College and Research Libraries


W I N S T O N L . Y . Y A N G A N D T E R E S A S. Y A N G 

American Library Resources on Asia 
The rapid expansion of Asian resources in American libraries has 
presented a number of problems partly because of the diversity and 
"non-Western" nature of Asian cultures and languages. Published 
sources fail to give a good overall view of existing resources. The 
contents and scope of many small but valuable collections remain un-
known; even the resources of many major collections have not yet 
been extensively studied, fully analyzed, and systematically surveyed. 
This paper traces the beginning and development of Asian resources 
in American libraries, discusses some of the problems presented by the 
expansion of these resources, and suggests several approaches to the 
problems discussed. 

A _ M E R I C A N S C H O L A R S H I P has tended to 
emphasize the importance of North 
America and Western Europe, the 
traditional bases of American educa-
tion, to the neglect of the world be-
yond the North Atlantic. Participation 
in two world wars, the rise and chal-
lenge of Communism, and the emer-
gence of many new nations in Asia and 
Africa, however, have made academic 
provincialism increasingly untenable. 
The course of recent history has forced 
a closer relationship with the rest of the 
world, not only politically and econom-
ically but also intellectually and cultur-
ally. Thus, foreign area studies, notably 
Asian and Russian programs, have rap-
idly been added to college and univer-
sity curricula. 

As a result of these developments in 
higher education, hitherto neglected 
foreign area resources have been incor-
porated into many libraries to support 
various area studies programs. The rap-
id expansion of foreign area resources 
is one of the most significant develop-

Mr. Yang is Chairman of the Asian Area 
Studies Program at Winthrop College; 
Teresa S. Yang is a Senior Librarian in the 
East Asian Collection of the Hoover Institu-
tion at Stanford University. 

ments in American librarianship during 
the post-World War II period. 

This expansion, however, has present-
ed a number of problems for many 
American libraries, especially those con-
cerned with Asian resources, partly be-
cause of the diversity and "non-Western" 
nature of Asian cultures and languages. 
There is no doubt that problems in re-
sources development and control are 
among the most pressing ones today. 
Before attempting to discuss some of 
these problems, this paper will trace 
briefly the beginning and development 
of Asian resources in American libraries. 

In 1867 the United States entered into 
negotiations with China and several oth-
er foreign governments for an exchange 
of documents and publications. It was 
not until two years later, however, in 
1869, that an agreement was finally 
reached with the Chinese Government. 
Late in that year China sent to the 
United States some ten Chinese classical 
and scientific works in about a thou-
sand volumes, which constituted the 
first noteworthy collection of Asian 
books received in the United States, 
and thus marked the beginning of Asian 
collections in American libraries. Today 
the collection is on the shelves of the 

/ 477 



478 / College <Lr Research Libraries • November 1968 

Orientalia division of the Library of 
Congress.1 

Since this first significant acquisition 
of Asian materials in 1869 more than 
fifty institutions, mostly academic li-
braries, have initiated collections of East 
Asian materials as a result of an expand-
ing interest in Far Eastern studies.2 Ac-
cording to a recent survey conducted 
by the Committee on East Asian Li-
braries of the Association for Asian Stud-
ies, there were in American libraries as 
of June 30, 1967, a total of 4.4 million 
volumes of Far Eastern materials in 
some fifty collections. Of the total, 2.8 
million were in Chinese, 1.5 million in 
Japanese, and 115,000 in Korean and 
other East Asian languages.3 

In contrast with the early beginning 
and the rapid growth and expansion of 
East Asian resources, the incorporation 
of South Asian materials into American 
libraries was rather late and slow de-
spite the fact that several universities 
started to offer Sanskrit studies as early 
as the mid-nineteenth century. Such 
early studies emphasized the classical 
Sanskritic tradition.4 No notable col-
lections of South Asian materials had 
been built up until interest in serious 
work on modern India was developed 
in the 1920's and 1930's. It was not until 
1938 that the Library of Congress es-
tablished an Indie project, now the 
South Asia section, to build up a col-
lection of materials on South Asia. Since 
then, especially since the beginning of 
World War II, a number of universities 
have begun to establish such collections. 
The Public Law 480 Program and the 
earlier and less successful Farmington 
Plan have enabled a number of uni-

1 Tsuen-hsuin Tsien, " F i r s t Chinese-American E x -
change of Publications," Harvard Journal of Asiatic 
Studies, X X V ( 1 9 6 4 - 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 9 - 3 0 . 

2 Tsuen-hsuin Tsien, " E a s t Asian Collections in 
A m e r i c a , " Library Quarterly, X X X V ( O c t o b e r 1 9 6 5 ) , 
2 6 4 . 

3 " N e w Survey of Resources," Newsletter of the 
Committee on East Asian Libraries, Association for 
Asian Studies, no. 2 2 ( D e c e m b e r 1 5 , 1 9 6 7 ) , 6 - 8 . 

4 W . Norman Brown, "South Asia Studies: a His-
t o r y , " Annals of the American Academy of Political 
and Social Sciences, C C C L V I ( N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 4 ) , 5 5 . 

versities and colleges to acquire South 
Asian publications. Federal funds, as a 
result of the enactment of the National 
Defense Education Act in 1958, and 
foundation grants have been made 
available to a number of institutions for 
developing South Asian resources. To 
date eighteen research libraries have 
embarked upon projects to build up 
these resources.5 

As for Southeast Asian materials, their 
systematic introduction into American li-
braries is a more recent development. 
The study of Southeast Asia was initiat-
ed at Yale, Cornell, and at several other 
universities shortly after World War II; 
today Southeast Asian studies are still 
in their infancy. As a result, only three 
or four institutions have developed fair-
ly adequate collections; several others 
are just beginning to acquire Southeast 
Asian materials.6 

Before 1945 there were practically 
no notable collections of South or South-
east Asian materials in the United States. 
Today at least a dozen institutions have 
developed fairly large South Asian col-
lections; there are three or four notable 
collections of Southeast Asian materials, 
at least one of which, the Cornell col-
lection, is among the best and largest 
outside Southeast Asia itself. The de-
velopment of East Asian resources, by 
comparison, is especially noteworthy, at 
least statistically. Since the end of World 
War II, American libraries have almost 
tripled their East Asian holdings, which 
reached 4.4 million volumes in 1967, 
compared with a total of 1.7 million dur-
ing the period 1946-50.7 

As early as the 1920's and 1930's li-
brarians and academicians, at first un-
der the auspices of the American Coun-
cil of Learned Societies, were in com-

6 Maureen L . P. Patterson, "South Asian Area 
Studies and t h e Library," Library Quarterly, X X X V 
( O c t o b e r 1 9 6 5 ) , 2 2 8 . 

6 John M. E c h o l s , "The Southeast Asia Program and 
the L i b r a r y , " Library Quarterly, X X X V (October 
1 9 6 5 ) , 2 4 3 . 

7 G. Raymond Nunn and Tsuen-hsuin Tsien, " F a r 
Eastern Resources in American L i b r a r i e s , " Library 
Quarterly, X X I X (January 1 9 5 9 ) , 3 1 . 



American Library Resources on Asia / 479 

munication with each other on prob-
lems of resources development. Pioneers 
in this work included Walter T. Swingle, 
A. Kaiming Chiu, Arthur W. Hummel, 
Mortimer Graves, Shio Sakanishi, Ry-
usaku Tsunoda, Gussie Gaskill, and 
Kan'ichi Asakawa. During the 1940's and 
1950's their work was continued by oth-
ers such as Edwin G. Beal, Jr., Eliza-
beth Huff, and Osamu Shimizu. In the 
1950's the work of the Far Eastern As-
sociation-ALA Joint Committee on 
Oriental Collections was among several 
serious and organized efforts on the part 
of both librarians and Far Eastern spe-
cialists to discuss problems of growth 
presented by Asian language materials.8 
In 1951 the Association of Research Li-
braries' Committee on National Needs 
made a study of major Asian collections 
in America.9 Under the sponsorship of 
the ALA's Special Committee on Far 
Eastern Materials a survey of Far Eas-
tern collections was conducted in 1958 
and a report was published in 1959.10 
In 1957 a conference on South Asian 
materials was called; the working papers 
were published late in 1957 and re-
printed two years later.11 

Since the beginning of this decade 
more serious and programmed efforts 
have been undertaken to deal with 
problems of resources development and 
control. A number of meetings have been 
held, agencies established, committees 
organized, and publications launched. 
The Association for Asian Studies' Com-
mittee on East Asian Libraries, formerly 
the Committee on American Library Re-

8 T h e Committee published Oriental Collections, 
U.S.A. and Abroad (Ames, I o w a : 1 9 4 9 - 5 2 . 4 n o s . ) . 
F o r information about the efforts of the committee 
see Elizabeth Huff, " T h e National Committee on 
Oriental Collections," Library Resources on East Asia 
( Z u g , Switzerland: Inter-Documentation Company, 
1 9 6 8 ) , pp 1 6 - 1 7 . 

9 "Interim Report on t h e Adequacy of American 
Research Library Collections and Service Pertaining 
to Southeast Asia and the F a r E a s t " (Philadelphia: 
1 9 5 1 ) . 

10 Nunn and Tsien, loc. cit., pp 2 7 - 4 2 . 
11 Conference on American Library Resources on 

Southern Asia, Washington, 1 9 5 7 , Proceedings, Re-
ports and Working Papers ( W a s h i n g t o n : Library of 
Congress, 1 9 5 7 ) . The working papers were reprinted 
in the Journal of Oriental Institute of the Maharaja 
Sayajirao University of Baroda, I X - X ( 1 9 5 9 - 6 0 ) . 

sources on the Far East, which was 
formed in 1958, has been actively help-
ing to develop East Asian resources;12 
its Newsletter frequently publishes ac-
quisitions and survey reports. The South 
Asia Microform and Library Committee, 
formerly the Inter-University Committee 
on South Asian Scholarly Resources, or-
ganized in 1962, publishes the South 
Asian Library and Research Notes, for-
merly South Asian Microform News-
letter,13 in which much information 
about existent microfilm and other hold-
ings related to South Asia has been made 
available. In 1963 the Association for 
Asian Studies Committee on American 
Library Resources on Southeast Asia 
and the East-West Center jointly spon-
sored a conference to discuss problems 
in the development of Southeast Asian 
resources.14 

In 1965 the graduate library school 
of the University of Chicago held a con-
ference on the impact of area studies 
on American libraries and librarianship, 
which was the first concerted forum of 
scholars and librarians to discuss prob-
lems presented by the rapid growth of 
Asian and other foreign area resources 
in American libraries.15 Several papers, 

12 Among many of its important efforts were the 
publication of a survey of periodical holdings, Chinese 
Periodicals: International Holdings, 1949-1960 ( A n n 
Arbor: 1 9 6 1 ) ; the sponsorship of surveys in 1 9 6 0 
and 1 9 6 4 , on which Tsien's " E a s t Asian Collections 
in A m e r i c a " was based; the study of personnel and 
training problems in Tsien's report on Present Status 
and Personnel Needs of Far Eastern Collections in 
America (Washington, D . C . : 1 9 6 4 ) ; the holding of 
library panels at the X X V I I International Congress 
of Orientalists in 1 9 6 7 and at the Association for 
Asian Studies annual meetings in 1 9 6 7 and 1 9 6 8 ; 
and recent investigations into automation of E a s t 
Asian bibliographic systems. The proceedings of the 
1 9 6 7 meeting of the Committee have been pub-
lished under the title Library Resources on East Asia, 
loc. cit. 

13 Since 1 9 6 7 it has been issued as a section of 
the Quarterly Review of Historical Studies by the 
Educational Resources Centre in New Delhi and the 
Institute of Historical Studies in Calcutta. 

14 Conference on Resources for Research on South-
east Asia, Honolulu, 1 9 6 3 , Summary Report, pre-
pared by W a l t e r F . Vella (Honolulu: E a s t - W e s t 
Center, University of Hawaii, 1 9 6 3 ) . 

15 Tsuen-hsuin Tsien and Howard W . W i n g e r ( e d s . ) , 
Area Studies and the Library: the Thirtieth Annual 
Conference of the Graduate Library School, May 20-22, 
1965 ( C h i c a g o : University of Chicago Press, 1 9 6 6 ) . 
The proceedings of this conference were also pub-
lished in the Library Quarterly, X X X V (October 
1 9 6 5 ) , 2 0 3 - 3 8 6 . 



480 / College <Lr Research Libraries • November 1968 

including those on East Asian, South, 
and Southeast Asian resources, were pre-
sented. Some of the problems have also 
been frequently discussed by the Com-
mittee on East Asian Libraries during 
the last ten years. The Committee on 
Non-Western Resources of ACRL spon-
sored a preconference on "Library Col-
lections for Non-Western Studies" be-
fore the 1966 ALA annual meeting in 
July.16 Asian materials and resources, 
among other topics, were discussed. 
Another conference of a similar nature 
will be held again in 1968. 

Several years ago the Association for 
Asian Studies established in Taipei a 
Chinese Materials and Research Aids 
Service Center, which has since provid-
ed many American libraries valuable as-
sistance in acquiring Chinese materials. 
More recently the Ford Foundation, in 
view of the inability of many specialized 
collections to obtain current Chinese 
materials, made a grant to ARL to es-
tablish a center for Chinese research ma-
terials in Washington to assist the efforts 
of American libraries in obtaining Chi-
nese books and research tools.17 

In developing Asian resources the 
need for cooperation and for exchange 
of ideas and information with Asian li-
brarians has become increasingly obvi-
ous. Sponsored by the Committee on 
East Asian Libraries, a panel on "Li-
brary Resources in Oriental Studies"18 
was held during the twenty-seventh In-
ternational Congress of Orientalists, 
which convened at the University of 

16 W a r r e n M. Tsuneishi, " A L A Institute on Library-
Collections for Non-Western Studies," Library of 
Congress Information Bulletin, X X V ( J u l y 1 4 , 1 9 6 6 ) , 
4 0 8 - 4 0 9 ; Shirley Stowe, " L o o k to the E a s t , " Library 
Journal, X C I (August 1 9 6 6 ) , 3 6 4 5 - 4 6 . 

17 Eugene W u , " C h i n a Materials Development 
Center of the Association of Research L i b r a r i e s . " 
Library Resources on East Asia, loc. cit., pp 4 7 - 5 0 . 

18 Papers presented to the library panel have not 
yet been published. F o r details of the panel and 
other library meetings, see " X X V I I International 
Congress of Orientalists Library Panel and Meetings," 
Newsletter of the Committee on East Asian Libraries, 
Association for Asian Studies, X X I ( O c t o b e r 1, 1 9 6 7 ) , 
1 - 3 ; and Edwin G. Beal, Jr., "Report on the 2 7 t h 
International Congress of Orientalists in Ann Arbor, 
Michigan, August 1 3 - 1 9 , 1 9 6 7 , " Library of Congress 
Information Bulletin, X X V I (August 2 4 , 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 7 7 -
7 9 . 

Michigan in August 1967. A number of 
Asian librarians attended the conference 
and presented papers on library re-
sources in their respective countries. A 
series of meetings on Asian library re-
sources and problems took place. To-
ward the end of the Congress a meet-
ing was held to discuss the formation 
of an international organization of li-
brarians. A proposal was approved for 
the organization of an International As-
sociation of Orientalist Librarians to 
"serve as a forum for the interchange 
of information of mutual interest to li-
brarians interested in Asia, and to work 
toward the improvement of library fa-
cilities offered to Orientalists in all 
countries."19 The association is now be-
ing organized, and it is expected that 
it will contribute to the development of 
Asian resources throughout the world. 

All these activities have no doubt con-
tributed to the development of Asian 
library resources in the United States 
and abroad. Despite these efforts, how-
ever, many problems remain to be 
solved. Extensive efforts, notably coop-
erative acquisition20 and the standardi-
zation of cataloging practices,21 have 

19 " X X V I I International Congress of Orientalists 
Library Panel and Meetings," ibid., 3 . 

20 F o r instance, Yale and Cornell h a v e reached a 
cooperative agreement by which Yale acquires two 
copies of every Vietnamese book it c a n obtain and 
then catalogs them and sends a copy to Cornell 
with a set of cards. Cornell does the same for Thai 
materials. This cooperative program has had many 
problems. See Rolland E. Stevens, " L i b r a r y Support of 
Area Study P r o g r a m s , " CRL, X X I V (September 1 9 6 3 ) , 
3 8 9 . 

2 1 F o r instance, in the early 1 9 5 0 ' s the ALA D e -
scriptive Cataloging Committee appointed a Committee 
on Cataloging Oriental Materials. T h e Committee, 
which was later succeeded by the current F a r Eastern 
Materials Committee of the Cataloging and Classifi-
cation Section of ALA's Resources and Technical Serv-
ices Division, worked closely with t h e Orientalia 
Processing Committee, L i b r a r y of Congress, and re-
viewed all pertinent ALA and L C rules of cataloging. 
The result was that extensive changes were made in 
A L A rules of entry and L C rules for descriptive 
cataloging. These revisions were first published in 
Library of Congress, Processing Department, Cata-
loging Service Bulletin, no. 4 2 (July 1 9 5 7 ) , pp. 1 - 2 2 , 
and were reprinted in Cataloging Rules of the Ameri-
can Library Association and the Library of Congress, 
Additions and Changes, 1949-1958 ( W a s h i n g t o n : L i -
brary of Congress, 1 9 5 9 ) . These revisions are also 
reflected in Anglo-American Cataloging Rules ( C h i -
c a g o : 1 9 6 7 ) . Since 1 9 5 7 all major F a r Eastern li-
braries in the United States have been cataloging 
according to the revised rules. 



American Library Resources on Asia / 481 

been undertaken to solve some of these 
problems. Some efforts, hardly adequate, 
have been made in many other areas. 
Among the most pressing problems to-
day are, no doubt, how to understand 
the subject strengths, specialties, and 
rarities of the existing collections and 
how to make available resources more 
easily accessible to meet scholarly 
needs. 

As already noted, the development of 
different Asian collections has been the 
result of a response to the different in-
terests, needs, and emphases of various 
Asian studies programs. The present di-
versity of subject and area strengths 
and specialties of the existing collections 
is obvious. Some libraries have published 
numerous checklists, catalogs, and other 
types of guides to their resources; oth-
ers have done little in this direction, 
and the scope and contents of their re-
sources are little known. Worst of all, 
no comprehensive records of such guides 
to resources have been published. A 
bibliographical guide to Asian resources 
is the first and essential step toward a 
better understanding of these limited 
resources.22 

As revealed by an analysis of pub-
lished sources about existing collections, 
most major libraries have been fairly ac-
tive in presenting information about 
their Asian resources. Among them are 
Yale, Chicago, Cornell, Michigan, Har-
vard, Columbia, Princeton, California at 
Berkeley, the Hoover Institution of Stan-
ford, the Library of Congress, and the 
New York public library. Many other 
libraries, such as Hawaii, Syracuse, and 
Washington (Seattle), have only recent-
ly become active in publishing informa-
tion concerning their Asian holdings. 
While the Library of Congress and the 
New York public library have been ac-

32 It was this consideration which led to our decision 
to compile a bibliographical guide to Asian resources 
in American libraries which is now included in a 
new book edited by the authors, Asian Resources in 
American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies ( N e w 
York: National Council for Foreign Area Materials and 
Foreign Area Materials Center, University of the State 
of New York, 1 9 6 8 ) . 

tive in disseminating information con-
cerning their specialized holdings on all 
areas of Asia, Harvard and Columbia 
have made available much information, 
comparatively speaking, about their Far 
Eastern resources, and Cornell has done 
likewise for its Southeast Asian collec-
tions. Few libraries, if any, have pub-
lished much information about their 
South Asian materials. 

An analysis of published information 
about Asian resources in American li-
braries indicates that of the three areas 
of Asia, the Far East is best represented 
in published literature, followed by 
South Asia. Southeast Asia is the most 
neglected area. In terms of individual 
countries, China and Japan have at-
tracted most bibliographic attention. In 
subject fields, the social sciences, es-
pecially history, have been most active 
bibliographically. Science, except for re-
cent Chinese Communist scientific lit-
erature, has received less bibliographic 
attention. 

Does the published literature give a 
good overall view of existing resources? 
The answer is definitely no. The con-
tents and scope of many smaller but 
valuable collections remain unknown; 
even the resources of many major col-
lections have not yet been extensively 
studied, fully analyzed, and systematical-
ly surveyed. Too few checklists, hand-
books, and other types of guides to re-
sources have been published. Of the 
nine Southeast Asian countries, for in-
stance, guides apparently exist to re-
sources for only five. The need for more 
published information and for more 
guides to resources is great. More sur-
veys should be conducted, bibliogra-
phies and checklists compiled, and 
handbooks and other types of guides to 
resources prepared. 

While the contents of many col-
lections remain little known, serious 
gaps in certain areas have been keenly 
felt by many scholars and librarians. A 
survey report published in 1959 pointed 
out the very significant gaps in the ac-



482 / College <Lr Research Libraries • November 1968 

quisition of certain current East Asian 
journals, monographs, and government 
publications.23 Most of these gaps, un-
fortunately, have not yet been filled. In 
Southeast Asian resources, weaknesses 
and gaps have been found in a num-
ber of areas, including pre-World War 
II newspapers and periodicals, and po-
litical-party, trade-union, and other or-
ganization publications, and especially 
materials from Cambodia and Laos.24 
In the South Asian field, there is a clear 
picture of uneven holdings of resources. 
While current South Asian resources, in-
cluding books, serials, and newspapers, 
are well represented in most of the ma-
jor collections, few, if any, have been 
successful in developing retrospective 
acquisitions in the languages of the 
area. Issues of early South Asian news-
papers are practically nonexistent even 
in the best collections in this country. 
On the basis of the large number of 
American scholars collecting materials 
from Asian or European libraries,25 it 
can be said that the existing resources 
are inadequate to meet the needs of 
many scholars in a number of areas. 
The widespread feeling among scholars 
and librarians in the Asian fields is that 
there are too few collections and that 
few of the existing collections have 
great depth. The former is particularly 
true in the case of Southeast Asia26 and 
the latter of South Asia.27 There is no 

23 Nunn and Tsien, loc. cit., p. 3 8 . 
2 4 Echols, loc. cit., pp 2 5 0 - 5 1 . 
25 Of a total of 9 0 scholarly works on China, Japan, 

and India published in 1 9 6 5 by American university 
presses which we have examined, more than thirty 
used materials collected from Asian or European 
libraries, according to their prefaces. The figure for 
1 9 6 6 was even higher: thirty-eight out of a total of 
1 0 2 were based on materials received from libraries 
in Asia or Europe as well as in the United States. 
Selection of titles for examination was based on the 
listings in the 1 9 6 5 and 1 9 6 6 issues of Scholarly 
Books in America ( C h i c a g o : University of Chicago 
in cooperation with American University Press Serv-
ices ) . 

26 Echols, loc. cit., p. 2 4 3 . 
27 Louis A. Jacob, "South Asian Resources in Ameri-

can Libraries," Asian Resources in American libraries, 
ed. by Winston L . Y . Yang and Teresa S. Yang ( N e w 
York: Foreign Area Materials Center, University of 
the State of New York and National Council for 
Foreign Area Materials, 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 2 9 . 

doubt that existing resources should be 
further strengthened and gaps filled in 
at least some of the important areas to 
meet the needs of specialists. 

While the inadequacy and gaps of 
existing resources have been clearly 
recognized by scholars and librarians, 
the failure to make the fullest use of 
available materials has not been suf-
ficiently indicated. The need for more 
bibliographic work is obvious. For cer-
tain countries, such as Cambodia and 
Laos, practically no bibliographies have 
been published. To solve problems in 
this area cooperation is definitely need-
ed. An ambitious approach to these 
problems is, of course, the establishment 
of a bibliographic center; another is the 
preparation and publication of a nation-
al union catalog for Asian materials in 
American libraries and a comprehensive 
guide to American library resources on 
Asia. Such approaches, however, are not 
practical and probably not possible at 
the present time. Therefore, less am-
bitious projects, such as cooperative ac-
quisitions and exchange programs and 
the compilation of more indexes, check-
lists, and subject bibliographies should 
be undertaken. 

Clearly, resources development and 
control continue to be the major prob-
lems for Asian collections in the United 
States. Approaches to these problems no 
doubt require cooperative planning and 
efforts. Extensive, systematic, and co-
operative efforts remain to be under-
taken to deal with them. To interested 
and ambitious librarians the further de-
velopment of Asian resources and the 
solving of many of the difficult prob-
lems surrounding them will constitute 
great challenges. There is no doubt that 
Asian resources will continue to grow 
rapidly in the years to come because 
of an increasing national need for a bet-
ter understanding of Asia and an ex-
panding interest of American scholars 
in the study of the various aspects of 
Asian cultures and affairs. ••