Kim.indd Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship: Career Decisions of Subject Specialists and Librarians of Color Kyung-Sun Kim, Ming-Hsin Chiu, Sei-Ching Joanna Sin, and Louise Robbins In libraries and other related organizations, information professionals with subject and cultural/ language expertise are invaluable as they can contribute to the provision of better service for users who are becoming increasingly diverse. Recent statistics indicate that there is a great need to recruit more librarians with subject specialties and with diverse eth- nic/cultural backgrounds, especially in academic libraries. Two separate studies were conducted to examine career decisions of such individuals who are already working, or likely to work, in academic libraries. Sugges- tions are made to develop effective recruitment strategies and to ensure that the supply of the two special groups of the library profession will effectively meet the demand. cademic and research librar- ies play an important role in the advancement of higher education by organizing and disseminating information that facilitates scholarly communication and research. Librarians in such organizations are key assets as they are the ones who provide information services to the research com- munity. The changing demographics of li- brarianship and the nation, however, have raised some concerns and called for a more proactive effort in recruiting librarians. According to Curran, by the year of 2010, more than 83,000 librarians in North America will have reached the age of 65, and their retirements will result in a severe shortage in the profession.1 Tracking the aging trend of research librarians, Wilder substantiates the gap between the numbers of retirements and new recruits to the profession, indicating a great need for aggressive recruitment.2 In addition to the looming shortage of librarians as current professionals retire, there seems to be a shortage of certain kinds of expertise among the graduates of the American Library Association (ALA) accredited master ’s degree programs. Kyung-Sun Kim is Associate Professor, Ming-Hsin Chiu and Sei-Ching Joanna Sin are doctoral students, and Louise Robbins is Director & Professor in the School of Library and Information Studies at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin-Madison; e-mail: kskim@slis.wisc.edu, minghsinchiu@wisc.edu, sjsin@wisc.edu, and lsrobbin@wisc.edu, respectively. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the American Library Association (ALA) and the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). 533 mailto:lsrobbin@wisc.edu mailto:sjsin@wisc.edu mailto:minghsinchiu@wisc.edu mailto:kskim@slis.wisc.edu 534 College & Research Libraries November 2007 Lynch reports that 23.1 percent of vacan- cies in medium and large public libraries and college and university libraries result from a shortage of qualified people with a particular specialty, such as those subject specialists with specialized knowledge in certain subject areas and/or languages.3 Another concern is the gap in the pro- portion of people of color between the librarian and the U.S. populations. The ethnic minority population constitutes over 30 percent of the U.S. population and is projected to reach 47 percent in 2050.4 In the LIS field, however, minority groups constitute only 10 to 12 percent of the LIS student and librarian populations. Despite continual efforts by LIS schools and associations in recruiting and retain- ing students of color, the proportions of ethnic minorities in LIS student and librarian populations remain significantly lower than in the U.S. population, and the gap has not narrowed by much. Berry points out that the challenge of the library profession is clearly about recruitment, but it is also about recruiting a “diverse workforce.”5 As demographic indicators point to more culturally and ethnically diverse communities, libraries need to recruit more diverse professional staff.6 In response to such needs, the Focus on the Future Task Force of the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), in consultation with other academic library associations, has identified “re- cruitment, education, and retention of librarians” as one of the top issues facing academic libraries.7 To develop effective strategies for re- cruiting individuals into a profession, it is critically important to understand the individuals who are likely to enter the profession or those currently in the pro- fession, as the two groups share similar characteristics and preferences.8 In an effort to increase this understanding, two nationwide studies were conducted to identify ways to address the shortage of subject specialists and ethnic minorities in academic librarianship. The first study aimed at identifying characteristics of LIS students with advanced degrees in other fields, who are likely to become subject specialists in academic and research libraries; their projected and actual ca- reer path; and also factors that a racted them to choose librarianship. Turning to ethnic minorities, the second study aimed at understanding how and when librarians of color choose the LIS field; what types of libraries they prefer; and what recruitment strategies they think are effective. The goal of this paper is to contribute to the be er recruitment of a diverse population in LIS education and academic libraries. Literature Review Need for Subject Specialists Subject specialists in libraries are defined as individuals with possession of suffi- cient experience/education in a particular discipline in addition to knowledge of librarianship.9 Qualifications required for the subject specialist positions o en include advanced degrees in a subject area, in addition to an ALA-accredited MLS degree.10 The need for an additional advanced degree seems important for those working as subject specialists. White suggests that subject specialists are o en given responsibilities of special- ized reference and collection develop- ment and serve as the library’s appointed liaison with teaching faculty because they share similar academic background and experience with faculty.11 To perform these or other related services effectively, a subject specialist must have “a detailed and intimate knowledge of the needs of his total clientele, the bibliographical or- ganization and problems of his field, and a thorough understanding of library op- erations, including the limitations as well as the special capabilities they provide.”12 It is this mixture of subject knowledge and knowledge of the user community that allows the subject librarian to mediate effectively between available resources and the user.13 In the literature on subject specialists, researchers and practitioners confirm http:faculty.11 http:degree.10 Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 535 several benefits that subject specialists have brought to the LIS field and user communities. The tacit knowledge and familiarity of a subject area allow subject specialists to carry out a task efficiently. Their subject specialties are a definite advantage in coping with changes, and this has been especially evident in the academic library’s adjustment to the increasing demands for user-oriented services.14 Need for Librarians of Color Because the United States is becoming increasingly diverse ethnically and cultur- ally, the persistent under-representation of librarians of color is an issue of concern. To improve services to ethnic minorities and to recruit and retain librarians of color, the ALA issued a special report, Eq- uity at Issue: Library Services to the Nation’s Four Major Minority Groups, and outlined action recommendations. In the ’80s, only about 10 percent of the academic librarians and 12 percent of the public librarians were from the four major ethnic groups, including African American, Asian American, Hispanic, and Native American.15 Over the years, there has been some improvement: in 1998, for example, librarians of color constituted 13.2 percent of academic librarian and 13.4 percent of public librarian populations.16 However, a recent report reveals that the ratio of librarians of color among credentialed librarians had actually dropped from 12 percent in 1990 to 10 percent in 2000.17 The U.S. population projections indicate that, by 2050, the four minority groups will represent almost half of the U.S. popula- tion.18 As E. J. Josey and others warned, without systematic recruitment efforts, the gap between LIS and US populations may widen even further; and the librarian population will not reflect the users that librarians serve.19 Studies suggest that interpersonal sim- ilarities (such as similarity in ethnicity or culture), increase ease of communication, foster relationships of trust and reciproc- ity, and encourage a sense of belonging and membership.20 As in schools and other public organizations, it is impor- tant to have enough professionals/staff of color in libraries; because it helps all users, regardless of their ethnicity, see au- thority figures looking like them and feel comfortable and welcome. In institutes of higher education, about 29 percent of the students are minorities,21 and about 4 percent are international students.22 An ethnically and culturally diverse work- force in academic libraries will facilitate the interaction with these diverse user groups and help reduce the level of library anxiety felt by users.23 Equipped with language and cultural knowledge, librarians of color will also be able to provide effective services in different areas including reference, cataloging, and collection development.24 Academic libraries are a visible and primary point of multicultural intersection in the aca- demia.25 Increasing the representation of librarians of color is one of the crucial steps toward a more pluralistic and equi- table society that fosters learning. Recruitment Efforts Recruiting a diverse workforce into li- brarianship is an important ma er to LIS schools as well as libraries. As the profes- sional librarian position requires an MLIS degree from an ALA-accredited program, such recruitment effort should start with individuals who might be interested in pursuing LIS studies. Efforts have been made to identify factors related to recruit- ment, and research has revealed that role models, time required to complete an LIS degree, marketplace outlook and career options, and appreciation of informa- tion and knowledge fields are among the factors important to recruitment.26 In addition to these factors, researchers have also tried to identify effective strat- egies for recruitment. Kaufman suggests techniques such as utilizing listservs and making required qualifications flexible and open,27 and Perry recommends using outreach and positive image strategies to expand the pool of potential students.28 http:students.28 http:recruitment.26 http:demia.25 http:development.24 http:users.23 http:students.22 http:membership.20 http:serve.19 http:populations.16 http:American.15 http:services.14 536 College & Research Libraries November 2007 Libraries, LIS schools, and associations have implemented various initiatives to recruit subject specialists and ethnic minorities. The Council on Library and In- formation Resources (CLIR), for example, offers the equivalent of an apprenticeship postdoctoral program to encourage hu- manities PhDs to go into academic librari- anship. The Mellon Foundation funds postdoctoral fellowship opportunities in research librarianship for recent gradu- ates of area studies.29 The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) has formed a Task Force on Special Collections to provide hands-on experience for recent PhDs in managing primary research materials, in response to the needs of national and international scholarship.30 With regard to ethnic diversity, the ALA created the Spectrum Initiative to promote diversity in the library community and recruit minor- ity librarians by providing scholarships, mentoring, and training programs. A number of LIS schools, as well as libraries, have shown their support of the Spectrum scholarship program by agreeing to make additional financial commitments, such as matching grants.31 Furthermore, many academic libraries also offer residency programs for underrepresented groups, which have been fairly successful.32 The ARL sponsors the Leadership and Career Development Program for librarians of color who have demonstrated leadership in research libraries, and launched Initiative to Recruit a Diverse Workforce to recruit LIS graduate students of color to ARL librar- ies upon graduation.33 To support these continuous efforts to recruit a diverse workforce into the LIS profession, more empirical research on LIS recruitment is needed. Many have contributed to the discussion by suggest- ing recruitment strategies and initiatives.34 Others carried out studies to be er un- derstand the demographic trends in the profession and the recruitment efforts currently employed by various academic libraries.35 What is also needed is research that compares and identifies effective re- cruitment strategies based on the recruit’s point of view. As recruitment initiatives re- quire a significant amount of time, efforts, and resources, such studies will be helpful for the LIS schools and libraries to plan and evaluate their recruitment initiatives, and also to allocate resources efficiently. Methodology Web-based surveys were used in both studies. To develop a survey questionnaire in the first study (herea er referred to as Study 1), existing literature on library personnel management, career decisions, and subject specialists was consulted. The questionnaire was finalized based on the results of a pilot test conducted with ten advanced degree holders enrolled in an LIS program. For the second study (herea er referred to as Study 2), a questionnaire was developed through a review of extant lit- erature related to career decisions, recruit- ment, and retention of students, including students of color, in different fields. It was finalized based on the results of a pilot test with five librarians of color, and also the feedback from members of the advisory board, consisting of ten librarians and faculty of color in the LIS field. To make the surveys available through the Web, Zoomerang and PHPSurveyor were used for Study 1 and Study 2, respectively. Study 1 collected data from LIS stu- dents with advanced degrees in fields other than LIS. The deans/directors of the fi y-six ALA-accredited LIS educa- tion programs were contacted. They were asked to help distribute a cover le er with the Web survey link through their students’ listservs and to encour- age their students who had already received or were concurrently pursuing an advanced degree in other fields to participate in the study. The question- naire consisted of thirteen questions, with focus on the participants’ academic background, their actual or projected ca- reer paths, factors that a racted them to the LIS field, and factors that influenced them to undertake the LIS degree pro- gram. Data were collected from January through May 2005. http:libraries.35 http:initiatives.34 http:graduation.33 http:successful.32 http:grants.31 http:scholarship.30 http:studies.29 Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 537 TABLE 1 Study 1: Subject Specialists Preferred Types of Library (n = 326) Type of Library Number Percentage Academic and Research Library 175 53.7% School Library 41 12.6% Public Library 36 11.1% Special Library/Corporate Information Center 35 10.7% Archive 31 9.5% Government Library 4 1.2% Information Service/ Access Provider 2 0.6% Historical Society 1 0.3% Freelance Information Professional 1 0.3% Total 326 100.0% Study 2 surveyed librarians of color who graduated from an ALA-accredited LIS program or those currently enrolled in such a program. To introduce the study and also to encourage librarians of color to participate, an announcement was posted to listservs of the American Indian Library Association, Asian/Pacific American Li- brarians Association, Black Caucus of the American Library Association, Chinese American Librarians Association, Re- forma (National Association to Promote Library and Informa- tion Services to Latinos and the Spanish-Speaking), and other ALA-affiliated groups. The questionnaire consisted of thir- ty-two questions focusing on participants’ background, their experience with LIS schools and associations, and their sugges- tions on recruitment/retention. The data were collected from November 2004 through March 2005. Results and Discussion A total of 326 LIS students from sixteen ALA-accredited LIS programs participated in Study 1. All of the participants were either advanced degree holders or working on an advanced de- gree program in other fields. A total of 182 librarians of color participated in Study 2. Most of the participants (85%) had already graduated from an ALA-ac- credited LIS program, while the rest were currently enrolled in such a program. Academic/Research Librarianship To discover the advanced degree holders’ career paths, Study 1 asked the partici- pants to identify the type of libraries in which they were most interested. Table TABLE 2 Study 1: Subject Specialists Education Level and Preferred Types of Library (n = 295)* Master Doctoral Total Type of Library Counts % of Counts % of Counts % of Column Column Column Academic/Research 147 61.2% 38 69.1% 185 62.7% and Archives Public, School, 71 29.6% 8 14.5% 79 26.8% and Special Others 22 9.2% 9 16.4% 31 10.5% Total 240 100.0% 55 100.0% 295 100.0% *Out of 326 participants, 295 of them responded to this answer. 538 College & Research Libraries November 2007 FIGURE 1 Study 2: Librarians of Color Ethnicity and Types of Library Where They Work (n = 182) TABLE 3 Study 1: Subject Specialists Advanced Degree Holders by Subject Field and Degree Level (n = 206) Subject Field Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree Total Agriculture 1 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.5%) Area Studies 28 (13.6%) 4 (1.9%) 32 (15.5%) Architecture 1 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.5%) Art 9 (4.4%) 1 (0.5%) 10 (4.9%) Biological Sciences 4 (1.9%) 5 (2.4%) 9 (4.4%) Business 9 (4.4%) 0 (0%) 9 (4.4%) Education 9 (4.4%) 1 (0.5%) 10 (4.9%) Engineering & Computer Science 4 (1.9%) 0 (0%) 4 (1.9%) Humanities 49 (23.8%) 11 (5.2%) 60 (29.1%) Law 2 (1.0%) 10 (4.9%) 12 (5.8%) Mathematics 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Medicine 2 (1.0%) 1 (0.5%) 3 (1.4%) Music 6 (2.9%) 4 (1.9%) 10 (4.9%) Physical Sciences 2 (1.0%) 2 (1.0%) 4 (1.9%) Social Sciences 34 (16.5%) 2 (1.0%) 36 (17.5%) No answer 4 (1.9%) 1 (0.5%) 5 (2.4%) Total 164 (79.7%) 42 (20.3%) 206 (100.0%) Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 539 1 summarizes the result of the preferred library types. More than half of the participants (53.7%) wanted to work in academic and research libraries. When the archives, considered as a type of research library, is added, 63.2 per- cent of the participants preferred academic/research libraries to other types. When a Chi-square test was carried out to test the relationship between participants’ education level and their preferred type of libraries, the result was statisti- cally significant (χ2 = 6.423, p < .05). It suggests that doctoral degree holders are more likely to prefer academic library/archive to other types of libraries (table 2). Among the 182 participants of Study 2, seventy-nine of them (43.4%) were work- ing in academic libraries or archives. Aca- demic librarians constitute the largest share of respondents for three out of four ethnic groups: 49.3 percent of African American, 52.5 percent of Asian American, and 52.4 percent of Native American respondents were working in academic and research libraries. Among Hispanic respondents, on the other hand, only 29.8 percent of them were in academic libraries, while 44.7 percent of them were in public libraries (figure 1). However, the Chi-square test revealed no statistically significant differ- ence among different ethnic groups and library types (χ2 = 7.316, p = .29). As those who are currently employed in a given profession are similar to those who are likely candidates for recruitment into that profession,36 Studies 1 and 2 will focus on the responses from the par- ticipants who are interested in academic libraries and those currently working in such libraries, respectively (Study 1 on ad- vanced degree holders: n=206; and Study 2 on librarians of color: n=79). Background of Respondents In Study 1, among those interested in academic and research libraries includ- TABLE 4 Study 2: Librarians of Color Librarians of Color by Ethnicity (n = 79) Ethnicity Frequency Percentage of Cases* (n=79) African American 36 45.6% Asian American/ Pacific Islander 21 26.6% Hispanic/Latino 14 17.7% Native American/ Alaskan Native 11 13.9% Total 82 103.8% *As multiple responses were allowed for this question, the Percentage of Cases column adds up to more than 100%. For this question, seventy-nine participants pro- vided a total of 82 responses. ing archives (n=206), 29.1 percent of them had advanced degrees in humanities, 17.5 percent in social sciences, and 15.5 percent in area studies. Table 3 summarizes the number and percentage of advanced de- gree holders by fields and by degrees. In Study 2, a majority of the academic librarian participants were African Amer- ican (45.6%). Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans constituted 26.6 percent, 17.7 percent, and 13.9 percent of the participants respectively (see table 4). More than one-third of them were bilingual or multilingual (36.7%). As far as their academic background is concerned, most of the academic li- brarian respondents in Study 2 had an undergraduate degree in social sciences (32.9%) or humanities (30.4%). About 34 percent of them had an additional master’s degree in a field other than LIS. In addition, 10 percent of them held a doctoral degree: half of them in LIS, and the other half in other disciplines (table 5). A larger proportion of the academic librarian respondents held advanced degrees (including master ’s and doctoral degrees) in non-LIS fields, compared to nonacademic librarian r e s p o n d e n t s . Am o n g n o n a c a de mi c librarian respondents, 18 percent hold a master’s degree and 4 percent hold a 540 College & Research Libraries November 2007 TABLE 5 Study 2: Librarians of Color Academic Background by Subject Field and Degree Level (n = 79) Subject Fields Undergraduate Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree Number % of cases* (n=79) Number % of cases* (n=79) Number % of cases* (n=79) Arts 4 5.1% 2 2.5% 0 0.0% Business 7 8.9% 3 3.8% 0 0.0% Education 8 10.1% 3 3.8% 0 0.0% Humanities 24 30.4% 4 5.1% 1 1.3% Laws 0 0% 3 3.8% 1 1.3% LIS 7 8.9% 76 96.2% 4 5.0% Medical Sciences 3 3.8% 1 1.3% 0 0.0% Natural Sciences 4 5.1% 3 3.8% 0 0.0% Social Sciences 26 32.9% 7 8.9% 1 1.3% Other 8 10.1% 1 1.3% 1 1.3% N/A 0 0.0% 1 1.3% 71 89.8% Total 91 115.2% 103 130.4% 79 100.0% *As multiple responses were allowed for this question, the Percentage of Cases column adds up to more than 100%. Seventy-nine participants provided a total of 91, 130, and 79 responses to the ques- tions concerning undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral degree respectively. TABLE 6 Study 1: Subject Specialists Types of Library Work Preferred by Advanced Degree Holders (n = 206) Type of Library Work Number Percentage (%) Reference and instruction 95 46.1% Digital librarianship and digital collections 23 11.2% Bibliography and collection management 20 9.7% Cataloging and classification 16 7.8% Faculty liaison 15 7.3% Administration 10 4.9% Not sure 4 1.9% Preservation/Conservation 3 1.4% Special collections 3 1.4% Research 2 1.0% Database design and computer technology 2 1.0% Others 10 4.9% No answer 3 1.4% Total 206 100% Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 541 doctoral degree in fields other than LIS. Both studies suggest that there are more students from humanities and social sciences pursuing stud- ies in LIS than those with a hard science background. This pa ern is similar to the profile of LIS students in general.37 While the LIS field has been considered multidisciplinary, it tends to a ract individuals from so sciences more than those from hard sciences. As such an imbalance may result in a severe shortage of subject specialists in hard sciences, more re- cruiting efforts will need to be made to a ract qualified individuals with a hard science background. Types of Library Work Preferred To investigate their specific career paths, respondents interested in academic and research libraries in Study 1 were asked to identify a specific type of library work they liked. The most preferred type was reference and instruction services (46.1%), followed by digital library work (11.2%), and bibliography/collection manage- ment (9.7%). Table 6 summarizes the full results. For the academic librarian partici- pants in Study 2, upon receipt of their MLIS degree, a majority of them (68.3%) found their first LIS-related job in public services (for instance, reference). While 16.5 percent of them had their first job in technical services (for instance, catalog- ing, acquisition), 3.8 percent started with administrative/managerial positions (table 7). Choosing Librarianship: Decision Time Information on the time when the par- ticipants developed their interest in LIS is valuable because it suggests the appropri- ate timing for recruitment. It is interesting to note that half of the participants in Study 1 responded that they became inter- ested in LIS during or a er their graduate studies (table 8). This finding coincides with the results of Mayer and Terrill’s sur- TABLE 7 Study 2: Librarians of Color Types of Work – First Library Job (n = 79) Type Number Percentage of Cases * Public services 54 68.3% Technical services 13 16.5% Administrative/ Managerial position 3 3.8% Director 1 1.3% No answer 11 13.9% Total 82 103.8% *As multiple responses were allowed for this ques- tion, the Percentage of Cases column adds up to more than 100%. Seventy-nine participants provided a total of 82 responses. vey of academic librarians. In their study, about 41 percent of respondents with advanced-subject degrees indicated that they decided to become a librarian a er receiving their subject degrees.38 The response from the academic librar- ians of color surveyed in Study 2 is rather mixed. Almost one third of the respon- dents (29.1%) indicated that they decided to pursue LIS while they were working in a non-LIS field, 24 percent of them in their undergraduate programs, and 22.8 percent while working in the LIS field (figure 2). When the decision times were compared across ethnic groups, the same time periods made the top three except in one group: In the Asian American group, the top two decision times were the same (while working in a non-LIS field, and while in the undergraduate program), but the third one was while in their graduate programs. Findings of the two studies suggest the key target groups for recruitment. For recruiting subject specialists, the main target group should include graduate students because many of them decide which profession to enter with their subject expertise while in graduate pro- grams. For recruiting librarians of color, undergraduates and paraprofessionals in libraries should be targeted. Library http:degrees.38 http:general.37 542 College & Research Libraries November 2007 TABLE 8 Study 1: Subject Specialists Time When Advanced Degree Holders Became Interested in LIS (n = 206) Time Number Percentage (%) During other graduate study 57 27.7% During post–other graduate degree 46 22.3% During undergraduate study 22 10.7% After undergraduate, but before graduate study 17 8.2% When working in the subject field 15 7.3% Before undergraduate study 12 5.8% When working in a library 10 4.8% After undergraduate study 8 3.9% When looking for a career or wanting a career change 4 1.9% When facing an early retirement or unemployment 3 1.5% Getting to know some librarians 3 1.5% Others 3 1.5% No answer 6 2.9% Total 206 100% FIGURE 2 Study 2: Librarians of Color Time When Librarians of Color Decided to Pursue LIS Studies Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 543 TABLE 9 Study 1: Subject Specialists Primary and Secondary Factors Attracting Advanced Degree Holders to Choose Librarianship (n = 206) Factors Primary Secondary Total (Prim+Sec) Percentage of Cases Intellectually rich environment 46 51 97 23.5% Nature of the library work 30 42 72 17.5% Wanted academic job, but not classroom teaching 31 26 57 13.8% Experience of working in a library 30 13 43 10.4% Quality of work life 13 21 34 8.3% Scarcity of academic jobs 17 11 28 6.8% Cooperative rather than solitary and competitive environment 13 13 26 6.3% Role model of a particular librarian 1 8 9 2.2% Unpleasant experience with tenure track position 1 3 4 1.0% Positive experience with doctoral research 0 2 2 0.5% Other 20 10 30 7.3% No answer 4 6 10 2.4% Total 206 206 412 100% associations and scholars have o en re- garded encouraging individuals working in libraries to seek an MLIS degree as a viable recruitment strategy.39 The findings of this study support this view. In addition to recruiting those who are already working in libraries, more proactive recruitment is needed. In Study 2, for example, many seem to believe that recruitment should target a wider range of groups, including high school students. In their response to open-ended ques- tions in Study 2, a number of participants emphasized the need for bringing more promotion/recruitment campaigns to high schools. Although it did not make it into the top ten strategies (presented in table 11), about 30 percent of the re- spondents also selected “Presentation of the LIS program/career opportunities in high schools” as one of the important strategies. It is interesting to note that only 4 percent responded that they decided to pursue LIS studies while in high schools (see figure 2), which is similar to the result of Ard and her colleagues’ study. Their study of MLIS students found that only 2 percent of the respondents decided to pursue LIS while in high schools.40 This might be an indication that, in the past, there had not been much aggressive pro- motion of the LIS professions/programs, targeting the high school students in particular, although it could have been ef- fective. A review of recruitment literature of education, nursing, and engineering suggest that these professions are ac- tively engaged in providing recruitment programs to high school students.41 To recruit more talent into the LIS profes- sions, there should be more recruitment initiatives targeting high school students, such as school library clubs, teen library associations, school visits, and precollege http:students.41 http:schools.40 http:strategy.39 544 College & Research Libraries November 2007 library programs.42 Such efforts can help reach students in their early stages of career choice and establish LIS as a viable career choice for them. Choosing Librarianship: Influential Fac- tors and Recruitment Strategies In Study 1, participants were asked to list the primary and secondary factors that a racted them to librarianship. The results suggest that the intellectually rich environment and the academic nature that a library position offers were the main factors that a racted them to the field (table 9). Experience of working in a library as well as quality of work life and collaborative work environment were also important factors. In Study 1, the participants were also asked to list positive and negative aspects of choosing librarianship as a career, and the results are presented in table 10. The top three positive factors included: (1) ability to work in the field they love, (2) more job options, and (3) opportunities for career advancement. When asked to add other positive factors, the participants frequently mentioned career flexibility, highly energetic professionals, ability to use all the diverse academic education within the LIS field, and the fact that academic librarianship involves teach- ing, research, and service. Clearly, these aspects will need to be emphasized when marketing academic librarianship as a profession to advanced degree holders. Results also revealed the top three nega- tive factors: (1) low salary, (2) high cost for education, and (3) low funding for education. Other negative factor included lack of job security. These negative factors highlight the challenges that the library profession must overcome to recruit qualified individuals to LIS. Findings of Study 2 identified effective recruitment strategies, some of which are comparable to what was found in Study 1. In Study 2, respondents were asked to se- lect the top ten recruitment strategies out of twenty-seven strategies, and the results are shown in table 11. The top ten strate- gies can be organized into four groups: TABLE 10 Study 1: Subject Specialists Positive and Negative Aspects of Choosing Librarianship as a Career (n = 206) Aspects Positive Negative No Opinion Ability to work in the field I love 90% 0% 10% Career advancement 68% 8% 24% Cost 29% 35% 36% Family obligations 21% 16% 63% Funding 15% 34% 50% Geographic mobility 61% 12% 27% Job options 83% 8% 9% Opinions of colleagues in my subject field 32% 13% 55% Opinions of subject area professors 24% 13% 63% Salary 29% 45% 26% Status of librarian 31% 34% 35% Time required to earn a degree 43% 29% 29% Other, specify 27% 3% 70% http:programs.42 Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 545 TABLE 11 Study 2: Librarians of Color Top Ten Recruitment Strategies Rank Recruitment Strategy % of Cases (n=79) 1 Assistantship/scholarship/financial aid 82.30% 2 Role models of your or other ethnic group 69.60% 3 Ethnic diversity of faculty in the LIS school/program 64.60% 4 Presence of faculty and staff of color in the recruitment process 63.30% 5 Opportunities for students of color to work in the LIS field 53.20% 6 Communication /Advertising in media, publications for people of color 49.40% 7 Special programs (Opportunities to work with LIS faculty, graduate students, or librarians) 48.10% 8 Presence of alumni of color in the recruitment process 45.60% 8 Recruitment materials developed especially for students of color 45.60% 10 Active solicitation and personal contacts from the LIS school/program 44.30% (1) financial and work opportunities (for example, scholarship/financial aids, work opportunities including special programs in LIS); (2) recruitment process (for in- stance, active solicitation and personal contacts, tailored recruitment materials, presence of faculty, staff, and alumni of color in the recruitment process); (3) eth- nic diversity (for instance, diversity of LIS faculty, role models), and (4) advertising (for example, communication through media for minority groups). Both Studies 1 and 2 pointed to the importance of financial support in LIS education. In Study 2, “Assistantship/ scholarship/financial aid” was found to be the most effective recruitment strategy (ranked top, selected by 82.3 percent of the respondents). This coincides with findings of Study 1, which identified the high cost for education and low funding for education as detrimental to the pursuit of LIS education and career. The results from both studies support the views of most LIS recruitment literature, where the importance of financial support is o en discussed and emphasized.43 In addition, previous library work experience has been highlighted as an important factor in both studies. In Study 2, about 43 percent of the respondents identified previous library work experi- ence as one of the factors affecting their decisions to pursue LIS (figure 3). This is related to Study 1, where “Experience of working in a library” was selected among the top five positive factors related to the choice of librarianship as career (see table 9). The results concur with Gordon and Nesbei ’s survey of librarians and Ard and her colleagues’ survey of LIS students. In their studies, previous library experience was found to be one of the top factors affecting the decision to pursue a career in LIS.44 These findings again con- firm that students and paraprofessionals working in libraries should be one of the key target groups for our recruitment ef- forts. In addition, they suggest that more working or volunteering opportunities in libraries should be used as a recruitment strategy. Findings of Study 2 seem to offer fur- ther insights. When librarians of color were asked to list their top strategies for recruitment in Study 2, “Opportunities for students of color to work in the LIS field” was ranked 5th (selected by 53.2 percent http:emphasized.43 546 College & Research Libraries November 2007 FIGURE 3 Study 2: Librarians of Color Previous Library Experience as a Factor Affecting the Decision to Choose Librarianship of respondents), and “Special programs (Opportunities to work with LIS faculty, graduate students, or librarians)” was the 7th (selected by 48.1 percent of re- spondents) (see table 11). These kinds of programs can achieve several objectives at the same time. Through such programs, students can learn what the LIS field is about. They can also meet with some au- thoritative figures who can be their role models as well as mentors. Variations of such programs have been offered in other fields to recruit students (for instance, precollege bridge programs in engineer- ing, nursing).45 It would be worthwhile to develop and offer such special programs to recruit more students into LIS. While sharing similar findings as discussed above, Studies 1 and 2 also revealed some differences in terms of the perceived effectiveness of some recruit- ment strategies. One of the notable dif- ferences is the influence of role models on career choice. In Study 1, role models did not seem to have a strong impact among the advanced degree holders: only 2.2 percent of the respondents selected role models as an influential factor (see table 9). This is different from other previous studies that pointed out the importance of role models in helping individuals to pur- sue LIS.46 In Study 2, on the other hand, the finding concerning role models is more consistent with extant studies. Strat- egy “Role models of your or other ethnic group” was selected by 69.6 percent of the respondents, making the strategy the second-most selected strategy, following the strategy of assistantship/financial aid (see table 11). As role models seem to be important in recruitment in general, a question worth further exploring is: “Who are the role models that can motivate individuals to pursue studies in LIS?” Findings of Study 2 offer some insights on this issue (Figure 4). The most influential figures include academic librarians (selected by 39.2 percent of the respondents) and pub- lic librarians (selected by 21.5 percent). http:nursing).45 Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 547 The influence of academic librarians is especially prominent among the African American and the Hispanic respondents. In Asian American and Native American groups, on the other hand, friends and family are found to have significant in- fluence. Teachers and faculty members seem to have significant influence among Native Americans. An interesting finding from Study 2 is that the recruiters and their personal touch can have a surprisingly big impact on recruitment as almost half of the top ten strategies are related to this. Role models, as discussed above, was ranked second in the top ten recruitment strate- gies (see table 11). Presence of faculty/staff of color and presence of alumni of color in the recruitment process were ranked as 4th and 8th , respectively. Active solicita- tion and personal contacts from the LIS school/program also made the top ten. The positive influence of having ethni- cally diverse faculty in LIS programs is o en mentioned in LIS recruitment stud- ies,47 and the findings of this study sup- port this view, with the strategy ranked 3rd. Although it is clear that using diverse recruiters and a personal touch would be helpful in recruitment, the benefit of such strategies is less discussed in LIS literature. Given that these recruitment strategies are relatively less demanding in terms of the financial requirement for the LIS schools, and that they have been ad- opted in recruitment campaigns of other professions,48 such efforts should be an area that needs more a ention in LIS. Differences found between advanced degree holders and the librarians of color in their preferred strategies highlight the need for more specialized and tailored recruitment campaigns. To explore more of possible group differences in recruit- ment strategies, responses from Study 2 were further analyzed. The top ten strategies of different ethnic groups were tabulated, and some differences were FIGURE 4 Study 2: Librarians of Color Individuals Affecting the Decision to Choose Librarianship* * Multiple responses were allowed for this question. 548 College & Research Libraries November 2007 TABLE 12 Study 2: Librarians of Color Top Ten Recruitment Strategies by Ethnic Groups Strategy Afr. Am. Asian Am. His. Am. Native Am. Overall Rank χ2 test p-value Advertising Communication/Advertising in media, publications for people of color 2 nd — — — 6 th 0.067 Presentation of the LIS program/ca- reer opportunities in high schools 7 th — — — — 0.001** Presentation of the LIS program/career opportunities in undergraduate classes — — 9 th — — 0.043* Recruitment Process Presence of faculty and staff of color in the recruitment process 3 rd 4 th 4 th 5 th 4 th 0.953 Presence of alumni of color in the recruitment process — 7 th 9 th 2 nd 8 th 0.039* Active solicitation and personal con- tacts from the LIS school/program — 10 th 6 th 9 th 10 th 0.907 Recruitment materials developed especially for students of color 6 th — — 8 th 8 th 0.444 Ethnic diversity Role models of your or other ethnic group 3 rd 2 nd 1 st 4 th 2 nd 0.670 Ethnic diversity of faculty in the LIS school/program 5 th 2 nd 4 th 2 nd 3 rd 0.305 Ethnic diversity of student population in the LIS school/program 6 th — 9 th — 0.189 Existence of committees/systems rein- forcing diversity/antidiscrimination in the LIS school/program — — 6 th — — 0.016* Financial and work opportunities Assistantship/scholarship/financial aid 1 st 1 st 1 st 1 st 1st 0.860 Opportunities for students of color to work in the LIS field 8 th 4 th 6 th 5 th 5 th 0.474 Special programs (Opportunities to work with LIS faculty, graduate stu- dents, or librarians) 8 th 10 th 3 rd 9 th 7 th 0.631 Availability of career services/job placement in the LIS school/program 8 th 7 th — — — 0.064 Program/Curriculum Courses on diversity/multicultural issues — 9 th 9 th 9 th — 0.284 Distance learning options in the LIS school/program — — — 5 th — 0.012* Recruiting a Diverse Workforce for Academic/Research Librarianship 549 found in their preferred strategies (table 12). Chi-square tests revealed that there was a significant difference among groups in five strategies. Relatively more Native American respondents value two strate- gies highly: “Distance learning options in the LIS school/program” and “Presence of alumni of color in the recruitment process.” Among the Hispanic American and Asian American respondents, “Exis- tence of commi ees/systems reinforcing diversity/antidiscrimination in the LIS school/program” received a higher share of support. A higher proportion of the African American respondents selected “Presentation of the LIS program/career opportunities” in high schools as well as undergraduate classes. Although these ethnic groups were o en grouped together as the “minority,” the findings support the view that there are distin- guishing differences among different groups, and these differences should be reflected in the recruitment strategies and recruitment materials.49 Conclusion The literature on academic librarianship has underscored the importance of subject specialists and the benefits they bring to the academic and research library com- munity. The value of cultural and ethnic diversity in librarianship has also been emphasized, as diversity helps the provi- sion of be er information services to the increasingly diverse user community, and the be er performance of libraries and li- brarians.50 However, li le has been known about the preferences of those with subject and cultural/language expertise, and fac- tors/strategies important for their recruit- ment. While many LIS organizations have pledged their commitment to diversity, the dearth of such research could hinder future assessment and implementation of recruitment efforts. By studying the views and experi- ences of the advanced degree holders and those of the librarians of color, this research provides more insight into the factors and recruitment strategies that could lead to a more diverse workforce in the LIS field. Findings of studies 1 and 2 show that providing financial support and opportunities to work in LIS would be beneficial to the recruitment of both advanced degree holders and people of color. The findings also revealed some differences, however. Role models, for example, seem to play a much stronger role among librarians of color than among advanced degree holders. The influence and contribution of academic librarians in motivating and mentoring future LIS professionals is also more evident among the librarians of color. This and other differences among groups underscore the need for more targeted recruitment campaigns. Developing tailor-made strategies to reflect the culture, views, and concerns of a target group requires more understand- ing of the potential recruits’ perspectives. While the findings of the two studies are not intended to be generalized to all LIS professionals, they can shed light on the experience and preference of individuals interested in becoming subject special- ists and librarians of color. This paper is one of the beginning steps to give voice to the views of the recruits, which will strengthen the recruitment effort of LIS education and profession. There are still several areas that need future research: (1) large-scale studies employing a prob- ability sampling method to increase the external validity of the research findings; (2) surveys focusing on the perspec- tives of particular librarian groups (for instance, public librarians, technical services librarians, male librarians, subject specialists in hard sciences); (3) studies using qualitative methods (for example, interviews, focus groups) to further the understanding of target groups; and (4) studies investigating strategies to make diversity part of or- ganizational culture and to effectively retain recruited librarians. As clearly articulated by the ACRL and many other researchers and practitioners, the recruitment, education, and retention http:brarians.50 http:materials.49 550 College & Research Libraries November 2007 of librarians is an important issue fac- paramount importance for the continu- ing academic libraries. 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