College and Research Libraries Library Jargon: Student Comprehension of Technical Language Used by Librarians Rachael Naismith and Joan Stein Jargon, or technical language, appears in both the writing and speech of librarians in their dealings with the public. If the library patron cannot comprehend this language, the reference transaction is impeded. This study measures students' comprehension of a selection of library terms that were derived from actual reference interviews and library handouts. A multiple- choice test was administered to a group of freshmen. ''Thinking-aloud'' or protocol analyses were also run for information as to the reasoning processes used by the subjects. Given the results of this testing which show that patrons misunderstand library terms approximately half of the time, the researchers offer librarians a continuum of solutions. II his study examines the issue of jargon in librarianship, includ- ing terminology used in the handouts written by librarians and the vocabulary used in conversations with library users, typically in the refer- ence interview. As is true with many professions, librarianship employs many words and phrases that can be considered technical language. Technical language or jargon provides a shorthand means of la- beling frequently used concepts. Librari- ans, in their discussions with peers, can- not redefine common terms over and over again. A label is affixed to a more complex idea, and this label takes on an everyday, understood meaning. A problem occurs when that label is used to communicate with an audience that is unfamiliar with the specialized use of a term. To a librarian, the word citation may be as familiar as the word coffee. To an undergraduate or even graduate student, this may not be so. Can such language af- fect reference transactions, in a field in which "user-friendliness" is a common concern? This study was designed to measure students' comprehension of terms de- rived from reference interviews and hand- outs. While "jargon" is not always considered synonymous with "technical language," for the purpose of this study these terms will be used interchangeably. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Communication Models A number of communication models have been proposed by researchers. In re- cent years, cognitive psychologists have adopted models that have added subjec- tive components lacking in earlier models. Figure 1 is a simplified diagram of Terry Winograd's discourse model. 1 The two participants, the speaker and the hearer (or writer and reader), each possess a set of cognitive structures, or stored schemas, some of which existed be- fore the discourse event. Simply put, a Rachael Naismith is Publications Coordinator and Reference Librarian and Joan Stein is Head of Resource Shar- ing at Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213-3890. The authors would like to acknowl- edge the assistance of Professor Tom Huckin for his guidance and knowledgeable suggestions, of the Carnegie Mellon University reference librarians who participated in the study, of the library administrators who supported their research, and of Marilyn Jacobs for assistance with statistical data. 543 544 College & Research Libraries Speaker's intended meaning Stored Schemas September 1989 Stored Schemas Hearer's interpretation TEXT or UTTERANCE Goals Previous schemas from this discourse Model of the hearer Model of the speaker FIGURE 1 Model of Communication (Winograd) schema is a collection of knowledge re- lated to a concept or definition. Schemas are used in the reasoning process by which discourse becomes understood. Schemas develop over the course of the transaction through analysis of words chosen, tone used, and so on . The hearer considers the context of the spoken infor- mation and compares the data to existing schemas, noting differences between the data and the schematic structures. The hearer may refer to more than one schema in the effort to interpret the data. In addition, each participant has a model of the other person, which de- velops during the conversation. The pro- cessing of the information (written or ver- bal) involves linguistics at a variety of levels, including syntax, conversational conventions, and word meaning. In this model, ''meaning'' covers all of the speak- er's and hearer's goals. At the most basic level, these goals take the form of the words selected by the speaker. The hear- er's comprehension of words is affected by the hearer's model of the relevant "world" and of the speaker. Related to this model is the idea of attri- bution. The individual takes cues from the message or situation and judges, based on preexisting schemas, whether the situa- tion is familiar or not. If the content of the situation seems familiar, the hearer fol- lows the earlier path of conclusions. If the situation is not familiar, the individual at- tributes conclusions through abstract rea- soning and inference. According to this model, comprehension is a creative pro- cess on the part of the hearer. 2 Reference Interviews Numerous articles have been written about the reference interview. Most of the articles stress that the reference librarian is the intermediary or link between the user and the information system. Articles that have been written about question negotia- tion tend to focus on the language used by library patrons, as opposed to that used by librarians. Ellis Mount recognized that one obstacle to a successful reference transaction is an inquirer's lack of knowl- edge of library terminology. This makes it difficult for the library patron to use refer- ence tools and ask understandable ques- tions.3 One article examines the use of jargon by reference staff members and users in a medical school library. 4 Library staff mem- bers were asked to record use of ''short ti- tles, terms, and abbreviations used by staff and library users to refer to any infor- mation source.'' The researchers conclude that jargon is used extensively in reference departments, by both staff and users. They state that jargon can be used as an ef- fective communication tool between health profe~sionals, who originate much Library Jargon 545 of the jargon, and librarians. They recom- mend that library schools teach common jargon to future medical librarians. Related to discussions about reference interviews are discussions about the lan- guage of online searching. The language of computers is now part of the language of libraries. Library users now encounter communication barriers through com- puter manuals, online help screens, and searching instructions provided by librari- ans. In one article, Bonnie Snow recom- mends that professional searchers cus- tomize their training methods to accommodate occasional users. She com- ments that "use of jargon is a habit so in- grained in most professional searchers that detecting it is one of the greatest chal- lenges in designing handouts, visual aids, and other teaching tools.'' 5 One final aspect of reference interviews that has been discussed in library litera- ture is attitude. Librarians may assume ei- ther a vertical or horizontal relationship with library users. In a vertical relation- ship, an individual nurtures his or her self-concept, maintaining a superior im- age, with negative results for others. In a horizontal relationship, communication is positive and nonthreatening. The librar- ian treats the user with respect as an equal. The conversation that flows back and forth is honest, unintimidating, and . noncompetitive. 6 Written Documents Style manuals and composition texts have defined standard rules for writing clarity. In recent years, there has been a more detailed examination of reader com- prehension related to writing styles. Part of the impetus for this is the ''Plain En- glish" movement, an effort to improve the writing of public documents that were previously ambiguous or even incompre- hensible to the people who used them. This movement is gaining momentum, with a number of state laws now specify- ing that functional documents such as in- surance policies and leases be written clearly. Many library documents are functional documents, in that they lead a person through an avenue of library research, 546 College & Research Libraries pinpointing specific sources that must be secured and used. Because functional doc- uments are read for use, not pleasure, they need to be written in an easy-to- follow style. 7 One principle that many ad- vocates of Plain English feel increases readability is the avoidance of jargon. "Green warns against using techni- cal terms unnecessarily or inappro- priately, confronting the reader with obscure expressions rather than plain words." In one research study on echnical writ- ing, David Green notes that technical terms inevitably develop with the growth of expertise in an area, and they can serve a practical function. ''By using the term writers can ensure that readers familiar with its designation will understand them-that is, that they will build an ap- propriate mental representation. ''8 Green warns against using technical terms un- necessarily or inappropriately, confront- ing the reader with obscure expressions rather than plain words. In an essay on readability, Thomas Huckin stresses that the writer must con- sider the expertise of the audience. Ac- cording to the schema theory discussed above, prior knowledge serves as a frame- work that makes the new information more meaningful and easier to absorb. 9 Huckin suggests that specialists can easily comprehend standard terminology in a field, even when it is long and difficult. Nonspecialists, on the other hand, need familiar concepts and require definitions, examples, analogies, and other forms of il- lustration. Unfortunately, as Huckin points out, writing in a way that will be optimally readable for a diverse audience is an extremely difficult task. Several researchers have discussed the reasons why some authors adopt a tone that might be considered scholarly or aloof. This style of speaking or writing is typically impersonal, full of abstract nouns, passive sentences, and scientific- September 1989 sounding technical terms. Green studied the efforts of technical writers writing for several levels of audience. He concluded that "individuals who rate their work as scientifically important are more inclined to leave technical terms undefined when they need to be defined. " 10 While articles on clear writing are avail- able and helpful to librarians, few articles have been written about library publica- tions per se. 11 In one, William Jackson states that the tone of library guides is fre- quently very formal, ''in a style that is best understood by other librarians. " 12 He ad- vises against using words such as "stacks" to describe shelves that contain books. He also suggests that headings not merely be terms such as ''Indexes and Ab- stracts." He points out that many of the readers who know the meaning of these terms already know how to use the refer- ence sources. The title "Indexes and Ab- stracts" may alienate the library novice, discouraging him or her from reading the guide. This is obviously undesirable, since library guides are designed to teach library skills to people who need them. Jackson's preference would be the heading "Find- ing Journal Articles on a Topic." This review of the literature, then, indi- cates concern on the part of writers and English specialists over the clarity of func- tional documents. Librarians have ex- pressed a similar concern for clarity with regard to the reference interview. The communication models widely accepted within cognitive psychology, including the Winograd model, provide a context in which these issues can be examined. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD This study measured the comprehensi- bility of a list of jargon words. The list is a sample of frequently used terms culled from publications such as handouts and from reference interviews. While many of these are standard library terms, others are a reflection of the specific environment at Carnegie Mellon University Libraries. That is, some of the terms, such as "li- brary rep," may be unique to CMU, al- though the concept of a departmental liai- son is common to most academic libraries. In most libraries new, local terms evolve to describe services or resources. The first part of this study determined the popularity of specific handouts, on the assumption that vocabulary used in more popular handouts would affect more stu- dents. Handouts used in this study were bibliographies on topics such as artificial intelligence, psychology, or business, and guides to resources such as the online cat- alog. To measure popularity, each public ser- vice point in the Carnegie Mellon Univer- sity Libraries displayed twenty-five copies of the handouts that would normally be on display, starting at 8:30a.m. one Mon- day. Two days later at 8:30 a.m. the re- maining handouts were counted and ranked by greatest to least number taken. From these, the ten most popular were used for the next phase of the experiment. A class of graduate English students concentrating in technical writing was asked to identify words or phrases that they considered to be technical library terms. Aside from their availability, one reason for selecting these students was that they had had some training in editing techniques and had previous experience in identifying jargon. The first two pages of each handout were used. For the most part, each hand- out was given to two students, for greater confirmation of the results. The students were asked to circle the words or multi- word terms in each sample handout that they considered to be library technical lan- guage. From these results, a list of the cir- cled terms was compiled, with a count of the number of times each word was identi- Library Jargon 547 fied. For example, if the term "viewing carrel area'' was circled a total of three times, it received a score of three. Then the total number of times each word actually appeared in the total collection of hand- outs was counted, because many words appeared several times in the handouts. For each word, the number of times a word was identified was divided by the number of times the word actually ap- peared. The resulting figure, converted to a percentage, represented both degree of identification and frequency. The list could then be ranked from high to low as a means of selecting the most frequent and most identified words. A final list of ten words was derived from the written sam- ples (see Table 1). Using the earlier example, "viewing carrel area" appeared twice in the collec- tion of samples distributed, once in two separate handouts. Of the four people who encountered this phrase, three iden- tified it as being technical. The percentage 75% represents the number of times the word was identified, divided by the num- ber of times it appeared. An equal number of terms were sought from verbal transactions in the reference department. Four Carnegie Mellon refer- ence librarians volunteered for tape re- cording of their reference interviews. They were not told the nature of the study until afterward. The tapes were tran- scribed and divided into two-page hand- outs. The same procedure was followed for the verbal transcripts as for the written handouts. A final list of ten words was de- rived from the verbal samples (table 2). TABLE 1 TECHNICAL TERMS DERIVED FROM WRITTEN PUBLICATIONS Times Seen Times Identified % Term Occurrences by Subjects by Subjects (Ident ./Times Seen) Clearinghouse 1 2 2 100 Search terms 1 2 2 100 University archives 1 2 2 100 Microform 4 7 6 86 Viewing carrel area 2 4 3 75 Catalos screen 1 2 1 50 Nonprmt materials 2 2 1 50 Online database searches 1 2 1 50 Primary source 1 2 1 50 Search statement 1 2 1 50 548 College & Research Libraries September 1989 TABLE2 TECHNICAL TERMS DERIVED FROM VERBAL TRANSACTIONS Times Seen Term Occurrences by Subjects Library rep 1 2 Multi-volume set 1 2 Pre-search 1 2 Call number 5 6 Citation 1 2 Command search 1 2 Proceedings 3 3 Interlibrary loan 3 5 Annual report 1 2 Bound journals 1 2 TESTING The ten words from the written list were combined with the words from the verbal list and twenty multiple-choice questions were designed to test compre- hension.13 Each question consisted of the term followed by four possible defini- tions, one of which was correct. The 1983 edition of the ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science was used whenever possible as a basis for writing the correct definitions. Incorrect definitions were based on answers supplied by a small sampling of freshman students who were given a list of these terms and asked to define them. In addition the experi- menters designed some definitions, cre- ating logical possibilities based on their knowledge of library operations or of the words in a different context. Subjects were informed that the terms were words or phrases used in the library. They were asked to circle the letter corre- sponding to the definition closest in meaning to the numbered term. The subject group for the testing phase consisted of 100 students from freshman English classes at Carnegie Mellon. These students are required to write a research paper. Experience at Carnegie Mellon has shown that these students frequently seek the help of reference librarians and refer- ence handouts. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The tests were graded, with total num- ber wrong noted. Table 3 shows the results, ranking the terms from least to most understood. Times Identified % by Subjects {ldent./Times Seen) 2 100 2 100 2 100 6 100 2 100 2 100 2 67 3 60 1 50 1 50 A social sciences statistical package, SPSS-X (release 2.0) was used to analyze the raw data. The package computed the mean and standard deviation for test scores. Also calculated were the mode and median for number of incorrect answers. Of the total number of questions, 48.7 percent were answered incorrectly. In other words, almost half of the time sub- jects were not able to identify the correct definition for commonly used library terms. The mean number of incorrect an- swers, out of the twenty questions, was 10.290. The mode was 9 incorrect, and the median was 10. The standard deviation TABLE 3 RANKING OF TERMS FROM MOST TO LEAST UNDERSTOOD Term Call number Bound journals Interlibrary loan Microform Search terms Catalog screen Online catalog Search statement Online database searches Pre-search . Library rep Primary source Viewing carrel area University archives Nonprint materials Clearinghouse Citation Command search Proceedings Multi-volume set N = 100 subjects . Correct Answers 83 82 75 74 71 68 68 53 53 52 47 45 45 41 40 38 35 25 20 11 was 2.865. That is, the majority of results fall between 7.43 and 13.16 incorrect, which represents a normal bell curve. A breakdown of test results can be seen in ta- ble4. TABLE4 BREAKDOWN OF TEST RESULTS Term 1. command search 2. university archives 3. catalog screen 4. viewing carrel area 5. proceeaings 6. search statement 7. bound journals 8. online catalog 9. interlibrary loan 10. primary source 11. nonprint materials 12. onhne database searches 13. clearinghouse 14. pre-search 15. multi-volume set 16. microform 17. citations 18. search terms 19. call number 20. library rep N = 100 subjects . Correct Answers 25 42 68 45 20 53 82 68 75 45 40 53 37 52 11 76 35 71 83 48 Number of questions answered incorrectly: Mean : 10.290 Median: 10 Mode : 9 Incorrect Answers 75 58 32 55 80 47 18 32 25 55 60 47 63 48 89 24 65 29 17 52 Based on probability theory, one could expect 25 percent of the subjects to get a question right by chance if they had no knowledge of the term. If over 25 percent selected the right answer, they were per- forming better than chance. Conversely, one could expect 75 percent of the subjects to select a wrong answer by chance, be- cause there are three answers that are in- correct (25 percent each). Guess answer 2 Test- taking techniques 3 Determine what lib. would do ("real-world knowledge") 4 Know word in different context Library Jargon 549 LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS Numerical data alone gave no clue as to the underlying schemas from which the subjects drew their responses. Protocol analysis was used to give an indication of the reasoning processes. This technique involves methods that attempt to deter- mine the mental processes that a person uses to perform a task. In a verbal or thinking-aloud protocol, subjects are asked to perform a task while thinking aloud as they interact with a document. Because subjects are asked to verbalize anything that comes to mind as they work, theirdnformation is more complete and accurate than any comments collected after the task is completed. When people experience difficulty in understanding text, their comments often reveal the na- ture of the difficulty. 14 In this study, four subjects, all fresh- men, were given the multiple-choice test and asked to verbalize their thoughts as they selected answers. Their comments were tape recorded and transcribed. The transcripts then were coded, with phrases of verbalized thoughts assigned a cate- gory of reasoning strategy, as represented in the continuum illustrated in figure 2. The researchers arrived at these categories by looking at each comment individually and by grouping each verbalization into classes. The results of the protocols showed that the subjects used a variety of methods to deduce an answer. Often they admitted to simply guessing. Frequently they used standard test-taking techniques, such as comparing the specificity of the answers to the question, to make their decision. At the other end of the spectrum, the subjects sometimes said that they knew the answer. The protocols indicated, for instance, that subjects were familiar with 5 6 7 8 Morpho- Multi- Know Know logical word broad term analysis unpacking category FIGURE2 Categories of Reasoning Strategies 550 College & Research Libraries the concept of interlibrary loan. In one protocol a subject stated: "Interlibrary loan ... yes, I know this ... there we go, b, 'cause I know, we have it at school ... obtaining items from another library sys- tem through your library.'' In this case, the protocols were in keep- · ing with the multiple-choice results, in which 73 people out of 100 answered this question correctly. In the testing, almost all incorrect respondents gave the answer ''the ability to check books out in person from a library other than your own.' ' 15 Both the protocols and multiple-choice tests showed that subjects connected ''in- terlibrary loan'' with obtaining materials from another library, but many subjects were unclear about the exact procedure. Aside from subjects knowing or not knowing the answer, subjects used the other techniques pictured in figure 2 to de- rive their answers. These methods were of particular interest, because they give a re- alistic profile of how people arrive at a def- inition when they do not know the term. When people are unfamiliar with a term used by a librarian, they fall back on their previous knowledge, whether of seman- tics or of the term in another context, to se- lect a likely answer. This related to Wino- grad's and Huckin's discussions of schema theory mentioned earlier. Two semantic techniques, morphologi- cal analysis and multiword unpacking, were used to break down terms into their component parts to arrive at definitions. The remaining techniques (3, 4, and 7 in figure 2) were related to previous experi- ence of some sort. In morphological analy- sis, a word is broken down into segments (prefixes, roots, suffixes). Each segment is defined individually, or, if of foreign ori- gin, translated. The component defini- tions are reconstituted to arrive at a sum definition of the word as a unit. An exam- ple can be seen in this portion of a tran- script: Microform ... (a) a picture enlarged for an overhead projector ... no, micro means small ... (b) a machine that amplifies or records the voice ... hrnrnrn, no ... (c) a generic term for all forms of smaller images or photographic film ... yeah, that's possible, 'cause form is sort of general ... (d) any library material that is not in September 1989 paper form . . . Yeah, it's probably c, 'cause that . . . fits the description of micro and form. While this subject arrived at the correct answer, some others that used this method did not. For instance, one of the four protocol subjects broke down the term "non print materials" into "materi- als that cannot be printed,'' presumably since "non," from Latin, has several neg- ative meanings. "Multiword unpacking" refers to breaking down noun compounds such as "online database searches" or "call num- ber.'' The issue of how readers interpret compound nouns is complex, because the words in a string of nouns do not always modify each other in the same way. Is a "viewing carrel area" an area for viewing carrels? Or is it an area containing carrels that view, or carrels for viewing? It is even unclear whether "viewing" serves as a verb or an adjective. The reader must de- fine the meaning of each word and then determine the connection between each word and the others, which may indicate a relationship of composition (brick house), user (student handbook), source (bank loan), purpose (calligraphy pen), and so on. One noun phrase can be potentially ambiguous in as many as twelve different ways, although some of the ambiguity is mitigated by practical considerations such as context. 16 All of this mental unpacking is time- consuming and may not lead to a correct "translation." However, a person does get more chances to estimate a correct def- inition, because each word gives a clue as to the term's meaning. An example of this method can be seen in one subject's state- ment: "Call number. Yes, that is the num- ber . . . each book is assigned . . . so that you can call it up." The other method by which subjects used resources at their disposal to figure out the answer was based on context. Some subjects, though unfamiliar with a specific term, seemed to have a sense of its broader category. Answering the question "command search," for example, one subject said, "Something from a com- puter . . . I know it's on a computer.'' Closely related to this is the technique of trying to reason out how a library would actually function ("real-world knowl- edge"). The same subject continued, "I know it's on a computer, but checking out book on computer . . . no that's not check- ing it out . . . person at the desk cannot do that.'' While in this case the subject was wrong about library operations, he cre- ated his response by trying to match up his existing computer schema with his li- brary schema. 11 the majority of the subjects, forty-four, defined citation as 1 a no- tice of overdue library materials.' " The final method employed by subjects was selection of an answer based on knowledge of the word in a nonlibrary context. Many terms such as "archives," "proceedings" or "clearinghouse" have several meanings outside of the library. In choosing the answer for the term citation, many subjects were confused by another, nonlibrary use of this word. In one of the protocols, a subject verbalized this: "Urn, citation is like a ticket or something for speeding." In a nonlibrary context, cita- tion has a negative connotation, usually involving a fine. As one might expect based on Winograd's communication model, subjects took whatever exposure they had had to the term and transferred this knowledge, with incorrect results. This is confirmed by the multiple-choice testing, in which the majority of subjects, forty-four, defined citation as "a notice of overdue library materials.'' SUMMARY: PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Although each profession has its share of jargon, librarianship is such a heavily user-oriented field that any indication of a lack of communication should be given se- rious attention. The results reported here indicate clearly that there is a communica- tions problem between librarians and pa- trons. Librarians cannot rely on the pa- trons to decipher a meaning from the context. Patrons rely on their existing Library Jargon 551 schemas to help them interpret an unfa- miliar term. If these schemas are lacking or incorrect, communication will be unsuc- cessful. Given that patrons only understand 50 percent of what librarians say or write, what are the options available to library staff members for closing this gap? The following represents a list of options rang- ing from the least to most accommodat- ing: • use terms without defining them, and let the patron sink or swim • use terms without defining them but be alert to verbal and nonverbal cues from the patron indicating confusion • solicit feedback from the user as you go along, asking, for instance, "Interli- brary loan-do you know what that is?'' • use visual aids to assist the patron, such as pointing to the components of a cita- tion • define terms the first time they are used in an interaction or publication, and then use them subsequently without definition • use formal library instruction to teach li- brary technical language • append glossaries of terms to written publications • avoid local terms not useful for patrons' future needs • define technical terms when ever you use them • avoid jargon altogether Neither end of the continuum is ideal. On the one hand, patrons would be poorly served by totally ignoring their need for the definition of these terms. On the other hand, it is impractical, time- consuming, and unnecessary to define terms every time they are used. The options between the extremes seem most reasonable and helpful. The best method to select will depend upon the personalities of both the librarian and the individual patron. Often a combination of methods will be effective, whereas one alone might be insufficient. For instance, if a librarian relies on his or her ability to distinguish confusion, verbally or nonver- bally, there is a chance that subtle cues may be missed. However, if the librarian is also giving a visual demonstration, on 552 College & Research Libraries the online catalog, for instance, missed communication is less likely. While this study offers new information regarding comprehension of library jar- gon, there are many other avenues for fur- ther research. Not studied was the actual amount of technical language used by li- brarians in proportion to other language. Of further interest would be a comparison of terms identified as jargon by librarians as opposed to patrons. Other tests could also be done to extend the research on pa- tron comprehension. It is possible, for in- stance, that patrons perform better in real- September 1989 life situations where terms are presented in context. Mock situations could be con- structed that are more realistic, or actual transactions could be monitored. It would also be interesting to see how comprehen- sion of technical language might change as one's education progresses. A similar study would be a before-and-after testing with regard to library instruction. It would also be useful to explore the possibility of enhancing library instruction to increase patrons' abilities to interpret and use the many library terms that they obviously do not, at present, comprehend. REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. Terry Winograd, "A Framework for Understanding Discourse," in Cognitive Processes in Compre- hension, ed. Marcel Adam Just and Patricia A. Carpenter (Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1977), p.63-88. 2. Saul M. Kassin and Joan B. Pryor, "The Development of Attribution Processes," in The Develop- ment of Social Cognition, ed. John B. Pryor and Jeanne D. Day (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1985), p.3-34. 3. Ellis Mount, "Communication Barriers and the Reference Question," Special Libraries 57:575-78 (Oct. 1966). 4. Ruth E. Fenske, "The Use of Jargon in Medical School Libraries," Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 74:12-15 Oan. 1986). 5. Bonnie Snow, "What Jargon Is Really Necessary When Teaching (And Learning) Online Skills?" Online 10:100-107 Ouly 1986). 6. Nathan M. Smith and Stephen D. Fitt, "Vertical-Horizontal Relationships: Their Application for Librarians," Special Libraries 66:528-31 (Nov. 1975). 7. Linda Flower, Revising Functional Documents: The Scenario Principle, Communications Design Cen- ter Technical Report no.10 (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Mellon University, 1980), p.7. 8. David W. Green, "Writing, Jargon, and Research," Written Communication 3:364-81 Ouly 1986). 9. Thomas N. Huckin, ''A Cognitive Approach to Readability,'' in New Essays in Technical and Scien- tific Communications: Research, Theory, Practice, ed. Paul V. Anderson, R. John Brockmann, and Carolyn R. Miller (Farmingdale, N.Y.: Baywood Pub. Co., 1983), p.92. 10. Green, "Writing," p.371. 11. Rachael Naismith, "Establishing a Library Publications Program," College & Research Libraries News 2:59-60+ (Feb. 1985). 12. William J. Jackson, "The User-Friendly Library Guide," College & Research Libraries News 45:468-71 (Oct. 1984). 13. For a copy of the graded test, write to either of the authors at Carnegie Mellon University Libraries, Frew Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. 14. Karen A. Schriver, Plain Language for Expert or Lay Audiences: Designing Text Using Protocol-Aided Revision, Communications Design Center Technical Report no.43 (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Mellon University, 1987), p.10. 15. The actual question, with number of responses, read: Interlibrary loan: (a) book purchase funds shared by more than one library - 2 (b) obtaining items from another library system through your library - 75 (c) the ability to check books out in person from a library other than your own - 15 (d) obtaining books or photocopies from other campus libraries - 8 16. Pamela Downing, "On the Creation and Use of English Compound Nouns," Language 53:810-41 (Dec. 1977).