Untitled-4 Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 217 217 Networking and the Role of the Academic Systems Librarian: An Evolutionary Perspective Merri Beth Lavagnino This paper explores the role of the academic systems librarian from an evolutionary perspective, with a primary focus on the effect that net- working technologies have had on this role. Stages of evolution of this role are described, using examples from the literature and from sur- veys taken over the past few years. The author discusses new tasks the systems librarian has added as a result of this fundamental techno- logical change, outlines trends in the field that are occurring in reaction to this change, and proposes some thoughts for the next stage of de- velopment of the systems librarian role. of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) SPEC Kit on Systems Office Or- ganization,3 and Graeme A. Muirhead�s study in the United Kingdom.4 None of these surveys has focused on the history or evolution of the systems librarian�s role, however, or on the specific changes to it occasioned by networking technolo- gies, although each of them presents in- formation that makes it clear that such changes are occurring. This paper dis- cusses new tasks the systems librarian has added as a result of this fundamen- tal technological change, outlines trends in the field that are occurring in reaction to this change, and proposes some thoughts for the next stage of develop- ment of the role of the systems librarian. To understand the effect of network- ing on the systems librarian�s role, it is helpful to look at the position�s overall evolution. Much analysis of this evolu- tion must be based on personal experi- Merri Beth Lavagnino is the Library Systems Director at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; e-mail: mbl@uiuc.edu. ith the growth of local, na- tional, and international net- working initiatives, the role of the academic systems librarian has undergone a fundamental change. This has occurred with little mention in the literature and little formal acknowl- edgment in the profession; in fact, the role of the systems librarian in general has been a little-researched topic. In 1988, Susan K. Martin acknowledged and ad- dressed this void in her article, �The Role of the Systems Librarian,� in which she stated, �Systems librarians . . . have been almost entirely ignored, together with attendant issues such as their role, quali- fications, and future.�1 In the years since her article was published, a few surveys have told us more about the systems librarian�s role, most recently, the ALA Library Administration and Manage- ment Division�s Systems and Services Section (SASS) study,2 the 1995 revision 218 College & Research Libraries May 1997 ences of systems librarians because there is a lack of documentation of the actual role and the pressures that were chang- ing it. It also is important to note that there are many individual variations on the evolution of systems librarians, as academic libraries differ widely in size and organization and in their current level of automation. Many smaller aca- demic libraries do not yet have, or have just recently acquired, a systems librar- ian. Others (generally the larger librar- ies) were part of early automation efforts and now have systems librarians and de- partments at the higher stages of evolu- tion. The term systems librarian is used throughout this paper for the sake of con- sistency. This discussion is intended to be about the person who is in charge of managing automation in the library. It should be noted that there are many variations in the job titles of these people, including head of library systems, auto- mated systems coordinator, library sys- tems manager, and director of systems.5 In addition, it is true that not all of these individuals are librarians, although sur- veys taken in the past few years indicate that the majority are trained as librarians.6 A Model and a Beginning A simple stage model is used here only to help organize and conceptualize the evolution of the systems librarian role. Although stage theorists work to perfect a model to describe various social or tech- nological phenomena, the stage model used here is illustrative of only very ba- sic categorizations of systems librarian duties. Libraries may go through all these stages or may skip or reorganize them, but starting with a basic model allows us to begin thinking about the changes that have occurred, what may be caus- ing them, and how systems librarians and their organizations are responding to them. A chart listing these stages and summarizing the systems librarian�s evo- lution is shown in figure 1. The first identifiable stage probably was when libraries moved away from handwritten catalog cards to typewritten cards, and the administrative and acqui- sitions departments moved from hand calculations to adding machines. This was the first step toward the automation of libraries.7 In fact, this stage marked the introduction of the keyboard and the number pad to the library staff. Although a systems librarian position was not des- ignated at the time, certainly people in the organization were analyzing work flow and the effect the new machines would have on it, determining whether they would be a cost-effective alternative to manual work, selecting and ordering them, installing them and arranging for maintenance, and training staff in how to use them. The Systems Librarian Role Is Born A second stage encompassed the period of development of mainframe and mini- computer technologies and thus the de- velopment of function-specific auto- mated library systems. At first, these systems were offline, batch-processing systems, typically using punch cards for data entry. Many early circulation sys- tems, for example, automated the circu- lation of items though the use of punch cards created and placed in the pockets of the items. Later in this stage, online time-sharing systems were developed and this technology was used by many early library automation projects.8 The systems librarian first appeared during this stage. He or she was con- cerned with mainframe and minicom- puter systems development and imple- mentation, and usually was found work- ing for bibliographic utilities, vendors, or large university libraries developing Many smaller academic libraries do not yet have, or have just recently acquired, a systems librarian. Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 219 F IG U R E 1 St ag es in t he E vo lu ti on o f th e A ca de m ic S ys te m s L ib ra ri an S ta ge E vi de nc e in L ib ra ri es E ff ec t on S ys te m s L ib ra ri an O ne • Ty pe w ri te rs • N ot y et i n ex is te nc e • A dd in g m ac hi ne s Tw o • M ai nf ra m e an d m in ic om pu te r te ch no lo gy • A f ew e m er ge • F un ct io n- sp ec if ic s ep ar at e au to m at ed l ib ra ry s ys te m s • M an ag ed t ec hn ic al i ss ue s fo r in -h ou se d ev el op m en t an d im pl em en ta ti on • E m ph as is o n au to m at in g te ch ni ca l ta sk s pr oj ec ts • O ff li ne b at ch -p ro ce ss in g sy st em s • W or ke d fo r bi bl io gr ap hi c ut il it ie s, v en do rs , or l ar ge l ib ra ri es • O nl in e ti m e- sh ar in g sy st em s la te i n st ag e T hr ee • In te gr at ed o nl in e li br ar y sy st em s av ai la bl e • M or e ap pe ar fr om v en do rs • H ir ed t o m an ag e in te gr at ed l ib ra ry s ys te m i m pl em en ta ti on • T he o nl in e pu bl ic a cc es s ca ta lo g is b or n • O ft en a ls o he ad o f te ch ni ca l se rv ic es o r he ad o f ci rc ul at io n • M ic ro co m pu te rs a pp ea r an d be gi n pr ol if er at in g • S up po rt o f li br ar y st af f m ai n fo cu s • S ys te m s de pa rt m en t cr ea te d la te i n st ag e • M ic ro co m pu te r co or di na ti on d ut ie s ad de d la te i n st ag e • R ep or ts t o te ch ni ca l se rv ic es F ou r • L oc al , na ti on al , an d in te rn at io na l ne tw or ki ng d ev el op s • B eg in s to d ir ec tl y su pp or t pa tr on s • T C P /I P a nd V T 10 0 te rm in al s be co m e de f ac to s ta nd ar ds • B ec om es c ol le ag ue o f ca m pu s co m pu ti ng d ep ar tm en ts • N at io na l an d in te rn at io na l st an da rd s al lo w i nc re as ed • In vo lv ed i n lo ca l, st at e, r eg io na l, na ti on al c ol la bo ra ti ve p ro je ct s co ll ab or at io n • K no w le dg ea bl e ab ou t co m pu ti ng h ar dw ar e, s of tw ar e, a nd n et w or ki ng • S er ve r te ch no lo gi es r ep la ce m ai nf ra m es a nd us ed o ut si de t he l ib ra ry m in ic om pu te rs • M or e in vo lv ed i n ad m in is tr at iv e ta sk s • T he c en tr al c om pu ti ng e nv ir on m en t be co m es a • S ys te m s st af f in cr ea se s in n um be r di st ri bu te d, c li en t- se rv er e nv ir on m en t • B ec om es g en er al is t w hi le s ta ff i n of fi ce o r li br ar y be co m e sp ec ia li st s • R ep or ts t o di re ct or F iv e ? ? 220 College & Research Libraries May 1997 in-house systems. The systems generally were developed to handle functions used by staff, such as circulation or acquisi- tions; few public services functions were automated.9 These systems librarians dealt mostly with technical issues such as setting terminal characteristics, man- aging appropriate inputs and outputs to and from the system, running indexing jobs, and backing up the system. This in- volved interacting with programmers in developing the system and with techni- cians in keeping it running, and some- times in operating the system and train- ing library staff. These early systems li- brarians did not interact with the pub- lic�the college or university students, staff, and faculty�but, instead, were lim- ited to working with library and com- puter center staff and faculty. Systems librarians were a rarity, though, and many libraries brought com- puting staff with no library training into systems projects. �Individuals possessing both knowledge of library operations and computer expertise as applied to library functions constituted a small, informal elite in the library profession,� remarks Charles R. Hildreth about the period be- fore the 1980s.10 In a 1978 article titled �Automation and the Library Adminis- trator,� Eleanor Montague states that these new systems offices were �popu- lated by systems analysts and program- mers� and that �the majority of the time, library management did not possess the expertise to properly direct or evaluate the system development effort.�11 How- ever, at least two articles published in the early 1980s on selecting automation project managers recommend someone outside the systems office as the best choice for the job.12 Oddly, one of these articles tells us that �in general, a line of- ficer with proven managerial ability, a global view of the library, a sufficiency of systems expertise, and a strong sensi- tivity to system users� needs is the best choice for the library�s project man- ager.�13 To modern systems librarians, this may sound like a current listing of required skills for their position! It is clear that although the concept of the systems librarian was born in stage two, the merger of the �librarian� and �systems� roles would not begin to occur until at least stage three. The Role Expands: The Systems Department Emerges In the third stage, the systems librarian�s role expanded beyond the technical tasks handled in the previous stage. Techno- logical advances enabled separate, function-specific automated library sys- tems to evolve into integrated online li- brary systems, adding the first public function in the form of online public ac- cess catalogs. In 1987, Hildreth stated that �most formal plans for acquiring a local automated library system now specify a multi-function, integrated library system that can be operated entirely at the local site.�14 Perhaps as a result of this, many libraries hired a systems librarian or re- allocated an existing librarian to coordi- nate the selection and implementation of a commercial integrated system. He or she often had a technical services or cir- culation background, and many librar- ians who performed these tasks did them not as an official systems librarian but as part of some other position, such as head of technical services or head of circula- tion. During this stage, those desirable project management skills were merged with the technical systems skills, and the systems librarian role began evolving into the more modern conception, truly merging �systems� and �librarian� skills into one position. During this same time period, micro- computers began to proliferate in librar- Systems librarians were a rarity, though, and many libraries brought computing staff with no library training into systems projects. Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 221 ies. Interestingly, the mainframe/mini- computer systems and the microcom- puter systems did not appear to receive the same level of attention at the begin- ning of this stage. In most cases, the sys- tems librarian�s role (and attention) was focused only on mainframe/minicom- puter systems and the dedicated termi- nals that accessed them. One respondent of the SASS survey stated: �microcom- puters, CD-ROMs, Internet, e-mail were not in my area of concern. My only con- cern was the mainframe library system design and implementation.�15 This focus may have occurred because in most libraries microcomputers sur- faced without real planning. While the systems librarian was busy managing implementation of the new integrated system, staff members who liked to ex- periment with new things, enjoyed read- ing manuals, and were not afraid of com- puters became the unofficial microcom- puter systems support persons. This caused tension when these persons be- gan to spend too much time helping other departments with their microcom- puters and not enough time doing the job they were hired to do in their own de- partment. In addition, as the applications avail- able on microcomputers became more and more useful for library tasks that were not handled by the integrated sys- tem (including word processing, spread- sheets, and dial-up access to reference databases), the stress on administrators trying to manage these machines and their applications became unbearable, especially in larger libraries. Individual library departments were not coordinat- ing their microcomputer purchases and activities with other library departments, and widely varying (and often incompat- ible) hardware and software were being purchased from multiple vendors with inconsistent pricing and maintenance service. Departments with the unofficial microcomputer systems support persons were advancing technologically and those without these necessary staff were being left behind. These combined stresses led to expan- sion of the systems librarian role and to development of the systems department. Mainframe/minicomputer and micro- computer duties were merged under the auspices of the systems librarian, and the microcomputer activities in all the library departments began to be coordinated centrally. The integrated systems librar- ian was assigned a staff member or two, if possible, and a systems department was born that could support not only the main- frame/minicomputer integrated system but also other specialized tasks that could be accomplished with microcomputer ap- plications. These tasks included typing in and saving written documents that needed to be revised often, creating spe- cialized databases to manage informa- tion that was neither appropriate for nor possible to include in the bibliographic catalog, and managing financial figures with spreadsheets. In those cases where no staff members were hired or reas- signed to the fledgling department, the staff who had unofficially supported microcomputing sometimes continued to do so for their own department, now in cooperation with the systems librarian, who would support those departments where no unofficial expert had emerged. Perhaps this broadening of duties was made possible by the move to vendor-developed systems and by completion of the implementation phase, which left more time for these new ac- t i v i t i e s . These changes meant that the systems librarian began to supervise staff, to work closely with all departments of the library and all levels of staff, and to perform some administrative functions in terms of librarywide automation planning, budgeting, decision-making, and pur- chasing. However, he or she was often still organizationally located under the assistant director or head of technical services or circulation because much of 222 College & Research Libraries May 1997 the automation was still centered on cata- loging, serials, acquisitions, and circula- tion. In an early SPEC Kit on systems office organization in 1986, it was noted that although some systems librarians reported to the library director: In other situations, the systems of- fice forms a department that is part of one of the major operational ar- eas of the library, such as technical services or circulation. [This choice of reporting line] can be a function of the subsystem that was imple- mented first, the location of inter- ested staff members, or even the physical location of major comput- ing equipment. In the study of or- ganization charts, fourteen systems offices were a part of technical ser- vices, six reported to an associate director for administrative services, and three to access services.16 The systems librarian may have had some minimal contact with the public at this stage, with the introduction of the online public access catalog and of stand-alone CD-ROM technologies, but it was not substantial. Support of library staff continued to be the focus. Networking Alters the Role In the fourth stage, local, national, and international internetworking developed and the duties of the systems librarian expanded even more as a result. Al- though there were networks in place in previous stages (for example, those that allowed libraries to access the biblio- graphic utilities and those that allowed terminals throughout the library to ac- cess their integrated system), these were limited applications because of the dedi- cated nature and specialized protocols of the networks. With the introduction and popularity of de facto standard protocols for communication such as TCP/IP and the VT100 terminal, internetworking of networks in order to communicate be- tween systems from different vendors using differing communications proto- cols became possible, and newer tech- nologies developed as a result of this networking.17 Library literature and conference pro- grams indicate that many of the medium- sized to large academic libraries are cur- rently in this stage of evolution of the systems librarian role. Smaller academic libraries that may still be in one of the earlier stages may have to skip stages when they find themselves inundated by networking and its effect on information delivery to both the public and the library faculty and staff. At the Computers in Li- braries Conference in 1991, Clifford A. Lynch was already outlining the techni- cal and management issues of this stage in his presentation titled �Evolution in Action: The Demise of the Integrated Li- brary System and the Rise of Networked Information Resources.�18 Some of the major changes to the role of systems li- brarian as a result of internetworking include: expansion of the clientele the systems librarian serves; an increase in the number and type of interactions with on-campus computer support depart- ments as well as off-campus local, re- gional, and national systems librarians; a demand for more technical skills relat- ing to the complexities of networking; and an escalation of administrative and professional commitments. Serving More Than Just the Library As networking became more pervasive, the academic systems librarian�s role ex- panded to include serving college or uni- versity faculty, staff, and students. The work done by the systems librarian in the previous stages typically served patrons only indirectly by providing the public catalog, perhaps installing some stand- alone CD-ROMs in the library, and by supporting the systems needs of librar- ians and staff (for example, reference li- brarians and bibliographers) who, in turn, supported patrons directly. The sys- Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 223 tems librarian rarely supported or inter- acted directly with library patrons. With the advent of campus networks, the sys- tems librarian began to support patrons directly by creating and maintaining net- worked electronic information systems and then by providing access to those electronic services from patrons� offices and homes. Although the reference li- brarians answer questions about how to use a resource once connected to it, they refer patrons to the systems librarian for help if the patron has technical difficul- ties connecting to the service. In addition to responding individually to patron problems with accessing the library�s electronic resources, the systems librar- ian often began producing documenta- tion for patrons, such as a sheet describ- ing how to dial in to the online catalog, a task not generally performed in previous stages of evolution. Scott P. Muir, in summarizing the re- sults of the 1995 SPEC Kit survey on li- brary systems office organization, rein- forces this shift toward supporting not just library faculty and staff, but also li- brary patrons: Three activities, all reflecting the trend toward increased patron- centered activities, showed tremen- dous increases. The largest percent- age increase was systems offices working on Gopher, Mosaic, etc. Fifty-seven libraries reported in- volvement in this area, compared with only five libraries in 1990, an increase of more than 1000%. In a related activity, twenty-five librar- ies were working with CWIS in 1994 while only three were doing so in 1990, a 733% increase. Patron access to remote databases (e.g., CARL UnCover, OCLC FirstSearch) show ed a 475% increase with forty-six systems offices working in this area, up from eight in 1990. Locally mounted databases (up 218%) and networked CD-ROMs (up 118%) showed substantial in- creases as well.19 Support of faculty, staff, and students in accessing the library�s electronic re- sources often leads to consulting with this clientele on other networking and electronic information needs. The sys- tems librarian is often called upon to ex- plain the value of the campus network to academic departments considering in- stalling network connections because the library often provides the major informa- tion resources available on it. When de- partments create informational data- bases, such as specialized citation in- dexes, preprint databases, geographical information systems, grant information databases, and other databases of local interest, they often approach the systems librarian to ask how to provide access to their information for library patrons. Requests to make computer-based text- book materials, tutorials, and programs available on reserve and usable within the library are growing, requiring assis- tance from the systems librarian to sup- port the necessary equipment for patrons to use such materials. Systems librarians also are asked for advice when special, often nonlibrary units would like mate- rials such as museum collections, pho- tography collections, career development collections, and computer-aided instruc- tion videos added to the online catalog. The systems librarian is asked how to configure the integrated library system to accept and index these materials, of- ten requiring him or her to meet with the unit that owns the collection. When col- lege and university faculty and staff are writing grants involving electronic infor- mation access and networking, the sys- tems librarian is asked for advice and The systems librarian rarely supported or interacted directly with library patrons. 224 College & Research Libraries May 1997 ideas as well as for a commitment to be- come involved if the grant is received. Muirhead notes that �a point which emerged from a considerable number of replies was that as technologies merge, making the distinction between the li- brary system and the range of other in- ternal and external [information technol- ogy] systems less distinct, and as open systems make physical access to the li- brary collection less important, so the role of the systems librarian is not only wid- ening but also evolving from an essen- tially supporting role into a more high profile post, providing a direct service to a range of customers.�20 This range of customers includes not only library pa- trons, but also other campus computing staff and other local, regional, and na- tional library and campus computing staff. Campus Computing Staff As Colleagues Networking initiatives have changed the type and number of interactions with campus computing and telecommunica- tions departments. In the previous stages, the library generally had dedicated ter- minals connected to a mainframe/mini- computer either in the library or at the computer center, and dealt with a small number of central computer center staff for assistance with this system. Typically, the computer center served as a resource for the systems librarian; rarely was this role reversed. In this stage, however, the number of interactions has expanded and the role is sometimes inverted. This happened as libraries branched out into network- based automation projects outside the realm of the integrated library system, or when they moved away from main- frame/minicomputer technologies to newer server technologies that may be fully supported within the library. The systems librarian begins interacting with staff in all divisions of computing, not just the division that supported the main- frame or minicomputer in previous stages. He or she establishes and culti- vates relationships with both academic and administrative systems groups, mi- crocomputer services, networking ser- vices, extension services, continuing edu- cation, and specialists in areas such as graphics, imaging, and instructional technology. Campuswide technology is- sues such as the security of passwords and data passing through the network are discussed together, including policy issues such as whether to collaborate to make it possible for each patron to have a single user name and password for all electronic services available on campus. The systems librarian and the computer center staff find themselves attending the same conferences sponsored by organi- zations such as EDUCOM, CAUSE, and CNI, and, in fact, the costs for the insti- tution to join these organizations are of- ten shared by these units. The systems librarian becomes a colleague of the com- puter center staff, rather than a customer. As this collegiality grows, the com- puter center begins to call on the systems librarian as a resource person, reversing the typical role. Users calling the com- puter center to ask about campus access to Medline, Current Contents, LEXIS/ NEXIS, Dow Jones News/Retrieval ser- vice, or other commercial databases of- ten get referred back to the systems li- brarian by his or her computing center colleagues, who expect the systems li- brarian to be able to resolve technical problems or to direct the user to the cor- rect public services unit for assistance. Computer center administrators looking to reduce reliance on expensive main- frames/minicomputers are asking sys- tems librarians to find alternate platforms on which to run integrated library sys- tems (for example, moving to less costly UNIX servers), as well as alternative ways to accomplish tasks through the network rather than through dedicated lines and hardware, and alternative ways to deliver print-based and reel-to-reel Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 225 tape-based inputs and outputs to and from the library system using the net- work. �Yes, responsibilities have ex- panded beyond implementation and support for local systems to include stra- tegic planning for networking and tele- communications issues library wide, in- tegration of external electronic resources with traditional library resources, [and] liaison with [the] campus computing center for both library and academic computing issues,� writes a respondent to the SASS survey.21 The systems librarian also begins to cultivate relationships with computing departments beyond the central com- puter center. Often there are computing departments within colleges and schools, and the systems librarian is one of the few individuals on campus who will deal with all such units. Typical projects in- volve providing access to information created and maintained by the college or school; providing access to subject- specific information through specialized interfaces; pooling resources to provide access to subject-specific resources; plan- ning projects such as access to Internet resources from dorm rooms, extension campuses, and continuing education sites; and so on. The systems librarian begins to be invited to take part in col- lege, school, and campuswide commit- tees and groups addressing such subjects as reviews of currently available technol- ogy, strategic planning, and campuswide standardization of technology. This trend is noted in Tim Lynch�s article, �The Many Roles of an Information Technol- ogy Section,� in which he describes one role of a Cornell University systems of- fice: �We work with related campus aca- demic units to integrate the library�s ca- pability to manage electronic resources into the strategic plans for curriculum, research, and extension.� As an example, he describes his own participation on an advisory committee on electronic infor- mation technology in the university�s College of Agricultural and Life Science.22 Libraries that participated in the 1995 SPEC Kit survey also indicate that they are in this fourth stage and experiencing this change in relationship: �Accountabil- ity may become increasingly blurred if the library assumes responsibility for In- ternet/Web training or operates in a dis- tributed computing environment. The client-server environment will require that the systems office staff and individu- als in other departments become skilled at diagnosing problems and find ready solutions. Service lines may also become clouded when academic departments acquire services such as document deliv- ery or electronic bibliographic data- bases.�23 The existence of networking standards and infrastructure in this stage makes it possible for local, regional, national, and even international collaboration to in- crease. These initiatives are a result of the desire to pool resources to provide more information to all of the affected institu- tions, as well as to the general public. Systems librarians find themselves col- laborating with other libraries to set up reciprocal Z39.50 access to each other�s catalogs; to facilitate online interlibrary loan and document delivery services be- tween libraries; to provide access to lo- cally produced data through these net- works; to share in licensing costs for elec- tronic resources; and to share in the load- ing of those licensed data at one of the participant�s sites and accessing it from the others. In all of these and other network-based collaborations, the sys- tems librarian increases interaction with library and computing colleagues out- side their own campus, and with other types of institutions such as state librar- ies, public libraries, school libraries, and library consortiums. Increase in Technical Knowledge In the previous stage, the library focused on a limited number of hardware and software platforms. The systems librar- ian must now add telecommunications 226 College & Research Libraries May 1997 standards, protocols, terminology, wir- ing, and more to his or her knowledge. He or she also must be knowledgeable about not only the hardware, software, and networking technologies chosen for use in the library, but also those used campuswide in order to provide net- worked services that are accessible from the commonly used technologies on cam- pus. In those libraries actively working to cooperate with other local, regional, and national libraries, the systems librar- ian needs to be conversant with the rel- evant national and international stan- dards, know about the technologies used by these other libraries, and be flexible enough to make the necessary changes to the local environment in order to take part in standards-based networking ac- tivities. In the report on the SASS survey, Barbara G. Leonard found that �There is a much higher level of knowledge re- quired than one might expect for tele- communications and LANs. This is es- pecially striking, since on most campuses, telecommunications is not part of the library.�24 The increase in technical knowledge required to perform well as a systems li- brarian in the networked age is truly an increase, not merely a retooling. Those who have been systems librarians for years were trained using those central- ized mainframe/minicomputer environ- ments with their dumb terminal or telnet access methods; and in stage four they must begin working with significantly different technologies and their new cul- ture without losing their knowledge of the older technologies, which do not magically disappear overnight. These new, networked, distributed technologies (for example, client-server computing environments, UNIX workstations acting as powerful servers, World Wide Web servers, newer programming technolo- gies such as object-oriented design, and newer database technologies such as re- lational database design and SQL) must be learned on the job, while still running the old system. Newer systems librarians may come to the job with more experi- ence with current technologies but no knowledge of the older technologies, which they must learn about in order to begin working within these larger spheres of collaborators who will have a mix of old and new technologies that must interoperate. The complexities of this new, net- worked environment are an additional burden. Because it is made up of many different pieces linked together, no single vendor can resolve all the internetworking problems. This heterogeneous environ- ment causes headaches for even the most skilled and knowledgeable systems librar- ian, who must determine how to make the pieces interoperate and also must be able to figure out exactly what piece is not working when some part of the system fails. In previous stages, all parts of the system were typically within the control of the systems librarian, or at least the campus computing and telecommunica- tions staff, but in this new networked stage, many parts of the internetworked system are beyond their control. They must work with other constituencies, both on campus and off, to identify and resolve interoperability problems. Escalation of Administrative and Professional Tasks In this stage, the systems librarian is more involved in the strategic planning activi- ties of the library, in order to advise on and implement the appropriate techni- cal infrastructure for the services desired. He or she becomes more involved in the librarywide budget, perhaps as a result Those who have been systems librarians for years were trained using those centralized mainframe/ minicomputer environments with their dumb terminal or telnet access methods. Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 227 of spending a significant portion of it on creating and maintaining the various networked systems. Also, he or she be- comes more concerned about building maintenance and security, shipping and receiving, and administrative office func- tions. This is a result of becoming in- volved in the building wiring component of networking; becoming concerned about the effect of power outages and other emergencies on automated and networked systems; having to distribute large pieces of equipment and the atten- dant furniture to library units; needing to order hardware and software quickly to resolve problems; and working to pre- vent the theft of automation equipment. Planning and budgeting projects go beyond the local library in this net- worked stage, and the systems librarian consults with other specialist technical persons on campus and within their group of off-campus collaborators to plan and write proposals and grants for projects aimed at increasing information access beyond the library and the cam- pus. In these times of financial constraints in educational institutions, such propos- als often come to fruition by joining to- gether funds from several departments or institutions in order to produce a ser- vice for the whole campus, state, or re- gion. The systems librarian now spends much time attending professional con- ferences and meetings, in correspon- dence, and on conference calls in order to plan, implement, monitor, and lead such projects. It is interesting to note that in the SASS survey, the top skills required by a systems librarian are, in this order: problem solving, planning, oral com- munications, interpersonal, written communications, organizational, ne- gotiating, and supervisory.25 It is inter- esting to compare this to stage two when the systems librarian was typi- cally a �computing� person and con- sidered unfit to be the project manager for automation projects. What Gives? If systems librarians in this networked stage are adding all these activities to their list of duties, what have they stopped doing? In many cases, particularly in smaller libraries, they have not stopped doing anything; they are just doing more. Muirhead found that 62.8 percent of his respondents regularly worked beyond their contracted hours, and an additional 32.3 percent said they did so occasion- ally.26 But there are some activities com- mon in previous stages that are difficult to continue doing well because of the addition of seemingly higher-priority networking activities, including: � microcomputer hardware installa- tion, troubleshooting, and repair; � microcomputer software installation and troubleshooting; � integrated library system software maintenance such as resolving nonurgent bugs; � routine analysis of work flow and identification of tasks that could be made more efficient through hardware or soft- ware modifications; � staff training. As seen in the next section, these ac- tivities continue to get done, but appar- ently not by the systems librarian. Al- though most academic libraries are cur- rently entering into and struggling with this networked stage, there are some emerging trends that may help solve the problem of supporting traditional activi- ties in addition to the new networking activities. Evolution during This Networking Stage The systems department appears to be expanding during this stage to meet the growing computing needs of the library. In a study of employment advertisements in American Libraries for academic librar- ian positions, the number of position an- nouncements for systems positions steadily increased from one in 1974, to 228 College & Research Libraries May 1997 thirteen in 1979, to twenty-three in 1984, to thirty in 1989, to forty-three in 1994.27 The 1995 SPEC Kit survey found a 37 percent increase in systems office em- ployees overall since 1990, including a 205 percent increase in the number of network specialists, a 55 percent increase in student assistants, a 33 percent increase in computer specialists, and a 30 percent increase in librarians.28 But besides sim- ply multiplying, the persons within the systems office have changed roles. Typi- cal systems departments in medium- sized to large academic libraries in the previous stage consisted of a systems li- brarian as head of the department and perhaps one or more staff members han- dling technical and programming duties. In reality, though, all the members of the department, including the systems librar- ian, handled most duties interchangeably, and in smaller institutions the systems librarian did not have any other staff. It was not uncommon in the previous stage to see the systems librarian unjamming a printer or installing a microcomputer, for example. We are beginning to see, especially in medium-sized to large libraries, the ad- dition of professional librarians to the department as well as additional staff. The head of the department is becoming a technical generalist, knowledgeable about the big picture and competent in management and planning skills, know- ing high-level technical details about ev- erything. The other systems department librarians and staff are becoming special- ists in particular areas, knowing all the in-depth technical details about their par- ticular areas and a few details about other areas. This is especially apparent from the huge growth of network specialist posi- tions mentioned above, and in the United Kingdom survey in which Muirhead states: �For example, one solution to the problem of increasing workloads was to allocate more staff to the systems unit. This was frequently qualified by a desire for staff with appropriate skills, and in a few cases it was seen as a way of allow- ing the systems librarian to concentrate on a narrower range of activities, or to develop a more strategic role.�29 In 1990, Felix T. Chu concluded that the systems librarian, besides being a librarian with experience in library automation, �must also be a software engineer, a hardware specialist, a systems programmer, a tele- communications expert, and an electri- cal engineer.�30 As we found when the systems librarian position was first born, only a very small elite can claim to meet these specifications. Specialization is evolving out of necessity as technology becomes more complex and as it becomes increasingly important for the systems librarian to take part in planning and management activities. In fact, librarians in other departments may become these specialists, because of either a lack of funds to create new posi- tions or a strategic choice to locate such tasks at the department level. In this way, the traditional tasks that are becoming increasingly difficult to continue support- ing will receive attention. In some cases, this trend is already emerging�examples of common, newly described positions are the library training coordinator posi- tion (for staff training in technologies in addition to bibliographic instruction) and the reference librarian (or high-level as- sistant director position in some of the larger libraries) assigned the duty of co- ordinating electronic information ser- vices. In addition, many libraries are ex- perimenting with distributing routine hardware and software installation, maintenance, and repair to departmen- tal systems liaisons and with providing The other systems department librarians and staff are becoming specialists in particular areas, knowing all the in-depth technical details about their particular areas and a few details about other areas. Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 229 centralized training and ongoing support for these liaisons. This can be a particu- larly effective strategy in libraries where there is still only one systems librarian, as Muirhead notes: �For example, the diffusion of basic systems knowledge to a core of interested staff is one way of promoting a greater understanding of the systems role, easing the systems workload, and ensuring greater opera- tional efficiency by reducing dependence on one individual.�31 The systems librarian is moving up in the administrative structure of the library, now reporting directly to the director of the library or becoming an assistant di- rector for systems. As early as 1990, in a Dynix survey of systems administrators, two-thirds of the 148 survey respondents reported directly to their library or con- sortium director.32 The 1995 SPEC Kit sur- vey also confirms a move in this direc- tion since 1990,33 and in the United King- dom, 66.1 percent of systems librarians report directly to directors or their depu- ties.34 This more closely fits the role of the systems librarian in meeting the needs of all departments of the library, not just the technical services area. As a result, the systems librarian also has become very involved in the overall administration of the library, which en- ables him or her to either delegate parts of these duties to others outside the sys- tems unit or create administrative sup- port structures that assist in efficient sys- tems support activities. Having more control over the administration of these processes helps the systems librarian ac- complish more with less time and fewer staff. However, Muirhead aptly points out that �the systems librarian�s author- ity seems to be particularly ambiguous. It does not rest on the existing framework of the organization, but cuts across it in a matrix structure, with staff from many departments reporting to the systems li- brarian in matters of system operation and/or performance.�35 Perhaps this is one reason why the role of the systems librarian has been so complex and diffi- cult to describe. What Next? The fundamental changes that have taken place in the role of the systems li- brarian in the fourth, networked stage include: a new clientele in the form of the library patrons; an increase in inter- actions with computer and networking support departments locally and systems librarians in collaborating institutions; an increase in technical knowledge needed to plan and manage network-based projects; and more administrative and professional commitments such as pro- posal and grant writing, librarywide planning and budgeting, and attendance at meetings and conferences. But what will cause the next stage of evolution of the systems librarian role to occur, and how will it affect the systems librarian? Although recent trends are already sig- naling further changes to the role of the systems librarian, it is hard to imagine what trends might cause a fundamental change of the magnitude that occurred when networking entered our world. We can look to the trends emerging in higher education that will affect organizational and technological strategies, such as those listed in a recent CAUSE publica- tion: (1) traditional funding sources are flat or decreasing; (2) public expectations and state mandates are calling for more reporting requirements and accountabil- ity; (3) consumer expectations demand more sophisticated services requiring greater access to data; (4) evolving orga- nization structures will significantly change traditional hierarchies; and (5) sophisticated knowledge workers require expanded technical and consulting sup- port.36 Will one or more of these alter the role significantly? We can look to the tra- ditional systems librarian skills that are now being transferred to specialists within library departments or to each and every librarian in the form of basic com- puter competencies, and wonder if this 230 College & Research Libraries May 1997 trend will be the one to significantly al- ter the systems librarian role. We also can look to technological trends such as the growth in new architecture designs for integrated library systems, database con- struction, and office applications, and ponder the effect of these innovations on this role. Have we yet seen the full effect of the consortial agreements being made to purchase access to or share electronic information? Will national and interna- tional standards mature to the point of seamless internetworking and sharing of data? Will some of these trends signifi- cantly alter the role of the systems librar- ian and move us into a new stage? Will we know before, or even when, this new stage is here, or will we only recognize it in retrospect and have to adjust our role to fit it? We have seen how the changes to the role of systems librar- ian in the networked stage have resulted in certain trends in the academic library. We will need to monitor these trends in the coming years and analyze if they are appropriate reactions to fundamental changes in technology, such as the intro- duction of internetworking. In the period following Martin�s 1988 article pointing out the lack of research into the role of the systems librarian, there has been a slow increase in the number of articles, surveys, and books published that study the role and the technological and mana- gerial challenges of the systems librarian in the modern library. The lack of re- search in previous stages left us with little information to guide us as we reacted to technological changes during the current stage. This burgeoning interest in the role of the systems librarian will help us to monitor the changes that occur, ask why they are occurring, and dynamically change our roles and organizations so that we can continue to offer new, more useful information services to our pa- trons in the most efficient and effective way. Notes 1. Susan K. Martin, �The Role of the Systems Librarian,� Journal of Library Administration 9, no. 4 (1988): 57. 2. Barbara G. Leonard, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator: A Preliminary Report,� Library Administration & Management 7, no. 2 (spring 1993): 113�16; Karen A. Hatcher, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator: A Report of the Survey,� Library Administra- tion & Management 9, no. 2 (spring 1995): 106�9. 3. Scott P. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization, SPEC Kit #211 (Washington, D.C.: ARL Office of Management Studies, 1995). 4. Graeme A. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United King- dom,� Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 25, no. 3 (Sept. 1993): 123�35. 5. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization. 6. Susan B. Epstein, �Administrators of Automated Systems: A Survey,� Library Journal 116, no. 11 (June 1991): 56; Leonard, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator,� 115. 7. There were scattered cases of automation in libraries beginning as early as 1936. For more in-depth coverage of the history of library automation, see The Encyclopedia of Library and Informa- tion Science (New York: Marcel Dekker 1975), 338�445; and Charles R. Hildreth, Library Automation in North America (New York: Saur, 1987). 8. The Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, 339�42. 9. It is interesting to note that in 1975 The Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science states that �the vast majority of existing systems� fall into these categories: acquisitions, cataloging, serials, and circulation (p. 343). Hildreth, in Library Automation in North America, tells us that in 1980, the phrase �online public access catalog� was not a familiar one �in the common parlance of library networkers� (p. 5). 10. Hildreth, Library Automation in North America, 17. 11. Eleanor Montague, �Automation and the Library Administrator,� Journal of Library Auto- mation 11, no. 4 (Dec. 1978): 315. 12. Tom Mendina, �The Role of the Library Project Manager in Implementing an Automated Circulation-Online Catalog System,� Journal of Library Administration 4, no. 3 (fall 1983): 36�37; Networking and the Academic Systems Librarian 231 William Atkins, �Selecting a Project Manager,� Systems Management 31, no. 10 (Oct. 1980): 34�35. 13. Mendina, �The Role of the Library Project Manager,� 37. 14. Hildreth, Library Automation in North America, 9�10. 15. Hatcher, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator,� 107. 16. R. Bruce Miller, Systems Office Organization, SPEC Kit #128 (Washington, D.C.: ARL Office of Management Studies, 1986). 17. For an overview of internetworking protocols, see, for example, Gilbert Held, Internetworking LANs and WANs: Concepts, Techniques, and Methods (New York: John Wiley, 1993). 18. Clifford A. Lynch, �Evolution in Action: The Demise of the Integrated Library System and the Rise of Networked Information Resources,� in Computers in Libraries �91: Proceedings of the 6th Annual Computers in Libraries Conference, ed. Nancy M. Nelson (Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1991), 106�7. 19. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization. 20. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United Kingdom,� 129. 21. Hatcher, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator,� 107. 22. Tim Lynch, �The Many Roles of an Information Technology Section,� Library Hi Tech 12, no. 3 (1994): 42. 23. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization. 24. Leonard, �The Role of the Systems Librarian/Administrator,� 116. 25. Ibid., 115. 26. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United Kingdom,� 133. 27. Yuan Zhou, �Analysis of Trends in Demand for Computer-Related Skills for Academic Librarians from 1974 to 1994,� College & Research Libraries 57, no. 3 (May 1996): 261. 28. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization. 29. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United Kingdom,� 133. 30. Felix T. Chu, �Evaluating the Skills of the Systems Librarian,� Journal of Library Administra- tion 12, no. 1 (1990): 101. 31. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United Kingdom,� 134. 32. Epstein, �Administrators of Automated Systems,� 57. 33. Muir, Library Systems Office Organization. 34. Muirhead, �The Role of the Systems Librarian in Libraries in the United Kingdom,� 130. 35. Ibid. 36. David J. Ernst, Richard N. Katz, and John R. Sack, Organizational and Technological Strategies for Higher Education in the Information Age, CAUSE Professional Paper Series 13 (Boulder, Colo.: CAUSE, 1994).