College and Research Libraries Myths, Schooling, and the Practice of Librarianship Charles R. Martell Myths, institutionalized values, and the uncritical acceptance of any one system of thought severely limit the process of objective evaluation. Problem identification, problem solving, and the generation of alternative courses of action may be circumscribed by the narrowness of per- spective that results. Schools help to sustain myths and, in this role, act as instruments of social reproduction. As a consequence, underlying social, institutional, and economic value structures may be left unexamined. An understanding of the role educational institutions play in the creation and perpetuation of myths may allow us to demystify the library and library education. In this article six myths are proposed. Each is discussed. A key issue is the process through which these myths inhibit the responsiveness of our profession to user needs. Through the examination of the six myths it may be possible to shed additional light on the search for equity, objectivity, and commitment to service. H n the early 1970s a series of crit- ics rallied against the fragmen- tation that typifies life in our industrial-bureaucratic society. Few institutions were ignored. A group that included Charles Silberman, Jona- than Kozol, and Amitai Etzioni aimed its sallies at the American educational sys- tem, one of our most venerable institu- tions. Silberman examined American edu- cation and "pronounced it joyless, mindless, barren." 1 Etzioni was no kinder and characterized schools as ''best suited to preparing indifferent cogs for an indus- trial bureaucratic machine, that is, at best, to be part of yesterday's world.' ' 2 The words were harsh. They bordered on af- frontery. Nevertheless, a challenge was presented. No one likes to be categorized as an indifferent cog. Many of us view schools with hope. We hope that what we have learned will con- tribute to personal accomplishment and a sense of self-fulfillment. We hope that our children can avoid the mistakes that we have made. What degree of truth then ex- ists in the taunts of these educators? This question had special meaning to me a decade ago as I was preparing to graduate from library school. In school I had formulated a set of beliefs about the profession of librarianship that provided a clear sense of purpose and acted as moti- vating influences. They were: • Librarianship has significant growth potential. • Professional roles are inadequately structured. • Information is a critical resource. • Libraries are relatively insensitive to the information needs of users. • Libraries need to be redesigned. • New technologies will lead to tremen- dous changes in libraries. • Libraries are not change oriented. The professional model seemed well suited to assist librarians in coping with these anticipated changes. The key ele- ments in this process were professional autonomy (freedom) and objective evalu- ation (knowledge). Freedom and knowl- edge would lead to responsible action to Charles R. Martell is associate university librarian for public services at California State University, Sacra- mento 95819. 374 Myths, Schooling, and the Practice of Librarianship 375 change libraries for the better. However, lurking in the rhetoric of the critics was an uncomfortable observation. "Guiding modern social life and interpersonal be- havior is a destructive system of institu- tionalized values which determine how one perceives one's needs and defines in- struments for their satisfaction.''3 The critics suggested that (1) bureaucra- cies constrain autonomy (freedom) and (2) knowledge may be based on false or inac- curate perceptions of reality. When all eyes see the same message and when all ears hear the same tune, imagination is smothered and value conformity becomes an accepted social characteristic. "Once we are enmeshed in the magical reso- nance of the tribal echo chamber, the de- bunking of myths and legends is replaced by their religious shJ.dy. Within the con- sensual framework of tribal values, there will be few if arty rebels who challenge the tribe itself.' ' 4 SCHOOLING The railings of the radical educators are no longer topical. Generally we have an- swered their criticisms by turning aside. Nevertheless, a few scholars did pick up the challenge. A steady progression of books and articles has appeared on the subject of schooling in America. 5 No longer is it unfashionable among educa- tors to demonstrate that schools act as in- struments of social reproduction. From this perspective the primary function of the school system is to transmit intact dominant cultural, institutional, and so- cial values. Social, economic, and political inequities are left unexamined. Recently the schooling-in-America de- bate has centered on the degree and con- sequences of the process of social repro- duction. The rhetoric has become more sophisticated. The Marxist/capitalist dia- tribes that sparked earlier controversies now seem quaint. Changing political sys- tems and the complex interdependencies among nations in the economic sphere mandate new forms of intellectual devel- opment. These forms should allow indi- viduals to follow the intricate interplay of forces without being ensnared by overly simplistic or dominant cultural para- digms. Unfortunately, as Thomas Popke- witz suggests, traditional scholarly prac- tices may impede this development. "Far from being neutral, social science is an act of social affiliation and commitment. By distorting the social nature of inquiry, the practice of social science can be trans- formed into a mechanism of mystification and ideology.' ' 6 Mystification is a concept that appears regularly in the writings of many observ- ers of institutional life. 7 Usually it is de- picted as a force that disguises reality. Myths shroud the presidency. Cost over- runs for weapon systems are tolerated be- cause of the mythlike assumptions that the citizenry has toward the nation's de- fense. The value of "learning" is elevated to mythic proportions by educators be- cause their schools cannot meet basic cost/ benefit criteria. Libraries emphasize their role at the center of our intellectual lives, while graduating students note with pride their ability to navigate the shoals of intel- lectuallife without once using the library. Not too many years ago an American au- tomotive manufacturer sought to con- vince us that what was good for General Motors was good for America. Institutions cloaked in such myths can often avoid close public scrutiny regarding the value of the products and services that they pro- vide while promoting fiscal support and increasing the legitimacy that society ac- cords them. Since schools tend to mirror dominant cultural, institutional, and social values, myths that incorporate these values are easily transmitted to each succeeding gen- eration of students. One result is fre- quently the development of an unques- tioning and uncritical attitude toward the status quo and its underlying value struc- ture. Chris Argyris finds that institutions create complex, interlocking norms to fos- ter these attitudes. "You cannot openly confront norms that tell you not to con- front policies and objectives," is but one example used by Argyris. 8 John Meyer and Brian Rowan describe how institutionalized rules relating to pro- fessions, programs, and technologies are incorporated by the organization and function as myths. 9 Under this cloak the 376 College & Research Libraries rules are highly resistant to change. This occurs even if the rules have only a minor relationship to prevailing social behavior. For example, the structure of decision- making processes within organizations of- ten bears little relationship to democratic practices or the search for equity. By stressing ceremonial conformity the organization may seek external validation without reference to internal criteria for ef- ficiency. ''In place of coordination, in- spection, and evaluation, a logic of confi- dence and good faith is employed.' ' 10 The public may see only a carefully structured image of the organization. Through their management of information, organiza- tional leaders can idealize, minimize, ex- aggerate, or distort actual events. The pur- pose is usually to project a positive image in order to increase legitimacy, stability, and resources. These are important objec- tives, especially for institutions in envi- ronments where survival has become the underlying organizational principle: Organizations under attack in competitive environments-small farms, passenger rail- ways, or Rolls Royce-attempt to establish themselves as central to the cultural traditions of their societies in order to receive official pro- tection.11 Rigid adherence to ceremonial conformity limits the incentive of organizational members to respond in a direct or forceful way to changes in user needs. In libraries the result is frequently the creation of a se- rious gap between service goals and the user-oriented behavior of the institution. This may be self-serving since it reinforces the requirement for professionals to bridge the gap. Simultaneously, and con- veniently, the myths help to create an at- mosphere of user expectation about how libraries should perform. Indeed, the ex- pectation is usually a litany of traditional library services. The tendency of some or- ganizations to decouple the formal struc- ture from work activities can have two other major side effects. First, organiza- tional members may be unaware of the myths and the degree to which they cloud individual perceptions of reality. Second, individuals may feel powerless to propose September 1984 changes in light of the stigma that they would experience from those who uphold the myths. Myths, institutionalized values, and the uncritical acceptance of any one system of thought severely limit the process of ob- jective evaluation. Problem identification, problem solving, and the generation of al- ternative courses of action may be circum- scribed by the narrowness of perspectives that results. What steps can be taken to de- mystify the library and its handmaiden, the library school? LIBRARIES AND MYTHS A number of steps are taken in this arti- cle. Six myths are proposed. Each is dis- cussed. A key issue is the process through which these myths inhibit the responsive- ness of our profession to user needs. Through the examination of the six myths it may be possible to shed additional light on the search for equity, objectivity, and commitment to service. Myth #1: Libraries Are at the Center of Our Intellectual Lives For the existence of a library, the fact of its exist- ence, is, in itself and of itself, an assertion-a proposition nailed like Luther's to the door of time. By standing where it does at the center of our intellectual lives-with its books in a certain order on its shelves and its cards in a certain structure in their cases, the true library asserts that there is indeed a 11 mystery of things. 11 (Ar- chibald MacLeish, Former Librarian of Con- gress)u Library schools promote the myth of the library. Students are fed the Grimms' fairy tale of librarianship. The library is de- picted as a healthy institution rather like the downtown department store. It is pleasant to bask in the glow of our admir- ers. Savor, for example, the love that Ar- chibald MacLeish showers on our institu- tion. The myth is dispelled once we recognize that the library exists in a highly competitive world. The myth still has great appeal. It con- tains elements of truth. The myth, how- ever, tends to isolate and buffer the library from critical evaluation both by those within and those external to the library. Myths, Schooling, and the Practice of Librarianship 377 Legitimacy and survival are strengthened if the basic premise is accepted. MacLeish emphasizes the fact of the li- brary's existence almost as if that were a primary purpose or sufficient justifica- tion. The imagery is static. Intellectual life, on the other hand, is often characterized by turbulence and change. Ortega y Gas- set, a Spanish philosopher and librarian, appreciated the nature of this struggle be- tween the static and the dynamic. "The man who discovers a new scientific truth has previously had to smash to atoms al- most everything he had learnt, and arrives at the new truth with hands bloodstained from the slaughter of a thousand plati- tudes."13 Intellectual life centers first within one's own being and not in an amorphous insti- tution. We, as individuals, give libraries their life. As we learn and distill from the latent treasures housed in libraries, we transform the static store of information into a vital and meaningful reality. The im- personal values of bureaucratic institu- tions should not be the mainspring of our spirit or the spokesperson for our philoso- phy. . Myth # 2: The Book Is Sacred How can we analyze objectively the nature of a problem that brings out so many hostile emo- tions on either side, for whatever sincere and/or self-serving purposes? Part of the problem, I suspect, is a widespread cultural belief in the sacredness of the book, the printed word, and even the written word. (David Starn, Director, the Research Libraries of the New York Public Library)14 The analysis of myths offers fascinating opportunities for the use of imagination. For example, is it possible that works such as the Holy Scriptures contributed to the development of a ''book is sacred'' myth? The high esteem in which knowledge is held among various peoples and civiliza- tions may have allowed books, a vehicle containing knowledge in static form, to benefit from a content-to-vehicle esteem switch. Many myths serve a valuable purpose. Life has its mysteries. Even as one strives to maintain a detached objectivity, aware- ness of the limitations of the human mind and the inescapable links that each of us share unconsciously with our environ- ment must be admitted. Acceptance of myths and their value should not, how- ever, hinder us from demonstrating how myths can constrain action to improve these same environments. Three prob- lems can be mentioned in connection with the myth of the book: • The vehicle (book) rather than the con- tent (information) has ascendant value. This limits responsiveness to user needs. • Once acquired, each book tends to be given an equal value. This practice sup- plements a strong professional ethic that discourages librarians from trans- mitting to users value judgments about the quality, content, or usefulness of specific books. • The book and other printed works are given a transcendent value over other media. This has impeded the adoption and effective use of other media in li- braries. From this perspective libraries should move away from a static focus on the book and should be reoriented to give primary emphasis to the usefulness of the informa- tion (i.e., the informatfon transfer ex- change). This would increase the . rele- vance of librarians and would position us to make more valuable contributions to the knowledge society. Myth # 3: Libraries Are Responsive to the Information Needs of Their Various Publics The traditional paradigm of professionalism en- courages a static condition which is incompati- ble with the dynamism inherent in a truly client-centered (including non-user clients) professional orientation. (C. James Schmidt, Vice President, Research Libraries Group)15 Outsiders have found libraries seriously at fault in their basic design for user ser- vices.16 Others indicate that users are in- tentionally isolated from the workings of the library, which moves with a momen- tum of its own. 17 Insiders have found the profession to be self-serving with a ten- dency to ignore and discourage interac- 378 College & Research libraries tion with the user community. 18 The Meyer and Rowan model of organiza- tional decoupling in which the formal structure is purposefully separated from work activities would explain the buf- fering of work units from environmental influences, thereby isolating the institu- tion from the user. The card catalog has been described as a major technology al- most entirely buffered from direCt user in- put. This results partially from the ten- dency_ to treat users as problems, as sources of disorder rather than as sources of direction. This provides a convenient excuse to avoid close interaction. Roger Morris boasts: "Institutions best serve those who seek them out. " 19 He warns librarians who view their role as having important teacher-like qualities to "tread lightly if at all." 20 Religion and ge- netic coding are used to support the righ- teousness of yet another myth standing in our path to relevance. ''By and large, the librarian and the teacher have respected each other's turf as religiously as if the the- ory of territorial imperative was perma- nently etched in their genetic coding. " 21 Our profession stresses function. Yet our art, our spirit as librarians, should rest on communication. Bibliographic instruction has made strong inroads since 1973 when Morris made his remarks. Nevertheless, many reference librarians still fail to view biblio- graphic instruction as an integral compo- nentofreferenceservice. Accordingly, the position of bibliographic instructor has usually been established as a staff and not a line function in order to ease the diffu- sion of this innovation to a hesitant staff. Some librarians believe that a basic con- flict exists between user needs and profes- sional services. Studies have been con- ducted. Reports have been published. Users have frequently been found mind- less and shallow: they cannot understand the system. "Lack of persistence, lack of adequate bibliographic information, faulty and inadequate library search strat- egies, ignorance of library stock lay-out and sheer carelessness in searching . . . all take their toll and result in a volume of fail- ure which would not be tolerated from li- September 1984 brarians. " 22 This attitude is not uncom- mon. What it overlooks is the possibility that librarians may have developed faulty services and bibliographic tools. It over- looks the possibility that librarians may not only solve problems but create prob- lems. The late Jesse H. Shera suggested that ''library efficiency frequently consists of doin~ very well what need not be done at all." The absence of a strong client- centered orientation in the ~rofession may be one sign of this pattern. 4 Myth # 4: Objective Evaluation Is a Common Decision-making Practice in Libraries A library operates in a political environment and nearly all the really important decisions that are made at the highest levels have an over- riding political component. (Richard DeGen- naro, Director of Libraries, University of Penn- sylvania)25 Objective evaluation and the autonomy of librarians have been identified as key ingredients for meaningful change in the profession. However, if objective evalua- tion functions as a myth, the capacity of li- brarians to act responsively to environ- mental demands is seriously eroded. User studies are a familiar type of objec- tive evaluation. Over one thousand user studies have been conducted in the last twenty years. These studies represent an enormous human investment. In terms of change based on the findings, the results are marginal. In part, this occurs because of a widespread tendency to view the study as the end product and not as a pre- lude to action. While convenient, this practice destroys the will to act. The final judgment regarding the success of user studies and other similar forms of objec- tive evaluation should be: • What direct benefits do library users ex- perience? • How significant are the benefits? • How long do the benefits last? • How do the changes allow the library staff to provide improved direct ser- vices? By demonstrating the value of the li- brary in an "objective" manner, credibil- ity is enhanced and confidence is gener- Myths, Schooling, and the Practice of Librarianship 379 ated in the minds of relevant publics. Unfortunately, evaluation also has strong appeal as a public relations gesture. So li- brary studies are often long on story and short on action. Initial staff expectations and commitment are high. It seems cer- tain that the results of the study will lead to meaningful progress-things will get better. Months later, after the study has been completed, the major recommenda- tions lie -dormant and nothing has hap- pened. The few changes are cosmetic, which only seems to increase the general sense of futility. This happens because de- cisions are often made to support the self- interest-status, control, and power-of officeholders and dominant coalitions. 26 The myth of objective evaluation permits this reality to be disguised. Objective evaluation is often targeted to support predetermined positions. If the results of the evaluation do not conform to these positions it is a simple matter to ac- cept only those recommendations that match particular positions, to change or massage the sample, to alter the underly- ing assumptions, to discredit the report, or to file without action. When wielded in this manner, as a political tool, the basic integrity of objective evaluation risks be- ing undermined. Myth # 5: The Professional Model of Librarianship Fosters Active Client-oriented Behaviors After our technological problems have been solved, libraries can turn to people and to people-oriented programs. (Martha Boaz, Former Dean, School of Libr~ Science, Uni- versity of Southern California) The power of every profession is based on (1) the value that society places on the perceived knowledge and skills of the pro- fessional and (2) the monopoly that soci- ety accords to those who possess this knowledge and skill. 28 Once the monop- oly is received, a shift often occurs so that the control of knowledge rather than knowledge itself becomes the primary goal. Control is maintained through the ability of the profession to accredit schools, to establish curricula, to certify, and to set standards. Our profession has acquired the right to perform these func- tions. To preserve its authority a profession has a vested interest in creating a myth of expertise. This myth is developed in sev- eral ways: • By increasing the legitimacy of profes- sional activities through the creation of highly rationalized institutional rules. • By withholding from the public access to the knowledge and skills that form the basis of professional power. • By expropriating certain types of knowl- edge and functions (e.g., online data- base searching) in order to bring it within the professional's domain. • By organizing so that society lacks the information necessary to evaluate the profession. • By defining the appropriate types of ser- vices and programs, thereby molding user expectations to conform with inter- nal performance norms. Once the public accepts the myth of exper- tise, maintenance of the myth becomes relatively simple through accreditation (ritual) and certification (ceremony). ''If li- brarians truly wish to work toward the best interests of their users, it is absurd to continue to advocate the old classic pro- fessionalism, which places users in a de- pendency relationship with librarians.'' 29 Myth # 6: Library School Education Alone Provides a Sufficient Differentiation Between the Professional and Nonprofessional The school system today performs the threefold function common to powerful churches throughout history. It is simultaneously the re- pository of society's myths, the institutionaliza- tion of that myth's contradictions, and the locus of the ritual which reproduces and veils the dis- parities between myth and reality. (Ivan lllich, Educator)30 Higher education benefits individuals and society by "(1) creating membership categories, (2) legitimating the social rights and meanings attached to these groups, and (3) rituallX certifying individ- uals as members." 1 These symbolic actions are accomplished independently of any direct benefit schooling has on the 380 College & Research Libraries student. Myths may therefore be created by colleges to demonstrate that their grad- uates possess certain intrinsic qualities re- sulting from their college experience. 32 The primary feature transmitted by li- brary schools is the enhancement of the potential ability to perform effectively a set of functional activities commonly re- ferred to as professional work. The myths of schooling and expertise may intertwine in this context to strengthen one another, and obscure further the reality that each serves to disguise. Since library schools must produce students capable of carry- ing out the work required in libraries, they find it necessary to promote a value struc- ture that mirrors the one internalized by li- brarians in the field. Traditionally, library school students have not been taught to examine the pro- fessional model; they have been taught faith. Library school students have not been taught to evaluate the system of val- ues on which the library as an organiza- tion is based; they have been taught defer- ence. Library school students have not been taught to question the status differ- entials explicit in the formalized institu- tional arrangements-faculty vis-a-vis students, librarians vis-a-vis nonpro- fessionals; they have been taught to value the concept of expertise over the reality of equity. In their classic work, ''Profession- alism · Reconsidered,'' Mary Lee Bundy and Paul Wasserman state: "The respon- sibility for a lack of aggressive professional service in problem-solving terms must be laid at the door of professional education for librarianship. For the schools, with only rare exceptions, have failed to breed an appreciation for the subtleties or the potentialities of the professional role.'' 33 The product of library schools may not be a student with a mind questing for truth and a spirit dedicated to community service. Rather, forged through years of September 1984 schooling to accept the blandishments of authority figures, the student may suc- cumb and again abdicate his or her main source of hope-an inquiring mind and an active will. Blanche Prichard McCrum, characterized as a small giant in the his- tory of American librarianship, wrote: The verb to do is conjugated too well in libraries, the verbs to know and to be have all too little defi- nite, effective consideration. 34 CONCLUSION As I have examined myths, my appreci- ation for their complexity and their role in our culture has grown. Now I have a sense of how they contribute to shared under- standings. Schools play an important part in mythmaking through the process of so- cial reproduction. They transmit myths and elaborate upon them. Not all myths. Only some. As children and as adults we may act on these myths as if they were truths. A harmless enactment? Not al- ways. How many of you · remember from schooldays the crude stereotypes that per- petuated the myths of the red man or the black man or the yellow man? How we shuddered at the tales of massacre, the wanton consumption of firewater, the reckless sale of firearms, and the scalping of our yellow-hC:tired champion of the West. Let us choose our myths carefully-to el- evate not to denigrate. In librarianship our myths may disguise the relationship be- tween self-interest and user-interest. In li- brarianship our myths elevate the institu- tion over the potential vitality that we possess as active forces for the transmis- sion and creation of knowledge. Knowledge, freedom through auton- omy, and the will to act are the elements that we must use to see clearer and to serve better. We must challenge the myths that only serve to dwarf us. REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "The Book That May Break the Knowledge Bank," NewYork Times (Oct. 8, 1970). 2. Amitai Etzioni, ''Review of Crisis in the Classroom by Charles E. Silberman,'' Harvard Educational Review 41:97-98 (Feb. 1971). Myths, Schooling, and the Practice of Librarianship 381 3. Herbert Gintis, "Toward a Political Economy of Education: a Radical Critique of Ivan lllich's De- schooling Society," Harvard Educational Review 42:72 (Feb. 1972). 4. Source unknown. 5. A number of major works focus on schooling and the process by which the schools reproduce or mirror dominant cultural and socioeconomic values. These are: Michael Apple, Ideology and Curric- ulum (Boston: Routledge & Paul, 1979); Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture (London: Sage, 1977); Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (New York: Basic Books, 1976); Henry A. Giroux, "Beyond the Correspondence Theory: Notes on the Dynamics of Educational Reproduction and Transformation," Curriculum Inquiry 10:225-47 (Fa111980); Martin Carnoy and Henry Levin, The Limits of Educational Reform (New York: McKay, 1976); Gerald Grace, Teachers, Ideology and Social Control (Boston, Routledge & Paul, 1978); Paul Willis, Learning to La- bour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1977); and Michael Young, ed.; Knowledge and Control (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1971). Henry Giroux's seminal ar- ticle should help to reorient the schooling debate away from the overly simplistic view of most critics toward a view that recognizes "that reproduction is a complex phenomenon that ·not only serves the interests of domination but also contains the seeds of conflict and transformation" (p.243). 6. Thomas S. Popkewitz, "Paradigms in Educational Science: Different Meanings and Purpose to Theory," Journal of Education 162:29 (Winter 1980). 7. Institutional myths, their linkage to internal norms of desirability, and their resistance to change form the basis of the advice to organizational development (OD) specialists by David M. Boje and others, ''Myth Making: a Qualitative Step in OD Interventions,'' Journal of Applied Behavioral Sci- ence 18:17-28 (1982). The dysfunctional attributes and related factors of myths are discussed by Kevin Harris, Education and Knowledge: The Structured Misrepresentation of Reality (Boston: Routledge & Paul, 1979); Martin Burlingame, "Protecting Private Realities by Managing Public Symbols: Mystifications, Cover-up, and Martyrdom," Symposium on Power, Legitimacy and Se- crecy in the Management of Schools and Classrooms, American Educational Research Associa- tion, Annual Meeting (1980); and William H. MacNeil, "The Care and Repair of Public Myth," Foreign Affairs 61:1-13 (Fal11982). 8. Chris Argyris, ''Double Loop Learning in Organizations,'' Harvard Business Review 55:116 (Sept.- Oct. 1977). 9. John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, "Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony," American Journal of Sociology 83:344 (Sept. 1977). 10. Ibid., p.340. 11. Ibid., p.348. 12. Archibald MacLeish, "The Premise of Meaning," The American Scholar 41:359 (Summer 1972). 13. Lawrence K. Frank, "Organized Complexities: A Rebuttal," in Toward Unification in Psychology, ed. Joyce Royce (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Pr., 1970), p.242. . 14. David Starn," 'Prove All Things: Hold Fast That Which is Good': Deaccessioning and Research Libraries," College & Research Libraries 43:6 Oan. 1982). 15. Gardner Hanks and C. James Schmidt, "An Alternative Model of a Profession for Librarians," College & Research Libraries 36:176 (May 1975). 16. C. West Churchman, "Operations Research Prospects for Libraries: The Realities and Ideals," Library Quarterly 42:13-14 Oan. 1972). 17. Gerard Salton, "On the Development of Libraries and Information Centers," Library Journal 95:3433-42 (Oct. 15, 1970). 18. Mary Lee Bundy and Paul Wasserman, "Professionalism Reconsidered," College & Research Li- braries 29:5-26 Oan. 1968); Hanks and Schmidt, p.177. _ 19. Roger Morris, "Keep the Independent Studentlndependent," American Libraries 4:421 Ouly 1973). 20. Ibid., p.421. 21. Ibid., p.421. 22. A. D. Burnett, "Reader Failure: A Pilot Survey," in Research in Librarianship, 1:147 (1966). 23. "Profession Loses Revered Educator and Visionary, Jesse H. Shera: 1903-82," American Libraries 13:220 (Apr. 1982). 24. Charles Martell, The Client-Centered Academic Library: An Organizational Model (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1983). 25. Richard DeGennaro, "Library Statistics and User Satisfaction: No Significant Correlation," Jour- nal of Academic Librarianship 6:95 (May 1980). 26. Samuel B. Bacharach and Edward J. Lawler, Power and Politics in Organizations: The Social Psychol- 382 College & Research Libraries September 1984 ogy of Conflict, Coalitions, and Bargaining (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981), p.31. 27. Martha Boaz, ''Some Current Concepts about Library Education,'' College & University Libraries 33:18 Gan. 1972). 28. Robert Reiff, ''The Control of Knowledge: The Power of the Helping Professions,'' Journal of Ap- plied Behavioral Science 10:453 Guly-Aug.-Sept., 1974). 29. Brian Nielsen, "Teacher or Intermediary: Alternative Professional Models in the Information Age," College & Research Libraries 43:188 (May 1982). 30. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper, 1972), p.54. . 31. David H. Kamens, "Legitimating Myths and Educational Organization: The Relationship be- tween Organizational Ideology and Formal Structure," American Sociological Review 42:208 (Apr. 1977). 32. Ibid., p.208. 33. Bundy and Wasserman, p.ll. 34. 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