect does not belong to our present

purpose. It is sufficient to recall the fact that slavery, that old

reproach of the heathen nations, was mainly abolished by the

2 De Libero Arbitrio, lib. i. cap. 6, n. 15.

[ 10 ]



beneficent efforts of the Church. The impartiality of law and
the true brotherhood of man were first asserted by Jesus Christ;
and His apostles re-echoed His voice when they declared that in
future there was to be neither Jew, nor Gentile, nor Barbarian,

nor Scythian, but all were brothers in Christ. So powerful, so

conspicuous in this respect, is the influence of the Church, that

experience abundantly testifies how savage customs are no longer
possible in any land where she has once set her foot; but that

gentleness speedily takes the place of cruelty, and the light of

truth quickly dispels the darkness of barbarism. Nor has the
Church been less lavish in the benefits she has conferred on civi-

lized nations in every age, either by resisting the tyranny of the

wicked, or by protecting the innocent and helpless from injury;

or finally by using her influence in the support of any form of

government which commended itself to the citizens at home, be-
cause of its justice, or was feared by their enemies without, be-

cause of its power.

Lawful and Unlawful Obedience

13. Moreover, the highest duty is to respect authority, and

obediently to submit to just law; and by this the members of a
Community are effectually protected from the wrongdoing of evil
men. Lawful power is from God, and whosoever resisteth author-

ity resisteth the ordinance of God

;

wherefore obedience is greatly

ennobled when subjected to an authority which is the most just
and supreme of all. But where the power to command is want-
ing, or where a law is enacted contrary to reason, or to the eter-

nal law, or to some ordinance of God, obedience is unlawful, lest,

while obeying man, we become disobedient to God. Thus, an
effectual barrier being opposed to tyranny, the authority in the

State will not have all its own way, but the interests and rights
of all will be safeguarded—the rights of individuals, of domestic
society, and of all the members of the commonwealth; all being
free to live according to law and right reason; and in this, as We
have shown, true liberty really consists.

Liberty of Liberals Is License

14. If when men discuss the question of liberty they were
careful to grasp its true and legitimate meaning, such as reason
and reasoning have just explained, they would never venture to

[ ll 1



affix such a calumny on the Church as to assert that she is the

foe to individual and public liberty. But many there are who
follow in the footsteps of Lucifer, and adopt as their own his re-
bellious cry, “I will not serve”; and consequently substitute for

true liberty what is sheer and most foolish license. Such, for in-

stance, are the men belonging to that widely spread and power-
ful organization, who, usurping the name of liberty, style them-
selves Liberals.

Independent Morality

IS. What Naturalists or Rationalists aim at in philosophy,
that the supporters of Liberalism

,

carrying out the principles laid

down by Naturalism, are attempting in the domain of morality
and politics. The fundamental doctrine of Rationalism is the
supremacy of the human reason, which, refusing due submission
to the divine and eternal reason, proclaims its own independ-
ence, and constitutes itself the supreme principle and source and

judge of truth. Hence these followers of Liberalism deny the

existence of any divine authority to which obedience is due, and

proclaim that every man is the law to himself; from which arises
that ethical system which they style independent morality, and

which, under the guise of liberty, exonerates man from any obe-
dience to the commands of God, and substitutes a boundless
license. The end of all this it is not difficult to foresee, espe-
cially when society is in question. For, when once man is firm-
ly persuaded that he is subject to no one, it follows that the effi-

cient cause of the unity of civil society is not to be sought in any

principle external to man, or superior to him, but simply in the

free will of individuals; that the authority in the State comes

from the people only; and that, just as every man’s individual

reason is his only rule of life, so the collective reason of the com-

munity should be the supreme guide in the management of all pub-

lic affairs. Hence the doctrine of the supremacy of the greater

number, and that all right and all duty reside in the majority.

But, from what has been said, it is clear that all this is in con-

tradiction to reason. To refuse any bond of union between man
and civil society, on the one hand, and God the Creator and
consequently the supreme Law-giver, on the other, is plainly re-

pugnant to the nature, not only of man, but of all created things;

for, of necessity, all effects must in some proper way be con-
nected with their cause; and it belongs to the perfection of every

[ 12 ]



nature to contain itself within that sphere and grade which the

order of nature has assigned to it, namely, that the lower should

be subject and obedient to the higher.

Subversive Doctrines

16. Moreover, besides this, a doctrine of such character is

most hurtful both to individuals and to the State. For, once

ascribe to human reason the only authority to decide what is
true and what is good, and the real distinction between good and

evil is destroyed; honor and dishonor differ not in their nature,

but in the opinion and judgment of each one; pleasure is the

measure of what is lawful; and, given a code of morality which

can have little or no power to restrain or quiet the unruly pro-

pensities of man, a way is naturally opened to universal corrup-
tion. With reference also to public affairs: authority is severed
from the true and natural principle whence it derives all its effi-

cacy for the common good; and the law determining what it is
right to do and avoid doing is at the mercy of a majority. Now
this is simply a road leading straight to tyranny. The empire of
God over man and civil society once repudiated, it follows that
religion, as a public institution, can have no claim to exist, and

that everything that belongs to religion will be treated with

complete indifference. Furthermore, with ambitious designs on

sovereignty, tumult and sedition will be common amongst the
people; and when duty and conscience cease to appeal to them,
there will be nothing to hold them back but force, which of itself

alone is powerless to keep their covetousness in check. Of this

we have almost daily evidence in the conflict with Socialists and
members of other seditious societies, who labor unceasingly to
bring about revolution. It is for those, then, who are capable of
forming a just estimate of things to decide whether such doc-

trines promote that true liberty which alone is worthy of man, or

rather pervert and destroy it.

Fallacy of Moderate Liberalism

17. There are, indeed, some adherents of Liberalism who do
not subscribe to these opinions, which we have seen to be fearful
in their enormity, openly opposed to the truth, and the cause of

most terrible evils. Indeed, very many amongst them, com-
pelled by the force of truth, do not hesitate to admit that such

liberty is vicious, nay, is simple license, whenever intemperate in

[13]



its claims, to the neglect of truth and justice; and therefore they

would have liberty ruled and directed by right reason, and conse-
quently subject to the natural law and to the divine eternal law.

But here they think they may stop, holding that man as a free
being is bound by no law of God, except such as He makes known
to us through our natural reason. In this they are plainly in-

consistent. For if—as they must admit, and no one can rightly
deny—the will of the divine Law-giver is to be obeyed, because
every man is under the power of God, and tends toward Him as
his end, it follows that no one can assign limits to His legislative

authority without failing in the obedience which is due. Indeed,

if the human mind be so presumptuous as to define the nature
and extent of God’s rights and its own duties, reverence for the
divine law will be apparent rather than real, and arbitrary judg-

ment will prevail over the authority and providence of God. Man
must, therefore, take his standard of a loyal and religious life

from the eternal law; and from all and every one of those laws

which God, in His infinite wisdom and power, has been pleased

to enact, and to make known to »us by such clear and unmistak-
able signs as to leave no room for doubt. And the more so be-
cause laws of this kind have the same origin, the same author,

as the eternal law, are absolutely in accordance with right rea-

son, and perfect the natural law. These laws it is that embody
the government of God, Who graciously guides and directs both
the intellect and the will of man lest these fall into error. Let,
then, that continue to remain in a holy and inviolable union,

which neither can nor should be separated
;
and in all things—for

this is the dictate of right reason itself—let God be dutifully and
obediently served.

The State Is Bound By God's Law

18. There are others, somewhat more moderate though not

more consistent, who affirm that the morality of individuals is to
be guided by the divine law, but not the morality of the State, so

that in public affairs the commands of God may be passed over,
and may be entirely disregarded in the framing of laws. Hence
follows the fatal theory of the need of separation between Church

and State. But the absurdity of such a position is manifest.

Nature herself proclaims the necessity of the State providing

means and opportunities whereby the community may be enabled

[ 14 ]



to live properly, that is to say, according to the laws of God.

For since God is the source of all goodness and justice, it is abso-
lutely ridiculous that the State should pay no attention to these

laws or render them abortive by contrary enactments. Besides,

those who are in authority owe it to the commonwealth not only
to provide for its external well-being and the conveniences of life,

but still more to consult the welfare of men’s souls in the wis-

dom of their legislation. But, for the increase of such benefits,
nothing more suitable can be conceived than the laws which

have God for their author; and, therefore, they who in their
government of the State take no account of these laws, abuse

political power by causing it to deviate from its proper end and

from what nature itself prescribes. And, what is still more im-

portant, and what We have more than once pointed out, although
the civil authority has not the same proximate end as the spir-

itual, nor proceeds on the same lines, nevertheless in the exer-

cise of their separate powers they must occasionally meet. For

their subjects are the same, and not infrequently they deal

with the same objects, though in different ways. Whenever

this occurs, since a state of conflict is absurd and manifestly

repugnant to the most wise ordinance of God, there must nec-

essarily exist some order or mode of procedure to remove the
occasions of difference and contention, and to secure harmony
in all things. This harmony has been not inaptly compared
to that which exists between the body and the soul for the well-

being of both one and the other, the separation of which brings

irremediable harm to the body, since it extinguishes its very life.

False Liberty of Worship

19. To make this more evident, the growth of liberty
ascribed to our age must be considered apart in its various

details. And, first, let us examine that liberty in individuals

which is so opposed to the virtue of religion, namely the liberty

of ivorship, as it is called. This is based on the principle that

every man is free to profess as he may choose any religion or
none.

One True Religion

20. But, assuredly, of all the duties which man has to fulfill,
that, without doubt, is the chiefest and holiest which com-

mands him to worship God with devotion and piety. This fol-

ds ]



lows of necessity from the truth that we are ever in the power
of God, are ever guided by His will and providence, and, having

come forth from Him, must return to Him. Add to which no
true virtue can exist without religion, for moral virtue is con-

cerned with those things which lead to God as man’s supreme
and ultimate good; and therefore religion, which (as St.

Thomas says) “performs those actions which are directly and
immediately ordained for the divine honor,” 3 rules and tempers

all virtues. And if it be asked which of the many conflicting
religions it is necessary to adopt, reason and the natural law un-

hesitatingly tell us to practice that one which God enjoins, and
which men can easily recognize by certain exterior notes, where-
by divine Providence has willed that it should be distinguished,

because, in a matter of such moment, the most terrible loss would

be the consequence of error. Wherefore, when a liberty such as
We have described is offered to man, the power is given him to
pervert or abandon with impunity the most sacred of duties, and

to exchange the unchangeable good for evil; which, as We have
said, is no liberty, but its degradation, and the abject submis-

sion of the soul to sin.

The State Owes Honor to God

2 1 . This kind of liberty, if considered in relation to the State,

clearly implies that there is no reason why the State should offer
any homage to God, or should desire any public recognition of

Him; that no one form of worship is to be preferred to another,
but that all stand on an equal footing, no account being taken

of the religion of the people, even if they profess the Catholic

faith. But, to justify this, it must needs be taken as true that the

State has no duties towards God, or that such duties, if they exist,

can be abandoned with impunity, both of which assertions are

manifestly false. For it cannot be doubted but that, by the

will of God, men are united in civil society; whether its com-
ponent parts be considered; or its form, which implies authority;

or the object of its existence; or the abundance of the vast

services which it renders to man. God it is Who has made man
for society, and has placed him in the company of others like

himself, so that what was wanting to his nature, and beyond his

attainment if left to his own resources, he might obtain by asso-

3 Summa, 2a, 2ae, q. lxxxi. a. 6.

[ 16 ]



ciation with others. Wherefore civil society must acknowledge

God as its Founder and Parent, and must obey and reverence His
power and authority. Justice therefore forbids, and reason it-

self forbids, the State to be godless; or to adopt a line of action

which would end in godlessness—namely, to treat the various
religions (as they call them) alike, and to bestow upon them

promiscuously equal rights and privileges. Since, then, the pro-

fession of one religion is necessary in the State, that religion must

be professed which alone is true, and which can be recognized

without difficulty, especially in Catholic States, because the

marks of truth are, as it were, engraven upon it. This religion,

therefore, the rulers of the State must preserve and protect, if

they would provide—as they should do—with prudence and
usefulness for the good of the community. For public authority

exists for the welfare of those whom it governs; and although
its proximate end is to lead men to the prosperity found in this
life, yet, in so doing, it ought not to diminish, but rather to

increase, man’s capability of attaining to the supreme good in

which his everlasting happiness consists: which never can be

attained if religion be disregarded.

The State Is Benefited By Religion

22. All this, however, We have explained more fully elsewhere.
We now only wish to add the remark that liberty of so false a
nature is greatly hurtful to the true liberty of both rulers and

their subjects. Religion, of its essence, is wonderfully helpful

to the State. For, since it derives the prime origin of all power

directly from God Himself, with grave authority it charges
rulers to be mindful of their duty, to govern without injustice or

severity, to rule their people kindly and with almost paternal

charity; it admonishes subjects to be obedient to lawful author-

ity, as to the ministers of God; and it binds them to their

rulers, not merely by obedience, but by reverence and affec-

tion, forbidding all seditions and venturesome enterprises cal-

culated to disturb public order and tranquillity, and cause

greater restrictions to be put upon the liberty of the people. We
need not mention how greatly religion conduces to pure morals,
and pure morals to liberty. Reason shows, and history con-

firms the fact, that the higher the morality of States, the greater

are the liberty and wealth and power which they enjoy.

[ 17 ]



Liberty of Speech and Press

23. We must now consider briefly liberty of speech

,

and liberty
of the press. It is hardly necessary to say that there can be

no such right as this, if it be not used in moderation, and if it

pass beyond the bounds and end of all true liberty. For right

is a moral power which—as We have before said and must again
and again repeat—it is absurd to suppose that nature has ac-
corded indifferently to truth and falsehood, to justice and injus-

tice. Men have a right freely and prudently to propagate
throughout the State what things soever are true and honorable,

so that as many as possible may possess them; but lying opin-
ions, than which no mental plague is greater, and vices which

corrupt the heart and moral life, should be diligently repressed

by public authority, lest they insidiously work the ruin of the

State. The excesses of an unbridled intellect, which unfailingly
end in the oppression of the untutored multitude, are no less

rightly controlled by the authority of the law than are the

injuries inflicted by violence upon the weak. And this all the
more surely, because by far the greater part of the community

is either absolutely unable, or able only with great difficulty, to

escape from illusions and deceitful subtleties, especially such as

flatter the passions. If unbridled license of speech and of writ-

ing be granted to all, nothing will remain sacred and inviolate;

even the highest and truest mandates of natures, justly held

to be the common and noblest heritage of the human race, will
not be spared. Thus, truth being gradually obscured by dark-

ness, pernicious and manifold error, as too often happens, will

easily prevail. Thus, too, license will gain what liberty loses;

for liberty will ever be more free and secure, in proportion as

license is kept in fuller restraint. In regard, however, to all

matters of opinion which God leaves to man’s free discussion,
full liberty of thought and of speech is naturally within the

right of every one; for such liberty never leads men to suppress
the truth, but often to discover it and make it known.

Liberty of Teaching

24. A like judgment must be passed upon what is called
liberty of teaching. There can be no doubt that truth alone

should imbue the minds of men; for in it are found the well-

being, the end, and the perfection of every intelligent nature; and

[ 18 ]



therefore nothing but truth should be taught both to the ignorant

and to the educated, so as to bring knowledge to those who have
it not, and to preserve it in those who possess it. For this reason

it is plainly the duty of all who teach to banish error from the
mind, and by sure safeguards to close the entry to all false

convictions. From this it follows, as is evident, that the liberty
of which We have been speaking, is greatly opposed to reason, and
tends absolutely to pervert men’s minds, in as much as it claims
for itself the right of teaching whatever it pleases—a liberty
which the State cannot grant without failing in its duty. And
the more so, because the authority of teachers has great weight

with their hearers, who can rarely decide for themselves as to
the truth or falsehood of the instruction given to them.

Natural Truth the Subject of Teaching

25. Wherefore, this liberty also, in order that it may de-
serve the name, must be kept within certain limits, lest the office

of teaching be turned with impunity into an instrument of cor-

ruption. Now truth, which should be the only subject-matter
of those who teach, is of two kinds, natural and supernatural.
Of natural truths, such as the principles of nature and whatever

is derived from them immediately by our reason, there is a kind

of common patrimony in the human race. On this, as on a
firm basis, morality, justice, religion, and the very bonds of hu-

man society rest: and to allow people to go unharmed who vio-
late or destroy it, would be most impious, most foolish, and most

inhuman.

Divine Truth the Subject of Teaching

26. But with no less religious care must we preserve that
great and sacred treasure of the truths which God Himself has
taught us. By many and convincing arguments, often used by
defenders of Christianity, certain leading truths have been laid

down: namely, that some things have been revealed by God;
that the only-begotten Son of God was made flesh, to bear wit-
ness to the truth; that a perfect society was founded by Him—
the Church namely, of which He is the head, and with which
He has promised to abide till the end of the world. To this
society He entrusted all the truths which He had taught, in
order that it might keep and guard them and with lawful au-
thority explain them; and at the same time He commanded all

[ m:



nations to hear the voice of the Church, as if it were His own,

threatening those who would not hear it with everlasting perdi-
tion. Thus it is manifest that man’s best and surest teacher is
God, the source and principle of all truth; and the only-begot-

ten Son, Who is in the bosom of the Father, the Way, the
Truth, and the Life, the true Light which enlightens every man,

and to Whose teaching all must submit: And they shall all be
taught of God. 4

The Church the Reliable Teacher

27. In faith and in the teaching of morality, God Him-
self made the Church a partaker of His divine authority, and
through His heavenly gift she cannot be deceived. She is there-

fore the greatest and most reliable teacher of mankind, and in

her dwells an inviolable right to teach them. Sustained by the

truth received from her divine Founder, the Church has ever

sought to fulfill holily the mission entrusted to her by God; un-

conquered by the difficulties on all sides surrounding her, she has

never ceased to assert her liberty of teaching, and in this way
the wretched superstition of paganism being dispelled, the wide

world was renewed unto Christian wisdom. Now, reason itself
clearly teaches that the truths of divine revelation and those of

nature cannot really be opposed to one another, and that what-

ever is at variance with them must necessarily be false. There-

fore the divine teaching of the Church, so far from being an

obstacle to the pursuit of learning and the progress of science,

or in any way retarding the advance of civilization, in reality
brings to them the sure guidance of shining light. And for the
same reason it is of no small advantage for the perfecting of hu- >

man liberty, since our Saviour Jesus Christ has said that by
truth is man made free: You shall know the truth

,
and the truth

shall make you free . 5 Therefore there is no reason why genuine
liberty should grow indignant, or true science feel aggrieved, at

having to bear the just and necessary restraint of laws by which,

in the judgment of the Church and of Reason itself, human teach-
ing has to be controlled.

The Church Fosters Learning

28. The Church, indeed—as facts have everywhere proved
—looks chiefly and above all to the defense of the Christian

4 John vi. 45. 5 John viii. 32.

[ 20 ]



faith, while careful at the same time to foster and promote

every kind of human learning. For learning is in itself good,
and praiseworthy, and desirable; and further, all erudition

which is the outgrowth of sound reason, and in conformity

with the truth of things, serves not a little to confirm what We
believe on the authority of God. The Church, truly, to our
great benefit, has carefully preserved the monuments of ancient

wisdom; has opened everywhere homes of science, and has urged

on intellectual progress by fostering most diligently the arts by

which the culture of our age is so much advanced. Lastly, We
must not forget that a vast field lies freely open to man’s indus-

try and genius, containing all those things which have no nec-

essary connection with Christian faith and morals, or as to which

the Church, exercising no authority, leaves the judgment of the

learned free and unconstrained.

Inconsistency of Liberalism

29. From all this may be understood the nature and char-
acter of that liberty which the followers of Liberalism so eagerly

advocate and proclaim. On the one hand, they demand for them-
selves and for the State a license which opens the way to every
perversity of opinion; and on the other, they hamper the Church
in divers ways, restricting her liberty within narrowest limits, al-

though from her teaching not only is there nothing to be feared,

but in every respect very much to be gained.

Liberty of Conscience

30. Another liberty is widely advocated, namely, liberty of
conscience. If by this is meant that every one may, as he
chooses, worship God or not, it is sufficiently refuted by the
arguments already adduced. But it may also be taken to mean
that every man in the State may follow the will of God and, from
a consciousness of duty and free from every obstacle, obey His
commands. This, indeed, is true liberty,

#
a liberty worthy of

the sons of God, which nobly maintains the dignity of man, and
is stronger than all violence or wrong—a liberty which the
Church has always desired and held most dear. This is the kind
of liberty the apostles claimed for themselves with intrepid con-

stancy, which the apologists of Christianity confirmed by their
writings, and which the martyrs in vast numbers consecrated by

[ 21 ]



their blood. And deservedly so; for this Christian liberty bears
witness to the absolute and most just dominion of God over man,
and to the chief and supreme duty of man towards God. It has
nothing in common with a seditious and rebellious mind; and in
no tittle derogates from obedience to public authority; for the

right to command and to require obedience exists only so far as
it is in accordance with the authority of God, and is within the

measure that He has laid down. But when anything is com-
manded which is plainly at variance with the will of God, there
is a wide departure from this divinely constituted order, and at

the same time a direct conflict with Divine authority; therefore

it is right not to obey.

Liberalism Enslaves Liberty

31. By the patrons of Liberalism

,

however, who make the
State absolute and omnipotent, and proclaim that man should live
altogether independently of God, the liberty of which We speak,
which goes hand in hand with virtue and religion, is not ad-

mitted; and whatever is done for its preservation is accounted

an injury and an offense against the State. Indeed, if what they

say were really true, there would be no tyranny, no matter how
monstrous, which we should not be bound to endure and submit
to.

Bitter Fruits of Liberalism

32. The Church most earnestly desires that the Christian
teaching, of which We have given an outline, should penetrate
every rank of society in reality and in practice; for it would be

of the greatest efficacy in healing the evils of our day, which are

neither few nor slight, and are the offspring in great part of the

false liberty which is so much extolled, and in which the germs
of safety and glory were supposed to be contained. The hope
has been disappointed by the result. The fruit, instead of being
sweet and wholesome, has proved cankered and bitter. If then a

remedy is desired, le# it be sought for in a restoration of sound

doctrine, from which alone the preservation of order and, as a

consequence, the defense of true liberty can be confidently ex-

pected.

The Tolerance of Evil

33. Yet, with the discernment of a true mother, the Church

weighs the great burden of human weakness, and well knows the

[ 22 ]



course down which the minds and actions of men are in this our
age being borne. For this reason, while not conceding any right

to anything save what is true and honest, she does not forbid

public authority to tolerate what is at variance with truth and

justice, for the sake of avoiding some greater evil, or of obtain-

ing or preserving some greater good. God Himself, in His
providence though infinitely good and powerful permits evil to

exist in the world, partly that greater good may not be impeded,
and partly that greater evil may not ensue. In the government
of States it is not forbidden to imitate the Ruler of the world;

and, as the authority of man is powerless to prevent every evil,
it has (as St. Augustine says) to overlook and leave unpunished

many things which are punished, and rightly, by divine Provi-
dence.6 But if, in such circumstances, for the sake of the com-

mon good (and this is the only legitimate reason), human law
may or even should tolerate evil, it may not and should not
approve or desire evil for its own sake; for evil of itself, being
a privation of good, is opposed to the common welfare which
every legislator is bound to desire and defend to the best of his

ability. In this, human law must endeavor to imitate God, Who,
as St. Thomas teaches, in allowing evil to exist in the world,
“neither wills evil to be done, nor wills it not to be done, but

wills only to permit it to be done; and this is good.” 7 This say-

ing of the Angelic Doctor contains briefly the whole doctrine of

the permission of evil.

Common Welfare the Basis of Tolerance

34. But, to judge aright, we must acknowledge that the more
a State is driven to tolerate evil the further is it from perfection;

and that the tolerance of evil which is dictated by political pru-

dence should be strictly confined to the limits which its justifying

cause, the public welfare, requires. Wherefore, if such tolerance

would be injurious to the public welfare, and entail greater evils

on the State, it would not be lawful; for in such case the motive
of good is wanting. And although in the extraordinary condition
of these times the Church usually acquiesces in certain modern
liberties, not because she prefers them in themselves, but because
she judges it expedient to permit them, she would in happier times

6 St. August., de lib. arb., lib. 1. cap 6. num. 14.
7 St. Thomas, 1 q. xix. a 9 ad. 3.

[23 ]



exercise her own liberty; and, by persuasion, exhortation, and en-
treaty, would endeavor, as she is bound, to fulfill the duty assigned

to her by God of providing for the eternal salvation of mankind.
One thing, however, remains always true—that the liberty which
is claimed for all to do all things is not, as We have often said,
of itself desirable, inasmuch as it is contrary to reason that error

and truth should have equal rights.

Liberalism Spells Immorality

35. And as to tolerance

,

it is surprising how far removed from
the equity and prudence of the Church are those who profess what
is called Liberalism. For, in allowing that boundless license of

which We have spoken, they exceed all limits, and end at last by
making no apparent distinction between truth and error, honesty

and dishonesty. And because the Church, the pillar and ground
of truth, and the unerring teacher of morals, is forced utterly to

reprobate and condemn tolerance of such an abandoned and crimi-
nal character, they calumniate her as being wanting in patience

and gentleness, and thus fail to see that, in so doing, they impute

to her as a fault what is in reality a matter for commendation.

But, in spite of all this show of tolerance

,

it very often happens

that, while they profess themselves ready to lavish liberty on all

in the greatest profusion, they are utterly intolerant towards the

Catholic Church, by refusing to allow her the liberty of being
herself free.

Summary

36. And now to reduce for clearness' sake to its principal
heads all that has been set forth with its immediate conclusions,

the summing up is this briefly: that man, by a necessity of his
nature, is wholly subject to the most faithful and ever-enduring

power of God; and that as a consequence any liberty, except

that which consists in submission to God and in subjection to
His will, is unintelligible. To deny the existence of this author-
ity in God, or to refuse to submit to it, means to act, not as a

free man, but as one who treasonablv abuses his libertv: and
in such a disposition of mind the chief and deadly vice of Lib-

eralism essentially consists. The form, however, of the sin is
manifold; for in more ways and degrees than one can the will

depart from the obedience which is due to God or to those who
share the divine power.

[ 24 ]



Liberalism Perverts Liberty

37. For, to reject the supreme authority of God, and to cast

off all obedience to Him in public matters, or even in private and
domestic affairs, is the greatest perversion of liberty and the

worst kind of Liberalism : and what We have said must be un-
derstood to appy to this alone in its fullest sense.

Liberalism Rejects Laws of Faith

38. Next comes the system of those who admit indeed the
duty of submitting to God, the Creator and Ruler of the world,

inasmuch as all nature is dependent on His will, but who boldly
reject all laws of faith and morals which are above natural rea-

son, but are revealed by the authority of God; or who at least
impudently assert that there is no reason why regard should be
paid to these laws, at any rate publicly, by the State. How
mistaken these men also are, and how inconsistent, we have
seen above. From this teaching, as from its source and principle,
flows that fatal principle of the separation of Church and State;

whereas it is, on the contrary, clear that the two powers, though

dissimilar in functions and unequal in degree, ought nevertheless

to live in concord, by harmony in their action and the faithful

discharge of their respective duties.

Separation Means Segregation of Church

39. But this teaching is understood in two ways. Many wish
the State to be separated from the Church wholly and entirely,

so that regard to every right of human society, in institutions,
customs, and laws, the offices of State, and the education of

youth, they would pay no more regard to the Church than if she

did not exist; and, at most, would allow the citizens individually

to attend to their religion in private if so minded. Against such

as these, all the arguments by which We disprove the principle of
separation of Church and State are conclusive; with this super-

added, that it is absurd the citizen should respect the Church,

while the State may hold her in contempt.

Separation Means Subjugation of Church

40. Others oppose not the existence of the Church, nor in-

deed could they; yet they despoil her of the nature and rights

of a perfect society, and maintain that it does not belong to her

[ 25 ]



to legislate, to judge, or to punish, but only to exhort, to advise,

and to rule her subjects in accordance with their own consent
and will. By such opinion they pervert the nature of this divine
society, and attenuate and narrow its authority, its office of

teacher, and its whole efficiency; and at the same time they ap-

grandize the power of the civil government to such extent as to

subject the Church of God to the empire and sway of the State,
like any voluntary association of citizens. To refute completely
such teaching, the arguments often used by the defenders of

Christianity, and set forth by Us, especially in the Encyclical

Letter Immortale Dei

,

are of great avail; for by those arguments

it is proved that, by a Divine provision, all the rights which

essentially belong to a society that is legitimate, supreme, and

perfect in all its parts exist in the Church.

The Church Cannot Compromise on Doctrine

41. Lastly, there remain those who, while they do not ap-

prove the separation of Church and State, think nevertheless

that the Church ought to adapt herself to the times and conform

to what is required by the modern system of government. Such

an opinion is sound, if it is to be understood of some equitable

adjustment consistent with truth and justice; in so far, namely,

that the Church, in the hope of some great good, may show her-
self indulgent, and may conform to the times in so far as her
sacred office permits. But it is not so in regard to practices and

doctrines which a perversion of morals and a warped judgment

have unlawfully introduced. Religion, truth, and justice, must

ever be maintained; and, as God has intrusted these great and
sacred matters to the care of the Church, she can never be so

unfaithful to her office as to dissemble in regard to what is false

or unjust, or to connive at what is hurtful to religion.

No Unconditional Liberty

42. From what has been said, it follows that it is quite
unlawful to demand, to defend, or to grant unconditional free-

dom of thought, of speech, of writing, or of worship, as if these
were so many rights given by nature to man. For if nature had
really granted them, it would be lawful to refuse obedience to

God, and there would be no restraint on human liberty. It like-
wise follows that freedom in these things may be tolerated wher-

[ 26 ]



ever there is just cause; but only with such moderation as will

prevent its degenerating into license and excess. And where such
liberties are in use, men should employ them in doing good, and
should estimate them as the Church does; for liberty is to be

regarded as legitimate in so far only as it affords greater fa-

cility for doing good, but no farther.

Liberty to Change Government

43. Whenever there exists, or there is reason to fear, an

unjust oppression of the people on the one hand, or a depriva-

tion of the liberty of the Church on the other, it is lawful to seek

for such a change of government as will bring about due liberty

of action. In such case an excessive and vicious liberty is not

sought for, but only some relief, for the common welfare, in or-
der that, while license for evil is allowed by the State, the power

of doing good may not be hindered.

Forms of Government'

44. Again, it is not of itself wrong to prefer a democratic

form of government, if only the Catholic doctrine be maintained

as to the origin and exercise of power. Of the various forms of

government, the Church does not reject any that are fitted to

procure the welfare of the subject; she wishes only—and this
nature itself requires—that they should be constituted without
involving wrong to any one, and especially without violating the

rights of the Church.

Civic Duty of Catholics

45. Unless it be otherwise determined, by reason of some ex-
ceptional condition of things, it is expedient to take part in the

administration of public affairs. And the Church approves of
every one devoting his services to the common good, and doing
all that he can for the defense, preservation, and prosperity of

his country.

Liberty ond Prosperity Desired By the Church

46. Neither does the Church condemn those who, if it can

be done without violation of justice, wish to make their coun-
try independent of any foreign or despotic power. Nor does
she blame those who wish to assign to the State the power of
self-government, and to its citizens the greatest possible measure

C 27 3



of prosperity. The Church has always most faithfully fostered
civil liberty, and thos was seen especially in Italy, in the munic-

ipal prosperity, and wealth, and glory, which were obtained at

a time when the salutary power of the Church had spread,
without opposition, to all parts of the State.

Prayer for God's Truth

47. These things, Venerable Brothers, which, under the

guidance of faith and reason, in the discharge of Our Apostolic
office, We have now delivered to you, We hope, especially by
your co-operation with Us, will be useful unto very many. In

lowliness of heart We raise Our eyes in supplication to God, and
earnestly beseech Him to shed mercifully the light of His wis-
dom and of His counsel upon men, so that, strengthened by these
heavenly gifts, they may in matters of such moment discern
what is true, and may afterwards, in public and in private, at all
times and with unshaken constancy, live in accordance with the

truth. As a pledge of these heavenly gifts, and in witness of Our

good will to you, Venerable Brothers, and to the clergy and

people committed to each of you, We most lovingly grant in the
Lord the Apostolic Benediction.

48. Given at St. Peter’s in Rome, the twentieth day of June,

1888, the tenth year of Our Pontificate.
LEO XIII, Pope .

[ 28 ]



DISCUSSION CLUB OUTLINE

By Rev. Gerald C. Treacy, S.J.

Numerals Indicate Paragraphs

LESSON I

Paragraphs 1 to 4

Human liberty is nature’s highest gift, giving man power over his own
actions. On its use the greatest good and the greatest evil depend. This
great gift of nature has ever been and always will be cherished by the

Church. Not knowing what true liberty is there are many who think
the Church is opposed to human liberty. With a wrong notion of liberty
the very idea of freedom is perverted. We have on a former occasion in
treating of so-called liberties called attention to their good and bad ele-

ments. Whatever is good in them is as old as truth itself and has always
the approval of the Church. Whatever is new in them is due to the dis-
orders of the age and a craving after novelties. We think it well then to
explain what liberty is.

Liberty belongs only to those who have the gift of reason or intelli-
gence. It is the power of choosing means to reach an end. It is the
power of choice. For he is master of his actions who can choose one
thing out of many. As man can do this he is responsible for his actions.
This is a consequence of his liberty. As he has reason to guide him, unlike
the brute who is guided by instinct, his liberty depends on his reason.
His reasoning power comes from his soul, which is created by God, is
simple—that is without parts, spiritual—that is not material like his
body, and intellectual—that is able to reason and follow out his reason in
willing. As the Church teaches the simplicity, spirituality and immortality
of the soul so does she ever assert its freedom. From the beginning of
her history she has ever defended human liberty. At no time has she ever
compromised with fatalism.

QUESTIONS

How does Pope Leo define liberty?
What follows from the use of liberty?

How did God dignify human nature?
State the attitude of the Church on liberty.

Whjat did Pope Leo say of human liberties in the encyclical lmmortale Dei ?

Why does he deem it necessary to write the present encyclical?
How does natural liberty make man different from other creatures?
What is the foundation of natural liberty?

What power does man possess that makes him responsible for his actions ?
What guides man in each action of his life?
If man’s soul were material like his body what consequence would follow ?

What has been the attitude of the Church toward human freedom?
Toward fatalism?

[ 29 ]



LESSON II

Paragraphs 5 to 8

When a man chooses something he does so because it appeals to him
as gocd or useful. But before he chooses he must know. So the will

cannot act until man knows what he is about. His knowing power is
that power of his soul called his intellect or reason. As both intellect
and will are imperfect powers, it can happen that the intellect will propose

something that is really not good, but only appears to be good. Then
the will chooses accordingly. For as error and the possibility of error

are defects of the mind and attest its imperfection, so the will following
the appearance of what is good shows its imperfection. But at the same
time it is a proof of our freedom just as disease is a proof of our vitality.

Because the will depends on the intellect, it abuses its freedom, if it acts

contrary to the intellect.

So it is that God being infinitely perfect, supremely free and supremely
intelligent cannot choose evil. Neither can the saints and angels enjoying

the Beatific Vision choose evil. St. Thomas often discusses this point.
He says in conclusion: “MAN is by nature rational. When therefore he
acts according to reason, he acts of himself and according to his free
will; and this is LIBERTY. Whereas when he sins he acts in opposition
to reason, is moved by another and is the victim of outside misapprehen-
sions. Therefore whoever commits sin is the slave of sin.” The heathen
philosophers maintained this truth, in stating that “the wise man alone is
free.” For by the wise man they understood the man trained to five
according to his nature, that is in justice and virtue.

As such is the condition of liberty, it needs light and strength to

direct its actions to good and restrain them from evil. Without this
our freedom would spell catastrophe. First of all there must be LAW.
That means a fixed rule of teaching what is to be done, and what
is net to be done. Law is the ordination of reason. The necessity of law
lies in man's free will or in the moral necessity that our voluntary acts

must be in accordance with REASON. To say that because man is free
he is exempt from law is foolish. For this means that to be free we must
be deprived of REASON. The truth is we are bound to submit to law
from the fact that we are free by our very nature. For law is the guide
of man's actions, it turns him toward good by its rewards and deters
him from evil by its punishments.

First comes the LAW OF NATURE or THE NATURAL LAW, which
is written in the mind of every man. This is nothing but our REASON
bidding us to do right and avoid wrong. However, all commands of rea-
son can only have the force of law in as much as they are the voice and
interpreters of some higher power on which our reason and liberty NECES-
SARILY depend. Authority is the only foundation of law, for authority
means the power of fixing duties and defining rights, as also of assigning
sanctions of reward and punishment. All this, as is evident cannot be

found in man, unless as his own supreme legislator hb is to be the rule of
his own actions. It follows that the law of nature is the same thing as the
ETERNAL LAW, implanted in rational creatures and inclining them to



their right action and end. It can be nothing else then, but the eternal

reason of God the Creator and Ruler of the whole world.
To help man observe this law God has given a special help that

strengthens the human will. We call this help divine Grace. It is a God-
given power bringing light to the mind and strength to the will, so that

the use of our liberty becomes less difficult and less dangerous. This gift

of God does not hinder the freedom of the will. On the contrary it works
in harmony with the nature of the will, since it comes from the Creator
of that nature.

QUESTIONS

Considered in its nature, how may liberty be defined?

What is the object of the will and its liberty?

Does the will act without knowledge furnished by the intellect?

Explain in detail and by example how the intellect and will act.

What follows from the fact that intellect and will are both imperfect?

The pursuit of what has a false appearance of good is a proof of our
freedom. Explain.

God, although supremely free, cannot choose evil. How does St. Augus-
tine explain this?

Prove the need of LAW and give its definition.
Why cannot LAW affect the lower animals?
What does man’s judgment decide before his will acts?

Why are we bound to submit to law?
Because man is free by nature, he is exempt from law. Disprove.
Define the NATURAL LAW.
Why is authority the one and only foundation of law?
Can there be law if man is considered as his own supreme legislator?
Define the ETERNAL LAW and show its relation to the NATURAL

LAW.
What aid does God in His mercy give to the human intellect and will?
What effect has this aid?

Is our liberty affected by this help?

How does St. Thomas express this?

LESSON III

Paragraphs 9 to 13

What is true of the liberty of individuals, is true of these same indi-
viduals as members of civil society. For what reason and natural law do
for the individual, human law does for the citizen. It commands the citi-
zen to follow what is good and avoid what is evil, adding at the same
time a proper sanction.

Human law which deals with what is good or bad by its very nature,
does not originate with regard to its obliging force in civil society. It is
not derived from civil society. It has its origin in the natural and conse-

[31 ]



quently the eternal law. Because law exists before men live together in
civil society. For law is nothing but the rule of conduct befitting human
nature. This rule comes from the Creator of human nature. Some human
laws are concerned with that which is good or bad by its very nature.
For example every civilized state passes laws concerning the right of life,

the right of property. To take life unjustly, or property unjustly, is wrong
by its very nature.

There are other human laws which do not follow directly from the
natural law. They decide points which the natural law deals with only
in a general way. For example the natural law commands all men to
contribute to the common good of civil society. How this is to be done
is determined by human laws, not by the natural law. Human law then
really consists in particular rules of conduct, enacted by competent au-
thority, directing men toward good and deterring them from evil.

From these truths it follows that, ultimately, the eternal law is the sole
standard and rule of human liberty, not only for man as an individual but
for man in society. So true liberty does not consist in each one doing what
he pleases, which would end in anarchy, chaos and the complete overthrow
of the state. True liberty means conformity to civil law that all may
more easily conform to the eternal law. And so the liberty of those in
authority does not mean the power to impose unreasonable commands
which would work only the ruin of the state. The binding force of
human law lies in this—>it is the application of the eternal law to the
details of life. The eternal law is the principle of all law. Hence all
human laws derive their binding force from it. If those in authority
pass laws that are not in keeping with right reason and are in consequence
harmful to the commonwealth, such laws lack any binding power as they
violate justice and lead men away from that common good which is the
very end of civil society.

Therefore however we may view the nature of liberty, it supposes the
necessity of obedience to a supreme and eternal law, which is nothing else
but the authority of God commanding good and forbidding evil. And
this authority instead of diminishing or destroying liberty, protects and

perfects it. For the perfection of creatures is found in the prosecution
and attainment of their respective ends. But the supreme end to which
liberty must aspire is God.

These truths, made known to us by reason itself, have ever been
taught by the Church. The result is that the Church has always been
the custodian and protector of the civil and political liberty of the people.

Through her teaching slavery, a pagan institution, was gradually abolished.
Through her teaching savage and barbarous peoples have learned the vital
lesson of the brotherhood of all men in Jesus Christ. Nor have pagan
or savage nations alone benefited from her influence, for to the civilized

nations as well she has brought the important lessons of Christian culture,

defending the innocent, resisting the tyranny of wicked rulers, and sus-

taining every form of government provided it is just, and secures the

common good.
The highest duty of every man is to respect lawful authority and obey

just laws. For lawful power is from God and “he who resists authority
resists the ordinance of God.” By this truth obedience is ennobled. So

[ 32 ]



is resistance to unjust law a virtuous act, for it means obeying God
rather than man, when man commands unjustly. Tyranny is blocked in
this manner, and the rights of all citizens are safeguarded. All are then

free to live according to law and right reason, and in this true liberty

consists.

QUESTIONS

Explain the connection between natural law and human law.

Does human law derive from civil society?

Where do laws have their origin?

What is the duty of the civil legislator in regard to laws that come di-
rectly from natural law?

Show how some laws decide many points which the natural law treats
only in a general way.

In what does human law properly so called, consist?

State the sole standard of human liberty for society as well as for the
individual.

True liberty does not mean that every man does what he pleases. Prove.

How is liberty shown by those in authority?
What does St. Augustine say of the human and the eternal law?

What gives human law its binding force?

The nature of liberty, however it may be considered, supposes obedi-
ence to whose authority?

LESSON IV

Paragraphs 14 to 17

It is wrong to assert that the Church is opposed to liberty. The Church
is opposed to license, and the false teachings of those who misinterpret
liberty, usurp its name and style themselves Liberals. For the Liberal
is attempting to do in morality and politics what the Naturalist and Ra-
tionalist attempt to do in the domain of philosophy. The basic doctrine
of Rationalism is the supremacy of human reason. That means human
reason independent of divine reason, constituting itself the supreme princi-

ple, source, and judge of truth. Hence the Liberals deny the existence
of any divine authority to whom obedience is due, and make man a law
unto himself. Their ethical system which they call independent morality
excuses man from obedience to God and consequently sanctions a life of
license. The effect of this on society is plain. As individual reason is
the only law of life, so is the collective reason of the community the su-
preme law, authority in the state is derived from the people alone, and
the majority possesses all rights and duties. It is clear from reason that
these contentions are false. For to deny any bond of union between man
and civil society on the one hand and God the Creator and Supreme Law-
giver on the other is to act against the nature of man, and in fact of all
created things. All effects must in some way be linked to their cause, and
in the order of nature the lower should be subject to the higher.

[ 33 ]



Moreover, such doctrines are patently harmful to individuals and to
society. Once admit that human reason alone has the authority to de-
cide what is true and what is good, and there will be an end to the real
distinction between good and evil. If honor and dishonor mean what-
ever each individual chooses them to mean there will be no honor left.
Pleasure will become the measuring rod of what is lawful. Given such a
code of morality with no power to restrain the passions of man and you
open the way to decadence, and universal corruption.

In regard to public affairs, authority is severed from the true principle
whence it derives all its power for the common good, and the law of
right and wrong is at the mercy of a majority. This means opening wide
the road to tyranny. Once repudiate the rule of God over man and civil
society, and religion will have no meaning. Duty and conscience being
ruled out of life, nothing can prevent rebellion and class warfare but
force. And force alone is powerless to stamp out covetousness. We have
the example before our eyes of the Socialists and members of other sub-
versive societies who are constantly stirring up unrest and fomenting revo-
lution. Common sense tells us whether such doctrines promote true liberty
or destroy it.

There are some advocates of Liberalism who do not subscribe to these
opinions, but would have liberty ruled by reason and subject to the natural
and eternal law. They claim that man as a free being is bound only by
the law of God that He makes known to us through our natural reason. In
this they are inconsistent. For admitting God as the Supreme Lawgiver
they seek to limit His legislative authority. All the laws that God has
made known have the same binding force as the eternal law, for they
have the same origin, the same author as the eternal law, are in accordance

with right reason and perfect the natural law.

QUESTIONS

Does this authority diminish or destroy liberty? Explain.

How has the law of the Gospels affected human liberty?

How has the teaching of the Church influenced civil and political liberty ?

Cite the effect of the teaching of the Church on barbarous and civilized

nations.

Explain the difference between a just and unjust law.

What is it that ennobles obedience to law?

Explain what the Liberals mean by liberty.

What is the connection between rationalism, naturalism and liberalism?

State the basic doctrine of rationalism.

What does the ethical system called “independent morality” hold?

State the effects of the tenets of liberalism on human society.

Prove that these principles are against reason.

Human reason is the sole authority to decide what is true and what is
good. Refute.

[ 34 ] .



LESSON V

Paragraphs 18 to 22

Other more moderate Liberals, though no more consistent, claim that

the individual is bound by the divine law but not the State, so that the

State may ignore God’s commands in making use of its legislative au-

thority. Hence they advocate the complete separation of Church and

State. They forget that nature calls upon the State to provide the means

whereby the community may live properly. That entails living according

to the laws of God. As God is the source of all goodness and justice

it is ridiculous for the State to ignore His laws. Besides, civil rulers

owe it to their people not merely to provide for their material well-being,

but still more to consult the good of their souls in the wisdom of their

legislation. Civil rulers who take no account of God’s laws, abuse politi-

cal power by diverting it from its proper object and from what nature

itself prescribes.

While the civil authority has not the same object as the spiritual, still

in the exercise of their separate powers, these authorities must occasionally

meet, for they govern the same subjects and sometimes have to deal with

the same question. Education is a case in point. Both Church and State

have their rights and duties respecting the education of their subjects. It

is foolish to say that there must be conflict between them. The truth

is there must be harmony, just as there must be harmony between the soul

and the body for the well-being of both.

One of the false notions regarding liberty is expressed in the statement

that “every man is free to profess any religion he may choose or none.”
It is false because reason and the natural law bid us follow that one

religion which God enjoins and which man can recognize by unmistakable
proofs given by God Himself. If this were not true then we would have
to admit that God had left man helpless in a matter of supreme im-
portance. For surely man’s destiny is of supreme importance, and how
can he fulfill it if he does not know the right way of worshiping God ?

Another false notion of liberty has to do with the State and religion.
It is maintained that the State should not offer homage to God, that all
religions in the State should be on the same footing, and that no account
should be taken of the religion of the people, even though they profess

the Catholic Faith. These statements are false. For just as man as an in-
dividual is bound to acknowledge God in practicing the religion which God
has revealed, so is man united with his fellows in civil society, namely the
State, under the same obligation. For the State is obliged to acknowledge
God as its founder by professing that one religion which alone is true and
can be recognized by the marks of truth which are engraven upon it.8

Religion is of immense benefit to the State. For since it teaches that
all power comes from God, it reminds rulers of their sacred obligations to
rule justly, kindly, and with charity. It likewise enjoins upon subjects to

8 Th's subject is explained more fully in the encyclical on The Christian Constitu-
tion of States. In most countries today where there are many forms of religion, separa-
tion of Church and State is the practical way of securing liberty for the Church and
protecting the Church from oppression.

[ 35 ]



obey their rulers as God’s representatives, with loyalty and affection. Re-
ligion conduces to good morals and good morals to liberty. The lesson of
history shows that the higher the morality of States, the greater the liberty,
prosperity and power which they enjoy.

QUESTIONS

What position will religion hold in a State governed by Liberals?

The doctrine of liberalism will do away with duty and conscience.
What will be the effect?

Man, as a free being is bound only by the law of God made known to
him by reason. Refute.

Why has God enacted other laws besides the eternal law?
State laws need not be concerned with God’s laws. Refute.

Is government concerned merely with the material well-being of the
citizen ?

Prove the need of Church and State, civil and spiritual authorities,
working in harmony.

Every man is free to profess any religion he wishes, or none. Refute.

Prove that true virtue cannot exist without religion.

Prove that God enjoins the practice of one true religion. How may it
be known ?

Why did God destine man to live in civil society?
Why should the State officially honor God and His law?
Explain how religion is helpful to the State.

What lessons does it teach rulers and subjects?

Show the relationship between religion, morals, liberty, and human
welfare.

LESSON VI

Paragraphs 23 to 29

The right to freedom of speech and freedom of the press does not mean
liberty to say or print truth or falsehood, to defend justice or injustice

as I please. It cannot be repeated too often that right is a moral power,

and it is false to say that nature has accorded this right indifferently to
the spread of truth or falsehood, justice or injustice. Men possess the right
to freely propagate whatever is true and honorable so that as many as
possible may benefit thereby. But the State for its own safety has both
the right and duty to suppress lying propaganda and vicious doctrines

that corrupt morals and lead to the ruin of the commonwealth. If un-

bridled license of speech and of the press is allowed, nothing will remain

sacred or inviolate, not even the highest and truest mandates of nature,

justly considered the noblest heritage of the human race. If true liberty
is to prevail, license can be given no quarter. However in all matters of
opinion which God leaves to man’s free discussion, full liberty of thought
and of speech is everyone’s right. For such liberty leads not to the sup-

[ 36 ]



pression of truth but to further discovery of truth and wider knowledge

of truth.

The same is true of liberty of teaching. (Note: The school teachers of

France betrayed France. Cf. France on Berlin Time

,

by Thomas Kernan.)

This means the right to teach truth, not the license to propagate error.

The teacher has no right to teach whatever he pleases. The teacher has the

right to teach that which is suitable to the mind of the student, which is

for the well-being and perfection of every intelligent nature, namely, truth

and nothing but truth. His is the duty to bring knowledge to those who
lack it, and to preserve and increase it in those who have it. The hearers
for the most part can rarely decide on the truth or falsehood of the matter

presented to them. Hence the teacher’s authority is paramount. And
for the State to permit the teacher liberty to teach anything, true or false,

is for the State to betray its trust and fail in its duty, which is the safe-

guarding of the common good.
Truth which alone is the subject matter of teaching is of two kinds,

natural and supernatural. We mean by natural truth that which we arrive
at by our reason. By supernatural truth we mean that which has been
revealed to us by God. By reason man can know that God exists. By
revelation God tells man that He exists, and tells him many other truths.
For example that the Son of God became Man, to bear witness to truth,
that He founded a Church to continue the teaching of truth to the end of
the world, that all men are bound to hear that Church’s teaching if they
would fulfill their destiny. So it is clear that man’s best and surest teacher

is God the source and principle of all truth.
To His Church Christ said: “Go and teach all that I have taught, and

I will be with you.” Relying on this command and promise the Church
has ever been the greatest and best teacher of men. From the beginning
she has claimed the liberty of teaching no matter what obstacles may have
been put in her path. It stands to reason that the truths of nature and

the truths of revelation cannot be opposed to one another. So Divine

teaching far from being a hindrance to the pursuit of learning and the

progress of science is a helpful and guiding light. For the same reason the

Church is the power that protects and fosters human liberty, since our Lord
has said: “You shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free”
(John viii. 32). True liberty and true science welcome the guidance of

Church laws which direct human teaching and save it from error. While
looking mainly to the teaching of faith and morals, the Church is ever

fostering and promoting every kind of human learning. For learning is a
good thing, worthy and desirable, and as surely as it is the outgrowth of

sound reason, it helps to confirm what we believe from revelation. And
we must remember there is a vast field of human knowledge not at all
connected with faith and morals. Over this field the Church exercises no

authority, leaving man free to range over it with the utmost liberty.
The Liberals advocate a strange kind of liberty. For they demand for

themselves and the State license that opens the way to every kind of false-
hood, and at the same time try to fetter the Church in every possible way,
although from her teaching nothing is to be feared but much to be gained.

[37]



QUESTIONS

Is the right of liberty of the press and of speech unlimited?

This right is a moral power given for what purpose?

How should the State deal with this right?
In what matters should there be full liberty of thought and speech?

May the State allow unlimited freedom in teaching?
What must be taught both to the ignorant and to the educated?

Why has the authority of the teacher such weight with his hearers?
Truth is of two kinds. Explain.

Morality, justice, religion and the bonds of human society rest on what
basis?

Enumerate the truths revealed to man by God.

To what society have these truths been entrusted?

Why should man listen to the voice of this society?
State the relationship between God and the Church.

Prove that the truths of revelation cannot be opposed to scientific truth.

What is the attitude of the Church toward the truths of nature?

How does the Church aid those who seek genuine liberty and true
science ?

LESSON VII

Paragraphs 30 to 35

Liberty of conscience is another type of liberty widely proclaimed by
the Liberals. By this they mean that everyone is free to worship God or
not as he chooses. This false liberty has already been dealt with. True
liberty of conscience means that everyone may follow the will of God and
obey His commandments. This is true liberty and worthy of the dignity
of man. In the long history of the Church from the days of the Apostles

to our own, this is the liberty she has ever vindicated. For this liberty

bears witness to the absolute dominion of God over man. It has nothing
in common with sedition; it in no way derogates from obedience to public
authority. For the right to command derives from the authority of God.
And if anything is commanded that is at variance with God’s will, it is the
citizen’s duty to disobey. Liberals, however, who make the State absolute
and omnipotent, and want man to live independently of God, repudiate
this true liberty of conscience which goes hand in hand with virtue and

religion, and claim that whatever is done for its preservation is an offense

against the State. If this false claim were true, then we should be obliged
to submit to every form of tyranny however monstrous it might be.

There is one remedy for the evils of our day which are the fruits for

the most part of this false liberty. That remedy is the teaching of the

Gospel. It is the hope of the Church that this teaching may permeate
every rank of society. Liberalism, it was said, would bring safety and glory
to society. The result before our very eyes is just the opposite. Only in
the restoration of Christian life to the social order will the defense of true

liberty be found.

[ 38 ]



The Church, benign mother as she is, allows for human weakness, and
while conceding no right to anything not true or just, allows public author-
ity to tolerate certain evils that greater evils may be avoided or greater
good obtained. In this she is like God her Founder, Who though infinitely
good and powerful, permits evil. “God neither wills evil to be done, nor
wills it not to be done, but wills only to permit it to be done

;
and this is

good,” says St. Thomas (1 Q 19, a. 9 ad. 3). Human law for the common
good may tolerate evil, for it may be unable to prevent it, or preventing
it may cause greater evil, but it may not and should not approve evil for
its own sake. The authority of man is powerless to prevent every evil, so
it has to “overlook and leave unpunished many things which are rightly
punished by divine Providence,” says $t. Augustine.

The State, in tolerating evil, may only do so for the common good.
If this toleration acts against the public welfare, it is wrong. The Church
in these times tolerates certain things that she is not in sympathy with.
One thing she will not concede, the Liberals’ claim that all have the liberty
to do all things. For this is of itself undesirable as it is against reason.

Liberalism prates much of tolerance and wishes liberty unlimited. Its
teaching leads to utter confusion, making no distinction between truth and
error, honesty and dishonesty. And as the Church, the pillar and ground
of truth, opposes these false doctrines, the Liberals calumniate her as lack-

ing in patience and gentleness. And while boasting of their tolerance, they
often are utterly intolerant toward the Church, by refusing her the liberty
of being herself free.

QUESTIONS

Define true liberty of conscience.

What does this true liberty of conscience bear witness to?

Is the right of civil authority to command obedience an absolute right?

What do the Liberals substitute for true liberty of conscience?

Does liberalism advocate resistance to tyranny?

How has the teaching of liberalism affected human society?
What remedy is to be used in curing the ills of society?

May public authority ever tolerate what is at variance with truth and
justice?

^What does St. Augustine teach about public authority and the tolerance
of evil?

What does St. Thomas say of God permitting evil to exist in the world?

What is the norm of the State’s tolerance of evil?

State the position of the Church on this question.

LESSON VIII

Paragraphs 36 to 48

To conclude then, we declare that the chief and deadly vice of Liberal-
ism is this that it makes liberty mean acting independently of God’s author-
ity. As man by his very nature is wholly subject to the power of God, to

[39]



act independently of Him means not liberty but the treasonable abuse of
liberty. There are some Liberals who admit the need of submitting to
God the Creator, but who reject divinely revealed religion or at least deny
that the State should take any cognizance of it. From this teaching comes
the fallacy of the separation of Church and State, by which is really meant
the subjection of the Church to the State. The truth is that both Church
and State should co-operate in fulfilling their respective and distinct func-
tions for the common good of the citizens of the State. The advocates of
this separatism really mean that the State should ignore the Church and
make religion a completely private affair. They would have the Church
entirely subject to the whim of every ruler. They deny the God-given
truth that the Church is a real society established by God to teach, rule
and sanctify man by its own right without fear or favor from any State or
government. The Church will always adapt herself to the needs of the
times within the limits that her sacred office permits. The Church will
never sanction error or injustice or any policy that is hurtful to religion.

Unlimited freedom of thought, speech, writing, or worship are not rights

given by nature to man. Man’s right to liberty means liberty under God’s
law. Unlimited freedom means license. Governments are bound to secure
the true liberty of their peoples. If they fail to do this, the citizens have

the right to seek a change in government. Catholics as citizens should be

in the forefront of every movement that fosters genuine liberty. Under
whatever form of government they live, they should strive to see that the

government fulfills its function of procuring the common welfare. Every
form of government is to be commended that is founded on justice and
secures the well-being of its citizens. The Church has always fostered civil
liberty, and vindicated the right of every nation to self-rule, independence,

and all that will bring the greatest measure of prosperity to its people.

QUESTIONS

What does the tolerance taught by liberalism lead to?

What type of tolerance do the Liberals show the Church?

State the chief and deadly vice of liberalism.

Explain the extreme and moderate views of liberalism.

Many Liberals wish the State to be separated from the Church wholly
and entirely. Refute.

Some Liberals teach that the Church should rule in accordance with
the consent of her subjects. Refute.

How far should the Church go in adapting herself to modern times?
What would follow if unlimited liberty were given by nature to man?
State the attitude of the Church on the various forms of government.

Sum up the teaching of the Church on civic duty and civil liberty.

[ 40 ]