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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
OR
DICTIONARY
9
OF
0
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION, *
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT.
A GENERAL INDEX,
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME XII.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
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......
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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A
HYDRODYNAMICS.
History. 1. TTYDRODYNAMICS, from “ water,” and
 v ^ -11- “ power,” is properly that science which
Definition. treats of the power of water, whether it acts by pressure
or by impulse. In its more enlarged acceptation, how¬
ever, it treats of the pressure, equilibrium, cohesion, and
motion of fluids, and of the machines by which water
is raised, or in which that fluid is employed as the first
mover. Hydrodynamics is divided into two biancnes,
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics. Hydrostatics comprehends
the pressure, equilibrium, and cohesion of fluids, and Hy¬
draulics their motion, together with the machines in which
they are chiefly concerned.
HISTORY.
Hydrody. 2. The science of hydrodynamics was cultivated with
namics in less success among the ancients than any other bianch m
some re- mechanical philosophy. When the human mind had made
spects a considerable progress in the other departments of physical
science, the doctrine of fluids had not begun to occupy the
attention of philosophers ; and, if we except a few proposi¬
tions on the pressure and equilibrium of water, hydrodyna¬
mics must be regarded as a modern science, which owes its
existence and improvement to those great men who adorned
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Discoveries 3. Those general principles of hydrostatics which are to
of Archi- this day employed as the foundation of that part of the
medes. science, were first given by Archimedes in his work risg<
A. C. -50. ^ h or De Insidentibus Humido, about 250 years be¬
fore the birth of Christ, and were afterwards applied to ex¬
periments by Marinus Ghetaldus in his Archimedes Hi o-
motus. Archimedes maintained that each particle of a
fluid mass, when in equilibrio, is equally pressed in every
direction; and he inquired into the conditions, according
to which a solid body floating in a fluid should assume
and preserve a position of equilibrium. We are also in¬
debted to the philosopher of Syracuse for that ingenious
VOL. XII.
hydrostatic process by which the purity of the precious History,
metals can be ascertained, and for the screw engine which-v-—'
goes by his name, the theory of which has lately exer¬
cised the ingenuity of some of our greatest mathemati-
cians.
4. In the Greek school at Alexandria which flourished
under the auspices of the Ptolemies, the first attempts
were made at the construction of hydraulic machinery.
About 120 years after the birth of Christ, the fountain of Inventions
compression, the syphon, and the forcing pump, were in-ofCtesibius
vented by Ctesibius and Hero ; and though these machines
operated by the elasticity and weight of the air, yet their
inventors had no distinct notions of these pieliminary
branches of pneumatical science. 1 he syphon is a simple
instrument which is employed to empty vessels full of
water or spirituous liquors, and is of great utility in the
arts. The forcing pump, on the contrary, is a complicated Forcing
and abstruse invention, which could scarcely have been 1 un¬
expected in the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably
suggested to Ctesibius by the Egyptian wheel or Noria, Egyptian
which was common at that time, and which was a kind of wheel,
chain pump, consisting of a number of earthern pots car¬
ried round by a wheel. In some of these machine s the
pots have a valve in their bottom which enables them to
descend without much resistance, and diminishes greatly
the load upon the wheel; and if we suppose that this
valve was introduced so early as the time of Ctesibius,
it is not difficult to perceive how such a machine might
have led this philosopher to the invention of the forcing
5. Notwithstanding these inventions of the Alexandrian Labours of
school, its attention does not seem to have been directed exus^u-
to the motion of fluids. The first attempt to investigate nus in ^
this subject was made by Sextus Julius Frontinus, u-jspec- draulies.
tor of the public fountains at Rome in the reigns of Nerva a. D. 110.
and Trajan ; and we may justly suppose that his work en¬
titled De Aquceductibus urbis Romm Commentanus con¬
tains all the hydraulic knowledge of the ancients. After
2
HYDRODYNAMICS.
The Ro¬
mans ac¬
quainted
with the
art of con¬
ducting
water in
pipes.
History, describing the nine1 great Roman aqueducts, to which he
——v ' himself added more, and mentioning the dates of their
erection, he considers the methods which were at that time
employed for ascertaining the quantity of water discharged
from adjutages, and the mode of distributing the waters of
an aqueduct or a fountain. He justly remarks that the
expense of water from an orifice, depended not only on
the magnitude of the orifice itself, but also on the height
of the water in the reservoir ; and that a pipe employed to
carry off a portion of water from an aqueduct, should, as
circumstances required, have a position more or less in¬
clined to the original direction of the current. But as he
was unacquainted with the true law of the velocities of
running water as depending upon the depth of the orifice,
we can scarcely be surprised at the want of precision which
appears in his results.
It has generally been supposed that the Romans were
ignorant of the art of conducting and raising water by
means of pipes ; but it can scarcely be doubted, fi'om the
statement of Pliny and other authors, that they not only
were acquainted with the hydrostatical principle, but that
they actually used leaden pipes for the purpose. Pliny
asserts that water will always rise to the height of its source,
and he also adds that, in order to raise water up to an emi¬
nence, leaden pipes must be employed.2
6. The labours of the ancients in the science of hydro¬
dynamics terminated with the life of Frontinus. The
sciences had already begun to decline, and that night of
ignorance and barbarism was advancing apace, which for
more than a thousand years brooded over the nations of
Europe. During this lengthened period of mental dege¬
neracy, when less abstruse studies ceased to attract the no¬
tice, and rouse the energies of men, the human mind could
not be supposed capable of that vigorous exertion, and
patient industry, which are so indispensable in physical re-
Labours of searches. Poetry and the fine arts, accordingly, had made
Galileo. considerable progress under the patronage of the family of
Born 1504, Medici, before Galileo began to extend the boundaries of
died 1641. scjence> This great man, who deserves to be called the
father and restorer of physics, does not appear to have di¬
rected his attention to the doctrine of fluids : but his dis¬
covery of the uniform acceleration of gravity, laid the foun¬
dation of its future progress, and contributed in no small
degree to aid the exertions of genius in several branches of
science.
OfCastelli. 7* Castelli and Torricelli, two of the disciples of Galileo,
Born 1577, applied the discoveries of their master to the science of
died 1644. hydrodynamics. In 1628 Castelli published a small work,
Della Misura dell ’acque correnti, in which he gave a very
satisfactory explanation of several phenomena in the motion
of fluids, in rivers and canals. But he committed a great
paralogism in supposing the velocity of the water propor¬
tional to the depth of the orifice below the surface of the
vessel. Torricelli observing that in a, jet d'eau where the
water pushed through a small adjutage, it rose to nearly
diYiar'8’tlie Same whh the reservoir from which it was sup-
te 1‘ plied, imagined that it ought to move with the same velo¬
city as if it had fallen through that height by the force of
gravity. And hence he deduced this beautiful and im¬
portant proposition, that the velocities of fluids are as the
square roots of the pressures, abstracting from the resist¬
ance of the air and the friction of the orifice. This theo¬
rem was published in 1643, at the end of his treatise De
Motu Gravium naturaliter accelerato. It was afterwards
confirmed by the experiments of Raphael Magiotti, on
Of Torri¬
celli.
the quantities of water discharged from different adjutages History,
under different pressures; and though it is true only in
small orifices, it gave a new turn to the science of hydraulics.
8. After the death of the celebrated Pascal, who dis-Of Pascal,
covered the pressure of the atmosphere, a treatise on the Born 1623,
equilibrium of fluids (Sur VEquilibre des Liqueurs), was 1662.
found among his manuscripts, and was given to the public
in 1663. In the hands of Pascal, hydrostatics assumed
the dignity of a science. The laws of the equilibrium of
fluids were demonstrated in the most perspicuous and sim¬
ple manner, and amply confirmed by experiments. The
discovery of Torricelli, it may be supposed, would have
incited Pascal to the study of hydraulics. But as he has
not treated this subject in the work which has been men¬
tioned, it was probably composed before that discovery had
been made public.
9. The theorem of Torricelli was employed by manyofMari-
succeeding writers, but particularly by the celebrated Ma-otte.
riotte, whose labours in this department of physics deserve Died 1684.
to be recorded. His Traite du Mouvement des Eaux, which
was published after his death in the year 1686, is founded
on a great variety of well-conducted experiments on the
motion of fluids, performed at Versailles and Chantilly. In
the discussion of some points he has committed considerable
mistakes. Others he has treated very superficially, and in
none of his experiments does he seem to have attended to
the diminution of efflux arising from the contraction of the
fluid vein, when the orifice is merely a perforation in a thin
plate ; but he appears to have been the first who attempted
to ascribe the discrepancy between theory and experiment
to the retardation of the water’s velocity arising from fric¬
tion. His cotemporary Guglielmini, who was inspector of
the rivers and canals in the Milanese, had ascribed this di¬
minution of velocity in rivers, to transverse motions arising
from inequalities in their bottom. But as Mariotte ob¬
served similar obstructions even in glass pipes, where no
transverse currents could exist, the cause assigned by
Guglielmini seemed destitute of foundation. The French
philosopher, therefore, regarded these obstructions as the
effects of friction. He supposes that the filaments of water
which graze along the sides of the pipe lose a portion of
their velocity; that the contiguous filaments having on this
account a greater velocity, rub upon the former, and suffer
a diminution of their celerity; and that the other filaments
are affected with similar retardations proportional to their
distance from the axis of the pipe. In this way the medium
velocity of the current may be diminished, and consequent¬
ly the quantity of water discharged in a given time, must,
from the effects of friction, be considerably less than that
which is computed from theory.
10. That part of the science of hydrodynamics which The mo-
relates to the motion of rivers seems to have originated intion of
Italy. This fertile country receives from the Apennines Bvers first
a great number of torrents, which traverse several princi- ^tended
palities before they mingle their waters with those of theto 111
Po, into which the greater part of them fall. To defend
themselves from the inundations with which they were
threatened, it became necessary for the inhabitants to
change the course of their rivers ; and while they thus
drove them from their own territories, they let them loose
on those of their neighbours. Hence arose the* continual
quarrels which once raged between the Bolognese and the
inhabitants of Modena and Ferrara. The attention of the
Italian engineers was necessarily directed to this branch
of science; and from this cause a greater number of works
1 These nine aqueducts delivered every day 14.000 quinaria, or about 50,000,000 cubic feet of water, or about 50 cubic feet for
the dady consumption of each inhabitant, supposing the population of Rome to have been a million. According to Professor Leslie
the supply in modern Rome is forty cubic feet per person, in London three cubic feet, and in Paris one-half a cubic foot See
Elements of Nat. Phil, p, 419.
2 xxxvi* 7. See also Palladius De Be Rustica ix. 11, &c., and Horace Epist. I. x. 20, Ovid Met. iv. 120.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
History.
Theory of
Gugliel-
mini.
Discove-
were written on the subject in Italy than in all the rest of
Europe.
11. Guglielmini was the first who attended to the mo¬
tion of water in rivers and open canals.1 Embracing the
theorem of Torricelli, which had been confirmed by repeated
experiments, Guglielmini concluded that each particle in
the perpendicular section of a current has a tendency to
move with the same velocity as if it issued from an orifice
at the same depth from the surface. The consequences
deducible from this theory of running waters are in every
respect repugnant to experience, and it is really surprising
that it should have been so hastily adopted by succeed¬
ing writers. Guglielmini himself was sufficiently sensible
that his parabolic theory was contrary to fact, and endea¬
voured to reconcile them by supposing the motion of rivers
to be obstructed by transverse currents arising from irregu¬
larities in their bed. The solution of this difficulty, as
given by Mariotte, was more satisfactory, and was after¬
wards adopted by Guglielmini, who maintained also that
the viscidity of water had a considerable share in retarding
its motion.
12. The effects of friction and viscidity in diminishing
ries of Sir the velocity of running water were noticed in the Principia
Isaac New-0f g[r Isaac Newton, who has thrown much light upon seve-
ral branches of hydrodynamics. AtatimewhentheCar-
die™1727 5 tcsian system of vortices universally prevailed, this great
man found it necessary to investigate that absurd hypo¬
thesis, and in the course of his investigations he has shewn
that the velocity of any stratum of the vortex is an arith¬
metical mean between the velocities of the strata which
enclosed it; and from this it evidently follows, that the
velocity of a filament of water moving in a pipe is an arith¬
metical mean between the velocities of the filaments which
surround it. Taking advantage of these results, it was
afterwards shewn by M. Pitot, that the retardations arising
from friction are inversely as the diameters of the pipes in
which the fluid moves. The attention of Newton was also
directed to the discharge of water from orifices in the bot¬
tom of vessels. He supposed a cylindrical vessel full of
water to be perforated in its bottom with a small hole by
which the water escaped, and the vessel to be supplied with
water in such a manner that it always remained full at the
same height. He then supposed this cylindrical column of
water to lie divided into two parts ; the first, which he calls
the cataract, being a hyperboloid generated by the revolu¬
tion of a hyperbola of the fifth degree around the axis of
the cylinder which should pass through the orifice; and the
second the remainder of the water in the cylindrical vessel.
He considered the horizontal strata of this hyperboloid as
always in motion, while the remainder of the water was in
a state of rest; and imagined that there was a kind of ca ¬
taract in the middle of the fluid. When the results of this
theory were compared with the quantity of water actually
discharged, Newton concluded that the velocity with which
the water issued from the orifice was equal to that which a
falling body would receive by descending through half the
height of water in the reservoir. This conclusion, how¬
ever, is absolutely irreconcilable with the known fact, that
jets of water rise nearly to the same height as their reser¬
voirs, and Newton seems to have been aware of this objec--
tion. In the second edition of his Principia, accordingly,
which appeared in 1714, Sir Isaac has reconsidered his
theory. He had discovered a contraction in the vein of
fluid {vena contractd), which issued from the orifice, and
found that, at the distance of about a diameter of the aper¬
ture, the section of the vein was contracted in the sub¬
duplicate ratio of two to one. He regarded, therefore, the
section of the contracted vein as the true orifice from which
the discharge of water ought to be deduced, and the velo¬
city of the effluent water as due to the whole height of History,
water in the reservoir; and by this means his theory be- ^
came more conformable to the results of experience. This
theory, however, is still liable to serious objections. The
formation of a cataract is by no means agreeable to the
laws of hydrostatics; for when a vessel is emptied by the
efflux of water through an orifice in its bottom, all the par¬
ticles of the fluid direct themselves toward this orifice, and
therefore no part of it can be considered as in a state of
repose.
13. The subject of the oscillation of waves, one of the The oscil-
most difficult in the science of hydrodynamics, was first lation of
investigated by Sir Isaac Newton. In the forty-fourth pro-
position of the second book of his Principia, he has furnished
us with a method of ascertaining the velocity of the waves oft^n<
the sea, by observing the time in which they rise and fall.
If the two vertical branches of a syphon, which communi¬
cate by means of a horizontal branch, be filled with a fluid
of known density, the two fluid columns, when in a state
of rest, will be in equilibrio and their surfaces horizontal.
But if the one column is raised above the level of the other,
and left to itself, it will descend below that level, and raise
the other column above it, and, after a few oscillations,
they will return to a state of repose. Newton occupied
himself in determining the duration of these oscillations,
or the length of a pendulum isochronous to their duration ;
and he found, by a simple process of reasoning, that, ab¬
stracting from the effects of friction, the length of a syn¬
chronous pendulum is equal to one-half of the length of the
syphon, that is, of the two vertical branches and the hori¬
zontal one, and hence he deduced the isochronism of these
oscillations. From this Newton concluded, that the velo¬
city of waves formed on the surface of water, either by the
wind or by means of a stone, was in the subduplicate ratio
of their size. When their velocity, therefore, is measured,
which can be easily done, the size of the waves will be de¬
termined by taking a pendulum which oscillates in the time
that a wave takes to rise and fall.
14. In the year 1718, the Marquis Poleni published, Labours of
at Padua, his work De Castellis per quae derivantur Flu- the Mar-
viorum aqua:, &c. He found, from a great number of'l1”8 i>0_
experiments, that if A be the aperture of the orifice,
and D its depth below the surface of the reservoir, thedied ’
quantity of water discharged in a given time will be as
2 AD X O qqI, while it ought to be as 2 AD, if the velo¬
city of the issuing fluid was equal to that acquired by fall¬
ing through D. By adapting to a circular orifice through
which the water escaped, a cylindrical tube of the same
diameter, the Marquis found that the quantity discharged
in a determinate time was considerably greater than when
it issued from the circular orifice itself; and this happened
whether the water descended perpendicularly or issued in
a horizontal direction.
15. Such was the state of hydrodynamics in 1738, when Daniel
Daniel Bernouilli published his Hydrodynamica, seu de vi- Bernouil-
ribus et motibus Fluidorum Commentarii. His theory oH1^116^
the motion of fluids was founded on two suppositions, which °on of
appeared to him conformable to experience. He supposed
that the surface of a fluid, contained in a vessel which was Born 1700.
emptying itself by an orifice, remains always horizontal; Died 1782.
and if the fluid mass is conceived to be divided into an in¬
finite number of horizontal strata of the same bulk, that
these strata remain contiguous to each other, and that all
their points descend vertically, with velocities inversely pro¬
portional to their breadth, or to the horizontal sections of
the reservoir. In order to determine the motion of each
stratum, he employed the principle of the conservatio viri-
See his principal work, entitled La Misura deli acque correnH.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
D’Alem¬
bert ap¬
plies his
principle
of dvna-
History, um vivarum, and obtained very elegant solutions. In the
v'—-v-'—'' opinion of the Abbe Bossut, his work was one of the finest
productions of mathematical genius.1
Objected 16. The uncertainty of the principle employed by Daniel
toby Mac-Bemouiiiij which has never been demonstrated in a gene-
EornAGgs ra^ manner> deprived his results of that confidence which
die ■ 1746. they would otherwise have deserved ; and rendered it de-
and John' sirable to have a theory more certain, and depending solely
Bernouilli, on the fundamental laws of mechanics. Maclaurin and
Born 1G67, John Bernouilli, who were of this opinion, resolved the
died 1748. problem by more direct methods, the one in his Fluxions,
published in 1742; and the other in his Hydraulica nunc
primum detecta, et directe demonstrata ex principiis pure
mechanicis, which forms the fourth volume of his works.
The method employed by Maclaurin has been thought not
sufficiently rigorous ; and that of John Bernouilli is, in the
opinion of La Grange, defective in perspicuity and precision.
17. The theory of Daniel Bernouilli was opposed also
by the celebrated D’Alembert. When generalising James
Bernouilli’s Theory of Pendulums, he discovered a prin¬
ciple of dynamics so simple and general, that it reduced the
laws of the motions of bodies to that of their equilibrium.
mics to the He applied this principle to the motion of fluids, and gave
motion of a specimen of its application at the end of his Dynamics
fluids, in 1743. It was more fully developed in his Traite des
Born 1717. Fluides, which was published in 1744, where he has re¬
solved, in the most simple and elegant manner, all the pro¬
blems which relate to the equilibrium and motion of fluids.
He makes use of the very same suppositions as Daniel Ber¬
nouilli, though his calculus is established in a very different
manner. He considers, at every instant, the actual motion
of a stratum, as composed of a motion which it had in the
preceding instant, and of a motion which it has lost. The
laws of equilibrium between the motions lost, furnish him
with equations which represent the motion of the fluid. Al¬
though the science of hydrodynamics had then made con¬
siderable progress, yet it was chiefly founded on hypothe¬
sis. It remained a desideratum to express by equations
the motion of a particle of the fluid in any assigned direc¬
tion. These equations were found by D’Alembert, from
two principles, that a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of
fluid in equilibrio, is itself in equilibrio ; and that a portion
of the fluid, in passing from one place to another, preserves
the same volume when the fluid is incompressible, or dilates
itself according to a given law when the fluid is elastic. His
very ingenious method was published in 17 52, in his Essai
sur la resistance des Jluides. It was brought to perfection
in his Opuscules Mathematiques, and has been adopted by
the celebrated Euler.
Before the time of D’Alembert, it was the great object
of philosophers to submit the motion of fluids to general
formulae, independent of all hypothesis. Their attempts,
however, were altogether fruitless ; for the method of flux¬
ions, which produced such important changes in the phy¬
sical sciences, was but a feeble auxiliary in the science of
hydraulics. For the resolution of the questions concerning
the motion of fluids, we are indebted to the method of par¬
tial differences, a new calculus, with which Euler enriched
the sciences. This great discovery was first applied to the
motion of water by the celebrated D’Alembert, and enabled
both him and Euler to represent the theory of fluids in
formulae restricted by no particular-hypothesis.
18. An immense number of experiments on the motion
of water in pipes and canals was made by Professor Miche-
lotti of Turin, at the expense of the sovereign. In these
A. I). 1764.experiments tlie water issued from holes of different sizes,
under pressures of from 5 to 22 feet, from a tower con-
F.xperi-
ments of
Miche-
lotti,
structed of the finest masonry. Basins (one of which was History.
289 feet square) built of masonry, and lined with stucco,
received the effluent water, which was conveyed in canals
of brickwork, lined with stucco, of various forms and decli¬
vities. The whole of Michelotti’s experiments were con¬
ducted with the utmost accuracy; and his results, which
are in every respect entitled to our confidence, were pub¬
lished in 1774 in his Sperienze Idrauliche.
19. The experiments of the Abbe Bossut, whose labours Of the
in this department of science have been very assiduous and Abbe Bos-
successful, have, in as far as they coincide, afforded the8111,
same results as those of Michelotti. Though performed on
a smaller scale, they are equally entitled to our confidence,
and have the merit of being made in cases which are most
likely to occur in practice. In order to determine what,
were the motions of the fluid particles in the interior of a
vessel emptying itself by an orifice, M. Bossut employed a
glass cylinder, to the bottom of which different adjutages
were fitted; and he found that all the particles descend at
first vertically, but that at a certain distance from the ori¬
fice they turn from their first direction towards the aper¬
ture. In consequence of these oblique motions, the fluid
vein forms a kind of truncated conoid, whose greatest base
is the orifice itself, having its altitude equal to the radius
of the orifice, and its bases in the ratio of 3 to 2 It ap¬
pears also, from the experiments of Bossut, that when wa¬
ter issues through an orifice made in a thin plate, the ex¬
pense of water, as deduced from theory, is to the real ex¬
pense as 16 to 10, or as 8'to 5 ; and, when the fluid issues
through an additional tube, two or three inches long, and
follows the sides of the tube, as 16 to 13—In analyzing
the effects of friction, he found, 1. That small orifices gave
less water in proportion than great ones, on account of fr ic¬
tion ; and, 2. That when the height of the reservoir was
augmented, the contraction of the fluid vein was also in¬
creased, and the expense of water diminished; and by
means of these two laws he was enabled to determine the
quantity of water discharged, with all the precision he could
wish. In his experiments on the motion of water in canals
and tubes, he found that there was a sensible difference be¬
tween the motion of water in the former and in the latter.
Under the same height of reservoir, the same quantity of
water always flows in a canal, whatever be its length and
declivity; whereas, in a tube, a difference in length and
declivity has a very considerable influence on the quantity
of water discharged. According to the theory of the re¬
sistance of fluids, the impulse upon a plane surface is as
the product of its area multiplied by the square of the
fluid’s velocity, and the square of the sine of the angle of
incidence. The experiments of Bossut, made in conjunc¬
tion with D’Alembert and Condorcet, prove, that this is
sensibly true when the impulse is perpendicular; but that
the aberrations from theory increase with the angle of im¬
pulsion. They found, that when the angle of impulsion
was between 50° and 90°, the ordinary theory may be em¬
ployed, that the resistances thus found will be a little less
than they ought to be, and the more so as the angles recede
from 90°. The attention of Bossut was directed to a va¬
riety of other interesting points, which we cannot stop to
notice, but for which we must refer the reader to the works
of that ingenious author.
20. The oscillation of waves, which was first discussed Inquiries
by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards by D’Alembert, in of Flauger-
the article Ondes in the French Encyclopaedia, was now krues.con-
revived by M. Flaugergues, who attempted to overthrow th^oseik
the opinions of these philosophers. He maintained, that aiation 0f"
wave is not the effect of a motion in the particles of water, waves.
1 The germ of Daniel Bernouilli’s theory was first published in his memoir entitled Theoria Nova de Motu Aquarum per Canales
quocunque Fluentes, which he had communicated to the Academy of St Petersburg as early as 1726.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
5
History, by which they rise and fall alternately, in a serpentine line,
when moving from the centre where they commenced; but
that it is a kind of intumescence, formed by a depression
at the place where the impulse is first made, which propa¬
gates itself in a circular manner when removing from the
point of impulse. A portion of the water, thus elevated,
he imagines, flows from all sides into the hollow formed at
the centre of impulse, so that the water being, as it were,
heaped up, produces another intumescence, which propa¬
gates itself as formerly. From this theory M. Flaugergues
concludes, and he has confirmed the conclusion by expe¬
riment, that all waves, whether great or small, have the
same velocity.
And of M. 21. This difficult subject has also been discussed by M.
de la de la Grange, in his Mecanique Analytique. He found,
(1 range, that the velocity of waves, in a canal, is equal to that which
a heavy body would acquire by falling through a height
ie ' ‘ equal to half the depth of the water in the canal. If this
depth, therefore, be one foot, the velocity of the waves will
be 5.945 feet in a second; and if the depth is greater or
less than this, their velocity will vary in the subduplicate
ratio of the depth, provided it is not very considerable. If
we suppose that, in the formation of waves, the water is
agitated but to a very small depth, the theory of La Grange
may be employed, whatever be the depth of the water and
the figure of its bottom. This supposition, which is very
plausible, when we consider the tenacity and adhesion of
the particles of water, has also been confirmed by expe¬
rience.
Experi- 22. The most successful labourer in the science of hy-
ments and drodynamics was the Chevalier Buat, engineer in ordinary
theory of to the King of France. Following in the steps of the Abbe
th® ‘ Bossut, he prosecuted the inquiries of that philosopher with
BuaT 6 uncommon ingenuity; and in the year 1786, he published,
A.D.* 1779. in two volumes, his Principes d'Hydraulique,1 which con¬
tains a satisfactory theory of the motion of fluids, founded
solely upon experiments. The Chevalier du Buat consi¬
dered, that if water were a perfect fluid, and the channels
in which it flowed infinitely smooth, its motion would be
continually accelerated, like that of bodies descending in
an inclined plane. But as the motion of rivers is not con¬
tinually accelerated, and soon arrives at a state of unifor¬
mity, it is evident that the viscidity of the water, and the
friction of the channel in which it descends, must equal
the accelerating force. M. Buat, therefore, assumes it as
a proposition of fundamental importance, that when water
flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating force, which
obliges it to move, is equal to the sum of all the resistances
which it meets with, whether they arise from its own vis¬
cidity or from the friction of its bed. This principle was
employed by M. Buat, in the first edition of his work,
which appeared in 1779 ; but the theory contained in that
edition was founded on the experiments of others. He
soon saw, however, that a theory so new, and leading to
results so different from the ordinary theory, should be
founded on new experiments more direct than the former,
and he was employed in the performance of these from
1780 to 1783. The experiments of Bossut having been
made only on pipes of a moderate declivity, M. Buat found
it necessary to supply this defect. He used declivities of
every kind, from the smallest to the greatest; and made
his experiments upon channels, from a line and a half in
diameter, to seven or eight square toises. All these ex¬
periments he arranged under some circumstances of resem¬
blance, and produced the following proposition, which
agrees in a most wonderful manner with the immense num¬
ber of facts which he has brought together, viz.
v_ 307 X>Jd-
-01
History.
\!s—L s!s-\-1.6
0.3 X d—0.1,
where d is the hydraulic mean depth, s the slope of the
pipe, or of the surface of the current, and V the velocity
with which the water issues.
23. M. Venturi, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Researches
University of Modena, succeeded in bringing to light some of M. Ven-
curious facts respecting the motion of water, in his workturi-
on the “Lateral Communication of Motion in Fluids.”^’
He observed, that if a current of water is introduced with
a certain velocity into a vessel filled with the same fluid at
rest, and if this current passing through a portion of the
fluid is received in a curvilineal channel, the bottom of
which gradually rises till it passes over the rim of the ves¬
sel itself, it will carry along with it the fluid contained in
the vessel; so that after a short time has elapsed, there re¬
mains only the portion of the fluid which was originally
below the aperture at which the current entered. This
phenomenon has been called by Venturi, the lateral com¬
munication of motion in fluids; and, by its assistance, he
has explained many important facts in hydraulics. He has
not attempted to explain this principle; but has shewn,
that the mutual action of the fluid particles does not afford
a satisfactory explanation of it. The work of Venturi con¬
tains many other interesting discussions, which are worthy
of the attention of every reader.
24. Although the Chevalier Buat had shown much saga- Discove.
city in classifying the different kinds of resistances which ries of
are exhibited in the motion of fluids, yet it was reserved for Coulomb,
Coulomb to express the sum of them by a rational function VP, 1800.
of the velocity. By a series of interesting experiments on
the successive diminution of the oscillation of discs, arising
from the resistance of the water in which they oscillated,
he was led to the conclusion, that the pressure sustained by
the moving disc is represented by two terms, one of which
varies with the simple velocity, and the other with its square.
When the motions are very slow, the part of the resistance
proportional to the square of the velocity is insensible, and
hence the resistance is proportional to the simple velocity.
M. Coulomb found also, that the resistance is not percepti¬
bly increased by increasing the depth of the oscillating disc
in the fluid; and by coating the disc successively with fine
and coarse sand, he found that the resistance arises solely
from the mutual cohesion of the fluid particles, and from
their adhering to the surface of the moving body,
25. The law of resistance discovered by Coulomb, was Experi.
first applied to the determination of the velocity of running meats of
water by M. Girard, who considers the resistance as repre- M. Girard,
sented by a constant quantity, multiplied by the sum of the
first and second powers of the velocity. He regards the
water which moves over the wetted sides of the channel as
at first retarded by its viscidity, and he concludes that the
water will, from this cause, suffer a retardation proportional
to the simple velocity. A second retardation, analogous to
that of friction in solids, he ascribes to the roughness of the
channel, and he represents it by the second power of the
velocity, as it must be in the compound ratio of the force
and the number of impulsions which the asperities receive in
a given time. He then expresses the resistance due to co¬
hesion by a constant quantity, to be determined experi¬
mentally, multiplied into'the product of the velocity of the
perimeter of the section of the fluid.
26. The influence of heat in promoting fluidity was known
to the ancients ;2 but M. Du Buat was the first person who A.D. 1814.
investigated the subject experimentally. His results, how¬
ever, were far from being satisfactory; and it was left to
i A. third volume of this work was published in 1816, entitled Principes d'Hydrauliqne et Pyrodynamique, relating chiefly to the
subject of heat and elastic fluids. 2 FAny, Quaint. Nat.
6
HYDRODYNAMICS.
History* M. Girard to ascertain the exact effect of temperature on
the motion of water in capillary tubes. When the length
of the capillary tube is great, the velocity is quadrupled by
an increase of heat from 0° to 85° centig.; but when its
length is small, a change of temperature exercises little or
no influence on the velocity. He found also, that, in ordi¬
nary conduit pipes, a variation of temperature exercises
scarcely any influence over the velocity.
Investiga- 27. The theory of running water was greatly advanced
tions ot M. by the researches of M. Prony. From a collection of the
A D 1804 experiments by Couplet, Bossut, and Du Buat, he se¬
lected 82, of which 51 were made on the velocity of water
in conduit pipes, and 31 on its velocity in open canals; and
by discussing these on physical and mechanical principles,
he succeeded in drawing up general formulae, which afford
a simple expression of the velocity of running water. The
following is the formula for English feet, which answers
both for pipes and canals:—
V = 0.1541131 + V (0.023751 + 32806.6 G)
When we use this formula for canals, we must take
G
III, R being ~ — and I
£
—, a representing the area
A
of the section of the pipe or canal, ^ the perimeter of the
section in contact with the water, £ the difference of level
between the two extremities of the pipe, and A the length
of the pipe or canal.
When the formula is applied to pipes, we must take
G = i DK, D being the diameter of the pipe, and K =
H 4- <f
 -, H being the height of the head of water above the
superior orifice of the pipe.1
Researches 28. M. Eytelwein of Berlin published, in 1801, a valua-
of M. Ey- p]e compendium of Hydraulics, entitled Handbuch der
Berlin1 T/eeZ'amVe und der Hydraulik, which contains an account
1801 5 many new and valuable experiments made by himself.
His work is divided into 24 chapters, the most important of
which are the 7th, which treats of the motion of water in
rivers, and the 9 th, which treats of the motion of water in
pipes. He has shewn that the mean velocity of water in a
second in a river or canal flowing in an equable channel, is
i fths of a mean proportional between the fall in two Eng¬
lish miles, and the hydraulic mean depth; and that the
superficial velocity of a river is nearly a mean proportional
between the hydraulic mean depth and the fall in two
English miles. In treating of the motion of water in pipes,
he obtains the following simple formula, which agrees won¬
derfully with experiment,
in which l is the length of the pipe, d the hydraulic mean
depth, and li the height of the reservoir. The following
are some of the other important results which are given in
his work. The contraction of the fluid area is 0.64, the
coefficient for additional pipes 0.65, the coefficient for a
conical tube similar to the curve of contraction 0.98. For
the whole velocity due to the height, the coefficient by its
square must be multiplied by 8.0458. For an orifice, the
coefficient must be multiplied by 7.8 ; for wide openings in
bridges, sluices, &c. by 6.9; for short pipes 6.6; and for
openings in sluices without side walls 5.1. Our author in¬
vestigates the subject of the discharge of water by com¬
pound pipes, the motions of jets, and their impulses against
plane and oblique surfaces, and he shews theoretically, that
a water-wheel will have its effect a maximum when its cir¬
cumference moves with half the velocity of the stream.
29. A series of interesting hydraulic experiments was History,
made at Rome in 1809? by MM. Mallet and Vici.1 They
found that a pipe, whose gauge was five ounces French ant*
measure (or 0.03059 French kilolitres), furnished one- j
seventh more water than five pipes of one ounce, an effect
arising from the velocity being diminished by friction in
the ratio of the perimeters of the orifices as compared with
their areas.
Notwithstanding the investigations of Newton, D’Alem- Researches
bert, and Lagrange, the problem of waves was still un- of M.
solved; and the Institute of France was induced to pro-Foi33011?
pose, as the subject of its annual prize for 1816, “ The 1 ^1
Theory of Waves on the surface of a heavy Fluid of inde¬
finite depth.” M. Poisson had previously studied this dif¬
ficult subject, and he lodged his first memoir in the bureau
of the Institute on the 2d October 1815, at the expiration
of the period allowed for competition. M. Poisson supposes
the waves to be produced in the following manner. A
body of the form of an elliptic paraboloid is immersed a
little in the fluid, with its axis vertical and its vertex down¬
wards. After being left in this position till the equilibrium
of the fluid is restored, the body is suddenly withdrawn,
and waves are formed round the place which it occupied.
This first memoir contains the general formula for waves
propagated with an uniformly accelerated motion ; but in a
second memoir, read in December, he gives the theory of
waves propagated with a constant velocity. This last class
of waves are much more sensible than the first, and are
those which are seen to spread in circles round any disturb¬
ance made at the surface of water. In determining the
superficial as well as the internal propagation of these waves,
he considers only the case when the disturbance of the wa¬
ter is so small, that the second and the higher powers of
the velocity of the oscillating particles may be neglected;
and he assumes, that a fluid particle which is at any instant
at the surface, continues there during the whole of the mo¬
tion, a supposition which the condition of the continuity of
the fluid renders necessary. He supposes the depth of the
water constant throughout its whole extent, the bottom
being considered as a fixed horizontal plane at a given dis¬
tance beneath its natural surface. He then treats, first,
the case in which the motion takes place in a canal of uni¬
form width, over which obstruction is made of the hori¬
zontal dimension of the fluid; and, secondly, the case in
which the fluid is considered in its true dimensions.
30. The prize offered by the Institute was gained by M. Researches
Augustin Louis Cauchy, then a young mathematician of0* -M-
the highest promise. In his memoir, which was published ’
in the 3d volume of the Memoires des Sqavans, he treats
only of the first kind of waves above mentioned; and his
investigation claims to be more complete than that in the
first memoir of Poisson, in so far as it leaves entirely arbi¬
trary the form of the function relative to the initial form of
the fluid surface, and, therefore, allows the analysis to be
applied when bodies of different forms are used to produce
the initial disturbance. From his analysis, M. Cauchy
concludes, “ that the heights and velocities of the different
waves produced by the immersion of a cylindrical or pris¬
matic body, depend not only on the width and height of
the part immersed, but also on the form of the surface
which bounds this part.” He is also of opinion, that the
number of the waves produced may depend on the form of
the immersed body, and the depth of immersion.
31. The following abstract of the principal results obtained Results of
by theory, respecting the nature of waves, has been given theory re-
by Mr Challis:— specting
“ With respect first to the canal of uniform width, thewaves’
law of the velocity of propagation found by Lagrange, is
1 See Prony’s Recherches Physico-mathematiques sur la Theorie des Eaux Courantes.
2 See Mallet, Notices Historiques; Paris, 1830.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
History, confirmed by Poisson’s theory when the depth is small, but
—not otherwise. , „ .
“ When the canal is of unlimited depth, the following
are the chief results.
“ 1. An impulse given to any point of the surface, affects
instantaneously the whole extent of the fluid mass.
“ The theory determines the magnitude and direction of
the initial velocity of each particle resulting from a given
impulse. . , .
« 2. The summit of each wave moves with a uniformly
accelerated motion.
“ This must be understood to refer to a series of very
small waves, called by M. Poisson dents, which perform
their movements, as it were, on the surface of the laiger
waves, which he calls ‘ les ondes dent dees.’ Each wave
of the series is found to have its proper velocity, indepen¬
dent of the primitive impulse.
“ 3. At considerable distances from the place of disturb¬
ance, there are waves of much more sensible magnitude
than the preceding.
“ Their summits are propagated with a uniform velocity,
which varies as the square root of the breadth a jieur d eau
of the fluid originally disturbed. Yet the different waves
which are formed in succession, are propagated with dif-
v ferent velocities : the foremost travels swiftest. The am¬
plitudes of oscillations of equal duration, are reciprocally
proportional to the square root of the distances from the
point of disturbance.
“ 4. The vertical excursions of the particles situated di¬
rectly below the primitive impulse, vary according to the
inverse ratio of the depth below the surface. This law of
decrease is not so rapid but that the motion will be very
sensible at very considerable depths : it will not be the true
law, as the theory proves, when the original disturbance
extends over the whole surface of the water, for the de¬
crease of motion in this case will be much more rapid.
“ The results of the theory, when the three dimensions
of the fluid are considered, are analogous to the preceding
1, 2, 3, 4, and may be stated in the same terms, excepting
that the amplitudes of the oscillations are inversely as the
distances from the origin of disturbance, and the vertical
excursions of the particles situated directly below the dis¬
turbance, vary inversely as the square of the depth.”
them in 1829.3 After giving a description of his appara- History,
tus and method of experimenting, he gives the figures ob- 'v'——'
tained from fluid veins, discharged from rectilineal and cur-
vilineal orifices with salient angles pierced in vertical plates,
and whose perimeters are formed of straight and curve lines,
varying in more than fifty different ways, with variable and
invariable changes from zero to 22 French feet, the area of
the water being equal to one square inch. The sections
of the veins were taken at different distances from the ori¬
fice, and the results, which are extremely curious, are illus¬
trated by diagrams.
In a subsequent memoir, M. Bidone gives a theoretical
view of his experiments. He considers the greatest con¬
traction of the fluid vein to take place at a distance not
more than the greatest diameter of the orifice, whatever be
its shape ; and hence it follows, that the discharge from the
orifice is equal to the sum of the product of each superficial
element, multiplied by the velocity of the fluid vein; and
since the area of the vena contracta was found to be from
0.60 to 0.62, the expenditure will be represented by the
product of this coefficient of contraction, and the velocity
due to the charge.
In the case of a fluid vein issuing from a small orifice
relative to the section of the vessel, and reduced to a state
of permanence, he finds that the area of the section of the
vena contracta depends solely on the direction, and not on
the velocity, of its component filaments ; a result which ex¬
periment confirms. M. Bidone next ascertains that, in a
circular orifice, the absolute diameter of the vena contracta
is exactly two-thirds of that of the orifice, the correction
which is due to the contraction depending on the adhesion
and friction of the fluid against the perimeter of the orifice,
and the ratio of the area of the vein to the area of the ori¬
fice ; the same being true for all orifices.
34. A series of useful experiments was made in 1827, Experi-
under the sanction of the French government, by General ments of
Sabatier, Commandant of the Military School at Metz. The
apparatus which he used consisted ol four basins. The jg27. ’
first had an area of 25,000 square metres : the second had
an area of only 1500 square metres, and a depth of 3.70
metres, and was so contrived by means of sluices, as to have
a complete command of the level of the water during the
experiment: the third basin, which communicated directly
irbance, vary inversely as tne square oi uie uepm. \ "—   , 0 ., J
32. Several very interesting experiments on the propagation with the second basin, was 3.68 metres long and 3 wide,
ments of of waves, have been made by M. Weber and by M. Bidone. to receive the water discharged by the orifices: and the
Weber and Although Weber’s1 experiments were not made in exact fourth basin was a gauge capable of containing 24,000 litres.
Experi¬
ments of
Bid^ne,
1825.
conformity with the condition which the theory required,
yet they, generally speaking, harmonize with it; and they
particularly establish the existence of the small accelerated
waves near the place of disturbance, and of a perceptible
motion of the particles of the fluid at considerable depths
below the surface. When an elliptic paraboloid is used to
produce the waves, with its axis vertical, and its vertex
downwards, and when, of course, the section of the solid in
the plane of the surface of the water is an ellipse, the velo¬
city of propagation is, according to the theory, greater in
the direction of the major axis than in that of the minor, in
the ratio of the square root of the one to the square root of
the other ; but this result is not confirmed by Weber’s ex- minishes to 0.593.
In carrying on the experiments, the opening of the orifices,
the height or charge of the fluid in the reservoir, as well as
the level of the water in the gauge basin relative to each
discharge of fluid, were measured to the tenth of a milli¬
metre, so that the approximation was at least ^
whole result.
The following are some of the principal results of these
experiments.
1. For complete orifices of 20 centimetres square and
high charges, the coefficient is 0.600. When the charge
is 4 or 5 times the opening of the orifice, the coefficient
becomes 0.605, but beyond that charge the coefficient di-
periments.
M. Bidone of Turin2 has made experiments on waves
more conformable to the condition of the theory, and he has
in a great measure removed the obstacle arising from the
adhesion of the water to the immersed body; and the ex¬
periments which he has thus made, confirm the laws of mo¬
tion, as well as the existence of accelerated waves.
Investiga- 33. In 1826, M. Bidone made a series of experiments on
tions of M. the velocity of running water at the hydraulic establishment
Bidone, of the University of Turin, and he published an account of
1826-7.
2. The same law takes place for 10 and 5 centimetres in
height, the coefficients being for 10 centimetres 0.611,
0.618, 0.611, respectively, and for 5 centimetres in height
0.618, 0.631, 0.623.
3. With orifices of 3, 2, and 1, centimetres in height,
the law changes rapidly, and the coefficients increase as the
opening of the orifice diminishes, being for 1 centimetre,
the smallest height of the orifice. 0.698 to 0.640 for 3 cen¬
timetres.
35. In the year 1830, Mr George Rennie undertook a series jyjr George
   —— — Rennie,
2 Turin Memoirs, vol. xxv. 1830.
Wellenlehre avf Experiments gegrundet. Leipzig, 1825. ^ .
Experiences sur la forme et sur la direction des Veines et des Courans d'Eau, lances par diverses ouvertures.
8
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Hydrosta- of experiments on the friction of water against revolving
tics. cylinders and discs, on the direct resistances to globes and
v"—discs revolving in air and water alternately, on the coeffi¬
cients of contraction, and on the expenditure of water
through orifices, additional tubes, and pipes of different
lengths. The following are some of his principal results.
1. It appears from his first series of experiments, that,
with slow velocities, the friction varies with the surfaces;
that an increase of surface did not materially affect the
friction with increased velocities ; and that, with equal sur¬
faces, the resistances approximated to the squares of the ve¬
locities.
2. In the experiments on the resistances experienced by
globes and discs revolving in air and water alternately, it
appears that the resistances in both cases were as the squares
of the velocities, and that the mean resistances were as
follows:
Resist, in Air. Resist, in Water.
Circular discs, . 25.180 1.18
Square plates, . 22.010 1.36
Hound globes, . 10.627 0.75
3. In circular orifices in brass plates, ^th of an inch
thick, and with apertures of l, J, and i of an inch re¬
spectively, under pressures from 1 to 4 feet, the coefficients
were—-
Coefficient
of contraction.
For altitudes of 1 foot, v . 0.610
 4 feet, . 0.621
For additional tubes of glass, they were—
Coefficient.
For altitudes of 1 foot, . 0.817
 4 feet, . 0.806 •
4. The expenditure through orifices, additional tubes,
and pipes of different lengths, of equal areas, and the same
kind of water, as compared with the expenditure through a
pipe 30 feet long, are—
For orifices, . . . 3 to 1
For additional tubes, . . 4 to 1
For a pipe 1 foot long, . . 3.7 to 1
  2 feet long, . . 1.4 to 1
  4 feet long, . . 2.0 to 1
  8 feet long, . . 2.6 to 1
5. With bent rectangular pipes, half an inch in diame¬
ter, and 15 feet long, the expenditure was diminished two-
thirds ; with 14 bends as compared with a straight pipe, and
with 24 bends, one-third; but it did not seem to follow any
law.
F.xperi- 36. Many very accurate experiments on the discharge of
ments of water from long pipes, were made by James Jardine, Esq.
Mr Jar- civil-engineer. In the case of the Comiston Main, which
ume. conducts the water from the reservoir at Comiston to the
Castle at Edinburgh, the length of the pipe is 14,930 feet,
its diameter 4J inches, the altitude 51 feet, and the quan¬
tity of water actually delivered 189.4 Scots pints. This
valuable result Mr Jardine compared with the different for¬
mulae as follows:
Actual delivery of water at Comiston Main,
Calculated do. by Eytelwein’s formula.
Do- by Gerard’s formula,
Do. by Dubuat’s formula,
Do. by Prony’s simple formula,
Do. by Prony’s tables,
37. An improvement on the common theory of fluids was Hydrosta
lately suggested by Professor Airy, in his lectures at Cam- tics,
bridge. It had been usual to assume the law of equal
pressure as a datum of observation. Professor Airy, how- I:TiP™ve-
ever, has shewn that this property may be deduced from theory^f
another more simple and equally given by observation; fluids by
namely, that the division of a perfect fluid may be effected Mr Airy,
without the application of sensible force; and hence, it im-1830.
mediately follows, that the state of equilibrium or motion
of a mass of fluid, is not altered by a mere separation of its
parts by an indefinitely thin partition. Professor Miller
has given a definition of fluids founded on this principle,
and a proof of the law of equal pressure, at the beginning
of his Elements of Hydrostatics^ See. published at Cam¬
bridge in 1831. Dr Thomas Young had employed an
equivalent principle to that of Mr Airy in determining the
manner of the reflection of waves of water;1 and Mr
Challis considers it as necessary in the solution of some
hydrostatical and hydrodynamical problems.
38. There are certain cases in the analytical theory of hy- Itesearchd
drodynamics which require a more simple analysis than of Prof. 1
others ; such, for example, as those of steady motion, or 0f |
motion which has arrived at a permanent state, so that the1*’'50,
velocity is constant in quantity and direction at the same
point. Equations applicable to this kind of motion seem to
have been first given by Professor Mosely, in his Elemen¬
tary Treatise on Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics. The
following is the principle from which he has derived them.
When the motion is steady, each particle, in passing from
one point to another, passes successively through the states
of motion of all the particles ivhich at any instant lie in its
path. This general principle is applicable to all kinds of
fluids, and is true, whether or not the effect of heat is taken
into account, provided the condition of steadiness remains.
As it enables us to consider the motion of a single particle
in place of that of a number, it readily affords the equations
of motion.
39- As it was desirable to know how the same equation might Researche s
be obtained from the general equations of fluid motion, Mr of Mr
Challis undertook this inquiry, and published the results of
it in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical So¬
ciety? In this paper, he has given a method of doing this
both for incompressible and elastic fluids, and he has shewn
that a term in the general formulae which occasions the
complexity in most hydrodynamical questions, disappears
in cases of steady motion. Mr Challis is of opinion, that
these equations may be employed in very interesting re¬
searches, and he mentions, as instances, the motion of the
atmosphere as affected by the rotation of the earth, and a
given distribution of temperature due to solar heat.
40. The science of hydrodynamics has of late years been Experi-
cultivated by M. Eytelwein of Berlin, whose practical con- merits of
elusions coincide nearly with those of Bossut; by Dr Eytelwein
Matthew Young, late Bishop of Clonfert, who has explain-and others
ed the cause of the increased velocity of efflux through ad¬
ditional tubes; and by Mr Vince, Dr T. Young, Coulomb,
and Don George Juan ; but the limits of this work will not
permit us to give any further account of their labours at
present. We must now proceed to initiate the reader into
the science itself, beginning with that branch of it which
relates to the pressure, equilibrium, and cohesion of non¬
elastic fluids.
Scots pints.
189.4
189.77
188.26
188.13
182.32
180.7
1 Nat. Phil. vol. ii. p. 64.
2 Vol. iii. Part iv.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
9
PART I.—HYDROSTATICS.
Hydrosta- 41* Hydrostatics is that branch of the science of hy-
' tics. drodynamics which comprehends the pressure and equili-
 v / brium of non-elastic fluids, as water, oil, mercury, &c.; the
Definition raetiK)Cl 0f determining the specific gravities of substances,
of hydro- ^ eQUilibrium of floating bodies, and the phenomena of
statics. ...^ ^ ^
capillary attraction.
definitions and preliminary observations.
Definition 42. A fluid is a collection of very minute particles, co-
of a fluid, hering so little among themselves, that they yield to the
smallest force, and are easily moved among one another.
Perfect 43. Fluids have been divided into perfect and imperfect.
fluids. In perfect fluids the constituent particles are supposed to
be endowed with no cohesive force, and to be moved among
Imperfect one another by a pressure infinitely small. But, in imper-
fluids. feet or viscous fluids, the mutual cohesion of their particles
is very sensible, as in oil, varnish, melted glass, &c.; and
this tenacity prevents them from yielding to the smallest
pressure. Although water, mercury, alcohol, &c. have been
classed among perfect fluids, yet it is evident that neither
these nor any other liquid is possessed of perfect fluidity.
When a glass vessel is filled with water above the brim, it
assumes a convex surface; and when a quantity of it is
thrown on the floor, it is dispersed into a variety of little
globules, which can scarcely be separated from one another.
Even mercury, the most perfect of all the fluids, is endowed
with such a cohesive force among its particles, that if a
glass tube, with a small bore, is immersed in a vessel full
of this fluid, the mercury will be lower in the tube than
the surface of the surrounding fluid ;—if a small quantity of
it be put in a glass vessel, with a gentle rising in the mid¬
dle of its bottom, the mercury will desert the middle, and
form itself into a ring, considerably rounded at the edges ;
or if several drops of mercury be placed upon a piece of
flat glass, they will assume a spherical form ; and if brought
within certain limits, they will conglobulate and form a
single drop. Now, all these phenomena concur to prove,
that the particles of water have a mutual attraction for each
other ; that the particles of mercury have a greater attrac¬
tion for one another, than for the particles of glass ; and,
consequently, that these substances are not entitled to the
appellation of perfect fluids.
44. It was universally believed, till within the last seven¬
ty years, that water, mercury, and other fluids of a similar
kind, could not be made to occupy a smaller space, by the
application of any external force. This opinion was founded
on an experiment made by Lord Bacon, who inclosed a
quantity of water in a leaden globe, and by applying a great
force attempted to compress the water into a less space
than it occupied at first: The water, however, made its
way through the pores of the metal, and stood on its sur-
Florentine ^ace ^ew* same experiment was afterwards re-
experi- peated at Florence by the Academy del Cimento, who filled
ment. a silver globe with water, and hammered it with such force
as to alter its form, and drive the water through the pores
of the metal. Though these experiments were generally
sibifitv^f reckoned decisive proofs of incompressibility, yet Bacon
water first himself seems to have drawn from his experiment a very
noticed by different conclusion ; for after giving an account of it, he
Lord Da- immediately adds, that he computed into how much less
con.
space the renter was driven by this violent pressure.1 This Hydrosta-
passage from Lord Bacon does not seem to have been no- tics-
ticed by any writer on hydrostatics, and appears a complete ' 
proof that the compressibility of water was fairly deducible
from the issue of his experiment. In consequence of the
reliance which was universally placed on the result of the
Florentine experiment, fluids have generally been divided Fluids di-
into compressible and incompressible, or elastic and non- vided into
elastic fluids: water, oil, alcohol, and mercury, being re- compressi-
garded as incompressible and non-elastic ; and air, steam,ble ancl ia*
and other aeriform fluids, as compressible or elastic. compressi-
45. About the year 1761, the ingenious Mr Canton be- e‘
gan to consider this subject with attention, and distrusting Compressi-
the result obtained by the Academy del Cimento, resolved
to bring the question to a decisive issue.2 Having pro- Stained
cured a small glass tube, about two feet long, with a ball at by Mr
one end, an inch and a quarter in diameter, he filled the Canton,
ball and part of the tube with mercury, and brought it to
the temperature of 50° of Fahrenheit. The mercury then
stood six inches and a half above the ball; but after it had
been raised to the top of the tube by heat, and the tube
sealed hermetically, then, upon bringing the mercury to its
former temperature of 50°, it stood T3^0th of an inch higher
in the tube than it did before. By repeating the same ex¬
periment with water exhausted of air, instead of mercury,
the water stood fC^th of an inch higher in the tube than
it did at first. Hence, it is evident, that when the weight
of the atmosphere was removed, the water and mercury
expanded, and that the water expanded -jLT-th of an inch
more than the mercury. By placing the apparatus in the
receiver of a condensing engine, and condensing the air
in the receiver, he increased the pressure upon the water,
and found that it descended in the tube. Having thus
ascertained the fact, that water and mercury are compres¬
sible, he subjected other fluids to similar, experiments, and
obtained the results in the following table :
Millionth Parts. Specific Gravity.
Compression of Mercury,  3 13.595
Sea-Water, 40 1.028
Rain-Water, 46 1.000
Oil of Olives, 48 0.918
Spirit of Wine,...66 0.846
Lest it should be imagined that this small degree of com¬
pressibility arose from air imprisoned in the water, Mr
Canton made the experiment on some water which had
imbibed a considerable quantity of air, and found that its
compressibility was not in the least augmented. By in¬
specting the preceding table, it will be seen that the com¬
pressibility of the different fluids is nearly in the inverse
ratio of their specific gravities.
46. The experiments of Mr Canton have been lately an(j con.
confirmed by Professor Zimmerman. He found that sea- firmed bv
water was compressed j^th part of its bulk, when inclosed Zimmer-
in the cavity of a strong iron cylinder, and under the in-man-
fluence of a force equal to a column of sea-water 1000 feet
in height. From these facts, it is obvious that fluids are sus¬
ceptible of contraction and dilatation, and that there is no
foundation in nature for their being divided into compres¬
sible and incompressible. If fluids are compressible, they
will also be elastic ; for when the compressing force is re¬
moved, they will recover their former magnitude; and
1 Bacon's Works, by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 521; Novum Organum, part. ii. sect. 2. alph. 45. § 222.
2 See the Philosophical Transactions for 17G2 and 1764, vols. lii. and liv.
VOL. XII.
10
Pressure,
&c. of
fluids.
Experi¬
ments of
Professor
Oersted.
Experi¬
ments of
Mr Per¬
kins.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
hence their division into elastic and non-elastic is equally
improper.
A series of very valuable experiments on the compressi¬
bility of water has recently been made by Professor Oersted
of Copenhagen. At the temperature at which water has a
maximum density, which, according to Professor Stampfer
of Vienna, is at 38° 75 of Fahrenheit, Professor Oersted
found the true compressibility of water by one atmosphere
(or 336 French lines of mercury) to be 46.1 millionths of
the volume, the difference between the true and the appa¬
rent compressibility arising from the effect of the heat de¬
veloped by the compression, by which the liquid and the
bottle are dilated. He found also that the differences of
volume in the compressed water are proportional to the
compressing power ; and that this law holds as far as the
pressure of b5 atmospheres, and probably much farther;
but how far he was not able to determine, as his apparatus
could not resist a greater pressure.
A series of interesting experiments at high pressures were
made by Mr Perkins, who has described the instrument
which he employed in the Philosophical Transactions for
1826, p. 541. The following table contains the results
which he obtained from 10 to 2000 atmospheres upon a
column of water 190 inches long:
No. of Compression. No. of
Atmospheres. Inch. Atmospheres.
10 0.189 80
20 0.372 90
30 0.547 100
40 0.691 150
50 0.812 200
60 0.756 300
70 1.056 400
Compression.
Inch.
1.187
1.288
1.422
1.914
2.440
3.339
4.193
No. of Compression. Pressure,
&c. of
Atmospheres.
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
Inch.
5-087
5.907
6.715
7-402
8.243
9.002
15.833
Fluids.
If the number of atmospheres are made the abscissa
of a curve, and the compressions its ordinates, it will be
seen that the curve approximates to a hyperbolic one.
47. The doctrines of hydrostatics have been deduced
by different philosophers from different properties of fluids.
Euler has founded his analysis on the following property,
“ that when fluids are subjected to any pressure, that pres¬
sure is so diffused throughout the mass, that when it re¬
mains in equilibrio all its parts are equally pressed in every
direction.”1 D’Alembert at first2 deduced the principles
of hydrostatics from the property which fluids have of ris¬
ing to the same altitude in any number of communicating
vessels ; but he afterwards3 adopted the same property as
Euler from the foundation which it furnishes for an alge¬
braical calculus. The same property has been employed by
Bossut, Prony, and other writers, and will form the first
proposition of the following chapter.
CHAPTER L—ON THE PRESSURE AND EQUILIBRIUM OF FLUIDS.
Proposition I.
48. When a mass of fluid, supposed without weight, is
subjected to any pressure, that pressure is so diffused
throughout the whole, that when it remains in equilibrio
all its parts are equally pressed in every direction.
The parts As it is the distinguishing property of fluids that their
of a fluid particles yield to the smallest pressure, and are easily mov-
subjected e(j am0ng themselves (26.), it necessarily follows, that if
to any pres-a]Qy particle is more pressed towards one side than towards
equally6 another, it will move to that side where the pressure is
pressed in least; and the equilibrium of the fluid mass will be instant-
everydi- ly destroyed. But by the hypothesis the fluid is in equili-
rection. Jjno, consequently the particle cannot move towards one
side, and must therefore be equally pressed in every direc¬
tion.
Fig- 1* In order to illustrate
this general law, let EF
(fig. 1.) be a vessel full of
any liquid, and let m w, op
be two orifices at equal
depths below its surface;
then, in order to prevent
the water from escaping,
it will be necessary to
apply two pistons, A and
B, to the orifices mn, op
with the same force, whe¬
ther the orifice be hori¬
zontal or vertical, or in
any degree inclined to
the horizon ; so that the pressure to which the fluid mass
is subject, which in this case is its own gravity, must be dis¬
tributed in every direction. But if the fluid has no weight,
then the pressure exerted against the fluid at the orifice op,
by means of the piston B, will propagate itself through every
part of the circular vessel EF, so that if the orifices mn, tu
are shut, and rs open, the fluid -would rush through this aper¬
ture, in the same manner as it would rush through mn or
tu, were all the other orifices shut. This proposition, how¬
ever, is true only in the case of perfect fluids; for when there
is a sensible cohesion between the particles, as in water,
an equilibrium may exist even when a particle is less
pressed in one direction than in another; but this inequa¬
lity of pressure is so exceedingly trifling, that the proposi¬
tion may be considered as true, even in cases of imperfect
fluidity.
Prop. II.
49- If to the equal orifices mn, tu, op, rs of a vessel, con- j,. ^
taining a fluid destitute of weight, be applied equal lo'
powers A, B, C, D, in a perpendicular direction, or if
the orifices mn, &c. be unequal, and the powers A, B,
&c. which are respectively applied to them be propor¬
tional to the orifices, these powers will be in equilibro.
It is evident from the last proposition, that the pressure
exerted by the power B is transmitted equally to the ori¬
fices mn, rs, tu, that the pressure of the power C is trans¬
mitted equally to the orifices mn, op, tu, and so on with all
other powers. Every orifice then is influenced with the
same pressure, and, consequently, none of the powers A,
B, C, D, can yield to the action of the rest. The fluid
mass, therefore, will neither change its form nor its situa¬
tion, and the powers A, B, C, D will be in equilibro. If
the powers A, B, C, D are not equal to one another, nor
the orifices mn, op, rs, tu ; but if A : B wm : op, and
so on with the rest, the fluid will still be in equilibrio. Let
A be greater than B, then mn will be greater than op;
and whatever number of times B is contained in A, so
many times will op be contained in mn. If A — 2 B,
then mn — *! op, and since the orifice mn is double of op,
the pressure upon it must also be double ; and, in order to
resist that pressure, the power A must also be double of B;
1 Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. xiii. p. 305.
5 TraitL des Fluides, § 20.
M'danges de Littearture, d'Histoire, et Philosophie.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
11
Pressure, but, by hypothesis, A = 2 B, consequently the pressures
&c. of upon the orifices, or the powers A, B, will be in equilibrio.
Fluids, if tiie power A is any other multiple of B, it may be shewn
in the same way that the fluid will be in equilibrio.
Prop. III.
50. The surface of a fluid, influenced by the force of gra¬
vity and in equilibrio in any vessel, is horizontal, or at
right angles to the direction of gravity.
The sur¬
face of
fluids hori¬
zontal.
is pretty large, the curvature of the earth must be taken Pressure
into account. &c- 01 ’
Fluids.-
Prop. IV. y—'
53. The surface of a fluid influenced by the force of gra¬
vity, and contained in any number of communicating
vessels, however different in form and position, will be
horizontal.
Fig 3.
Let the surface of the fluid
be supposed to assume the wav¬
ing form APEB. Any particle
P in the surface of the fluid is
influenced by the force of gra¬
vity, which may be represented
by PS, and which may be de¬
composed into two forces P m,
Vn in the direction of the two
elementary portions of the sur¬
face ¥ m,V n (see Article Dynamics). But since the par¬
ticle P is in a state of equilibrium, the force of gravity
acting in the direction V m, P» must be destroyed by
equal and opposite forces, exerted by the neighbouring
particles against P in the direction mV, n P; therefore
the forces V m, V n are equal to the forces mV, nV.
Now the particle P being in equilibrio, must be equally
pressed in every direction (48). Wherefore the forces P m,
Vn are equal, and by the doctrine of the composition of
forces (see Article Dynamics), the angle m V n formed
by the two elementary portions P m, P n of the surface of
the fluid, must be bisected by PS, the line which repre¬
sents the direction of gravity. The same may be proved
of every other point of the surface of the fluid; and there¬
fore this surface must be horizontal or perpendicular to the
direction of gravity.
51. This proposition may be otherwise demonstrated.
From the principles of mechanics, it is obvious, that when
the centre of gravity of any body is at rest, the body itself
is at rest; and that when this centre is not supported, the
body itself will descend, till it is prevented by some ob¬
stacle from getting farther. In the same manner the centre
of gravity of a fluid mass will descend to the lowest point
possible ; and it can be shewn that this centre will be in
its lowest position only when the surface of the fluid mass
is horizontal. For let FGHI (fig. 2) be any surface, whe¬
ther solid or fluid, and C its centre of gravity, the point C
is nearer the line HI when FG is parallel to HI and recti¬
lineal, than when it has any other form or position. When
the surface FGHI is suspended by the point C, or balanced
upon it, it will be in equilibrio ; but if the line FG is made
to assume any other form as V rst op, by removing the
portion G op of the surface to rst, the equilibrium, will be
destroyed, and the side FG will preponderate. In order,
therefore, to restore the equilibrium, the surface must be
"balanced on a point c farther from HI; that is, the centre
of gravity of the surface F rstop IH is e. In the same
way it may be shewn, that whatever be the form of the
bounding line FG, the quantity of surface remaining the
same, its centre of gravity will be nearest HI, when FG
is rectilineal and parallel to it. On the truth contain¬
ed in this proposition depends the art of levelling, and the
construction of the spirit level, for an account of which see
Levelling.
52. As the direction of gravity is in lines which meet
near the centre of the earth; and as it appears from this5
proposition, that the surface of fluids is perpendicular to
that direction, their surface will be a portion of a spheroid
similar to the earth. When the surface has no great ex¬
tent, it may be safely considered as a plane; but when it
Let AB, CD, EF, GH, IK, be a system of communicat- Tjie sur_
ing vessels into which a quantity of fluid is conveyed: It face of a"
will rise to the same height in each vessel, and have a fluid in any
horizontal surface. Suppose ABEF, fig. 4, a vessel full number of
of water. By the last proposition, its surface ST will be cor^muni-
horizontal. Now, if any body be plunged into this vessel, g^-f j'oS"
the cylinder AD for instance, the surface of the fluid will riZOiital."
still be horizontal; for no reason could be assigned for the
water’s rising on one side of this body any more than on
another. Let us now immerge into the fluid, successively,
the solid bodies AD, CE#, GHF, &c., then after each im¬
mersion the surface will still be horizontal; and when all
these solids are immerged, the large vessel ABFE will be
converted into the system of communicating vessels re-
Fig. 4.-
presented in fig. 4, in which the surface of the'fluid will,
of consequence, be horizontal.
54. This proposition may be also demonstrated by sup¬
posing the parts AD, CE#, GHF, &c. converted into ice
without changing their former magnitude. When this
happens, the equilibrium will not be disturbed; and the
fluid mass AF, whose surface was proved to be horizontal
by the last proposition, will continue in the same state
after the congelation of some of its parts. That is, the
surface of the fluid in the communicating vessels will be
horizontal.
55. When the communicating vessels are so small that This pro-
they may be regarded as capillary tubes, the surface ofPosidon i3
the fluid will not be horizontal. From the attraction11 ^ tnj®
which all fluids have for glass, they rise to a greater height communi
in smaller tubes than in larger ones, and the quantity of catjng ves.
elevation is in the inverse ratio of the diameters of the sels are
bores. In the case of mercury, and probably of melted me- capillary
tals, the fluid substance is depressed in capillary tubes, and tubes.
the depression is subject to the same law. The subject of
capillary attraction will be treated at length in a subse¬
quent part of this article.
56. This proposition explains the reason why the sur
face of small pools in the vicinity of rivers is always on
12
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Pressure, a level with the surtace ot the rivers themselves, when
See. of there is any subterraneous communication between the
Fluids. river and the pool. The river and the pool may be con¬
sidered as communicating vessels.
Prop. V.
57* If a mass of fluid contained in a vessel be in equilibrio,
any particle whatever is equally pressed in every direc¬
tion, with a force equal to the weight of a column of
particles whose height is equal to the depth of the par¬
ticle pressed below the surface of the fluid.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5.
Fluids.
Immerse the small glass tube mp, into the vessel AB
filled with any fluid ; then if the tube is not of the capillary
kind, the fluid will rise to n on the same level with the
surface AB of the fluid in the vessel. Now it is evident,
that the particle p at the bottom of the tube mp is pressed
downwards by the superincumbent column of particles np,
which is equal to the depth of the particle^) below the sur¬
face of the fluid. But since the mass of fluid is in equili¬
brio, the particle p is pressed equally in every direction:
Therefore, the particle p is pressed equally in every direc¬
tion by a force equal to the superincumbent column np.
Prop. VI.
58. A very small portion of a vessel of any form, filled
with a fluid, is pressed with a force which is in the com¬
pound ratio of the number of particles contained in that
surface, its depth below the surface of the fluid, and the
specific gravity of the fluid.
Let Djo EB be the vessel, and rs a. very small portion
of its surface, the pressure upon rs is in the compound ratio
of the number of particles in rs, and np its depth below
the horizontal surface DB. Suppose the glass tube mp to
be inserted in the infinitely small aperture p, then, ab¬
stracting from the influence of capillary attraction, the fluid
in the glass tube will ascend to w on a level with DB, the
surface of the fluid in the vessel, and the particle p will
be pressed with a column of particles, whose height is np.
In the same way it may be shewn, that every other par¬
ticle contained between r and s is pressed with a similar
column. Then, since py^np will represent the pressure
of the column np on the particle p ; if N he the number
of particles in the space rs, ^ ynp will be the force of the
column supported by the space rs. And as the weight of
this column must increase with the specific gravity of the
fluid, S x N x np will represent its pressure, S being the
specific gravity of the fluid.
Prop. VII.
59. The pressure upon a given portion of the bottom of a
vessel, whether plane or curved, filled with any fluid, is
in the compound ratio of the area of that portion, and Pressure,
the mean altitude of the fluid, that is, the perpendicular &c. of
distance of the centre of gravity of the given portion from v
the surface of the fluid; or, in other words, the pressurev
is equal to the weight of a column of fluid whose base is
equal to the area of the given portion, and whose altitude
is the mean altitude of the fluid.
Let AEGB be the vessel, and AFB the surface of the
fluid which it contains. Let GH be a given portion of its
bottom, and C the centre of gravity of that portion: Then
shall CF be the mean altitude of the fluid. For, conceive the
portion GH to be divided into an infinite number of small
elements H/i, Gp, &c. then (58.) the pressure sustained by
the elements H It, Gp, will be
respectively SXHxHw;
S X Gp X Gt, &c. the spe¬
cific gravity of the fluid
being called S. But it fol¬
low's from the nature of the
centre of gravity, that the
sum of all these products is
equal to the product of the
whole portion GH into CF
the distance of its centre of
gravity from the horizontal
surface of the fluid.1 There¬
fore the pressure upon the
portion GH is in the compound ratio of its surface con¬
verted into a plane, and the mean altitude of the fluid.
60. From this proposition we may deduce what is gene-Hydrosta-
rally called the Hydrostatic paradox, viz. that the pressure^^'^'
upon the bottoms of vessels filled with fluid does not depend
upon the quantity of fluid which they contain, but upon its
altitude; or, in other words, that any quantity of fluid,
however small, may be made to balance any quantity or
any weipht, however preat. Let ACOQRPDB be a ves¬
sel filled with water, the bottom Fig. 6.
Q.R will sustain the same pres- N TEA. M
sure as if it supported a quan¬
tity of water equal to MORN.
It is evident (59.) that the part
EF is pressed with the column
of fluid ABEF, and that the
part DG equal to CD is pushed
upwards with the weight of a
column equal to ABCD. Now,
as action and reaction are equal
and contrary, the part DG re¬
acts upon FH with a force equal
to the weight of the column r H F E Q.
ABCD, and FH evidently sustains the smaller column
DGFH; therefore FH sustains a pressure equal to the
weight of the two columns ABCD and DGFH, that is, of
the column BIHF. In the same way it may be shewn,
that any other equal portion of the bottom QR sustains a
1 This will be evident from the following proposition. If every indefinitely small part of a surface be multiplied by its perpendicular
distance from a given plane, the sum of the products will be equal to the product of the whole surface, midtiplied by
the perpendicular distance of its centre of gravity from the same plane. In Fig. 7, let a, c, represent two weights
suspended at their centre of gravity by the lines a A, cC, attached to the horizontal plane of which ABC is
a section, and let b be the common centre of gravity of these weights, and the distance of this centre
from the given plane, then a X aA + cxcC=:a + cx 5B.—Draw an, cm, at right angles to &B. Then
since b is the common centre of gravity of the weights a, c, we shall have by the similar triangles anb, cm b,
(Euclid, vi. 4.) nb: mb — (ba: be =) c: a (See Mechanics, Centre of Gravity). Hence aY.nb = cy.mb,
or a x nB — 6B = c X &B — wB, or ay. nb — a X 6B = c x Z>B — c X «iB ; then, by transposition,
aynb — cxmB = ax &B + cx6B=a + C + 6B. But wB = aA and »nB = cC, therefore, by substitu¬
tion, «xaA + cxcC = a + cx6B. By supposing the two weights a and c united in their common cen¬
tre of gravity, the same demonstration may be extended to any number of weights.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
13
Pressure, similar pressure; and therefore it follows, that the pressure
&c. of upon the bottom Q.R is as great as if it supported the whole
Fluids. column MNQIl.
gi. The same truth may be deduced from Prop. IV.
For since the fluid in the two com¬
municating vessels AB, CD, will rise
to the same level, whatever be their
A size, the fluid in AB evidently ba¬
lances the fluid in CD ; and any sur¬
face mn is pressed with the same
force in the direction B?» by the
small column A B, as it is pressed in
„ the direction Dm by the larger co-
B lumnCD.
Corolla- 62. Cor. i. From this proposition it follows, that the
•los. whole pressure on the sides of a vessel which are perpen¬
dicular to its base, is equal to the weight of a rectangular
prism of the fluid, whose altitude is that of the fluid, and
whose base is a parallelogram, one side of which is equal to
the altitude of the fluid, and the other to half the perimeter
of the vessel.
Cor. ii. The pressure on the surface of a hemispherical
vessel full of fluid, is equal to the product of its surface
multiplied by its radius.
Cor. in. In a cubical vessel the pressure against one
side is equal to half the pressure against the bottom; and
the pressure against the sides and bottom together, is to
that against the bottom alone as three to one. Hence, as
the pressure against the bottom is equal to the weight of
the fluid in the vessel, the pressure against both the sides
and bottom will be equal to three times that weight.
Cor. iv. The pressure sustained by different parts of
the side of a vessel are as the squares of their depths below
the surface ; and if these depths are made the abscissae of
a parabola, its ordinates will indicate the corresponding
pressures.
Fig. 8.
Definition. DEFINITION.
63. The centre of pressure is that point of a surface ex¬
posed to the pressure of a fluid, to which, if the total pres¬
sure were applied, the effect upon the plane would be the
same as when the pressure was distributed over the whole
surface: Or, it is that point to which, if a force equal to
the total pressure were applied in a contrary direction, the
one would exactly balance the other, or, in other words, the
force applied and the total pressure would be in equilibria.
Prop. VIII.
64. The centre of pressure coincides with the centre of
percussion.
To find the
centre of
pressure.
Let AB be a vessel full of water, and CE the section of
Fig. 9. a plane whose centre of pres¬
sure is required. Prolong CE
A till it cuts the surface of the
water in M. Take any point
D, and draw DO, EP, CN,
perpendicular to the surface
MP. Then if M be made
the axis of suspension of the
plane CE, the centre of per¬
cussion of the plane CE re¬
volving round M will also be the centre of pressure. If
MCE moves round M as a centre, and strikes any object,
the percussive force of any point C is as its velocity, that
is, as its distance CM from the centre of motion; there¬
fore the percussive force of the points C, D, E, are as the
lines CM, DM, EM. But the pressures upon the point Pressure,
C, D, E, are as the lines CN, DO, EP, and these lines are &c. of
to one another as CM, DM, EM; therefore the percussive Fhdds.
forces of the points C, D, E, are as the pressures upon
these points. Consequently, the centre of pressure will
always coincide with the centre of percussion.
Sect. II. Instruments and Experiments for illustrating the
Pressure of Fluids.
65. We have already shewn in Art. 57, that the pressure Machine
upon the bottoms of vessels filled with fluids does not de- f°r ihus-
pend upon the quantity of fluid which they contain, but |,ra^n? t!‘e
upon its particular altitude. This proposition has been
called the Hydrostatical Paradox, and is excellently illus- dox,
trated by the following machine. In fig. 10, AB is a box 10_
which contains about a pound of water, and abed a, glass
tube fixed to the end C of the beam of the balance, and
the other end to a moveable bottom which supports the
water in the box, the bottom and wire being of an equal
weight with an empty scale hanging at the other end of the
balance. If one pound weight be put into the empty scale,
it will make the bottom rise a little, and the water will ap¬
pear at the bottom of the tube a, consequently it will press
with a force of one pound upon the bottom. If another
pound be put into the scale, the water will rise to b, twice
as high as the point a, above the bottom of the vessel. If
a third, a fourth, and a fifth pound be put successively into
the scale, the water will rise at each time to c, d, and e,
Fig. 10. Fig 11.
the divisions ab, be, cd, de, being all equal. This will be
the case, however small be the bore of the glass tube ; and
since, when the water is at b, c, d, e, the pressures upon the
bottom are successively twice, thrice, four times, and five
times as great as when the water was contained within the
box, we are entitled to conclude that the pressure upon the
bottom of the vessel depends altogether on the altitude of
the water in the glass tube, and not upon the quantity it
14
HYDRODYNAMICS.
machine.
Fig. 11.
The up¬
ward pres¬
sure of
fluids illus.
trated by
Pressure, contains. If a long narrow tube full of water, therefore, be
&c. of fixed in the top of a cask likewise full of water, then though
Fluids. j-}ie tube be so small as not to hold a pound of the fluid, the
^ Y J pressure of the water in the tube will be so great on the
bottom of the cask, as to be in danger of bursting it; for
the pressure is the same as if the cask was continued up in
its full size to the height of the tube, and filled with water.
The small- Upon this principle it has been affirmed that a certain
est quanti-quantity of water, however small, may be rendered capable
ty of water of exerting a force equal to any assignable one, by in-
aTonxf ^1 creasing the height of the column, and diminishing the base
equal to on which it presses. This, however, has its limits; for
any assign- when the tube becomes so small as to belong to the capil-
able one,, lary kind, the attraction of the glass will support a con¬
siderable quantity of the water it contains, and therefore
diminish the pressure upon its base.
Construe- 66. The preceding machine must be so constructed, that
tion of the the moveable bottom may have no friction against the in-
preceding gj^g 0p t]ie box, and that no water may get between it and
the box. The method of effecting this will be manifest
from fig. 11, where ABCD is a section of the box, and
abed its lid, which is made very light. The moveable
bottom E, with a groove round its edges, is put into a
bladder/I?, which is tied close around it in the groove by
a strong waxed thread. The upper part of the bladder is
put over the top of the box at a and d all around, and is
kept firm by the lid abed, so that if water be poured into
the box through the aperture //in its lid, it vail be con¬
tained in the space/E <7 A, and the bottom may be raised by
pulling the wire i fixed to it at E.
67. The upward pressure of fluids is excellently illus¬
trated by the hydrostatic bellows. The form given to this
machine by the ingenious Mr Ferguson {Lectures, vol. ii.
p. Ill) is represented in fig. 12, where ABCD is an oblong
the"hydro- square box, into one of whose sides is fixed the upright
static* bel- glass tube a I, which is bent into a right angle at the lower
lows. end as at i, fig. 13.: To this bent extremity is tied the neck
Fig. 12,13.0f a large bladder K, which lies in the bottom of the
box. Over this bladder is placed the moveable board L,
fig. 14, in which the upright wire M is fixed. Leaden
weights NN, with holes in their centre, to the amount of
16 pounds, are put upon this wire, and press -pi(T 12>
with all their weight upon the board L. The
cross bar P is then put on, in order to keep the
glass tube in an upright position; and after¬
wards the piece EFG for keeping the weights
N, N horizontal, and the wire M vertical. Four
upright pins, about an inch long, are placed in
the corners of the box, for the purpose of sup¬
porting the board L, and preventing it from
pressing together the sides of the bladder.
When the machine is thus fitted up, pour wa¬
ter into the tube I till the bladder is filled up to
the board L. Continue pouring in more water,
and the upward pressure which it will excite
in the bladder will raise the board with all the
weights NN, even
though the bore of
the tube should be so
small as to contain no
more than an ounce
Experi- of water,
mentshew- 68. That the pres-
ing tha sure 0f f}ufos arises
Sr/oT **
fluidsarisesand 18 propagated in
from their every direction, may
gravity, be proved by the fol-
and is pro- lowing experiment,
pagated in Jnsert jnto an empty
every di¬
rection.
vessel a number
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Pressure,
&c. of
Fluids.
glass tubes bent into various angles. Into their lower ori¬
fices introduce a quantity of mercury, which will rest in
the longer legs on a level with these orifices. Let the
vessel be afterwards filled with water; and it will be
seen, while the vessel is filling, that the mercury is gra¬
dually pressed from the lower orifices towards the higher,
where the water is prevented from entering. Now, in con¬
sequence of the various angles into which the glass tubes
are bent, the lower orifices point to almost every direction ;
and therefore it follows, that the pressure of the superin¬
cumbent water is propagated in every direction. When a
straight tube is employed to shew the upward pressure of
fluids, the mercury which is introduced into its lower ex¬
tremity must be kept in by the finger till the height of the
water above the orifice is equal to fourteen times the length
of the column of quicksilver : When the finger is removed
the mercury will ascend in the tube.
69. The pressure of the superior strata of fluids upon the Experi-
inferior strata may be shewn in the following manner. Im-mentsheu
merse two tubes of different bores, but not of the capillary
kind, in a vessel of mercury.^ The mercury will rise in the^6®1^'
tube on a level with its surface in the vessel. Let water Up0n t}ie
then be poured upon the mercury so as not to enter the inferior
upper orifices of the tubes, the pressure of the water upon strata of
the inferior fluid will cause the mercury to ascend in the ffuids-
tubes above the level of that in the vessel, but to the same
height in both tubes. The columns of quicksilver in the
two tubes are evidently supported by the pressure of the
water on the inferior fluid. The same experiment may be
made with oil and tinged water, the latter being made the
inferior fluid.
70. The syphon is an instrument which shews the gravi- Descrip-
tation of fluids, and is frequently employed for decanting tion of th«
common
Fig. 15. syphon.
liquors. It is nothing more than a bent tube BAG, fig. 15,
having one of its legs longer than the other. The shorter
leg AC is immersed in the fluid contained in the vessel
M ; and if, by applying the mouth to the orifice B, the air
be sucked out of the tube, the water in the vessel M will
flow off till it be completely emptied. Now, it is obvious,
that the atmosphere which has a tendency to raise the
water in the shorter leg AC by its pressure on the surface
HYDRODYNAMICS.
15
ressure,
&c. of
fluids.
inten’s
I phon.
empel’s
proved
phon.
iunter’s
Gaining
rphon.
[oveable
•anch
■phon.
of the water at M, has the same tondency to prevent the
water from falling from the orifice B, by its pressure there,
and therefore if the syphon had equal legs, no water could
' possibly issue from the orifice. But when the leg AB is
longer than AC, the column of fluid which it contains being
likewise longer, will, by its superior weight, cause the wa¬
ter to flow from the orifice B, and the velocity of the issu¬
ing fluid will increase as the difference between the two
legs of the syphon is made greater.
The syphon is greatly improved by fixing a stop-cock D
at the end of the longer branch, and placing on the same
branch a small bent tube DE, communicating with the tube
AB above D. When the aperture C is placed in the wa¬
ter to be drawn off, the mouth of the stop-cock D is closed,
and the air is drawn out by suction at E from the longer
branch. When there is no stop-cock at D, the finger may
be applied there, till the air is sucked out at E.
Fig. 16.
An improved syphon by M. Bunten is
shewn in fig. 16. where a bulb A is placed on
the long branch AB. This syphon requires
neither to be blown into nor sucked. When
the long branch AB and bulb A are filled
with fluid, and the other branch plunged in
the fluid, the flow will be unremitting, as
the bulb A in emptying itself draws off the
liquid in contact with the short branch.
Another improvement on the syphon is
shewn in fig. 17. as made by M. Hempel of
Berlin. The short branch has fitted into it
a vertical tube BA, terminating in a funnel
A. A part of the liquid to be drawn off is
then poured into the funnel A, and as soon
as the flow commences the long branch DC,
the tube AB is withdrawn, and the flow con¬
tinues.
Another improvement on
the syphon made by Mr
Hunter of Thurston, is shewn
in fig. 18. which has the pe¬
culiar advantage of retaining
its charge. Two small cups
or boxes A, B are fixed to the
ends of the unequal branches
by two screws C, C. When it is
charged in the common way,
and has been in use, it will
stand vertically in the boxes
A, B as a base, so that, when
it is lifted by the ring D, it
may be replaced, and will act ST B
as before. The same effect may be obtained by turning
up the ends of the branches, and fixing to them a plate
or piece of metal, upon which they may stand.
A moveable branch syphon, in which there is a joint at
the top D, is a most valuable instrument, and the idea of
it was first given by the late Mr Bryce, who employed it
in place of a stomach-pump, in order to throw fluids into
the stomach, or to extract them from it. The two branches
may be made of metal, glass, or any other substance, the
two parts being united by an air-tight joint. In cases of
exigency two glass tubes, or pieces of any tube, might be
joined into a syphon, by making the joint of a piece of
bladder. One of the branches may be raised into any posi¬
tion for the purpose of charging it, and the instrument may
be hung up charged, and ready for use, by a ring at the
extremity of each branch.
71. In order to shew that the effect of the syphon de¬
pends upon the gravitation of fluids, M. Pascal devised
the following experiment: In the large glass vessel AB, Pressure,
Fig. 19. fasten by means of bees-wax two &c. of
cylindrical cups a, 5, containing Hmds.
tinged water, whose surface is
about an inch higher in the oneme„tshew.
than in the other. Into the tinged ing that
water insert the legs of a glass the effect
syphon c d, having an open tube e the s7-
fixed into the middle of it, and put P*101! ^
a wooden cover on the vessel with
a hole in its centre to receive the tation of
tube, and keep it in a vertical po- fluids,
sition. Then through the funnel^
fixed in another part of the cover,
pour oil of turpentine into the larger
vessel till it flow into the cups a, i,
and rise above the arch of the
syphon. The pressure of the oil
upon the tinged water in the cups will cause the water
to pass through the syphon from the higher cup to the
lower, till the surfaces of the water in both the cups be
reduced to a level. In order to explain this, suppose a
horizontal plane eb to pass through the legs of the syphon,
and the tinged water in the cups, the parts of this plane
within the legs when the syphon is full, will be equally
pressed by the columns of tinged water ce, db within the
syphon ; but the equal parts of this plane between the cir¬
cumference of each leg of the syphon, and the circumfe¬
rence of each cylindrical cup, their diameters being equal,
will sustain unequal pressures from their superincumbent
columns, though the altitudes of these columns be equal..
For since the pressure upon e is exerted by a column of
oil ac, and a column of water a e, whereas the pressure
upon b is exerted by a column of oil hd, and a column of
water lib; the column ce, which contains the greatest
quantity of water, will evidently exert the greatest force,
and by its pressure will drive the tinged water from the
cup a, through the syphon acd into the cup b, until a perfect
equilibrium is obtained by an equality between the columns
of water ae and hb.
Sect. HI.—Application of the Principles of Hydrostatics
to the Construction of Dikes, fyc. for resisting the Pres¬
sure of Water.
Definition.
Definition.
A dike is an obstacle either natural or artificial, which
opposes itself to the constant effort of water to spread itself
in every direction.
72. In discussing this important branch of hydraulic ar- Different
chitecture, we must inquire into the thickness and form ways in
which must be given to the dike in order to resist the pres- ^
sure of the water. In this inquiry the dike may be con-
sidered as a solid body, which the water tends to overthrow, the pres-
by turning it round upon its posterior angle C ; or it may sure of
be regarded as a solid, whose foundation is immoveable, water,
but which does not resist the pressure of the water through
the whole of its height, and which may be separated into
horizontal sections by the efforts of the fluid. A dike may
considered also as a solid body which can be neither bro¬
ken nor overturned, but which may be pushed horizontally
from its base, and can preserve its stability only by the
friction of its base on the ground which supports it. On
these conditions are founded the calculations in the follow¬
ing proposition which contain the most useful information
that theory can ^pggest upon the construction of dikes.
Prop. I.
73. To find the dimensions of a dike which the water tends
to overthrow by turning it round its posterior angle.
16
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Pressure, Let AB CD, fig. 20, be the section of the dike, considered as
See. of a continuous solid, or a piece of firm masonry, HK the level
Fig. 20.
To find the
dimensions
of a dike
when water
tends to
turn it
round its
posterior
angle.
= 1/
= x
-y
— a
= b
=. z
— Z
by substitution we have the force RQ:
syyy, whose fluent is
sayy sy'
becomes ^ so? for the total momentum of the horizontal Pressure,
effort of the water to turn the dike round C. The vertical &c. of
force RY or QM, which presses the dike upon its base, is fluids.
MQ
RM’
evidently sy X M m X but on account of the similar
of the water which tends to overthrow it, by turning it
round its posterior angle C, supposed to be fixed, and let
AC, BD, be right lines or known curves. It is required
to determine CD, the thickness which must be given to its
base to prevent it from being overturned.
To the surface of the water HK draw the ordinates PM,
pm infinitely near each other, and let fall from the points
H and M the perpendiculars HT, MX. Draw the hori¬
zontal line ML and raise the perpendicular CL, and sup¬
pose
HP =x
PM
Vp or MV the fluxion of x
Vm the fluxion of y
HT
DT
CD
The momentum of the area ABCD, or the
force with which it resists being turned
round the fulcrum C
The specific gravity of water r= s
The specific gravity of the dike rr <r
74. It is obvious, from art. 57, that every element sustains
a perpendicular pressure proportional to the height PM. Let
RM perpendicular to M m represent the force exerted by the
column of water M mp P, and let it be decomposed into two
other forces, one of which RQ, is horizontal, and has a ten¬
dency to turn the dike round the point C, and the other RY
is vertical, and tends to press the dike upon its base. The
force RQ is evidently = sXy X Mm (58.), and therefore
RQ,
the horizontal part of it will be only sy xMm x • But
the triangles ROM, MV m are evidently similar, consequently
R Q :RM=Vm: Mm; hence ~ = ~ = Wherefore
RM Mm Mm
triangles, consequently by substitution we shall
have the force RY sy X M to X - f— = syx, after divi*
Mm
sion by Mm. The momentum, therefore, of the vertical
force RY with relation to C, or its power to prevent the
dike from moving round the fulcrum C, will be syx X CX ;
CX being the arm of the lever by which it acts, or the per¬
pendicular let fall from the fulcrum upon the direction of
the force. Now CX CD — DT -j- TX or HP, that is
CX — z — b -\-x, therefore the momentum of the force
RY = syx X z — b + x, and the sum of the similar mo¬
menta from F to H will be the fluent^{z— b -{• x) syx,
the combined momentum of all the vertical forces which
resist the efforts of the horizontal forces to turn the dike
round C. But the efforts of the horizontal forces are also
resisted by the weight of the dike, whose momentum we
have called Z, therefore c-Z, a- being the specific gravity of
the dike, will be the momentum of the dike. We have
now three forces acting at once, viz. the horizontal force of
the water striving to overturn the dike, and the vertical
force of the water combined with the momentum of the
dike, striving to resist its overthrow, therefore we shall have
an equilibrium between these three forces, when the mo¬
mentum of the horizontal forces is made equal to the mo¬
mentum of the vertical forces, added to that of the dike
itself, consequently
Is a!'
=/<
z — b x') syx -j- <rZ.
75. As it is necessary, however, to give more stability
to the dike than what is just requisite to preserve its equi¬
librium, we must make its dimensions such as to resist a
force greater than the horizontal forces, a force, for exam¬
ple, n times the momentum of the horizontal forces.1 The
equation will therefore become
(I.) nx \ sa* =>-*+ x) syx ■p g’Z,
syXMmX^-,
and dividing by Mm, we have RQ, = syy. The force RQ,
therefore, will always be the same as the force against Ym,
whatever be the nature of the curve BD. Now the mo¬
mentum of this force with relation to the fulcrum C, or its
power to make the dike revolve round C, is measured by
the perpendicular CL, let fall from the centre of motion to
the direction in which the force is exerted (see Mecha¬
nics), consequently this momentum will be sy ’y X CL =
syy Xa — y (since CL = HT — PM = a —y) — sayy 
, which by supposing y — a
which comprehends every possible case of stability ; for if
we wish the stability of the dike to have double the stabi¬
lity of equilibrium, we have only to make n—*!. The pre¬
ceding general equation is susceptible of a variety of appli¬
cations according to the nature of the curves which form
the sides of the dike. It is at present worthy of remark,
that since the momentum of the horizontal forces is always
the same, whatever be the curvature of the sides AC, BD,
and since the momentum of the vertical forces increases as Equation
the angle CDH diminishes, it follows that it will always be containing
advantageous to diminish the angle CDH, and give as much t*16 condi-
slope as possible to the sides of the dike. tions of
76. Let us now consider the conditions that maybe ne-on
cessary to prevent the dike ABCD from sliding on its base the suppo-
CD. Since the base of the dike is supposed horizontal, the sition that
force which the dike opposes to the horizontal efforts of the A16 dike
water arises solely from the adhesion of the dike to its base, ma-v s!ide
and from the resistance of friction. These two forces, there- ltS
1 The dimensions of the dike would be sufficiently strong to resist anv additional force by neglecting the term <rZ, which repre-
sents the vertical pressure of the water tending to keep the dike upon its' base.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
17
Pressure, fore, combined with the weight of the dike, form the force
&c. of which resists the horizontal efforts of the water ; an equili-
Fluids. brium will consequently obtain when the three first forces
 *—''are made equal to the last. But the force of adhesion, and
the resistance of friction, being unknown, may be made
equal to the weight of the dike multiplied by the constant
quantity m, which must be determined by experience.
Now, calling A the area of the section ABCD, we shall
have <rA for its weight, and mo-A for the resistance which
is opposed to the horizontal efforts of the water. But we
have already seen that the horizontal forces of the water
upon M are equal to syy, whose fluent \ so? (when a — y)
is the sum of all the horizontal forces; consequently, when
an equilibrium takes place between these opposing forces,
we shall have,
(II.) m<r\z=.\ so?) or A = - X
2m'
We might have added to the weight of the dike the verti¬
cal pressure of the water, but it has been neglected for the
purpose of having the dike sufficiently strong to resist an
additional force.
Form of 77. We shall now proceed to inquire into the form which
the general the general equation assumes when the sides of the dike
equation are rectiiineai. Let AC, BD, fig. 21. be two lines inclined
^lien l?1? to the horizon under given angles ACD, BDC, and let AB,
dike8are *e CD be two horizontal lines. Retaining the construction
rectilineal and symbols in art. 73, let fall AQ, BZ, perpendicular to
CD, and make AQ, = BZ = d, CQ = r, and DZ = r'.
Fig. 21.
sbzyy sbbyy , sbby6 _
2a rr~“ ”
sb^a
IT
that conspire to give it a motion of rotation about C will Pressure,
    &c. of
  Z r  r VlnlrD
be " z — r' — r X d X r  t- . The lever by „ _ ^ v
which the triangle BZD acts, when collected in its centre
of gravity I, is evidently C i; but by the property of the
2 r'
centre of gravity — % DZ hence Ci — CD —
T) i = z —, consequently the energy of the triangle
BZD to resist the efforts of the water acting horizontally
The lever of the triangle ACQ
dr'
will be = -y- X z
2/
IT
triangle BZD =r
DZ X ZB dr'
2r
is plainly Cs zz §CQ = —, consequently the momentum
of ACQ, collected in its centre of gravity S, will be =
^ x —. Having thus found the momentum of the rect-
2 3
angle ABQZ, and of the triangles BZD, ACQ, the sum of
these momenta will be the momentum Z, with which the
dike opposes the horizontal efforts of the water, therefore
we shall have
 * — r' — r dr1 2r/
“2—+tx*—r +
Z = z—r' — r xdxr -\-
dr 2r
yxy
and by multiplication,
dzz
Z_ 2
dr1 z dr' r'
~7T ^ 6~
drr
~6~‘
By substituting this value of Z in the general equation
in art. 75, we shall have
„ sbza sbba rdzz a-dr'z
(III.) nx\ so? =
2
a-dr'r'
sbba , a-dzz
—6 ' 2
o-drr
On account of the similar triangles HPM, FTH we shall
h y
have a x b — y : x, and therefore a? = —. Substituting this
value of x, instead of x in the general equation, art. 75, we
have/— 6 + a?) syx =J*8— (z — & + yy =
sbza
2a ' 3a2 = ^ 
; now the momentum of the dike ABCD with rela¬
tion to C, is equal to the whole area of the dike ABCD
collected in its centre of gravity, and placed at the end of
a lever whose length is the horizontal distance of that cen¬
tre of gravity from the fulcrum C. But the area of
ABQZ = QZ X ZB =z — r' — rxd; the area of the
triangle ACQ =   — and the area of the
Jt
2 ” Resulting
equation
  when both
6 6’ its sides are
a quadratic equation, which will determine in general the
base ^ of a dike, when its sides are rectilineal and inclined ^
at any angle to the horizon.
78. When the angle ACQ is a right angle, or when the
posterior side AC of the dike is perpendicular to the hori¬
zon, the quantity r becomes — 0, and the last term of the
preceding equation in which r appears M ill vanish, conse¬
quently the equation will now become
sbza sbba ,
(IV.) nx\sa*zz-^ +
a- dr' r1
■dzz crdr’ z
+-
6
Resulting
equation
when the
posterior
side of the
dike is ver¬
tical.
Now the lever by
2 2
which the area ABQZ, collected in its centre of gravity
F. acts upon the fulcrum, is evidently = C/ =: CQ + Q/—
z — v' — r
CQ + A QZ = r +
-, consequently the momen-
* ' 1 2
turn by which the area ABCD resists the horizontal forces
VOL. XII.
79* When the angles ACQ and BDZ are both right, Resuiting
the dike becomes rectangular, with its sides perpendicular eqUation”
to its base. In this case both r and r' become each =: 0, when both
and therefore all the terms in which they are found will sides ol the
vanish. In this case too DT — b becomes = 0, and there-
fore the terms in which it appears will likewise vanish.
The general equation will now become
(V.) n X % sa3 = 17 a pure quadratic.
80. In order to shew the application of the preceding Applica-
formulae, and at the same time the advantage of inclining tion of the
the sides of the dike, let us suppose the depth of the water, formulae,
and also the height of the dike, to be 18 feet, so that B will
coincide with H. Let us also suppose, what is generally
the case in practice, that the declivity of the sides is £ of
c
18
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Fluids.
Pressure, tlieir altitude, that is DZ =: CQ, — ^ BZ. Let the specific
&e. of gravity of the dike be to that of water as 12 to 7 ; and sup¬
pose it is wished to make the stability of the dike twice as
great as the stability of equilibrium, that is, to make it ca¬
pable of resisting a force twice as great as that which it
really sustains. Then, upon these conditions, we shall
have BZ = HT, or a —d ~ 18 feet; CQ, = DZ — DT,
ox r' — r — b — ?> feet; ^ = 7 ; — 12 ; and n — 2. By
substituting these numerical values in the general equation
No. Ill, it becomes
45
** 36*
4599
39
feet;
Fig. 22.
Fluids.
adhesion of the two surfaces MN, m n. Of these four Pressure,
forces, the first is the only one which has a tendency to &c. of
overthrow the portion AMN of the dike ; and its efforts are
resisted by the three other forces. In order to find the
momenta of these forces with regard to the point N, let us
suppose
AP = NM
PM
The specific gravity of water
The specific gravity of the dike
rr X
z.y
a quadratic equation, which, after reduction, will give
z= 12 feet nearly. When 2 12, the area of the dike
ABCD will be 162 square feet.
Advan- gi. Let us now suppose the sides of the dike to be ver-
tages of in-ticai, equation No. V. will give us £= 11 feet 2 inches,
sides cl' the which makes the area of the dike more than 201 square
dike. feet. The area of the dike with inclined sides is therefore
to its area with vertical sides nearly as 4 to 5: and hence
we may conclude that a dike with inclined sides has the
same stability as a dike with vertical sides, while it requires
} less materials.
Prop. II.
82. To find the dimensions of a dike which can neither
slide upon its base, nor turn round its posterior angle;
but which is composed of horizontal sections, which may
be separated from each other.
To find the In solving this proposition, we must find the curvature
dimensions 0f ^}1C gije exposed to the pressure of the water, which will
whenwaterma^e 61C different sections or horizontal laminai equally
tends to capable of resisting the different forces which tend to sepa-
separate it rate them. If the lamina NM
into hori- does not resist the column PM,
zontal sec- which partly presses it in the
tions. direction MN as powerfully as
the lamina resists the ho¬
rizontal pressure of the column
pm, the lamina NM is in dan¬
ger of being separated from
the lamina n m. But if all the
laminae NM, n m resist with
equal force the horizontal ef¬
fects of the water, and if the
dike cannot be made to slide
upon its base nor turn round
its posterior angle T, it cannot possibly yield to the pres¬
sure of the water; for it is impossible to separate one la¬
mina from another, unless the one opposes a less resist¬
ance than the other. To simplify the investigation as much
as possible, let us suppose the posterior side of the dike to
be vertical, and the depth of the water to be equal to the
height of the dike.
83. Let ABC be the section of the dike, AK the surface
of the water, AC the curvature required, AB its posterior
side; MN nm a horizontal lamina infinitely small, in the
direction of which the dike has a tendency to break, in
consequence of the efforts of the water upon AM.
If the dike should break in the direction MN, the supe¬
rior part AMN will detach itself from the inferior part
MNBC, by moving from M towards N; and at the mo¬
ment when the impulse takes place, it will have a small
motion of rotation round the point N. We must therefore
Mon of the ^eterm'ne ^ie forces which act upon the lamina MN nm,
forces *e anc* ^orm an ecluati°n expressing their equilibrium round
which act ^e point N. The forces alluded to are evidently, 1. The
upon the horizontal efforts of the water; 2. The vertical efforts of
dike. the water; 3. The weight of the part AMN; and, 4. The
Then we shall have,
1. The momentum of the horizontal forces of the water Monien-
will be = ^ sy'6, by the same reasoning that was employed turn of
in art. 74. these
forces.
2. The momentum of the part AMN of the dike will
be ~ <rj^xy the area of the surface AMN, multiplied by
the distance of its centre of gravity from the fulcrum N,
ij^xxy
which is equal to
fxi
See Mechanics.
84. In order to simplify the calculus, and at the same
time increase the stability of the dike, we shall neglect the
vertical force of the water, and the adhesion of the two
surfaces MN, mn. The only forces, therefore, which we
have to consider, are the horizontal efforts of the water
acting against the momentum of the superior part AMN.
By making an equilibrium between these forces, we shall
have the following equation :
- rj'xy
xy X
xxy
fXy
*/*
By taking the fluxion we have,
^ sy"1 y = ^ <r X xxy. Dividing by y we have
| sy1 — t o- x x1, which by reduction becomes
Y.x.
The line AMC therefore is rectilineal, and the base BC is
to the altitude BA as Js \ Jr-, that is, as the square root
of the specific gravity of the water is to the square root of
the specific gravity of the dike.
85. In order to prevent the superior portion AMN from Equation
sliding on its base MN, we must procure an equilibrium containing
between the adhesion of the surfaces MN, mn and thethecondi-
horizontal force exerted by the water. Now, the sum of tions of
all the horizontal forces exerted by the water is (by art. 76.) ^
i sy2, and the adhesion may be represented by some mul-
tiple m, of its weight, the constant quantity m being deter- sjti0n that
mined by experience. The adhesion will therefore be the dike
m X <rj*xy, and the equation of equilibrium will be
i sy2 — my. <rjxy, the fluxion of which is
syy — my<r xy. Dividing by y we have
sy — m a- x, and therefore
x i y — s : m <r n.
Hence the base BC of the dike is to its altitude BA as the
specific gravity of water is to a multiple m of the specific
may slide
upon its
base.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
19
Of Specific gi-avity of the dike, m being a constant quantity which ex-
Gravities. periments alone can determine.
In a work by the Abbe Bossut and M. Viallet, entitled
Ttecherches sur la Construction la plus avantageuse des
Digues, the reader will find a general solution of the pre¬
ceding problem, in which the vertical efforts of the water
and the adhesion of the surfaces are considered. This able Of Specific-
work, which we have followed in the preceding investiga- Gravities,
tion, contains much practical information on the construe- ''
tion of dikes of every kind ; and may be considered as a
continuation of the second part of Belidor’s Architecture
Hydraulique.
CHAPTER II.—OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Definition.
Specific 86. The absolute weights of different bodies of the same
gravity bulk are called their specific gravities or densities ; and one
lefined. body is said to be specifically heavier or specifically lighter
than another, when under the same bulk it contains a
greater or less quantity of matter. Brass, for example, is
said to have eight times the specific gravity of water, be¬
cause one cubic inch of brass contains eight times the quan¬
tity of matter, or is eight times heavier than a cubic inch
of water.
Prop. I.
87* Fluids pressing against each other in two or more com-
Fig. 23.
municating vessels, will be in equi-
librio when the perpendicular alti-
N tudes above the level of their junc¬
tion are in the inverse ratio of their
specific gravities.
If a quantity of mercury be poured
into the vessel FMN, it will be in
e equilibrio when it rises to the same
E level AHIB, in both tubes. Take
away an inch of mercury ACDH,
and substitute in its room 13^ inches
of water FCDG. Then since mer¬
cury is 13^ times heavier than water,
13£ inches of water will have the same absolute weight as one
inch of mercury, and the equilibrium will not be disturbed;
for the column of water FD will exert the same pressure
upon the surface CD of the mercury, as the smaller column
of mercury did formerly. The surface of the mercury,
therefore, will remain at IB: now, since AB, CE, are
horizontal lines, AC will be equal to IK; but FC was
made 13£ times AC, therefore FC = 13^ times IK, that is
FC : IKz= 13J : 1, the ratio between the specific gravities
of mercury and water.
Construe- 88. On this proposition depends the theory of the baro-
ticn of the meter. Let a quantity of mercury be introduced into the
barometer, tube FMN, and let the pressure of the atmosphere be re¬
moved from the surface IB ; the pressure of the air upon
the other surface CD will be the same as if the tube FD
were continued to the top of the atmosphere, and therefore,
instead of the column of water FD we have a column of
air equal to the height of the atmosphere acting against the
mercury CDMIB ; the mercury consequently will rise to¬
wards N, so that its height will be to the height of the at¬
mosphere as the specific gravity of air is to the specific
gravity of mercury ; but as the density of the air diminishes
as it recedes from the earth, we must take the specific gra¬
vity of the air at a mean height in the atmosphere. It is
obvious from the proposition, that the altitude of the column
of mercury which balances the column of air, must be
mersed i” a reck°ned from CD, the level of their junction ; and that,
fluid are when the specific gravity of the air is diminished, the mer-
pressed up- cury wdl fall, and will again rise when it regains its former
wards with density.
a forft Prop. II.
equal to
the weight 89. If any body is immersed in a fluid, or floats on its sur-
ofthequan- face, it is pressed upwards with a force equal to the
df^we’ght °f 6'e quantity of fluid displaced.
Let m H be the section of a body immersed in the ves- Demon-
Fig. 24. sel AB filled with a fluid, stration
1 Any portion m n of its upper Pa’
b surface is pressed down- pjpe(j js
wards by the column ol'jminersed
fluid Cmn~D (59.); but in the fluid,
the similar portion EF of
its lower surface is pressed
upwards with a column of
fluid equal to CEFD, there¬
fore the part EF is pressed upwards with the difference
of these forces, that is, with a force equivalent to the co¬
lumn of fluid m EF n, for CEFD — C mriQ — m EFw. In
the same way it may be shewn, that the remaining part FH
is pressed upwards with a force equal to the weight of a
column n FHo ; and therefore it follows, that the rectangle
toEHo is pressed upwards with a force equivalent to a co¬
lumn m EH o, that is, to the quantity of fluid displaced.
90. If the body floats in the fluid, like CH in the When the
vessel AB, the same con-parallelo-
sequence will follow; forpipfdfloats
the body CH is evidentlyillt efiuidl
pressed upwards with a force
equivalent to the column
mEHo, that is, to the part
immersed or the quantity
of fluid displaced. Now,
as the same may be demon¬
strated of every other sec¬
tion of a solid parallelopiped, we may conclude, that the
proportion is true with respect to every solid whose section
is rectangular.
91. When the solid has any other form, as CD, however when the
Fig. 2(i. irregular, we may conceive solid has
its section to be divided into any other
a number of very small rec- A,rrn •
tangles n o: then (57.) the
small portion of the solid at
n is pressed downwards by a
column of particles m n, and
the small portion at o is
pressed upwards by a column
of particles equal to w o; therefore the difference of these
forces, viz. the column n o, is the force with which the por¬
tion o is pressed upwards. In the same manner it can be
shewn, that every other similar portion of the lower sur¬
face of the solid CD is pressed upwards with a force equal
to a column of particles whose height is equal to the ver¬
tical breadth of the solid ; but all these columns of particles
must occupy the same space as the solid itself, therefore
any solid body immersed in a fluid, or floating on its surface,
is pressed upwards with a force equal to the weight of the
quantity of fluid displaced.
92. Cor. 1. When a body floats in a fluid, the weight Thewej0.ht
of the quantity of fluid displaced is equal to the weight of of a float-
the floating solid. For since the solid is in equilibrium ing body is
with the fluid, the force which causes it to descend must e'lual to
be equal to the force which presses it upwards; but the
force which keeps a part of the solid immerged in the fluid qUant;tv 0f
is the weight of the solid, and the force which presses the quid dis.
solid upwards, and prevents it from sinking, is equivalent placed,
to the weight of the quantity of fluid displaced (89.); there-
20
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Of Specific fore these forces, and the weights to which-they areequiva-
Gravities. lent, must be equal.
^ 93. Cor. 2. A solid weighed in a fluid loses as much of
its weight as is equal to the weight of the quantity of fluid
displaced ; for since the body is pressed upwards with a
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced (89.)? this
pressure acts in direct opposition to the natural gravity or
absolute weight of the solid, and therefore diminishes its
absolute weight by a quantity equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced. The part of the weight thus lost is not
destroyed: It is only sustained by a force acting in a con¬
trary direction.
94. Cor. 3. A solid immersed in a fluid will sink, if its
specific gravity exceed that of the fluid: It will float on
the surface, partly immersed, if its specific gravity be less
than that of the fluid ; and it will remain wholly immersed
wherever it is placed, if the specific gravities of the solid
and fluid are equal. In the first case, the force with which
the solid is pressed downwardly exceeds the upward pres¬
sure, and therefore it must sink. In the second case, the
upward pressure exceeds the pressure downwards, and
therefore the body must float; and, in the third case, the
upward and downward pressures being equal, the solid
will remain wherever it is placed.
95. Cor. 4. The specific gravities of two or more fluids
are to one another as the losses of weight sustained by the
same solid body, and specifically heavier than the fluids,
when weighed in each fluid respectively. The solid in this
case displaces equal quantities of each fluid ; but the losses
of weight are respectively as the absolute weights of the
quantities displaced (Cor. 2.), therefore the specific gravi¬
ties, which are as the absolute weights of equal quantities
of any body (86.), must be as the losses of weight sustained
by the immersed solid.
96. Cor. 5. The specific gravity of a solid is to that of
a fluid as the absolute weight of the solid is to the loss of
weight which it sustains when weighed in the fluid. For
since the loss of weight sustained by the solid is equal to
the absolute weight of the quantity of fluid displaced, or of
a quantity of fluid of the same bulk as the solid, the specific
gravities, which (86.) are in the ratio of the absolute weights
of equal volumes, must be as the absolute weight of the
solid to the loss of weight which it sustains.
97- Cor. 6. The specific gravity of a solid floating in a
fluid, is to the specific gravity of the fluid itself, as the bulk
of the part immersed is to the total bulk of the solid.
98. Cor. 7* Bodies which sustain equal losses of weight
are of the same bulk. For, since the losses of weight are
as the weights of the quantities of fluid displaced, and as the
quantities displaced are as the bulks of the solids which dis¬
place them, the bulks must be equal when the losses of
weight are equal.
The pre- 99. The preceding corollaries may be expressed alge-
ceding co- braically, and may be deduced from a general equation in
the following manner. Let B be the total bulk of a float¬
ing body, and C the part of it which is immersed ; let S be
the specific gravity of the solid, and s that of the fluid.
Then it is obvious, that the absolute weight of the solid
will be expressed by B x S, and the absolute weight of the
fluid displaced by C X * ; for the fluid displaced has the
same bulk as the part of the solid which is immersed. In
order that an equilibrium may obtain between the solid and
fluid, we must have B x S — t X « Now, when .v^-S, we
have B C, so that the solid will float, which is the second
case of Cor. 3—When S = s we have B = C, which is the
third case of Cor. 3.—When we have Cz^B, that is,
the body will sink below the surface; and it will descend
to the bottom, for it cannot be suspended in the fluid with¬
out some power to support it; and if such a power were
necessary, we should have B x S z^ C X s, which is con¬
trary to the equation of equilibrium.
rollaries
deduced
from an
equation
of equili¬
brium.
100. From the equation BxSrrCxswe have (Euclid Of Specific
VI. 16.) S : s =: B : C, which is Cor. 6—When the body Gravities,
is completely immersed we have B — C, in which case the—y-~—^
equation becomes BxSrrBxs; and when the solid is spe¬
cifically heavier than the fluid, it will require a counter¬
weight to keep the solid suspended in the fluid. Let W
be the counterweight necessary for keeping the solid sus¬
pended in the fluid, then in the case of an equilibrium the
equation will be B X-? + W = B x S, or B X S — W zr B x <?,
or S X B X S — W = S X B Xs, whence (Euclid VI. 16.)
S:^ = BxS:BxS — W, which is Cor. 5.
101. If the same solid body is plunged in a second fluid
of a different specific gravity from the first, let <r be the
specific gravity of the second fluid, and iv the counterweight
necessary to keep the solid suspended in it—The equation
for the first fluid was B Xs+WzzBxS (100.), and the
equation for the second fluid will beB X<?-+w = BxS;
therefore we shall have, by the first equation, S X B —
W rr s X B, and by the second SxB — w=r<rxB, and con¬
sequently sxB:o-xB:=SxB — W:SxB—w, or (Euclid
V. 16.) s : 5-= SxB — W :SxB — w, which is Cor. 4.;
for the losses of weight in each fluid are evidently repre¬
sented by S X B — W and S X B — w.
102. If B and b express the bulks of two solids, S and s
their specific gravities, <r the specific gravity of the fluid,
and W, w the counterweights which keep them in equili¬
brium with the fluid. Then with the solid S the equation
will be S X B —W = o- X B (101.); and with the solid s the
equation will be s X b — w — <rXb. Wherefore, if the two
solids sustain equal losses of weight, we shall have S X B —
W = s X b — tv, since each side of the equation represents
the loss of weight sustained by each solid respectively.
Consequently, 0- X B = c-x and dividing by <r, we have
T5 ~ b, which is Corollary 7.
103. From the preceding proposition and its corollaries, Mpthod °f
we may deduce a method of detecting adulteration in the detecting
precious metals, and of resolving the problem proposed to adultera-
Archimedes, by Hiero, king of Syracuse. Take a real don in
guinea, and a counterfeit one made of copper and gold. meta^s-
If the latter be lighter than the former, when weighed in a
pair of scales, the imposition is instantly detected ; but
should their weight be the same, let the two coins be
weighed in water, and let the loss of weight sustained by
each be carefully observed, it will then be found that the
counterfeit will lose more of its weight than the unadulte¬
rated coin. For, since the specific gravity of copper exceeds
that of gold, and since the absolute weights of the coins
were equal, the counterfeit guinea must be greater in bulk
than the real one, and will therefore displace a greater quan¬
tity of water, that is (93.), it will lose a greater part of its
weight.
104. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having employed a gold-
smith to make him a crown of gold, suspected that the proposed
metal had been adulterated, and inquired at Archimedes ifby Hiero
his suspicions could be verified or disproved without in-toArchi-
juring the crown. The particular method by which Archi- mec*es-
medes detected the fraud of the goldsmith is not certainly
known ; but it is probable that he did it in the following
manner. A quantity of gold, of the same absolute weight
as the crown, would evidently have the same bulk also,
if the crown were pure gold, and would have a greater
bulk if the crown were made of adulterated gold. By
weighing, therefore, the quantity of gold and the crown in
water, and observing their respective losses of weight,
Archimedes found that the crown lost more of its weight
than the quantity of gold; and therefore concluded, that
as the crown must have displaced a greater portion of
water than the piece of gold, its bulk must likewise have
been greater, and the metal adulterated of which it was
composed.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
21
Specific
ravities.
Prop. III.
105. If two immiscible fluids, of different specific gravities,
and a solid of an intermediate specific gravity, be put
into a vessel, the part of the solid in the lighter fluid will
be to the whole solid, as the difference between the spe¬
cific gravities of the solid and the heavier fluid, is to the
difference between the specific gravities of the two
fluids.
Let AB (fig. 27.) be _ Fig. 27.
the vessel which contains
the two fluids, suppose rV
mercury and water, and
the solid CD. The mer- ™
cury being heavier than
water, will sink to the bot¬
tom, and have mn for its
surface, and the water will
occupy the space AB mn. The solid having a greater specific
gravity than water, will sink in the water (94.) ; but having a
less specific gravity than mercury, it will float in the mercury.
It will therefore be suspended in the fluids, having one por¬
tion C in the water, and the other portion D in the mer¬
cury. Now let S be the specific gravity of the mercury, s
the specific gravity of the water, o- that of the solid, C
the part of the solid in the water, and D the part in the
mercury. Then the bulk of the solid is C -|- D, and its
weight o- X C -f- D : The quantity of water displaced by
the part C, or the loss of weight sustained by the part C,
will be C X ■?; and the quantity of mercury displaced, or
the loss of weight sustained by part D, will be D x S. But
as the solid is suspended in the fluids, and therefore in
equilibrio with them, the whole of its weight is lost. Con¬
sequently, the part of its weight which is lost in the water,
added to the part lost in the mercury, must be equal to its
whole weight; that is, C X ■s D x S = cr x C -j- D, or
5 C + SD = o- C + o- D. Transposing c- C and SD, we
have s C — <r C ~ SD — c D, or C x s — cr .=■ D x S — cr,
between the specific gravities of the compound and the Of Specific
heavier ingredient. Gravities.
Let S and s be the specific gravities of the two ingre- t lu
dients, a- the specific gravity of the compound, and B, b the ingre,
bulks of the ingredients ; then the bulk of the compound dients,
will be B -p £>, and its weight c- x B 4* 6. The weight °f fj^m-avT'
the ingredient B will be B x S, and that of the other in- tjes an(}
gredient b X s ; and as the weight of the compound must that of the
be equal to the weight of its ingredients, we have the fol- compound
lowing equation <rb crW — BS -\-bs, and by transpo-
sing o' b and BS, we shall have Bo — BS — bs — bo, or Sivei)"
and (Euclid VI. 16.) C : D = s — o-: S — o. Then, by
inversion and composition (Euclid V. Propositions B and
18.) C : C + D = S—^ : S —s. Q. E. D.
B x
S — b X s
therefore (Euclid VI. 16.)
106. Cor. 1. From the analogy C : D = s — ^ : S — <r,
we learn that the part of the solid in the heavier fluid, is to
the part in the lighter fluid, as the difference between the
specific gravities of the solid and the lighter fluid, is to the
difference between the specific gravities of the solid and
the heavier fluid.
107. Cor. 2. When s is very small compared with S, we
may use the analogy C : C -|- D = o- :though in cases
where great accuracy is necessary this ought not to be
done. When the specific gravity of a body, lighter than
water, is determined by comparing the part immersed with
the whole body, there is evidently a small error in the re¬
sult ; for the body is suspended partly in water and partly
in air. It is, in fact, a solid of an intermediate specific
gravity floating in two immisceable fluids, and therefore its
specific gravity should be ascertained by the present pro¬
position.
Prop. IV.
108. If two bodies, whether solid or fluid, be mixed together
so as to form a compound substance, the bulk of the
heavier is to the bulk of the lighter ingredient, as the
difference between the specific gravities of the com¬
pound, and the lighter ingredient, is to the difference
B : i = s — o i o — S. Q.E. D.
109. In the preceding proposition, it has been taken for A com-
granted that the magnitude of the compound is exactly
equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the two ingredients, j^g^solicf
This, however, does not obtain universally either in fluids or js
or solids ; for an increase or diminution of bulk often at- sometimes
tends the combination of two different ingredients. A greater in
cubical inch of alcohol, for example, combined with a cubi- f ul^tban ^
cal inch of water, will form a compound which will measure ^ ^‘^s°
less than two cubical inches; and a cubical inch of tin, 0f jts in_
when incorporated in a fluid state with a cubical inch of gredients.
lead, will form a compound, whose bulk will exceed two
cubical inches. The preceding proposition, however, is,
even in these cases, of great use in ascertaining the increase
or decrease of bulk sustained by the compound, by com¬
paring the computed with the observed bulk.
Prop. V. Problem.
110. How to determine the specific gravities of bodies,
whether solid or fluid.
The simplest and most natural way of finding the speci¬
fic gravities of bodies would be to take the absolute weights To deter-
of a cubic inch, or any other determinate quantity, of each mine the
substance; and the number thus found would be their specific
specific gravities. But as it is difficult to form two bodies
of the very same size, and often impossible, as in the casefluidg ‘
of precious stones, to give a determinate form to the sub¬
stance under examination, we are obliged to weigh them
in a fluid, and deduce their specific gravities from the losses
of weight which they severally sustain. Water is a fluid
which is always employed for this purpose, not only because
it can be had without difficulty, but because it can be pro¬
cured of the same temperature, and of the same density, in
every part of the world. The specific gravity of water is
always called 1.000, and with this, as a standard, the spe¬
cific gravity of every other substance is compared. Thus,
if a certain quantity of water weighed four pounds, and a
similar quantity of mercury 54 pounds, the specific gravity
of the mercury would be called 13|, because as 4:54=: 1:13|.
In order, therefore, to determine the densities of bodies,
we have occasion for no other instrument than a common
balance with a hook fixed beneath one of its scales. When
fitted up in this way, it has been called the hydrostatic ba- Hydrosta-
lance, which has already been described under the article tic balance.
Balance, Hydrostatical.
111. When the substance is heavier than its bulk of
water Suspend the solid by means of a fine silver wire to t0 find the
the hook beneath the scale, and find its weight in air. specific
Fill a jar with pure distilled water, of the temperature of gravity ot
62° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and find the weight of*.^™
the solid when immersed in this fluid. 1 he difference _°f wat;er_
these weights is the loss of weight sustained by the solid.
Then (96.), as the loss of weight is to the weight of the
solid in air, so is 1.000 the specific gravity of water to a
22
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Of Specific fourth proportional, which will be the specific gravity of
Gravities, the solid. But as the third term of the preceding analogy
" -V ' is always 1.000, the fourth proportional, or density of the
solid, will always be had by dividing the weight of the solid
in air by its loss of weight in water. If the solid substance
consists of grains of platina or metallic filings, place it in a
small glass bucket. Find the weight of the bucket in air,
when empty, and also its weight when it contains the sub¬
stance. The difference of these weights will be the weight
of the substance in air. Do the very same in water, and
its weight in water will be had. Its specific gravity will
then be found as formerly. If the body is soluble in water,
or so porous as to absorb it, it should be covered with var¬
nish or some unctuous substance. When it is weighed in
water, it should never touch the sides of the glass jar, and
it must be carefully freed from any bubbles of air that
happen to adhere to it.
112. When the substance is lighter than its bulk of water.
Tofindthe—Fasten to it another solid heavier than water, so that
specific they may sink together. Find the weight of the denser
gravity of a body, and also of the compound body, both in air and in
solid light- water ; anc[ by subtracting their weight in water from their
water” weight in air, find how much weight they have severally
r' lost. Then say as the difference between their losses of
weight is to the weight of the light body in air, so is 1.000
to the specific gravity of the body.
113. When the substance is a powder which absorbs water.
To find the or ^ soluble in it Place a glass phial in one scale, and
specific counterpoise it by weights in the other. Fill this phial
gravity of with the powder to be examined ; and having rammed it
powders. as close as possible to the very top, find the weight of the
powder. Remove the powder from the phial, and fill it
with distilled water, and find its weight. The weight of
the powder, divided by the weight of the water, will be the
specific gravity of tbe former. See art. 124.
114. When the substance is a fluid, its specific gravity
To find themaY be determined very accurately by the method in the
specific preceding article, or by the following method, deduced
gravity of from article 95.—Take any solid specifically heavier than
rluids. water, and the given fluid. Find the loss of weight which
it sustains in water, and also in the given fluid. Then,
since the specific gravities are as the losses of weight sus¬
tained by the same solid, the specific gravity of the fluid
required will be found by dividing the loss of weight sus¬
tained by the solid in the given fluid, by the loss of weight
which it sustains in water.
Sect. II. On the Hydrometer.
Hvdrome. 115. In order to determine, with expedition, the strength
ter invent- of spirituous liquors, which are inversely proportional to
ed by Hy- their specific gravities, an instrument more simple, though
patia. less accurate, than the hydrostatic balance, has been gene¬
rally employed. This instrument is called a hydrometer,
sometimes an areometer and gravimeter, and very erro¬
neously a hygrometer by some foreign authors. It seems
to have been invented by Hypatia, the daughter of Theon
Alexandrinus, who flourished about the end of the fourth
century ; though there is some foundation for the opinion
that the invention is due to Archimedes.
Fahren- 116. The hydrometer of Fahrenheit, which is one of the
heit’s hv- simplest that has been constructed, is represented in fig.
drometer. 28, and may be formed either of glass or metal. A B is a
cylindrical stem, and C, D two hollow balls appended to it.
Into the lower ball D is introduced a quantity of mercury,
sufficient to make the ball C sink to F, a little below the
surface of distilled water. If this apparatus be plunged
into a fluid lighter than water, the ball C will sink farther
below the surface; and, if it be immersed in a heavier
fluid, it will rise nearer the surface. In this way we can Of Specific
tell whether one fluid is more or less dense than another. Gravitie-.
But in order to determine the real specific gravities of the v—-"
fluids, the hydrometer must either be loaded with different
weights, or have a scale A B engraven on its stem. The
former of these methods was employed by Fahrenheit.
Having placed some small weights on the top A, he marked
any point E, to which the instrument sunk in distilled
water. By weighing the instrument thus loaded, he found
the weight of a quantity of water equal to the part im¬
mersed (92). When the hydrometer was placed in a fluid
denser than water, he loaded it with additional weights
till it sunk to the same point E. The weight of the hy- Hydrome-
drometer being again found, gave him the weight of a ter with
quantity of the denser fluid equal to the part immersed; weights,
but as the part immersed was the same in both cases, the
weights of the hydrometer were equal to the absolute
weights of equal quantities of the two fluids; and, conse¬
quently, the specific gravities of the water and the other
fluid were in the ratio of these weights. When the fluid,
whose density is required, has less specific gravity than
water, some of the weights are to be removed from the top
A, till the instrument sinks to E; and the density of the
fluid to be determined as before—Instead of making the Hydrome.
weight of the hydrometer variable, it is more simple, though ter with ar
less accurate, to have a scale of equal parts upon the stem engraved
AB. In order to graduate this scale, immerse the hydro- scaie•
meter in distilled water, at the temperature of 60° Fahren¬
heit, so that it may sink to B near the bottom of the stem,
which may be easily effected, by diminishing or increasing
the quantity of mercury in the ball D. At B place the
number 1.000, which shews that every fluid, in which the
hydrometer sinks to B, has its specific gravity 1.000, or that
of distilled water. The hydrometer is then to be plunged in
another fluid less dense than water, suppose oil, whose spe¬
cific gravity may be .900, and the point A
marked, to which it sinks. Every fluid,
therefore, in which the hydrometer sinks to
A, has its specific gravity .900 ; and if
the scale AB be divided into equal parts,
every intermediate degree of specific gra¬
vity between .900 and 1.000 will be marked.
If the scale AB be divided into four parts
in the points E, F, G, the fluid in which the
hydrometer sinks to G will have .97 5 for its
specific gravity ; the specific gravity of that
in which it sinks to F will be .950, and so
on with the other points of division. If it is
required to extend the range of the instru¬
ment, and to make it indicate the densities
of fluids specifically lighter than water, we
have only to load it in such a manner as to
make it sink to the middle of the scale F in c
distilled water ; and by taking two fluids,
between whose densities the specific gravity
of every other fluid is contained, excepting
mercury and metals in a fluid state, to de¬
termine, as before, the extremities of the
scale.
117. When the weight of the hydrometer is variable, Theorem
let E be the point to which it sinks in two different fluids ; f°r hydro-
and let W be the absolute weight necessary to make it ^iciTthe
sink to E in the denser fluid, and W Ar the weight neces- weigjlt ig
sary to make it sink to the same point in the lighter fluid, variable.
Let S, s be the specific gravities of the two fluids, and V
the volume of the part of the hydrometer that is constantly
immersed. Then (99.) W — S X V, W Ar y; — s X W
W
From the first equation we have, V rr —, and from the
O
Fig. 28.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
23
: SitkJ second equation
y =
W:
—, consequently
Wd=p
_ w
“ "S’
and by reduction s —
,v X W drz: p
W ‘
Thus, by knowing W
and the weight p, and also S the specific gravity of one of
the fluids, which will be 1.000 if that fluid be water, we
can find s the specific gravity of the other fluid.
"heorem 118. When the weight of the hydrometer is constant,
i jr hydro- and the density of the fluid indicated by the depth to which
ieters in it descends, let F, E be the points to which it sinks in two
'Inch the different fluids, whose specific gravities are S, s, W the
oirtant' ^solute weight of the hydrometer, V the volume of the
5 ' part immersed when the hydrometer has sunk to E, and
v its volume when sunk to F. Then (99.), we have
W zz S X V, and W = s X v, consequently s X v = S X V,
S X V
and s = . If the absolute weight W, therefore, of
v
the hydrometer be known, and also the volumes V, v, and
the specific gravity S of one of the fluids, which may be
water, the specific gravity of the other fluid may be deter-
mined by the preceding formula. When the figure of the
hydrometer is regular, the volumes V, v, may be deter¬
mined geometrically ; but as the instrument is generally of
an irregular form, the following methods should be em¬
ployed :
Jones's Hydrometer.
tones’s hy. 119. The hydrometer invented by Mr William Jones of
irometer. Holborn, is a simple and accurate instrument, and requires
only three weights to discover the strengths of spirituous
liquors from alcohol to water. Like other instruments of the
same kind, it is adjusted to the temperature of 60° of Fahren¬
heit ; but as every change of temperature produces a change
in the specific gravity of the spirits, Mr Jones found it ne¬
cessary to attach a thermometer to the instrument, and
thus make a proper allowance for every variation of tem¬
perature. Almost all bodies expand with heat and con¬
tract with cold; and as their volume becomes different at
different temperatures, their specific gravities must also
(86.) be variable, and will diminish with an increase of
temperature. M. Homberg, and M. Eisenschmed found
that the absolute weight of a cubic inch of brandy was four
drams 42 grains in winter, and only four drams 32 grains
in summer, and that the difference in spirits of nitre was
still greater. It has been found, indeed, upon an average,
that 32 gallons of spirits in winter will expand to 33 gal¬
lons in summer. As the strength of spirituous liquors is
inversely as their specific gravities, they will appear much
stronger in summer than in winter. This change in their
strength had been formerly estimated in a rough way ; but
by the application of the thermometer, and by adjusting its
divisions experimentally, Mr Jones has reduced it to pretty
accurate computation. It has already been stated (109.)
that where two substances are combined, the magnitude of
the compound body is sometimes greater and sometimes
less than the sum of the magnitudes of the two ingredients,
and that this mutual penetration particularly happened in
the mixture of alcohol and water. In strong spirits, this
concentration is sometimes so great, as to produce a diminu¬
tion of four gallons in the 100 ; for if to 100 gallons of
spirit of wine found by the hydrometer to be 66 gallons in
the 100 over proof, you add 66 gallons of water to reduce
it to proof, the mixture will consist only of 162 gallons in¬
stead of 166 of proof spirits. This mutual penetration of
the particles of alcohol and water has also been considered
in Mr Jones’s hydrometer, which we shall now describe
with greater minuteness.
0
Fig. 30.
120. In fig. 29. the whole instrument is represented with Of Sjtecific
Fig. 29. thermometer attached to it. Its length gravities.
AB is about 9^ inches : the hall C is made of''"“,""v~"“'<
hard brass, and nearly oval, having its conju¬
gate diameter about 1J inches. The stem
AD is a parallelepiped, on the four sides of
which the different strengths of spirits are
engraved: the three sides which do not ap¬
pear in fig. 29. are represented in fig. 30. with
the three weights numbered 1, 2, 3, corres¬
ponding with the sides similarly marked at the
top. If the instrument,
when placed in the spirits,
sinks to the divisions on
the stem without a weight,
their strength will be shewn
on the side AD marked 0
at the top, and any degree
of strength from 74 gallons
in the 100 to 47 in the
100 above proof, wrill thus
be indicated. If the hy¬
drometer does not sink to
the divisions without a
weight, it must be loaded
with any of the weights 1,
2, 3, till the ball C is com¬
pletely immersed. If the weight No. 1. is necessary, the side
marked 1 will shew the strength of the spirits, from 46 to 13
gallons in the 100 above proof. If the weight No. 2. is em¬
ployed, the corresponding side will indicate the remainder of
overproof to proof, marked P in the instrument, and likewise
every gallon in 100 under proof, down to 29. When the
weight No. 3. is used, the side similarly marked will shew
any strength from 30 gallons in the 100 under proof, down
to water, which is marked W in the scale. The small
figures as 4 at 66, 3| at 61, 2| at 48 (fig. 29.) indicate the
diminution of bulk which takes place when water is mixed
with spirits of wine in order to reduce it to proof: thus, if
the spirit be 61 gallons in the 100 over proof, and if 61
gallons of water are added in order to render it proof, the
magnitude of the mixture will be 3| gallons less than the
sum of the magnitudes of the ingredients, that is, instead
of being 161 it will be only 157| gallons. The thermo¬
meter F connected with the hydrometer, has four columns
engraved upon it, two on one side as seen in the figure,
and two on the other side. When any of the scales upon
the hydrometer, marked 0, 1, 2, 3, are employed, the
column of the thermometer similarly marked must be used,
and the number at which the mercury stands carefully ob¬
served. The divisions commence at the middle of each
column which is marked 0, and is equivalent to a temper¬
ature of 60° of Fahrenheit; then, whatever number of di¬
visions the mercury stands above the zero of the scale, the
same number of gallons in the 100 must the spirit be reck¬
oned weaker than the hydrometer indicates, and whatever
number of divisions the mercury stands below the zero,
so many gallons in the 100 must the spirit be reckoned
stronger.
Nicholson's Hydrometer.
121. A considerable improvement on the hydrometer Nicholson’s
has lately been made by Mr Nicholson, who has rendered hydrome-
it capable of ascertaining the specific gravities both of solids t61-*
and fluids. F is a hollow ball of copper attached to the
dish A A by a stem B, made of hardened steel. To the
lower extremity of the ball is affixed a kind of iron stirrup
FF, carrying another dish G of such a weight as to keep
the stem vertical when the instrument is afloat. The parts
24
HYDRODYNAMICS.
of the hydrometer are so adjusted, that
when the lower dish G is empty, and the
upper dish A A contains 1000 grains, it
will sink in distilled water at the tem¬
perature of 60° of Fahrenheit, so that
the surface of the fluid may cut the
stem DB at the point D. In order to
measure the specific gravities of fluids,
let the weight of the instrument, when
loaded, be accurately ascertained. Then,
this weight is equal to that of a quantity
of distilled water at the temperature of
60°, having the same volume as that
part of the instrument which is below
the point D of the stem. If the hy¬
drometer, therefore, is immersed to the point D in any
other fluid of the same temperature, which may be done
by increasing or diminishing the weights in the dish A A,
the difference between this last weight and 1000 grains
will express the difference between equal bulks of water
and the other fluid. Now as the weight of the mass of
water is equal to the weight of the instrument, which may
be called W, the above-mentioned difference or D must be
either added to or subtracted from W, (according as the
weight in the dish AA was increased or diminished) in
order to have the weight of an equal bulk of the fluid;
then W db D will be to W as the specific gravity of the
given fluid is to that of water. This ratio will be ex¬
pressed with considerable accuracy, as the cylindrical stem
of the instrument being no more than ^Dth of an inch in
diameter, will be elevated or depressed nearly an inch by
the subtraction or addition of of a grain, and will, there¬
fore, easily point out any changes of weight, not less than
2^ of a grain, or of the whole, which will give the
specific gravities to five places of figures. The solid bodies
whose specific gravities are to be determined by this hy¬
drometer, must not exceed 1000 grains in weight. For this
purpose, immerse the instrument in distilled water, and load
the upper dish A A till the surface of the water is on a level
with the point D of the stem. Then, if the weights required
to produce this equilibrium be exactly 1000 grains, the
temperature of the water will be 60° of Fahrenheit; but if
they be greater or less than 1000 grains, the water will be
colder or warmer. After noting down the wreight neces¬
sary for producing an equilibrium, unload the upper dish,
and place on it the body whose specific gravity is required.
Increase the weight in the upper dish, till the instrument
sinks to the point D, and the difference between this new
weight and the weight formerly noted down, will be the
weight of the body in air. Place the body in the lower
dish G, and add weights in the upper dish till the hydro¬
meter again sinks to D. This weight will be the difference
between 1000 grains and the weight of the body in w ater;
and since the w eight of the body in air, and its weight in
water, are ascertained, its loss of weight will be known, and
consequently its specific gravity (96).
Wilson’s Beads.
''.Vilsons, 122. In order to determine the strength of spirits with
tricbeads. the &reatest expedition, Professor Wilson of Glasgow em¬
ployed a very simple method. His hydrometer consists of
a number of glass beads, the specific gravities of each of
which vary in a known ratio. When the strength of any
spirit is to be tried, the glass beads, which are all num¬
bered, are to be thrown into it. Some of those whose
specific gravity exceeds that of the spirit will sink to the
bottom, while others will swim on the top, or remain sus¬
pended in the fluid. That which neither sinks to the bot¬
tom nor swims on the surface, will indicate by its number Of Specific
the specific gravity of the spirits (78). These beads have Gravities,
been greatly improved by Mrs Lovi, and are numbered in
a variety of ways, either to shew specific gravities or the
strength of spirits.
Barometrical Areometer.
123. This name may be appropriately
given to an instrument which is more useful
for the purposes of illustration than of mea¬
surement. If two immisceable liquids are
poured into a two-branched tube ABC,
the one into the branch BC, and the other
into the branch AC, till they balance each
other, their specific gravities will be to one
another inversely as the heights of each
column. Thus, if we pour in mercury at
A, and water at B, so that when the sur¬
face of the mercury is at D, that of the
the water is at E, we shall find that if the
column of mercury DF is two inches, that
of the water EG will be 27 inches, and
their specific gravities will be as 27 to 2,
or as 13! to 1. ^ we P°ur in at B lint-
seed oil in place of water, the height EF
will be 29 inches, and the specific gravity
Feet. In.
of the oil 0.931 ; because 27 : 2 = 13^ :
0.931. By thus using mercury as the ba¬
lancing column, the specific gravities of all fluids that do
not mix with it, or act upon it, may be readily ascertained.
The results thus obtained are not affected by the admission
of the air at the open ends A and B, because the same
weight of air presses upon the two balancing columns.
But if we pour in mercury at A till the bent tube ACB
contains above thirty inches of it, and close up the end A,
and remove the air from above the mercury in AC, the
column of mercury being no longer pressed down by the
air in AC, will be pressed up to near the top of the tube
A A by the pressure of the column of air in BC, and the
instrument becomes a barometer, a column of air balancing
a column of mercury. In this case, the tube BI becomes
unnecessary, and the mercury may be enclosed in a glass
ball at I, with an opening to admit the air.
Barometri¬
cal areome¬
ter.
Say’s Stereometer.
124. Captain M. K. Say, of the French Engineers, in-Say’s ste-
vented a very ingenious instrument for measuring the spe- reometer.
cifie gravity of liquid bodies, soft bodies, porous bodies, and
powders, as well as that of solids ; and he published a de¬
tailed description of it, illustrated with various figures, in
the Annales de Chimie for 1797.1
Many years afterwards, Professor Leslie brought forward
the same instrument, under the name of a Goniometer, as
a new invention, but without any variation of the principle.
The following general description will give our readers an
idea of the very beautiful principle on which this instru¬
ment is founded: Let AE be a glass tube, about three
feet long, and open at both ends, the upper part AB being
about 4-10ths, and the lower part BE about 2-10ths, of an
inch in diameter. The upper edge of the tube is ground
smooth, so that it can be shut air-tight by a piece of
ground plate-glass, and the upper tube AB communicates
with the lower one by a very narrow slit at B, which al¬
lows air to pass through it, but prevents sand or powder
from passing.
The powder, sand for example, is put into the tube AB,
and the lower tube BE is plunged into the open vessel F,
containing mercury, till the mercury rises exactly within
1 See also Nicholson's Journal, 4to, vol. i. p. 325.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
25
)f Specific the tube BE to the slit at B.
Gravities, then placed air-tight upon the mouth A. There is now
- — — " no air in the tube AE, except that which is mixed with
the sand in the tube AB. If we now suppose that the at¬
mospherical pressure indicated by the barometer is 30
inches, and elevate the tube AE till the mercury stands
within it at a point C, 15 inches (one-half of 30), above its
surface in the open vessel F, it is manifest that the air
within the tube is pressed with exactly half an atmosphere,
and therefore expands to twice its original bulk. Owing
to this expansion of the air to twice its bulk, the tube AB
contains only half the quantity of air which it did at first;
and as the part BC contains the other half, the quantity of
air in AB and BC is equal, as the air in BC is equal to the
air that is mixed with the sand in AB, and fills the same
space which the whole occupied previous to its expansion.
Let the sand be now removed from AB, and the same
experiment repeated when the tube AB is filled with air.
The quantity of air being now greater, will, when expand¬
ed to twice its bulk under ar pressure of 15 inches, fill a
Fig. 33. larger space than BC, and the mercury
will rise only to some point D. But as
the expanded air in E occupies exactly
the very same space in BC or BD that the
whole occupied in AB under the ordinary
Atmospheric pressure of 30 inches, it fol¬
lows that the cavity CD — BD — BC is
equal to the bulk of the solid matter in the
sand or powder. If we now find the num¬
ber of grains of water held by the part CD
of the tube, we determine at once the
quantity of water equal in bulk to the solid
matter in the sand or pow der; and by
comparing this with the weight of the
sand, we obtain its exact specific gravity.
Brewster’s Staktometer,
125. The Staktometer, or drop-measurer, is
shewn in fig. 34, where ABC is a glass vessel four
or five inches long, having a hollow bulb B about
half an inch in diameter. The instrument is
filled by suction, and the fluid is discharged at
C till it stands nearly at the point m, the zero of
the scale. The fluid is then allowed to discharge
itself at C by drops, and the number of them is
counted till the-surface of the fluid descends to
another fixed point n. The experiment is then
carefully repeated at different temperatures, till
the number of drops of distilled water occupied
by the cavity between m and n is accurately de¬
termined for various temperatures. The same
experiment is made with alcohol. Thus, if N is
the number of drops of distilled water whose
specific gravity is and n the number of drops
of alcohol whose specific gravity is s,, and d the number
of drops of any other mixture of alcohol and w ater con¬
tained in the same cavity m n, we shall have n — N :
The ground-glass cover is ter 1.000, we have a scale of 1393 drops for measuring all Of Specific
specific gravities between .920 and 1000, an unit in the Gravities,
fourth place of decimals corresponding to a variation of '
about two drops. From this experiment it follows that the
bulk of a drop of water will be about 2.93 times as large
as the bulk of a drop of the spirits.
Hrewster’a
staktome¬
ter.
n —1>
(d — N) (S — s)
n — N
will be the specific gravity of the mix-
and therefore S —
ture required.
With a small instrument, the number of drops of water
between m and n was 724, whereas the number of drops
of ordinary proof spirits was 2117 at 60° Fall. Now, as
the specific gravity of the spirits w as .920, and that of wa-
Sikeds Hydrometer.
126. This instrument, which is used in the collection of Sikes’s hy-
the revenue of the United Kingdom, is ^ drometer
shewn in the annexed figure, where AB
is a flat stem 3| inches long, divided
on each side into elevefi parts, each of ^
which is divided into two. This stem
carries a brass ball BC, into which is
fixed the conical stem CD, terminating
in a loaded bulb DE. Eight circular
weights, numbered as in the figure, can
be placed on the conical stem CD. The
square weight can be placed on the top
of the stem. When the strength of
spirits is to be measured, a weight is to
be placed on CD capable of sinking the
ball BC till the fluid surface cuts the
stem AB. The number at the place
where the stem is cut by the fluid, as
seen from below, is then added to the
number on the weight employed; and
with this sum at the side, and the tem¬
perature of the spirits at the top, the
strength per cent, is found in a table
which accompanies the instrument.
The square weight shews the differ¬
ence between the weight of proof spirit
and that of water, as described in the
first clause of the hydrometer act; and
it is exactly one-twelfth part of the
total weight of the hydrometer and
weight 60. When this square weight
is placed on the summit of the stem at
A, and the instrument loaded with the
weight No. 6, it wall sink in distilled
water at the temperature 51° to the
proof point P, at that temperature, as indicated on the nar¬
row edge of the stem.
Sect. III. On Tables of Specific Gravities.
127- As the knowledge of the specific gravities of bodies Table of
is of great use in all the branches of mechanical philosophy, specific
we have given the following table, comprehending theSrav^esL
greater part of Brisson’s tables, and one of the most exten¬
sive that has yet been published. When the specific gra¬
vities of any substance, as determined by different authors,
seem to be at variance, the different results are frequently
given, and the names of the observers prefixed by whom
these results were obtained. The substances in the table
have, contrary to the usual practice, been disposed in an
alphabetical order. This was deemed more convenient
for the purposes of reference, than if they had been divided
into classes, or arranged according to the order of their
densities.
The specific gravities of newly discovered minerals have
been collected and inserted. The numbers are given in
relation to water w hose specific gravity is 1.000, excepting
in the case of the gases, whose specific gravities are given
in relation to that of atmospheric air, which is taken at
1.00.
VOL. XII.
D
zo
HYDRODYNAMICS.
TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Of Specific Acacia, inspissated juice of,
Gravities. Acid, nitric,
' nitric, highly concentrated,
muriatic,
red acetous,
white acetous,
distilled acetous,
acetic,
sulphuric,
highly concentrated,
fluoric,
phosphoric, liquid,
solid
citric,
arsenic,
of oranges,
of gooseberries
of grapes,
selenic, temp. 329°,
boracic, in scales,
do. melted,
molybdic, .
benzoic,
formic,
Acmite,
Actinolite, glassy, . Kirwan
Adularia. See Felspar.
iEschinite,
Agalmatolite,
Agate, oriental,
onyx,
speckled ,
cloudy,
stained,
veined,,
Icelandic,
of Havre,
jasper,
Mocha,
iridescent.
Air, atmospheric,
Barom.
Thermom.
Barom.
Thermom.
Alabaster of Valencia,
veined,
of Piedmont,
of Malta,
yellow,
Spanish saline,
oriental white,
ditto, semi-transparent,
stained brown, .
of Malaga, pink,
of Dallas,
Albite,
Alcohol, absolute, . . . Lowitz.
highly rectified, .
commercial,
15 parts, Water 1 part,
14 2
Lavois
Spec. Grav.
1.5153
1.2715
1.583
1.2847
1.0251
1.0135
1.0095
J 1.007
( 1.0095
' 1.8409
2.125
1.500
1.417
2.852
1.0345
3.391
1.0176
1.0581
1.0241
2.524
1.475
1.803
3.460
0.667
J 1.102
\ 1.113
3.24
f 2.950
1 3.903
5.14
2.800
0.5901
2.6375
2.607
2.6253
2.6324
2.6667
2.348
2.5881
2.6356
2.5891
2.5535
0.00122
er. 0.0012308
2.638
2.691
2.693
2.699
2.699
2.713
2.730
2.762
2.744
2.8761
2.6110
2.624
0.791
0.8293
0.8371
0.8527
0.8674
Alcohol, 13 parts, Water 3 parts,
12 4
11 ' 5
10 6
9 7
8 8
7 9
6 10
5 11
4 12
3 13
2 14
1 15 .
Alder-wood, . . Muschenbroek
Allanite, .... Jar dine
Aloes, hepatic,
socotrine, ....
Allophane, . . . Stromeyer
Alouchi, an odoriferous gum,
Alum,
soda, . .
Alumine, sulphate of, . Mnshenbroek
saturated solution of,
temp. 42°, Watson
Alunite,
Amber, yellow transparent, .
opaque,
red,
green,
Ambergris, .
Spec. Grav.
0.8815
0.8947
0.9075
0.9199
0.9317
0.9427
0.9519
0.9594
0.9674
0.9733
0.9791
0.9852
0.9919
. 0.8000
. 3.665
1.3586
1.3795
, 1.889
1.0604
1.75
1.88
1.7140
1.033
Of Specific
Gravities.
2.69 to 2.74
1.0780
1.0855
1.0834
1.0829
J 0.7800
l 0.9263
2.95
Amblygonite,
Amethyst, common. See Rock crystal. . 2.750
Amianthus, long, .... 0.9088
penetrated with water, . 1.5662
short, . . . . 2.3134
penetrated with water, . 3.3803
Amianthinite from Raschau, . . 2.584
Bayreuth, . . 2.916
Ammonia, liquid, . . . . 0.8970
muriate of, . Muschenbroek. 1.4530
Ure. 1.521
saturated solution of, temp.
42°, Watson. 1.072
See Hornblende basaltic.
See Leucite.
1 2.0
* \ 3.0
Hauy. 3.165
2.5. to 2.95
1.0284
1.0426
2.656
3.20
4.9464
J 6.624
* (6.860
Klaproth. 6.720
Amphibole.
Amphigene
Analcime,
Andalusite, or hardspar
Anhydrite, or Muriacite,
Anime, oriental,
occidental, .
Anorthite,
Anthophyllite,
Antimony, glass of, .
in a metallic state, fused,
native,
Apatite.
Aplome
grey,
sulphur of,
ore, grey and foliated,
radiated,
red,
See Phosphorite.
Kirwan.
. Kirwan.
La Metherie.
Klaproth.
4.3
4.0643
4.368
4.440
3.750
4.090
3.45
HYDRODYNAMICS.
)f Specific
jravities. Apophyllite.
See Fish Eye Stone
Spec. Grav.
Apple-tree, wood of the,
Aquamarine. See Beryl.
Arcanson,
Areca, inspissated juice of,
Arctizite, or Wemerite,
Muschenbroek. 0.7930
Argillite, or slate clay,
Amotto,
Arragonite, .
Arsenic bloom, Pharmacolite,
fused,
native,
1.0857
1.4573
Dandrada. 3.606
f 2.600
Kirwan.^%mo
0.5956
. . Haiiy. 2.946
Thenard and Biot. 2.9267
Malm. 2.94686
Klaproth. 2.640
Bergman. 8.310
Kirwan. 5.670
Ea Metherie. 5.600
Brisson. 6.522
glass of (arsenic of the shops), . 3.5942
Arsenical pyrites, or Mispickel, . • 6.5
See Realgar.
Asbestinite,
Kirwan.
Asbestos, mountain cork,
3.000
3.310
0.6806
0.9933
ripe,
. . Bergman.
( 1 2492
penetrated with water, J ^ ’3402
starry,
unripe.
penetrated with water,
Brisson.
penetrated with water,
penetrated with water,
Muschenbroek.
. . . Turin.
Ash trunk, .
dry,
Asphaltum, cohesive,
compact,
Assafcetida,
Aventurine, semitransparent,
opaque,
Augite, or Pyroxene,
Automalite, Gahnite, or Fahlunite,
Axinite, or Thumerstone,
Azure stone, or lapis lazuli,
oriental,
of Siberia,
{!•
2.5779
2.6994
3.0733
3.0808
2.9958
3.0343
0.8450
0.800
/ 1.450
"j 2.060
'' 070
165
1.3275
2.6667
2.6426
Hauy. 3.226
Werner. 3.471
Reuss. 3.777
> 4.200
4.690
jr .. (3.213
Hauy. I 3 296
Gerard. 3.250
Brisson. 2.7675
Kirwan. 2.896
2.7714
2.9454
B
Barolite, or Witherite. See Barytes, Carbonate of.
Barytes, or Baroselenite,
white,
grey* •
rhomboidal,
octaedral,
in stalactites,
sulphate of, native,
f 4.400
\ 4.865
Kirwan
carbonate of, native,
Baryto-calcite,
Basalt,
•{;
(4.c
i 4*‘
Basalt,
from the Giant’s Causeway,
prismatic, from Auvergne,
of St Tubery,
Baras, a juice of the pine
Bay-tree, Spanish,
Bdellium,
Beech-wood,
Beer, red,
white,
Benzoin, .
Beryl, oriental,
occidental,
or aquamarine,
schorlous, or shorlite
Bezoar, oriental, .
occidental,
Bismuth, native, .
sulphuretted,
ochre,
in a metallic state, fused,
Bismuth, . . . ,
Bitumen of Judea,
Black-coal, pitch-coal,
slate-coal, English,
Bielschowitz, .
cannel coal,
Blende, yellow,
brown, foliated,
black,
Spec,
Bergman. 3.
2.
2.
2,
1,
0,
1
0,
1
1
1,
3
2
2
2
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
. Werner. |
See Pycnite.
27
Grav. Of Specific
000 Gravities.
864 ' v '
4215
7948
0441
,8220
,1377
,8520
,0338
,0231
,0924
,5491
,723
,650
759
1.
2.
Kirwan. 9.
Kirwan. 6.
Brisson. 4.
(9.
T) 19-
. Brisson. 9-
1.
Wiedemann. 1.
Kirwan.
. Richter.
La Metherie.
. Gellert.
. Gellert.
■ . • . Gellert. 3,
Brisson. 4
auriferous from Nagyag,
• Van Muller. 5
Blood, human, . . . Jurin. 1
crassamentum of . Jurin. 1,
serum of . . Jurin. 1,
See Heliotrope.
. . . Kirwan. ^
1 1,
Boracite, . . . Westrumb. 2.566 to 3,
Borax, . . . • . 1,
saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Watson. 1,
Bournonite, .... 5,
Boxwood, French, . Muschenbroek. 0,
Dutch, . Muschenbroek. 1,
dry, . . . Jurin. 1,
Brass common, cast, . . .7,
wiredrawn, ... 8,
cast, not hammered, . Brisson. 8,
Brazil wood, red, . Muschenbroek. 1
Blood-Stone.
Boles,
Bone of an ox,
4.4300
4.4909
4.4434
4.4712
4.2984
4.000
4.460
Malm. 4.48141
.300
.338
3.66
Kirwan. 2.979
Brewsterite,
Bronzite, .
Brick,
Bromine,
Bustamite,
Butter,
Cacao butter,
Cachibou, gum,
Cadmium (metal) not crushed,
crushed,
Calamine,
. Brisson.
Mmchenbroek.
2.1 to 2
3
2
3
3.12 to 3
0
.398
.054
.126
.030
.400
.000
.656
,000
,740
.010
,576
,9120
,3280
.030
,824
,544
.395
,0310
.4
,201
,000
.000
.23
,9423
0.8916
1.0640
Stromeyer. 8.6040
8.6944
Brisson. 3.525
28
Of Specific
Gravities. Calamine,
Calcareous spar.
Calculi, urinary,
See Spar.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Spec. Gray.
La Metherie. 4.100
Campeachy wood, or logwood, Muschenbroek.
Camphor, .....
Caoutchouc, elastic gum, or India rubber,
Caragna, resin of the Mexican tree caragna,
Carbon of compact earth, .
Carnelian, stalactite,
speckled,
veined,
onyx,
pale,
pointed,
arborized,
n.7
1L2
(1.4
Cat’s eye,
700
240
434
0.9130
0.9887
0.9335
1.1244
1.3292
2.5977
2.6137
2.6234
2.6227
2.6301
2,6120
2.6133
Klaproth. {
grey, .... 2.5675
yellow, .... 2.6573
blackish, . . . 3.2593
Catchew, juice of an Indian tree, . . 1.3980
Caustic ammoniac, solution of, or fluid Volatile
alkali, ..... 0.897
Cedar tree, American, . Muschenbroek. 0.5608.
wild, . . Muschenbroek. 0.5608
Palestine, . . Muschenbroek. 0.5960
Indian, , . Muschenbroek. 1.3150
Celestine. See Strontian, sulphate of.
Cerite, .....
Ceylanite, or Pleonaste,
Chabasie,
Chalcedony, bluish,
onyx,
veined,
transparent,
reddish,
Hauy. |
Haidinger.
Mohs.
common.
Chalk,
Cherry-tree,
Chiastolite.
Chlorite, .
Chloropal,
Chrysoberyl.
See Made.
See Cymophane.
4.500
3.765
3.793
2.041
2.100
2.5867
2.6151
3.6059
2.6640
2.6645,
f 2.600
’ l 2.655
Muschenbroek. 2.252
Watson. 2.657
Muschenbroek. 0.7150
Kinvan,
Chrysolite of the jewellers,
of Brazil,
2.775
2.000
2.782
2.692
Werner -
vverner. 2.410
Brisson.
Chrysoprase, a variety of Chalcedony,
Crystal. See Rock Crystal.
Crystalline lens, . ...
Cimolite, .....
Cinnabar, dark red, from Deux-Ponts. Kirwan.
from Almaden,
crystallized,
hepatic,
Cinnamon, volatile oil of, .
Cinnamon-stone, .
Citron-tree,
Brisson.
Brisson.
Muschenbroek.
I 2.489
[ 3.250
1.100
2.0
7.786
6.902
10.218
7.1
1.044
2.6
0.7263
Clinkstone,
Cloves, volatile oil of,
Cobalt, in a metallic state, fused,
Klaproth. | 2 g9Q
1.036
J 7.645
(7.811
Cobalt ore, grey,
earthy, black, indurated,
vitreous oxide of
Cocoa wood, ,
Coccolite,
Columbium,
Condrodite,
Copal, opaque,
transparent,
Madagascar,
Chinese, .
Copper, native,
from Siberia,
Hungary,
ore, compact vitreous,
Cornish,
purple, from Bannat,
from Lorraine,
glance,
pyrites,
„ .. f 5.t
Hauy. -j „
Kirwan.
Gellert, ^
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
511
721
5.309
2.019
2.425
2.4405
Muschenbroek. 1.0403
Dandrada. 3.316
Hatchet. 5.918
3.14 to 3.19
1.1398
1.0452
1.0600
1.0628
/ 7-600
• ( 7.800
Hauy. 8.5084
Gellert.
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
IjO Metherie.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann.
Gravities.
Kirwan.
white,
grey,
yellow,
blue,
foliated, florid, red
azure, radiated,
emerald,
muriate of, . .
5hexahedral,
octahedral,
\ trihedral,
prismatic,
partial arseniate,
sulphate of, crystallised,
saturated solution of sulphate of,
. Kirwan.
Brisson.
La Metherie.
. Hauy.
Wiedemann.
Wiedemann.
Brisson.
La Metherie.
Haiiy.
Ure.
7.728
4.129
5.452
4.956
4.300
4,983
5.467
5.6
4.080
4.344
4.500
J 4.865
(4.5
4.3
f 3.2
13.4
3.950
3.231
3.608
2.850
3.300
J 4.0
| 4.3
2.549
2.88
4.2
4.2
3.4
2.3438
temp. 42°,
drawn into wire,
fused,
Copper sand, muriate of copper,
Cork,
Corundum of India,
of China,
Cross stone. See Harmotome.
Cryolite,
Cube iron-ore, .
spar,
Cubizite. See Analcime.
Cyanite, Sappare, or Disthene,
Cyder, .
Cymophane, or Chrysoberyl,
Cypress wood, Spanish,
Watson.
Hatchet.
Leif Metherie.
Herrgen.
Muschenbroek.
. Klaproth.
Bournon.
Bournon.
Hauy.
1,150
8.878
7-788
8.985
3.750
4.431
0.2400
3.710
3.875
3.981
2.963
3.000
2.964
Saussure jun.
Hermann.
3.517
3.622
1.0181
f 3.600
”• ( 3.720
Hauy. 3.796
Muschenbroek. 0.6440
Werner.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
>f Specific
Gravities.
D
' Datholite, from Arendal, . ,
Dipyre, , f
Diallage. See Smaragdite.
Diamond, oriental, colourless,
rose-coloured,
orange-coloured,
green-coloured,
blue-coloured, .
Diamond, Brazilian,
yellow, . . •
orange, . . »
Dichroite. See lolite.
Disthene. See Cyanite*
Dolomite, . .
Dragon’s blood,
Hauy.
Spec. Gray.
2.989
f 2.63
\ 2.84
3.5212
3.5310
3.5500
3.5238
3.5254
3.4444
3.5185
3.55
Ebony, Indian,
American,
Edingtonite,
Elder tree,
Elemi,
Elm trunk,
Emerald,
of Brazil,
pseudo, .
Epidote. See Zoisite.
Epistilbite,
Ether, sulphuric,
nitric,
muriatic, .
acetic,
Euchroite,
Euclase,
Eudialyte,
Euphorbium gum,
Fahlunite. See Automalite.
Fat of beef,
veal,
mutton,
hogs,
Felspar, fresh,
Adularia,
Labrador stone,
glassy,
Fergusonite,
Fettstein,
Filbert tree,
Fir, male,
female,
Fish-eye stone, lehthyophalmite,
E
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Gahn and Berzelius.
Werner.
Hauy.
Gahn and Berzelius.
2.859
1.2045
1.2090
1.3310
2.710
0.6950
1.0182
0.6710
J 2.673
( 2.683
2.600
2.723
3.1555
2.701
Hauy.
Flint,
Hauy.
Struve.
Brisson.
. Borkowski.
Hauy.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
or Apophyllite,
Hauy.
Blumenbach.
olive,
Hose. 2.749
from f 0.716
to \ 0.745
0.9088
0.7296
0.8664
3.389
3.0625
2.898
1.1244
0.9232
0.9342
0.9235
0.9368
2.438
2.500
2.600
2.607
2.704
2.518
2.589
5.838
2.563
2.614
0.6000
0.5500
0.4980
2.5782
2.467
2.594
2.6057
Flint, spotted,
onyx,
of Rennes, .
of England, .
variegated of Limosin,
veined,
Egyptian,
black,
Fluor-spar. See Spar.
Franklinite,
G
Gabbronite,
Gadolinite, . .
Gahnite. See Automalite.
Galbanum,
Galena. See Lead-glance.
Galipot, a juice of the pine,
Gamboge,
Garnet, precious, of Bohemia,
volcanic, ....
24 faces.
of Syria, . . , •
in dodecahedral crystals,
common, . . . Werner.
Kastner.
Gas, atmospheric,1 or common air,
phosgene, or chloro-carbonic gas, J. Davy.
nitrous acid gas, calculated, Gay Lussac.
Sir H. Davy.
vapour of sulphuret of carbon, Gay Lussac.
sulphuric ether, Gay Lussac.
iodine calculated, Gay Lussac.
hydriodic ether, Gay Ljussac.
oil of turpentine, Gay Lais sac.
hydriodic acid gas, . Gay Lussac.
fluosilicic acid gas, . .John Davy.
chlorine, . Gay Lussac and Thenard.
euchlorine, . . Sir H. Davy.
Gay Lussac.
J. Davy,
Thenard.
Gay Lussac.
Sir H. Davy.
29
SP«\Grav. of Specific
2*5867 Gravities.
2.6644 v 
2.6538
2.6087
2.2431
2.6122
2.5648
2.582
5.03
2.94
/ 4.00
’ \ 4.20
1.2120
1.0819
1.2220
Klaproth. 4.085
4.188
Werner. 4.230
Kastner, 4.352
2.468
fluoboracic gas,
vapour of muriatic ether,
chloro-cyanic vapour,
sulphurous acid,
Gay Lussac and Thenard.
vapour of alcohol, . . Dalton.
absolute alcohol, Gay Lussac.
cyanogen, . . Gay Lussac.
nitrous oxide, or prolixite of azote,
Sir H. Davy.
Colin.
carbonic acid, . . Saussure.
Allan and Pepys.
Biot and Arago.
muriatic acid, or hydro-chloric gas,
Sir H. Davy.
sulphuretted hydrogen,
oxygen, mean,
Biot and Arago.
Gay Lussac.
and Thenard.
Sir H. Davy.
Saussure.
4.000
4.0637
3.576
3.688
1.000
3.3888
3.176
2.427
2.6447
2.5860
8.6195
5.4749
5.0130
4.4430
3.5737
2.470
2.409
2.3144
2.3709
2.219
2.111
2.193
2.1204
2.1
1.613
1.806
1.614
1.5204
1.518
1.524
1.51961
1.278
1.2474
1.1912
1.777
1.104
1.114
1 The specific gravities of the gases are taken from Biot’s Tralte de Physique, tom. i. p. 383 ; from Gay Lussac’s Tables in the
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. i. p. 218 ; and from Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 118. The measures for the gases,
taken by MM. Biot and Arago, are calculated from Biot’s formulae. They are given in relation to atmospheric air, which is sup¬
posed to be unity.
30
Of Specific
Gravities. Gas, oxygen, mean,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Kirwan and Lavoisier.
Biot and Arago.
Allan and Pepys.
Berzelius and Didong.
nitrous gas, or deutoxide of azote, Berard.
Sir H. Davy.
olefiant gas, Theodore, Saussure.
azote, Biot and Arago.
carbonic oxide, . Cruickshank.
hydrocyanic vapour, Gay Lussac.
phosphuretted hydrogen, Sir H.JDavy.
steam,
ammoniacal,
carburetted hydrogen,
arsenical hydrogen,
phosphuretted hydrogen,
hydrogen,
Gay Lussite,
Gehlenite,
Gieseckite,
Girasol, .
Glance-coal, slaty,
Glass, crown of St Louis,
flint of M. Dartigues,
Spec. Grav.
1.103
1.0359
1.127
1.037
1.0388
1.094
0.97804
0.96913
0.9569
0.9476
0.870
0.6896
0.62349
0.590
0.59669
0.555
0.491
0.678
0.600
Tralles
Gay Lussac.
Sir H. Davy.
Biot and Arago.
Thomson.
Sir H. Davy.
Cruichshank.
Dalton.
\TrmDan£\»™
Hauy. 0.852
Sir H. Davy.
. . Thomson.
Sir H. Davy.
Biot and Arago
Berzelius and Dulong.
. Fuchs.
. Brisson.
La Metherie.
Klaproth.
Cauchoix, Biot.
Cauchoix, Biot.
flint used by Mr Tully for his achroma¬
tic telescopes,
white flint,
crown,
common plate,
yellow plate,
white or French crystal,
St Gobins,
gall,
bottle,
Leith crystal,
. green,
borax,
fluid,
of Bohemia,
of Cherbourg,
of St Cloud,
animal,
mineral,
Glauber! te,
Glaucina,
Gmelinite,
0.435
0.073
0.074
0.072098
0.6885
1.96
2.78
2.832
4.000
1.300
1.530
2.487
3.20
3.192
3.334
3.354
3.437
3.00
2.520
2.760
2.520
2.8922
2.4882
2.8548
2.7325
3.189
2.6423
2.6070
3.329
2.3959
2.5596
3.2549
2.5647
Gold, native,
2.2694
2.73 to 2.80
3.000
2.5 to 2.1
r 17.00
• \ 19.00
pure, of 24 carats, fine, fused, but not
hammered, . . Hauy. 19.2587
the same hammered, . . 19*342
English standard, 22 carats, fine, fused,
but not hammered, . . 18.888
guinea of George II. . . 17.150
guinea of George III. . . 17.629
Parisian standard, 22 carats, not ham¬
mered, . . • 17.486
Ki
Gold, the same hammered,
Spanish gold coin,
Holland ducats,
trinket standard, 20 carats, not hammer
ed,
the same hammered,
Portuguese coin,
French money, 21 f carats, fused,
' coined,
French, in the reign of Louis XIII.
Granite, red Egyptian,
grey Egyptian, .
beautiful red,
of Girardmor,
violet of Gyrogmagny,
red of Dauphiny,
green of Dauphiny,
radiated of Dauphiny,
red of Semur,
grey of Bretagne,
yellowish,
of Carinthia, blue.
Granitelle,
of Dauphiny,
Graphic ore,
Graphite. See Plumbago
Grenatite. See Staurotide.
Gum Arabic,
tragacanth,
seraphic,
cherry-tree,
Bassora
Acajou,
Monbain,
Gutte,
ammoniac,
Gayac,
liquid, from Botany Bay,
lac,
anime, Eastern
Western,
Gunpowder in a loose hea]
shaken,
solid,
Gypsum, opaque,
compact, specimen in the
lection
compact,
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
17.589 Gravities.
17-655 ' 
19.352
wan.
impure,
foliated, mixed with granular lime¬
stone, . . Kirwan.
semitransparent,
fine ditto,
opaque,
rhomboidal,
ditto, 10 faces,
cuneiform, crystallised,
striated of France,
of China,
flowered,
sparry opaque,
semitransparent,
Gypsum, granularly foliated, in the Leskean col¬
lection, . . Kirwan.
mixed with marl, of a slaty form,
15.709
15.775
17.9664
17.4022
17.6474
17.5531
2.6541
2.7279
2.7609
2.7163
2.6852
2.6431
2.6836
2.6678
2.6384
2.7378
2.6136
2.9564
3.0626
2.8465
Muller. 5.723
1.4523
1.3161
1.201
1.4817
1.4346
1.4456
1.4206
1.2216
1.2071
1.2289
1.196
1.1390
1.0284
1.0426
0.836
0.932
1.745
2.1679
Thomson.
Leskean col-
2.939
f 1.872
\ 2.288
2.473
Harmotome, or Cross-Stone,
Hazel,
H
Muschenbroek.
2.725
2.3062
2.2741
2.2642
2.3114
2.3117
2.3060
2.3057
2.3088
2.3059
2.2746
3.3108
2.900
2.473
2.3333
0.606
HYDRODYNAMICS.
i Specific
ravities. Hauyne or Latialite,
Heliotrope, or Blood-Stone,
. Gmelin,
Gismonde
Kirwan.
Blumenbach,
Hematites. See Ironstone.
Herschelite,
Hollow spar, Chiastolite, .
Hone, razor, white,
penetrated with water,
razor, white and black,
Honey, . ...
Honeystone, or Mellite,
Hopeite, .
Hornblende, common,
Schiller spar,
schistose,
basaltic,
Haiiy,
Abich.
Kirwan,
Kirwan,
Kinoan.
Rem.
Kirwan.
Hornstone, or petrosilex,
ferruginous,
veined,
grey,
blackish-grey,
yellowish-white,
bluish, and partly yellowish-grey,
dark purplish-red iron-shot,
greenish-white with reddish spots,
from Lorraine,
iron shot, brownish-red, outside blu¬
ish, grey inside,
Humboldtite, ....
Hyalite, .... Kirwan.
Hyacinth, . . . Karsten.
Klaproth.
Hydrargillite. See Wavellite.
Hydrogen, bicarburet of, at 60°,
Hyperstene. See Bronzite.
Hypocist, ....
Hyposulphite of lime, . . Herschel.
Jade, or Nephrite, white,
green,
olive,
from the East Indies,
of Switzerland,
combined with the boracic acid and bora-
cited calx,
Jasmin, Spanish,
Jasper, veined,
red,
brown,
yellow,
violet,
grey,
cloudy,
green,
bright green,
deep green,
brownish-green,
blackish,
blood coloured,
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Muschenbroek.
Spec. Grav.
, 2.687
. 3.333
J 2.629
\ 2.700
2.633
2.11
2.944
2.8763
2.8839
3.1271
1.4500
1.586
1.666
2.61
j 3.600
\ 3.830
2.882
2.909
3.155
3.150
3.220
3.333
J 2.530
( 2.653
2.813
2.747
2.654
2.744
2.563
2.626
2.638
2.532
2.813
2.13
2.110
4.000
4.545
4.620
0.85
1.5263
1.0105
2.9592
2.9660
2.9829
2.977
3.310
3.389
2.566
0.7700
2.6955
2.6612
2.6911
2.7101
2.7111
2.7640
2.7354
2.62-74
2.3587
2.6258
2.6814
2.6719
2.6277
Jasper, onyx,
flowered, red and white,
red and yellow, .
green and yellow,
red, green, and grey,
red, green, and yellow,
universal,
agate,
Idocrase. See Vesuvian.
Jenite, ....
Jet, a bituminous substance,
Indigo, . . . .
penetrated with water,
Inspissated juice of liquorice,
Iodine,
Thomson.
Gay Lmsac.
lolite, or Dichroite,
Iridium. See Osmium.
fused by galvanism,
Iron, native, meteoric,
chromate of, from the department of Var,
from the Uralian mountains,
in Siberia, Lauguier.
sulphate of, crystallized, . Ure.
saturated solution, temp. 42°
31
Spec. Grav. of Specific
2.8160 Gravities.
2.6228
2.7500
2.6839
2.7323
2.7492
2.5630
2.6608
J 3.80
( 4.00
1.2590
0.7690
1.0095
1.7228
3.0844
4.948
2.56
18.68
6.48
4.0326
4.0579
1.7774
arseniate of,
fused, but not hammered,
forged into bars,
pyrites, dodecahedral,
from Freyberg,
Cornwall,
cubic,
radiated,
temp
Watson
magnetic,
white,
sand, magnetic sand, from Virginia,
1.157
3.000
7.200
J 7.600
(7.788
Hatchet. 4.830
Gellert. 4.682
Kirwan. 4.789
Brisson.
Hatchet.
Hauy.
magnetic,
ore specular,
ore specular,
micaceous,
4.702
f 4.698
1 4.775
4.518
4.
4.600
Bergman. 7.800
/ 4.200
‘ \ 4.900
Kinvan.
Brisson.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann. 2.952
Kirwan. 3.423
Kinvan. 3.760
Brisson. 3.573
Wiedemann. 3.863
Ironstone, red, ochry,
compact,
from Siberia,
Lancashire, ^
compact, brown, from Bayreuth,
Kirwan.
from Tyrol, . . Kirwan.
cubic, . . Brisson.
red hematites, .
brown hematites,
sparry, or calcareous,
decomposed,
black, compact,
. Kirwan.
Gellert.
. Kirwan.
Gellert.
Wiedemann.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann.
(3J
\3.<
3.551
3.753
503
.477
5.005
4.740
3.951
3.789
4.029
/ 3.640
(3.810
3.672
J 3.300
( 3.600
4.076
32
Of Specific
Gravities. Ironstone, clay reddle,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Brisson
Blumenbach.
clay, lenticular, • Kirwan.
clay, common, from Catliina at Ras-
chau, • • Kirwan.
from Roscommon in
Ireland, Boiheram.
Carron in) Rotheram,
Scotland, J
clay, reniform iron-ore, Wiedemann.
clay, pea-ore, . • Molinghof.
Iron, native, (Heleachen mass) • Monheim.
ore, lowland, from Sprottau, . Kirwan.
Iserine, an oxide of titanium from the Iser in
Bohemia, . • • •
Juniper tree, • * JMuschenbroek.
Ivory, dry, . . • •
Ivy gum, from the Hedera terrestris,
Spec. Grav.
3.139
3.931
2.673
2,936
3.471
/ 3.205
\ 3.357
2.574
5.207
6.723
2.944
4.500
0.5560
1.8250
1.2948
K
Keffekil, or Meerschaum, .
Kinkina, .
Knebelite,
Kyanite. See Cyanite.
L
Labdanum, resin, .
in tortis,
Lapus lazuli. See Azure stone.
Laumonite,
Lard,
Latrobite,
Latialite. See Hauyne.
Lead-glance, or galena, common,
from Derbyshire,
compact,
. Klaproth. 1.6000
Muschenbroek. 0.7840
3.714
crystallized, .
radiated,
from the Hartz,
Kautenbach,
Kirschwalder,
ore, corneous,
reniform,
of black lead,
blue,
brown,
Gellert.
. Watson.
. Gellert.
Kirwan.
. Brisson.
La Metherie.
Kirwan.
Vauquelin.
Vauquelin.
Chenevix.
Bindheim.
Gellert.
Wiedemann.
from Huguelgoet, Klaproth.
Haiiy.
black, . . . Gellert.
white, from Leadhills, Chenevix.
Haiiy.
phosphorated, from Wanlockhead,
Klaproth.
seleniated,
Zschoppau, . Klaproth.
Brisgaw, . Haily.
red, or red lead spar, . Bindheim.
Brisson.
sulphato-carbonate, . 6.8
cupreous do. .
Lead, . > Fischer, Wollaston.
Gellert.
arseniate of, *
carbonate of, ...
. 6.560
7.697
. 6.270
. 6.941
. 5.750
, 6.027
to 7.0
6.4
11.352
11.445
5.00
6.40
6.00
7.20
6.00 to 6.1
6.3
Muschenbroeh.
. Klaproth.
Muschenbroek.
. Klaproth.
Hauy.
1.1862
2,4933
2.20
0.9478
2.720
7-290
6.565
7-786
6.886
7.444
'4.319
5.052
’ 7.587
5.500
7.448
6.140
5.820
6.065
3.920
6.745
5.461
6.974
6.600
6.909
5.770
7.236
6.559
J 2.455
• Klaproth. 12.490
Muschenbroek. 1.3330
1.3864
2.7200
2.710
2.837
2.700
2.800
3.183
2.742
0.604
2.50
0.9130
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Lead, muriate of, .
murio-carbonate of, .
sulphate of,
chromate of,
acetate of,
vitriol, from Anglesea,
Lemon tree,
Lepidolite, lilalite,
Leucolite. See Dipyre.
Leucite, or Amphigene,
Lignum vitae,
Limestone, compact,
foliated,
granular,
green,
arenaceous,
Linden wood, . .
Lithomarge,
Logwood, or Campeachy wood,
M
Made, or chiastolite, . • <>
Madder root, . . Muschenbroek.
Mahogany, . •
Magnesia, sulphate of, crystallized use, bre.
saturated solution, temp.
42°, Watson.
native, hydrate of,
Magnesite, or carbonate of magnesia,
a new species, from Baumgarten
in Silesia, Hausmann.
Magnetic pyrites. See Iron.
Malachite, . . • Brisson.
compact, . • Brisson.
Muschenbroek.
Manganese, . • • Bergman.
Hielm.
Brisson.
Rinmann.
Hagen.
Kirwan.
Dolomieu. -j
Brisson.
7.07
Gravities
6.00
2.3953
6.300
0.7033
2.816
2.854
grey ore of, striated,
grey, foliated,
red, from Kapnick,
black,
scaly, ,
sulphuret of, .
white,
phosphate of,
Maple wood,
Marble Carrara,
Pyrenean,
black Biscayan,
Brocatelle
Castilian,
Valencian,
Grenadian white,
Siennian-,
Roman violet,
African,
Italian, violet,
Norwegian,
Siberian,
French,
. Vauquelin.
XJllman.
Muschenbroek.
Brisson.
2.9444
0.7650
1.0630
1.7976
1.232
2.350
2.200
2.95
3.572
3.641
3.994
6.850
7.000
4.249
4.756
4.181
3.742
3.233
2.0000
3.0000
3.7076
4.1165
3.95
2.8
3.439
3.775
0.7550
2.716
2.726
2.695
2.650
2.700
2.710
2.705
2.678
2.755
2.708
2.858
2.728
2.728
2.649
HYDRODYNAMICS.
f Specific
iravities. Marble, Switzerland,
—-v-—"' Egyptian, green, .
yellow, of Florence,
Marmolite,
Mastic,
tree,
Medlar tree,
Meerschaum. See Kessekil.
Meionite,
Melanite, or black garnet,
Menachanite,
Mercurial hepatic ore, compact,
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Karsteii.
Werner.
Lampadius.
Gregor.
Kirwan.
Grellert.
Mercury at 32° of heat,
at 60°, . *
at 62°, . Faraday.
at 212°,
at 3°.42 centigrade, . Fischer.
in a solid state, 40° below 0° Fahr.
Biddle.
in a fluid state, 47° above 0, Biddle.
native, . . • Haiiy.
corrosive muriate of,
saturated solution, temp. 42°, Watson.
natural calx of, .
precipitate, per se,
red,
mineralized by sulphur, native Ethiops.
See also Cinnabar. . Hahn.
Mesotype, ....
Mica, biaxal, ....
Haiiy. ^
Milk, woman’s,
mare’s,
Spec. Grav.
2.714
2.668
2.516
2.470
1.0742
0.8490
0.9440
3.10
3.691
3.800
4.270
4.227
J 7.186
\ 7.352
7-937
13.619
13.580
13.568
13.375
13.58597
asss,
goat’s,
ewe’s,
cow’s,
Mineral pitch, elastic, or asphaltUm, Hatchet.
La Metherie.
tallow, ....
Molybdate of lead,
Molybdena in a metallic state, saturated with
water, ....
native, . . Kirwan.
Schumacher.
Brisson.
Mountain Crystal. See Rock-Crystal.
Mulberry tree, Spanish Muschenbroek.
Muriacite. See Ahhydrite.
Muricalcite, crystallized, or rhomb spar,
Myrrh,
15.612
13.545
13.5681
6.49
1.037
9.230
10.871
8.399
2.233
2.0833
2.883
2.6546
2.9342
1.0203
1.0346
1.0355
1.0341
1.0409
1.0324
905
233
0.930
0.770
6.70
JO.
1l-
7.500
4.048
4.667
4.7385
0.8970
2.480
1.3600
N
Natrolite Swedish, .
red crystals,
Naphtha, liquid,
Naphthaline,
Nepheline, or Sommite,
Nephrite. See Jade.
Nickel in a metallic state,
copper,
Thomson
■{£
779
790
2.168
0.8475
0.65
Hauy. 3.2741
f 7-421
\ 8.500
Bergmann. 9-3333
tj . ( 6.6086
Brv,sm. -J 6 6481
Nickel copper,
Nickel, ore of, called arsenical nickel, or Kup-
fernickel of Saxony,
Kupfernickel of Bohemia,
sulphuretted,
forged, . . . Richter.
and antimony, sulphuret of,
Nickeline, a metal discovered by Richter, cast,
Richter.
Nigrine, or calcareo-siliteous titanic ore,
Vauquclin.
Klaproth.
Lowitz.
Nitre, . . . Muschenbroek.
crystallized, . . „ Ure.
quadrangular, . Muschenbroek.
saturated solution of, temperature 42°,
Watson.
Novaculite, or Turkey hone. See Slate Whet.
33
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
Gellert. 7.560 Gravities.
o
Oak, 60 years old, heart of,
Obsidian,
Octohedrite,
Oil of filberts, *
walnut,
hemp-seed,
poppies,
rape-seed, .
lint-seed,
poppy-seed,
whale,
ben, a tree in Arabia,
beechmast,
codfish,
olives,
almonds, sweet,
volatile of mint, common,
sage,
thyme,
rosemary,
calamint,
cochlearia,
wormwood,
tansy,
Stragan,
Roman camomile
sabine,
fennel,
fennel-seed,
coriander-seed,
caraway-seed,
dill-seed,
anise-seed,
juniper-seed,
cloves,
cinnamon,
turpentine,
amber,
the flowers of orange,
lavender,
nyssop, ,
Olibanum gum,
Olive tree, . , .
copper ore, foliated, .
fibrous
Olivine. See Peridat.
Opal, precious *
Muschenbroek.
Hauy.
common.
Muschenbroek.
Bournon.
Baumon.
Blumenbach.
. Klaproth. <
6.648
6.607
6.620
8.60
6.451
8.55
3.700
4.445
4.673
1.9000
2.0060
2.2460
1.095
1.1700
2.348
3.857
0.916
0.92'*
0.9258
0.9238
0.9193
0.9403
0.929
0.9233
0.9119
0.9176
0.9233
0.9153
0.9170
0.8982
0.9016
0.9023
0.9057
0.9116
0.9427
0.9073
0.9328
0.9949
0.8943
0-9294
0.9294
1.0083
0.8655
0.9049
0.9128
0.9867
0.8577
1.0363
1.0439
0.8697
0.8865
0.8798
0.8938
0.8892
1.1732
0.9072
4.281
4.281
2.114
1.958
2.015
vou xn.
34
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Of Specific
Gravities. Opal, common,
semiopal reddish, from Telkobanya,
Klaproth.
ligniform, or wood,
Opium, . . . . •
Ophites. See Porphyry Hornblende.
Opoponax, ....
Orange tree, . . Muschenbroek.
Orpiment, . . . Kirwan.
Orpiment, red. See Realgar.
Osmium and Iridium, alloy of,
Spec. Grav.
Kirwan. 2.144
2.540
2.600
13.365
1.6226
0.7059
J 3.048
^ 3.435
19.5
P.
Palladium,
Paranthine. See Scapolite
Pear tree,
Pearl-stone,
Pearls, oriental,
Peat, hard,
Edinburgh,
Peridot, or Olivine,
Wollaston.
Lowry.
Muschenbroek.
Thomson.
Werner.
Peruvian bark,
Petalite,
Petroleum,
Petrosilex. See Hornstone.
Pharmacolite, or Arseniate of Lime,
Phosphorite, or Spargel stone, whitish, from
Spain, before absorbing water,
after absorbing water,
greenish, from Spain,
Saxon,
Phosphorus,
Pierre de volvic, .
Pinite,
Pitch ore, or sulphuretted uranite,
Pitch-stone, black,
yellow,
red,
brick red, from Misnia,
leek green, inclining to
Kirwan.
Guyton.
Hauy
Klaproth.
lirisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Kirwan.
olive,
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Brisson.
Brisson.
11.8
12.14
0.6610
2.34
2.683
1.329
0.600
3.428
3.225
0.7849
2.440
0.8783
2.640
2.8249
2.8648
3.098
3.218
1.770
2.320
2.980
6.378
6.530
7.500
2.0499
2.0860
2.6695
2.720
pearl gray,
blackish,
olive,
dark green,
Pitchy iron-ore,
Plasma, .
Platina, .... Klaproth.
drawn into wire,
a wedge of, sent by Admiral Gravina to
Mr Kirwan,
a bar of, sent by the King of Spain to
the King of Poland,
2.298
1.970
2.3191
2.3145
2.3149
3.956
2.04
20.722
21.0417
20.663
20.722
in grains, purified by boiling in nitrous f 17-500
acid,
native,
i11
fused,
purified and forged,
milled and purified,
compressed by a flatting mill,
Pleonaste. See Ceylanite.
Plum tree, • . Muschenbroek.
Plumbago, or graphite, . . Kirwan
18.500
5.601
17.200
14.626
20.336
Hauy 20.98
22.069
Polymignite,
Pomegranate tree,
Poplar wood,
white Spanish,
Porcelain from China,
Seves, hard,
tender,
Saxony, modern,
Limoges,
of Vienna, . .
Saxony, called Petite
Porcellanite, . .
Porphyry, green,
red,
red of Dauphiny,
red from Cordova,
green from ditto,
hornblende, or orphites,
Pitch-stone,
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Jaune,
mullen,
sand-stone,
Potash, carbonate of,
bicarbonate of, . . Ure.
fused subcarbonate of, . Ure.
muriate of, . Muschenbroek.
tartrate of, acidulous, Muschenbroek.
antimonial,
sulphate of, . . .
Potassium at 15° centigrade,
Gay Lussac and Thenard.
Potstone,
Prasium, . .
Prehnite of the Cape, . • Hauy.
Brisson.
of France, . . Hauy.
Proof spirit, according to the English excise laws;
Pumice-stone, ....
Pycnite, or shorlous beryl, . Hauy.
Pyrallolite, ...
Pyrites. See Copper and Iron.
Pyrope, .... Klaproth.
Pyrochlore,
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
4.806 Gravities.
1.3540 "   
0.3830
0.5294
2.3847
2.1457
2.1654
2.4932
2.341
2.5121
2.5450
2.30
2.6760
2.7651
2.7933
2.7542
2.7278
2.9722
2.452
f 2.600
( 2.728
2.564
1.4594
2.1532
2.3231
1.8365
1.9000
2.2460
2.2980
0.97223
J 2.80
’ ( 3.00
2.5805
2.697
2.9423
2.610
0.916
0.9145
3.5145
2.57
Pyrophysalite,
Pyrorthite,
Pyroxene. See Augite.
Werner.
Berzelius.
a
Quartz, crystallized, brown, red,
brittle,
crystallized,
milky,
elastic,
Quince tret
Realgar, or red orpiment,
Gerhard.
Kirwan.
Muschenbroek.
3.718
4.21
3.941
3.450
2.19
2.6468
2.6404
2.6546
2.652
3.750
2.6240
0.7050
R
Bergman.
Brisson.
0.7850
f 1.987
' \ 2.267
Resin, or Guiacum,
of jalap,
Retinasphalt,
Rhaetizite,
Rhodium,
Rock-crystal, from Madagascar,
clove brown, . . Karsten.
snow white from Marmerosch, Karsten.
crystal, European, pure, gelatinous,
3.225
3.338
1.2289
1.2185
0.97 to 1.135
3.552
11.00
2.6530
2.605
2.888
2.6548
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Of Specific
Gravities. Rock-crystal, • Malus.
of Brazil,
iridescent,
rose-coloured,
yellow Bohemian,
blue,
violet, or amethyst,
violet purple, or Carthagin:
amethyst,
pale violet, white amethyst,
brown,
black,
Romanzovite,
Roucou,
penetrated with water,
Ruby, oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental,
spinelle,
ball as,
Rutile. See Titanite.
Rutilite or Sphene,
Sahlite,
Sal gem,
Salt of vitriol,
sedative of Homberg,
polychrest,
de Prunelle,
volatile of hartshorn,
Sandarac,
Santal, white,
yellow,
red,
Sapagenum,
Sappare. See Cyanite.
Sapphire, oriental, white,
of Buys,
oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental,
Klaproth.
Hauy.
La Metherie.
Dundrada.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
Sarcocolla,
Sardonyx, pure, *
pale,
pointed,
veined.
Hauy.
Hatchet.
Greville.
. Krisson.
. Brisson.
. Brisson.
. Brisson.
. Brisson.
Brisson.
. Brisson.
Muschenbroek.
onyx,
arborescent,
blackish,
Sassafras,
Saussurite,
Scammony, of Aleppo,
Smyrna,
Scapolite, or Paranthine, Dandrada
Schistus. See Slate, Hone, Stone,
Schmelstein. See JDipyre.
Schorl, black, prismatic, hexahedral,
octahedral,
enneahedral,
black, sparry,
amorphous, or ancient basaltes,
•I
Spec. Grav.
2.63717
2.6526
2.6497
2.6701
2.6542
2.5818
2.6535
2.6570
2.6513
2.6534
2.6536
3.6096
0.5956
1.1450
4.2833
3.5311
3.7600
3.5700
3.6458
4.102
4.246
(3.1
) 3.5
3.234
2.143
1.9000
1.4797
2.1410
2.1480
1.4760
1.0920
1.0410
0.8090
1.1280
1.2008
3.991
4.076
3.994
3.1307
3.994
4.283
4.000
4.083
1.2684
2.6025
2.6060
2.6215
2.5951
2.5949
2.5988
2.6284
0.4820
3.2566
3.342
1.2354
1.2743
3.6800
3.7000
Schorl, cruciform,
violet of Dauphiny,
green,
common,
Selenite, or broad foliated gypsum,
Serpentine, opaque, green, Italian,
penetrated with water,
ditto, red and black veined,
ditto, veined, black and olive,
semitransparent, grained,
ditto, fibrous,
ditto, from Dauphiny,
opaque, spotted black and white,
spotted black and grey,
spotted red and yellow,
green from Grenada,
deep green from Grenada,
black, from Dauphiny, or variolite.
green from Dauphiny,
green,
yellow,
violet,
of Dauphiny,
Shale,
Siderocalcite, or brown spar,
Sidero-schisolite,
Silver, sulphuretted, or silver-glance, Brisson.
La Metherie.
brittle, . Gellert.
white, «...
red, or ruby,
light red,
sooty,
native, common,
antimonial,
auriferous,
ore, dark red.
3.3636
3.2265
3.0926
3.3852
2.9225
. Brisson.
. Brisson.
Gellert.
VauqueUn.
. Gellert.
Selb.
. Hauy.
Selb.
. Kirwan.
. Gellert.
Brisson.
arseniated, ferruginous,
penetrated with water,
ore, corneous, or horn ore, Brisson.
Gellert.
virgin, 12 denier, fine, not ham¬
mered,
12 deniers, hammered,
Paris standard, 11 deniers,
10 plains, fused,
hammered,
Klaproth.
shilling of George II.
George III.
French money, 10 deniers, 21 grains,
fused, ...
Fiench money, 10 deniers, 21 grains,
coined,
Sinople, coarse jasper,
Slate clay. See Argillite.
common,
or schistus, common,
penetrated with water,
whet, or novaculite,
Isabella yellow,
stone,
fresh nolished,
35
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
. 3.2861 Gravities.
3.2956 " v  
3.4529
Brisson. 3.092
Gerhard. 3.150
Kirwan. 3.212
2.322
2.4295
2.4729
2.6273
2.5939
2.5859
2.9997
2.6693
2.3767
2.2645
2.6885
2.6849
2.7097
2.9339
2.9883
2.8960
2.7305
2.6424
2.7913
2.6
2.837
3.00
6.910
7.200
7.208
5.3
5.564
5.5886
5.443
5.592
10.000
10.333
9.4406
10.000
10.600
5.684
5.5637
2.178
2.340
4.7488
4.804
10.474
10.510
10.175
10.376
10.784
10.000
10.534
10.048
10.408
2.6913
2.6718
2.6718
2.6905
Kirwan-{lml
Kirwan. 2.955
2.1861
2.7664
36
GravTtiesC Slate adhesive,
new,
siliceous,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
horn, or schistose porphyry,
Smalt, or blue glass of cobalt,
Smaragdite, from Corsica,
Soda, sulphate of,
muriate of,
Klaproth
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Ure.
Ure.
Spec. Grav
. 2.080
2.8535
2.596
2.641
512
700
2.440
3.000
1.4398
2.0058
/ 2.5
(2.7
saturated solution, temperature
Watson
Watson
tempera-
Watson.
42 .
nitrate of, .
carbonate of,
sesquicarbonate of,
tartrate of, saturated solution of,
fossil,
saturated solution of,
ture 42°,
Sodalite, , ' • •
Sodium, at 15° centigrade, Gay-Lussac and
Thcnard.
Sommite. See Nepheline.
Sordawalite, • •
Spar, brown. See Sidero-Calcite.
white sparkling,
red ditto, . .
green ditto,
blue ditto,
gieen and white ditto,
transparent ditto,
adamantine. See Corundum. •
schiller. See Hornblende Labrador.
fluor, white,
red, or false ruby,
octahedral,
yellow, or false topaz,
green, or false emerald,
octahedral,
blue, or false sapphire, . . •
greenish blue, or false aquamarine,
violet, or hdse amethyst,
violet purple,
English,
of Auvergne,
in stalactites,
1.198
2.09
1.0 to 1.5
2.11
1.114
2.1430
Steatites of Bareight, penetrated with water,
gteelj . . . Muschenbroek.
soft, . . * • •
hammered, . , • •
hardened in water,
hammered, and then hardened in water,
Sternbergite, • • • •
Stilbite, . . • • •
Stilpno-siderite, •
St John’s wort, inspissated juice of,
Strontian, sulphate of,
2.054
2.294
0.86507
2.530
2.5946
2.4378
2.7045
2.6925
3.1051
2.5644
3.873
3.1555
3.19H
3.1815
3.0967
3.1817
3.1838
3.1688
3.1820
3.1757
3.1857
3.1796
3.0943
3.1668
pearl, or bitter (carb. of lime and magnesia), 2.8378
calcareous rhomboidal,
in tubes,
of France,
prismatic, .
and pyramidal,
pyramidal,
(puant gris),
(puant noir),
or flos ferri, .
Spargel stone. See Phosphorite^
Spermaceti, . • •
Spinelle. See Ruby.
Sphene. See Rutilitc.
Spirit of wine. See Alcohol.
Spodumene, or triphane,
. Hauy.
Dandrada.
Stalactite transparent,
opaque, ....
penetrated with water,
Staurotide, staurolite, or grenatite, . Hauy.
Steatites of Bareight,
penetrated with water,
indurated,
carbonate of,
Hauy. -!
Hauy. -!
Stone, sand, paving,
grinding, . * •
cutler’s,
Fountainbleau, glittering,
crystallized,
scythe of Auvergne, mean grained,
fine grained,
coarse grained,
2.7151
2.71409
2.7146
2.7182
2.7115
2.7141
2.7121
2.6207
2.6747
0.9433
3.1923
3.218
2.3239
2.4783
2.5462
3.286
2.6149
2.6757
2.5834
Lorraine,
Liege,
mill,
Bristol,
Burford,
Portland,
rag, .
rotten,
St Cloud,
St Maur,
Notre Dame,
clicard from Brachet,
rock of Chatillon,
hard paving,
Siberian blue,
touch,
prismatic basaltes,
of the quarry of Boure
of Cherence,
Storax,
Stromnite,
Sugar, white.
Sulphur, native,
fused,
chloride of,
Sulphuric, or vitriolic acid,
Sulphuret, triple, of lead, antimony,
per,
silver of copper,
Sylvanite, or tellurite, in a metallic state, twice
fused,
Muschenbroek,
Hauy,
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
2.6322 Gravities.
7.767 v  
7.8331
7.8404
7.8163
7.8180
4.215
2.50
3.611
1.5263
3.583
3.958
3.658
3.675
2.4158
2.1429
2.1113
2.5616
2.6111
2.5638
2.6090
2.5686
2.5298
2.6356
2.4835
2.510
2.049
2.496
2.470
1.981
2.201
2.034r
2.378
2.357
2.122
2.460
2.945
2.415
2.722
1.3864
2.4682
1.1098
3.703
1.6060
2.0332
1.9907
1.6
1.841
and cop-
• Hatchet.
Sylvan, native,
ore, yellow,
black,
Syringa,
Tabasheer,
Tacamahaca, resin,
Tachylite,
Talc, black crayon,
ditto German,
J acquin jun.
Mailer.
Klaproth.
. Muller.
Jacquin jun.
Muller.
Muschenbroek.
5.766
6.255
6.343
4.107
5.723
6,115
10.678
6.157
8.919
1.0989
Jardme
f 2.059
\ 2.412
. 1.0463
zr .. f 2.8534
Hauy. | 2.8729
2.52
2.0801
. 2.246
HYDRODYNAMICS.
)f Specific
Gravities. Talc, yellow,
white,
of mercury,
black, ,
earthy,
slaty,
common Venetian,
indurated,
Tallow,
Tantalite, . ,
Tantalium metal,
Tartar,
Telesie. See Sapphire.
Terra Japonica,
Tellurium, native,
graphic,
yellow, of Naygag,
black,
Tennantite,
Thenardite,
Thomspnite,
Tin, pure, from Cornwall, fused,
Spec. Grav.
2.655
2.704
2.7917
2.9004
2.6325
Gahn and Berzelius. 2.718
/ 2.700
' \ 2.800
2.90
. . 0.9419
7-953
5.61
6.291
6.208
1.8490
, . Ekeberg.
. Berzelius.
in large masses, Gahn and Berzelius.
in small pieces,
Muschenbroek.
1.3980
f 5.700
{ 6.10
5.7
10.67
8.9
4.375
9 *73
2.35 to 2.4
Watson. | y
fused and hammered, 7.291
of Malacca, tused,
fused and hammered,
of Gallicia, . . , Gellert.
of Ehrenfriedensdorf in Saxony, Gellert.
pyrites,
stone,
Klaproth.
La Metherie.
. Gellert.
black,
red,
fibrous,
new, fused, . ,
fused and hammered,
fine, fused,
fused and hammered,
common,
called Claire-etoffe,
ore, Cornish,
7.296
7.306
7.063
7.271
4.350
4.785
f 6.300
’ \ 6.989
Brunich. 6.750
Brisson. 6.901
Brisson. 6.9348
jsj w f 5.845
Klaproth. ^ g g^O
Werner. 7.000
Brunich
Blumenbach
from Fahlun,
stone, white,
Titanite, Rutilite, or Sphene,
Topaz, oriental,
Brazilian,
from Saxony,
oriental pistachio,
Saxony white,
greenish blue,
red,
Tourmaline,
green,
blue,
Brunich.
Klaproth.
Gahn and Berzelius.
Tremolite,
Triclasite,
Torrelite,
Triphane.
Hauy.
La Metherie.
Hauy.
Hauy.
Brisson.
Hauy.
Werner.
See Spodumene.
5.800
6.450
7.3013
7.3115
7.4789
7.5194
7.9200
8.4869
5.800
6.450
6.55
6.008
4.102
4,246
4.0106
3.5365
3.5640
4.0615
3.5535
3.5489
3.5311
3.086
3.362
3.155
2.931
2.61 to 2.66
. 3.25
Tungstate of lead,
Tungsten, ,
37
Spec. Grav. Of Specific
Leysser.
Kirwan.
Brisson.
Klaproth.
Turbeth mineral, ....
Turpentine, spirits of, . . .
liquid, ....
Turquoise, ivory tinged by the blue calx of
copper, .....
oriental, or calaite,
U
Ultramarine, . Desormes and Clement.
Uran glimmer, or Uranite,
Uranite in a metallic state, Klaproth.
sulphuretted. See Pitch ore.
8.1
4.355
5.800
6.028
6.066
6.015
5.570
8.235
0.870
0.991
2.500
. \ 2.908
2.83 to 3.0
Gravities,
Uranitic ochre indurated,
Uranium,
sulphate of,
Urine, human, ,
diabetic,
Vanadiate of lead,
Vauquelinite,
Vermeille, a kind of oriental ruby,
Vesuvian,
La Metherie.
Hauy.
Henry.
2.360
2.19
6.440
3.150
3.2438
7.500
3.19
1.015
1.026
1.028
1.040
6.99 to
5.5 to
of Siberia,
Vine,
Vinegar, red,
white,
radical,
Vitriol, Dantzic,
Walnut-tree of France,
Wagnerte,
Wiedemann.
Klaproth.
Klaproth. |
Hauy.
Muschenbroek.
Muschenbroek.
W
Water distilled at 32° of Fahr
sea,
of Dead Sea,
wells,
of Bareges,
of the Seine filtered,
of Spa, ,
of Armed,
Avray,
Seltzer,
Wavellite, or hydrargillite, from Barnstaple,
Wax, bees,
white,
shoemakers,
Whey, cows,
Willow, . . . Muschenbroek.
Wine of Torrins, red,
white,
Champagne, white,
Pakarete,
Xeres,
Malmsey Madeira,
Muschenbroek.
. Fuchs.
Levy.
Gay-Lussac
7.23
5.78
4.2299
3.575
3.420
3.365
3.339
3.407
1.2370
1.0251
1.0135
1.080
1.715
0.6710
3.11
3.01
1.0000
1.0263
1.2403
1.2283
1.0017
1.00037
1.00015
1.0009
1.00046
1.00043
1.0305
2.337
0.9648
0.9686
0.897
1.019
0.5850
0.9930
0.9876
0.9979
0.9997
0.9924
1.0382
38
Of Specific
Gravities. Wine of Burgundy,
Juranyon,
Bourdeaux,
Malaga,
Constance,
Tokay,
Canary,
Port,
Withamite,
Witherite. See Barolitc.
Wodanium metal,
pyrites,
Wolfram,
Wolf’s eye (name of a mineral),
Woodstone,
Y
Yenite. See Jenite.
Yew tree, Dutc’n,
Spanish, .
Yttria, phosphate of,
Yttrotantalite, black,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Spec. Grav.
0.9915
0.9932
0.9939
1.0221
1.0819
1.0538
1.033
0.997
3.137
Lampadius. 11.470
Lampadius. 5.192
. Gmelin. 5.705
Elhuyar. 6.835
Leonhardi. 7.000
Hatchet. 6.955
Hauy. 7-333
2.3507
/ 2.045
' 12.675
Muschenhroek. 0.7880
Muschenbroek. 0.8070
Berzelius. 4.558
Berzelius. 5.395
Yttrotantalite, yellow,
Yttrocerite,
Spec. Grav Of Specifi
5.882 Gravities I
Gahn and Berzelius. 3.447 —
Zeolite from Edelfors, red, scintillant,
white scintillant,
compact, ....
cubic. See Chabasie.
siliceous, ....
Zinc, pure and compressed,
in its usual state, . Bergman.
formed by sublimation and full of cavi¬
ties, . • • Kirwan.
sulphate of, . Muschenbroek. 1.900
saturated solution of, temp. 42°, Watson
green, oxide of, . . •
See Blende.
Zinkenite, ....
Zircon, or Jargon, . . Klaproth.
Karstcn.
Wiedemann.
Hauy,
Zirconia,
Zirconite,
Zoisite,
Zurlite,
Klaproth.
2.4868
2.0739
2.1344
2.515
7.1908
6.862
, 5.918
to 2.00
, 1.386
4.924
5.306
. 4.615
4.666
4.700
J 4.3858
(4.4161
4.3
4.24
J 3.26
( 3.31
3.274
CHAPTER III—ON CAPILLARY ATTRACTION, AND THE COHESION OF FLUIDS.
Fluids uo 128. We have already seen, when discussing the equili-
not rise to brium of fluids, that when water or any other fluid is poured
the same jnt0 a vessel, or any number of communicating vessels, its
level in a surface wq] pe horizontal, or it will rise to the same height
com muni- in each vessel, whatever be its form or position. This pro-
catin T ves-position, however, only holds true when the diameter of
sels when these vessels or tubes exceeds the fifteenth of an inch : for
their dia- if a system of communicating vessels be composed of tubes
meters are 0f vari0lis diameters, the fluid will rise to a level surface in
very mi- aq tpe tubes which exceed one fifteenth of an inch in dia¬
meter ; but in the tubes of a smaller bore, it will rise
above that level to altitudes inversely proportional to the
diameters of the tubes. The power by which the fluid is
raised above its natural level is called capillary attraction,
and the glass tubes which are employed to exhibit its phe¬
nomena are named capillary tubes. These appellations
derive their origin from the Latin word capillus, signify¬
ing a hair, either because the bores of these tubes have the
fineness of a hair, or because that substance is itself sup¬
posed to be of a tubular structure.
129. When we bring a piece of clean glass in contact
with water or any other fluid, except mercury and fused
metals, and withdraw it gently from its surface, a portion
of the fluid will not only adhere to the glass, but a small
force is necessary to detach this glass from the fluid mass,
Thereis an'which seems to resist any separation of its parts. Hence
attraction it is obvious that there is an attraction of cohesion between
of cohesion g|aS3 aml water, and that the constituent particles of water
between jiave a}so an attraction for each other. The suspension of
class and - - 1 -
h ' Fiff. 3G.
water, and
between
the parti¬
cles of
water.
a drop of water from the
lower side of a plate of
glass is a more palpable
illustration of the first
of these truths; and the
following experiment
will completely verify
the second. Place two
large drops of water on a smooth metallic surface, their dis¬
tance being about the tenth of an inch. W ith the point of
a pin unite these drops by two parallel canals, and the
drops will instantly rush to each other through these canals,
and fill the dry space that intervenes. This experiment is
exhibited in fig. 36, where AB is the metallic plate, C, D
the drops of water, and m, n, the two canals.
130. Upon these principles many attempts have been
made to account for the elevation of water in capillary tubes ;
but most of the explanations which have hitherto been
offered, are founded upon hypothesis, and are very far from
being satisfactory. Without presuming to substitute a Attempt
better explanation in the room of those which have been account
already given, and so frequently repeated, we shall endea-
vour to illustrate that explanation of the phenomena of^-j^
capillary attraction which seems liable to the fewest ob- tuiies.
jections. For this purpose let E be a drop of water laid Fig. 3(i.|
upon a clean glass surface AB. Every particle of the glass
immediately below the drop E, exerts an attractive force
upon the particles of water. This force will produce the
same effect upon the drop as a pressure in the opposite
direction, the pressure of a column of air, for instance, on
the upper surface of the drop. The effect of the attrac¬
tive force, therefore, tending to press the drop to the glass
will be an enlargement of its size, and the
water will occupy the space EG; this in¬
crease of its dimensions will take place
when the surface AB is held downwards ;
and that it does not arise from atmo¬
spheric pressure may be shewn by per¬
forming the experiment in vacuo. Now,
let A 13 (fig. 37.) be a section of the
plate of glass, AB (fig. 36.) held verti¬
cally, part of the water will descend by
its gravity, and form a drop B, while a
small film of the fluid will be supported
at m by the attraction of the glass. Bring
a similar plate of glass CD, into a position
parallel to AB, and make them approach
Fig. 37.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
39
apillary
fraction,
&c.
he alti-
des of
aids in
pillary
ibes are
versely
their
ameters.
nearer and nearer each other. When the drops B and D
come in contact, they will rush together from their mutual
attraction, and will fill the space o p. The gravity of the
drops B and D being thus diminished, the films of water at
m and n, which were prevented from rising by their gravity,
will move upwards. As the plates of glass continue
to approximate, the space between them will fill with
water, and the films at m and n being no longer pre¬
vented from yielding to the action of the glass imme¬
diately below them, (by the gravity of the water at
o p, which is diminished by the mutual action of the
fluid particles) will rise higher in proportion to the approach
of the plates. Hence it may be easily understood how the
water rises in capillary tubes, and how its altitude is in¬
versely as their internal diameters. For let A, a be the
altitudes of the fluid in two tubes of different diameters
D, d; and let C, c be the two cylinders of fluid which are
raised by virtue of the attraction of the glass. Now, as
the force which raises the fluid must be as the number of
attracting particles, that is, as the surface of the tube in
contact with the water, that is, as the diameter of the tubes,
and as this same force must be proportional to its effects on
the cylinder of water raised, we shall have T): d = C: c.
But (Geometry, Sect. VIII. Theor. XI. Sect. IX. Theor.
II.) C: e = D2A : d2a, therefore D2A : d2a = : dj hence
d2aT)
D2A d = d2a D, and DA = -- °r DA = da, that is,
T) : dz= a : A, or the altitudes of the water are inversely as
the diameters of the tubes. Since DA — da, the product
of the diameter by the altitude of the water will always be
a constant quantity. In a tube whose diameter is 0.01,
or of an inch, the water has been found to reach
the altitude of 5.3 inches; hence the constant quantity
5.3 X 0.1 = 0.053 may fitly represent the attraction of glass
for water. According to the experiments of Muschen-
broek, the constant quantity is 0.039 ; according to Weit-
brecht 0.0428; according to Monge 0.042, and according
to Atwood 0.0530. When a glass tube was immersed in
melted lead, Gellert found the depression multiplied by the
bore to be 0.0054.
henome- 131. Having thus attempted to explain the causes of
i of capil- capillary action, we shall now proceed to consider some of
its more interesting phenomena. In fig. 38. MN is a ves-
Fig. 38.
ry attrac
on.
sel of water in which tubes of various forms are immersed.
The water will rise in the tubes A, B, C, to different altitudes
m, n, o, inversely proportional to their diameters. If the
tube B is broken at a, the water will not rise to the very top
of it at a, but will stand at b, a little below the top, what¬
ever be the length of the tube, or the diameter of its bore.
If the tube be taken from the fluid and laid in a horizontal
position, the water will recede from the end that was im¬
mersed. These two facts seem to countenance the opinion Capillary
of Dr Jurin1 and other philosophers, that the water is ele-Attiacb(jnJ
vated in the tube by the attraction of the annulus, or ring &c' /
of glass, immediately above the cylinder of water. This jui.p1y"hy
hypothesis is sufficiently plausible ; but supposing it to be p0thesis.'
true, the ring of glass immediately below the surface of the
cylinder of fluid should produce an equal and opposite
effect, and therefore the water instead of rising should be
stationary, being influenced by two forces of an equal and
opposite kind.
132. If a tube D composed of two cylindrical tubes ofPhenome-
different bores be immersed in water with the widest partna of capil-
downwards, the water will rise to the altitude p, and if an-^T attrac-
other tube E of the same size and form be plunged in thetlon‘
fluid with the smaller end downwards, the water will rise
to the same height q as it did in the tube D. This experi¬
ment seems to be a complete refutation of the opinion of
Dr Jurin, that the water is raised by the action of the an¬
nulus of glass above the fluid column; for since the annu¬
lar surface is the same at q as at p, the same quantity of
fluid ought to be supported in both tubes, whereas the tube
E evidently raises much less water than D. But if we ad¬
mit the supposition in art. 130, that the fluid is suported
by the whole surface of glass in contact with the water,
the phenomenon receives a complete explanation ; for since
the surface of glass in contact with the fluid in the tube
E is much less than the surface in contact with it in the
tube D, the quantity of fluid sustained in the former ought
to be much less than the quantity supported in the latter.
133. When a vessel F vw, fig. 38. is plunged in water, and Phenome-
the lower part tuv w filled by suction till the fluid enter thena of capil-
part F t, the water will rise to the same height as it does inhwy attrac-
the capillary tube G, whose bore is equal to the bore of^?”'
the part F t. In this experiment the portions of water ',li’
tvx and uxw on each side of the column F x are support¬
ed by the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the
water in the vessel MN ; for if this vessel be placed in the
exhausted receiver of an air-pump, these portions of water
will not be sustained. Dr Jurin, indeed, maintains that
these portions will retain their position in vacuo, but in his
time the exhausting power of the air-pump was not suffi¬
ciently great to determine a point of so great nicety. The
column tux, which is not sustained by atmospherical pres¬
sure, is kept in its position by the attraction of the water
immediately around and above it, and the column F is
supported by the attraction of the glass surface with which
it is in contact. According to Dr Jurin’s hypothesis, the
column tux is supported by the ring of glass immediately
above r, which is a very unlikely supposition.
134. The preceding experiment completely overturns Hypothe-
the hypothesis of Dr Hamilton, afterwards revived by Dr sis
Matthew Young. These philosophers maintained that the ^u^on
fluid was sustained in the tube by the lower ring of glass
contiguous to the bottom of the tube, that this ring raises Younir-
the portion of water immediately below it, and then other
portions successively till the portion of water thus raised be
in equilibrium with the attraction of the annulus in ques¬
tion. But if the elevation of the fluid were produced in
this way, the quantity supported would be regulated by the
form and magnitude of the orifice at the bottom of the
tube ; whereas it is evident from every experiment, that
the cylinder of fluid sustained in capillary tubes has no re¬
ference whatever to the form of the lower annulus, but de¬
pends solely upon the diameter of the tube immediately
above the elevated column of water.
135. If the experiments which we have now explained These phe-
be performed in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump,nomena
the water will rise to the same height as when they are^'^^h
       receiver.
Philosophical Transactions, No. 383, Art. 2.
40
Capillary
Attraction,
&c.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi¬
ments of
M. Louis
Carre on
the ascent
of different
fluids in
capillary
tubes.
performed in air. We may therefore conclude, that the
ascent of the water is not occasioned, as some have ima¬
gined, by the pressure of the atmosphere acting more free¬
ly upon the surface of the water in the vessel than upon
the column of fluid in the capillary tube.
136. Numerous experiments have been made on the ascent
of water and other fluids in capillary tubes. Among the
earliest of these we may enumerate the experiments of M.
Louis Carre, which were made previous to 1705. He found
that in a tube twelve inches long water rose 10 lines, when
the diameter of the tube was ^ of a line, 18 lines when its
diameter was £, and 30 lines when its diameter was ^ of
a line.
The following are the results which he obtained with
different fluids, and with a glass tube twelve inches in
length:
Diameter of the
Names of Fluids. glass tube in
parts of a line.
Water,
Alcohol,
Spirits of turpentine,
Oil of tartar,
Spirit of nitre,
Oil of olives,
£ of a line.
Height of ascent
in lines.
10
4
5
4
Water,
Alcohol,
Water,
Alcohol,
Tube 9 Inches long.
j- ^ of a line.
Tube 15 Inches long.
^ of a line.
10
4
29
12
Tube 5 Inches long.
Water, . . \ i of a line $ 27
Alcohol, . . | G ‘ I 12 nearly.
137. The following experiments were made by Mr Benja¬
min Martin with a tube about of an inch in diameter c1
-j Height of Ascent Constant
Names of the Fluids. jn inches. Number.
Experi¬
ments of
Mr B.
Martin
Common spring water,
Spirit of urine,
Tincture of galls,
Recent urine,
Spirit of salt,
Ol. tart, per deliq.
Vinegar,
Small beer,
Strong spirit of nitre,
Spirit of hartshorn,
Cream,
Skimmed milk,
Aquafortis,
Red wine, .
White wine,
Ale,
Ol. sul. per campanam,
Oil of vitriol,
Sweet oil, . *
Oil of turpentine,
Geneva,
Rum,
Brandy,
White hard varnish,
Spirit of wine,
Tincture of mars,
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.9
0.9
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.85
0.8
0.8
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.65
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.55
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.45
0.45
.048
.044
.044
.044
.036
.036
.038
.036
.034
.034
.032
.032
.030
.030
.030
.030
.026
.026
.024
.022
.022
.020
.020
.020
.018
.018
138. To the preceding table as given by Mr Martin we Capillary
have added the constant number for each fluid, or the pro- Attraction,
duct of the altitude of the liquid, and the diameter of the c' ;
tube (art. 130). By this number, therefore, we can find
the altitude to which any of the preceding fluids will rise
in a tube of a given bore, or the diameter of the bore when
the altitude of the fluid is known ; for since the constant
C
number C = DA (art. 130.) we shall have D rr — and A
C^
D
Since the constant number, however, as deduced
from the experiments of Martin, may not be perfectly cor¬
rect, it would be improper to derive from it the diameter
of the capillary bore when great accuracy is necessary.
The following method, therefore, may be adopted as the
most correct that can be given. Put into the capillary Method of
tube a quantity of mercury, whose weight in troy grains is measuring
W, and let the length L of the tube which it occupies bethe inter-
accurately ascertained ; then if the mercury be pure and ^ npa™e'
at the temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit, the diameter ofcapqiarv
/w tube,
the tube D = V ^ X 0.019241, the specific gravity of
JlJ
mercury being 13.580. The weight of a cubic inch of
mercury being 3438 grains, and the solid contents of the
mercurial column being D2 L X 0.7854, we shall have
1 : 3438 = D2 L X 0.7854 : W. Hence (Geometry, Sect.
IV. Theor. VIII.) D2Lx0.7854x3438 =W, and dividing
we have D2=
W
Lx0.7854x3438
or D:
V
W
LX0.7854X3438
rW
D = \/^- X 0.019241.
If the whole tube be filled
with mercury, and if W be the difference in troy grains
between its weight when empty, and when filled with mer¬
cury, the same theorem will serve for ascertaining the dia¬
meter of the tube. Should the temperature of the mer¬
cury happen to be 32° of Fahrenheit, its specific gravity
will be 13.619, which will alter a very little the constant
multiplier 0.019241.
139. Various experiments on the ascent of fluids in capil¬
lary tubes have been made by different individuals. The most
important and recent of these were made by MM. W eit-
brecht, Gellert, Lord Charles Cavendish, MM. Haiiy and
Tremery, Sir David Brewster, and M. Gay Lussac.
The following are the results obtained by M. Weitbrecht2Experi-
in the ascent of water :—
Diameter of the tube Height of ascent
in English inches.
0.065
0.045
0.
0.
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.025
)l04\
).05 J
in inches.
0.72
0.95
0.92
0.85
0.71
0.53
1.72
Mean,
Constant
quantity.
0.0432
0.04275
0.04140
0.0425
0.0426
0.0424
0.043
0.04255:
ments of
Weit-
brecht.
140. A series of experiments were made in 1740 by M. Of Gellert.
Gellert, on the descent of melted lead in capillary tubes ot
glass. For this purpose he used the thinnest tubes, and
heating them gradually before immersion in the lead, he ob¬
tained the following measures:—
1 Mr Martin found, that when capillary tubes, containing different fluids, were suspended in the sun for months together, the in¬
closed fluid was not in the least degree diminished by evaporation.
2 Comment. Acad. Petrop. 1736.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
41
apillarv
traction,
&c.
Diameter of tube.
0.21 English inch,
0.07
Descent.
0.27 inch,
0.73 ...
Mean,
Constant quantity.
567
510
5385
;pen-
;nts of
ird
larles
vendish,
M. Gellert likewise made experiments on the ascent of
water in prismatic tubes, with a triangular and quadrangu¬
lar bore, made of iron, and he found that they gave results
analogous to those obtained with tubes of glass.
141. The most accurate experiments on the depression of
mercury in capillary tubes are those made by Lord Charles
Cavendish:
Interior diameter
of tube.
0.6 inches.
0.5
0.4
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
Mercury in one
inch of tube.
972 grains.
675
432
331
243
169
108
61
27
Depression of the
mercury.
0.005 inches.
0.007
0.015
0.025
0.036
0.050
0.067
0.092
0.140
cpen-
mts of
• Robi-
The constant quantity deduced by Dr Thomas Young
from the preceding experiments is 0.015.
142. The following experiments were made by Dr Robi¬
son, on the ascent of different fluids in a glass tube of a very
slender bore, but its diameter is not mentioned.
Height of ascent.
Solution of sal ammoniac, . 8.07 inches.
Caustic volutile alkali,
Water,
Spirits of wine,
Oil of turpentine,
6.25
5.5
2.5
1.35
ai\y and 143. A series of careful experiments was made by MM.
•emery’s Haiiy arid Tremery, at the request of La Place, on the
ascent of water and oil of oranges in glass tubes ; and also
on the depression of mercury. The following results were
obtained with water:
Constant quantity,
or height for 1
pen-
;nts.
Diameter of tube.
2.0000 millimetres.
1.3333
0.7500
With oil of oranges :
2.000
1.3333
0.7500
With mercury:
2.0000
1.3333
Height of ascent.
6.75 millimetres
10.00
18.50
millimetre.
13.50
13.333
13.875
3.400
5.000
9.000
Depression.
3.666
5.5
Mean, 13.5693
6.8
6.6667
6.75
of its ends. This hook was firstened to the middle of a Capillary
worsted thread, of such a size as, when doubled, to fill the Atlraction>
bore of the tube. The wire was then passed through the^
tube, and the worsted thread drawn after it; and when the' v "
whole was plunged in an alkaline solution, the worsted
thread was fixed at one end, and the tube was drawn
backwards and forwards, till it was completely deprived, by
its friction on the thread, of any grease or foreign matter
which might have adhered to it. The tube and thread
were then taken to clean water, and the same operation
was repeated.
When the tube was thus perfectly cleaned, it was fixed Instru-
vertically, by means of a level, in the axis of a piece ofment f°r
wood D (fig. 39-), supported by the arm AD, fixed upon “^^”8
Tig. 39. Fig. 40. attraction.
rewster’s 144. The very great discrepancy in the preceding results,
entg "on 0^ta’ne<^ verY accurate and skilful observers, induced
pillary ^avM Brewster to repeat the experiments with afi in¬
traction. sfruroent constructed for the purpose, and to take such
precautions, that he could always obtain the same results
after repeated trials. The following description of the in¬
strument which he used, and of the precautions which he
adopted, will enable the reader to iudge of the accuracy of
the results.
Having obtained a glass tube 7-9 inches long, and of a
uniform circular bore, he took a wire of a less diameter
than the bore of the tube, and formed a small hook at one
VOL. XII.
a stand AB; and it was also furnished with an index
mn, which was moveable to and from the extremity b.
On the arm CE, moveable in a vertical direction by the
nut 0, was placed a glass vessel F, containing the fluid,
and nearly filled with it. The nut C was then turned till
the extremity b of the tube touched the surface of the
fluid, which was indicated by the sudden rise of the liquor
round its sides. The fluid then rose in the tube till it re¬
mained stationary, and the index mn was moved till its
extremity n pointed but the exact position of the upper
surface of the fluid. In this situation, the distance nb was
a measure of the ascent of the liquid above its level in the
vessel E. In order to ascertain, however, whether the
fluid was stationary, in consequence of any obstruction in
the tube, or of an equilibrium of the attracting forces, the
vessel with the fluid was raised a little higher than its
former position, by means of the nut C, and then de¬
pressed below it. If the fluid now rose a little above
n, and afterwards sunk a little below it, so as always to
rise and fall with facility and uniformity along with the
surface of the fluid in the vessel, it was obvious that it suf¬
fered no obstruction in the tube, and that nb was the ac¬
curate measure of its height. By separating the extremity
b of the tube from the surface of the fluid, the fluid always
rises above n ; but upon again bringing them into con¬
tact, the fluid resumes its position at n. If there should
be any portion of fluid at the end b of the tube, when it is
again brought in contact with the fluid surface, the water
would rise around it before it had reached the general
level, and therefore the height of the fluid obtained
measuring from the end of the tube would be too small.by
F
42
Capillary order to avoid this source of error, the index should
Attraction,have a projecting arm mn, Fig. 40, carrying a screw
&c. st, whose sharp point t can be easily brought on a level
1 with the end b of the tube. When the extremity t, there¬
fore, which can always be kept dry, comes in contact with
the fluid surface PQ, the extremity b must also be exactly
on the same level, even though the fluid had already risen
around it. The tube was then cleaned, as formerly, for a
subsequent observation. The results which were thus ob¬
tained for a great variety of fluids, and with a tube 0.0561
of an inch in diameter, are given in the following table:—
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Height of Ascent,
Names of Fluids. in inches.
Water, . . 0.587
Very hot water, . 0.537
Muriatic acid, . 0.442
Oil of boxwood, . 0.427
5 Oil of cassia, . 0.420
Nitrous acid, . 0.413
Oil of rapeseed, . 0.404
Castor oil, . 0.403
Nitric acid, . 0.395
10 Oil of spermaceti, . 0.392
Oil of almonds, . 0.387
Oil of olives, . 0.387
Balsam of Peru, . 0.377
Muriate of antimony, 0.373
15 Oil of Rhodium, . 0.366
Oil of Pimento, . 0.361
Cajeput oil, . 0,357
Balsum of capivi, . 0.357
Oil of pennyroyal, 0.355
20 Oil of thyme, . 0.354
Oil of bricks distilled \ q o-,
from spermaceti oil, /
Oil of caraway seeds, 0.353
Oil of rhue, . 0.353
Oil of spearmint, . 0.351
25 Balsam of sulphur, . 0.349
Oil ofisweet fennel seeds, 0.349
Oil of hyssop, . 0.349
Oil of rosemary, . 0.344
Oil of bergamot, . 0.343
30 Oil of amber, . 0.343
Oil of anise seeds, . 0.342
Oil of Barbadoes tar, 0.341
Laudanum, . 0.340
Oil of cloves, . 0.334
35 Oil of turpentine, . 0.333
Oil of lemon, , 0.333
Oil of lavender, . 0,328
Oil of camomile, . 0.327
Oil of peppermint, . 0,327
40 Oil of sassafras, . 0.327
Highland whisky, . 0.327
Brandy, . . 0.326
Oil of wormwood, . 0.326
Oil of dill seed, . 0.324
45 Oil of ambergrease, 0.323
Genuine oil of juniper, 0.321
Oil of nutmeg, , 0.320
Alcohol,1 . . 0.317
Oil of savine, . 0.310
50 ./Ether, . . 0.285
Oil of wine, . . 0.273
Sulphuric acid, . 0.200
Constant
Quantity.
0.0327
0.0301
0.0248
0.0240
0.0236
0.0232
0.0227
0.0226
0.0222
0.0220
0.0217
0.0215
0.0212
0.0209
0.0205
0.0203
0.0200
0.0200
0.0199
0.0199
0.0199
0.0198
0,0198
0.U197
0.0196
0.0195
0.0195
0.0193
0.0192
0.0192
0.0192
0.0191
0.0191
0.0187
0.0187
0.0187
0,0181
0.0184
0,0184
0,0184
0.0184
0.0183
0.0183
0.0182
0.0181
0.0180
0.0180
0.0178
0.0174
0.0160
0.0153
0.0112
Gay Lus-
sac’s expe.
riments.
145. By means of an instrument similar in principle to the. Capillary
one above described,2 M. Gay Lussac made a series of ac- Attraction,
curate experiments on the ascent of water and alcohol in &c-
capillary tubes. In these experiments the tubes were well
wetted with the fluid.
Experiments with Water.
Height of ascent above
Diameter of the lowest point of con-
tube. cavity.
1.29441 millim. 23.3164 millim.
1.90381 15.5861
The constant quantity in English inches, as deduced from
these two experiments, is 0.04622.
Experiments with Alcohol.
Height of ascent
Diameter of above lowest point of
the tube.
Temp, of fluid.
Centigrade.
8°.5
1.29441 millim.
1.90381
1.29441
1.29441
3 10.508
concavity. Density of alcohol.
9.18235 millim. 0.81961
6.08397 0.81961
9.30079 0.8595
9,99727 0.94153
0.3835 0.81347
The temperature of the alcohol was 8°. 5 centig., and the
constant quantity for the two first experiments, reduced to
English inches, is 0.01815, which agrees remarkably with
0.0178, the constant quantity in Sir David Brewster’s ex¬
periments.
Experiments with Oil of Turpentine.
Diameter of tube. Height of fluid. Density.
1.29441 millim. 9-95159 0.869458
This result also coincides very nearly with that of Sir
David Brewster.
146. The following table contains a general view of the General
results obtained by different philosophers, from the ascent results,
of water in capillary tubes.
Constant quantity, in
Names of observers. English inches.
Sir Isaac Newton,4 .... 0.020
MM. Haiiy and Tremery, . . . 0.021
M. Carre, mean of three observations, . 0.022
M. Hallstrom, ..... 0.026
Sir David Brewster, .... 0.033
Muschenbroek, ..... 0,039
M. Weitbrecht, average of his results, . 0.042
M. Gay-Lussac, average of 2 observations, 0.046
Benjamin Martin, .... 0.048
Mr Atwood, ..... 0.053
James Bernoulli, ..... 0.064
Throwing aside the measure of James Bernouilli as ob- Cause of
viously erroneous, we obtain 0.035 as the general average the discre*
result of the preceding means; but the dift'erence between pancies in
this and the extreme measures of Newton and Atwood is^^1”69’
so great, that there must be some cause, different from
an error of observation, to which it is owing. The differ¬
ence between the results obtained by Sir David Brewster
and M. Gay-Lussac, made with nice instruments founded
on the same principle, leads to the same conclusion. La
Place indeed has ascribed, and we think justly, these dif¬
ferences to the greater or less degree of humidity on the
sides of the tubes; and he informs us that Gay Lussac
made his experiments with tubes verij much wetted. Here,
then, we have at once the cause of the difference above
mentioned, because the experiments of Sir David Brewster
1 Dr Young found the height of ascent of water and diluted spirit of wine to be as 100 to 64.
*■ See: Biot’s Traite de Physique. 3 This is a mean affive experiments.
4 Optics, p. MG, 3d edition.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
43
&c.
Capillary were made with a tube carefully cleaned and dried after
attraction, each experiment. A dry tube must necessarily raise the
water to a less height than a wet one, and the difference
must increase as the diameter of the tube employed is di¬
minished. If we conceive a tube, indeed, with an exceed¬
ingly small bore, wetted over the whole of its interior, in
the slightest degree, the tioo inner surfaces of the film
. would nearly meet in the axis, and the height of ascent
would be infinite, or as high as the tube was long.
147. From these observations, the reader will be already
prepared to draw the conclusion, that the ascent of fluids in
glass tubes is a very equivocal measure of the force of ca¬
pillary attraction, independent of its being applicable only
to the single substance of glass.
)ifferent With the view of removing this objection, Sir David
lethod of Brewster long ago constructed an instrument, the object of
leasunng wpich was to measure, upon an optical principle, the dia¬
ttraction meter the circle of fluid which any cylindrical solid raises
by capillary attraction above its general level. Thus let MN
(fig. 41.) be the plan of a vessel filled with fluid, and A the
section of a vertical cylinder of well cleaned and well dried
glass, or any other substance not porous. This solid A
will raise the fluid to a certain height around it, elevating
a circular portion CD of the fluid above the general level;
and it is manifest that the diameter CD of this elevated
portion will be proportioned to the height of the fluid round
the sides of the cylinder, or to the capillary force by which
it is raised. In order to
r Fig. 41. measure the diameter of
& this circle of fluid, a mi¬
crometer carries a small
vertical frame along the
f==ljy edge FG of the vessel.
~ q Along this frame are
stretched two fine paral-
q lei wires, whose images
can be seen by reflection
from the surface of the fluid, by an eye on the side PQ of
the vessel, aided by a microscope with a distant focus. When
the image of these wires is seen by reflection from any part
of the fluid surface without the circle CD, it will suffer no
change of form ; but when it is seen by reflection from any
portion of the elevated portion CD, the fibres will appear dis¬
turbed, and will indicate, by their return to the rectilineal
form of accurate parallelism, the apparent termination of the
circle CD. The same observation is made on the other side
of A, at the boundary D, and a measure is thus obtained of
the diameter of the circle CD, by means of the micrometer
screw, by which the microscope on the side PQ, and the
wire frame on the side FG are moved (being fixed to the
same frame) along the sides of the vessel. In this way
solids of all kinds may be used, and their exterior or acting
surfaces may be easily cleared from grease and other ad¬
hering substances.
This apparatus may be improved by using two cylinders
A^ in place of one, and by moving one of them, suppose
B,, from the other A till the two elevated circular portions
CD'DE disturb the images of the wires, seen by reflexion
from the intermediate point at D.
.’he mo- 148. When water is made to pass through a capillary
ion of wa- tube of such a bore that the fluid is discharged only by suc-
srmca- cess;ve drops; the tube, when electrified, will furnish a
ubes acce-constant anc^ accelerated stream, and the acceleration is
erated by proportional to the smallness of the bore. A similar effect
lectricity may be produced by employing warm water. Sir John Leslie
ndby found that a jet of warm water rose to a much greater
height than a jet of cold water, though the water in both
cases moved through the same aperture, and was influenced
by the same pressure. A syphon also, which discharged
cold water only by drops, furnished warm water in an un¬
interrupted stream.
eat.
149. Such are the leading phenomena of capillary tubes. Capillary
The rise of fluids between tw-o plates of glass remains to be Attraction,
considered; and while it furnishes us with a very beautiful &c-
experiment, it confirms the reasoning by which we have
accounted for the elevation of fluids in cylindrical canals. A1 ^ as"
Let ABEh and CDEF be two places of plate glass with fluids be-
tween two
Fig. 42. inclined
plates of
glass.
smooth and clean surfaces, having their sides EF joined to¬
gether with wax, and their sides AB, CD kept a little dis¬
tance by another piece of wax W, so that their interior
surfaces, whose common intersection is the line EF, may
form a small angle. When this apparatus is immersed in a
vessel MN full of water, the fluid w ill rise in such a manner
between the glass planes as to form the curve DqomV,
which represents the surface of the elevated water. By
measuring the ordinates mn, op, &c. of this curve, and
also its abscissae F n, Yp, &c. Mr Hawksbee found it to be
the common Apollonian hyperbola, having for its assymp-
totes the surface DE of the fluid, and EF the common in¬
tersection of the two planes. The following are the re¬
sults which he obtained when the inclination of the planes
was 20':—
Distances from the touching
ends of the planes.
13 inches 
9  
Heights of the water at the £xt)erj[
preceding distances. me;'ts 'o£
7 ,
6 ,
5 ,
4 ,
3 .
2£.
2 ,
If.
H-
i .
5 •
1
£ •
. 1
. 2
. 3
.
. 5
• 6f
. 9
.12
.15£
.18
•24
•27|
.35
.50
.76
Hawksbee.
By repeating these observations at inclinations of 40', and
at various other angles, Mr Hawksbee found that the curve
was an exact hyperbola in all directions of the planes. To
the very same conclusion we are led by the principles al¬
ready laid down ; for as the distance between the plates
diminishes at every point of the curve DqomY from D
towards F, the water ought to rise higher at o than at q,
still higher at m, and highest of all at F, where the distance
between the plates is a minimum. To illustrate this more
clearly, let ABEF and CDEF (fig. 43.) be the same plates
of glass (inclined at a greater angle for the sake of dis¬
tinctness), and let Fm^D, and FoyB be the curves
which bound the surface of the elevated fluid. Then,
since the altitudes of the water in capillary tubes are in-
44
Capillary
Attraction,
&c.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Ascent of
fluids be¬
tween pa¬
rallel
plates.
Fig. 43-
versely as their diameters,
or the distances of their op¬
posite sides, the altitudes of
the water between two glass
p plates, should at any given
point be inversely as the
distances of the plates at that
point. Now, the distance
of the plates at the point m
is obviously in o, or its equal
np, and the distance at g is <75
or rt; and since mn is the
altitude of the water at m, and
qr its altitude at <7, we have
e mn: ^r^Mj^r^-bu^GEo-
mercury. Plunge into the fluid Capillary
the capillary tube CD', and the Attraction,
mercury, instead of rising in the &Cl
tube, will remain stationary at J_Y^/
E, its depression below the level
surface AB being inversely pro¬
portional to the diameter of the
bore. This was formerly as-,
cribed to a repulsive force sup¬
posed to exist between mercury
and glass, but we shall presently
see that it is owing to a very
different cause.
152. That thfe particles of mercury have a very strong Mercury
attraction for each other, appears from the globular form has a
which a small portion of that fluid assumes, and from the stronger
resistance which it opposes to any separation of its parts.
If a quantity of mercury is separated into a number of mi- particj^Wn
nute parts, all these parts will be spherical; and if two of tjian for
these spheres be brought into contact, they will instantly glass,
rush together, and form a single drop of tiie same form.
There is also a very small degree of attraction existing be-
metry, Sect. IV. Theor. XVII.) Ew:Er — np:rt; there
fore = Fra : Fr, that is, the altitudes of the fluid
at the points m, <7, which are equal to the abscissae F n, F r
(fig. 42.) are proportional to the ordinates qr, mn, equal to
the abscissae Fw, Fr, in fig. 42. But in the Apollonian
hyperbola the ordinates are inversely proportional to their
respective abscissae, therefore the curve 'DqmY is the w ~ " —j — ^
common hyperbola. As the plates are infinitely near each tween glass and mercury ; for a globule of the latter very
other at the apex F, the water will evidently rise to that readily adheres to the lower surface of a plate of glass. Now
point, whatever be the height of the plates. suppose a drop of water laid upon a surface anointed with Cause of
150. Mr Hawksbee extended his experiments to plates grease, to prevent the attraction of cohesion from reducing Jedyes
of glass placed parallel to each other, and separated to dif- it to a film of fluid this drop, if very small will be spherical. ^
ferent distances, and he obtained the following results If its size is considerable, the gravity of its parts will make in capi^
it spheroidal, and as the drop increases m magnitude, it will ry
Height of Ascent. Constant quantity, become more and more flattened at its poles, like AB in fig.
0.166 of an inch. 0.0104 w Fur. 45. 45.. The drop, however, will still re-
Distance of plates.
0.0625 of an inch.
0.03125 ... 0.333
0.015625 ... 0.666
0.007802 ... 1.333
0.0104
0.0104
0.0104
^ ” nn tain its convexity at the circumference,
however oblate be the spheroid into
B which it is moulded by the force of
gravity. Let two pieces of glass 0 A w,
, p B «, be now brought in contact with
the circumference of the drop; the mutual attraction be-
The following experiments on the same subject have
been more recently made by M. Monge, MM. Haiiy and
Tremery, and M. Gay-Lussac, tween the particles of water which enabled it to preserve
In those made by M. Monge, the plates were first clean- convexity of its circumference, will yield to their supe-
ed with caustic alkali, and well washed. Their degree of rior attraction for class ; the space m, n, o, p, will be im
separation was ascertained by silver wires of different
thicknesses, and the fluid used was the filtered water of the
Seine. The following were the results :—
Distance of plates in
parts of a line.
X or 0.0101 inch.
0.0068
0.0030
4
¥5
Height of
ascent.
15.5 lines.
33.5
74
Constant
quantity.
0.1565
0.2278
0.222
The following result was obtained by MM. Haiiy and Tre¬
mery :—
Distance of plate.
1 millimetre.
Height of ascent.
6.5 millimetre.
Const, quan.
6.5
The following measures were obtained by M. Gay-Lussac,
with nlates of glass ground perfectly flat—
Height of Ascent
above lowest point
of concavity.
13.574
Distance of plates.
1.069 millimetre.
rior attraction for glass ; the space m, n, o, p, will be im¬
mediately filled ; and the water will rise on the sides of the
glass, and the drop will have the appearance of AB in
fig, 46. If the drop AB (fig. 45.) be now supposed mer-
Fi 46 cury instead of water, it will also, by
s* ’ the gravity of its parts, assume the
form of an oblate spheroid ; but when
the pieces of glass 0 A rn, p B it are
B brought close to its periphery, their
attractive force upon the mercurial particles is not sufficient
to counteract the mutual attraction of these particles ; the
mercury, therefore, retains its convexity at the circumfe¬
rence, and assumes the form exhibited in fig. 47. The small
Fig. 47. spaces op being filled by the pres-
• * sure of the superincumbent fluid, while
the spaces below m, n, still remain be¬
tween the glass and the mercury. Now
B if the two plates of glass A, B be made
to approach each other, the depressions m, n will still con¬
tinue, and when the distance of the plates is so small that
these depressions or indentations meet, the mercury will
sink between the plates, and its descent will continue as
the pieces of glass approach. Hence the depression of
Temp, centig.
16°
Here the constant quantity is 14,51, or 0.02251, when re¬
duced to English inches for a distance of ^^th of an inch, uie pieces ui gmss appiuaen. aacwv-v. '•*
151. The phenomena which we have been considering the mercury in capillary tubes becomes very intelligible,
are all referrible to one simple fact, that the particles If two glass planes forming a small angle, as in fig. 42, be
of glass have a stronger attraction for the particles of immersed in a vessel of mercury, the fluid will sink below
water than the particles of water have for each other. This the surface of the mercury in the vessel, and form an Apol-
Mercury is the case with almost all other fluids except mercury, the Ionian hyperbola like DoF, having for its asymptotes the
descends particles of which have a stronger attraction for each other common intersection of the planes and the surface of mer-
than for glass. When capillary tubes, therefore, are plunged cury in the vessel.
in this fluid, a new series of phenomena present themselves 153. The depression of mercury in capillary tubes is
to our consideration. Let MN (fig. 44) be a vessel full of evidently owing to the greater attraction that subsists be-
HYDRODYNAMICS.
45
e fluid.
|:apillary tween the particles of mercury and those of glass. The
fraction, difference between these two attractions, however, arises
from an imperfect contact between the mercury and the
capillary tube, occasioned by the interposition of a thin
essioii ofcoating water which generally lines the interior surface
ercury in °f the tube, and weakens the mutual action of the glass and
ass tubes, mercury; for this action always increases as the thickness
ultimate-of the interposed film is diminished by boiling. In the
owing to experiments which were made by Laplace and Lavoisier on
ct^or)1'" barometers, by boiling the mercury in them for a long time,
ct be- the convexity of the interior surface of the mercury was
teen the often made to disappear. They even succeeded in rendering
lid and it concave, but could always restore the convexity by intro¬
ducing a drop of water into the tube. When the ebullition
of the mercury is sufficiently strong to expel all foreign par¬
ticles, it often rises to the level of the surrounding fluid,
and the depression is even converted into an elevation.
154. Between mercury and water there is likely to be
some fluid in which the attraction of the glass for its parti¬
cles is nearly equal to half the attraction of the fluid for itself.
Sir David Brewster has observed that iodine dissolved in
chloride of sulphur approximates to this condition ; but not
having the chloride by itself, he could not observe whether
or not the effect is produced or influenced by the iodine.
If it is, then a solution may be obtained, in which the above
condition is perfect. The solution of the iodine already
mentioned scarcely rises on the sides of the glass ball which
contains it. (See 162.)
155. As most philosophers seem to agree in thinking
that all the capillary phenomena are referable to the cohe¬
sive attraction of the superficial particles only of the fluid,
a variety of experiments has been made in order to deter-
raise the mine the force required to raise a horizontal solid surface
rface of from the surface of a fluid. Mr Achard found that a disc of
glass, 1£ French inches in diameter, required a weight of 91
French grains to raise it from the surface of the water at 69°
of Fahrenheit, which is only 37 English grains for each square
inch. At 44£ of Fahrenheit the force was ^ greater, or 39£
grains, the difference being for each degree of Fah¬
renheit. From these experiments Dr Young concludes
that the height of ascent in a tube of a given bore, which
varies in the duplicate ratio of the height of adhesion, is di¬
minished about for every degree of Fahrenheit that the
temperature is raised above 50° ; and he conjectures that
there must have been some considerable source of error in
Achard’s experiments, as he never found this diminution to
exceed According to the experiments of Dutour,
the force necessary to elevate the solid, or the quantity of
water raised, is equal to 44.1 grains for every square inch,
forveau’s 156. According to the experiments of Morveau, the
cperi- force necessary to elevate a circular inch of gold from the
surface of mercury is 446 grains ; a circular inch of silver,
429 grains ; a circular inch of tin, 418 grains ; a circular
inch of lead, 397 grains; a circular inch of bismuth, 372
grains ; a circular inch of zinc, 204 grains; a circular inch
of copper, 142 grains ; a circular inch of metallic antimony,
126 ; a circular inch of iron, 115 grains ; and a similar sur¬
face of cobalt required 8 grains. The order in which these
metals are arranged is the very order in which they are
most easily amalgamated with mercury.
The most recent experiments on the adhesion of surfaces
to fluids have been made by M. Gay-Lussac, who obtained
the following results with a circular plate of glass 118.366
millimetres in diameter :—
chard’s
;peri-
ents on
ie force
'cessarv
, solid
iom the
rface of
iter.
ents on
la force
icessary
> raise
etals
om the
irface of
mercury.
ay-Lus-
tc’s.
Names of fluids.
Water,
Alcohol,
Alcohol,
Oil of turpentine,
Weight necessary to
raise the plate from
the glass.
59.40 grammes.
31.08
32.87
37.152 ...
Specific gravity.
1.000
0.8196
0.8595
0.9415
With a copper disc, 116.604 millimetres in diameter, the Capillary
weight necessary to raise it from water, at the temperature Attraction,
of 18°.5 centigrade, was 57-945 grammes, differing very lit- &c’
tie, if at all, from glass, for the diminution of wreight may ^ v —^
be explained by the circumstance of the copper disc being
nearly tivo millimeters less in diameter than the glass. In
these experiments the discs were suspended from the scale
of a balance, and the weights in the other scale successively
increased till the force of adhesion was overcome at the in¬
stant when the disc detached itself from the fluid surface.
157. A number of experiments on the adhesion of fluids £ rj
have been lately made by Count Ilumford, which autho- ments of
rize him to conclude, that on account of the mutual adhe- Count
sion of the particles of fluid, a pellicle or film is formed at Ilumford
the superior and inferior surfaces of water, and that theon ar|*
force of the film to resist the descent of bodies specifically °*
heavier than the fluid increases with the viscidity of the1
water. He poured a stratum of sulphuric ether upon a
quantity of water, and introduced a variety of bodies spe¬
cifically heavier than water into this compound fluid. A
sewing needle, granulated tin, and small globules of mer¬
cury, descended through the ether, but floated upon the
surface of the water. When the eye was placed below the
level of the aqueous surface, the floating body, which was a
spherule of mercury, seemed suspended in a kind of bag a
little below the surface. When a larger spherule of mer¬
cury was employed, about the 40th or 50th of an inch in
diameter, it broke the pellicle and descended to the bot¬
tom. The same results were obtained by using essential
oil of turpentine or oil of olives instead of ether. When a
stratum of alcohol was incumbent upon the water, a quan¬
tity of very fine powder of tin thrown upon its surface, de¬
scended to the very bottom, without seeming to have met
with any resistance from the film at the surface of the wa¬
ter. This unexpepted result Count Rumford endeavours
to explain by supposing that the aqueous film was destroyed
by the chemical action of the alcohol. In order to ascer¬
tain with greater accuracy the existence of a pellicle at the
surface of the water, Count Rumford employed a cylindri¬
cal glass vessel 10 inches high and 1| inch in diameter,
and filled it with water and ether as before. A number of
small bodies thrown into the vessel descended through the
ether and floated on the surface of the water. When the
whole was perfectly tranquil, he turned the cylinder three
or four times round with considerable rapidity in a vertical
position. The floating bodies turned round along with the
glass, and stopped when it was stopped ; but the liquid wa¬
ter below the surface did not at first begin to turn along
with the glass; and its motion of rotation did not cease
with the motion of the vessel. From this Count Rumford
concludes that there was a real pellicle at the surface of
the water, and that this pellicle was strongly attached to
the sides of the glass, so as to move along with it. When
this pellicle was touched by the point of a needle, all the
small bodies upon its surface trembled at the same time.
The apparatus was allowed to stand till the ether had en¬
tirely evaporated, and when the pellicle was examined with
a magnifier, it was in the same state as formerly; and the
floating bodies had the same relative positions.
In order to shew that a pellicle was formed at the
inferior surface of water, Count Rumford poured water
upon mercury, and upon that a stratum of ether. He
threw into the vessel a spherule of mercury about one-third
of a line in diameter, which being too heavy to be supported
by the pellicle at the superior surface of the water, broke
it, and descending through that fluid, was stopped at its in¬
ferior surface. When this spherule was moved, and even
compressed with a feather, it still preserved its spherical
form, and refused to mix with the mass of mercury. When
the viscidity of the water was increased by the infusion of
gum-arabic, much larger spherules were supported by the
46
Capillary
Attraction,
&c.
Apparent
attraction
of floating
bodies.
Theory of
Dr Young.
OfMonge.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
pellicle. From the very rapid evaporation of ether, and its
inability to support the lightest particles of a solid upon its
surface, Count Rumford very justly concludes, that the
mutual adhesion of its particles is very small.
158. The approach of two floating bodies has been as¬
cribed by some to their mutual attraction, and by others to
the attraction of the portions of fluid that are raised round
each by the attraction of cohesion. Dr Young, however,
observes, that the approach of the two floating bodies is
produced by the excess of the atmospheric pressure on the
remote sides of the solids, above its pressure on their neigh¬
bouring sides; or, if the experiments are performed in a
vacuum, by the equivalent hydrostatic pressure or suction
derived from the weight and immediate cohesion of the in¬
tervening fluid. This force varies alternately in the inverse
ratio of the square of the distance ; for when the two bodies
approach each other, the altitude of the fluid between them
is increased in the simple inverse ratio of the distance ; and
the mean action, or the negative pressure of the fluid on
each particle of the surface, is also increased in the same
ratio. When the floating bodies are surrounded by a de¬
pression, the same law prevails, and its demonstration is
still more simple and obvious.
159. A different view of the subject has been given by
Monge, who made a number of accurate experiments on the
subject, and deduced from them the following laws :—
1. If two floating bodies, capable of being wetted with
the fluid on which they float, are placed near each other,
they will approach as if mutually attracted.
In order to explain this law, let AB, CD (fig. 48.) be two
suspended plates of glass, placed at such distance that the
Fig. 48. Fig. 49.
point H where the two portions of elevated fluid meet,
is on a level with the rest of the water, the two plates will
remain stationary and in perfect equilibrium. But if they
are brought nearer one another, as in fig. 49, the water will
rise between them to a point H above the level, and by
a nearer approximation, to the point G. The water thus
elevated, acting like a curved chain hung to the two plates,
attracts the sides of the plates, and brings them together
in a horizontal direction. The very same thing takes place
with the floating bodies A, B placed at such a distance
that the water rises be¬
tween them above its level,
and hence these bodies will
approach by the attraction
of the fluid on their inner
sides.
Fig. 50.
2. When the two floating bodies A, B, are not capable Capillary
of being wetted, they will Fig. 51. Attraction,
approach each other as if a b &c.
mutually attracted, when
they are placed near one PP
In this case the fluid is depressed between them below
its natural level H, and the twro bodies are pressed inivards
or towards each other, which pressure being greater than
the pressure outwards of the fluid between them, they will
approach each other by the action of the difference of these
pressures.
3. If one of the bodies A, 52.
is capable of being wetted, a b
and the other B not, as shewn
in the figure, they will re¬
cede from each other as if
mutually repelled.
As the fluid rises round A, and is depressed round B, the
depression round B will not be equal all round, and hence
the body B, being placed as if on an inclined plane, it will
move to the right hand when the pressure is the least.
In this last case, La Place was led by theory to believe
that when B is placed very near A, the repulsion will be
converted into attraction. M. Haiiy tried this experiment
with planes of ivory and talc, the former being incapable
of being wetted with water and the latter not ; and he
found, in conformity with La Place’s prediction, that at a
certain short distance the talc moved suddenly into con¬
tact with the ivory.
160. The phenomena of attraction and repulsion exhibited Phenome-
between small lighted wicks, swimming in a basin of oil, na of light
and the motions of floating evaporable substances likee<^,w^s
camphor, and also of potassium and light substances, such pjlor
as cork, impregnated with ether, have been sometimes1
treated under this head. The first of these classes of phe¬
nomena arise from an unbalanced pressure upon the float¬
ing wick, arising from a difference of temperature of dif¬
ferent parts of the oil, and the movements of the second
class arise from the reaction of the currents of vapour
which flow from the floating substances. A full account
of these phenomena will be found in the Edinburgh Trans¬
actions (vol. iv. p. 44), in the Memoires Presentees d L’ln-
stitut (tom. i. p. 125), and the more recent observations of
Matteucci, in the Annales de Chimie (June 1833, tom. liii.
p. 216-219-)
Theory of Capillary Attraction.
161. Clairautwas the first mathematician w ho attempted Theory oi
to analyze the forces which contribute to the ascent of fluids caP^r-v
in capillary tubes.1 After pointing out the insufficiency of ^tJ
preceding theories, he gives an analysis of the different
forces which contribute to the suspension of fluids in ca¬
pillary tubes.
Let ABCDEFGH (fig. 53.) be the section of a capillary
tube, MNP the surface of the water in the vessel, li the
height of its ascent, viz. the concave surface of the fluid
column, and IKLM an indefinitely small column of fluid
reaching to the surface at M. Now the column ML is so¬
licited by the force of gravity wffiich acts through the whole
extent of the column, and by the reciprocal attraction of
the moleculae, which, though they act the same in all the
points of the column, only exhibit their effects towards the
extremity M. If any particle e is taken at a less distance
from the surface than the distance at which the attraction
of the liquid generally terminates, and if ran is a plane pa¬
rallel to MN, and at the same distance from the particle e,
1 Theorie de la Figure de la Terre, chap. x. Paris, 1743, 1808.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
47
jillary then this particle will be equally attracted by the water be-
A action,
&c.
Fig. 53.
tween the planes MN, ran. The water, however, below
ran, will attract the particle downwards, and this effect will
take place as far as the distance where the attraction ceases.
The column IK, on the other hand, which is in a state
of equilibrium with ML, is acted upon by the force of gra¬
vity through the whole extent of the column, also by other
forces at the upper and lower extremities of the tube.
The forces exerted at the upper part of the column are,
the attraction of the tube upon the particles of water, and
the reciprocal attraction of these particles; but as every
particle is as much drawn upwards as downwards by the
first of these forces, the consideration of it may be dropped.
In order to estimate the other force, let a horizontal plane
VX touch the concavity at I, a particle p, situated infinite¬
ly near to I, is attracted by all the particles above VX,
and by all below it whose sphere of activity comprehends
that particle; and as the particles above p are fewer than
those below it, the result of these forces must be a force
acting downwards.
In order to estimate the value of the forces which act at
the lower end O of the tube, let us suppose that the tube
has a prolongation to the bottom of the vessel, formed of
matter of the same density as the water. Let a particle R
be situated a little above the extremity of the tube, and
another Q as much below that extremity, they will be
equally acted upon by the water above that place, and by
the water between the fictitious prolongation of the tube,
and therefore these forces will destroy one another.
By applying to the case of the particle R the same rea¬
soning that was used for the particle e, it will appear that
the result of its attraction by the tube is an attraction up¬
wards. The particle R is likewise attracted downwards by
the supposed prolongation of the tube, and the difference
between these is the real effect. The other particle Q, is also
drawn upwards by the tube with the same force as R, since,
by the hypothesis, it is as far distant from the points D, G,
as the particle R is from the points d, g, where, with re¬
spect to it, the real attraction of the tube commences. The
particle Q is attracted also downwards, by the supposed
prolongation of the tube, and the difference of these actions
is the real effect. Hence the double of this force is the
sum of all the forces that act at the lower part of the tube.
These forces, when combined with those exerted at the
top of the tube, and with the force of gravity, give the to¬
tal expression, which should be combined with that of the
forces with which the column ML is actuated.
The formula obtained by Clairaut for the altitude I i,
fig. 53, is
(2Q—QQ. J'dx [Z>, x] +Jdx ar, O, Q/^j
H-
P
&c.
Fig. 54.
Cl'airaut then observes, that there is an infinitude of pos- Capillary
sible laws of attraction which will give a sensible quantity Attraction,
for the elevation of the fluid I i above the level MN, when
the diameter of the tube is very small, and a quantity nextv
to nothing when the diameter is considerable -, and he re¬
marks, that we may select the law which gives the inverse
ratio between the diameter of the tube and the height of
the liquid, conformable to experiment.
162. It follows fi*om the preceding formula, that if any solid
AB possesses half the attracting power of the fluid CD, the
surface of the fluid will remain
horizontal; for the attraction be¬
ing represented by DA, DE, and
DC, DA and DE maybe combined
into DB, and DB and DC into
DE, which is vertical. The water
will therefore not be raised, since
the surface of a fluid at rest must
be perpendicular to the resulting
direction of all the forces which act upon it.
When the attracting power of the solid is more than
half as great, the resultant of the 55>
forces will be GF in fig. 55, and
therefore the fluid must rise towards
the solid, in order to be perpendi¬
cular to GF. When the attractive
power of the solid is less than that
of the fluid, the resultant will be
HF in fig. 55 ; and therefore, as in
the case of mercury, the surface
must be depressed, in order to be perpendicular to the force.
163. The subject of Capillary attraction has more recently
occupied the attention of the late Marquis de la Place, who
published his first remarks on the subject in 1806, In
1807 he published a supplement to his theory, in which he
compares his formula with the experiments of Gay-Lussac
and others.
In the first treatise published by M. La Place, his method Account of
of considering the phenomena w as founded on the form of La Place's
the surface of the fluid in capillary spaces, and on the con- f heory.
ditions of equilibrium of this fluid in an infinitely narrow
capal, resting by one of its extremities upon this surface,
and by the other on the horizontal surfaces of an indefinite
fluid, in which the capillary tube was immersed. In his
supplement to that treatise, he has examined the subject
in a much more popular point of view, by considering di¬
rectly the forces which elevate and depress the fluid in this
space. By this means, he is conducted easily to several
general results, which it would have been difficult to obtain
directly by his former method. Of this method we shall
endeavour to give as clear a view as possible.
164. Let AB, fig. 56, be a vertical tube whose sides are Analysis
perpendicular to its base, and which is immersed in a fluid of the ca.
Fig. 56.
in which Q. is the intensity of the attraction of the glass,
O' the intensity of the attraction of the water, b the interior
radius of the tube, and/) the force of gravity.
that rises in the interior of the
tube above its natural level. A
thin film of fluid is first raised
by the action of the sides of the
tube; this film raises a second
film, and this second film a third
film, till the weight of the vo¬
lume of fluid raised exactly ba¬
lances all the forces by which it
is actuated. Hence it is ob¬
vious, that the elevation of the
column is produced by the at¬
traction of the tube upon the
fluid, and the attraction of the fluid for itself. Let us sup¬
pose that the inner surface of the tube AB is prolonged to
E, and after bending itself horizontally in the direction ED,
that it assumes a vertical direction DC ; and let us suppose
the sides of this tube to be so extremely thin, or to be
pillary
forces.
48
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Capillary formed of a film of ice, so as to have no action on the fluid
Attraction, which it contains, and not to prevent the reciprocal action
&c' which takes place between the particles of the first tube
an(j tjle partides of the fluid. Now, since the fluid in
the tubes AE, CD, is in equilibrio, it is obvious that the
excess of pressure of the fluid in AE is destroyed by
the vertical attraction of the tube and of the fluid upon
the fluid contained in AB. In analyzing these different
attractions, La Place considered first those which take
place under the tube AB. The fluid column BE is at¬
tracted, 1. by itself; 2. by the fluid surrounding the tube
BE. But these two attractions are destroyed by the simi¬
lar attractions experienced by the fluid contained in the
branch DC, so that they may be entirely neglected. The
fluid in BE is also attracted vertically by the fluid in AB ;
but this attraction is destroyed by the attraction which it
exercises in the opposite direction upon the fluid in BE, so
that these balanced attractions may likewise be neglected.
The fluid in BE is likewise attracted vertically upwards by
the tube AB, with a force which we shall call Q, and which
contributes to destroy the excess of pressure exerted upon
it by the column BE raised in the tube above its natural
level.
Now, the fluid in the lower part of the round tube AB
is attracted, 1. By itself; but as the reciprocal attractions
of a body do not communicate to it any motion if it is so¬
lid, we may, without disturbing the equilibrium, conceive
the fluid in AB frozen. 2. The fluid in the lower part of
AB is attracted by the interior fluid of the tube BE, but
as the latter is attracted upwards by the same force, these
two actions may be neglected as balancing each other. 3.
The fluid in the lower part of BE is attracted by the fluid
which surrounds the ideal tube BE, and the result of this
attraction is a vertical force acting downwards, which we
may call — Q', the contrary sign being applied, as the force is
here opposite to the other force Q. As it is highly probable
that the attractive forces exercised by the glass and the
water vary according to the same function of the distance,
so as to differ only in their intensities, we may employ the
constant co-efficients g, g' as measures of their intensity, so
that the forces Q and — O' will be proportional to g, »'; for
the interior surface of the fluid which surrounds the tube
BE, is the same as the interior surface of the tube AB.
Consequently, the two masses, viz. the glass in AB, and
the fluid round BE differ only in their thickness ; but as the
attraction of both these masses is insensible at sensible dis¬
tances, the difference of their thicknesses, provided their
thicknesses be sensible, will produce no difference in the
attractions. 4. The fluid in the tube AB is also acted up¬
on by another force, namely, by the sides of the tube AB
in which it is inclosed. If we conceive the column FB di¬
vided into an infinite number of elementary vertical co¬
lumns, and if at the upper extremity of one of these co¬
lumns we draw a horizontal plane, the portion of the tube
comprehended between the plane and the level surface BC
of the fluid will not produce any vertical force upon the co¬
lumn ; consequently, the only active vertical force is that
which is'produced by the ring of the tube immediately above
the horizontal plane. Now, the vertical attraction of this
part of the tube upon BE, will be equal to that of the entire
tube upon the column BE, which is equal in diameter, and
similarly placed. This new force will therefore be repre¬
sented by + Q. In combining these different forces, it is
manifest that the fluid column BE is attracted upwards by
the two forces + Q, + Q, and downwards by the force
— Q/; consequently the force with which it is raised up¬
wards will be 2Q.'— O'. If we represent by V the volume
of the column BE, by D its intensity, and by g the force of
gravity, then ^DY will represent the weight of the elevated
column ; but as this weight is in equilibrio with the forces
by which it is elevated, we have the following equation:
<,DV = 2 0 — O'. Capillary
Attraction.
If the force 2 O is less than O', then V will be negative, &c.
and the fluid will sink in the tube ; but as long as 2 Q
is greater than O', V will be positive, and the fluid will
rise above its natural level; as was long before shewn by
M. Clairaut.
Since the attractive forces, both of the glass and the fluid,
are insensible at sensible distances, the surface of the tube
AB will act sensibly only on the column of fluid imme¬
diately in contact with it. We may therefore neglect the
consideration of the curvature, and consider the inner sur¬
face as developed upon a plane. The force O will there¬
fore be proportional to the width of this plane, or what is
the same thing, to the interior circumference of the tube.
Calling c, therefore, the circumference of the tube, we shall
have Q, = gc-, g being a constant quantity, representing the
intensity of the attraction of the tube AB upon the fluid,
in the case where the attractions of different bodies are ex¬
pressed by the same function of the distance. In every
case, however, g expresses a quantity dependent on the at¬
traction of the matter of the tube, and independent of its
figure and magnitude. In like manner we shall have
Q' = g' c; g' expressing the same thing with regard to the
attraction of the fluid for itself, that g expressed with regard
to the attraction of the tube for the fluid. By substitu¬
ting these values of Q. Q', in the preceding equation, we
have
!irDV = c(28 —8').
If we now substitute, in this general formula, the value
of c in terms of the radius if it is a capillary tube, or in
terms of the sides if the section is a rectangle, and the
value of V in terms of the radius and altitude of the fluid
column, we shall obtain an equation by which the heights
of ascent may be calculated for tubes of all diameters, after
the height, belonging to any given diameter, has been jis-
certained by direct experiment.
165. In the case of a cylindrical tube, let cr represent the Applica-
ratio of the circumference to the diameter, h the height oftion t'ie
the fluid column reckoned from the lower point of the me- or.r.m‘ a
niscus, <7 the mean height to which the fluid rises, or the dibes •
height at which the fluid would stand if the meniscus were
to fall down and assume a level surface, then we have wr3
for the solid contents of a cylinder of the same height and
radius as the meniscus, and as the meniscus, added to the
solid contents of the hemisphere of the same radius, must
be equal to r?’2, we have cr/':
2 -rr3 v r3
for the so¬
lid contents of the meniscus. But since — nr1 Xyp it
cr rA
follows that the meniscus — is equal to a cylinder whose
base is ?rr2, and altitude—. Hence, we have
?=A+“3 !
or what is the same thing, the mean altitude q in a cylin¬
der is always equal to the altitude h of the lower point of
the concavity of the meniscus increased by one-third of the
radius, or one-sixth of the diameter of the capillary tube.
Now, since the contour c of the tube = 2 w g, and since
the volume V of water raised is equal to ^ x tt r2, we have,
by substituting these values in the general formula,
^D5'wr2 = 2wr (2f—g'), (No L)
HYDRODYNAMICS.
49
apillary and dividing by <v r and g D, we have,
", traction,
&c.
2«_V , 2e—/ 1
r q — 1 g - and q =z Z X —■ (No. 2.)
1 gu gu r ' J
. iplica-
I n of the
J inula
1 Gay-
issac’s
i )eri-
i nts on
' ter;
i Gay-
issac’s
i [>eri-
] nts on
i ohol;
I ectan-
f. ar ca-
I lary
■ ces.
166. In applying this formula to Gay-Lussac’s experiments,
. 2 fi — p
we have the constant quantity 2 - ^ ^ — r q ■= 647205
X 23,1634 + 0,215735 = 15,1311 for Gay-Lussac’s 1st
experiment. In order to find the height of the fluid in
his 2d tube by means of this constant quantity, we have
1.90381
: 0.951905, and 2
gv
i
X 77 =q =
15,1311
0.951095
= 15.8956, from which, if we subtract one-sixth of the dia¬
meter, or 0.3173, we have 15.5783 for the altitude h of the
lower point of the concavity of the meniscus, which differs
only 0.0078 from 15.861 the observed altitude.
If we apply the same formula to Gay-Lussac’s experi¬
ments on alcohol, we shall find the constant quantity
 o'
2 = 6.0825 as deduced from the 1st experiment,
and h — 6.0725, which differs only 0.0100 from 6.08397,
the altitude observed.
From these comparisons, it is obvious that the mean al¬
titudes, or the values of q, are very nearly reciprocally pro¬
portional to the diameters of the tubes; for, in the experi¬
ments on water, the value of q deduced from this ratio is
15.895, which differs little from 15.9034, the value found
from experiment; and that, in accurate experiments, the
correction made by the addition of the sixth part of the
diameter of the tube is indispensably requisite.
167. If the section of the pipe in which the fluid ascends
is a rectangle, whose greater side is a, and its lesser side d,
then the base of the elevated column will be =.ad, and
its perimeter c = 2 a + 2d. Hence, the value of the me-
ad2 and2 ad2 / tt \
mscus will be —  — = ( 1 — - ), that is
8
^ _ A + ^
0-D
Hence, if in the general equation
No. 1, we substitute for c its equal 2a2d, and for V it's
equal adq, we have
gTiqadzr. 2$—§'x2a-{-2rf,
and dividing by a and by g D, we have
dq — 2
•7—2
gv
2g—g
gv
xi +
d
and
, , d
x 1 H—
a
d
In applying this formula to the elevation of water be¬
tween two glass plates, the side a is very great compared
with d, and therefore the quantity — being almost insen¬
sible, may be safely neglected,
comes
Hence the formula be-
? =
2g-g/
gv
By comparing this formula with the formula No. 2, it is
obvious that water will rise to the same height between
plates of glass as in a tube, provided the distance d be¬
tween the two plates of glass is equal to r, or half the dia¬
meter of the tube. This result was obtained by Newton,
and has been confirmed by the experiments of succeeding
writers.
VOL. XU*
As the constant quantity 2 is the same as already AttfacS,
found for capillary tubes, we may take its value, viz. 15,1311,
and substitute it in the preceding equation, we then have Compari-
15 1311 so^ the
q - * = 14.1544 ; and since formula
l.OoO with Gay-
. Lussac’s
— 1 — ^ I > subtracting mS.'
j- ^1 subtracting
^ 1 = 0.1147, we have
h — 14.0397, which differs very little from 13.574, the ob¬
served altitude.
It will be seen from the formula No. 2, that of all tubes
that have a prismatic form, the hollow cylinder is the one
in which the volume of fluid raised is the least possible, as
it has the smallest perimeter. It appears, also, that if the
section of the tube is a regular polygon, the altitudes of the
fluid will be reciprocally proportional to the homologous
lines of the similar base, a result which, as we have seen,
M. Gellert obtained from direct experiment. Hence, in
all prismatic tubes whose sections are polygons inscribed
in the same circle, the fluid will rise to the same mean
height. If one of the two bases is, for example, a square,
and the other an equilateral triangle, the altitudes will be
as 2 : 3f, or very nearly as 7 : 8.
168; M. La Place has remarked, that there may be several Fluids max
states of equilibrium in the same tube, provided its width be in a state
is not uniform. If we suppose two capillary tubes com* of stable
municating with one another, so that the smallest is placed an(l insta-
above the greatest, we may then conceive their diameters efiui^'
and lengths to be such, that the fluid is at first in equili- theTsanie
brium above its level in the widest tube, and that in pour- tube,
ing in some of the same fluid, so as to reach the smaller
tube, and fill part of it, the fluid will still maintain itself
in equilibrio. When the diameter of a capillary tube di¬
minishes by insensible gradations, the different states of
equilibrium are alternately stable and instable. At first
the fluid tends to raise itself in the tube, and this tendency
diminishing, becomes nothing in a state of equilibrium.
Beyond this it becomes negative, and consequently the
fluid tends to descend. Thus the first equilibrium is sta¬
ble, since the fluid, being a little removed from this state,
tends to return to it. In continuing to raise the fluid, its
tendency to descend diminishes, and becomes nothing in
the second state of equilibrium. Beyond this it becomes
positive, and the fluid tends to rise, and consequently to
remove from this state which is not stable. In a similar
manner it will be seen, that the third state is stable, the
fourth instable, and so on.
169. Although the preceding method of considering the Connexion
phenomena of capillary attraction is extremely simple and between
accurate, yet it does not indicate the connexion which sub- the rise of
sists between the elevation and depression of the fluid, and anc*
the concavity or convexity of the surface which every fluid ture^f™"
assumes in capillary spaces. The object of M. La Place’s their°sur-
first method, contained in his first supplement, is to deter- face,
mine this connexion.
By means of the methods for calculating the attraction
of spheroids, he determines the action of a mass of fluid
terminated by a spherical surface, concave or convex, upon
a column of fluid contained in an infinitely narrow canal,
directed towards the centre of this surface. By this action
La Place means the pressure which the fluid contained in
the canal would exercise, in virtue of the attraction of its
entire mass upon a plane base situated in the interior of
the canal, and perpendicular to its sides, at any sensible
distance from the surface, this base being taken for unity.
He then shews that this action is smaller when the surface
o
50
Capillary is concave than when it is plane, and greater when the
Attraction, surface is convex. 1 he analytical expression of this action
&c
HYDRODYNAMICS.
is composed of two terms. The first of these terms, which
is much greater than the second, expresses the action of
the mass terminated by a plane surface; and the second
term expresses the part of the action due to the sphericity
of the surface, or, in other words, the action of the menis¬
cus comprehended between this surface and the plane
which touches it. This action is either additive to the pre¬
ceding, or subtractive from it, according as the surface is
convex or concave. It is reciprocally proportional to the
radius of the spherical surface ; for the smaller that this
radius is, the meniscus is the nearer to the point of con-
^From these results relative to bodies terminated by sen¬
sible segments of a spherical surface, La Place deduces
this general theorem. “ In all the laws which render the
attraction insensible at sensible distances, the action of a
body terminated by a curve surface upon an inteiior canal
infinitely narrow, perpendicular to this surface in any point,
is equal to the half sum of the actions upon the same canal
of two spheres, which have for their radii the greatest and
the smallest of the radii of the osculating circle of the sur¬
face at this point.”
170. By means of this theorem, and the laws of hydrosta¬
tics, La Place has determined the figure which a mass of fluid
ought to take when acted upon by gravity, or contained in
a vessel of a given figure. The nature of the surface is
expressed by an equation of partial differences of the second
order, which cannot be integrated by any known method.
If the figure of the surface is one of revolution, the equa¬
tion is reduced to one of ordinary differences, and is capa¬
ble of being integrated by approximation, when the surface
is very small. La Place next shews, that a very narrow
tube approaches the more to that of a spherical segment as
the diameter of the tube becomes smaller. If these seg¬
ments are similar in different tubes of the same substance,
the radii of their surfaces will be inversely as the diameter
of the tubes. This similarity of the spherical segments
will appear evident, if we consider that the distance at
which the action of the tube ceases to be sensible is imper¬
ceptible ; so that if, by means of a very powerful micro¬
scope, this distance should be found equal to a millimetre,
it is probable that the same magnifying power would give
to the diameter of the tube an apparent diameter of several
metres. The surface of the tube may therefore be con¬
sidered as very nearly plane, in a radius equal to that of
the sphere of sensible activity ; the fluid in this interval
will therefore descend, or rise from this surface, very nearly
as if it were plane. Beyond this the fluid being subjected
only to the action of gravity, and the mutual action of its
own particles, the surface will be very nearly that of a
spherical segment, of which the extreme planes being those
of the fluid surface, at the limits of the sphere of the sen¬
sible activity of the tube, will be very nearly in different
tubes equally inclined to their sides. Hence it follows
that all the segments will be similar.
171. The approximation of these results gives the true
cause of the ascent or descent of fluids in capillary tubes in
the inverse ratio of their diameter. If in the axis of a glass
tube we conceive a canal infinitely narrow, which bends
Fig. 56. round like the tube ABEDC in fig. 56, the action of the
water in the tube in this narrow canal will be less, on ac¬
count of the concavity of its surface, than the action of the
water in the vessel on the same canal. The fluid will
therefore rise in the tube to compensate for this difference
of action ; and as the concavity is inversely proportional to
the diameter of the tube, the height of the fluid will be
also inversely proportional to that diameter. If the sur¬
face of the interior fluid is convex, which is the case with
mercury in a glass tube, the action of this fluid on the canal
will be greater than that of the fluid in . the vessel, and CapiUary
therefore the fluid will descend in the tube in the ratio of Attraction,
their difference, and consequently in the inverse ratio of   ^
the diameter of the tube. „
In this manner of viewing the subject, the attraction ot
capillary tubes has no influence upon the ascent or de¬
pression of the fluids which they contain, but in determin-
ing the inclination of the first planes of the surface of the
interior fluid extremely near the sides of the tube, and
upon this inclination depends the concavity or convexity
of the surface, and the length of its radius. The friction
of the fluid against the sides of the tube may augment or
diminish a little the curvature of its surface, of which we
see frequent examples in the barometer. In this case the
capillary effects will increase or diminish in the same ratio.
The "differential equation of the surfaces of fluids in¬
closed in capillary spaces of revolution, conducts La Place
to the following general result; that if into a cylindrical
tube we introduce a cylinder which has the same axis as
that of the tube, and which is such that the space compie-
hended between its surface and the interior surface of the
tube has very little width, the fluid will rise in this space
to the same height as in a tube whose radius is equal to
this width. If we suppose the radii of the tube and of the
cylinder infinite, we have the case of a tube included be¬
tween two parallel and vertical planes, very near each
other. This result has been confirmed, as we have already
seen, by the experiments of Newton, Haiiy, and Gay-Lus¬
sac. La Place then applies his theory to the phenomena
presented by a drop of fluid, either in motion or suspended
in equilibrio, either in a conical capillary tube, or between
two plates, and inclined to each other, as discovered by Mr
Hawksbee ; to the mutual approximation of two parallel
and vertical discs immersed in a fluid ; to the phenomena
which take place when two plates of glass are inclined to
each other at a small angle ; and to the determination of
the figure of a large drop of mercury laid upon a horizontal
plate of glass.
On the Form of Drops.
172. It was observed by M. Monge, that when drops of al¬
cohol fall upon a surface of the same fluid, they do not at first
mix with it, but roll over its surfaces with great facility,
impinge against each other, and are reflected like billiard
balls. M. Monge observed an analogous phenomenon in the
drops of water which fall from the oars during the rowing
of a boat, and during the condensation of the vapour of
warm fluids. .
In repeating the experiments of Monge, Sir David
Brewster found that the phenomena were most beautiful
when the capillary tube discharged the drops upon the in-,
dined plane of fluid, which is elevated by the attraction of
the edge of the cup. They ran down the inclined plane
with great velocity, and sometimes even ascended the simi¬
lar plane on the opposite side of the vessel. When the
drop was discharged at the distance of one or two-tenths of
an inch from the surface of the water, they had always the
same magnitude when the tube was held in the same posi¬
tion ; but when the point of the tube was brought within
a tenth of an inch of the surface of the spirit of wine, this
surface, instead of attracting the drop to it distantly, as
Saussure would have predicted, actually resisted the gra¬
vity or weight of drop, and allowed it to attain a diameter
nearly twice as great as it would have had, if it had been
discharged in the ordinary manner. This swoln globule
floated upon the surface in the same manner as the smaller
drops, surrounded with a depression of the fluid surface
similar to what is produced by a glass globule floating on
mercury, or by the feet of particular insects, that have the
power of running upon the surface of water. The floating
HYDRODYNAMICS.
51
1m
Capillary globules are often produced even when they are discharged
ttraction, g.om a height of three or four inches ; and by letting them
&c' fall upon the inclined plane of fluid formerly mentioned,
' tjiey w;p often rebound from the surface, and fall over the
sides of the cup.
pening in 173. In a phenomenon the very reverse of the formation of
fluid a (jr0p5 which was first noticed by Sir David Brewster, the
cohesion of fluids is shewn in a very interesting manner.
If we take a phial, with a wide mouth, half filled with
Canada balsam, and allow the balsam to flow to the mouth
of the phial and fill it up, then when the phial is placed on
its bottom, a fine transparent film of balsam will be seen
extending over the mouth of the phial. If we now take a
piece of slender wire, and touch the film near the middle,
so as to tear away a little part of it, the remaining part of
the film which has been elevated by this force will descend
to its level position, and the ragged aperture fi-om which
the balsam has been torn will be seen to assume a form
perfectly circular, having its edge in a slight degree thick¬
ened, like a circle with a raised margin turned out of a
piece of wood. This fine circular aperture grows wider
and wider, and continues to preserve its circular form till
the mouth of the phial is again opened.
174. We shall now conclude the subject of capillary
attraction with an account of an experiment made by Sir
David Brewster, and intimately connected with the sub¬
ject. Above a vessel MNOP, Fig. 57, nearly filled with
water, a convex lens LL was placed at the distance of
the 10th of an inch, and rays R, R, R, were incident
upon its upper surface. The focus of these rays was at
F, a little beyond the bottom of the vessel, so that a
circular image of the luminous object was seen on the
bottom of the vessel, having AB for its diameter. If
the lens is now made to descend gradually towards the
surface of the water, and the eye kept steadily upon the
luminous image AB, a dark spot will be seen at D in
the centre of AB, a little while before the lens attracts Capillary
and eWates the water MN. Sometimes this spot may Attraction,
&c.
Fig. 57,
be s^n playing backwards
and forwards by the slight
motion of the hand, so that
the lens can even be with¬
drawn from the fluid sur¬
face without having actually
touched it. In general, how¬
ever, the sudden rise of the
water to the lens follows the
appearance of the black spot.
When the water is in con¬
tact with the glass, the focus
of the rays R, R, is now
transferred to f, and the cir¬
cular image on the bottom
is now ab, and the intensity
of the light in this circle is
to that in the circle AB, as
AB2 : ab*. Now it is ob¬
vious, that the darkish spot
at D is just the commence¬
ment of the transference
of the focus from F to f;
or when the dark spot is
produced, the progress of /
the rays is the same as if the focus were transferred
to f. This remarkable effect may arise from two causes.
1. The approach of the lens to the surface MN, may occa¬
sion a depression tnon in the surface of the fluid of the
same curvature as L/L, which would have the effect of
transferring the focus from F to f. 2. The transference of
the focus from F to / may arise from the optical contact of
the glass of water taking place at a greater distance from
the lens than that at which capillary attraction commences.
PART II—HYDRAULICS.
)efinition. 175. Hydraulics is that branch of the science of Hy- pressure of the atmosphere ; whether moving in pipes
drodynamics which relates to fluids in motion. It compre- and canals, or rolling in the beds of rivers. It compre¬
hends the theory of running water, whether issuing from hends also the resistance or the percussion of fluids, and
orifices in reservoirs by the pressure of the superincumbent the oscillation of waves,
mass, or rising perpendicularly in jets d’eaux from the
CHAPTER I.—THEORY OF FLUIDS ISSUING FROM ORIFICES IN RESERVOIRS, EITHER IN
A LATERAL OR A VERTICAL DIRECTION.
the particles near E move with so little obliquity that their Cause of
vertical are much greater than their horizontal velocities, and the vena
very little less than their absolute ones. The differentcontract:t
particles of the fluid, therefore, will rush through the ori¬
fice m n with very different velocities, and in various direc¬
tions, and will arrive at a certain distance from the orifice
in different times. On account of the mutual adhesion of
the fluid particles, however, those which have the greatest
velocity drag the rest along with them ; and as the former
move through the centre of the orifice, the breadth of the
issuing column of fluid will be less at op than the width of
the orifice mn.
177. That the preceding phenomena really exist when
a vessel of water is discharging its contents through an
aperture, experience sufficiently testifies. If some small
substances specifically heavier than water be thrown into
the fluid when the vessel is emptying itself, they will at
first descend vertically, and when they come within a few
inches of the bottom they will deviate from this direction,
and describe oblique curves similar to those in the figure.
.’relimina- 176. If water issues from an orifice either in the bottom
y observa- or side of a reservoir, the surface of the fluid in the reser-
ions. voir is always horizontal till it reaches within a little of the
bottom. When a vessel, therefore, is emptying itself, the
particles of the fluid descend in vertical lines, as is repre¬
sented in fig. 58. ; but when they have reached within
Fig. 5f>. three or four inches of the orifice mn, the
particles which are not immediately above
it change the direction of their motion,
B and make for the orifice in directions of
different degrees of obliquity. The velo-
N cities of these particles may be decom-
/// posed into two others, one in a horizontal
direction, by which they move parallel to
the orifice, and the other in a vertical di¬
rection, by which they approach that ori-
D Ace. Now, as the particles about C and
D move with greater obliquity than those
•mWMw „ .P. . i1 ,
oJK? nearer E, their horizontal velocities must
also be greater, and their vertical velocities less. But
52
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of The contraction of Use vein or column of fluid at op is also
Fluids, &c. manifest fi*om observation. It was first discovered by Sir
Isaac Newton, and denominated the vena contract a. The
tioi^ofThe £reatest contraction takes place at a point o, whose dis¬
tance from the orifice is equal to half its diameter, so that
vena con
tracta.
mn
and the breadth of the vein or column of
fluid at o is to the width of the orifice as 5 to 8 according
to Bossut, or as 5.197 to 8 according to the experiments
of Michelotti, the orifice being perforated in a thin plate.
But when the water is made to issue through a short
cylindrical tube, the same contraction, though not ob¬
vious to the eye, is so considerable, that the diameter of
the contracted vein is to that of the orifice as 6.5 to 8.
If A therefore be the real size of the orifice in a thin plate,
its corrected size, or the breadth of the contracted vein,
5.197 X A
will be ——x j and when a cylindrical tube is employed
it will be
8
13 X A
16 ’
In the first case the height of the water
in the reservoir must be reckoned from the surface of the
fluid to the point o, where the vein ceases to contract;
and when a cylindrical tube is employed, it must be reck¬
oned from the same surface to the exterior aperture of
the tube.
Relation 178. Suppose the fluid ABCD (fig. 58) divided into an
between infinite number of equal strata or laminae by the horizontal
the velo- surfaces MN, gh infinitely near each other; and let mnophc
rity of a srnai] coiUmn of fluid which issues from the orifice in the
same time that the surface MN descends to gh. The co-
the fluid at
the orifice,
and that oflumn mnop is evidently equal to the lamina MN gh, for
the interior the quantity of fluid which is discharged during the time
laminae. that MN descends to gh, is evidently MN hg ; and to the
quantity discharged in that time, the column mnop was
Fig. 58. equal by hypothesis. Let A be the area of the base MN,
and B the area of the base mn ; let x be the height of a
column equal to MN gh, and having A for its base, and
let y be the height of the’column mnop. Theu, since the
column mnop is equal to the lamina MN gh, we shall have
Ax = By, and (Geometry, Sect. IV. Theor. IX.) x-.y
= A: B T but as the surface MN descends to gh in the
same time that mn descends to op, x will represent the
mean velocity of the lamina MN gh, and y the mean velo¬
city of the column mnop. The preceding analogy, there¬
fore, informs us, that the mean velocity of any lamina is
to the velocity of the fluid issuing from the orifice reci¬
procally as the area of the orificq is to the area of the base
of the lamina MN gh. Hence it follows, that, if the area
of the orifice is infinitely small, with regard to the area of
the base of the lamina into which the fluid is supposed to
be divided, the mean velocity of the fluid at the orifice will
be infinitely greater than that of the laminae; that is, while
the velocity at the orifice is finite, that of the laminae wall
be infinitely small.
179. Before applying these principles to the theory of
hydraulics, it may be proper to observe, that several dis¬
tinguished philosophers have founded the science upon the
same general law from which we have deduced the princi¬
ples of hydrostatics (48). In this way they have repre¬
sented the motion of fluids in general formulae; but these
formulae are so complicated from the very nature of the
theory, and the calculations are so intricate, and sometimes
impracticable from their length, that they can afibrd no
assistance to the practical engineer.
Definition.
Fig. 58. 180. If the water issues at mn with the same velocity
V that a heavy body would acquire by falling freely through
a given height H, this velocity is said to be due to the
height H, and inversely the height H is said to be due to Motion of
the velocity V. *
Prop. I.
181. The velocity of a fluid issuing from an infinitely small
orifice in the bottom or side of a vessel, is equal to that
which is due to the height of the surface of the fluid
above that orifice, the vessel being supposed constantly
full.
Let AB, fig. 59, be the Vessel containing the fluid, its velo¬
city when issuing from the aperture mn will be that which is
due to the height Dot, or equal to that which a heavy
body would acquire by falling through that height. Be¬
cause the orifice ot w is infinitely small, the velocity of
the laminae into which the fluid may be supposed to be
divided, will also be infinitely small. But since all the
fluid particles, by virtue of their gravity, Fig. 59.
have a tendency to descend with the
same velocity; and since the different
laminae of the fluid lose this velocity, the
column must must be pressed by the
superincumbent column D ot n ; and call¬
ing S the specific gravity of the fluid, the
moving force which pushes out the co¬
lumn mnst will be S X Dot X (art.
58), Now, let us suppose, that, when
this moving force is pushing out the co¬
lumn mnst, the absolute weight of the
column mnop, which may be represent¬
ed by S X nm X np, causes itself to fall
through the height np. Then, if V, U
be the velocities impressed upon the columns mnst, and
mnop, by the moving forces S X D ot X ott?, and S X®^
X np ; these moving forces must be proportional to their
effects, or to the quantities of motion which they produce,
that is, to V Xmnst and U Xmnop, because the quantity
of motion is equal to the velocity and mass conjointly;
henceweshallhaveSxDOTX^w: SXmnXnp—Vxmnst',
U X mnop. But since the volumes mnst, mnop are to
one another as their heights mo, os, and as these heights
are run through in equal times, and consequently represent
the velocity of their motion, mnst may be represented by
V X otn and mnop by U X m n ; therefore we shall have
S xDot Xot» : Sxotw X»j» = Vx V x otw : U X U X mn,
and dividing by otw, S X D ot : np — V2 : U2. Now let v
be the velocity due to the height D ot, then (see Mecha¬
nics) np : U2 = D ot : v2; but since S X D ot : S X = V2;
U2 ; then by (Euclid V. 15), and by permutation Dot : V2 ^
np:\J2, therefore by substitution (Euclid V. 11), D m : V2—
Dot: v2, and (Euclid Y. 9), V2 = ^2 or V v. But V is
the velocity with which the fluid issues from the orifice
mn, and v the velocity due to the height Dot; therefore,
Since the velocities are equal, the proposition is demon¬
strated.
182. Cor. 1. If the vessel AB empties itself by the small
orifice mn, so that the surface of the fluid takes succes¬
sively the positions OP, Q.R, ST, the velocities with which
the water will issue when the surfaces have these positions
will be those due to the heights E n, F n, G n, for in these
different positions the moving forces are the columns Eot»,
Fot^, Gmn.
183. Cor. 2. Since the velocities of the issuing fluid
when its surfacq is at E, F, G, are those due to the heights
E n, F n, G n, it follows from the properties of failing
bodies (see Mechanics), that if these velocities were con¬
tinued uniformly, the fluid would run through spaces equal
to 2Em, 2F n, 2 G n respectively, in the same time that
a heavy body would fall through E n, F n, G n, respec¬
tively.
184. Cor. 3. As fluids press equally in ail directions,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
53
J ition of the preceding proposition will hold true, when the orifices
] lids, &c.are at the sides of vessels, and when they are formed to
' throw the fluid upwards, either in a vertical or an inclined
direction, provided that the orifices are in these several
cases at an equal distance from the upper surface of the
fluid. This corollary holds also in the case mentioned in
Cor. 1.
185. Cor. 4. When the fluid issues vertically, it will rise
to a height equal to the perpendicular distance of the ori¬
fice from the surface of the fluid; for (see Mechanics),
this is true of falling bodies in general, and must therefore
be true in the case of water: owing to the resistance of
the air, however, and the friction of the issuing fluid upon
the sides of the orifice, jets of water do not exactly rise to
this height.
186. Cor. 5. As the velocities of falling bodies are as
the square roots of the heights through which they fall (see
Mechanics), the velocity V of the effluent water when
the surface is at E, will be to its velocity v when the sur¬
face is at 'g, as VE w : v'G n, (Cor. 1.) that is, the velo¬
cities of fluids issuing from a very small orifice are as the
square roots of the altitude of the water above these orifices.
As the quantities of fluids discharged are as the velocities,
r they will also be as the square roots of the altitude of the
fluid. This corollary holds true of fluids of different speci¬
fic gravities, notwithstanding Belidor {Architect. Hydraul.
tom. i. p. 187), has maintained the contrary ; for though a
column of mercury D m n presses with 14 times the force
of a similar column of water, yet the column mnop (fig. 59)
of mercury which is pushed out is also 14 times as heavy
as a similar column of water; and as the resistance bears
the same proportion to the moving force, the velocities
must be equal.
187. Cor. 6. When a vessel is emptying itself, if the
area of the laminae into which we may suppose it divided,
be everywhere the same, the velocity with which the sur¬
face of the fluid descends, and also the velocity of efflux,
will be uniformly retarded. For as the velocity V with
which the surface descends is to the velocity v at the ori¬
fice, as the area a of the orifice to the area A of the sur¬
face, then V: v = a: A; but the ratio of a: A is con¬
stant, therefore V varies as v, that is, V : Y'zz v: v'; but,
(Cor. ]) v : vf =: \/h : v'h', h being the height of the sur¬
face above the orifice, therefore V : Y' — */h : V h'. But
this is the property of a body projected vertically from the
earth’s surface, and as the retarding force is mfiform in the
one case (see Mechanics), it must also be uniform in the
other.
188. Cor. 7. If a cylindrical vessel be kept constantly
full, twice the quantity contained in the vessel will run out
during the time in which the vessel would have emptied
itself. For (Cor. 2 and 6) the space through which the
surface of the fluid at D would descend if its velocity con¬
tinued uniform being 2 D m, double of D m the space
which it actually describes in the time it empties itself; the
quantity discharged in the former case will also be double
the quantity discharged in the latter s because the quantity
discharged when the vessel is kept full, may be measured
by what the descent of the surface would be, if it could
descend with its first velocity.
Scholium.
189. The reader will probably be surprised when he
finds in some of our elementary works on hydrostatics, Motion of
that the velocity of the water at the orifice is only equal to Fluids, &e.
that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through ' "
half the height of the fluid above the orifice. This was
first maintained by Sir Isaac Newton, who found that the
diameter of the vena contracta was to that of the orifice as
21 to 25. The area therefore of the one was to the area
of the other as 211 2 to 252, which is nearly the ratio of 1
to V 2. But by measuring the quantity of water dischar¬
ged in a given time, and also the area of the vena contracta,
Sir Isaac found that the velocity at the vena contracta was
that which was due to the whole altitude of the fluid above
the orifice. He therefore concluded, that since the velo¬
city at the orifice was to that at the vena contracta} as
1:^2, and in the latter velocity was that which was due
to the whole altitude of the fluid, the former velocity, or
that at the orifice, must be that which is due tp only half .
that altitude, the velocities being as the square roots of the
heights^ Now the difference between this theory and that
contained in the preceding proposition may be thus explain¬
ed. The velocity found by the preceding proposition is
evidently the vertical velocity of the filaments at E (fig. 59),
which being immediately above the centre of the aperture
mn are not diverted from their course, and have therefore
their vertical equal to their absolute velocity. But the
vertical velocity of the particles between C and E, and E
and D, is much less than their absolute velocity, on ac¬
count of the obliquity of their motion, and also on account
of their friction on the sides of the orifice. The mean
vertical velocity, consequently, of the issuing fluid will be
much less than the vertical velocity of the particles at E,
that is, than the velocity found by the above proposition,
or that due to the height D m. Now the velocity found
by Sir Isaac Newton from measuring the quantity of water
discharged, was evidently the mean velocity, which ought
to be less than the velocity given by the preceding propo¬
sition, the two velocities being as 1: -^2, or as 1: 1.414. The
theorem of Newton therefore may be considered as giving
the mean velocity at the orifice, while the proposition gives
the velocity of the particles at D, or the velocity at the
vena contracta.
Prop. II.
190. To find the quantity of water discharged from a vpry
small orifice in the side or bottom of a reservoir, the time
of discharge, and the altitude of the fluid, the vessel
being kept constantly full, and any two of these quanti¬
ties being given.
Let A be the area of the orifice mn; W the quantity of
water discharged in the time T; H the constant height
Dot of the water in the vessel, and let 16.087 feet be the
height through which a heavy body descends in a second
of time. Now, as the times of description are proportional
to the square roots of the heights described, the time in
which a heavy body will fall through the height H, will
be found from the following analogy; f 16.087 : */ H =
1 :777-777—, the time required. But as the velocity at the
15.087
orifice is uniform, a column of fluid whose base is mn and
altitude 2H (Prop. I. Cor. 2.j) will issue in the time 16.087
VH, or since A is the area of the orifice m n, A X 2 H or
1 When a fluid runs through a conical tube kept constantly full, the velocities of the fluid in different sections will be inversely
as the area of the sections. For as the same quantity of fluid runs through every section in the same time, it is evident that the
Velocity must be greater in a smaller section, and as much greater as the section is smaller, otherwise the same quantity of water
would not pass through each section in the same time. Now the area of the vena contracta is to the area of the orifice, as 1 : */ 2, therefore
the velocity at the vena contracta must be to the velocity at the orifice as Yf: 1.
54
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of 2 HA will represent the column of fluid discharged in that
Fluids, &c. time. Now since the quantities of fluid discharged in dif¬
ferent times must be as the times of discharge, the velocity at
V H
the orifice being always the same, we shall have : T
lb.087
= 2 HA : W, and (Geometry, Sect. IV. Theor. VIII.)
W v1 II
= 2 HAT or W =
2 HAT x 16.087
VH
and since
16.087
II
= V H we shall have W = 2 AT V H X 16.087, an
V H
equation from which we deduce the following formulae,
which determine the quantity of water discharged, the time
of discharge, the altitude of the fluid, and the area of the
orifice, any three of these four quantities being given :
W
represents the quantity of fluid discharged by each ele- Motion c[
mentary rectangular orifice, into which the whole orifice fluids, &c.
GL is supposed to be divided, we must find the sum of all "V'-'
the quantities discharged in the time T, in order to have
the total quantity afforded by the finite orifice in the same
time. Upon DC as the principal axis, describe the para¬
bola CHE, having its parameter P equal to 4DC. Con¬
tinue FG and DK to H and E. The area NP/m may be
expressed by NP X N n. But (Conic Sections, Part I.
Prop. X.) NP2 zr CN X P (P being the parameter of the
parabola), therefore NP VCN X P, and multiplying by
Nw we have NP x Nra = Nw >/ CNxP, which expresses
the area NP/m. Now this expression of the elemen¬
tary area being multiplied by the constant quantity
T V 16.087 X M -- gives for a product T V 16.087
W=2ATVHx 16.087 A
ViP
^ H X 16.087 x CN X 2 MO X Nt&, for V^P zz J V P and
MOxVP
H ZZ
W2
4A2T2x 16.087
W
2Av/H= 16.087
Fig. 60.
PEE
M
19E It is supposed in the preceding proposition that the
orifice in the side of the vessel is so small, that every part
of it is equally distant from the surface
of the fluid. But wdien the orifice is large
like M (fig. 60.), the depths of different
parts of the orifice below the surface of
the fluid are very different, and conse¬
quently the preceding formulae will not
give very accurate results. If wre sup¬
pose the orifice M divided into a number
of smaller orifices a, b, c, it is evident that
the water w ill issue at a, with a velocity
due to the height Da, the water at b,
with a velocity due to the height EZ», and
the water at c, with a velocity due to the
height F c. When the whole orifice, therefore, is opened,
the fluid will issue with different velocities at different parts
of its section. Consequently, in order to find new formulae
expressing the quantity of water discharged, w e must con¬
ceive the orifice to be divided into an infinite number of
areas or portions by horizontal planes; and by considering
each area as an orifice, and finding the quantity which it
will discharge in a given time, the sum of all these quanti¬
ties will be the quantity discharged by the whole orifice M.
Prop. HI.
192. To find the quantity of water discharged by a rec¬
tangular orifice in the side of a vessel kept constantly full.
Let ABD (fig. 61.) be the vessel with the rectangular ori¬
fice GL, and let AB be the surface of the fluid. Draw the
Fig. 61.
zz 2 MO. But this product is the very same formula
which expresses the quantity of water discharged in the
time T by the orifice MO om. Therefore, since the ele¬
mentary area MPpm multiplied by the constant quantity
MO
T 16.087 X — gives the quantity of water discharged
V P
by the orifice MO o?re in a given time, and since the same
may be proved of every other orifice of the same kind into
which the whole orifice is supposed to be divided, we may
conclude that the quantity of water discharged by the whole
orifice GL will be found by multiplying the parabolic area
 MO
FHED by the same constant quantity T v 16.087 X
Now the area FHED is equal to the difference between
the areas CDE and CFH. But (Conic Sections, Part I.
Prop. X.) the area CDE zz § CD X DE; and since P zz 4 CD,
and (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) DE2 zz CD X P
we have DE2 zz CD X 4 CD zz 4 CD2, that is DE zz 2 CD,
then by substituting this value of DE in the expression
of the area CDE, we have CDE zz fCD2. The area
CFH zz §CF X FH, consequently the area FHED zz
4 CD2 — §CF X FH, which, multiplied by the constant
quantity, gives for the quantity of water discharged, (£P2
being substituted instead of its equal §CD2),
T Vl6.087xMQx£P2 —fCFxFH
VTp
But by the property of the parabola FH2 zz CF X P and
FH zz \! CF X P, therefore substituting this value of FH
in the preceding formula, and also J V P for its equal V |P
we have
lines MNOP, mnop, in¬
finitely near each other,
and from any point D
draw the perpendicular
DC meeting the sur¬
face of the fluid in C.
Then regarding the in¬
finitely small rectangle
MO mo as an orifice
whose depth below the
surface of the fluid is H,
we shall have by the first
of the preceding formu-
fe, the quantity of water discharged in the time T, or W zz
F V 16.087 X */ CN x 2 MO x Nrc, CN being equal to H
and MO X Nra to the area A. As the preceding formula
Yr ^ T Y 16.087 X MO x ^P2 — §CF x V CF x P
Wp
and dividing by ^ P gives us
Wzz T V 16.087 X MO X |P VP —^CFxVCF;
hence
T zz W
MO
V 16.087 X MO x §P VP—f CF x v'CF’
  W_
~~ T s! 16.087 X |P V P— f CF x VCF’
P zz
9 W
4T v 16.087
+ 3CFV CF
]yj ion of and since P -
Fl Is, &c-
 ' CD =
4CD
HYDRODYNAMICS. 55
quantity of fluid which will be discharged by an uniform Motion of
9 W
16T V 16.087
= + 12CF X V CF
CF
9 W
16T V 16.087
= +^PVP
In these formulae W represents the quantity of water
discharged, T the time of discharge, MO the honzon al
width of the rectangular orifice, P the parameter al t ic
mrabola = 4CD, CD the depth of the water in the vessel
or the altitude of the water above the bottom of tlie orifice,
and CF the altitude of the water above the top ot the
orifice. The vertical breadth of the orifice is equal to
 CF.
193 Let x be the mean height of the fluid above the
orifice,’ or the height due to a velocity, which, if commu¬
nicated to all the particles of the issuing fluid, would make
the same quantity of water issue in the time 1, as it all the
particles moved with the different velocities due to their
different depths below the surface, then by Prop-
_ CF
the quantity discharged or W = 2T X MO X CD-
X x/^16.087, the area of the orifice being MO X CD—CF,
and by making this value of W equal to its value in the
preceding article, we have the following equation:  
2T X MO X CD—CF xx 16.087 = T V 16.087
x M0 x IP VP—§CF'7TT\ which, by division and re¬
duction, and the substitution of J P instead of CD its equal,
becomes
KPVF—fCFVCF)2
x- r(|p—CF)2
Now this value of x is evidently different from the dis¬
tance of the centre of gravity of the orifice from the surface
CD +CF |P + Ch
of the fluid, for this distance is     or ^ *
But in proportion as CE increases, the other quantities re¬
maining the same, the value of x will approach nearer the
distance of the centre of gravity of the orifice from the sur¬
face of the fluid; for when CF becomes infinite, the para¬
bolic arch CHE will become a straight line, and conse¬
quently the mean ordinate of the curve, which is repre¬
sented by the mean velocity of the water, will pass through
the middle of FD or the centre of gravity of the orifice.
Puop. IV.
194. To find the time in which a quantity of fluid equal to
ABRT, will issue out of a small orifice in the side or
bottom of the vessel AB, that is, the time in which the
surface AB will descend to RT,
Draw DE, <7e at an infinitely small distance, and paral¬
lel to AB. The lamina of fluid DcZeE may be represent-
Fig. 62.
velocity in the time T, will be TV" 16.087 X 2A X o\
A being the area of the orifice, as in Prop. II. But as the
variation in the velocity of the water will be infinitely small,
when the surface descends from DE to de, its velocity
may be regarded as uniform. The time, therefore, in which
the surface describes the small height ob will be found
by the following analogy; T y/16.087 X 2 A X om i
DE xob C
T = DE Xob \  t=. Now as this for-
V 16.087 X 2 A X V om
mula expresses the time in which the surface descends from
DE to de, and as the same may be shewn of every other
elementary portion of the height CS, the sum of all these
elementary times will give us tire value or T, the time in
which the surface AB falls down to RT. For this purpose
draw GP equal and parallel to C ?s, and upon it as an axis,
describe the parabola PVQ, having its parameter P equal
to 4GP. Continue the lines AB, DE, de, RF, so as to
form the ordinates HF, hf UV, of the parabola. Upon
GP as an axis, describe a second curve, so that the ordi¬
nate GM may be equal to the area of the surface at AB,
divided by the corresponding ordinate GQ of the parabola,
and that the ordinate Hr may be the quotient of the area
of the surface at DE divided by the ordinate HF. Now
(Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) HF2 — HP X P> or
  _   HF
HF = y'HP X V'P'* that is \/HP = ^7=’ and since
Fluids, &c.
am — HP;
DE DE x v'P
HF
V om
tion of the curve MN, we have
DE
. But by the construc-
DE
Ttu _ Hr, consequently
Hr
— Hr X V^P* ,The elementary time, therefore, ex-
V om
DE x ob
preSSed by VI&087X2AXV»M
ent substitutions now mentioned,
will, by the differ-
Hr X ob \/p
be  —. - or
\/p
— X Hr X o&. But the factor
2 A 16.087
\/P
2 A V 16.087   2 A16.087
consisting of constant quantities is itself constant, and the
other factor Hr X ob represents the variable curvihneal
area HrsA. Now as the same may be shewn of every
other element of the time T, compared with the corre¬
sponding elements of the area GU t M, it follows that the
time T required, will be found by multiplying the constant
quantity   by the curvilineal area GU<M;
2 A a/16.087
therefore T — • —X - t)~r—■> and the time in which
a/ 16.087 i2A
the surface descends to win, or in which the vessel empties
itself, will be equal to
a/P
GPNM
a/ 16.087 2A
Cor. The quantity of fluid discharged in the given time
T may be found by measuring the contents of the vessel
AB between the planes AB, and RT, the descent ot the
surface AB, viz. the depth CS, being known.
edbyDExo^; DE expressing the area of the surface.
When the surface of the water has descended to DE, the
195.
Prop. V.
To find the time in which a quantity of fluid equal to
56
Motion ot‘
"Fluids, &c.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
\/p
ABRT will issue out of a small orifice in the side or
bottom of the cylindrical vessel AB, that is, the time in sented by
which the surface AB will descend to IIT.
2 A V'16.087
XHrXoior ——
H r X H h Motion of )
X ?tt • Fluids, &c, 1
2 A
i2A
Let us suppose that a body ascends through the height
m C (fig. 63.) with a velocity increasing in the same man¬
ner as if the vessel AB were inverted, and the body fell
from m to C. The velocity of the ascending body at dif¬
ferent points of its path being proportional to the square Hr X H/i
roots of the heights described, will be expressed by the or¬
dinates of the parabola P VQ. The line DE being infinite¬
ly near to de, as soon as the body arrives at b it will de¬
scribe the small space Jo or AH in a portion of time infi¬
nitely small, with a velocity represented by the ordinate
HF. Now the time in which the body will ascend through
... V' PCjr ■
the space mC or its equal PG will be —because
V 16.087
Therefor^ the time in which the ascending body moves
through k H, is to the time in which the descending sur-
iV/P H h VY
face moves through HA as - x 7^ : —;   X
'Z 16.087 HF * V 1.6087
, which expressions, after being multiplied by 2,
DE
and, after substituting in the latter instead of Hr,
rlr
which is equal to it by construction, will become
VY
a/16.087
.087
16.087 : V^PG =
a/PG
HA
HF
a/P DExHA
A x HF
, DE representing, in this and
(see Mechanics) ; and if
a/ 16.087
the velocity impressed upon the body when at C were con¬
tinued uniformly, it would run through a space equal to
a/PG
2GP or GQ in the time —:   . But (Dynamics, 22.)
\/16.087
the times of description are as the spaces described direct¬
ly, and the velocities inversely, and therefore the time of
describing the space 2 GP or GQ uniformly, viz. the time
Vyg
will be to the time of describing the space AH
a/16.087
xlniformly as
GQ
HA
HF’
HA
HF
GQ
a/PG HA
, . GQ
that is, as 7=777 or 1 :
a/PG
GQ
HF
a/16.087
the time in which the ascending body
V 16.087
in the following proposition, the area of the surface of the
fluid at D. Now, if we multiply the first of these expres¬
sions by DE, and the second by A, we shall find the two
products equal; consequently (Euclid VI. 16.), the first
expression is to the second, or the time of the body’s ascent
through AH is to the time of the surface’s descent through
HA, as the area A of the orifice is to the area DE of the
base of the cylindrical vessel; and as the same may be de¬
monstrated of every elementary time in which the ascend¬
ing body and the descending surface describe equal spaces,
it follow’s that the whole time in which the ascending body
will describe the height m C or PG, is to the whole time in
which the surface AB will descend to m n, or in which the
vessel will empty itself, as the area A of the orifice is to the
area of the surface DE, that is, A .J DE
a/16.087
will describe HA uniformly; but PG being equal to JP,
the parameter of the parabola, we shall have a/PG =
a/}P = jA/p. Substituting this value of a/PG in the
last formula, we shall have for the expression of the time
7
16.087
PG
X
DE
the time in which the vessel AB will
16.087
empty itself. If WYmn be the vessel, it may be shewn in
the same manner, that the time in which it will empty
itself will be
PIT
rs X
DE
DE being equal to RT. But
of describing HA uniformly
|a/P
X
HA
a/16.087 ” HF
Prop. IV. the time in which the surface DH descends into
the position dh, that is, in which it describes HA is repre-
TG DE ^/PU
16.087 '' A
the difference between the times in which the vessel AB»m
But by empties itself, and the time in which the vessel R T m u
empties itself, will be equal to the time required in the pro¬
position, during which the surface AB descends to RT.
This time therefore will be
_ /PC 
~ V 16.087 X
DE DEVPG —DEVPU
A v 16.087
T _ DE x y/PG — n/PU
A Vr6\087
A V16.087
Hence
PU
'T, A V 16.087
PG
= (" DB
_ ^T, A ^16.087
DE
vpg)
VPu)1
T2 A2 X 16.087
PG — PU of UG = 2T> AXDE VPG x 16.087
DE2
As the quantity of fluid discharged while the surface AB descends to RT is equal to DE X UG, we shall have
2T, A X DE VPGx 16.087 — T2 A2 x 16.087
W = DE X
A _ DE x JPG x JPU
T V16.087
DE =
T, A V16.087
Vpg — Vpu
DE2
Prop. VI.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
57
]\ lion of
1 ids, &c.
196. If two cylindrical vessels are filled with water, the
time in which their surfaces will descend through simi¬
lar heights will be in the compoimd ratio of their bases,
and the difference between the square roots of the alti¬
tudes of each surface at the beginning and end of its
motion, directly, and the area of the orifices inversely.
1 s. 63
a 64.
Let AB m 11, A'B'm! n' be the two vessels ; then by the
Fig. 63.
All C tlBG M
last proposition, the time T, in which
G' the surface AB of the first descends to
RT, will be to the time T' in which
the surface A' B' of the second de-
DExVPGxv'PU
, or by divid-
• u a/rc~h~Q*7~ DExVPG-VPU
mg by V 15.087, as ^ 
Q.E.D.
197. Cor. Hence the time in which two cylindrical Motion of
vessels full of water will empty themselves, will be in the Fluids, Ac.
compound ratio of their bases and the square roots of their s'——
altitudes directly, and the area of the orifices inversely ; for
in this time the surfaces AB, A'B' descend to m n, m' n!
respectively, and therefore VPG—PU VTG; since PU
DExa/PG to D'E'xVP'G'
vanishes, the times will be as      .
Prop. VII.
198. To explain the theory and construction of clepsydraeq'{ie01.v 0f
or water-clocks. clepsydraj
or water-
A clepsydra, or water-clock, is a machine which, filled cl°cks.
with water, measures time by the descent of the fluid sur¬
face. See Part III. on Hydraulic Machinery.
It has already been demonstrated in Prop. IV. that the
times in which the surface AB descends to DE and RT,
&c. are as the areas GM r H, GM t U, &c. If such a form
therefore is given to the vessel that the areas GM r H,
GM t U, &c. increase uniformly as the times, or are to one
another as the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. the times in
which the surface AB descends to DE, and RT, &c. will
be in the same ratio, and the vessel will form a machine
for measuring time. If the vessel is cylindrical and empties
itself in 12 hours, its altitude may be divided in such a
manner that the fluid surface may take exactly an hour to
descend through each division. Let the cylindrical vessel,
for example, be divided into 144 equal parts, then the sur¬
face of the water, when the twelve hours begin to run,
will be 144 parts above the bottom of the vessel; when
one hour is completed, the surface will be 121 parts above
the bottom and so on in the following manner :
Hours.
Distance of each Hour
above the bottom.
Number of Parts in
each Hour.
0 12 3
144 121 100 81
23 21 19 17
4 5 6 7
64 49 36 25
15 13 11 9
8
16
7
9 10 11 12
9 4 " 1 0
5 3 1
For since the velocity with which the surface AB de¬
scends, the area of that surface being always the same, is
as the square roots of its altitude above the orifice (Prop.
I. Cor. 6) ; and since the velocities are as the times of
description, the times will also be as the square roots of the
altitudes, that is, when
12 11 10 9 &c. are the times,
144 121 100 81 will be the altitudes of the surface.
Prop. VIII.
199. To explain the lateral communication of motion in
fluids.
1 terai
c imuni- A ms property of fluids in motion was discovered by M.
1 ion of Venturi, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
1 tion in of Modena, who has illustrated it by a variety of experi-
I S' ments in his work on the lateral communication of motion
in fluids. Let a pipe AC, about half an inch in diameter
and a foot long, proceeding from the reservoir AB, and
having its extremity bent into the form CD, be inserted
65. ^nto ^ie vessel CDG, whose side DG gradually rises till it
passes over the lim of the vessel. Fill this vessel with
water, and pour the same fluid into the reservoir AB, till,
running down the pipe AC, it forms the stream EGH. In
a short while, the water in the vessel CDG will be carried
off by the current EG, which communicates its motion to
VOL. XII.
the adjacent fluid. In the same way, when a stream of
water runs through air, it drags the air along with it, and
produces wind. Hence we have the water blowing ma- Water
chine, which conveys a blast to furnaces, and which will blowing
be described in a future part of this article. The lateral machine-
communication of motion, whether the surrounding fluid
be air or water, is well illustrated by the following beauti-
Fig. 65.
ful experiments of Venturi’s. In the side of the reservoir
AB (fig. 65), insert the horizontal pipe P about an inch
H
58 *
Motion of and a half in diameter, and five inches long. At the point
Fluids, &c.0 of this pipe, about seven-tenths of an inch from the re-
' v ' servoir, fasten the bent glass tube o n m, whose cavity com-
•'municates with that of the pipe, whilst its other extremity
is immersed in coloured water contained in the small ves¬
sel F. When water is poured into the reservoir AB, hav¬
ing no connection with the pipe C, so that it may issue
from the horizontal pipe, the red liquor will rise towards
m in the incurvated tube onm. If the descending leg of
this glass syphon be six inches and a half longer than the
other, the red liquor will rise to the very top of the syphon,
enter the pipe P, and running out with the other water,
will in a short time leave the vessel F empty. Now, the
cause of this phenomenon is evidently this : When the water
begins to flow from the pipe P, it communicates with the
air in the syphon o n m, and drags a portion along with it.
The air in the syphon is therefore rarefied, and this process
of rarefaction is constantly going on as long as the watei
runs through the horizontal pipe. The equilibrium ‘be¬
tween the external air pressing upon the fluid in the ves¬
sel F, and that included in the syphon, being thus destroy¬
ed, the red liquor will rise in the syphon, till it communi¬
cates with the issuing fluid, and is dragged along with it
through the orifice of the pipe P, till the vessel F is
emptied.
Prop. IX.
200. To find the horizontal distance to which fluids will
spout from an orifice perforated in the side of a vessel,
and the curve which it will describe.
Theory of Let AB be a vessel filled with water, and C an orifice in
vertical its side, so inclined to the horizon as to discharge die fluid
lique jets. * ‘
HY DRODYNAMICS.
also EF, GH parallel to CN, and FM, HN parallel to CG, Motion d
and let CM, CN represent the force of gravity, or the\
spaces through which it would cause a portion ot fluid to
descend in the time that this portion would move through
CE, CG respectively, by virtue of the impulsive force.
Now, it follows from the composition of forces (Dynamics,
135), that the fluid at C, being solicited in the direction
CE by a force which would carry it through CE in the
same time that the force of gravity would make it fall
through CM, will describe the diagonal CF of the paral¬
lelogram CEFM, and will arrive at F in the same time
that it would have reached E by its impulsive force, or INI
by the force of gravity ; and for the same reason the por¬
tion of the fluid will arrive at H in the same time that it
would have reached G by the one force, and N by the
other. The fluid therefore being continually deflected
from its rectilineal direction CP by the force of gravity,
will describe a curve line CFHK, which will be a para¬
bola ; for since the motion along CP must be uniform, CE,
CG will be to one another as the times in which they are
described, and may therefore represent the times in which
the fluid would arrive at E and G, if influenced by no other
force. But in the time that the fluid has described CE
gravity has made it fall through Eh, and in the time that
it would have described CG, gravity has caused it to fall
through GH. Now, since the spaces are as the squares of
the times in which they are described (Dynamics, 37,
we shall have EF : GH = CE^ : CG2. But on account ot
the parallelograms CEFM, CGHN, EF and GH are equal
to CM and CN respectively, and MF, NH, to CE, CG re¬
spectively ; therefore CM : CN = MF2 : NH2, which is
the property of the parabola, CM, CN being the abscissae,
and MF, NH the ordinates (Conic Sections, Part. I.
Prop. IX. Cor.).
201. On account of the parallels LP, CX, LC, GX, the
triangles LCP, GCX are similar, and therefore (Geom.
Sect. IV. Theor. XX.) CG : CX = PC : PL and GX:
CX = CL : PL. Hence CG = , and GX =r
CX X CL
PL ’
CX x 2 CS
PL
PL
but since P C n 2 C S, we have C G =
■, and since GX =r GX — HX, we shall have
GH
CX x CL
PL
— HX. But as the parameter of the
in the direction CP. If the issuing fluid were influenced
by no other force except that which impels it out of the
orifice, it would move with an uniform motion in the direc¬
tion CP. But immediately upon its exit from the orifice
C, it is subject to the force of gravity, and is therefore in¬
fluenced by two forces, one of which impels it in the direc¬
tion CP, and the other draws it downwards in vertical lines.
Make CE equal to EG, and CP double of CS, the altitude
of the fluid. Draw PL parallel to CK, and join SL. Draw
parabola CRK is equal to 4 CS ('), we have, by the pro¬
perty of this conic section, NH2 = CN X 4 CS, or CG- —
4 G H X CS ; therefore, by substituting in this equation
the preceding values of C G and GH, we shall have
CX2 X CS “ CX X CL x PL — HX X PL 2. Now, it
is evident, from this equation, that HX is nothing, or va-
CL x PL
nishes when CX rr 0, or when CX  , for HX
being = 0, HX X PL 2, will also be = 0, and the equa¬
tion will become CX 2 X CS = CX x CL x PL, or divid-
CL x PL
ing by CX and CS, it becomes CX = ^ • But,
(!) The parameter of the parabola described by the issuing fluid, is equal tn/dur times the altitude of the fluid above the orifice.
For, since the fluid issues at € with a velocity equal to that acquired by tailing through SC, if this velocity were continued uniform,
the fluid would move through 2 CS or CP, in the same time that a heavy body would fall through SC. Draw PQ parallel to CS,
and QW to CP ; then, since Q. is in the parabola, the fluid will describe CP uniformly in the same time that it falls through CW
bv the force of gravity, therefore CW = CS. Now CP = 2 CS, and CP2 = 4 CS2 = 4 x CS x CS = 4 X CS^ X CW; but it is a
property of the parabola, that the square of the ordinate WQ or CP is equal to the product of the abscissa CW and the parameter,
therefoi'3 4 CS is the parameter of the parabola.
fll
HYDRODYNAMICS.
59
otion of when HX vanishes towards K, CX is equal to CK, conse-
uids, &c. CL X P L
 quently CK = —/v0—-• Bisect CK in T, then CT =
CK
, and CT r=
CS
CL x PL
2 CS '
Draw TR perpendicular to
CK, and TR will be found =
CL2
4 CS’
Then, if H m be
drawn at right angles to HX, we shall have CX =r CT —
tt CL x PL
H m —
2 CS
H m and HXrrRT — R zz
CL
H w 2 _ cg
parabola whose vertex is R, its axis RT, and its parameter
PL2
, R m being an abscissa of the axis, and H m its cor-
CS
RT
4 CS
7) ^
a X and C T zr
K-
R2
CL x PL
2 CS
4 a2 m n
J J cr' CS x , „„ CS X ^ T, Motion of
and reduction SG =z    , and CG zz ———. By FiuidSj&c#
substituting these values of SG and CG in the equation
CT
2 SG X CG , ^ 2 CS X ™
—SC . wehaveCT = g5x-^--X
C S x tt 2 CS x tti x CS x tt 2 CS x tti tt
R
m n
R2’
R2
— 2 ax
CS X R X R
But the parameter P of the parabola CRK is equal
CT2
R m. After substituting these values of CX and
4 CS 5
HX in the equation CX 2 X CS zz CX X CL X PL —
HX X PL 2, it will become, after the necessary reductions,
PT 2
X R ni. The curve CRK is therefore a
responding ordinate. Now, making a — CS, the altitude
of the reservoir ; R z= radius ; w zz: PL the sine of the
angle PCL ; and n zz CL, the cosine of the same angle,
CP being radius. Then CP : PL zz R : therefore
PL x R = C P X »*, and dividing by R and substituting
‘lam
2 a or 2 CS, instead of its equal CP, we have PL zz —,
T 2 « tt
and by the very same reasoning, we have CL zz —.
(3 L ^ 4 71^
Hence RT zz —^ will be zz ——— divided by 4 a, or
2 a X R2
2 a X and the parameter of the parabola zz zz
It“ Co
4 a2 m2 „ w2
   zz 4 a X iTz-
a X R2 R2
202. Hence we have the following construction. With
£ CS as radius, describe the semicircle SGC, which the
Fig. 67.
direction CR of the jet or issuing fluid meets in G. Draw
GN perpendicularly to CS, and having prolonged it to¬
wards R, make GR equal to GN. From R let fall RT
perpendicular to CK, and meeting it in T, and upon RT,
CT, describe the parabola CRK having its vertex in R,
this parabola will be the course of the issuing fluid. For,
by the construction NR or CT zz 2 GN, and on account
of the similar triangles SGC, CGN, SC : SG zz CG : GN ;
2 SG X CG
hence SC X GN zz SG X CG, or 2 GN, or CT zz g£—•
But from the similarity of triangles CS: CG zz SG: GN
and CS : CG zz CG : CN, consequently, when CG is radius
or zz R, GN will be the sine m of the angle GCS, and CN
its cosine n ; and we shall then have, by Euclid VI. 16.
to because it is a third proportional to the abscissa
4 cfi X ^ ^
and its ordinate, therefore P zz- - T-- —. Now RT zz
R2 x RT
NG x
CN, and CN zz , because CN : N G = m : w, or
m
71^
CN zz RT z=. a X by substituting the preceding value
of NG. Therefore, the parameter P zz ^ "rT ^ )~z-
(CL X ^2-^ \ ^
—jp— j — 4: a X which is the same value of the
parameter as was found in the preceding article, and there¬
fore verifies the construction.
203. Cor. 1. Since NG zz GR and CT zz TK, the am¬
plitude or distance CT, to which the fluid will reach on a
horizontal plane, will be 4 NG, or quadruple the sine of the
apgle formed by the direction of the jet and a vertical line,
the chord of the arch CG, being radius.
204. Cor. 2. If S tt be made equal to CN, and n g be
drawn parallel to CT, and g r be made equal to n g ; then,
if the direction of the jet be C g, the fluid will describe the
parabola C r K whose vertex is r, and will meet the hori¬
zontal line in K, because n g — NG, and 4tt# = 4NGzz
CK. The same may be shewn of every other pair of para¬
bolas, whose vertices R r are equidistant from a c, a. hori¬
zontal line passing through the centre of the circle.
205. Cor. 3. Draw the ordinate a b through the centre
a, and since this is the greatest ordinate that can be drawn,
the distance to which the water will spout, being equal to
4 a, will be the greatest when its line of direction passes
through b, that is, when it makes an angle of 45° with the
horizon,
206. Cor. 4. If an orifice be made in the vessel AB at
N, and the water issues horizontally in the direction NG,
it will describe the parabola NT, and CT will be equal to
2 NG. For (by Prop. IX. note) the parameter of the
parabola NT is equal to 4 NS, and by the property of the
parabola CT2 z= NC X 4 NS, or i CT zz 2 VNC X NS ;
but by the property of the circle (Geom. Sect. IV. Theor.
XXVIII.) NG2" zz NC X NS, and NG zz VNC x NS,
hence CT zz 2 NG. If the fluid is discharged from the
orifice at n, so that S tt zz C N, w will be zz N G, and it
will spout to the same distance CT.
, Prop. X.
207* To determine the pressure exerted upon pipes by
the water which flows through them.
Let us suppose the column of fluid CD divided into an in- Fig. 68.
finite number of laminae EF f e. Then friction being ab¬
stracted, every particle of each lamina will move with the
same velocity when the pipe CD is horizontal. Now, the
velocity at the vena contracta m n may be expressed by
VA, A being the altitude of the fluid in the reservoir.
60
Motion of
Fluids, &c.
Fig. 68.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
24A
the pressure which produces the velocity
But the velocity at the vena contracta, is to the velocity in
the pipe, as the area of the latter is to the area of the for¬
mer. Therefore h being the diameter of the vena con-
tracta, and d that of the pipe CD, the area of the one will
be to the area of the other, as d2 : e?2, (Geometry, Sect.
VI. Prop. IV.) consequently we shall have rf2 : <52 =: V A :
32 VA
———, the velocity of the water in the pipe. But since
the velocity VA is due to the altitude A, the velocity
b 2 V A 5 4 A
—r-— will be due to the altitude —ry-. Now, as each
d* di
particle of fluid which successively reaches the extremity
DH of the pipe, has a tendency to move with the velocity
a2 va
‘'Vtion of
— r‘~   — r  — ^ ^2 Fluids, fc,
But this pressure is distributed through every part of the
pipe CD, consequently the pressure sustained by the sides
24A
of the pipe will be A 
208. Cor. 1. If a very small aperture be made in the side
of the pipe, the water will issue with a velocity due to the
a4 A
height A —4-. When the diameter 2 of the orifice is
equal to the diameter d of the pipe, the altitude becomes
A — A or nothing; and if the orifice is in this case below
the pipe, the water will descend through it by drops.
Hence we see the mistake of those who have maintained,
that when a lateral orifice is pierced in the side of a pipe,
the water will rise to a height due to the velocity of the
included water.
209. Cor. 2. Since the quantities of water, discharged by
the same orifice, are proportional to the square roots of the
altitudes of the reservoir, or to the pressures exerted at the
orifice, the quantity of water discharged by a lateral orifice
may be easily found. Let W be the quantity of water dis¬
charged in a given time by the proposed aperture under the
pressure A, and let w be the quantity discharged under the
a / S 4 a
lA. Then W: w = V A : V A——jf-,
e?4 rf4
pressure A
VA, while it moves only with the velocity
c22
tremity D » of the pipe will sustain a pressure equal to the
difference of the pressures produced by the velocities VA
3 32 VA u u . $4A A
and ———, that is, by a pressure A -y, A represent¬
ing the pressure which produces the velocity V A, and
, the ex- consequently, w X V A
w x a/a.
w X
$4A
d4
and w =.
PA
d* _
= W
V# —24
Therefore, since W
V A d2
may be determined by the experiments in the following
chapter, to is known.
CHAPTER II ACCOUNT OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE MOTION OF WATER DISCHARGED
FROM VESSELS, EITHER BY ORIFICES OR ADDITIONAL TUBES, OR RUNNING IN PIPES
OR OPEN CANALS.
Ratio be- 210. In the preceding chapter, we have taken notice of
are^of the ^ie contraction produced upon the vein of fluid issuing from
vena eon- an orifice in a thin plate, and have endeavoured to ascertain
traeta and its cause. According to Sir Isaac Newton, the diameter
the orifice, of the vena contracta is to that of the orifice as 21 to 25.
Poleni makes it as 11 to 13; Bernoulli as 5 to 7; the
Chevalier de Buat as 6 to 9 ; Bossut as 41 to 50; Miche-
lotti as 4 to 5; Venturi as 4 to 5; Bidone as 33 to 50;
and Eytelwein as 32 to 50. This ratio, however, is by no
means constant. It varies with the form and position of
the orifice, with the thickness of the plate in which the ori¬
fice is made, and likewise with the form of the vessel and
the weight of the superincumbent fluid. But these varia¬
tions are too trifling to be regarded in practice.—We shall
now lay before the reader an account of the results of the
experiments of different philosophers, but particularly those
of the Abbe Bossut, to whom the science is deeply indebted
both for the accuracy and extent of his labours.
Sect. I. On the Quantity of Water discharged from Ves¬
sels constantly full by Orifices in thin Plates.
211. The following table contains the results obtained by
Michelotti when the orifices are vertical, and of a square
or circular form, the altitude of the head of water varying
from 6 feet to about 22 feet.
Table I. Shewing the Quantity of Water discharged by
different Vertical Orifices.
Altitude of Water
above the centre of
the orifice.
Ft. In. Lin. Pts.
6 7 4 3
6
11
11
21
21
10
8
9
8
9 10
3 6
6 7
11 5
21 5
6 9 1
11 10 8
21 6 1
6
11
21
4 0
1 0
4 0
6 9 5 0
11 8 8 0
21 10 10 0
6 10 6 0
11 8 11 0
22 0 2 0
Size and form
of the orifice.
Square
of
3 inches.
Time of
running.
Square
of
2.inches.
Square
of
1 inch.
Circular of
3 inches
diameter.
Circular of
2 inches
diameter.
Circular of
1 inch
diameter.
Minutes.
10
12
10
5
6
15
15
10
30
24
60
15
12
8
30
28
20
60
60
60
Cubic feet of
water dis¬
charged.
Ft. In. Lin
463 7 3
566 5
516 9
612 1
415 5
499 2
329 9 8
423 5 7
385 4 0
158 6 7
163 9 6
562 11 4
542 10 6
570 11 8
521 3 7
488 8 3
589 6 5
575 5 10
247 4 3
324 1 5
444 6 5
Michelet-
ti’s expert
ments.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
61
'i xperi- The coefficient obtained from these experiments is
i nts on 0.625.
1 •)|ot|on 212. Messrs Brindley and Smeaton found that 20 cubic feet
| 1 UI(|_s'y of water w ere discharged from orifices 1 inch square, in the
following times, varying with the height of the water.
Height of water
in feet.
1
2
3
4
Time of discharging
20 cubic feet.
562 seconds.
400
320
284
254
When the height of the water was 6 feet, and the orifice
2 an inch square, 20 cubic feet were discharged in 17 mi¬
nutes 33 seconds. The coefficient obtained from these
experiments is 0.6.3.
213. When the water stands always at the upper surface of
a rectangular aperture, without the upper edge, the aper¬
ture is called a notch. The following table shews the time
of discharging 20 cubic feet, through notches 6 inches wide,
of various depths.
Depth of the notch
in inches.
1
1 3
2/3
H
6j
5
u
If
5f
Time of discharging
20 cubic feet.
436 seconds.
295
139
93
30
46
326
230
47
tan ti ties
water
charged
orifices
thin
ites, ac-
fding to
s experi-
mts of
)SSUt.
214. In the following experiments by the Abbe Bossut
which were frequently repeated in various ways, the orifice
was pierced in a plate of copper about half a line thick. When
the orifice is in the bottom of the vessel, it is called a ho¬
rizontal orifice; and when it is in the side of it, it is called
a lateral orifice.
1 able II. Shewing the Quantity of Water discharged in
one minute, by orifices differing inform and position.
Altitude of
the fluid
above the
centre of the
orifice.
Form and position
of the orifice.
Ft. In. I,in.
11 8 10
9 0 0
4 0 0
5 0 7
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Rectangular and Hori¬
zontal.
Horizontal and Square
Horizontal and Square
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
The orifice’s
diameter.
6 lines
1 inch
2 inches
1 inch by
3 lines
1 inch, side
2 inch, side
6 lines
1 inch
6 lines
1 inch
1 inch
No. of
cub. in.
dischar¬
ged in a
minute.
2311
9281
37203
2933
11817
47361
2018
8135
1353
5436
628
215. From the results contained in the preceding table, Experi-
we may draw the following conclusions. ments on
1. That the quantities of water discharged in equal times
by different apertures, the altitudes of the fluid being the ,°_
same, are very nearly as the areas of the orifices. That is,
if A or a represent the areas of the orifices, and W, w the
quantities of water discharged,
W : to — A \ a.
2. The quantities discharged in equal times by the same
aperture, the altitude of the fluid being different, are to one
another very nearly as the square roots of the altitudes of
the water in the reservoir, reckoning from the centres of
the orifices. That is, if H, h be the different altitudes of
the fluid, we shall have W : w — VH: «Jh.
3. Hence we may conclude in general, that the quantities
discharged in the same time by different apertures, and
under different altitudes in the reservoir, are in the com¬
pound ratio of the areas of the orifices, and the square roots
of the altitudes. Thus, if W, w be the quantities dischar¬
ged in the same time from the orifices A, a, under the
same altitude of water; and if W', w be the quantities dis¬
charged in the same time by the same aperture a under
different altitudes, H, h : then by the first of the two pre¬
ceding articles ,
W : w =: A : a, and by the second
: Wzr VH : *Jh. Multiplying these analo¬
gies together, gives us
Ww: W'm? r= A VH : aVh, and by dividing by w,
W : W' =AVH:aVh.
This rule is sufficiently correct in practice ; but wdien great
accuracy is required, the following remarks must be attend¬
ed to.
4. Small orifices discharge less water in proportion than
great ones, the altitude of the fluid being the same. The
circumferences of the small orifices being greater in pro¬
portion to the issuing column of fluid than the circum¬
ferences of greater ones, the friction, which increases with
the area of the rubbing surfaces, will also be greater, and
will therefore diminish the velocity, and consequently the
quantity discharged.
5. Hence of several orifices whose areas are equal, that
which has the smallest circumference will discharge more
water than the rest under the same altitude of fluid in the
reservoir, because in this case the friction will be least.
Circular orifices, therefore, are the most advantageous of
all, for the circumference of a circle is the shortest of all
lines that can be employed to inclose a given space.
6. In consequence of a small increase which the con¬
traction of the vein of fluid undergoes, in proportion as the
altitude of the water in the reservoir augments, the quan¬
tity discharged ought also to diminish a little as that alti¬
tude increases.
By attending to the preceding observations, the results
of theory may be so corrected, that the quantities of water
discharged in a given time may be determined with the
greatest accuracy possible.
216. The Abbe Bossut has given the following table con- Compari-
taining a comparison of the theoretical with the real dis -son be-
charges, for an orifice one inch in diameter, and for differ-tween the
ent altitudes of the fluid in the reservoir. The real dis-theoreti-
charges were not found immediately by experiment, butcalja^1
were determined by the precautions pointed out in the chai ses
preceding articles, and may be regarded to be as accurate from a eir-
as if direct experiments had been employed. The fourth cular ori-
column was computed by M. Prony.1 fice-
1 Architecture HydrauUque, tom. i. p. 369.
62
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
Table III. Comparison of the Theoretic with the Real table, we may regard 133896 as very near the truth. Had Experi.
Discharges from an Orifice one inch in diameter.
Constant al¬
titude of the
water in the
reservoir
above the
centre of the
orifice.
Paris Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Theoretical
discharges
through a
circular ori¬
fice one inch
in diameter.
Cubic Inches.
4381
6196
7589
8763
9797
10732
11592
12392
13144
13855
14530
15180
15797
16393
16968
1
Real dischar¬
ges in the
same time
through the
same orifice.
Cubic Inches.
2722
3846
4710
5436
6075
6654
7183
7672
8135
8574
8990
9384
9764
10130
10472
2
Ratio of the theore¬
tical to the real
discharges.
1 to 0.62133
1 to 0.62073
1 to 0.62064
1 to 0.62034
1 to 0.62010
1 to 0.62000
1 to 0.61965
1 to 0.61911
1 to 0.61892
1 to 0.61883
1 to 0.61873
1 to 0.61819
1 to 0.61810
1 to 0.61795
1 to 0.61716
the orifice been less than one inch, or the altitude less than ments on
15 feet, it would have been necessary to diminish the pre-1^^0^11
ceding answer by a few cubic inches. Since the velocities ^
of the issuing fluid are as the quantities discharged, the
preceding results may be employed also to find the real
velocities from those which are deduced from theory.
219. As the velocity of falling bodies is 16.087 feet To deter_
per second, the velocity due to 16.087 feet will be 32.174mine the
feet per second, and as the velocities are as the square velocity.
roots of the height, we shall have V 16.087 : VH =
32.174 :V the velocity due to any other height, conse-
quently V = = 8.016 VH,
Deduction 217* It is evident from the preceding table, that the
from the theoretical, as well as the real discharges, are nearly pro-
preceding portional to the square roots of the altitudes of the fluid in
table.
Applica¬
tion and
preceding
table.
4.011
so
a/16.087
that 8.016 is the coefficient by which we must always mul¬
tiply the altitude of the fluid in order to have its theoreti¬
cal velocity.
220. The following are the coefficients according to
various authors, or the ratio of the theoretical to the real
discharges from a circular orifice:
Michelotti ..0.649
   0.625
the reservoir. Thus, if we take the altitudes 1 and 4,
whose square roots are as 1 to 2, the real discharges taken
from the table ^re 2722, 5436, which are to one another
very nearly as 1 to 2, their real ratio being as 1 to 1.997.
The fourth column of the preceding table also shews us
that the theoretical are to the real discharges nearly in the
ratio of 1 to 0.62, or more accurately, as 1 to 0.61938;
therefore 0.62 is the number by which we must multiply
the discharges as found by the formulae in the preceding
chapter, in order to have the quantities of water actually
discharged.
218. In order to find the quantities of fluid discharged
, by orifices of different sizes, and under different altitudes
of water in the reservoir, we must use the table in the fol¬
lowing manner. Let it be required, for example, to find
the quantity of water furnished by an orifice three inches
in diameter, the altitude of the water in the reservoir being
30 feet. As the real discharges are in the compound ratio
of the area of the orifices, and the square roots of the alti¬
tudes of the fluid (art. 215, No. 3), and as the theoretical
quantity of water discharged by an orifice one inch in dia¬
meter, is by the second column of the table 16918 cubic
inches in a minute, we shall have this analogy, 1VT5:
9^30 = 16968 : 215961 cubic inches, the quantity requir¬
ed. This quantity being diminished in the ratio of 1 to .62,
being the ratio of the theoretical to the actual discharges,
gives 133896 for the real quantity of water discharged by
the given orifice. But (by No. 5 of art. 215), the quan¬
tity discharged ought to be a little greater than 133896,
because greater orifices discharge more than small ones;
and by No. 6 the quantity ought to be less than 133896,
because the altitude of the fluid is double that in the table.
These twm causes therefore having a tendency to increase
and diminish the quantity deduced from the preceding
Borda 0.646
Venturi   0.640
Eytelwein  0.640
Hachette 0.690
Newton    .....0.707
Helsham 0.705
Brindley  0.631
Smeaton 0.631
Banks 0.750
Bossut 0.610
Bennie1 0.621
Sect. II. On the Quantity of Water discharged from
Vessels constantly full, by small Tubes adapted to Cir¬
cular Orifices.
221. The difference between the actual discharges, and Quantities
those deduced from theory, arises from the contraction ofwater
the fluid vein, and from the friction of the water against ^lsc^|e^
the circumference of the orifice. If the operation of any^®"13
of these causes could be prevented, the quantities of water
actually discharged would approach nearer the theoretical
discharges. There is no probability of diminishing friction
in the present case by the application of unguents; but if a
short cylindrical tube be inserted in the orifice of the vessel,
the water will follow the sides of the tube, the contraction
of the fluid vein will be in a great measure prevented, and
the actual discharges will approximate much nearer to those
deduced from theory, than when the fluid issues through a
simple orifice.
222. If a cylindrical tube two inches long, and two When the
inches in diameter, be inserted in the reservoir, and if thiscyjin(?ri“:
orifice is stopped by a piston till the reservoir is filled with [^eflor.:
water, the fluid, when permitted to escape, will not follow and (W0 in
the sides ot the tube, that is, the tube will not be filled diameter,
with water, and the contraction in the vein of fluid will the fluid
take place in the same manner as if the orifice were pierced ve’n ^cor
in a thin plate. When the cylindrical tube was one inch tracjti^'
in diameter, and two inches long, the water followed the offices,
sides of the tube, and the vein of fluid ceased to contract.
While M. Bossut was repeating this experiment, he pre¬
vented the escape of the fluid by placing the instrument
1 Philosophical Transactions, 1831.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
63
| peri. MN (see fig. 69-), consisting of a handle and a circular
r its on head, upon the interior extremity of the tube, and found,
th Motion t0 his great surprise, that when he withdrew the mstru-
of luids. ment jyjx, to give passage to the water, it sometimes fol-
"f -v—iowed the sides of the tube, and sometimes detached itself
F <j9, from them, and produced a contraction in the fluid vein
similar to that which took place when the first tube was
employed. After a little practice, he could produce either
of these effects at pleasure. The same phenomenon was
exhibited when the length of the tube was diminished to
one inch six lines ; only it was more difficult to make the
fluid follow the circumference of the tube. This effect
was still more difficult to produce when its length was re¬
duced to one inch; and when it was so small as half an
inch, the water uniformly detached itself from its circum¬
ference, and formed the vend contTdctu,
223, Table IV. Shewing the Quantities of Water dis¬
charged by Cylindrical Tubes one inch in diameter
with different lengths.
C unities
o luiddis-
e rged
f n cylin-
d al tubes
(i he same
i! neters
1 ditie-
r t
1 fths.
The experiments in the preceding table were made with
tubes inserted in the bottom of the vessel. V hen the
tubes were fixed horizontally in the side of the reservoir,
they furnished the very same quantities of fluid, their di¬
mensions and the altitude of the fluid remaining the same.
It appears from the preceding results, that the quantities
of water discharged increase with the length of the tube,
and that these quantities are very nearly as the square roots
of the altitudes of the fluid above the interior orifice of the
vertical tube.
We have already seen that the theoretical are to the real
discharges, as 1 to 0.62, or nearly as 16.1 to 10. But by
comparing the two last experiments in the preceding table,
it appears that the quantity of fluid discharged by a cylin¬
drical tube where the water follows its sides, is to the quan¬
tity discharged by the same tube when the vena contracta
is formed, as 13 to 10; and since the same quantity must
be discharged by the latter method as by a simple orifice,
we may conclude that the quantity discharged according
to theory, and that which is discharged by a cylindrical
tube and by a simple orifice, are to one another very nearly
as the numbers 16, 13, 10. Though the water therefore
follows the sides of the cylindrical tube, the contraction of
the fluid vein is not wholly destroyed ; for the difference
between the quantity discharged in this case, and that de¬
duced from theory, is too great to be ascribed to the in¬
crease of friction which arises from the water following the
circumference of the tube.
224. In order to determine the effect of tubes of diffe¬
rent diameters, under different altitudes of water in the re¬
servoir, M. Bossut instituted the experiments, the results
of which are exhibited in the following table.
Constant altitude
sf the fluid above
the superior base
:)f the tube being
11 feet 8 inches
and 10 lines.
Variable lengths of the tubes
expressed in lines.
f 48
The tube being filled ) ^
with the issuing fluid. ^ g
The tube not filled ^ ^ g
with the issuing fluid. /
Cubic inches
discharged in
a minute.
12274
12188
12168
9282
Table V. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged Experi-
by Cylindrical Tubes two inches long, with different t
Diameters. 0f Fluids.
Constant alti¬
tude of the wa¬
ter above the
orifice.
Diameter of the Tube.
i'eet. Inches.
■s. ! < L
/ ] The tube being filled J
) ! with the issuing fluid. )
i J ) The tube not filled
( with the issuing fluid,
f | The tube being filled
\ i thp issuing* fluid.
mes.
6
10
6
10
6
10!
6
10
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged in
a minute.
Cubic inches.
1689
4703
1293
3598
1222
3402
935
2603
Quantities
of water
discharged
by cylin¬
drical tubes
of the same
length but
different
diameters.
225. By comparing the different numbers in this table,
we may conclude,
1. That the quantities of water discharged by different
cylindrical tubes of the same length, the altitude of the
fluid remaining the same, are nearly as the areas of the ori¬
fices, or the squares of their diameters.
2. That the quantities discharged by cylindrical tubes
of the same diameter and length, are nearly as the square
roots of the altitude of the fluid in the reservoir.
3. Hence the quantities discharged during the same
time, by tubes of different diameters, under different alti¬
tudes of fluid in the reservoir, are nearly in the compound
ratio of the squares of the diameters of the tube, and the
square roots of the altitudes of the water in the reservoir.
4. By comparing these results with those which were
deduced from the experiments with simple orifices, it will
be seen that the discharges follow the same laws in cylin-
drical tubes as in simple orifices.
226. Table VI. Comparison of the Theoretical with the
Real Discharges from a Cylindrical Tube one inch in
Diameter, and two inches long.
Constant al¬
titude of the
water in the
reservoir
above the
centre of the
orifice.
Paris Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1
Theoretical
discharges
through a
circular ori¬
fice one inch
in diameter.
Cubic Inches.
4381
6196
7589
8763
9797
10732
11592
12392
13144
13855
14530
15180
15797
16393
16968
2
Real discharges
in the same time
by a cylindrical
tube one inch in
diameter and two
inches long.
Cubic Inches.
3539
5002
6126
7070
7900
8654
9340
9975
10579
11151
11693
12205
12699
13177
13620
Ratio of the
theoretical to
the real dis¬
charges.
1 to 0
1 to 0
1 to 0
1 to 0
1 to 0
1 to 0.
1 to 0,
1 to 0.
1 to 0.
1 to 0,
1 to 0,
1 to 0,
1 to 0
1 to 0
1 to 0
,81781
,80729
,80724
.80681
.80638
.80638
,80573
.80496
.80485
.80483
,80477
.80403
,80390
,80382
.80270
Compari¬
son of the
theoretical
with the
real dis¬
charges in
cylindrical
tubes.
64
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi- The above table is deduced from the foregoing experi¬
ments on ments, and contains a comparative view of the quantities of
the Motion water discharged by a simple orifice, according to theory,
of J luius. anj diose discharged by a cylindrical tube of the same
^ " diameter under different altitudes of water. The num¬
bers might have been more accurate by attending to some
of the preceding remarks ; but they are sufficiently exact
for any practical purpose. The fourth column, containing
the ratio between the theoretical and actual discharges,
was computed by M. Prony.
By comparing the preceding table with that in art. 216,
we shall find that cylindrical tubes discharge a much
greater quantity of water than simple orifices of the same
diameter, and that the quantities discharged are as 81 to
62 nearly. This is a curious phenomenon, and will be
afterwards explained.
227. The application of this table to other additional
tubes under different altitudes of the fluid, not contained
in the first column, is very simple. Let it be required, for
example, to find the quantity of water discharged by a cy¬
lindrical tube, 4 inches in diameter, and 8 inches long, the
altitude of the fluid in the reservoir being 25 feet. In Experi.
order to resolve this question, find (by art. 218) the theo- nientson
retical quantity discharged, which in the present instance ^
will be 350490 cubic inches, and this number diminished Ult^
in the ratio of 1 to 0.81 will give 284773 for the quantity
required. The length of the tube in this example was
made 8 inches, because, when the length of the tube is less
than twice its diameter, the water does not easily follow its
interior circumference. If the tube were longer than 8
inches, the quantity of fluid discharged would have been
greater, because it uniformly increases with the length of
the tube; the greatest length of the tube being always
small, in comparison with the altitude of the fluid in the
reservoir.
228. Hitherto we have supposed the tube to be exactly
cylindrical. When its interior surface, however, is conical,
the quantities discharged undergo a considerable variation,
which may be estimated from the following experiments of
the Marquis Poleni, published in his work, De Castellis
per quce derivantur Fluviorum aquee, which appeared at
Padua in 1718.
Table YII. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged hy Conical Tubes of different Diameters.
Quantities
of water
discharged
by conical
tubes, ac¬
cording to
the experi¬
ments of
M. Poleni.
Constant alti¬
tude of the water
in the reservoir,
256 lines, or 1
foot 9 inches
and 4 lines.
Length of
each tube
92 lines,
or 7 inches
8 lines.
Apertures employed.
Orifice in a thin plate,
Cylindrical tube,
1st Conical tube,
2d Conical tube,
3d Conical tube,
4th Conical tube,
Interior
diameter.
26 lines
26
33
42
60
118
Exterior
diameter.
26 lines
26
26
26
26
26
Quantity discharged
in a min. in cubic feet.
Time in which 73035
cub. in. were discharged,
15877
23434
24758
24619
24345
23687
4' 36"
3' 7"
2' 57"
2' 58"
3'
37
0"
5"
From these experiments we are authorized to conclude,
1. That the real discharges are less than those deduced
from theory, which in the present case is 27425 cubic
inches in a minute ; and, 2. That when the interior orifice
of the tube is enlarged to a certain degree, the quantity
discharged is increased; but that when this enlargement
is too great, a contraction takes place without the exterior
orifice, and the quantity discharged suffers a diminution.
If the smallest base of the conical tube be inserted in the
side of the reservoir, it will furnish more water than a cy¬
lindrical tube whose diameter is equal to the smallest dia¬
meter of the conical tube; for the divergency of its sides
changes the oblique motion which the particles would
otherwise have had, when passing from the reservoir into
the tube.
229. The experiments of Poleni and Bossut having been
made only with tubes of a conical and cylindrical form,
M. Venturi was induced to institute a set of experiments,
in which he employed tubes of the various forms exhibited
in fig. 69- The results of his researches are contained in
the following table,Tor which we have computed the column Experi-
containing the number of cubic
inches discharged in one minute,
in order that the experiments
of the Italian philosopher may
be more easily compared with
those which are exhibited in the
preceding tables. The constant
altitude of the water in the re¬
servoir was 32.5 French inches,
or 34.642 English inches. The
quantity of water which flowed
out of the vessel in the times
contained in the first column
was 4 French cubic feet, or
4.845 English cubic feet. The
measures in the table are all
English, unless the contrary be
expressed.
Eig. Ci).
HYDRODYNAMICS.
65
I peri'
m ts on
the lotion
of iuids.
- Table VIII. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged from Orifices of various forms, the constant Altitude of the ^n^sTon
the Motion
of Fluids.
Fluid being 32.5 French, or 34.642 English inches.
Fij 09.
No.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Nature and dimensions of the tubes and orifices.
A simple circular orifice in a thin plate, the diameter of the aperture being
1.6 inches, .......
A cylindrical tube 1.6 inches in diameter, and 4.8 inches long,
A tube similar to B, fig. 69, which differs from the preceding only in
having the contraction in the shape of the natural contracted vein,
The short conical adjutage A, fig. 69, being the first conical part of the
preceding tube, . ,
The tube D, fig. 69, being a cylindrical tube adapted to the small conical
end A, mn being 3.2 inches long, ....
The same adjutage, mn being 12.8 inches,
The same adjutage, m n being 25.6 inches,
The tube C, consisting of the cylindrical tube of Exp. 2, placed over the
conical part of A, . . . . . .
The double conical pipe 1L, ab ■=. ac — \.Q inches, cd — 0.977 inches,
ef— 1.376 inches, and the length c e of the outer cone = 4.351 inches,
The tube F, consisting of a cylindrical tube 3.2 inches long, and 1.376
inches in diameter, interposed between the two conical parts of the
preceding, .......
Time in which
4 Paris cubic feet
were discharged.
Seconds.
41
31
31
42
42.5
45
48
32.5
27.5
28.5
Paris cubic
inches discharged
in a minute.
10115
13378
13378
9874
9758
9216
8640
12760
15081
14516
fm rtant 230. These experiments of Venturi inform us of a cu-
f ic dedu-rious fact, extremely useful to the practical hydraulist.
cib from They incontestably prove, that when water is conveyed
Ye uri’s through a straight cylindrical pipe of an unlimited length,
the discharge of water may be increased only by altering
the form of the terminations of the pipe ; that is, by making
the end of the pipe A, fig. 70, of the same form as the vena
ex| i-
me s.
Fig. 70.
contracta, and by'forming the other extremity BC into a
truncated cone, having its length BC about nine times the
diameter of the cylindrical tube AB, and the aperture at C
to that at B, as 18 to 10. By giving this form to the pipe,
it will discharge more than twice as much water in a given
time, the quantity discharged by the cylindrical pipe being
to the quantity discharged by the pipe of the form ABC,
as 10 to 24.
231. M. Venturi also found, that the quantities of water
discharged out of a straight tube, a curved tube forming a
quadrantal arc, and an elbowed tube with an angle of 90°,
each branch having a horizontal position, are to one ano¬
ther ne'arly as the numbers 70, 50, 45. Hence we see the
disadvantages of sinuosities and bendings in conduit pipes.
In the construction of hydraulic machines, any variation in
the internal diameter of the pipe ought to be carefully
avoided, excepting those alterations at the extremities which
we have recommended in the preceding paragraph.
' Re Its of 232. It appears from the researches of Eytelwein, that
JEy L when the shortest tube that will make the water follow its
iiSei 9 e^‘ sides is applied to the reservoir, the quantity discharged
on dt! 3 be to that deduced from theory, as 0.810 to 1.000,
Uoll and the multiplier for finding the velocity will be 6.5.
'4u/'. When the lengths of the tubes are increased from ttvo to
four times their diameter, the ratio of the actual and theo¬
retical discharge will be 0.822 to 1.000, and the constant
multiplier for finding the velocity will be 6.6. In employ¬
ing a conical tube approaching to the figure of the vena
VOL. XII.
contracta, the ratio of the discharges was as 0.92 to 1.00,
and when its edges were rounded off, as 0.98 to 1.00 com¬
puting from its least section. He found also that the small¬
est quantity of water was discharged, when the interior ex¬
tremity of the tube projected within the reservoir, the
quantity furnished in this case being reduced to one half
of what was discharged when the tube had, its proper posi¬
tion.
233. When a cylindrical tube is applied to an orifice, Reason
the oblique motion of the particles which enter it is dimi- why cylin.
nished ; the vertical velocity of the particles, therefore, is drical tubes
increased, and consequently the quantity of water discharged. *urnis*1
M. Venturi maintains that the pressure of the atmosphere ™”ne^|ltei
increases the expense of water through a simple cylindrical fices 0f th*,
tube, and that in conical tubes, the pressure of the atmo-same dia-
sphere increases the expenditure in the ratio of the exterior meter,
section of the tube to the section of the contracted vein,
whatever be the position of the tube.
234. Of all the tubes that can be employed for discharg- j^est form
ing water, that is the most advantageous which has the for tubes
form of a contracted vein. Hence, it will be a truncated employed
cone with its greatest base next the reservoir, having itsto t^s‘
length equal to half the diameter of that base, and the area^r£>e 'va*
of the two orifices as 8 to 5, or their diameters in the sub¬
duplicate ratio of these numbers, viz. as V8 : V5.
Sect. HI Experiments on the Exhaustion of Vessels.
235. It is almost impossible to determine the exact time Difficulty
in which any vessel of water is completely exhausted, in deter-
When the surface of the fluid has descended within a few mining the
inches of the orifice, a kind of conoidal funnel is formed im-time "'j1?11
mediately above the orifice. The pressure of the superin-^
cumbent column being therefore removed, the time of cx- exhausted,
haustion is prolonged. The water falls in drops; and it is
next to impossible to determine the moment when the ves¬
sel is empty. Instead, therefore, of endeavouring to ascer¬
tain the time in which vessels are completely exhausted,
the Abbe Bossut has determined the times in which the
superior surface of the fluid descends through a certain ver¬
tical height, and his results will be found in the following
table:—
1
66
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi- Table IX. Shewing the Times in which Vessels are partly
mentg on
the Motion
of Fluids.
exhausted.
Primitive
altitude of
the water
in the
vessel.
Constant
area of a
horizontal
section of
the vessel.
Diameter of
the circu¬
lar orifice.
Paris Feet.
11.6666
PG
DE
Depression
of the upper
surface of
the fluid.
Inches.
1
2
1
2
.7854
F eet.
4
4
9
9
PG—PU
Time in
which this
depression
takes
place.
Min. Sec.
7 25£
1 52
20 24£
5 6
and when the computations are made for the different dia' Experi.
meters of the orifices, and the different depressions of the meats ob
fluid surface, the results will be had, which are exhibited thfe^ofe
in the last column of the following table, containing the _ ^
values of T, according to theory and experience.
Table X. Comparison of the Results of Theory with those
of Experiment.
Compari¬
son of the
experi¬
ments with
the results
of theory.
Figs. 63 &
64.
236. In order to compare these experimental results with
those deduced from theory, we must employ the formula
(in Prop. V. 195) where the time in which the surface
. ^ . T=:DEx VPG—VPU
descends through any height is A v^l6~OS7 ’
in which DE is the area of a section of the vessel, PG the
primitive altitude of the surface above the centre of the
orifice, PU the altitude of the surface after the time T is
elapsed, A the area of the orifice, and 16.087 the space
through which a heavy body descends in one second of
time. That the preceding formula may be corrected, we
5A
must substitute 0.62 A, or —, instead of A, in the for-
O
mula, 0.62, A being the area of the vena contractu ; and
as the measures in the preceding table are in Paris feet,
we must use 15»085, instead of 16.087, the former being the
distance in Paris feet, and the latter the distance in Eng¬
lish feet, which falling bodies describe in a second. 1 he
DE x v/PG —PU
formula, therefore, will become T >
0.62 A v 15.085
Diameter
of the cir¬
cular ori¬
fice.
Depression
of the up¬
per surface
of the
fluid.
Inches.
1
2
1
2
Feet.
4
4
9
9
Time of the
depression
of the sur¬
face by expe¬
riment.
Time of the
depression of
the surface
by the for¬
mula.
Min. Sec.
7 25£
1 52
20 24J
5 6
Min. Sec.
7 22.36
1 50.59
20 16
5 4
Difference
between the
theory and
the experi¬
ments.
Seconds.
3.14
1.41
8.50
2.00
It appears from this table that the times of discharge, by
experiment, differ very little from those deduced from the
corrected formula ; and that the latter always err in defect.
This may arise from 0.62 being too great a multiplier for
finding the corrected diameter of the orifice. W hen the
orifices are in the sides of the reservoir, the altitude PG,
PU of the surface may be reckoned from the centre of gra¬
vity of the orifice, unless when it is very large.
Sect. IV. Experiments on Vertical and Oblique Jets.
237. We have already seen that, according to theory, Vertical
vertical jets should rise to the same altitude as that of the jets doc
reservoirs from which they are supplied. It will appear,™^®^
however, from the following experiments of Bossut, that tU(jeastj.
jets do not rise exactly to this height. This arises from 0f ^ejr
the friction at the orifice, the resistance of the air, and 3ervoirs.
other causes which shall afterwards be explained.
Table XI. Containing the Altitudes to which Jets rise through Adjutages of different forms, the Altitude of the Re- WL
servoir being Eleven Feet, reckoning from the upper surface oj the horizontal Tubes m n P, o p K.
Diameter of
the hori¬
zontal tubes
TO P, O It,
each being
six feet long.
Form of the
orifices.
References
to Fig. 71-
Inch. Lines
3 8 {
3 8
8i
8{
Simple )
orifice j
H
G
0 91
0 9h
Conical |
tube
Cylindri¬
cal tube
Simple
orifice
E
D
M
L
K
Diameter
of the
orifice.
Lines.
2
Altitude of the
jet when rising
vertically,
reckoning from
Altitude of the
jet when in¬
clined a little
to the ver¬
tical.
Feet. Inch. Lines.
10
10
0 10
5 10
Feet. Inch. Lines.
6
10 6 6
94 by 70
4 by 70
2
4
8
6
1
11
7
10
4
6
0
10
0
10
10
6{
10 8 0
Description of the jets.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful, not much
enlarged at the top.
All the jets occasionally rise to dif¬
ferent heights. This very percep¬
tible in the present experiment. The
vertical jet. much enlarged at top.
The inclined one less so, and more
beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The jet beautiful.
The jet much deformed, and very much
enlarged at top.
The column much broken ; and the
successive jets detached from each
other.
E eri- 238. It appears, from the three first experiments of the
me s on preceding table, that great jets rise higher than small ones ;
the lotion
of uids.
: Sn
tw
dia
of
a»
liut
gi'
ai,
he
J tm
HYDRODYNAMICS.
nearly as the squares of the heights of the jets,
a b : c d — : Fe?2
67
Thus, Experi¬
ments on
therefore, if a 6 be known by ex-the Motion
a b X F d^ I1 Inids.
periment, we shall have c d — jTyi > aftd by adding ’
c c? to F </, we shall have the altitude of the reservoir. But
if F c were given, and it were required to find F d, the
height of the jet, we have, by the preceding analogy, F d'1 —
E b2 Xc d
a b
But c d is an unknown quantity, and is
equal to F c — F d, therefore, by substitution, F rf2 —
IT2 x F c — F d ^ ET2 E 62 x F c
a b a b a b
which is evidently a quadratic equation, which, after re¬
st.
i be- and from the three last experiments, that small jets rise
i the higher than great ones when the horizontal tube is very
3ters narrow. There is, therefore, a certain proportion between
head-11'16 diameter of the horizontal tube and that of the adju-
e for" tage or orifice, which will give a maximum height to the
g a jet. This proportion may be found in the following manner,
mum Let D be the diameter of the tube, d that of the adjutage,
lt to a the altitude B m of the reservoir, b the velocity along
the tube ; and as the velocity at the adjutage is constant,
it may be expressed by Va. Now (art. 189, note) the
velocity in the tube is to the velocity at the adjutage as
the area of their respective sections, that is, as the square
of the diameter of the one is to the square of the diameter
of the other. Therefore, Va : b — Id2 •. d2, and, conse¬
quently, b — ^ there is another tube and another
adjutage, the corresponding quantities may be the same
letters in the Greek character, viz. A, a, /3, and we shall
have the equation /3 r= ■ If we wish, therefore, that
the two jets be furnished in the same manner, then if the
velocity in the first tube leaves to the first jet all the height
possible, the velocity in the second tube leaves also to the
second jet all the height possible, and we shall have b — (Z>,
or Hence D2 : A2 — d d Va ^ Vot,
=y
E 62 X F c E E b2
’T
D2
A2
1 . 71.
that is, the squares of the diameters of the horizontal tubes
ought to be to one another in the compound ratio of the
squares of the diameters of the adjutages, and the square
roots of the altitudes of the reservoir. Now, it appears from
the experiments of Mariotte (Traite du Mouvement des
Eaux), that when the altitude of the reservoir is 16 feet, and
the diameter of the adjutage six lines, the diameter of the
horizontal tube ought to be 28 lines and a half. By taking
this as a standard, therefore, the diameters of the horizontal
tube may be easily found by the preceding rule, whatever
be the altitude of the reservoir and the diameter of the
adjutage.
It results from the three last experiments, that the jets
rise to the smaller height when the adjutage is a cylindri¬
cal tube (see D, fig. 71.), that a conical adjutage throws the
fluid very much higher, and that when the adjutage is a
simple orifice the jet rises highest of all.
239. By comparing the preceding experiments with those
of Mariotte, it appears, that the differences between the
heights of vertical jets, and the heights of the reservoir, are
duction, becomes F „
’ v a 4 2
240. From a comparison of the 5th and 6th columns of A small in-
the table, it appears that a small inclination of the jet, to clination of
a vertical line, makes it rise higher than when it ascends •lct l""
exactly vertical;1 but even then it still falls short of the^^6^ s
height of the reservoir. When the water first escapes from
the adjutage, it generally springs higher than the reservoir ;
but this effect is merely momentary, as the jet instantly
subsides, and continues at the altitudes exhibited in the
foregoing tables. The great size of the jet at its first for- The jet
mation, and its subsequent diminution, have been ascribed riseshigher
by some philosophers to the elasticity of the air which fdl- than the
lows the water in its passage through the orifice $ but it is^6S6^v°^
obvious, that this air, which moves along with the fluid, mence_
can never give it an impulsive force. In order to explain ment-
this phenomenon, let us suppose the adjutage to be stopped;
then the air which the water drags along with it, will lodge
itself at the extremity of the adjutage, so that there will
be no water contiguous to the body which covers the ori¬
fice. As soon as the cover is removed from the adjutage,
the imprisoned air escapes ; the water immediately behind
it rushes into the space which it leaves, and thus acquires
in the tube a certain velocity which increases at the orifice
in the ratio of the area of the section of the tube to the area
of the section of the orifice (art. 189, note). When the
orifice is small in comparison with the tube, the velocity
of the issuing fluid must be considerable, and will raise it
higher than the reservoir. But as the jet is resisted by
the air, and retarded by the descending fluid, its altitude
diminishes, and the simple pressure of the fluid becomes
the only permanent source of its velocity. The preceding
phenomenon was first noticed by Toricellius,2 who seems
to ascribe the diminution in the altitude of the jet to the
gravity of the descending particles.
241. The following table exhibits all that is necessary
in the formation of jets. The two first columns are taken
from Mariotte,3 and shew the altitude of the reservoir re¬
quisite to producing a jet of a certain height. The third
column contains, in Paris pints, 36 of which are equal to a
cubic foot, the quantity of water discharged in a minute by
an orifice six lines in diameter. The fourth column, com¬
puted from the hypothesis in art. 238 contains the diame¬
ters of the horizontal tubes for an adjutage six lines in dia¬
meter, relative to the altitudes in the second column. The
thickness of the horizontal tubes will be determined in a
subsequent section.
1 This was also observed by Wolfius, Opera Maihematica, tom. i. p. 802, schol. iv.
* De Motu Projectorum. Oper. Geometr. p. 192. 3 TraUt du Mouvement des Eaux, part iv. disc. 1. p. 303.
68
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
Experi¬
ments on
oblique
jets by
Eossut.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
reservoir AB (fig. 72) was 9 feet, and the diameter of the Experi¬
ments on
Fig- 72. the Motion
adjutage at N, 6 lines, a vertical abscissa CN of 4 feet
3 inches and 7 lines, answered to a horizontal ordinate CT
of 11 feet 3 inches and 3 lines. When the altitude NS of
the reservoir was 4 feet, the adjutage remaining the same,
a vertical abscissa CN of 4 feet 3 inches and 7 lines, cor¬
responded with a horizontal ordinate CT of 8 feet 2 inches
and 8 lines. The real amplitudes, therefore, are less than
those deduced from theory; and both are very nearly as
the square roots of the altitudes of the reservoirs. Hence,
to find the amplitude of a jet when the height of the re¬
servoir is 10 feet, and the vertical abscissa the same, we
have V9 feet : Vlb feet 11 feet 3 inches 3 lines : 15 feet
4 lines, the amplitude of the jet required. This rule, how¬
ever, will apply only to small reservoirs; for when the jets
enlarge, the curve which they describe cannot be deter¬
mined by theory, and therefore the relation between the
amplitudes and the heights of the reservoirs must be un¬
certain.
244. The following experiments on oblique jets were per- By Micba.
formed by MM. Michelotti and Venturi. When the height of lotti and
the adjutage above a horizontal plane was 19-33 inches, the Venturi‘
242. We have already seen that jets do not rise to the amplitude of projection, according to Michelotti, was 23.2
heights of their reservoirs ; and have remarked that the dif- inches, with a simple orifice, and 20 inches with an addi-
ference between theory and experiment arises from the tional tube. Venturi found, that when the height of the
friction at the orifice, and the resistance of the air. The water in the reservoir was 32^ inches, and that of the adju-
diminution of velocity produced by friction is very small, tage above a horizontal plane 54 inches, the amplitude ot
and the resistance of the air is a very inconsiderable source projection was 81J inches with a simple orifice, and 69
of retardation, unless when the jet rises to a great altitude, inches with an additional tube.
We must seek, therefore, for another cause of obstruction
to the rising jet, which, when combined with these, may be gECT> y. Experiments on the Motion of Water in Conduit
adequate to the effect produced. Wolfius1 has very proper- Pipes.
ly ascribed the diminution in the altitude of the jet to the
gravity of the falling water. When the velocity of the 245. The experiments of the Chevalier de Buat will be Motion of
foremost particles is completely spent, those immediately given at great length in the article Water-Works. That water in
behind, by impinging against them, lose their velocity, and, the reader, however, may be in possession of every thing c?nduit
in consequence of this constant struggle between the ascend- valuable on a subject of such public importance, we shall P1^’
ing and descending fluid, the jet continues at an altitude at present give a concise view of the experiments of Coup¬
less than that of the reservoir. Hence we may discover let, Boesut, and Prony, and of the practical conclusions
the reason why an inclination of the jet increases its alti- which they authorize us to form.
tude; for the descending fluid falling a little to one side 246. It must be evident to every reader, that, when
does not encounter the rising particles, and therefore per- wrater is conducted from a reservoir by means of a long
mits them to reach a greater altitude than when their horizontal pipe, the velocity with which the water enters
ascension is in a vertical line. Wolfius observes, in proof the pipe will be much greater than the velocity with which
of his remark that the diminution is occasioned also by the it issues from its farther extremity ; and that, if the pipe
weight of the ascending fluid, that mercury rises to a less has various flexures or bendings, the velocity with which
height than water: but this cannot be owing to the greater the water leaves the pipe will be still farther diminished,
specific gravity of mercury; for though the weight of the The difference, therefore, between the initial velocity of
mercuiial particles is greater than that of water, yet the the wrater, and the velocity with which it issues, will in-
momentum with which they ascend is proportionally great- crease with the length of the pipe and the number of its
er, and therefore the resistance which opposes their ten- flexures, By means of the theory, corrected by the pre-
dency downwards, has the same relation to their gravity, ceding experiments, it is easy to determine with great ac-
as the resistance in the case of water has to the weight of curacy the initial velocity of the water, or that with which
the aqueous particles. it enters the pipe ; but on the obstructions which the fluid
243. The theory of oblique jets has already been dis- experiences in its progress through the pipe, and on the
cussed in Prop. IX. art. 200. The two following experi- causes of these obstructions, theory throws but a feeble
ments are given by Bossut. When the height NS of the light. The experiments of Bossut afford much instruction
Table XII. Containing the Altitudes of Reservoirs, the
Diameters of the Horizontal Tubes, §c. for Jets of differ-
ent heights.
| Quantity of water
Aimude | Altitude „f
of the jet. | the reservoir. ^ 6 lines in dJia_
meter.
Paris Feet.
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Feet. Inches,
5 1
10
15
21
27
33
39
45
51
58
65
72
79
86
S3
101
109
117
125
133
Paris Pints.
32
45
56
65
73
81
88
95
101
108
114
120
125
131
136
142
147
152
158
163
Diameters of the
horizontal tubes
suited to the tw'o
preceding columns,
Lines.
21
26
28
31
33
34
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Wotjii Opera Mathemat. tom. i. p. 802, schoL 4.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
69
;neri- on this subject; and it is from them that we have arranged charged by pipes of different lengths and diameters, com- Experi-
1 nts on the following table, containing the quantities of water dis- pared with the quantities discharged from additional tubes. t™ee£j*t™u
tl Motion of Fluids,
c Muids. rpABLE Containing the Quantities of Water discharged by Conduit Pipes of different lengths and diameters,
'' compared with the Quantities discharged from additional tubes inserted in the same Reservoir.
Constant
altitude of
the water
in the reser¬
voir above
the axis of
the tube.
Feet.
Length of
the conduit
pipes.
Tube and pipe 18 lines diam,
Feet.
Cubic Inches Cubic Inches.
30
60
90
120
150
180
30
60
90
120
150
180
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged in a
minute ov an
additional
tube.
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
the conduit
pipe in a
minute.
Ratio between
the quantities of
water furnished
by the tube and
the pipe of 16
lines diameter.
6330
6330
6330
6330
6330
6330
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
2778
1957
1587
1351
1178
1052
4066
2888
2352
2011
1762
1583
1 to .4389
1 to .3091
1 to .2507
1 to .2134
1 to .1861
1 to .1662
1 to .4548
1 to .3231
1 to .2631
1 to .2250
1 to .1971
1 to .1770
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
an additional
tube in a
minute.
Quantity of
water dis¬
charged by
the conduit
pipe in a
minute.
Tube and pipe 24 lines diam.
Ratio between
the quantities of
water furnished
by the tube and
the pipe of 24
lines diameter.
Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches.
14243
14243
14243
14243
14243
14243
20112
20112
20112
20112
20112
20112
7680
5564
4534
3944
3486
3119
11219
8190
6812
5885
5232
4710
1 to .5392
1 to .3906
1 to .3183
1 to .2769
1 to .2448
1 to .2190
1 to .5578
1 to .4072
1 to .3387
1 to .2926
1 to .2601
1 to .2341
8
J luc-
t is from
t prece-
i g table.
* .tse of
i ■ retar-
i ion of
’ ter in
i ring
■ ] 'CS.
247. The third column of the preceding table contains
the quantity of water discharged through an additional
cylindrical tube 16 lines in diameter, or the quantity dis¬
charged from the reservoir into a conduit pipe of the same
diameter; and the fourth column contains the quantity
discharged by the conduit pipe. The fifth column, there¬
fore, which contains the ratio between these quantities,
will also contain the ratio between the velocity of the water
at its entrance into the conduit pipe, which we shall after¬
wards call its initial velocity, and its velocity when it issues
from the pipe, which shall be denominated its final velo¬
city ; for the velocities are as the quantities discharged,
when the orifices are the same. The same may be said of
the 6th, 7th, and 8th columns, with this difference only,
that they apply to a cylindrical tube and a conduit pipe 24
lines in diameter.
248. By examining some of the experiments in the fore¬
going table, it will appear that the water sometimes loses
ygths of its initial velocity. The velocity thus lost is con¬
sumed by the friction of the water on the sides of the pipe,
as the quantities discharged, and consequently the veloci¬
ties diminish when the length of the pipe is increased. In
simple orifices, the friction is in the inverse ratio of their
diameter ; and it appears from the table, that the velocity
of the water is more retarded in the pipe 16 lines in dia¬
meter, than in the other, which has a diameter of 24 lines.
But though the velocity decreases when the length of the
tube is increased, it by no means decreases in a regular
arithmetical progression, as some authors have maintained.
This is obvious from the table, from which it appears, that
the differences between the quantities discharged, which
represent also the differences between the velocities, always
decrease, whereas the differences would have been equal,
had the velocities decreased in an arithmetical progression.
The same truth is capable of a physical explanation. If
every filament of the fluid rubbed against the sides of the
conduit pipe, then, since in equal times they all experience
the same degree of friction, the velocities must diminish in
the direct ratio of the lengths of the tubes, and will form a
regular arithmetical progression, of which the first term
will be the final, and the last the initial velocity of the
water. But it is only the lateral filaments that are exposed
to friction. This retards their motion ; and the adjacent
filaments which do not touch the pipe, by the adhesion to
those which do touch it, experience also a retardation, but
in a less degree, and go on with the rest, each filament
sustaining a diminution of velocity inversely proportional
to its distance from the sides of the pipe. The lateral
filaments alone, therefore, provided they always remain in
contact with the sides of the pipe, will have their velocities
diminished in arithmetical progression, while the velocities
of the central filaments will not decrease in a much slower
progression ; consequently, the mean velocity of the fluid,
or that to which the quantities discharged are proportional,
will decrease less rapidly than the terms of an arithmetical
progression.
249. When the altitude of the reservoir was two feet, The retar-
the diminution of discharge, and consequently of velocity,
was greater than when the height of the reservoir was only the altitude
one foot. The cause of this is manifest. Friction increases 0f thereser-
with the velocity, because a greater number of obstructions voir in-
are encountered in a certain time, and the velocities are as creases,
the square roots of the altitudes ; therefore friction must also
be as the square roots of the altitudes of the reservoir. On
some occasions Coulomb found that the friction of solid
bodies diminished with an augmentation of velocity, but
there is no ground for supposing that this takes place in
the case of fluids.
250. When the pipe is inclined to the horizon, as CGF, I” inclined
the water will move with a greater velocity than in the ho- ^^cit ^of
rizontal tube C G hf In the former case, the relative the is
gravity of the water, which is to its absolute gravity as F/jncreased
to Cf, or as the height of the inclined plane to its length, by its rela-
acceleratcs its motion along the tube. But this accelera- tive gra-
tion takes place only when the inclination is considerable;
for if the angle which the direction of the pipe forms with '' *
the horizon were no more than one degree, the retarda¬
tion of friction would completely counterbalance the accel-
70 HYDRODYNAMICS.
Expert- leration of gravity. Thus when the pipe CF, 16 lines in
ments on Fig. 73.
diameter, was 177 feet, and was divided into three equal
parts in the points D and E, so that CD was 59 feet, CE
118 feet; and when CF was to F/as 2124 to 241, the quan¬
tity of water discharged at F was 5795 cubic inches in a
minute, the quantity discharged at E was 5801 cubic inches
in a minute, and the quantity at D 5808 cubic inches.
The quantities discharged therefore, and consequently the
velocities, decreased from C to F ; whereas if there had Expert-
been no friction, and no adhesion between the aqueous
particles, the velocities would have increased along the line of F]uids
CF in the subduplicate ratio of the altitudes CB, D w, E w, • ^
and F o ; AB being the surface of the water in the reser-Friction
voir. The preceding numbers, representing the quantities destroys
discharged at FE and D, decrease very slowly; conse-thls in-
quently, by increasing the relative gravity of the water,
that is, by inclining the tube more to the horizon, the ef- when t'he
fects of friction may be exactly counterbalanced. This inclination
happens when the angle / CF is about 6° 31', or when F/of the pipe
is the eighth or ninth part of CF. The quantities dis-isG°3r.
charged at CDE and F will be then equal, and friction will
have consumed the velocity arising from the relative gra¬
vity of the included water.
251. In order to determine the effects produced by flex¬
ures or sinuosities in conduit pipes, M. Bossut made the
following experiments.
Table XIV. Shewing the Quantities of Water discharged by rectilineal and curvilineal leaden Pipes,
50 feet long, and 1 inch in diameter.
Experi¬
ments with
curvilineal
pipes.
Altitude of
the Water
in the Re¬
servoir.
Feet. Inches.
0 4
Form of the Conduit Pipes—See Figures /4. and 75.
The rectilineal tube MN placed horizontally,
The same tube similarly placed,
The same tube bent into the curvilineal form ABC,
fig. 74, each flexure lying flat on a horizontal plane,
ABC being a horizontal section,
The same tube similarly placed,
The same tube placed as in fig. 75, where ABCD is a
vertical section, the parts A, B, C, D, rising above a
horizontal plane, and the parts a, b, c, lying upon it,
The same tube similarly placed,
Quantities of
Water dis¬
charged in a
Minute.
Cubic Inches.
576
1050
540
1030
520
1028
Fig. 74.
252. 1. The two first experiments of the preceding table
shew, that the quantities of water discharged diminish as
the altitude of the reservoir. This arises from an increase
of velocity, which produces an increase of friction.
2. The four first experiments shew, that a curvilineal
pipe, in which the flexures lie horizontally, discharges less
w ater than a rectilineal pipe of the same length. The fric¬
tion being the same in both cases, this difference must arise
from the impulse of the fluid against the angles of the tube;
for if the tube formed an accurate curve, it is demonstrable
that the curvature would not diminish the velocity of the
water.
3. By comparing the 1st and 5th, and the 2d and 6th,
experiments, it appears that, when the flexures are vertical,
the quantity discharged is diminished. This also arises
from the imperfection of curvature.
4. It appears, from a comparison of the 3d and 5th, with
the 4th and 6th experiments, that when the flexures are
vertical, the quantity discharged is less than when they are
horizontal. In the former case, the motion of the fluid
arises from the central impulsion of the water, retarded by
its gravity in the ascending parts of the pipe, and acce¬
lerated in the descending parts; whereas the motion, in the
latter case, arises wholly from the central impulsion of the
fluid. To these points of difference the diminution of ve¬
locity may somehow or other be owing.
When a large pipe has a number of contrary flexures,
the air sometimes mixes with the wrater, and occupies the
highest parts of each flexure, as at B and C, fig. 75. By Fig. 75-
this means the velocity of the fluid is greatly retarded, and
the quantities discharged much diminished. This ought to
be prevented by placing small tubes at B and C, having a
Small valve at their top.
253. A set of valuable experiments, on a large scale, Expert-
were made by M. Couplet upon the motion of water in ments of
conduit pipes, and a detailed account of them is given mC°uPe'
the Memoirs of the Academy for 1732, in his paper en¬
titled JJes liecherches sur le Mouvement des Eaux dans les
Tuyaux de conduite. These experiments ate combined
with those of the Abbe Bossut in the following table, which
gives a distinct view of all that they have done on this sub¬
ject, and will be of great use to the practical engineer.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
71
lentiTon '^'ABLE Containing the Results of the Experiments of Couplet and Bossut on Conduit Pipes differing in form, Experi-
! e Motion length, diameter, and in the materials of which they are composed,—under different Altitudes of tvater in the }lienp 011
I, ^ ^ J the Motion
hluids. Reservoir. of Fluids.
Altitude of the
Water in the
lleservoir.
Conduit
Pipe.
Ft. In. Lin.
0 4 0
0 0
4 0
1
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
2 0 0
20 11 0
0 0
4 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
13
6
0
1
2
0
0
0
4 8
8 4
9 0
9 0
7 0
3 0
5 3
5 7
0 11
1 4
1
2
12
12
4
9
9 1
1 0
4 7 6
20 3 0
T ,, , Diame-
LfSth ter of
of the
the Con.
duit
Pipes.
Feet.
50
50
50
50
50
50
180
180
180
180
177
118
159
1782
1782
1782
1710
1710
7020
7020
7020
7020
7020
3600
3600
4740
14040
Lines.
12
12
12
12
12
12
16
16
24
24
16
16
16
48
48
48
72
72
60
60
60
60
60
144
216
216
144
Nature, Position, and Form, of the Conduit Pipes.
Ratio between the
Quantities which
would be discharged
if the Fluid experi¬
enced no resistance
in the pipes, and the
Quantities actually
discharged:—or the
Ratio between the
initial and the final
V elocities of the
Fluid.
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe of lead,
The same pipe similarly placed,
The same pipe with several horizontal flexures,
Same pipe,
The same pipe with several vertical flexures,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe of white iron,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal and horizontal pipe of white iron,
Same pipe,
Rectilineal pipe of white iron, and inclined so that CF (fig. 73.)
is to F/as 2124 is to 241.
Rectilineal pipe of white iron, and inclined like the last,
Rectilineal pipe of white iron, and inclined like the last,
Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe almost entirely of iron, with several flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe, partly stone and partly lead, with several flexures
both horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe of iron, with flexures both horizontal and vertical,
Conduit pipe of iron, with several flexures both horizontal and
vertical,
Conduit pipe of iron, with several flexures both horizontal and
vertical,
Conduit pipe of iron, with several flexures both horizontal and
vertical,
1 to 0.281
1 to 0.305
1 to 0.264
1 to 0.291
1 to 0.254
1 to 0.290
1 to 0.166
1 to 0.177
1 to 0.218
1 to 0.234
1 to 0.2000
1 to 0.2500
1 to 0.354
1 to 0.350
1 to 0.0376
1 to 0.0387
1 to 0.0809
1 to 0.0878
1 to 0.0432
1 to 0.0476
1 to 0.0513
1 to 0.0532
1 to 0.0541
1 to 0.0992
1 to 0.1653
1 to 0.0989
1 to 0.0517
Table con¬
taining the
results of
the experi¬
ments of
Couplet
and Rossut
on conduit
pipes of va¬
rious kinds.
tpplics- 254. In order to shew the application of the preceding
ion and results, let us suppose that a spring, or a number of springs
ire^d’ 16 com6ined, furnishes 40,000 cubic inches of water in one
able. ° minute; and that it is required to conduct it to a given
place 4 feet below the level of the spring, and so situated
that the length of the pipe must be 2400 feet. It appears
from Table VI. art. 226, that the quantity of water fur¬
nished in a minute by a short cylindrical tube, when the
altitude of the fluid in the reservoir is 4 feet, is 7070 cubic
inches; and since the quantities furnished by two cylindri¬
cal pipes under the same altitude of water are as the squares
of their diameters, we shall have by the following analogy
the diameter of the tube necessary for discharging 40,000
cubic inches in a minute; V 70720 : V40000 = 12 lines
or 1 inch : 28.£ lines, the diameter required. But by com¬
paring some of the experiments in the preceding table, it
appears that, when the length of the pipe is nearly 2400
feet, it will admit only about one-eighth of the water, that
is, about 5000 cubic inches. That the pipe, however, may
transmit the whole 40,000 cubic inches, its diameter must
be increased. The following analogy, therefore, will fur¬
nish us with this new diameter; V 5000 : V 40000 = 28.54
lines : 80.73 lines, or 6 inches 8T70 lines, the diameter of
the pipe which will discharge 40,000 cubic inches of water
when its length is 2400 feet.
255. The following experiments were made by M. Bossut
of Mezieres in October 1779 ; and they are highly interest¬
ing, as they were made on the water discharged from the
public and private fountains of that city.
72
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi- Table XVI. Containing Bossufs Experiments on the Quantities of Water discharged by different Pipes of various
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
Lengths^ and with different Adjutages, at the public and private Fountains of Mezieres.
Head of
Water.
Feet. In.
24
23
19
19
19 10
29 1
8 0
24 7
32 7
30
26
27 0
30 0
10 5
10 11
10 0
Length of
Pipe.
Feet.
161
192
193
188
146
187
1069
278
314
446
506
668
812
194
462
420
Diameter
of Pipe.
Lines.
12
12
12
12
12
15
18 -
15
15 -
I
18
18
18
18
12
12
15
Size of Orifice.
Lines.
n
6J
6|
l by 7
l by 5£
Two adjutages,
each 6 lines
Two adjutages,
having each 5
lines
2 by 6£
4
11
5
H
7
Ratio of the
Real to the
Theoretical
Discharges.
0.045
0.075
0.068
0.061
0.089
0.105
0.435
0.396
0.227
0.037
0.447
0.301
0.048
0.377
0.332
0.163
Ratio of the Height
due to the Velocity
to the Head of
Water.
0.002
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.008
0.011
0.189
0.157
0.052
0.001
0.200
0.091
0.002
0.139
0.109
0.028
Cubic Inches of
Water discharg,
ed in a Minute.
242
230
222
237
168
588
1686
458
1232
636
696
900
600
576
576
483
Experi- Sect. VI. Experiments on the Pressure exerted upon Pipes
ments on by the water which flows through them.
the pres¬
sure sus- 256. The pressure exerted upon the sides of conduit
nines ^ PT68 tbe included water has been already investigated
1 p ‘ theoretically in Prop. X. Part II. The only way of ascer¬
taining by experiment the magnitude of this lateral pres¬
sure is to make an orifice in the side of the pipe, and find
the quantity of water which it discharges in a given time.
This lateral pressure is the force which impels the Water
through the orifice ; and therefore the quantity discharged,
or the effect produced, must be always proportional to that
pressure as its producing cause, and may be employed to
represent it. The following table, founded on the experi¬
ments of Bossut, contains the quantities of water discharged
from a lateral orifice about 3| lines in diameter, according
to theory and experiment.
Table XVII. Containing the Quantities discharged by a Lateral Orifice, or the Pressures on the Sides of Pipes,
according to Theory and Experiment.
Altitude
of the
Water in
the Re¬
servoir.
Length
of the
Conduit
Pipe.
Quantities of
Water discharged
in 1 Minute, ac¬
cording to Theory.
Quantities of
Water discharged
in 1 Minute, ac¬
cording to Experi.
ment.
Feet.
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Feet.
30
60
90
120
150
180
30
60
90
120
150
180
Cubic Inches.
176
186
190
191
192
193
244
259
264
267
268
269
Cubic Inches.
171
186
190
191
193
194
240
256
261
264
265
266
It appears from the preceding table, that the real lateral
pressure in conduit pipes differs very little from that which
is computed from the forihula; but in order that this ac¬
cordance may take place, the orifice must be so perforated,
that its circumference is exactly perpendicular to the direc¬
tion of the water, otherwise a portion of the water dis-
Experi
ments o
theMoti
of Fluid
HYDRODYNAMICS.
73
Aperi¬
ents on
: Motion
Fluids.
charged would be owing to the direct motion of the in¬
cluded fluid.
257. As pipes are exposed to forces besides those arising
from the included water, they must be made much stronger
than the preceding experiments would seem to require.
The thicknesses of iron and leaden pipes used in France ih
the time of Bossut, are given in the following table.
Iron Pipes.
Diameter. Thickness.
Inches.
1
2
4
6
8
10
12
Lines.
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
Leaden Pipes.
Diameter. Thickness.
Inches.
1
H
2
3
41
6
7
Lines.
21
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sect. VII. Experiments on the Motion of Water in Canals. menPts on
258. Among the numerous experiments which have been
made on this important subject, those of the Abbe Bossut ^ >
seem entitled to the greatest confidence. His experiments Experi-
were made on a rectangular canal 105 feet long, 5 inches ments on
broad at the bottom, and from 8 to 9 iriches deep. The the
orifice which transmitted the water from the reservoir into jn
the canal was rectangular, having its horizontal base con- horizontal
stantly five inches, and its vertical height sometimes halfcanais.
an inch, and at other times an inch. The sides of this ori¬
fice were made of copper, and rising perpendicularly from
the side of the reservoir, they formed two vertical planes
parallel to each other. This projecting orifice was fitted
into the canal, which was divided into 5 equal parts of 21
feet each, and also into 3 equal parts of 35, and the time
was noted which the water employed in reaching these
points of division. The arrival of the water at these points
was indicated by the motion of a very small water wheel
placed at each, and impelled by the stream. When the
canal was horizontal, the following results were obtained.
Tahle XVIII. Containing the Velocity of Water in a Rectangular Horizontal Canal 105 feet long, under different
Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir.
Altitude of the water ) Ft. In.
in the reservoir. f H 8
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
11 8
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
3 8
Space run through
by the water.
Vertical breadth of the 1 , . ,
.p > a an inch.
orifice.
/
l an inch
1 an inch,
1 inch.
1 inch.
1 inch.
Feet.
Time in which the
number of feet in
column seventh are <
run through by the
water.
2"
5—
10—
16—-
23+
3"—
7
13—
20—
28+
3
9
17+
27+
38+
+
2"
4
7
11
16i
2//+
5
9
14
20
3"—
6+
11 +
18+
26
21
42
63
84
105
Eductions 259- It appears from column 1st, that the times succes-
rom the sively employed to run through spaces of 21 feet each, are
I 3regoing as the numbers 2, 3—, 5, 6, 7+, which form nearly an
xperi- arithmetical progression, whose terms differ nearly by 1,
I icnts. s0 that by continuing the progression we may determine
very nearly the time in which the fluid would run through
any number of feet not contained in the 7th column. The
same may be done with the other columns of the table.
If we compute theoretically the time which the water
should employ in running through the whole length of the
canal, or 105 feet, we shall find, that under the circum¬
stances for each column of the preceding table the times,
reckoning from the first column, are 6//.350,7//.834,11".330,
fi'^SSO, 7//.834, 11".330. It appears, therefore, by com¬
paring these times with those found by experiment, that
the velocity of the stream is very much retarded by fric¬
tion, and that this retardation is less as the breadth of the
orifice is increased; for since a greater quantity of water
issues in this case from the reservoir, it has more power to
overcome the obstacles which obstruct its progress. The
signs + and — affixed to the numbers in the preceding
table, indicate that these numbers are a little too great or
too small.
260. The following experiments were made on inclined Experi-
canals with different declivities, and will be of great use to ments on
the engineer. The inclination of the canal is the vertical t^e veloci-
distance of one of its extremities from a horizontal line ^ inclined*
which passes through its other extremity. canals.
VOL. xu
IE.
74
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
Table of
the velo¬
city of wa¬
ter in rec¬
tangular
inclined
canals.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table XIX. Containing the Velocity of Water in a Rectangular inclined Canal 105 Feet long, and under
different Altitudes of Fluid in the Reservoir.
Altitude of water f Ft. In.
in the reservoir. (11 8
Inclination of the J Ft. In.
canal. 1 0 3
Height of the ori- ^
fice | an inch. ^
4"
11 +
22
Inclination of the / Ft. In.
canal. (0 6
Height of the ori- §
fice 1 inch. ^
3"
8
15
Inclination of the J Ft. In.
canal. (2 0
Height of the ori¬
fice 1 inch.
2"+
7
13
Inclination of the J Ft. In.
canal. | 6 0
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
0 3
4"+
14 +
26
Ft. In.
0 6
4"—
9 +
19 —
Ft. In.
2 0
4"-
9 -
15 -
r 2//4-
Height of the ori- ) g '
fice 1 inch. ^ jq
Inclination of the J Feet.
canal. ( 11
In the 3 first co¬
lumns the height
of the orifice was
J an inch, and
in the 3 last 1
inch.
Half sec.
2+
7
12
17
21 +
Ft. In.
6 0
3"
7+
12
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
0 3
6"+
18 +
34 +
Ft.
0
In.
6
5"—
13 —
23 —
Ft. In.
2 0
4"
10i
in
Ft. In.
6 0
Feet.
11
4"
9—
14—
Ft.
11
In.
8
Ft. In.
0 6
sn
21
Ft. In.
1 0
3"—
14
Ft. In.
4 0
2"+
n
12
Ft.
9
In.
0
Inclination of the/ Feet.
canal. ( 11
Height of the ori¬
fice 1| inch.
Half sec.
2
5
8+
12
15+
Half sec.
3+
8+
13+
18+
23+
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3—
6
10—
13+
17
Feet.
11
Half sec.
4+
10
16
22
28
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3+
7
11 +
15
20
2"+
6—
9
Feet.
11
Half sec.
2
5
9
13
17
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
0 6
4+
14
25+
Ft. In.
1 0
Ah
9
16
Ft. In.
4 0
3"+
8
13
Ft. In.
9 0
3"+
10
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3+
7
11
15
19
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
0 6
6
18—
31 +
Ft.
1
In.
0
12
21
Ft. In.
4 0
4+
9+
15+
Ft. In.
9 0
4"-
8—
12
Space run through
by the water.
Feet.
35
70
105
35
70
105
35
70
105
35
70
105
Feet.
11
Half sec.
3
8
13
18—
22
21
42
63
84
105
21
42
63
84
105
Time in which the number of feet in the last col. is run through by the water.
Experi¬
ments 0!
theMotic
of Fluids
The velo- 261. In the preceding experiments, the velocity of the
city of the first portion of water that issues from the reservoir was only
first por- observed; but when the current is once established, and
ti0nthatWa"*tS velocity permanent, it moves with greater rapidity, and
issues^'rom +ere's always a fixed proportion between the velocity of
the reser- the first portion of water and the permanent velocity of
voir is less the established current. The cause of this difference Bos-
than that sut does not seem to have thoroughly comprehended, when
°f the esta-he ascribes it to a diminution of friction when the velocity
rent CUr"keCOmeS Perraanent- The velocity of the first portion of
water that issues from the reservoir was measured by its
arMval at certain divisions of the canal, consequently the
velocity thus determined was the mean velocity of the wa¬
ter. The velocity of the established current, on the con¬
trary, was measured by light bodies floating upon its sur¬
face, at the centre of the canal, therefore the velocity thus It is o ’S
determined was the superficial velocity of the stream. But tothes ?■
the velocity of the superficial central filaments must be-^f^j,,
greatest of all, because, being at the greatest distance from ^.
the sides and bottom of the canal, they are less affected by sure(jibe
friction than any of the adjacent or inferior filaments, and 0ne ca
are not retarded by the weight of any superincumbent fluid, and or
The superficial velocity of the current must, of conse- the m;
quence, be greater than its mean velocity, or, in otherveloc1'!"
words, the velocity of the established current must exceedthe 0 '
the velocity of the first portion of water. The following
table contains the experiments of Bossut on this subject,
the canal being of the same size as in the former experi¬
ments, but 600 feet long, and its inclination one-tenth of
the whole, or 59-702 feet.
H YDRODYNAMIC S.
75
! ?nts on Table XX. Containing a Comparison between the Velo-
Jtl: Motion c{fy of the First Portion of Water, and that of the Es-
Fluids. tablished Current.
Altitude of
the water
in the re¬
servoir.
Vel. of 1st
portion of
water.
Ft. In.
4 0
Vertical breadth of
the orifice 1 inch.
Seconds.
10
20 +
31 —
42 —
52*
62 +
11
23
35
46 -{-
58
69
12 +
25£
39
11 —
22
32
Vel. of es¬
tablished
current.
Vel. of 1st
portion of
water.
Seconds.
8
17
26
35
43 +
52
10
20
30
40
49
58
12
23 +
33
9
18 —
27
Vertical breadth of
the orifice 2 inches.
Vel. of es¬
tablished
current.
Seconds.
8
17
26
35 —
43 +
52 —
9
19
29
39
49
58
15
31
47
131
26f
39£
Seconds.
7
14J
22
29 +
37 —
44 +
8 —
16
24
32
40
48
13
26£
39!
23
a> js «
3 f£
Sect. VIII. On the Influence of Heat on the Motion of Experi-
Fluids. ments on
the Motion
262. In all the experiments related in this chapter, and of Fluids,
in those of the Chevalier Boat, which are given in the ar- XonT
tide Water- Works, the temperature of the water em_ montheory
ployed has never been taken into consideration. That the0f mo_
fluidity of water is increased by heat can scarcely admit of tion of
a doubt. Professor Leslie, in his ingenious paper on Ca- fluids de¬
pillary Action, has proved by experiment that a jet of warm fective in
water will spring much higher than a jet of cold water, and n.°} c.on'
that a syphon which discharges cold water only by drops, ^;e tenvpe-
will discharge water of a high temperature in a continued rature of
stream. A similar fact was observed by the ancients, the water
Plutarch1, in particular, assures us, that the clepsydrae or employed,
water clocks went slower in winter than in summer, and Warm wa-
he seems to attribute this retardation to a diminution ofter moves
fluidity. It is therefore obvious, that warm water will issue
from an aperture with greater velocity than cold water, 0
and that the quantities of fluid discharged from the same
orifice, and under the same pressure, will increase with the
temperature of the fluid. Hence we may discover the
cause of the great discrepancy between the experiments of
different philosophers on the motion of fluids. Their ex¬
periments were performed in different climates and at dif¬
ferent seasons of the year ; and, as the temperature of the
water would be variable from these and from other causes,
a variation in their results was the inevitable consequence.
263. M., de Buat and M. Girard are the only persons Experi-
who have made experiments on this interesting subject, ments of
M. de Buat employed in his experiments tubes of a large Be Buat.
  diameter, and hence the effects of heat were not very con¬
spicuous. The following table contains a general view of
the results which he obtained:
Table XXI. Containing Du Buat’s Experiments on the Motion of different Fluids, at different degrees of Tempera¬
ture, in Tubes of Glass.
Feet.
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
100
200
300
Names of the
Fluids.
Diameter and length of
the Pipe.
llain water
Salt water
Salt water
Salt water
Alcohol
Mercury
Mercury
Mercury
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
Rain water
Alcohol
Alcohol
| Mercury
a Mercury
\ Mercury
j; Mercury
I Alcohol .
Horizontal tube 2.9
lines, or 0.24166 of an
inch in diameter, and
36.25 inches long .
Horizontal tube 2
lines, or 0.16666 of an
inch in diameter, and
36.25 inches long
Horizontal tube 1!
line in diameter, and
34.16666 inches long
Head of Water
above the top
of the tube.
Height of the
expense in a mi¬
nute expressed
in inches.
2.0833
2.0833
2.0833
4.9166
5.0000
0.8124
0.9166
2.1944
8.875
15.2916
15.2916
15.2916
5.292
5.875
1.125
2.7082
5.1666
0.0565
9.292
Velocity in a se¬
cond in inches.
5.2777
5.1666
5.2222
9.25
7.5833
3.75
4.0833
6.6111
5.2777
6.9166
7.0833
7.2013
2.50
3.8338
1.75
3.00
4.25
0.0000
1.125
Degrees of Heat
above the
freezing point
13.057
12.7823
12.9197
22.8845
18.7611
9-2775
10.1021
16.3558
27.455
35.980
36.847
37.461
13.005
19.941
9.103
15.606
22.108
0.000
10.402
3
3
11
10 to 11
12
10 to 12
10 to 12
10 to 12
55
30
36
56
12
12
10 to 12
10 to 12
10 to 12
10 to 12
12
1 FjXavJHcra yio r, rt> u'Sai^ toiii X.X! ffufxaruhis, lirriv !v rxi; xttrxf&afaiv, fiva.'Stov yaj iXnuffi tyi/xuvo; n S.gttl.
■dqvam enim impellent frigus gravem facit et crassam, quod in clepsydns licet olservare ; tardius enim trahunt hyeme quutn crsUite.
Plutarch, Qwest Natural.
’6
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On the
Resistance
of Fluids.
Experi¬
ments of
Girard.
Hence our author concludes that the velocity of water
diminishes as its temperature approaches to that of the
freezing point, and vice versa ; that salt water has a less
velocity than rain water, that alcohol runs slower than wa¬
ter, and mercury more rapidly.
264. The general result of M. Girard’s experiments has
been already given in the History of Hydrodynamics. His
experiments were made with copper tubes of exactly the
same internal diameter, and drawn upon steel maundrils;
and he employed two sets of these tubes of different dia¬
meters. The first set consisted of tubes, whose length was
two decimeters, and diameter 2.96 millimetres, and they
screwed into each other so as to form tubes of various
lengths, from 20 to 222 centimetres. The second set con¬
sisted of smaller tubes, whose diameter was 1.83 millime¬
tres. These tubes were then fixed horizontally in the
sides of a reservoir, which was a cylinder of white iron 25
centimetres in diameter, and 5 decimetres high. The re¬
servoir was kept full by the usual contrivances ; and the
water discharged by the tube subjected to trial, was re¬
ceived into a copper vessel horizontally, whose capacity
had been accurately ascertained. The filling of the vessel
was indicated by the instant when the water which it con¬
tained had wetted equally a plate of glass which covered
almost the whole of its surface, and the time employed to
fill this vessel was measured with great accuracy. The
temperature of the water was also carefully noted. The On the
results thus obtained amounted to 1200, and were arranged Resistance
by M. Girard into thirty-four tables, according to the dif- ot Flui<h
ferent circumstances of the experiment. When the capil-
lary tube has such a length, that the term proportional to
the square of the velocity disappears in the general for¬
mula, the velocity with which the fluid is discharged, is af¬
fected in a very singular manner by a variation of tempe¬
rature. If the velocity is expressed by 10, when the tem¬
perature is 0° of the centigrade thermometer, the velocity
will be so great as 42 ; or increased more than four times
when the temperature amounts to 85° centigrade. When
the length of the capillary tube is below the above mentioned
limit, a variation of temperature exercises but a slight in¬
fluence upon the velocity of the issuing fluid. If the length
of the adjutage, for example, is 55 millimetres, and if the
velocity is represented by 10 at 5° of the centigrade ther¬
mometer, it will be represented only by 12 at a tempera¬
ture of 87°. In conduit pipes of the ordinary diameter,
a change of temperature produces almost no perceptible
change in the velocity of efflux. M. Girard also found,
that the quantity of water discharged by capillary tubes,
varied not only with the fluids which were used, but with
the nature of the solid substance of which the tubes were
composed.
CHAPTER III.—ON THE RESISTANCE OF FLUIDS.
Reference 265. In the article Resistance of Fluids, the reader sistance which the air opposed to the oscillatory motion of Opinions
to the arti- will find that important subject treated at great length, a globe in small oscillations, he employed a formula of three Newton,
cle Re- The researches of preceding philosophers are there given terms, one of them varying as the quare of the velocity, the Rernouh
sistance in fup detaq . their different theories are compared with second as the | power of the velocity, and the third as the^
of Fluids. experiments, and the defects of these minutely considered, simple velocity; and in another part of the work he re-
Since that article was composed, this intricate subject has duces the formula to two terms, one of which is as the
been investigated by other writers, and though they have square of the velocity, and the other constant. D. Ber-
not enriched the science of hydraulics with a legitimate noulli2 also supposes the resistance to be represented by
theory of the resistance of fluids, the results of their la- two terms, one as the square ol the velocity, and the other
hours cannot fail to be interesting to every philosopher. constant. M. Gravesende 3 has found that the pressure of
Researches 266. The celebrated Coulomb has very successfully em- a fluid in motion against a body at rest, is partly propor-
of Cou- ployed the principle of torsion, to determine the cohesion tional to the simple velocity, and partly to the square of the
lomb. of fluids, and the laws of their resistance in very slow mo- velocity. But when the body moves in a fluid at rest, he
tions. His experiments are new, and were performed found4 the resistance proportional to the square of the ve-
with the greatest accuracy ; and the results which he ob- locity, and to a constant quantity. When the body in mo-
tained were perfectly conformable to the deductions of tion, therefore, meets the fluid at rest, these three philoso-
theory. We shall therefore endeavour to give the reader phers have agreed, that the formula which represents the
some idea of the discoveries which he has made. resistance of fluids consists of two terms, one of which is as
26?. When a body is struck by a fluid with a velocity the square of the velocity, and the other constant. The
exceeding eight or nine inches per second, the resistance experiments of Coulomb, however, incontestably prove,
has been found proportional to the square of the velocity, that the pressure which the moving body in this case sus-
whether the body in motion strikes the fluid at rest, or the tains, is represented by two terms, one proportional to the
body is struck by the moving fluid. But when the velo- simple velocity, and the other to its square, and that it
city is so slow as not to exceed four-tenths of an inch in a there is a constant quantity, it is so very small as to escape
second, the resistance is represented by two terms, one of detection.
which is proportional to the simple velocity, and the other 269- In order to apply the principle of torsion to the re- Appan.
to the square of the velocity. The first of these sources of sistance of fluids, M. Coulomb made use of the apparatus emplo)
resistance arises from the cohesion of the fluid particles represented in fig. 76. On the horizontal arm LK, which
which separate from one another, the number of particles may be supported by a vertical stand, is fixed the small ^erjme
thus separated being proportional to the velocity of the circle f e, perforated in the centre, so as to admit the cylin- pjg, 7
body. The other cause of resistance is the inertia of the drical pin ba. Into a slit in the extremity of this pin is
particles, which, when struck by the fluid, acquire a certain fastened, by means of a screw, the brass wire ay, whose
degree of velocity proportional to the velocity of the body; force of torsion is to be compared with the resistance of the
and as the number of these particles is also proportional to fluid; and its lower extremity is fixed in the same way
that velocity, the resistance generated by their inertia must into a cylinder of copper yd, whose diameter is about four
be proportional to the square of the velocity. tenths of an inch. The cylinder yd vs, perpendicular to the
268. When Sir Isaac Newton1 was determining the re- disc DS, whose circumference is divided into 480 equal
1 Principia, lib. ii. prop. xl.
3 Elements of Natural Philosophy, art. 1911.
2 Comment. Pretropol. tom. iii. and v.
4 lb. ai t. 1975.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
i the parts. When this horizontal disc is at rest, which happens
j istance when the torsion of the brass wire is nothing, the fixed index
0 'lu^ Fig. 76,
RS is placed upon the point 0, the zero of the circular scale.
The small rule Rm may be elevated or depressed at plea¬
sure round its axis w, and the stand GH which supports it
may be brought into any position round the horizontal disc.
The lower extremity of the cylinder gdis immersed about
two inches in the vessel of water MNOP, and to the ex¬
tremity d is attached the planes, or the bodies whose re¬
sistance is to be determined when they oscillate in the fluid
ithod of by the torsion of the brass wire. In order to produce these
1 ng it. oscillations, the disc DS, supported by both hands, must be
turned gently round to a certain distance from the index,
without deranging the vertical position of the suspended
wire. The disc is then left to itself; the force of torsion
causes it to oscillate, and the successive diminutions of
these oscillations are carefully observed. A simple formula
gives in weights the force of torsion that produces the
oscillations ; and another formula well known to geometers,
determines (by an approximation sufficiently accurate in
practice), by means of the successive diminution of the
oscillations compared with their amplitude, what is the law
of the resistance, relative to the velocity, which produces
these diminutions.
terne- 270. The method employed by Coulomb, in reducing
)d adopt-his experiments, is similar to that adopted by Newton and
by Cou-other mathematicians, when they wished to determine the
“k re* resistance of fluids, from the successive diminutions of the
It em- oscillations of a pendulum moving in a resisting medium ;
>yed by but is much better fitted for detecting the small quantities
nvton which are to be estimated in such researches. When the
d other pendulum is employed, the specific gravity of the body, re-
‘l1’30- lative to that of the fluid, must be determined; and the
served ^east error this P°int leads to very uncertain results,
e osdlja- When the pendulum is in different points of the arc in
ms of a which it oscillates, the wire or pendulum rod is plunged
ndulum more or less in the fluid; and the alterations which may
resisting result from this are frequently more considerable than the
Bdia, small quantities which are the object of research. It is
isadvan- only 1° small oscillations, too, that the force which brings
ges of a the pendulum from the vertical, is proportional to the angle
ndulum. which the pendulum rod, in different positions, forms with
this vertical line ; a condition which is necessary before the
formulae can be applied. But small oscillations are attend¬
ed with great disadvantages ; and their successive diminu¬
tions cannot be determined but by quantities which it is
difficult to estimate exactly, and which are changed by the
smallest motion either of the fluid in the vessel, or of the
air in the chamber. In small velocities, the pendulum rod
experiences a greater resistance at the point of floatation
77
than at any other part. This resistance, too, is very On the
changeable; for the water rises from its level along the Resistance
pendulum rod to greater or less heights, according to the °* * U1 s‘
velocity of the pendulum.
271. These and other inconveniences which might beAdvan-
mentioned, are so inseparable from the use of the pendu- tages of
lum, that Newton and Bernoulli have not been able to comparing
determine the laws of the resistance of fluids in very slow^^18 '
motions. When the resistance of fluids is compared wTithfluidg with
the force of torsion, these disadvantages do not exist. Thethe force
body is in this case entirely immersed in the fluid ; and as of torsion,
every point of its surface oscillates in a horizontal plane,
the relation between the densities ot the fluid and the oscil¬
lating body has no influence whatever on the moving force.
One or two circles of amplitude may be given to the oscil¬
lations ; and their duration may be increased at pleasure,
either by diminishing the diameter of the wire, or increa¬
sing its length; or, which may be more convenient, by
augmenting the momentum of the horizontal disc. Cou¬
lomb, however, found that when each oscillation was so
Jong as to continue about 100 seconds, the least motion ot
the fluid, or the tremor occasioned by the passing of a car¬
riage, produced a sensible alteration on the results. The
oscillations best fitted for experiments of this kind, con¬
tinued from 20 to 30 seconds, and the amplitude of those
that gave the most regular results, was comprehended be¬
tween 480 degrees, the entire division of the disc, and 8
or 10 divisions reckoned from the zero of the scale. From
these observations, it will be readily seen, that it is only in
very slow motions that an oscillating body can be employ¬
ed for determining the resistance of fluids. In small oscil¬
lations, or in quick circular motions, the fluid struck by the
body is continually in motion; and when the oscillating
body returns to its former position, its velocity is either in¬
creased or retarded by the motion communicated to the
fluid, and not extinguished.
272. In the first set of experiments made by Coulomb, when the
he attached to the lower extremity of the cylinder gd a velocity is
circular plate of white iron, about 195 millimetres in dia-very small,
meter, and made it move so slowly, that the part of the re- ^
sistance proportional to the square of the velocity wholly
disappeared. For if, in any particular case, the portion ofp0rtjonai
the resistance proportional to the simple velocity should be to the
equal to the portion that is proportional to the square of square of
the velocity when the body has a velocity of one-tenth ofth0 v®10'
an inch per second, then, when the velocity is 100-tenths“lsaP-
of an inch per second, the part proportional to the square
of the velocity will be a hundred times greater than that
proportional to the simple velocity ; but if the velocity is
only the hundredth part of the tenth of an inch per second,
then the part proportional to the simple velocity will be
100 times greater than the part proportional to the square
of the velocity.
273. When the oscillations of the white iron plate were Result of
so slow, that the part of the resistance which varies with Coulomb’s
the second power of the velocity was greatly inferior to theexi)en'
other part, he found, from a variety of experiments, that
the resistance which diminished the oscillations of the hori- ance ot-
zontal plate , was uniformly proportional to the simple vein- water to a
city, and that the other part of the resistance, which fol- horizontal
lows the ratio of the square of the velocity, produced no Plate mo';-
sensible change upon the motion of the white iron disc,
He also found, in conformity with theory, that the mo-jn
menta of resistance in different circular plates moving round plane of its
their centre in a fluid, are as the fourth power of the dia- superficies,
meters of these circles; and that, when a circle of 195
millimetres (6.677 English inches) in diameter, moved
round its centre in water, so that its circumference had a
velocity of 140 millimetres (5.512 English inches) per
second, the momentum of resistance which the fluid op¬
posed 1° its circular motion was equal to one-tenth of a
-8
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Ratio be¬
tween the
mutual co¬
hesion of
the parti
On the gramme (1.544 English troy grains) placed at the end of a
Resistance lever 143 millimetres (5.63 English inches) in length,
of Fluids. 274. M. Coulomb repeated the same experiments in a
Similarre vesse^ c^arifie{i °d, at the temperature of 16 degrees of
sultobtain-Reaumur* found, as before, that the momenta of the
ed in clari- resistance of different circular discs, moving round their cen-
fied oil. tre in the plane of their superficies, were as the fourth power
of their diameters ; and that the difficulty with which the
same horizontal plate, moving with the same velocity,
separated the particles of oil, was to the difficulty with
which it separated the particles of water, as 17.5 to 1,
- which is therefore the ratio that the mutual cohesion of the
ind the01 * Partic^es °f °d has to the mutual cohesion of the particles
mutual co- °f water.
hesion of 275. In order to ascertain whether or not the resistance
the parti- of a body moving in a fluid was influenced by the nature
des of 0f its surface, M. Coulomb anointed the surface of the
water. white iron plate with tallow, and wiped it partly away, so
The resist-that the thickness of the plate might not be sensibly in-
ance not creased. The plate was then made to oscillate in water,
influenced and the oscillations were found to diminish in the same
by the na- nianner as before the application of the unguent. Over
surface of t^ie surface °f the tallow upon the plate, he afterwards scat-
the moving tered, by means of a sieve, a quantity of coarse sand which
body. ° adhered to the greasy surface ; but when the plate, thus
prepared, was caused to oscillate, the augmentation of re¬
sistance was so small, that it could scarcely be appreciated.
We may therefore conclude, that the part of the resistance
which is proportional to the simple velocity, is owing to the
mutual adhesion of the particles of the fluid, and not to the
adhesion of these particles to the surface of the body.
276. If the part of the resistance varying with the sim¬
ple velocity were increased when the white iron plate was
immersed at greater depths in the water, we might suppose
the resist- it to be owing to the friction of the water on the horizon-
creased b*" ta^ sur^ace’ which, like the friction of solid bodies, should
increasing he proportional to the superincumbent pressure. In order
the super- f° setde this point, M. Coulomb made the white iron plate
incumbent oscillate at the depth of two centimetres (.787 English
fluid. inches), and also at the depth of 50 centimetres (19.6855
English inches), and found no difference in the resistance;
but as the surface of the water was loaded with the whole
weight of the atmosphere, and as an additional load of 50
centimetres of water could scarcely produce a perceptible
augmentation of the resistance, M. Coulomb employed an¬
other method of deciding the question. Having placed a
vessel full of water under the receiver of an air-pump, the
receiver being furnished with a rod and collar of leather at
its top, he fixed to the hook, at the end of the rod, a harp¬
sichord wire, number 7 in commerce, and suspended to
it a cylinder of copper, like gd, fig. 76, which plunged in
the water of the vessel, and under this cylinder he fixed a
circular plane, whose diameter was 101 millimetres (3.976
English inches). When the oscillations were finished, and
consequently the force of torsion nothing, the zero of tor¬
sion was marked by the aid of an index fixed to the cylin¬
der. The rod was then made to turn quickly round through
a complete circle, which gave to the wire a complete circle
of torsion, and the successive diminutions of the oscillations
were carefully observed. The diminution for a complete
circle of torsion was found to be nearly a fourth part of the
circle for the first oscillation, but always the same whether
the experiment was made in a vacuum or in the atmosphere.
A small pallet 50 millimetres long (1.969 English inches),
and 10 millimetres broad (0.3937 English inches), which
struck the water perpendicular to its plane, furnished a
similar result. We may therefore conclude, that when a
submerged body moves in a fluid, the pressure which it
sustains, measured by the altitude of the superior fluid,
does not perceptibly increase the resistance; and conse¬
quently, that the part of this resistance proportional to the
Experi¬
ments for
finding if
simple velocity, can in no respect be compared with the On tti( {
friction of solid bodies, which is always proportional to the Resistar jf
pressure. °f Fluk ([
277- The next object of M. Coulomb was to ascertain ^ *
the resistance experienced by cylinders that moved very^n.tllei Si
slowly, and perpendicular to their axes; but as the particles Cyiim^ ’
of fluid struck by the cylinder necessarily partook of its moving
motion, it was impossible to neglect the part of the resist- perpend 4
ance proportional to the square of the velocity, and there- c^ar to u
fore he was obliged to perform the experiments in such atheirax ?
manner that both parts of the resistance might be computed.
The three cylinders which he employed were 249 milli¬
metres (.9803 English inches) long. The first cylinder
was 0.87 millimetres (0.0342 English inches or ^ of an
inch) in circumference, the second 11.2 millimetres (0.4409
English inches), and the third 21.1 millimetres (.88307
English inches). They were fixed by their middle under
the cylindrical piece dg, so as to form two horizontal radii, The res ’
whose length was 124.5 millimetres (.4901 English inches) ance dm
or half the length of each cylinder. After making the ne-the sim
cessary experiments and computations, he found that the
part of the resistance proportional to the simple velocity, eional t 8
which, to avoid circumlocution, we shall call r, did notthecirn '1
vary with the circumferences of the cylinders. The cir-ferences >
cumferences of the first and third cylinders were to onetlle cyli 1
another as 24 : 1, whereas the resistances were in the ratioder5, ",
of 3: 1. The same conclusion was deduced by comparing
the experiments made with the first and second cylinder.
278. In order to explain these results, M. Coulomb very Cause i
justly supposes, that, in consequence of the mutual adhe-tlli&
sion of the particles of water, the motion of the cylinder is
communicated to the particles at a small distance from it.
The particles which touch the cylinder have the same velo¬
city as the cylinder, those at a greater distance have a less
velocity, and at the distance of about one-tenth of an inch
the velocity ceases entirely, so that it is only at that dis¬
tance from the cylinder that the mutual adhesion of the
fluid molecules ceases to influence the resistance. The The re
resistance r therefore should not be proportional to the cir-ance ^ \
cumference of the real cylinder, but to the circumference th,e ™ i
of a cylinder whose radius is greater than the real cylinder ^0?, I
by one-tenth of an inch. It consequently becomes a mat-al toll I
ter of importance to determine with accuracy the quantity circum
which must be added to the real cylinder in order to have rence ( ;
the radius of the cylinder to which the resistance r is pro-
portional, and from which it must be computed. Coulomb
found the quantity by which the radius should be increased are au|
to be 1.5 millimetres (T§§5 of an English inch), so that thementei IS
diameter of the augmented cylinder will exceed the dia-1-5500
meter of the real cylinder by double that quantity, or incb'
of an inch.
279. The part of the resistance varying with the square Then •
of the velocity, or that arising from the inertia of the fluid,ance ^1 |
which we shall call R, was likewise not proportional to the
circumferences of the cylinder; but the augmentation of^is\ 1
the radii amounts in this case only to of an inch, p0rtiu] !
which is only one-fifth of the augmentation necessary for to the |
finding the resistance r. The reason of this difference iscumfe I
obvious ; all the particles of the fluid when they are sepa-e‘ices i
rated from each other oppose the same resistance, what-^^.
ever be their velocity; consequently as the value of r de-tjjeirIi I
pends only on the adhesion of the particles, the resistances are an
due to this adhesion will reach to the distance from the menter I
cylinder where the velocity of the particles is 0. In com-7555°1
paring the different values of R, the part of the resistanceinch‘
which varies as the square of the velocity, all the particles Cause
are supposed to have a velocity equal to that of the cylin-this di •
der ; but as it is only the particles which touch the cylinder ence.
that have this velocity, it follows that the augmentation of
the diameter necessary for finding R must be less than the
augmentation necessary for finding r.
It.
an
is;
1 It It of
HYDRODYNAMICS.
79
the 280. In determining experimentally the part of the mo-
tance mentum of resistance proportional to the velocity, by two
aids, cylinders of the same diameter, but of different lengths, M.
Coulomb found that this momentum wras proportional to
1011 the third power of their lengths. The same result may be
■sist- deduced from theory; for supposing each cylinder divided
md into any number of parts, the length of each part will be
iame- proportional to the whole length. The velocity of the cor-
fthe responding parts will be as these lengths, and also as the
*ers‘ distance of the same parts from the centre of rotation. The
theory likewise proves, that the momentum of resistance
depending on the square of the velocity, in two cylinders
of the same diameter but of different lengths, is propor¬
tional to the fourth power of the length of the cylinder,
resist- 281. When the cylinder 0.9803 inches in length, and
of a 0.04409 inches in circumference, was made to oscillate in
1 <7- the fluid with a velocity of 5.51 inches per second, the part
r' of the resistance r was equal to 58 milligrammes, or .8932
troy grains. And when the velocity was 0.3937 inches
per second, the resistance r was 0.00414 grammes, or 0.637
troy grains. • •
282. The preceding experiments were also made in the
reced- 0q formerly mentioned; and it likewise appeared, from their
xPen' results, that the mutual adhesion of the particles of oil was
madeto ^ie niutual adhesion of the particles of water as 17 to 1.
But though this be the case, M. Coulomb discovered that
the quantity by which the radii of the cylinder must be
augmented in order to have the resistance r, is the very
same as when the cylinder oscillated in water. This result
was very unexpected, as the greater adhesion between the
particles of oil might have led us to anticipate a much
greater augmentation. When the cylinders oscillated both
in oil and water with the same velocity, the part of the re¬
sistance R produced by the inertia of the fluid particles On the
which the cylinder put in motion, was almost the same in Resistance
both. As this part of the resistance depends on the quan- °* F1UJ<1S-
tity of particles put in motion, and not on their adhesion, ^
the resistances due to the inertia of the particles will be in
different fluids as their densities.
283. In a subsequent memoir, Coulomb proposes to de- Coulomb
termine numerically the part of the resistance proportional Promises to
to the square of the velocity, and to ascertain the resistance exten<^
- - - 1 - - •' - - — researches
He
of globes with plain, convex, and concave surfaces. on t hc JV
has found in general that the resistance of bodies not en- sistance of
tirely immersed in the fluid is much greater than that of fluids,
bodies which are wholly immersed; and he promises to
make further experiments upon this point. We intended
on the present occasion to have given the reader a more
complete viewr of the researches of this ingenious philoso¬
pher ; but these could not well be understood without a
knowledge of his investigations respecting the force of tor¬
sion, which we have not yet had an opportunity of commu¬
nicating. In the article Mechanics, however, we shall
introduce the reader to this interesting subject; and may
afterwards have an opportunity of making him farther ac¬
quainted with those researches of Coulomb, of which we
have at present given only a general view.
284. The subject of the resistance of fluids has been re-Researches
cently treated by the learned Dr Hutton of Woolwich, of Dr Hut-
His experiments were made in air with bodies of variouston-
forms, moving with different velocities, and inclined at va¬
rious angles to the direction of their motion. The following
table contains the results of many interesting experiments.
The numbers in the ninth column represent the exponents
of the power of the velocity which the resistances in the
8th column bear to each other.
Table I. Shewing the Resistance of Hemispheres, Cones, Cylinders, and Globes, in different Positions, and moving
ivith different Velocities.
Velocity per
second.
Feet.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Small he¬
misphere,
4| inches
dia. flat side.
Mean propor¬
tional numbers.
Oz. avoir.
.028
.048
.072
.103
.141
.184
.233
.287
.349
.418
.492
.573
.661
.754
.853
.959
1.073
1.196
140
Large hemisphere
inches diameter.
Flat side. Round side.
Oz. avoir.
.051
.096
.148
.211
.284
.368
.464
.573
.698
.836
.988
1.154
1.336
1.538
1.757
1.928
2.998
2.542
288
Oz. avoir.
.020
.039
.063
.092
.123
.160
.199
.242
.292
.347
.409
.478
.552
.634
.722
.818
.921
1.033
119
Cone G§ inches dia¬
meter.
Vertex.
Oz. avoir.
.028
.048
.071
.098
.129
.168
.211
.260
.315
.376
.440
.512
.589
.673
.762
.858
.959
1.069
126
Rase.
Oz. avoir.
.064
.109
.162
.225
.298
.382
.478
.587
.712
.850
1.000
1.166
1.346
1.546
1.763
2.002
2.260
2.540
291
Cylinder
6§ inches
diameter.
Oz. avoir.
.050
.090
.143
.205
.278
.360
.456
.565
.688
.826
.979
1.145
1.327
1.526
1.745
1.986
2.246
2.528
285
Globe
61 inches
diameter.
Oz. avoir.
.027
.047
.068
.094
.125
.162
.205
.255
.310
.370
.435
.505
.581
.663
.752
.848
.949
1.057
124
Power of the vel.
to which the re¬
sistance is pro¬
portional.
2.052
2.042
2.036
2.031
2.031
2.033
2.038
2.044
2.047
2.051
2.040
suits of 285. From the preceding experiments we may draw the the surfaces and the velocities are great. 2. The resist-
! pre- following conclusions: 1. That the resistance is nearly pro- ance to the same surface moving with different velocities,
! iments." Port'ona^ to t^ie surfaces, a small increase taking place when is nearly as the square of the velocity; but it appears from
80
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On the the 9th column that the exponent increases with the velo-
Resistance cjty. 3. The round and sharp ends of solids sustain a
of 1 luids. greater resistance than the flat ends of the same diameter.
^4. The resistance to the base of the hemisphere is to the
resistance on the convex side, or the whole sphere, as 2£, to
1, instead of 2 to 1, as given by theory. 5. The resistance
on the base of the cone is to the resistance on the vertex
nearly as 2T^ to 1; and in the same ratio is radius to the
sine of half the angle at the vertex. Hence in this case
the resistance is directly as the sine of the angle of inci¬
dence, the transverse section being the same. 6. The re¬
sistance of the base of a hemisphere, the base of a cone,
and the base of a cylinder, are all different, though these
bases be exactly equal and similar.
286. The following table contains the resistance sustain¬
ed by a globe 1.965 inches in diameter. The fourth co¬
lumn is the quotient of the resistance by experiment, di¬
vided by the theoretical resistance.
raen ts with Tabi,e Containing the Resistance to a Globe 1.965
a Globe Inches in Diameter, moving with various Velocities, ac-
1,905 cording to Theory and Eocperiment.
inches in ,
diameter.
Velocity
of the
Globe per
second.
Feet.
5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
1
Resistance
by experi¬
ment.
Oz. avoir.
0*006
0*0245
0.055
0.100
0.157
0.23
0.42
0.67
2.72
11
25
45
72
107
151
205
271
350
442
546
661
785
916
1051
1186
1319
1447
1569
Resistance
by theory.
Oz. avoir.
0*005
0*020
0.044
0.079
0.123
0.177
0.314
0.491
1.164
7*9
18.7
31.4
49
71
96
126
159
196
238
283
332
385
442
503
568
636
709
786
Ratio be¬
tween the
experimental
and theoreti¬
cal resistance.
1.20
1.23
1*25
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.33
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.41
1.43
1.47
1.51
1.57
1.63
1.70
1.78
1.86
1.90
1.99
2.04
2.07
2.09
2.08
2.07
2.04
2.00
Power of the
velocity to
which the re¬
sistance is
proportional.
2*022
2.059
2.068
2*075
2.059
2.041
2.039
2.039
2.044
2.051
2.059
2.067
2.077
2.086
2.095
2.102
2.107
2.111
2.113
2.113
2.111
2.108
2.104
2.098
and at the velocity of 2000 the resistance by experiment On tie
is again double of the theoretical resistance. By consider- Aesistanc
ing the numbers in column 5th, it will be seen, that in slow ()t
motions the resistances are nearly as the square of the velo-
cities; that this ratio increases gradually, though not re¬
gularly, till at the velocity of 1500 or 1600 feet it arrives
at its maximum. It then gradually diminishes as the velo¬
city increases.
Conclusions similar to these were deduced from experi
ments made with globes of a larger size.
288. The following table contains the resistance of a
plane inclined at various angles, according to experiment,
and according to a formula deduced from the experiments.
Table III. Containing the Resistances to a plane inclined
at various Angles to the Line of its Motion.
Inclination
of the plane.
Degrees.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Resistances by
experiment.
Oz. avoir.
.000
.015
.044
.082
.133
.200
.278
.362
.448
.534
.619
*684
.729
.770
.803
.823
.835
.839
.840
Resistances by
the formula
0.84s1,84’c.
Oz. avoir.
.000
.009
*035
*076
.131
.199
*278
.363
*450
.535
.613
*680
.736
•778
.808
.826
*836
.839
.840
Sines of the
angles to ra¬
dius 840.
*000
.073
*146
.217
*287
.355
*420
.482
.540
.594
.643
.688
.727
.761
.789
.811
*827
.838
.840
287. It appears from a comparison of the 2d, 3d, and
4th columns, that when the velocity is small, the resistance
by experiment is nearly equal to that deduced from theory :
but that as the velocity increases, the former gradually
exceeds the latter till the velocity is 1300 feet per second,
when it becomes twice as great. The difference between
the two resistances then increases, and reaches its maxi¬
mum between the velocities of 1600 and 1700 feet. It
afterwards decreases gradually as the velocity increases,
289- The plane with which the preceding experiments
were performed was 32 square inches, and always moved
with a velocity of 12 feet per second. The resistances
which this plane experienced are contained in column 2d.
From the numbers in that column Dr Hutton deduced the
formula .84.?1 *84!!c, where s is the sine, and c the cosine of
the angles of inclination in the first column. The resist¬
ances computed from this formula are contained in column
3d, and agree very nearly with the resistances deduced
from experiment. The 4th column contains the sines of
the angles in the first column to a radius .84, in order to com¬
pare them with the resistances which have obviously no re¬
lation either to the sines of the angles or to any power of
the sines. From the angle of 0 to about 60° the resistances
are less than the sines ; but from 60° to 90° they are some¬
what greater.
290. The experiments of Mr Vince were made with Rescan
bodies at a considerable depth below the surface of water ;°fMr
and he determined the resistance which they experienced,Vuice*
both when they moved in the fluid at rest, and when they
received the impulse of the moving fluid. In the experi¬
ments contained in the following table, the body moved
in the fluid with a velocity of 0.66 feet in a second. The
angles at which the planes struck the fluid are contained
in the first column. The second column shews the resist-
0 he Jince by experiment in the direction of their motion in troy
]{e tanceounces< The third column exhibits the resistance by
°f aids. t]ieoryj the perpendicular distance being supposed the same
as by experiment. The fourth column shews the power
atio if the die sine of the angle to which the resistance is propor-
resi ;nce tional, and was computed in the following manner. Let o
be the sine of the angle, radius being 1, and r the resist¬
ance at that angle. Suppose r to vary as sm, then we have
0.2321 : r ; hence s”1 ~ : ^ , and therefore
.9
,l;wh( the
bod i»>-
'6ved the
HYDRODYNAMICS.
81
Log. r — Log. 0.2321
0.2321
^ , and by substituting their cor¬
responding values, instead of r and s we shall have the
values of m or the numbers in the fourth column.
Table IV. Containing the resistance of a Plane Surface
moving in a Fluid., and placed at different angles to the
path of its motion.
Angle of
inclination.
Degrees.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1
Resistance by
experiment.
Troy ounces.
0.0112
0.0364
0.0769
0.1174
0.1552
0.1902
0.2125
0.2237
0.2321
Resistance by
theory.
Troy ounces.
0.0012
0.0093
0.0290
0.0616
0.1043
0.1476
0.1926
0.2217
0.2321
3
Power of the sine
of the angle to
which the resistance
is proportional.
Experiments.
1.73
1.73
1.54
1.54
1.51
1.38
1.42
2.41
291. According to the theory the resistance should vary
as the cube of the sine, whereas from an angle of 90° it
decreases in a less ratio, but not as any constant power, nor
as any function of the sine and cosine. Hence the actual
resistance always exceeds that which is deduced from
theory, assuming the perpendicular resistance to be the
same. The cause of this difference is partly owing to our
theory neglecting that part of the force which after resolu¬
tion acts parallel to the plane, but which, according to ex¬
periments, is really a part of the force which acts upon the
plane.
292. Mr Vince made also a number of experiments on On the
the resistance of hemispheres, globes, and cylinders, which Resistance
moved with a velocity of 0.542 feet per second. Lie found of Fluids.
that the resistance to the spherical side of a hemisphere F ^ v7"'
was to the resistance on its base as 0^034 is to O.Q8339 ;me„tswith
that the resistance of the flat side of a hemisphere was to hemi-
the resistance of a cylinder of the same diameter, and mov- spheres,
ing with the same velocity, as 0.08339 is to 0.07998 ; andgl°hes> and
that the resistance to a complete globe is to the resistance oyh^ers.
of a cylinder of the same diameter, and with the same ve¬
locity, as 1 : 2.23.
293. The following results were obtained, when theDetermin-
plane was struck by the moving fluid. The second column ation of the
of the following table contains the resistance by experi-resistance
ment, and the third column the resistance by theory from when the
the perpendicular force, supposing it to vary as the sine of^rudTbv
the inclination. the moving
fluid.
Table V. Containing the Resistance of a Plane struck by
the Fluid in Motion, and inclined at different angles to
the direction of its path.
Angle of
inclination.
Degrees.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
Resistance by
experiment.
Oz. dwts. grs.
17
17
15
12
18
4
18
12
6
12
0
12
12
10
10
18
12
4
Resistance by
theory.
Oz. dwts. grs.
17
16
15
12
18
4
18
12
6
12
22
6
11
17
2
18
19
12
294. It appears from the preceding results, that the re¬
sistance varies as the sine of the angle at which the fluid
strikes the plane, the difference between theory and experi¬
ment being such as might be expected from the necessary
inaccuracy of the experiments.
By comparing the preceding table with Table IV., it will
be found that the resistance of a plane moving in a fluid is
to the resistance of the same plane when struck by the fluid
in motion as 5 to 6. In both these cases the actual effect
on the plane must be the same, and therefore, the differ¬
ence in the resistance can arise only from the action of the
fluid behind the body in the former case.
CHAPTER IV. ON THE OSCILLATION OF FLUIDS, AND THE UNDULATION OF WAVES.
Prop. I.
’ill m of ^ie oscihations of water in a syphon, consisting of two
drat in a verdcal branches and a horizontal one, are isochronous,
syp a. ahd have the same duration as the oscillations of a pendu¬
lum, whose length is equal to half the length of the oscil¬
lating column of water.
7.
Into the tube MNOP, having its internal diameter every
where the same, introduce a quantity of water. When
the water is in equilibrio, the two surfaces AB, CD will be
in the same horizontal line AD. If this equilibrium be
disturbed by making the syphon oscillate round the point
y, the water will rise and fall alternately in the vertical
branches after the syphon is at rest. Suppose the water
to rise to EF in the branch MO, it will evidently fall to GH
111 the other branch, so that CG is equal to AE. Then
VOL. XII.
it is evident, that the force which makes the water oscillate,
is the weight of the column EFKL, Fig- 77-
which is double the column EABF ;
and that this force is to the whole
weight of the water, as 2 AE is to
AOPD. Now, let P be a pendulum, E
whose length is equal to half the A
length of the oscillating column K
AOPD, and which describes to the
lowest point S arches PS, equal to AE;
then 2 AE : AOPD = AE: QP, be¬
cause AE is one-half of 2 AE, and OP
one-half of A O P D. Consequently,
since AOPD is a constant quantity, the
force which makes the water oscillate ov
is always proportional to the space which it runs through,
and its oscillations are therefore isochronous. The force
82
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Fig. 78.
Oscillation which makes the pendulum
of Fluids, describe the arch PS, is to
&c' the weight of the pendulum
as PS -is to PQ, or as AE is
to PQ, since AE = PS ; but
the force which makes the
water oscillate, is to the
weight of the whole water in
the same ratio ; consequent¬
ly, since the pendulum P, and
the column AOPD, are influ¬
enced by the very same force,
their oscillations must be per¬
formed in the same time. Q.
E. D.
Fig. 78.
distance between the highest and lowest parts of the wave, Oscillati
the highest parts of each wave will descend to the lowest ofFlufc
parts during one oscillation of the pendulum, and in the k(-
time of another oscillation will again become the highest" ^
parts. The pendulum, therefore, will perform two oscilla¬
tions in the time that each wave performs one undulation,
that is, in the time that each wave describes the space A C
or BD, between two neighbouring eminences or cavities,
which is called the breadth of the wave. Now, if a pendu¬
lum, whose length is one-half BM, performs two oscillations
in the above time, it will require a pendulum four times
that length to perform only one oscillation in the same
time, that is, a pendulum whose length is AC or BD, since
4 x J BM = 2 BM = AC or BD. Q. E. D.
296. Cor. As the oscillations of water and of pendu¬
lums are regulated by the same laws, if the oscillating
column of water is increased or diminished, the time in
which the oscillations are performed will increase or di¬
minish in the subduplicate ratio of the length of the pen¬
dulum.
Scholium.
297. This subject has been treated in a general manner,
by Newton and different philosophers, who have shewn how
to determine the time of an oscillation, whatever be the
form of the syphon. See the Principia, lib. ii. Prop. 45,
46. Bossut’s Traite d’Hydrodynamique, tom. 1. Notes
sur le Chap. II. Part II. Bernoulli Opera, tom. iii.
p. 125, and Encydopedie, art. 0tides.
Prop. II.
On the un- 298. The undulations of waves are performed in the same
dulation of time as the oscillations of a pendulum whose length is
waves. equal to the breadth of a wave, or to the distance between
two neighbouring cavities or eminences.
In the waves ABCDEF, the undulations are performed
Fig. 79-
C E
in such a manner, that the highest parts ACE become the
lowest; and as the force which depresses the eminences
ACE is always the weight of water contained in these emi¬
nences, it is obvious, that the undulations of waves are of
the same kind as the undulations or oscillations of water in
a syphon. It follows, therefore, from Prop. I. that if we
take a pendulum, whose length is one-half BM, or half the
Scholium.
299. The explanation of the oscillation of waves con¬
tained in the two preceding propositions, was first given by
Sir Isaac Newton, in his Principia, lib. ii. Prop. 44. He
considered it only as an approximation to the truth, since
it supposes the waves to rise and fall perpendicularly like
the water in the vertical branches of the syphon, while their
real motion is partly circular. The theory of Newton was,
nevertheless, adopted by succeeding philosophers, and gave
rise to many analogous discussions respecting the undula¬
tion of waves. Very lately, however, an attempt has been New t
made by M. Flaugergues, to overturn the theory of New-ry oft
ton. From a number of experiments on the motion and format
figure of waves, an account^of which may be seen in the®1™
Journal des Sgavans, for October 1789, M. Flaugergues
concludes, that a wave is not the result of a motion in the
particles of water, by which they ascend and descend alter¬
nately in a serpentine line, when moving from the place
where the water received the shock ; but that it is an in¬
tumescence which this shock occasions around the place
where it is received, by the depression that is there pro¬
duced. This intumescence afterwards propagates itself
circularly, while it removes from the place, where the shock
first raised it above the level of the stagnant water. A
portion of the stagnant water then flows from all sides into
the hollow formed at the place where the shock was re¬
ceived ; this hollow is thus heaped with fluid, and the water
is elevated so as to produce all around another intume¬
scence, or a new wave, which propagates itself circularly
as before. The repetition of this effect produces on the
surface of the water a number of concentric rings, succes¬
sively elevated and depressed, which have the appearance
of an undulatory motion. This interesting subject has
also been discussed by M. La Grange, in his Mecanique
Analytique, to which we must refer the reader for farther
information. See History of Hydrodynamics, art. 21.
gues.
PART III.—ON HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
Hydi'aulic
machines.
300. To describe the various machines in which water
is the impelling power, -would be an endless and unprofit¬
able task. Those machines which can be driven by w ind,
steam, and the force of men or horses, as well as they can
be driven by water, do not properly belong to the science
of hydraulics. By hydraulic machinery, therefore, we are
to understand those various contrivances by which water
can be employed as the impelling power of machinery ; and
those machines which are employed to raise water, or which
could not operate without the assistance of that fluid.
CHAPTER I. ON WATER-WHEELS.
Ditiereiit 301. Water-wheels are divided into three kinds, Over¬
kinds of shot-wheels, Breast-wheels, and Undershot-wheels, which
water- derive their names from the manner in which the water is
wheels delivered upon their circumferences.
Sect. I. On Over shot-Wheels.
302. An overshot-wheel is a wheel driven by the weighty,
of water, conveyed into buckets disposed on its circumfe- 0v(iel
wh
■ On ater-rence. It is represented in fig. 80, where ABC is the cir-
l' ^ .eis. eumf’erence of the wheel furnished with a number of buck-
' Fig. 80.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
83
if we multiply the weight of all the water on the arch AB, On Water-
by the distance of its centre of gravity G, from the fulcrum Wheels,
or centre of motion O. Now, by the property of the cen-
tre of gravity (see Mechanics), the distance of the centre
of gravity of a circular arch from its centre, is a fourth pro¬
portional to half the arch, the radius, and the sine of half
the arch. Since the vertical bucket b has no power to
turn the wheel if it were filled, and since two or three
buckets between B and P are always empty, we may safe¬
ly suppose that the loaded arch never exceeds 160°, so
that if 11 = radius of the wheel in feet, we shall have the
length of half the loaded arch, or 80° — 2Rx3.14l6x
= Rx 1.396; and the distance of the centre of gravity
from the fulcrum O, — GO = • Now, if N
160 N 4 N
R X 1.396
be the number of buckets in the wheel, ^ ^ ,
will be the number of buckets in the loaded arch; and if
G be the number of ale gallons contained in each bucket,
the weight of the water in each bucket will be 1.02 X G,
pounds avoirdupois. The weight of the water, there¬
fore, in the loaded arch, will be —X 102 G, and
consequently the momentum of the loaded arch will be
ets. The canal MN conveys the water into the second
bucket from the top A a. The equilibrium of the wheel is
therefore destroyed ; and the power of the bucket A a, to
turn the wheel round its centre of motion O, is the same
as if the weight of the water in the bucket were suspended
at m, the extremity of the lever Om, c being the centre of
gravity of the bucket, and O m a perpendicular let fall from
the fulcrum O to the direction cm, in which the force is
exerted. In consequence of this destruction of equilibrium,
the wheel will move round in the direction AB, the bucket
A a will be at d, and the empty bucket b will take the place
of A a, and receive water from the spout N. The force
acting on the wheel is now the water in the bucket d act¬
ing with a lever nO, and the water in the bucket A« act¬
ing with a lever mO. The velocity of the wheel will there¬
fore increase with the number of loaded buckets, and with
their distance from the vertex of the wheel; for the lever
by which they tend to turn the wheel about its axis, in¬
creases as the buckets approach to c, where their power,
represented by eO, is a maximum. After the buckets
have passed e, the lever by which they act gradually dimi¬
nishes, they lose by degrees a small portion of their water;
and as soon as they reach B it is completely discharged.
When the wheel begins to move, its velocity will increase
rapidly till the quadrant of buckets 6 e is completely filled.
While these buckets are descending through the inferior
quadrant e P, and the buckets on the left hand of b are re¬
ceiving water from the spout, the velocity of the wheel will
still increase; but the increments of velocity will be small¬
er and smaller, since the levers by which the inferior buck¬
ets act are gradually diminishing. As soon as the highest
bucket A c has reached the point B, where it is emptied,
the whole semicircumference nearly of the wheel is loaded
with water; and when the bucket at B is discharging its
contents, the bucket at A is filling, so that the load in the
buckets, by which the wheel is impelled, will be always the
same, and the velocity of the wheel will become uniform,
thod of 303. In order to find the power of the loaded arch to
pating turn j-qg wheel, or, which is the same thing, to find a weight
itum 0fwhich> suspended at the opposite extremity C, will balance
water ^e loaded arch or keep it in equilibrio, we must multiply
he load- the weight of water in each bucket by the length of the
ireh. virtual lever by which it acts, and take the sum of all these
momenta for the momentum of the loaded arch. It will
be much easier, however, and the result will be the same.
4 N
= —X 10.2 G X
R x Sin. 80° 4 N
9
4 IV
— __ x 6.465 G pounds avoirdupois. Hence, we have
the following rule: Multiply the constant number 6.465
by f of the number of buckets in the wheel, and this pro¬
duct by the number of ale gallons in each bucket; and the
result will be the effective weight, or momentum of the
water in the loaded arch. For a description of the best
form that can be given to the buckets, see the article
WATER-Works. Dr Robison has there recommended a
mode of constructing the buckets invented by Mr Burns,
who divided each bucket into two by means of a partition;
but the writer of this article is assured, on the authority of
an ingenious mill-wright, who wrought with Mr Burns at
the time when wheels of this kind were constructed, that
the inner bucket is never filled with water, and that much
of the power is thus lost. The partition prevents the in¬
troduction of the fluid, and the water is driven backwards
by the escape of the included air.
304. In order to determine the best form of the buckets,
we must consider that the power of the wheel would be a
maximum, if the whole of its semi-circumference were
loaded with water. This effect would be obtained if the
buckets had the shape shewn in fig. 81., where ABC is the
form of the bucket, AB being Fig. 81.
a continuation of the radius, and
BC part of the circumference of
the wheel, and nearly equal to
AD. But as a small aperture
at CE will neither admit nor
discharge the water, the form
shewn in fig. 82. has been pro-
posed by Sir David Brewster as
the best. In this construction,
BC is made a little larger than BE, and AB is diminished
so as to make the angle ABC a little greater than 90°.
The angles AB should be rounded off, so as to make ABC
a curve, as indicated by the dotted line. The aperture at
rfE must be sufficient for the introduction and discharge of
the water, and the side BE of the bucket should be as
smooth and even as possible.
305. The construction of an overshot-wheel, and the mode
of admitting the water into the buckets from the mill-course
MN, is shewn in the following figure. In an overshot-
R x 1.396
= — X 10.2 Gx 0.6338
Fig. 82.
84
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On,Water- wheel constructed by Mr Smeaton, the wheel is exactly the
Wheels, height of the fall, and in another it exceeds that height, so as
to be intermediate between an overshot and a breast wheel.
Fie. 83.
On the dia¬
meter of
overshot-
wheels re¬
latively to
the height
of the tall.
306. In the construction of overshot-wheels, it is of great
importance to determine what should be the diameter of
the wheel relatively to the height of the fall. It is evident
that, its diameter cannot exceed the height of the fall.
Some mechanical writers have demonstrated that, in theo¬
ry, an overshot-wheel wall produce a maximum effect when
its diameter is two-thirds of that height, the water being
supposed to fall into the buckets with the velocity of the
wheel. But this rule is palpably erroneous, and directly
repugnant to the results of experiment. For if the height
of the fall be 48 feet, the diameter of the wheel will, ac7
cording to this rule, be 32 feet; and the water having to
fall through 16 feet before it reaches the buckets, will have
a velocity of 32 feet per second, which, according to the
hypothesis, must also be the velocity of the wheel’s circum¬
ference. But Smeaton has proved, that a maximum effect
is produced by an overshct-wheel of any diameter, when
its velocity is only three feet per second. The Chevalier
de Borda has shewn, that overshot-wheels will produce a
maximum effect when their diameter is equal to the height
of the fall; and this is completely confirmed by Mr Smea-
ton’s experiments. From a great number of trials, Mr
Smeaton has concluded, “ that the higher the wheel is in
proportion to the w hole descent, the greater will be the ef¬
fect.” Nor is it difficult to assign the reason of this. The
water which is conveyed into the buckets can produce very
little effect by its impulse, even if its velocity be great;
both on account of the obliquity with which it strikes the
buckets, and in consequence of the loss of water occasioned
by a considerable quantity of the fluid being dashed over
their sides. Instead, therefore, of expecting an increase of
effect from the impulse of the water occasioned by its fall
through one-third of the whole height, we should allow it
to act through this height by its gravity, and therefore make
the diameter of the wheel as great as possible. But a dis¬
advantage attends even this rule; for if the water is com
veyed into the buckets without any velocity, which must
be the case when the diameter of the wheel equals the
height of the fall, the velocity of the wheel wTill be retarded
by the impulse of the buckets against the water, and much
power would be lost by the water dashing over them. In
order, therefore, to avoid all inconveniences, the distance
of the spout from the receiving bucket should, in general,
be about two or three inches, that the wTater may be de¬
livered with a velocity a little greater than that of the wheel;
or, in other words, the diameter of an overshot-wheel
should be two or three inches less than the greatest height
of the fall; and yet it is no uncommon thing to see the
diameters of these wheels scarcely one-half of that height. On Watf
In such a construction the loss of power is prodigious. Wheels
307. The proper velocity of overshot-wheels is a subject
on which mechanical writers have entertained different sen- 0n
timents. While some have maintained that there is a cer-
tain velocity which produces a maximum effect, Depar-overshot
cieux has endeavoured to prove, by a set of ingenious ex-wheels,
periments, that most work is performed by an overshot-Experi.
wheel when it moves slowly, and that the more its motion ™ents 01
is retarded by increasing the work to be performed, the
greater will be the performance of the wheel. In these the velu
experiments he employed a small wheel, 20 inches in dia-cityof
meter, having its circumference furnished with 48 buckets, oversho!
On the centre or axle of this wheel were placed 4 cylin- "'hcck
ders of different diameters, the first being 1 inch in diame¬
ter, the second 2 inches, the third 3 inches, and the fourth
4 inches. When the experiments are made, a cord is at¬
tached to one of the cylinders, and after passing over a
pulley, a weight is suspended at its other extremity. By
moving the wheel upon its axis, the cord winds round the
cylinder and raises the weight. In order to diminish the
friction, the gudgeons of the wheel are supported by two
friction rollers, and before the wheel, a little higher than
its axis, is placed a small table which supports a vessel filled
with water, having an orifice in the side next the wheel.
Above this vessel is placed a large bottle full of water and
inverted, having its mouth immersed a few lines in the wa¬
ter, so that it empties itself in proportion as the water in
the vessel is discharged from the orifice. The quantity of
water thus discharged is always the same, arid is conveyed
from the orifice by means of a canal to the buckets of the
wheel. With this apparatus he obtained the following
results.
Diameters of
the Cylinders.
Inches.
1
2
3
4
Altitude through
which 12 ounces
were elevated.
Inches. Lines.
69 9
80 6
85 6
87 9
Altitude through
which 24 ounces
were elevated.
Inches. Lines.
40 0
43 6
44 6
45 3
308. When the large cylinders were used, the velocity
of the wheel was smaller, because the resistances are pro¬
portional to their diameter, the weight being the same.
Hence it appears, by comparing the four results in columnResult
2d with one another, and also the four results in column t|ie prt
3d, that when the wheel turns more slowly, the effect, ding e;
which is in this case measured by the elevation of theriment
weight always increases. When the weight of 24 ounces,
was used, the resistance was twice as great, and the velo¬
city twice as slow, as when the 12 ounce weight was em¬
ployed. But by comparing the results in column 2d with
the corresponding results in column 3d, it appears, that
when the 24 ounce weight was employed, and the velocity
was only one-half of what it was when the 12 ounce weight
was used, the effect was more than one-half, the numbers
in the 3d column being more than one-half the numbers
in the 2d. Hence we may conclude, that the slower an^gS"J
overshot-wheel moves, the greater will be its performance. WOrk t
309. These experiments of Deparcieux presented such slower
unexpected results, as to induce other philosophers, to exa- woves.
mine them with care. The Chevalier D’Arcy, in particu¬
lar, considered them attentively. He maintained that There
there was a determinate velocity when the effect of thea vel,°‘
wheel reached its maximum ; and he has shewn, by com- ,
paring the experiments of Deparcieux with his own formulae, f^xin
that the overshot-wheel which Deparcieux employed never effect.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
P« On ater-moved with such a small velocity as corresponded with the
* W els. maximum effect, and that if he had increased the diameter
^ of his cylinders, or the magnitude of the weights, his own
experiments would have exhibited the degree of velocity,
when the effect was the greatest possible,
j i • 310. The reasoning of the Chevalier D’Arcy is com-
on_ pletely confirmed by the experiments of Smeaton. This
fcfin) 1 by celebrated engineer concludes with Deparcieux, that, cm-
the ped- {eris paribus, the less the velocity of the wheel, the greater
■ me: of |ie jts effect. But he observes, on the contrary, that
on ’ when the wheel of his model made about 30 turns in a mi¬
nute, the effect was nearly the greatest; when it made 30
turns, the effect was diminished about one-twentieth part;
and that when it made 40 it was diminished about one-
fourth ; when it made less than 18| turns, its motion was
irregular, and when it was loaded so that it could not make
18 turns, the wheel wras overpowered by its load. Mr Smea¬
ton likewise observes, that when the circumferences of
overshot-wheels, whether high or low, move with the velo¬
city of three feet per second, and when the other parts of
the w'ork are properly adapted to it, they will produce the
greatest possible effect. He allows, however, that high
wheels may deviate farther from this rule before losing
85
their powrer than low ones can be permitted to do ; and as- On Water-
sures us that he has seen a wheel 24 feet high moving at Wheels,
the rate of six feet per second, without losing any consider-
able part of its power, and likewise a wheel 33 feet high
moving very steadily and well with a velocity but little ex¬
ceeding two feet.
311. The experiments of the Abbe Bossut may also be And also
adduced in support of the same reasoning. He employed by the ex-
a wheel 3 feet in diameter, furnished with 48 buckets, ha ■ P|”ments
ving each three inches of depth, and four inches of width.0 0SSU ’
The canal which conveyed the water into the buckets was
perfectly horizontal, and was five inches wide. It furnish¬
ed uniformly 1194 cubic inches of water in a minute. The
resistance to be overcome was a variety of weights fixed to
the extremity of a cord, which, after passing over a pulley
as in Deparcieux’s experiments, winded round the cylin¬
drical axle of the wheel. The diameter of this cylinder
was two inches and seven lines, and that of the gudgeons
or pivots of the wheel two lines and a half. The number
of turns which the wheel made in a minute was not reckon¬
ed till its motion became uniform, which always happened
when it had performed five or six revolutions. When the
wheel was unloaded it made 40i turns in a minute.
Number
of pounds
raised.
Number of se¬
conds in which
the load was
raised.
Number of re¬
volutions per¬
formed by the
wheel.
Effect of the
wheel, or the
product of the
number of turns
multiplied by
the load.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
/
t
j
(
60A
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
1H#
1 1 4 8
1 1 1 1
1 1¥ 8
10^5
1U4 8
Q40
qio
4 8
831
°4 8
Q 9
°48
73.2
< 4j8
The wheel turned but exceed¬
ingly slow.
The wheel stopped though first
put in motion by the band
to make it catch the wa¬
ter.
131ff
134ff
136H
137|f
138j6¥
138if
139^
138
312. It appears evidently from the last column, which
we have computed on purpose, that the effect increases as
the velocity diminishes; but that the effect is a maximum
when the number of turns is 85\ in a minute, being then
ISOjj. When the velocity was farther diminished by add¬
ing an additional pound to the resistance, the effect was
diminished to 138, and when the velocity was still less, the
wheel ceased to move.
Now since the wheel was three feet in diameter, and
9.42 feet in circumference, the velocity of its circumference
will be about one foot four inches per second, when it per¬
forms 8 A turns in a minute, or when the maximum effect
is produced. With Mr Smeaton’s model, the maximum
effect wras produced when the velocity of the wheel’s cir¬
cumference was two feet per second. So that the experi¬
ments both of Smeaton and Bossut concur to prove, that
the power of overshot wheels increases as the velocity di¬
minishes ; but that there is a certain velocity, between one
and two feet per second, when the wheel produces a maxi¬
mum effect. Since when the wheel was unloaded it turned
401 times, in a minute, and performed only 8¥!^ revolutions
when its power was a maximum, the velocity of the wheel
when unloaded will be to its velocity when the effect is
the greatest, as five to one, nearly.
313. The Chevalier de Borda maintains that an over¬
shot wheel will raise through the height of the fall a quan- Qn ^he en¬
tity of water equal to that by which it is driven, and Albert feet of
Euler has shewn that the effect of these wheels is very overshot-
much inferior to the momentum or force which impels wheels,
them. It appears, however, from Mr Smeaton’s experi¬
ments, that when the work performed was a maximum, the
ratio of the power to the effect was as four to three, when
the height of the fall and the quantities of water expended
were the least; but that it was as four to two when the
heights of the fall and the quantities discharged were the
greatest. By taking a mean between these ratios, we may
conclude, in general, that in overshot-wheels the power is
to the effect as three to one. In this case the power is
supposed to be computed from the whole height of the fall;
because the water must be raised to that height in order
to be in a condition of producing the same effect a second
time. When the power of the water is estimated only
from the height of the wheel, the ratio of the power to the
effect was more constant, being nearly as five to four.
314. The theory of overshot-wheels has been ably dis-Investiga-
eussed by Albert Euler and Lambert. The former of tion „f a!-
these philosophers has shewn that the altitude of the wheel ert Euler,
should be made as great as possible; that the buckets
should be made as capacious as other circumstances will
permit; that their form should be such as to convey the
86
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Water- water as near the lowest point of the wheel as can be con-
Wheels. veniently done ; and that the motion of the wheel should
^be slow, that the buckets may be completely filled. He
has likewise shewn that the effect of the wheel increases as
its velocity is diminished; and that overshot-wheels should
be used only when there is a sufficient height of fall. The
Descrip¬
tion of
breast-
wheels.
results of Lambert’s investigations are less consonant with On Wat! ^
the experiments of Smeaton. By examining the following Wheel: ^
table, which contains these results, it will appear at once '
that he makes the diameter of the wheel much smaller ^
than it ouiiht to be.
research
Table for Overshot-Mills.
Height of
the fall reck¬
oning from
the surface
of the
stream.
Feet.
7
8
9
10
11
12
Radius of the
wheel reck¬
oning from
the extre-’
mity of the
buckets.
Feet.
2.83
3.22
3.63
4.04
4.45
4.86
Width of
the
buckets.
Feet.
LOO’
1.14
1.27
0.43
0.57
0.71
Depth of
the
buckets.
Feet.
2.02
1.44
1.07
0.82
0.65
0.52
V elocity
of the
wheel per
second.
Feet.
5.27
5.63
5.94
6.30
6.60
6.89
Time in
which the
wheel per¬
forms one
revolu¬
tion.
Seconds.
3.38
3.61
3.83
4.04
4.23
4.42
Turns of
the mill¬
stone for
one of the
wheel.
8.45
9.02
9.57
10.10
10.57
11.05
Force of
the water
upon the
buckets.
Lb. avoir.
636
595
565
531
511
486
8
The
length of
nin in
Fig. 80.
Feet.
0.33
0.38
0.42
0.48
0.52
0.57
9
The
length of
no in
Fig. 80.
Feet.
1.15
1.32
1.48
1.65
1.81
1.98
10
Quantity
of water
required
per second
to turn
the wheel.
Cub. Feet.
10.55
9.23
8.21
7.38
6.71
6.15
11
Sect. II. On Breast-Wheels.
315. A breast-wheel partakes of the nature both of an
overshot and an undershot wheel, and is driven partly by
Fig. 84
the impulse, but chiefly by the weight, of the water. The
mill-course (fig. 84), is made concentric with the wheel,
which is fitted to it in such a manner that no water is allowed
to escape at the sides and extremities of the floatboards. The
water is delivered into the openings of the wheel through
an iron grating ah, and its admission is regulated by two
shutters c, d, the lowest of which is adjusted till a sufficient
quantity of water passes over it; and the other shutter c is
made to descend by machinery when the wheel is to be
stopped, and the water retained in the reservoir R. Ac¬
cording to Mr Smeaton, the effect of a wheel driven in this
manner is equal “ to the effect of an undershot-wheel whose
head of water is equal to the difference of level between
the surface of water in the reservoir, and the point where
it strikes the wheel, added to that of an overshot whose
height is equal to the difference of level between the point
where it strikes the wheel and the level of the tail water.”1
316. Mr Lambert, of the Academy of Sciences at Ber¬
lin, observes,2 that a breast-wheel should be used when the
fall of water is above four feet in height, and below ten.
The following table is calculated from Lambert’s formulae,
and exhibits at one view the results of his investigations.
Resii f
thein i
gatim f
Laml
Table for Breast-Mills.
Height
of the
fall in
feet.
Breadth of
the float-
boards.
Depth of
the float-
boards.
Radius of the
water-wheel
reckoned from
the extremity of
the floatboards.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Feet.
0.17
0.34
0.51
0.69
0.86
1.03
1.20
1.37
1.54
1.71
Feet.
198.6
35.1
12.7
6.2
3.57
2.25
1.53
1.10
0.81
0.77
Feet.
0.75
1.50
2.26
3.01
3.76
4.51
5.26
6.02
6.77
7.52
V elocity
of the
wheel per
second.
Feet.
2.18
3.09
3.78
4.36
4.88
5.35
5.77
'6.17
6.55
6.90
Time in
which the
wheel per¬
forms one
revolu¬
tion.
Seconds.
1.92
2.72
3.33
3.84
4.28
4.70
5.08
5.43
5.76
6.07
6
Turns of
the mill¬
stone for
one of the
wheel.
4.80
6.80
8.32
9.60
10.70
11.76
12.70
13.58
14.40
15.18
Force of
the water
upon the
float-
boards.
Lb. avoir.
1536
1084
886
768
686
626
581
543
512
486
8
The
length of
m n, in
fig. 84.
Feet.
0.08
0.15
0.23
0.30
0.38
0.46
0.53
0.60
0.68
0.76
9
The
length of
n o, in
fig. 84.
Feet.
0.23
0.46
0.68
0.91
1.14
1.37
1.60
1.83
2.05
2.28
10
Water
required
per second
to turn the
wheel.
Cub. Feet.
74.30
37.15
24.77
18.57
14.86
12.38
10.61
9.29
8.26
7.43
11
Smeaton on Mills, schol. p. 36.
Nouv. M m. de VAcademic de Berlin. 1775, p. 71.
bn
" W
HYDRODYNAMICS.
87
tter- 317- It appears from the preceding table, that when the
?ls. altitude of the fall of water is below three feet, there is
—' such an unsuitable proportion between the depth and width
of the floatboards, that a breast wheel cannot well be em¬
ployed. It is also evident, on the other hand, that when
the height of the fall approaches to ten feet, the depth of
the floatboards is too small in relation to their width.
These two extremes, therefore, ought to be avoided in
practice. The eleventh column of the table contains the
quantity of water necessary to drive the wheel; but the
total quantity of water should always exceed this, by the
quantity, at least, that escapes between the mill-course and
the sides and extremities of the floatboards.1
fan floatboards disposed on its circumference, which receive it can act upon the floatboards, and should be about nine
•shot t]ie impulse of the water conveyed to the lowest point of
the wheel by an inclined canal. It is represented in fig. 85,
where WW is the water-wheel, and ABDFHKMV the
Sect. III. On Undershot-Wheels.
318. An undershot-wheel is a wheel with a number of
will intersect one another in the point I, distant about four On Water-
feet nine inches from the points F and H, and the centre Wheels,
of the arch FH will be determined. The distance HK, N_J'~
through which the water runs before it acts upon the
wheel, should not be less than two or three feet, in order
that the different filaments of the fluid may have attained
a horizontal direction. If HK were too large, the stream
would suffer a diminution of velocity by its friction on the
bottom of the course. That no water may escape between
the bottom of the course KH and the extremities of the
floatboards, KL should be about three inches, and the ex¬
tremity o of the floatboard no ought to reach below the
line HKX, sufficient room being left between o and M for
the play of the wheel; or KLM may be formed into the
arch of a circle KM concentric with the wheel. The line
LMV, which has been called the course of impulsion,
should be prolonged so as to support the water as long as
Fig. 85.
canal or mill-course, which conveys the water to K, where
it strikes the plane floatboards no, &c. and makes the wheel
revolve about its axis.
struc- 319. In order to construct the mill-course to the great-
of the est advantage, we must give but a very small declivity to
course. t]ie canai which conducts the water from the river. It will
be sufficient to make AB slope about one inch in 200 yards,
making the declivity, however, about half an inch for the
first 48 yards, in order that the water may have sufficient
velocity to prevent it from falling back into the river. The
inclination of the fall, represented by the angle GCR, should
be 25° 50', or CR, the radius, should be to GR, the tan¬
gent of this angle, as 100 to 28, or as 25 to 12; and since
the surface of the water Si is bent from ah into ac before
it is precipitated down the fall, it will be necessary to in-
curvate the upper part BCD of the course into BD, that
the water in the bottom may move parallel to the water at
the surface of the stream. For this purpose take the
points B, D about 12 inches distance from C, and raise the
perpendiculars BE, DE. The point of intersection E will be
the centre from which the arch BD is to be described; the
radius being about 10^ inches. Now, in order that the
water may act more advantageously upon the floatboards
of the wheel WW, it must assume a horizontal direction,
with the same velocity which it would have acquired when
it came to the point G. But, if the water were allowed to
. fall from C to G, it would dash upon the horizontal part
HG, and thus lose a great part of its velocity. It will be
inches distant from OP, a horizontal line passing through
O the lowest point of the fall; for if OL were much less
than nine inches, the water having spent the greatest part
of its force in impelling the floatboard, would accumulate
below the wheel, and retard its motion. For the same rea¬
son another course, which has been called the course ot
discharge, should be connected with LMV by the curve
VN, to preserve the remaining velocity of the water, which
would otherwise be discharged by falling perpendicularly
from V to N. The course of discharge, which is repre¬
sented by the line VZ, sloping from the point O, should
be about 16 yards long, having an inch of declivity for
every two yards. The canal which reconducts the water
from the course of discharge to the river should slope about
four inches in the first 200 yards, three inches in the se¬
cond 200 yards, decreasing gradually till it terminates in
the river. But if the river to which the water is conveyed
should, when swelled by the rains, force the water back
upon the wheel, the canal must have a greater declivity to
prevent this from taking place. Flence it is evident that
very accurate levelling is requisite to the proper formation
of the mill-course.
As it is of great importance that none of the water should
escape, either below the floatboards or at their sides, with¬
out contributing to turn the
wheel, the course of impulsion
KV should be wider than the
course at K, as represented in
fig. 86, where CD the course
of impulsion corresponds with
LV in fig. 85, AB corresponds
with HK, and BC with KL.
The breadth of the floatboards,
therefore, should be wider
than mn, and their extremi¬
ties should reach a little belowr
B, like no\n fig. 85. When
these precautions are'properly
taken, no water can escape
without exerting its force up¬
on the floatboards.
320. It has been disputed among philosophers, whether
the wheel should be furnished with a small or a great num¬
ber of floatboards. M. Pitot has shewn, that when the On the
floatboards have different degrees of obliquity, the force of
impulsion upon the different surfaces will be reciprocally as un^er_
their breadths : Thus in fig. 87, the force of impulsion upon
necessary, therefore, to make it move along FH, an arch he will be to the force upon DO, as DO to he? Hence he wyieeis.
of a circle to which DF and KH are tangents in the points concludes that the distance between the floatboards should
F and H. For this purpose make GF and GH each equal be equal to one-half of the immersed arch, or that when
to three feet; and raise the perpendiculars HI, FI which one floatboard is at the bottom of the wheel, and perpendi-
1 See Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures, vol. if. p. 189, 2d edit.
2 Mem. del' Academic Paris, 1729, 8vo. p. 359.
88
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Water-cular to the current, as DE, the preceding floatboard BC
- Whee1^ , Fig. 87-
should be just leaving the stream, and the succeeding one
FG just immerging into it. For when the three floatboards
Rule given EG, DE, BC have the same position as in the figure, the
by Pilot, whole force of the current NM will act upon DE when it
is in the most advantageous position for receiving it, where¬
as, if another floatboard de were inserted between FG and
DE, the part ig would cover DO, and by thus substituting
an oblique for a perpendicular surface, the effect would be
diminished in the proportion of DO to ig. Hence it is
evident, that, upon this principle, the depth of the float-
board DE should be always equal to the versed sine of the
arch EG.1
beTnaccu • Notwithstanding the plausibility of this reasoning,
rate. " 1<: not difficult to shew that it is destitute of founda¬
tion. It is evident from fig 87, that when one of the float-
boards DE is perpendicular to the stream, it receives the
whole impulse of the water in the most advantageous manner.
But when it arrives at the position d e, and the succeed¬
ing one FG at the position fg, so that the angle e A g may
be bisected by the perpendicular AE, the situation of these
floatboards will be the most disadvantageous, for a great
part of the water will escape between the extremities g and
e of the floatboards without striking them, and the part i g
of the floatboards, which is really impelled, is less than DE,
and oblique to the current. The wheel, therefore, must
move irregularly, sometimes quick and sometimes slow, ac¬
cording to the position of the floatboards with respect to the
stream; and this inequality will increase with the arch
plunged in the wafer. The reasoning of M. Pitot, indeed,
is founded on the supposition, that if another floatboard fg
were placed between FG and DF, it would annihilate the
force of the water that impels it, and prevent any of the
fluid from striking the corresponding part DO of the pre¬
ceding floatboard. But this is not the case. For when
the water has acted upon fg, it still retains a part of its
motion, and after bending round the extremity g, strikes
DE with its remaining force. We are entitled, therefore,
to conclude that advantage must be gained by using more
floatboards than are recommended by Pitot.
The num- 322. It is evident from the preceding remarks, that in
ber of the order to remove any inequality of motion in the wheel, and
shouldbe Prevent the water from escaping below the extremities of
as great as tlle fl°atboards, the wheel should be furnished with the
possible, greatest possible nnmber of floatboards, without loading it
too much, or enfeebling the rim on which they are fixed.
This rule was first given by M. Dupetit Vandin ;2 and it is
easily perceived, that if the mill-wright should err in using On Wa i ^
too many floatboards, this error in excess will be perfectly Whee I *
trifling, and that a much greater loss of power would be oc- I *
casioned by an error in defect.
323. The section of the floatboards ought not to be rec- ponr, ( A
tangular, like abnc in fig. 87, but should be bevelled like the floE ^
abmc. For if they were rectangular, the extremity b n boards. !
would interrupt a portion of the water which would other¬
wise fall on the corresponding part of the preceding float-
board. In order to find the angle abm, subtract from 180
degrees the number of degrees contained in the immersed
arch CEG, and the half of the remainder will be the angle
required.
324. It has been maintained by M. Pitot and other phi- p0sitio
losophers, that the floatboards should be a continuation ofthe flo; I
the radius, or perpendicular to the rim, as in fig. 85. This,
indeed, is true in theoi'y, but it appears from the most un¬
questionable experiments, that they should be inclined to
the radius. This important fact was discovered by Depar-
cieux in 1753, and proved by several experiments. When
the floatboards are inclined, the water heaps up on their
surface, and acts not only by its impulse, but also by its
weight. The same truth has also been confirmed by the
Abbe Bossut, the most accurate of whose experiments are
contained in the following table. The wheel that was em¬
ployed was immersed four inches vertically in the water,
and it was furnished with 12 floatboards.
Inclination of
the floatboard.
0
15
30
37
Number
of pounds
raised.
40
40
40
40
2
Time in which
the load was
raised in seconds.
40
40
40
40
Number of
turns made by
the wheel.
13H
14fi
14f f
14|f
325. It is obvious, from the preceding table, that the
wheel made the greatest number of turns, or moved with
the greatest velocity, when the number of floatboards was
between 15 and 30. When the water-wheels are placed
on canals that have little declivity, and in which the water
can escape freely after its impulse upon the floatboards, it
would be proper to make the floatboards a continuation of
the radius. But when they move in an inclined mill-
course, an augmentation of velocity may be expected from
an inclination of the floatboards.
326. Having thus pointed out the most scientific method On tb
of constructing the wheel, and delivering the water upon propei • I
its floatboards, we have now to determine the velocity withlocit.v
which it should move. It is evident that the velocity ofu”d“;' j
the wheel must be always less than that of the water which I
impels it, even when there is no work to be performed; effect I
for a part of the impelling power is necessarily spent inmaxin1
overcoming the inertia of the wheel, and the resistance of
friction. It is likewise obvious, that when the wheel has
little or no velocity, its performance will be very trifling.
There is, consequently, a certain proportion between the
velocity of the water and the wheel, when its effect is a
maximum. By the reasoning which is employed in the
section on undershot-wheels in the article Water- Works,
Parent and Pitot found, that a maximum effect was pro¬
duced when the velocity of the wheel was one-third of
the velocity of the water ; and Desaguliers,3 Maclaurin,4
Lambert,5 and Atwood,6 have adopted their conclusions.
„ 1 A table containing the number of floatboards for wheels of different diameters, and founded on this principle, has been given in
the Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures, vol. ii. p. 149, 2d edit. °
2 Memoires des Sgayans Etrangers, tom. i. 3 Desaguliers’ Experimental Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 424, lect. 12.
4 Atwood on Rectilineal and Rotatory Motion, p. 275-284. 5 Maclaurin’s Fluxions, Art. 907, p. 728.
6 Nouv. Memoires de I'Acad. Berlin, 1775, p. 63.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
^On ater-
W els.
' Th< 3rce
' of a >r-
ren i'pel
11 lint, i un-
K der it-
,[wh( is
fast re-
Jfiti ve-
loci
• In the calculus from which this result was deduced, it was
taken for granted that the momentum or force of water
upon the wheel is in the duplicate ratio of the relative ve¬
locity, or as the square of the difference between the velo¬
city of the water and that of the wheel. This supposition,
indeed, is perfectly correct when the water impels a single
' floatboard ; for as the number of particles which strike the
' floatboard in a given time, and also the momentum of these,
are each as the relative velocity of the floatboards, the mo¬
mentum must be as the square of the relative velocity, that
is, M = R2, M being the momentum, and R the relative
velocity. But we have seen, in some of the preceding
paragraphs, that the water acts on more than one float-
board at a time. Now, the number of floatboards acted
upon in a given time will be as the velocity of the wheel,
or inversely as the relative velocity ; for if you increase
the relative velocity, the velocity of the water remaining
the same, you must diminish the velocity of the wheel.
R2
Consequently, we shall have M 4= or M == R ; that is,
the momentum of the water acting upon the wheel is di¬
rectly as the relative velocity.
327. Let V be now the velocity of the stream, and F
the force with which it would strike the floatboard at rest,
and v the velocity of the wheel. Then the relative velocity
will be V—v ; and since the velocity of the water will be
to its momentum, or the force w ith which it would strike
the floatboard at rest, as the relative velocity is to the real
force which the water exerts against the moving float-
V v F
boards, we shall have V: V — v=F:Fx —y— X V—v.
But the effect of the wheel is measured by the product of
the momentum of the water and the velocity of the wheel,
consequently the effect of the undershot-wheel will be
"f F
tfXyXV — v = yXV^ — v2. Now, this effect is to be a
maximum, and therefore its fluxion must be equal to 0,
that is, v being the variable quantity, V v — 2vv — 0, or
Co rmed
py nea-
toi expe-
rii its,
an yy the
p ri-
s of
P'i Lit.
2vv — Y v. Dividing by v, we have 2t; — V, and v =.
V
2’
that is, the velocity of the wheel will be one-half the velo¬
city of the fluid when the effect is a maximum.
328. This result, which was first obtained by the Che¬
valier de Borda, has been amply confirmed by the experi¬
ments of Mr Smeaton. “ The velocity of the stream,” says
he, “varies at the maximum between one-third and one-half
that of the water ; but in all the cases in which most work
is performed in proportion to the water expended, and
which approach the nearest to the circumstances of great
w orks, when properly executed, the maximum lies much
nearer one-half than one-third, one-half seeming to be the
true maximum, if nothing were lost by the resistance of
the air, the scattering of the water carried up by the wheel,”
&c. ,
329. A result, nearly similar to this, was deduced from
the experiments of Bossut. He employed a wheel whose
diameter was three feet. The number of floatboards wras
at one time 48, and at another 24, their width being five
inches, and their depth six. The experiments with the
wheel, when it had 48 floatboards, were made in an inclin¬
ed canal, supplied from a reservoir by an orifice two inches
deep, the velocity being 300 feet in 27 seconds. The ex¬
periments with the wheel, when it had 24 floatboards, were
made in a canal, contained between two vertical walls, 12
or 13 feet distant^ The depth of the water was about
seven or eight inches, and its mean velocity about 2740
inches in 40 seconds. The floatboards of the wheel were
immersed about four inches in the stream.
VOL. XII.
8.9
Time in
W'hich
the load
is raised
Seconds.
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
Number of
pounds raised.
Number of
turns madeby
the wheel.
48 Floatboards.
301
31
31^
32
321
33
33£
34
34i
35
35J
36
22/s
013 2
^14 8
0 12 0
4 8
21 /n
20f|
20ft
20ft
19ff
19f|
Number of
pounds raised.
Number of
turns made by
the wheel.
24 Floatboards.
30
35
40
45
50
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63,
64
65
66
1722
1 f*2 5
J U4 8
15f|
14fi
13f|
12f|
1 ^4 8
12ft
12ft
12/*
114 0
1 X4 8
113 0
1 14B
1 ifa
1 1 4 8
U 48
10ft
iQff
On Water-
Wheels.
330. As the effect of the machine is measured by the
product of the load raised, and the time employed, it will
appear, by multiplying the second and third columns, that
the effect was a maximum when the load was 34f pounds,
the wheel performing 20f f revolutions in 40 seconds. By
comparing the velocity of the centre of impression com¬
puted from the diameter of the wheel, and the number of
turns which it makes in 40 seconds, with the velocity of
the current, it will be found, that the velocity of the wheel,
when its effect is the greatest possible, is nearly two-fifths
that of the stream. From the two last columns of the
table, where the effect is a maximum when the load is 60
pounds, the same conclusion may be deduced.
331. The proper velocity of the wheel being thus esta-Method of
blished, we shall proceed to point out the method of con-construct-
structing a millwright’s table for undershot-wheels, taking’ng a ™fl-
it for granted that the velocity of the wheel should be one-^j^11 s
half the velocity of the stream, and that water moves with
the same velocity as falling bodies.
1. Find the perpendicular height of the fall of water j^g. gy.
above the bottom of the mill-course, and having diminish¬
ed this number by one-half the depth of the w ater at K,
call that the height of the fall.
2. Since bodies acquire a velocity of 32.174 feet, by fall¬
ing through the height of 16.087 feet; and as the veloci¬
ties of falling bodies are as the square roots of the heights
through which they fall, the square root of 16.087 will be
to the square root of the height of the fall as 32.174 to a
fourth number, which will be the velocity of the water.
Therefore the velocity of the water may be always found
by multiplying 32.174 by the square root of the height of
the fall, and dividing that product by the square root of
16.087. Or it may be found more easily by multiplying
the height of the fall by the constant quantity 64.348 =
2 X 32.174, and extracting the square root of the product.
This root, abstracting from the effects of friction, will be
the velocity of the water required.
3. Take one-half the velocity of the water, and it will
be the velocity which must be given to the floatboards, or
the number of feet they must move through in a second,
in order to produce a maximum effect.
4. Divide the circumference of the wheel by the velo¬
city of its floatboards per second, and the quotient will be
the number of seconds in which the wheel revolves.
5. Divide 60 by the number last found, and the quotient
will be the number of turns made by the wheel in a minute,
M
90
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Water Or the number of revolutions performed by the wheel in
Wheels. a minute may be found, by multiplying the velocity of the
floatboards by 60, and dividing the product by the circum¬
ference of the wheel.
6. Divide 90, the number of revolutions which a mill¬
stone, five feet diameter, should make in a minute, by the
number of revolutions made by the wheel in a minute ; and
the quotient will be the number of turns which the mill¬
stone ought to make for one revolution of Jhe wheel.
7. Then, as the number of revolutions of the wheel in a
minute is to the number of revolutions of the millstone in
a minute, so must the number of staves in the trundle be
to the number of teeth in the wheel, in the nearest whole
numbers that can be found.
8. Multiply the number of revolutions performed by the
wheel in a minute, by the number of revolutions made by
the millstone for one of the wheel, and the product will be
the number of revolutions made by the millstone in a
minute.
332. By these rules, the following table has been com¬
puted for a water-wheel fifteen feet in diameter, which is a
good medium size, the millstone being seven feet in dia¬
meter, and revolving 90 times in a minute.
Table I. A New Mill- Wright's Table, in which the Velo¬
city of the Wheel is one-half the Velocity of the Stream,
the effects of Friction not being considered.
Velocity
of the
water per
second,
friction
not being
consider¬
ed.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
a; P cs
Velocity
of the
wheel per
second,
being
one-half
that of
the
water.
8.02
11.34
13.89
16.04
17.94
19.65
21.22
22.69
24,06
25.37
26.60
27.79
28.92
30.01
31.07
32.09
33.07
34.03
34.97
35.97
Revolu¬
tions of
the wheel
per
minute,
its dia¬
meter
being 15
feet.
£3 £**
a a)
4.01
5.67
6.95
8.02
8.97
9.82
10.61
11.34
12.03
12.69
13.30
13.90
14.46
15.01
15.53
16.04
16.54
17.02
17.48
17.99
5.10
7.22
8.85
10.20
11.43
12.50
13.51
14,45
15.31
16.17
16.95
17.70
18.41
19.11
19.80
20.40
21.05
21.66
22.26
22.86
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill¬
stone for
one of
the
wheel.
17-65
12.47
10.17
8.82
7.87
7.20
6.66
6.23
5.88
5.57
5.31
5.08
4.89
4.71
4.55
4.45
4.28
4.16
4.04
3.94
Teeth in
the wheel
and
staves
in the
trundle,
106
87
81
79
71
65
60
56
53
56 10
53 10
51 10
49 10
47 10
48 11
44 10
47 11
50 12
44 11
48 12
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill¬
stone per
minute
by these
staves
and
teeth.
P3
6
90.01
90.03
90.00
89-96
89.95
90.00
89.98
90.02
90.02
90.06
90.00
89.91
90.02
90.00
90.09
89.96
90.09
90.10
89.93
90.07
are considerable. “ When we consider, however,” observes On Wat
the editor of the work now quoted, “ that after every pre- Wheel
caution has been observed, a small quantity of water will's^-
escape between the mill-course and the extremities of the
floatboards, and that the effect is diminished by the resist¬
ance of the air and the dispersion of water carried up by
the wheel, the propriety of making the wheel move with
three-sevenths the velocity of the water will appear. The
Chevalier de Borda supposes it never to exceed three-
eighths ; and Mr Smeaton and the Abbe Bossut found two-
fifths to be the proper medium.1 With three-sevenths,
therefore, as the best medium, which differs only ^yth from
fths, the numbers in the following table have been com¬
puted. In Table I. the water was supposed to move with
the same velocity as falling bodies, but owing to its friction
on the mill-course, &c. this is not exactly the case. We have
therefore deduced the velocity of the water in column se¬
cond from the following formula, V
_ a/ 172'
X RA
H/i Fig. 85
T’
in which Vis the velocity of the water, RA the absolute
height of the fall, and VLh the depth of the water at the
bottom of the course. The formula is founded on the ex¬
periments of Bossut, from which it appears, that if a canal
be inclined one-tenth part of its length, this additional de¬
clivity will restore that velocity to the water which was
destroyed by friction.”
Table II. A New Mill-Wrighfs Table, in which the
Velocity of the Wheel is three-sevenths of the Velocity
of the Water, and the effects of Friction on the Velo¬
city of the stream reduced to computation.
V elocity
of the
water per
second,
friction
being
consider¬
ed.
333. The preceding table {Appendix to Ferguson's Lec¬
tures, vol. ii. p. 174) supposes, according to theory, that
the velocity of the wheel, at the maximum effect, is one-
half that of the stream, which is nearly the case in prac¬
tice, when the quantities of water discharged by the stream
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
V elocity
of the
wheel jier
second,
being
3-7ths
that of
the
water.
7.62
10.77
13.20
15.24
17.04
18.67
20.15
21.56
22.86
24.10
25.27
26.40
27.47
28.51
29.52
30.48
31.42
32.33
33.22
34.17
Revolu¬
tions of
the wheel
per
minute,
its dia¬
meter
being 15
feet.
3.27
4.62
5.66
5.53
7.30
8.00
8.64
9.24
9.80
10.33
10.83
11.31
11.77
12.22
12.65
13.06
13.46
13.86
14.24
14.64
b >
£Sh &
4.16
5.88
7.20
8.32
9.28
10.19
10.99
11.76
12.47
13.15
13.79
14.40
14.99
15.56
16.13
16.63
17.14
16.65
18.13
18.64
Revolu¬
tions of
mill¬
stone for
one of
the
wheel.
Teeth
in the
wheel
and
staves
in the
trundle.
s'
C3 O)
Ph
21.63
15.31
22.50
10.81
9-70
8.83
8.19
7.65
7.22
6.84
6.53
6.25
6.00
5.78
5.58
5.41
5.25
5.10
4.96
4.83
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill¬
stone per
minute
by these
staves
and
teeth.
130
92
100
97
97 10
97 11
90 11
84 11
72 10
82 12
85 13
72 12
72 12
75 13
67 12
65 12
63 12
61 12
64 13
58 12
P3
>
a <d
Oh
O G*
89.98
90.02
90.00
89.94
90.02
89.98
90.01
89.96
90.03
89.95
90.05
90.00
89.94
90.04
90.01
89.97
89.99
90.01
89.92
89.84
1 he gieat hydraulic machine at Marly was found to produce a maximum effect, when its velocity was two-fifths of that of the stream.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
91
o
i)
m
m
tli
tv
s't
S
st.
fc
p
Vater- 334. In order that the wheel may move with a velocity
eels, duly adjusted to that of the current, we would not advise
the mechanic to trust to the second column of Table II.
i°d of for the true velocity of the stream, or to any theoretical re-
’t ie suits, even when deduced from formulae founded on experi¬
ments. Bossut, with great justice, remarks, that “ it would
not be exact in practice to compute the velocity of a cur¬
rent from its declivity. This velocity ought to be deter¬
mined by immediate experiment in every particular case.”
Let the velocity of the water, therefore, where it strikes
the wheel, be determined by the method in the following
paragraph. With this velocity, as an argument, enter
column second of either of these tables, according as the
velocity of the wheel is to be one-half or three-sevenths
that of the stream, and take out the other numbers from
the table.
;rent 335. Various methods have been proposed by different
lods of philosophers for measuring the velocity of running water ;
suring t]ie method, by floating bodies, which Mariotte1 employed,
fhe^' ^ie tube of Pitot2, the regulator of Guglielmini3, the
m quadrant4, the little wheel5, and the method proposed by
the Abbe Mann6, have each their advantages and disad¬
vantages. The little wheel was employed in the experi¬
ments of Bossut. It is the most convenient mode of de¬
termining the superficial velocity of the water ; and, when
constructed in the following manner, will be more accurate,
it is hoped, than any instrument that has hitherto been
pie in- used. The small wheel WW should be formed of the
ment lightest materials. It should be about ten or twelve inches
*lis in diameter, and furnished with fourteen or sixteen float-
’0be’ boards. This wheel moves upon a delicate screw a B,
passing through its axle B ; and when impelled by the
Fig. 88.
w
stream it will gradually approach towards D, each revolu¬
tion of the wheel corresponding with a thread of the screw.
The number of revolutions performed in a given time are
determined upon the scale m a, by means of the index O h
fixed at O, and moveable with the wheel, each division of
the scale being equal to the breadth of a thread of the screw,
and the extremity h of the index O h coinciding with the
beginning of the scale, when the shoulder b of the wheel is
screwed close to a. The parts of a revolution are indi¬
cated by the bent index m n, pointing to the periphery of
the wheel, which is divided into 100 parts. When this in¬
strument is to be used, take it by the handles CD, or when
great accuracy is required, make it rest on the handles CD ;
and screw the shoulder b of the wheel close to a, so that
the indices may both point to o the commencement of the
scales. Then, by means of a stop-watch or pendulum, find
how many revolutions of the wheel are performed in a given
time. Multiply the mean circumference of the wheel (or
the circumference deduced from the mean radius, which is
equal to the distance of the centre of impulsion or impres¬
sion from the axis B) by the number of revolutions, and
the product will be the number of feet through which the On Water-
water moves in the given time. On account of the fric- Wheels.
tion of the screw, the resistance of the air, and the weight  '
of the wheel, its centre of impression will revolve with a
little less velocity than that of the stream ; but the diminu¬
tion of velocity, arising from these causes, may be esti¬
mated with sufficient precision for all the purposes of the
practical mechanic. {Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures,
vol. ii. p. 177.)
336. It appears, from a comparison of the numerous and Results of
accurate experiments of Mr Smeaton, that, in undershot- Smeaton’s
wheels, the power employed to turn the wheel is to theexPeri-
effect produced as 3 to 1 ; and that the load which thements‘
wheel will carry at its maximum, is to the load which will
totally stop it, as 3 to 4. The same experiments inform
us, that the impulse of the water on the wheel, in the case
of a maximum, is more than double of what is assigned by
theory, that is, instead of four-sevenths of the column, it is
nearly equal to the whole column. In order to account for
this, Mr Smeaton observes, that the wheel was not, in this
case, placed in an open river, where the natural current,
after it had communicated its impulse to the float, has room
on all sides to escape, as the theory supposes ; but in a
conduit or race, to which the float being adapted, the water
could not otherwise escape than by moving along with the
wheel. He likewise remarks, that when a wheel works in
this manner, the water, as soon as it meets the float, re¬
ceives a sudden check, and rises up against it like a wave
against a fixed object; insomuch, that when the sheet of
water is not a quarter of an inch thick before it meets the
float, yet this sheet will act upon the whole surface of a
float, whose height is three inches. Were the float, there¬
fore, no higher than the thickness of the sheet of water,
as the theory supposes, a great part of the force would be
lost by the water dashing over it. In order to try what
would be the effect of diminishing the number of float-
boards, Mr Smeaton reduced the floatboards, which were
originally 24 to 12. This change produced a diminution
of the effect, as a greater quantity of water escaped between
the floats and the floor. But when a circular sweep was
adapted to the floor, and made of such a length that one
float entered the curve before the preceding one quitted
it, the effect came so near to the former, as to afford no
hopes of increasing it by augmenting the number of floats
beyond 24 in this particular wheel. Mr Smeaton likewise
deduced, from his experiments, the following maxims.
1. That the virtual or effective head being the same,
the effect will be nearly as the quantity of water expended.
2. That the expense of water being the same, the effect
will be nearly as the height of the virtual or effective head.
3. That the quantity of water expended being the same,
the effect is nearly as the square of the velocity.
4. The aperture being the same, the effect will be nearly
as the cube of the velocity of the water.
337. We have hitherto supposed the floatboards, though Undershot-
inclined to die radius, to be perpendicular to the plane of wheels
the wheel. Undershot-wheels, however, have sometimesW4^
been constructed with floatboards inclined to the plane °fAlined to ^
the wheel. A wheel of this kind is represented in fig 89- the plane
wliere AB is the wheel, and CDEFGH the oblique float-0f the
boards. The horizontal current MN is delivered on the wheel,
floatboards, so as to strike them perpendicularly. On ac¬
count of the size of the floatboards, every filament of the
water contributes to turn the wheel; and therefore its effect
will be greater than in undershot wheels of the common
form. Albert Euler imagines that the effect will be twice
as great, and observes, that in order to produce such an
’ TraitZ du Mouvement des Eaux.
A(juarvm Fluentium Mensura, lib. iv.
Bossut, TraitZ d'Hydrodynamique, art. 655.
2 Mtm. de l'Acad. Paris, 1732.
4 Bossut, TraitZ d'Hydrodynamique, art. 654.
6 Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixix,
92
On Water-
Wheels.
Fig. 89.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
in a horizontal direction before it strikes the wheel, the On Wat
floatboards should be inclined about 25° to the plane of Wheel
the wheel, and the same number of degrees to the radius,
so that the lowest and outermost sides of the floatboards
may be farthest up the stream.
340. Instead of making the canal horizontal before it
delivers the water on the floatboards, they are frequently
inclined in such a manner as to receive the impulse per¬
pendicularly, and in the direction of the declivity of the
mill-course. When this construction is adopted, the maxi¬
mum effect will be produced when the velocity of the float-
5.67 VH
boards is not less than
2 Sin. A’
wdiere H represents the
effect, the velocity of the centre of impression should be to
the velocity of the water, as radius is to triple the sine of
the angle by which the floatboards are inclined to the plane
of the wheel. If this inclination, therefore, be 60°, the
velocity of the wheel at the centre of impression ought to
3 V3
be to the velocity of the impelling fluid as 1 to —7;—, that is,
height of the fall, and A the angle which the direction of
the fall makes with a vertical line. But as the quantity
o.67 VH evjjent]y increases as the sine of A decreases, it
2
V3
as 5 to 13 nearly, because Sin. 60° = —. When the
inclination is 30°, the ratio of the velocities will be found
to be as 2 to 3.
And also to 338. In wheels of this kind, the floats may also be ad-
the radius, vantageously inclined to the radius. In this case, the stream,
which still strikes them perpendicularly, is inclined to the
horizon. If the angle formed by the common section of
the wheel and floatboards with the radius of the wheel, be
— m; and if the angle by which the floatboards are in¬
clined to the plane of the wheel be = w, then the angle
which the floatboards should form with the direction in which
the wheel moves, will be = Cos. m X Sin. n. In order,
therefore, that the stream may strike the floatboards with
a perpendicular impulse, its inclination to the horizon must
be = m, and its inclination to the plane of the wheel
— 90° — n. The less that the velocity of the water is,
the greater should be the angle m ; for there is, in this case,
no danger that the celerity of the wheel be too great. The
area of the floatboards ought to be much greater than the
section of the current; and the interval between two ad¬
jacent floatboards should be so great, that before the one
completely withdraws itself from the action of the water,
the other should begin to receive its impulse.
On hori- 339. Horizontal water-wheels have been much used on
zontal wa- the Continent, and are strongly recommended to our notice
ter-wheels. by the simplicity of their construction. In fig. 90, AB is
the large water-wheel which
moves horizontally upon its
arbor CD. This arbor passes
through the immoveable mill¬
stone EF at D, and being
fixed to the upper one GH,
carries it once round for every
revolution of the great wheel.
The mill-course is construct¬
ed in the same manner for
horizontal as for vertical
wheels, with this difference
only, that the part m B n C,
fig. 85 of which KLin fig. 86
is a section, instead of being
rectilineal like mn, must be
circular like m P, and con-
Fig. 90.
centric with the rim of the wheel, sufficient room being
left between it and the tips of the floatboards for the play
of the wheel. In this construction, where the water moves
2 Sin. A
follows, that without lessening the effect of these wheels,
we may diminish the angle A, and thus augment consider¬
ably the velocity of the floatboards, according to the nature
of the machinery employed; whereas, in vertical wheels,
there is only one determinate velocity which produces a
maximum effect.
341. In the southern provinces of France, where hori-Withe
zontal wheels are generally employed, the floatboards arevilineal
made of a curvilineal form, so as to be concave towardstloatb;,;
the stream. The Chevalier de Borda observes, that in
theory a double effect is produced when the floatboards
are concave ; but that effect is diminished in practice, from
the difficulty of making the fluid enter and leave the curve
in a proper direction. Notwithstanding this difficulty,
however, and other defects which might be pointed out,
horizontal wheels with concave floatboards are always supe¬
rior to those in which the floatboards are plain, and even
to vertical wheels, when there is a sufficient fall of w ater.
When the floatboards are plane, the wheel is driven merely
by the impulse of the stream ; but when they are concave,
a part of the water acts by its weight and increases the ve¬
locity of the wheel. If the fall of water be 5 or 6 feet, a
horizontal wheel with concave floatboards may be erected,
whose maximum effect will be to that of the ordinary ver¬
tical wheels as 3 to 2.
342. An advantage attending horizontal wheels is, that
the water may be divided into several canals, and delivered
upon several floatboards at the same time. Each stream
will heap up on its corresponding floatboard, and produce
a greater effect than if the force of the water had been
concentrated on a single floatboard. Horizontal wheels
may be employed with greatest advantage when a small
quantity of water falls through a considerable height.
343. It has been disputed among mechanical philoso-Oven
pliers, whether overshot or undershot wheels produce the J'
greatest effect. M. Belidor maintained that the former
were inferior to the latter, wiiile a contrary opinion wasones
entertained by Desaguliers. It appears, however, from Mr
Smeaton’s experiments, that in overshot-wheels the pow er
is to the effect nearly as 3 to 2 or as 5 to 4 in general, where¬
as in undershot-wheels it is only as 3 to 1. The effect of
overshot-wheels, therefore, is nearly double that of under¬
shot-wheels, other circumstances being the same. In com¬
paring the relative effects of water-wheels, the Chevalier
de Borda remarks that overshot wheels will raise through
the height of the fall, a quantity of water equal to that by
which they are driven ; that undershot vertical wheels will
produce only three-eighths of this effect; that horizontal
wheels will produce a little less than one-half of it when
the floatboards are plain, and a little more than one-half of
it when the floatboards have a curvilineal form.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
93
%a< nes
J dri i by
iDes p-
tioi
5|Bes t’s
wat ■
1 wht 5-
the ^eac-
'ti of
\ :er.
Besant’s Undershot-Wheel.
344. The water-wheel invented by Mr Besant of Bromp-
ton is constructed in the form of a hollow drum, so as to
resist the admission of the water. The floatboards are fixed
obliquely in pairs on the periphery of the wheel, so that
each pair may form an acute angle open at its vertex, while
one of the floatboards extends beyond the vertex of the
angle. A section of the water-wheel is represented in
fig. 91, where AB is the wheel, CD its axis, and mn op the
Fig 91.
A
more easily upon its axis, as the stream has a tendency to Machines
make it float. driven by
the Reae-
Conical Horizontal Wheel with Spiral Floathoards. yyater
345. In Guyenne and Languedoc, in the south of France,
a kind of conical horizontal wheel is sometimes employed
for turning machinery. It is constructed in the form ofconicaj 1
an inverted cone AB, fig. 92, with spiral floatboards winding horizontal
Fig. 92. wheel with
spiralfloat-
boards.
position of the floatboards. The motion of common un¬
dershot-wheels is greatly retarded by the resistance which
the tail-water and the atmosphere oppose to the ascending
floatboards; but in Besant’s wheel this resistance is greatly
diminished, as the floats emerge from the stream in an
oblique direction. Although this wheel is much heavier
than those of the common construction, yet it revolves
round its surface. The wheel moves on a vertical axis
AB, in the building DD, and is driven chiefly by the im¬
pulse of the water conveyed by the canal C to the oblique
floatboards, the direction of the current being perpendicu¬
lar to the floatboards at the place of impact. When the
impulsive force of the water is annihilated, it descends along
the spirals, and continues to act by its weight till it reaches
the bottom, when it is carried off by the canal M.
CHAPTER II. ON MACHINES DRIVEN BY THE REACTION OF WATER.
;rPro' 346. We have hitherto considered the mechanical ef-
I cr er ef- feCts water as ^ie impelling power of machinery, when
fee by itsacts either by its impulse or by its gravity. The re-
; relion action of water may be employed to communicate motion
! tii by its to machinery; and though this principle has not yet been
in ise or adopted in practice, it appears from theory and from some
'' detached experiments on a small scale, that a given quan¬
tity of water, falling through a given height, will produce
greater effects by its reaction than by its impulse or its
weight.
Sect. I. On Dr Barker’s Mill.
b' of'Dr This machine, which is sometimes called Parent’s
B ;er’s rePrcsented in fig. 93, where MN is the canal that
in conveys the water into the upright tube TT, which com¬
municates with the horizontal arm AB. The water will
therefore descend through the upright tube into this
arm, and will exert upon the inside of it a pressure pro-
portioned to the height of the fall. But if two orifices
A and B be perforated at the extremities of the arm, and
on contrary sides, the pressure upon these orifices will be
removed by the efflux of the water, and the unbalanced
pressure upon the opposite sides of the arm will make the
tube and the horizontal arm revolve upon the spindle D as
an axis. Phis will be more easily understood, if we sup¬
pose the orifices to be shut up, and consider the pressure
upon a circular inch of the arm opposite to the orifice, the
orifice being of the same size. The pressure upon this
circular inch will be equal to a cylinder of water whose
base is one inch in diameter, and whose altitude is the
height of the fall; and the same force is exerted upon the
Fig. 93.
shut-up orifice. These two pressures, therefore, being
equal and opposite, the arm A will remain at rest. But
as soon as you open the orifice, the water will issue with
a velocity due to the height of the fall; the pressure upon
the orifice will of consequence be removed; and as the pres¬
sure upon the circular inch opposite to the orifice still con-
94
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Machines tinues, the equilibrium will be destroyed, the arm will move
driven by in a retrograde direction.
the Reac- 34Q- The upright spindle D, on which the arm revolves,
Water fixe(^ in the bottom of the arm, and screwed to it below
by a nut. It is fixed to the upright tube by two cross
bars, so as to move along with it. If a corn-mill is to be
driven, the top of the spindle is fixed into the upper mill¬
stone m. The lower quiescent millstone n rests upon the
floor K, in which is a hole, to let the meal pass into a
trough below. The bridgetree GF, which supports the
millstone, tube, &c. is moveable on a pin at A, and its other
end is supported by an iron rod fixed into it, the top of the
rod going through the fixed bracket 0, turnished with a
nut o. By screwing this nut, the millstone may be raised
or lowered at pleasure. If any other kind of machinery is
to be driven, the spindle D must be prolonged above the
hopper H, and a small wheel fixed to its extremity, which
will communicate its motion to any species of mechanism.
An improvement on this machine by M. Mathon de la
Cour, and some excellent observations on the subject by
Professor Robison, will be found in the article Water-
TVorks.
349. Mr Waring of the American Philosophical Society,
has given a theory of Barker’s mill with the improvement
of M. Mathon de la Cour, which he has strangely ascribed
to a Mr Rumsey about twenty years after it was published
in Rozier’s Journal de Physique, Jan. and August 1775.
Contrary to every other philosopher, he makes the effect
of the machine equal only to that of a good undershot-
wheel, moved with the same quantity of water, falling
through the same height. The following rules, however,
deduced from his calculus, may be of use to those who may
wish to make experiments on the effect of this interesting
machine.
Practical 1. Make the arm of the rotatory tube or arm C, from
rules. the centre of motion to the centre of the aperture, of any
convenient length, not less than one-third (one-ninth ac¬
cording to Mr Gregory,1 who has corrected some of War-
ing’s numbers) of the perpendicular height of the water’s
surface above their centres.
2. Multiply the length of the arm in feet by .614, and
take the square root of the product for the proper time of
a revolution in seconds, and adapt the other parts of the
machinery to this velocity; or, if the time of a revolu¬
tion be given, multiply the square of this time by 1.63 for
the proportional length of the arm.
3. Multiply together the breadth, depth, and velocity
per second, of the race, and divide the last product by
18.47 (times 14.27 according to Mr Gregory) the square
root of the height, for the area of either aperture.
4. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height of
the fall of water, and the product by 41§ pounds (55.775
according to Mr Gregory), for the moving force estimated
at the centres of the apertures in pounds avoirdupois.
5. The power and velocity at the aperture may be easily
reduced to any part of the machinery by the simplest me¬
chanical rules.
Form 350. Long after the preceding machine had been de¬
given to scribed in several of our English treatises on machines,
Barker’s Professor Segner published in his hydraulics, as an invention
Professor 0^1's own’ t^e account °fa machine, differing from this only
Seiner in f°rm* MN was the axis of the machine, correspond¬
ing with DX in Barker’s mill, and a number of tubes AB
(fig. 94.) were also so arranged round this axis, that their
higher extremities A formed a circular superficies, into
which the water flowed from a reservoir. When the ma¬
chine has this form, it has been shewn by Albert Euler
that the maximum effect is pro¬
duced when the velocity is infinite,
and that the effect is equal to the
power. As a considerable portion
of the power, however, must be con¬
sumed in communicating to the
fluid the circular motion of the
tubes; and as the portion thus lost
must increase with the velocity of
the tube, the effect will in reality
sustain a diminution from an in¬
crease of velocity.
Sect. II. Description of Albert Euler’s Machine driven
by the Reaction of the Water.
351. This machine consists of two vessels, the lowest of
which EEFF (fig. 95.) is moveable round the vertical axis
Fig. 95.
00, while the higher vessel remains immoveable. The
form of the lowest vessel, which is represented by itself in
fig. 96, is simflar to that of a truncated bell, which is fast-
Fig. 96.
ened by the cross beams m, n to the axis O, so as to move
along with it. The annular cavity AAA A terminates at ee
in several tubes ef ef ef diverging from the axis. Through
the lower extremities of these tubes, which are bent into a
right angle, the water flowing from the cavity A A A A issues
with a velocity due to the altitude of its surface in A, A, and
produces by its reaction a rotatory and retrograde motion
Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 111.
4 Mai
Clriv
;he
tic
W
1^
HYDRODYNAMICS.
95
nes round the axis 00. The cavity of the ring h, h, receives
by the water from the superior vessel GGHH, similar to the
:ac- inferior vessel in fig. 95, but not connected with the axis
00. This vessel has also an annular cavity PP, into which
r* the water is conveyed from a reservoir by the canal R.
Around the lower part HH of the cavity, this vessel is di¬
vided into several apertures li, placed obliquely that the
water may descend with proper obliquity into the inferior
vessel. The width of the higher vessel at HH ought to be
equal to the width of the lower vessel at EE, that the water
which issues from the former may exactly fill the annular
cavity h, h, h, h.
When the machine is constructed in this way, its maxi- Machines
mum effect will be equal to the power, provided all its driven by
parts be proportioned and adjusted according to the re- 1 ’
suits in the following table, computed from the formulae -Water,
of Albert Euler. In the table,
Q — the quantity of water, or number of cubic feet of wa¬
ter furnished in a second.
T = the time, or number of seconds in which the lower
vessel revolves.
B = the breadth of the annular orifice in inches.
Table for Mills driven by the Reaction of Water.
Height of
the fall
of water.
Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Sum of the areas
of all the orifices
at/, /,/, &c.
Sum of the areas
of all the orifices
at/,/,/, &c.
Square Feet.
0.17888 XQ
0.12649 X Q
0.103228 X Q
0.08944 X Q
0.08000 X Q
0.07303 X Q
0.06761 X Q
0 06325 X Q
0.05963 X Q
0.05657 X Q
0.05394 X Q
0.05104 X Q
0.04961 X a
0.04781 X Q
o.o46i9 x a
0.04472 x Q
0.04339 X a
0.04216 x Q
Square Inches.
2.5759 X ft
18.214 X&
14.872 X G
12.880 X a
11.520 XQ
10.516 XQ
9.736 X Q
9.107 x a
8.586 X ft
8.146 XQ
7.767 X a
7.436 x Q
7.144 xQ
6.885 x Q
6.65i x a
6.440 X a
6.248 X a
6.072 X a
Mean radius of
the annular ori¬
fice HH.
Feet.
0.8897 X T
1.2582 X T
1.5410 X T
1.7794 XT
1.9894 X T
2.1793 X T
2.3540 X T
2.5165 X T
2.6691 X T
2.8135 X T
2.9508 X T
3.0820 X T
3.2078 X T
3.3290 X T
3.4458 X T
3.5588 X T
3.6683 X T
3.7747 X T
Difference between
the altitude of the
two vessels.
Inches.
QQ
1.7695 TXBB
QQ
0.8847 TTBB
QQ
0.5898
QQ
0.4424 TTBB
QQ
0.3539 q”pBB
QQ
0.2949 friiB
a«
0.2528 ,i',i'BB
• QQ
0.2212 ,pq’BB
0.1966 XX^B
„ QQ
0.1769 ,j,,iiBB
QQ
0.1609 TTBB
QQ
0.147u TTBB
QQ
0.1361 XXBB
QQ
0.1264 ttbb
QQ
0.1179 ttbb
TTBB
QQ
TTBB
QQ
0.0983 TTBB
0.1106
0.1041
Tangent of the incli¬
nation of the tubes
to the horizon.
Q
0.38400 tR
Q
0.19200 te
Q
0.12800 tB
„ Q
0.09600 Tg
Q
0.07680 tB
Q
0.06400
Q
0.05486 ^b
Q
0.04800 tb
0.04267 fB
0.03840
0.03491 r
0.03200
0.02954
Ql
TB
Q
TB
(f
TB
A
TB
0.02743 ^
0.02560 -S-
TB
0.02400 iL
TB
0.02259 A
TB
0.02133
TB
'fable for
mills dri¬
ven by the
reaction of
water.
ib ana- The determinations in the preceding table are exhibited may be suitable to the given place, or to the nature of the
rajd the in a general manner, that the machine may be accommo- work to be performed.
dated to local circumstances. The time of a revolution T, 352. In order to shew the application of the preceding Bxaniple.
for instance, is left undetermined, because upon this time table, let it be required to construct the machine when the
depends the magnitude of the machine ; and T may be as- height of the fall is five feet, and w hen the reservoir fur-
sumed of such a value that the dimensions of the machine nishes one cubic foot of water in a second. In this case
96
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Ma- Q. rr 1, and therefore, by column 3, the sum of the areas of
chines for the orifices will be 11.52 square inches. Consequently,
raising there are twelve orifices, the area of each orifice will be
\ v ater.
 -^11.52
■ rr 0.96 of a square inch. Suppose the time of a
1 It
revolution to be rr 1 second, or T rr 1, then the 4th co¬
lumn will give the mean radius of the annular orifice
— 1.9894 feet, or nearly two feet. Let the breadth of the
annular orifice, or B rr 1 an inch, then the difference be¬
tween the altitude of each vessel will be 0.3539 X —
1 1 DD
0.3539 X
1 X 1
rr 0.3539 X T = 0.3539 X 4
1.4156 inches. Now, as the sum of the heights of the
vessels must be always equal to the height of the fall, half
that sum will in the present case be two feet six inches;
and since half the difference of their altitudes is 7-10ths
of an inch, the altitude of the superior vessel will be two
feet six inches* and seven-tenths, and that of the inferior
vessel two feet five inches and three-tenths. It appears
from the last column of the table, that the tangent of the
inclination of the tubes is 0.1536, which corresponds with
an angle of 8° 44/.
353. The theory of this machine has also been discussed On jj
by Leonhard Euler, in the Mem. de VAcad. Berlin, vol. chines
vi. p. 311 ; and its application to all kinds of work has been raisii
pointed out in a subsequent paper, entitled, Application de
la Machine Hydraulique de M. Segner a toutes forts d’ouv-
rage, et de ses avantages sur les autres Machines Hydra-
liques dont on se sert ordinairement, Mem. Acad. Berlin, searche
tom. vii. 1752, p. 271. The results of Euler’s analysis are Leonh;
not sufficiently practical for the use of the general reader. Euler.
But it appears from his investigations, as well as from those
of John Bernoulli and other philosophers, that the reaction
of water is the most powerful way in which the force of
that fluid can be employed.
354. It has often occurred to the writer of this article, j^ew j.
that a very powerful hydraulic machine might be con-ofwati
structed by combining the impulse with the reaction of wheel
water. If the spout a, for example, instead of delivering gested,
the water into the higher vessel, were to throw it upon a
number of curvilineal floatboards fixed on its circumfer¬
ence, and so formed as to convey the water easily into the
spiral canals, we should have a machine something like the
conical horizontal wheel in fig. 92, with spiral channels in¬
stead of spiral floatboards, and which would in some mea¬
sure be moved both by the impulse, weight, and reaction
of the water.
CHAPTER III. ON MACHINES FOR RAISING WATER.
Reference
to the
article
Pump.
Descrip¬
tion of the
original
pump of
Ctesibius.
Sect. I. On Pumps.
355. The subject of pumps has been fully and ably dis¬
cussed by Dr Robison under the article Pump, to which
we must refer the reader for a complete view of the theory
of the machine. In that article, however, a reference is
made to the present for a description of the ancient pump
of CtesiWus, and of those in common use to which it has
given rise. To these subjects, therefore, we must now
confine our attention.
356. The pump was invented by Ctesibius, a mathema¬
tician of Alexandria, who flourished under Ptolemy Psy-
chon, about 120 years before Clnfist. In its original state,
it is represented in fig. 97, where ABCD is a brass cylin-
Fig. 97.
N
ABCD, is thus impelled into the tube NH, the valve I
will close. A second elevation of the piston will admit
another quantity of fluid into the cylinder, and a second
depression will force it into the tube NH ; so that, by con¬
tinuing the motion of the piston, the water may be ele¬
vated to any altitude in the tube. From this pump of
Ctesibius are derived the three kinds of pumps now com¬
monly used, the sucking, the forcing, and the lifting pump.
357. The common sucking pump is represented in fig-Desci
Fig. 98.
der with a valve L in its bottom. It is furnished with a
piston MK made of green wood, so as not to swell in water,
and adjusted to the bore of the cylinder by the interposi¬
tion of a ring of leather. The tribe Cl connects the cy¬
linder ABCD with another tube NH, the bottom of which
is furnished with a valve I opening upwards. Now, when
the extremity DC of the cylinder is immersed in water,
and the piston MK elevated, the pressure of the water upon
the valve L from below will be proportioned to the depth
below the surface (41). The valve will therefore open,
and admit the water into the cylinder. But when the pis¬
ton is depressed, it will force the water into the tube CH,
and through the valve I into the tube NH. As soon as
the portion of water that was admitted into the cylinder
tion cjt
suckii
pumf:
98, where ICBL is the body of
the pump immersed in the water
at A. The moveable piston
DG is composed of the piston
rod D d, the piston or bucket G,
and the valve a. The bucket
H, wdiich is fixed to the body
of the pump, is likewise furnish¬
ed with a valve h, which, like
the valve a, should by its own
weight lie close upon the hole
in the bucket till the working
of the engine commences. The
valves are made of brass, and
have their lower surface covered
with leather, in order to fit the
holes in the bucket more ex¬
actly. The moveable bucket G
is covered with leather, so as
to suit exactly the bore of the
cylinder, and to prevent any air
escaping between it and the pump. The piston DG may
be elevated or depressed by the lever DQ, whose fulcrum
is r, the extremity of the bent arm R rT-
358. Let us now suppose the piston G to be depressed Mod
so that its inferior surface may rest upon the valve b. °Pcri
I hen, if the piston G be raised to C, there would have
been a vacuum between H and G if the valve h were im¬
moveable. But as the valve h is moveable, and as the
pressure of the air is removed from its superior surface, the
air in the tube HL will, by its elasticity, force open the
valve b, and expand itself through the whole cavity LC.
This air, however, will be much rarer than that of the at¬
mosphere ; and since the equilibrium between the external
HYDRODYNAMICS.
97
e:
vfa. air and that in the tube LH is destroyed by the rarefaction
, s for of the latter, the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface
ing 0f the water in the vessel K will predominate, and raise
er- the water to about e in the suction pipe HL, so that the
"'"’^air formerly included in the space LC will be condensed
to the same state as that of the atmosphere. The elasti¬
city of the air both above and below the valve b being now
equal, that valve will fall by its own weight. Let the pis¬
ton DG be now depressed to b ; the air would evidently
resist its descent, did not the valve a open and give a free
exit to the air in the space CH, for it cannot escape through
the inferior valve b. When the piston reaches b, the valve
a will fall by its weight; and when the piston is again ele¬
vated, the incumbent air will press the valve a firmly upon
its orifice. During the second ascent of the piston to C,
the valve b will rise, the air between e H will rush into
HC ; and in consequence of its rarefaction, and inability to
counteract the pressure of the atmosphere, the water will
rise to f. In the same wTay it may be shewn, that at the
next stroke of the piston the water will rise through the
box H to B, and then the valve b which was raised by it
will fall when the bucket G is at C. Upon depressing the
bucket G again, the water cannot be driven through the
valve 6, which is pressed to its orifice by the water above
it. At the next ascent of the piston a new quantity of
water w ill rise through H, and follow the piston to C.
When the piston again descends, the valve a will open ;
and as the water between C and H cannot be pushed
through the valve b, it will rise through a, and have its
surface at C when the piston G is at 6 ; but when the pis¬
ton rises, the valve a being shut by the water above it, this
water will be raised up tow ards I, and issue at the pipe F.
A newr quantity of w ater will rush through H, and fill the
space HC: consequently, the surface of the fluid will al¬
ways remain at C, and every succeeding elevation of the
piston from b to C will make the column of water CH run
out at the pipe F.
uc^* 359. As the water rises in the pipe CL solely by the
imp pressure of the atmosphere ; and as a column of water, 33
vater^'eet is equal in weight to a column of air of the same
than base, reaching from the earth’s surface to the top of the
t. atmosphere, the water in the vessel K will not follow the
piston G to a greater altitude than 33 feet; for when it
reaches this height, the column of water completely ba¬
lances, or is in equilibrium with, the atmosphere, and there¬
fore cannot be raised higher by the pressure of the external
air.
3(i0. The forcing-pump is represented in fig. 99, wrhere
ip-
t the
Fig. 99.
of its
;ion.
VOL. XII.
D d is the piston attached
to a solid plunger g, ad¬
justed to the bore of the pipe
BC by the interposition of
a ring of leather. The rec¬
tangular pipe MMN com¬
municates with the tube
BC by the cavity round H ;
and its upper extremity P
is furnished with a valve
a opening upwards. An
air-vessel KK is fastened
to P, and the tube EGI is
introduced into it so as to
reach as near as possible to
the valve a. Let us now
suppose the plunger D to
be depressed to b. As soon
as it is elevated to C, the
air below it will be rarefied,
and the water will ascend
through the valve b in the
same way as in the suck-
Fiff. 100.
lifting
pump.
ing-pump, till the pipe is filled to C. The valve b will On Ma-
now be shut by the weight of the incumbent water; and chines for
therefore, when the plunger D g is depressed, it will force
the water between C and b through the rectangular pipe. a ei‘
MMN, into the air vessel KK. Before the water enters
the air-vessel, it opens the valve a, which shuts as soon as
the plunger is again raised, because the pressure of the
water upon its under side is removed. In this way the
water is driven into the air-vessel by repeated strokes of
the plunger, till its surface is above the lower extremity of
the pipe IG. Now, as the air in the vessel KK has no
communication with the external air when the water is
above I, it must be condensed more and more, as new
quantities of water are injected. It will therefore endea¬
vour to expand itself, and by pressing upon the surface H
of the water in the air-vessel, it will drive the water through
the tube IG, and make it issue at E in a continued stream,
even when the plunger is rising to C. If the pipe GHI
were joined to the pipe MMN at P, without the interven¬
tion of an air vessel, the stream of water wrould issue at F
only when the plunger was depressed.
361. The lifting pump, which is only a particular modi-Descrip-
fication of the forcing pump, is represented in fig. 100. The ^9? t^ie
barrel AB is fixed in the im¬
moveable frame KILM, the
lower part of which is immersed
in the water to be raised. The
frame GEQHO consists of tw o
strong iron rods EQ, OH, which
move through holes in IK and
LM, the upper and lower ends
of the pump. To the bottom
Q.H of this frame is fixed an in¬
verted piston, with its bucket
and valve uppermost at D. An
inclined branch FH, either fix¬
ed to the top of the barrel, or
moveable by a ball and socket,
as represented at F, must be
fitted to the barrel so exactly,
as to resist the admission both
of air and water. The branch
FH is furnished with a valve C
opening upwards. Let the pump
be now plunged in the water to
the depth of D. Then if the
piston frame be thrust down into
the fluid, the piston will descend,
and the water by its upward q
pressure will open the valve at
D, and gain admission above the piston. When the piston
frame is elevated, it will raise the water above D along
with it, and, forcing it through the valve, it will be carried
off by the spout above H.
362. An ingenious pump, invented by De la Hire, is De la
represented in fig. 101. It raises water equally quick by Hire’s
the descent as by the ascent of the piston. The pipes B, pump*
C, E, F, all communicate with the barrel MD, and have
each a valve at their top, viz. at b, S, e, f The piston rod
LM and plunger K never rise higher than K, nor descend
lower than D, KD being the length of the stroke. When
the plunger K is raised from D to K, the pressure of the
atmosphere forces the water through the valve b, and fills
the barrel up to the plunger, in the very same way as in
the forcing pump. When the plunger K is depressed to
D, it forces the water between K and b up the pipe E, and
through the valve e into the box G, where it issues at the
spout O. During the descent of the plunger K, the valve
f falls, and covers the top of the pipe F ; and as the piston
rod LM moves in a collar of leather at M, and is air-tight,
the air above the plunger, between K and M, will be rare-
N
Mode of its
operation.
98
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Ma- fied, and likewise the air in the pipe CS, which communi-
chines for
raising
Water.
Fig. 101.
cates with the rarefied air
by the valve S. The pres¬
sure of the air, therefore,
will raise the water in CS,
force it through the valve
S, and fill the space above
the plunger, expelling the
rarefied air through the
valve f. When the piston
is raised from D to K, it
will force the water through
the bent pipe F into the
box G, so that the same
quantity of water will be
discharged at O through the
pipe F, during the ascent of
the piston, as was discharged
through the pipe E during
the piston’s descent. Above
the pipe O is a close air-
vessel P, so that when the
water is driven above the
spout O, it compresses the
air in the vessel P, and this
air acting by its elasticity on the surface of the water, forces
it out at O in a constant and nearly equal stream. As the
effect of the machine depends on a proper proportion be¬
tween the height O of the spout above the surface of the
well, and the diameter of the barrel, the following table
will be of use to the practical mechanic.
Height of the
spout O above
the well.
Feet.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Diameter of
the barrel D.
Inches.
6.9
5.6
4.9
4.4
4.0
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.1
Height of the
spout O above
the well.
Feet.
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Diameter of
the barrel D.
Inches.
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
Noble’s
pump.
When the proportions in the preceding table are observ¬
ed, a man of common strength will raise water much higher
than he could do with a pump of the common construction.
363. A very simple pump, which furnishes a continued
stream, is represented in fig. 102. It was invented by a Mr
Fig. 102.
Noble, and consists of a working barrel AB, with two pis- On M;
tons C and B, which are moved up and down alternately chines i
by the rods fixed to the lever MN. The rod of the ™sin.
piston B passes through the piston C, and the piston C
moves upon the rod AB. When the piston rod B is de¬
pressed and elevated, it will make the water rise in the
barrel A, in the same way as in the sucking pump, whether
the valve C be moveable or not. Let us now suppose that
the water is raised to A. Then if the piston B is elevated
by depressing the extremity N of the lever, the water at
A will be raised higher in the barrel, and issue at the spout
P ; and when the same piston B is depressed by elevating
the end N of the lever, the piston C is evidently raised,
and the water above it will be expelled at P. This pump,
therefore, will give a continued stream, for as the pistons
ascend and descend alternately, one of them must always
be forcing the water out at P. The pistons are elevated
and depressed by means of toothed arches, c and d, work¬
ing in the teeth of a rack, at the extremities a, b of the
piston rod.
364. The pump invented by Mr Buchanan is shewn inBuchai
fig. 103. In the vertical section DGA, A is the suction pump,
barrel, D the working barrel, Fig. 103.
E the piston, G the spout,
B the inner valve, and C the
outer valve. These valves
are of the kind called clack
valves, and have their hinges
generally of metal. It is
easily seen that when the pis¬
ton E is raised, the water will
rise through the suction bar¬
rel A into the working barrel
D, in the same way as in the
sucking pump ; and that when
the piston E is depressed, it
will force the water between
it and the valve B, through
the valve C, and make it
issue at G. The points of dif-     
ference between this pump and those of the common form,
are,—that it discharges the water below the piston, and
has its valves lying near each other. Hence the sand or
mud which may be in the water, is discharged without in¬
juring the barrel or the piston leathers ; and as the valves
B, C, may be of any size, they will transmit, without being
choked, any rubbish which may rise in the suction barrels.
If any obstruction should happen to the valves, they are
within the reach of the workman’s hand, and may be clear¬
ed without taking the pump to pieces. This simple ma¬
chine may be quickly converted into a fire-engine, by add¬
ing the air-vessel H, which is screwed like a hosepipe, and
by fixing in the spout G, a perforated stopple fitted to re¬
ceive such pipes as are employed in fire-engines. When
these additions are made, the water, as in the case of the
forcing pump, will be driven into the air vessel H, and re¬
pelled through the perforated stopple G, by the elasticity
of the included air.
365. A simple method of working two pumps at once, Bala
by means of a balance, is exhibited in fig. 104, where ABpum
is the balance, having a large iron ball at each end, placed
in equilibrium on the two spindles C, see fig. 105. The
person who works the pump stands on two boards I, I,
nailed to two cross pieces fastened to the axis of the ma¬
chine, and supports himself by a cross bar D<7 joined to
the two parts D, E. At the distance of ten inches on each
side of the axis are suspended the iron rods M, N, to which
the pistons are attached. The workman, by bearing alter¬
nately on the right and left foot, puts the balance in mo¬
tion. The pistons M, N, are alternately elevated and de¬
pressed, and the water raised in the barrel of each is driven
HYDRODYNAMICS.
99
Ma- into the pipe HH, in which it is elevated to a height pro¬
lance equal, and prevent it from acquiring too great a velo¬
city, iron springs F, G, are fixed to the upright posts, which
limit the length of its oscillations.
366. The chain pump is represented in fig. 106. It con-
Fig. 106.
sists of a chain MTHG, about 30 feet long, carrying a
number of flat pistons M, N, O, P, Q, which are made to
revolve in the barrels ABCD and GH, by driving the
wheel F. When the flat pistons are at the lower part of
the barrel T, they are immersed in the water RR, and as
they rise in the barrel GH, they bring up the water along
with them into the reservoir MG, from which it is convey¬
ed by the spout S. The teeth of the wheel F are so con¬
trived as to receive one-half of the flat pistons, and let
them fold in ; and sometimes another wheel like F is fixed
at the bottom D. The distance of the pistons from the
side of the barrel is about half an inch ; but as the machine On Ma-
is generally worked with great velocity, the ascending pis- chines for
tons bring along with them into the reservoir as much
water as fills the cavity GH. Sometimes chain pumps are ^ y ,
constructed without the barrels ABCD and GH. In this
case, the flat pistons are converted into buckets connected
with a chain, which dip in the water with their mouths
downwards, and convey it to the reservoir. The buckets
are moved by hexagonal axles, and the distance between
each is nearly equal to the depth of the buckets. Chain
pumps are frequently placed in an inclined position, and in
this position they raise the greatest quantity of water when
the distance of the flat pistons is equal to their breadth,
and when the inclination of the barrels is about 24° 21'.
367. The hair-rope machine, invented by the Sieur Ve- Hair-rope
ra, operates on the same principle as the chain-pump. In- machine of
stead of a chain of pistons moving round the wheel F (fig. ygr *ieur
106.), a hair-rope is substituted. The part of the rope at
T that is lowest always dips in the water, which, adhering
to the rope, is raised along with it. When the rope reaches
the top at G and M, it passes through two small tubes,
which, being fixed in the bottom of the reservoir, prevent
the water from returning into the well. Sometimes a com- Machine
mon rope is employed, having a number of stuffed cushions ^hh cu-
fixed to it instead of the flat pistons in the chain-pump.
These cushions carry the water along with them through pistons>
the barrel HG, and deliver it into the reservoir.—For the1
description of other pumps, see the article Pump ; and for
pump mills, see the article Mill.
Sect. II. On Engines for Extinguishing Fire.
368. The common fire-engine which discharges water in Common
successive jets is represented in fig. 107> and is only a mo-squirting
engine.
Fig. 107.
dification of the lifting pump. In the vessel AB, full of
water, is immersed the frame DC of a common lifting
pump. This frame, and consequently the piston N, is ele¬
vated and depressed by means of the levers E, F, and the
water which is raised is forced through the pipe G, which
may be moved in any direction by means of the elastic
leather pipe H, or by a ball and socket screwed on the top
of the pump. While the piston N is descending, the
stream at G is evidently discontinued, and issues only at
each elevation of the piston. The vessel AB is supplied
with water by buckets, and the pump is prevented from
being choked by the strainer LK, which separates from the
water any mud that it may happen to contain.
369. As this fire-engine does not afford a continued Improved
stream, it is not so useful in case of accidents as when the fire-engine,
stream is uninterrupted. An improved engine of this sort
is represented in fig. 108, where H, H, are two forcing
pumps connected with the large vessel LMM, and wrought
by the levers X, X, moving upon Y as a fulcrum. This
100
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Ma- apparatus is plunged and fastened in a vessel I I partly
chines for F5g> l08
filled with water, and by means of the forcing pumps H, H,
the operation of which has already been described, the water
is raised through the valves above 11, and driven through the
valves A, A into the large vessel LMM, where the includ¬
ed air is condensed. Into this vessel is inserted the tube
YY, communicating with the leathern hose which carries
off the water. The elasticity of the condensed air in the
vessel LMM pressing upon the surface of the water in that
vessel, forces it up through the tube YY into the leathern
pipe, from whose extremity it issues with great force and
velocity; and as the condensed air is continually pressing
upon the water in the air-vessel, the stream will be con¬
stant and uniform.
Newsham’s 370. A section of the fire-engine, as improved by Mr
fire-engine. Newsham, is represented in fig. 109? where TU and WX are
the forcing pumps corresponding with H, H in fig. 108,
Fig. 109.
YZ the large vessel corresponding with LMM, and c/the
tube corresponding with YY. The vessels TU, WX, YZ,
the horizontal canals ON, QP, ML, and the vertical canal
EE, all communicate with each other by means of four
valves O, I, K, P opening upwards, and the vertical pipe
is immersed in the water to be raised. M hen the pis- On Jia,
ton R is raised by means of the double lever «/3, a vacu- chines ft |
urn would be made in the barrel TU, if the water at R ™sing „
were prevented from rising ; but as this barrel communi- ^ ater’ f
cates with the vessel of water below EF, on the surface ^ j
of which the pressure of the atmosphere is exerted, the wa¬
ter will rise through EF, force open the valve H, and fol¬
low the piston R. By depressing the piston R, however,
the water is driven down the barrel, closes the valve H,
and rushes through the valve I into the air-vessel YZ.
The very same operation is going on with the pump WX,
which forces the water into the air-vessel through the
valve K. By these means the air-vessel is constantly fill¬
ing with water, and the included air undergoing continual
condensation. The air thus compressed, reacts upon the
surface YZ of the water, and forces it through the tube ef
to the stop-cock eg, whence, after turning the cock, the
water passes into the tube h, fixed to a ball and socket, by
which it may be discharged in any direction.
371. The fire-engine has] undergone various alterations Refereil j
and improvements from Bramah, Dickenson, Simpkin, Ra- to the i: j
ventree, Philips, and Furst, an account of whose engines prove-
may be seen in the Repertory of Arts, See. A very simplements
and cheap fire-engine has been invented by Mr B. Dear¬
born, and is described in the American Transactions for
1794, and in Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 177-
Sect. III. On Whitehurst's Machine, and Montgolfier's
Hydraulic Ram.
372. Mr Whitehurst1 was the first who suggested the in- The id
genious idea of raising water by means of its momentum, of raisi
A machine upon the same principle as Mr Whitehurst’s,]™1^1
but in an improved form, has lately made its appearance in men'^
France, and excited considerable attention both on thegrstsl
Continent and in this country. Whatever credit, therefore, gested
has been given to the inventor of the hydraulic ram, justly Mr ¥ ■
belongs to our countrymen Mr Whitehurst, and Montgol- fursti
fier is entitled to nothing more than the merit of an im¬
prover.
373. Mr Whitehurst’s machine, which was actually erect- Desr
ed at Oulton in Cheshire, is represented in fig. 110, where tiono:§
„ ... Whiti
riS- 110- hurst’
chine.
AM is the original reservoir, having its surface in the same
horizontal line with the bottom of the reservoir BN. The
diameter of the main pipe AE is one inch and a half, and
its length about 200 yards; and the branch pipe EF is of
such a size that the height of the surface M of the reservoir
is nearly 16 feet above the cock F. In the valve box D
is placed the valve a, and into the air-vessel C are inserted
the extremities m, n of the main pipe, bent downwards to
prevent the air from being driven out when the water is
forced into it. Now as the cock F is 16 feet below the
reservoir AM, the water will issue from F with a velocity
1 Philosophical Transactions, 1775.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
L01
to On a- of nearly 30 feet per second. As soon as the cock F
iliin tor therefore is opened, a column of water 200 yards long is
" rai g put in motion, and though the aperture of the cock F be
r‘ small, this column must have a very considerable momen-
^tum. Let the cock F be now suddenly stopped, and the
water will rush through the valve a into the air-vessel C,
and condense the included air. This condensation must
take place every time the cock is shut, and the imprisoned
air being in a state of high compression, will react upon
the water in the air-vessel, and raise it into the reservoir
BN.
374. A section of the hydraulic ram of Montgolfier is
•ion exhibited in fig. Ill, where X is the reservoir, XA the
Tor d- Fig. 111. ,A...
height of the fall, and AB the horizontal canal which con¬
veys the water to the engine MFKR. C and D are two
valves, and ME a pipe reaching within a very little of the
bottom E. Let us now suppose that water is permitted to
descend from the reservoir. It will evidently rush along AB,
and out at HH, which can be shut by the valves C or D.
When the passage HH is shut by the rise of the valve C,
the water is suddenly checked, and, unable to escape at HH,
it will rush forwards to Z and raise the valves at E. A portion
of water being thus admitted into the vessel FF, the impulse
of the column of fluid is spent, the valves D and C fall, and
the water issues at HH as before ; when its motion is again
checked, and the same operation repeated which has now
been described. Whenever, therefore, the valve C closes,
a portion of water will force its way into the vessel FF,
and condense the air which it contains, for the included air
has no communication with the atmosphere after the bot¬
tom of the pipe ME is beneath the surface of the injected
water. This condensed air will consequently react upon
the surface of the water, and raise it in the pipe ME to an
altitude proportioned to the
elasticity of the included air.
An enlarged view of the valves
C, D, and their seat, is shewn
in the annexed figure (fig. 112).
With a fall of water in which
XA is jive feet, the pipe AB
six inches in diameter, and 14
feet long, a good proportioned
ram will raise water 100 feet
high. When wrought with a
power of 70 cubic feet of water in the minute, it will raise
21 cubic feet of water per minute to the height of 100 feet.
One of these machines is stated to have raised 100 hogs¬
heads of water in 24 hours to the height of 134 feet, and a
fall of only 4^ feet. From this description it will be seen,
that the only difference between the engines of Montgol¬
fier and Whitehurst is, that the one requires a person to turn
the cock, while the other has the advantage of acting sponta¬
neously. Montgolfier1 assures us, that the honour of this
invention does not belong to England, but that he is the
Fig. 112.
sole inventor, and did not receive a hint from any person On Ma-
whatever It would appear from some experiments made c^in.es tor
by Montgolfier, that the effect of the water-ram is equal
to between a half and three-fourths of the power expended, v ^ ,
which renders it superior to most hydraulic machines.2
Sect. IV. On Archimedes’s Screw-Engine.
375. The screw-engine invented by Archimedes is re-Descrip-
presented in fig. 113, where AB is a cylinder with a flexible tion of Ar-
pipe, CEHOGF, wrapped round its circumference like achimedes’s
screw. The cylinder is inclined to the horizon, and sup-screw"
ported at one extremity by the bent pillar IR, while its6'1^1116
other extremity, furnished with a pivot, is immersed in the
Fig. 113.
water. When, by means of the handle K, the cylinder is
made to revolve upon its axis, the water which enters the
lower orifice of the flexible pipe is raised to the top, and
discharged at D. On some occasions, when the water to
be raised moves with a considerable velocity, the engine
is put in motion by a number of floatboards fixed at L, and
impelled by the current; and if the water is to be raised Operation
to a great height, another cylinder is immersed in the ves- of t5le
sel D, which receives the water from the first cylinder, and screj*'-
is driven by a pinion fixed at I. In this way, by having a611”1111'
succession of screw-engines, and a succession of reservoirs,
water may be raised to any altitude. An engine of this
kind is described in Ferguson’s Lectures, vol. ii. p. 113.
376. In order to explain the reason why the water rises
in the spiral tube, let AB be a section of the engine,
Fig. 114.
BCc/DE the spiral tube,
BF a horizontal line or
the surface of the stag¬
nant water which is to
be raised, and ABF the
angle which the axis of
the cylinder makes with
the horizon, Then, the
water which enters the
extremity B of the spiral
tube will descend to C,
and remain there as long_
as the cylinder is at rest.
But if a motion of rota¬
tion be communicated to the cylinder, so that the lowest
part C of the spiral BCD moves towards B, and the points
d, D, E towards C, and become successively the lowest
parts of the spiral, the water must occupy successively the
1 Cette indention viest point originaire d'Angleterre, elle appartient toute entiere d la France. Je declare que j'en suis le seul inventeur^ et
que Videe ne ni’en a etc fournie par personnes. Journal des Mines, vol. xiii. No. 73.
2 See Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures; Repertory of Arts, Dec. 1816; and Journal of the Royal Institution, vol. i. p. 211.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
102
On Ma- points d, D, E, and therefore rise in the tube ; or, which
chines for }s the same thing, when the point C moves to c, the point
raising ^ wiH be at C; and as the water at C cannot rise along with
water^ , the point C to c, on account of the inclination of Cc to the
' horizon, it must occupy the point d of the spiral, when C
has moved to c; that is, the water has a tendency to occu¬
py the lower parts of the spiral, and the rotatory motion
withdraws this part of the spiral from the water, and causes
it to ascend to the top of the tube. By wrapping a cord
round a cylinder, and inclining it to the horizon, so that
the angle ABC may be greater than the angle ABF, and
then making it revolve upon its axis, the preceding remarks
will be clearly illustrated.—If the direction of the spiral
BC should be horizontal, that is, if it should coincide with
the line BF, the water will have no tendency to move to¬
wards C, and therefore cannot be raised in the tube. For
a similar reason, it will not rise when the point C is above
the horizontal line BF. Consequently, in the construction
of this engine, the angle ABC, which the spiral forms with
the side of the cylinder, must always be greater than the
angle ABF, at which the cylinder is inclined to the hori¬
zon. In practice, the angle of inclination ABF should ge¬
nerally be about 50°, and the angle ABC about 65 .
377. The screw of Archimedes is now generally construct¬
ed as shewn in the annexed figure, where AB is the axis
of the screw, having a flat plate of wood or thin iron coiled,
Fig. 115.
c
as it were, round the axis, like a spiral, or the threads of a
screw. The plane of this plate is perpendicular to the sur¬
face of the cylindrical axis AB, but is inclined to the di¬
rection of the axis at an angle which must always be greater
than the angle which the axis AB forms with the horizon
when in use. This spiral plate, which is nothing more
than a wooden screw with a very deep and narrow thread,
is fixed in a cylindrical box, CDEF, so as to form a
spiral groove, as it were running up the tube from B to A,
which is exactly the same thing as if a pipe of lead or
leather had been wrapped round the cylindrical axis, as
in fig. 115. If the outer case CD EF is fixed so that the
screw revolves within it, the engine is called a tvater screw-
engine. In the common screw-engine, Mr Eytelwein has
shewn that the screw should be placed in such a manner
that only one-half of a convolution may be filled at each
revplution. When this condition, however, cannot be ful¬
filled, from the height of the water being variable, he gives
a preference to the water screw, notwithstanding that in
this case one-third of the water generally runs back, and
the screw is apt to become clogged by impurities or weeds.
378. In a [screw-engine erected at the Hurlet Alum
Works, for raising the alum liquor, the length of the screw is
127 feet, its inclination to the horizon 37° 36'; the height to
which it raises the liquor 76 feet 9 inches, the octagonal
axis of the screw 8 inches in diameter, the diameter of the
spiral 22 inches, the thickness of the covering 2 inches,
the distance of the threads 9 inches, the number of the On J
threads 168, the thickness of the spiral 2 inches, the width chines
and depth of the spiral tube 7 inches each. The screw rajsii
is sustained upon five sets of pivots or rollers, each set con- ^at
sisting of two rollers. The engine is driven by a water¬
wheel, which performs one revolution while the screw per¬
forms two. The quantity of liquor raised is 70 wine gal¬
lons ; and as its specific gravity is 1.065, the quantity dis¬
charged in an hour is 17 tons. The screw is built wholly
of wood, as the alum liquor acts upon iron.
379* The theory of this engine is treated at great length
by Hennert, in his Dissertation sur la vis d’Archimede,
Berlin, 1767 ; by Pitot, in the Memoirs of the French Aca¬
demy ; and by Euler, in the Nov. Comment. Petrop. tom. v.
An account of Pitot’s investigations may be seen in Gre¬
gory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 348. See also Eytelweiris
Handbuch dev Mechanih, ch. xxi.; and Journal des Mines,
tom. xxxviii. p. 321.
Sect. V. On the Persian Wheel.
380. The Persian wheel is an engine which raises water Desc
to a height equal to its diameter. It is shewn in fig. 116, bom
where AB is the wheel driven by the stream r acting upon
Fig. 116.
floatboards fixed on one side of its rim. A number of
buckets, n, o,p, q, are disposed on the opposite side of the
rim, and suspended by strong pins. When the wheel is
in motion, the descending buckets q, q immerge into the
stream, and ascend full of water till they reach the top at
p, where they strike against the extremity of the fixed re¬
servoir S, and being overset, discharge their contents in¬
to that reservoir. As soon as the bucket quits the reser¬
voir, it resumes its perpendicular position by its own weight
and descends as before. On each bucket is fixed a spring
t, t, which moves over the top of the bar fastened to the
reservoir S. By this means the bottom of the bucket is
raised above the level of its mouth, and its contents com¬
pletely discharged.
381. On some occasions the Persian wheel is made to
)|on a- raise water only to tne neignt or ns axxe. In this case, in- air before it into the rising-pipe, where it escapes.—In the On Ma-
hiii for stead of buckets, its spokes, C, C, C, C,&c., are made ofaspi- mean time, air comes in at the mouth of the scoop; and chines for
rai Ig ral form, and hollow within, so that their inner extremities when the scoop again dips into the water, it again takes in a raising
W :r. in the box N on the axle, and their outer ex- similar quantity. Thus there is now a part filled with water s
and a part filled with air. Continuing this motion, we shall
receive a second round of water and another of air.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
raise water only to the height of its axle.
103
all terminate in the box N on the axle, and their outer ex¬
tremities in the circumference of the wheel. When the
rim AB, therefore, is immersed in the stream, the water
runs into the tubes I, I, &c., rises in the spiral spokes C, C, C,
&c., and is discharged from the orifices within m into the
reservoir N, from which it may be conveyed in pipes.
Water.
Sect. VI. On the Zurich Machine.
382. This machine is a kind of pump invented and erect-
ed'by H. Andreas Wirtz, an ingenious tin-plate worker in
Zurich, and operates on a principle different from all other
hydraulic engines. The following description of it, written
by Dr Robison, is transferred to this part of the work for
the sake of uniformity.
383. Fig. 117. is a sketch of the section of the machine,
as it was first erected by Wirtz at a dye-house in Limmat,
Fig. 117.
in the suburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It consists of a hol¬
low cylinder, like a very large grindstone, turning on a ho¬
rizontal axis, and partly plunged in a cistern of water.
The axis is hollow at one end, and communicates with a
perpendicular pipe CBZ, part of which is hid by the cylin¬
der. This cylinder or drum is formed into a spiral canal
by a plate coiled up within it like the main-spring of a
watch in its box; only the spires are at a distance from
each other, so as to form a conduit for the water of uniform
width. This spiral partition is well joined to the two ends
of the cylinder, and no water escapes between them. The
outermost turn of the spiral begins to widen about three-
fourths of a circumference from the end, and this gradual
enlargement continues from Q. to S nearly a semicircle:
this part may be called the Horn. It then widens sud¬
denly, forming a Scoop or shovel SS'. The cylinder is
supported so as to dip several inches into the water, whose
surface is represented by VV'.
384. When this cylinder is turned round its axis in the
direction ABEO, as expressed by the two darts, the scoop
SS' dips at V' and takes up a certain quantity of water be¬
fore it immerges again at V. This quantity is sufficient to
fill the taper part SO,, which we have called the Horn ;
and this is nearly equal in capacity to the outermost uni¬
form spiral round.
385. After the scoop has emerged, the water passes along
the spiral by the motion of it round the axis, and drives the
The
water in any turn of the spiral will have its two ends on a
level; and the air between the successive columns of water
will be in its natural state; for since the passage into the
rising pipe or Main is open, there is nothing to force the
water and air into any other position. But since the spires
gradually diminish in their length, it is plain that the co¬
lumn of water will gradually occupy more and more of the
circumference of each. At last it will occupy a complete
turn of some spiral that is near the centre ; and when sent
farther in, by the continuance of the motion, some of it will
run back over the top of the succeeding spiral. Thus it
will run over at K 4 into the right-hand side of the third
spiral. Therefore it wall push the water of this spire back¬
wards, and raise its other end, so that it also will run over
backwards before the next turn be completed. And this
change of disposition will at last reach the first or outer¬
most spiral, and some water will run over into the horn and
scoop, and finally into the cistern.
386. But as soon as water gets into the rising pipe, and
rises a little in it, it stops the escape of the air when the
next scoop of water is taken in. Here are now two co¬
lumns of water acting against each other by hydrostatic
pressure and the intervening column of air. They must
compress the air between them, and the water and air-
columns will now be unequal. This will have a general
tendency to keep the whole water back, and cause it to be
higher on the left or rising side of each spire than on the
right descending side. The excess of height will be just
such as produces the compression of the air between that
and the preceding column of water. This will go on in¬
creasing as the water mounts in the rising pipe; for the air
next to the rising pipe is compressed at its inner end with
the weight of the whole column in the main. It must be
as much compressed at its outer end. This must be done
by the water column without it; and this column exerts
this pressure partly by reason that its outer end is higher
than its inner end, and partly by the transmission of the
pressure on its outer end by air, which is similarly com¬
pressed from without. And thus it will happen that each
column of water, being higher at its outer than at its inner
end, compresses the air on the water column beyond or
within it, which transmits this pressure to the air beyond
it, adding to it the pressure arising from its own want of
level at the ends. Therefore, the greatest compression,
viz. that of the air next the main, is produced by the sum
of all the transmitted pressures ; and these are the sum of
all the differences between the elevations of the inner ends
of the water columns above their outer ends: and the height
to which the water will rise in the main will be just equal
to this sum.
387. Draw the horizontal lines K'K 1, K'K 2, K/K 3, &c.
and mn, m n, m n, &c. Suppose the left-hand spaces to be
filled with water, and the right-hand spaces to be filled
with air. There is a certain gradation of compression
which will keep things in this position. The spaces evi¬
dently decrease in arithmetical progression ; so do the hy¬
drostatic heights and pressures of the water columns. If,
therefore, the air be dense in the same progression, all will
be in hydrostatical equilibrium. Now this is evidently pro¬
ducible by the mere motion of the machine; for since the
density and compression in each air column is supposed in¬
versely as the bulk of the column, the absolute quantity of
air is the same in all; therefore the column first taken in
will pass gradually inwards, and the increasing compression
will cause it to occupy precisely the whole right-hand side
104 H Y D R O D
On Ma- of every spire. The gradual diminution of the water co-
chines for lumns will be produced during the motion by the water
raising running over backwards at the top, from spire to spire, and
ater. at coming out by the scoop.
388. It is evident that this disposition of the air and
water will raise the water to the greatest height, because
the hydrostatic height of each water column is the greatest
possible, viz. tlje diameter of the spire. This disposition
may be obtained in the following manner: Take CL to
CB as the density of the external air to its density in the
last column next the rising pipe or main; that is, make CL
to CB as 33 feet (the height of the column of water which
balances the atmosphere), to the sum of 33 feet and the
height of the rising pipe. Then divide BL into such a
number of turns, that the sum of their diameters shall be
equal to the height of the main ; then bring a pipe straight
from L to the centre C. The reason of all this is very
evident.
389. But when the main is very high, this construction
will require a very great diameter of the drum, or many
turns of a very narrow pipe. In such cases it will be much
better to make the spiral in the form of a cork-screw, as in
tig. 118. instead of this flat form like a watch-spring. The
Fig. 118.
pipe which forms the spiral may be lapped round the frus¬
tum of a cone, whose greatest diameter is to the least
(which is next to the rising pipe) in the same proportion
that we assigned to CB and CL. By this construction the
water will stand in every round so as to have its upper and
lower surfaces tangents to the top and bottom of the spiral,
and the water columns will occupy the whole ascending
side of the machine, while the air occupies the descending
side.
390. This form is vastly preferable to the flat one : it will
allow us to employ many turns of a large pipe, and there¬
fore produce a great elevation of a large quantity of water.
The same thing will be still better done by lapping the
pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to the end, in such
a proportion that the contents of each round may be the
;ame as when it is lapped round the cone. It will raise
the water to a greater height (but with an increase of the
impelling power) by the same number of turns, because
the vertical or pressing height of each column is greater.
Nay, the same thing may be done in a more simple man¬
ner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore round a cylinder.
But this will require more turns, because the water columns
will have less differences between the heights of their two
ends. It requires a very minute investigation to show the
progress of the columns of air and water in this construc¬
tion, and the various changes of their arrangement, before
one is attained which will continue during the working of
the machine.
391. We have chosen for the description of the machine
that construction which made its principle and manner of
working most evident, namely, which contained the same
raisin
IVate
Y N A MIC S.
material quantity of air in each turn of the spiral, more and On M
more compressed as it approaches to the rising pipe. We chines
should otherwise have been obliged to investigate in great
detail the gradual progress of the water, and the frequent v
changes of its arrangement, before we could see that one
arrangement would be produced which would remain con¬
stant during the working of the machine. But this is not
the best construction. We see that, in order to raise va-
ter to the height of a column of 34 feet, which balances
the atmosphere, the air in the last spire is compressed into
half its bulk ; and the quantity of water delivered into the
main at each turn is but half of what was received into the
first spire, the rest flowing back from spire to spire, and
being discharged at the spout.
392. But it may be constructed so as that the quantrty
of water in each spire may be the same that was received
into the first; by which means a greater quantity (double
in the instance now given) will be delivered into the main,
and raised to the same height by very nearly the same
force.—This may be done by another proportron of the ca¬
pacity of the spires, whether by a change of their caliber
or of their diameters. Suppose the bore to be the same,
the diameter must be made such that the constant column
of water, and the column of air, compressed to the piopei
degree, may occupy the whole circumference. Let A be
the column of water which balances the atmosphere, ami h
the height to which the water is to be raised. Let A be
to A + A as 1 to m.
393. It is plain that m will represent the density of the
air in the last spire, if its natural density be 1, because it is
pressed by the column A. h, while the common air is
pressed by A. Let 1 represent the constant water column,
and therefore nearly equal to the air column in the first
spire. The whole circumference of the last spire must be
1 4- I, in order to hold the water 1, and the air compressed
m
1 A
into the space — or -——y.
r m A +
394. The circumference of the first spire is 1 + 1 or 2.
Let D and d be the diameters of the first and last spires;
we have 2:1-1— or2wi:w4-t-l — D:c?.
m
Therefore, if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped round a cone,
of which D and d are the end diameters, the spirals will be
very nearly such as will answer the purpose. It will not
be quite exact, for the intermediate spirals will be some¬
what too large. The conoidal frustum should be formed
by the revolution of a curve of the logarithmic kind. But
the error is very trifling.
With such a spiral, the full quantity of water which was
confined in the first spiral will find room in the last, and
will be sent into the main at every turn. This is a very
great advantage, especially when the water is to be much
raised. The saving of power by this change of construc¬
tion is always in proportion to the greatest compression of
the air.
The great difficulty in the construction of any of these
forms is in determining the form and position of the horn
and the scoop ; and on this greatly depends the perform¬
ance of the machine. The following instructions will make
it pretty easy.
395. Let ABEO (fig. 119.) represent the first or outer-Fig. 1
most round of the spiral, of which the axis is C. Suppose
it immerged up to the axis in the water VV, we have seen
that the machine is most effective when the surfaces KB
and O n of the water columns are distant the whole diame¬
ter BO of the spiral. Therefore, let the pipe be first
supposed of equal calibre to the very mouth E e, which we
suppose to be just about to dip into the water. The sur-
■ On a* faCe 0 n is kept there, in opposition to the pressure of the
hint for water column BAO, by the compressed air contained in
\v!£ Fig.no.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
105
the quadrant OE, and in the quadrant which lies behind
EB. And this compression is supported by the columns
behind, between this spire and the rising pipe. But the
air in the outermost quadrant EB is in its natural state,
communicating as yet with the external air. When, how¬
ever, the mouth E s has come round to A, it will not have
the water standing in it in the same manner, leaving the
half space BEO filled with compressed air ; for it took in
and confined only what filled the quadrant BE. It is plain,
therefore, that the quadrant BE must be so shaped as to
take in and confine a much greater quantity of air ; so that
when it has come to A, the space BEO may contain ah'
sufficiently dense to support the column AO. But this is
not enough : for wdien the wide mouth, now at A a, rises
up to the top, the surface of the water in it rises also, be¬
cause the part Ao O a is more capacious than the cylindric
part OE e o which succeeds it, and which cannot contain
all the water that it does. Since, then, the water in the
spire rises above A, it will press the water back from O n
to some other position m' n', and the pressing height of the
water-column will be diminished by this rising on the other
side of O. In short, the horn must begin to widen, not
from B but from A, and must occupy the whole semicircle
ABE; and its capacity must be to the capacity of the op¬
posite cylindrical side as the sum of BO, and the height of
a column of water which balances the atmosphere to the
height of that column. For then the air which filled it,
when of the common density, will fill the uniform side BEO,
when compressed so as to balance the vertical column BO.
But even this is not enough ; for it has not taken in enough
of water. When it dipped into the cistern at E, it carried
air down with it, and the pressure of the water in the cis¬
tern caused the water to rise into it a little way ; and some
water must have come over at B from the other side, which
was drawing narrower. Therefore, when the horn is in
the position EOA, it is not full of water. Therefore, when
it comes into the situation OAB, it cannot be full nor
balance the air on the opposite side. Some will therefore
come out at O, and rise up through the water. The horn
must, therefore, 1st, Extend at least from O to B, or oc¬
cupy half the circumference ; and, 2d!y, It must contain at
least twice as much water as would fill the side BEO. It
will do little harm though it be much larger ; because the
surplus of air which it takes in at E will be -discharged, as
the end E e of the horn rises from O to B, and it will leave
the precise quantity that is wanted. The overplus water
will be discharged as the horn comes round to dip again
into the cistern. It is possible, but requires a discussion
too intricate for this place, to make it of such a size and
shape, that while the mouth moves from E to B, passing
through 6 and A, the suface of the water in it shall ad¬
vance from E s to O w, and be exactly at O when the be¬
ginning or narrow end of the horn arrives there.
400. We must also secure the proper quantity of water.
^ hen the machine is so much immersed as to be up to the
yOL. XII.
axis in water, the capacity which thus secures the proper On Ma-
quantity of air will also take in the proper quantity of c‘hiqes f°r
water. But it may be erected so as that the spirals shall
not even reach the water. In this case it will answer our v .j ,
purpose if we join to the end of the horn a scoop or shovel
QliSB (fig. 120.), which is so formed as to take in at least
Fig. 120.
as much water as will fill the hoVn. This is all that is
wanted in the beginning of the motion along the spiral, and
more than is necessary when the water has advanced to the
succeeding spire ; but the overplus is discharged in the way
we have mentioned. At the same time, it is needless to
load the machine with more water than is necessary, merely
to throw it out again. We think that if the horn occupies
fully more than one-half of the circumference, and contains
as much as w ill fill the whole round, and if the scoop lifts
as much as will certainly fill the horn, it will do very well.
The scoop must be very open on the side next the
axis, that it may not confine the air as soon as it enters
the water. This would hinder it from receiving water
enough.
401. The following dimensions of a machine erected at
Florence, and whose performance corresponded extremely
well with the theory, may serve as an example.
The spiral is formed on a cylinder of ten feet diameter,
and the diameter of the pipe is six inches. The smaller
end of the horn is of the same diameter ; it occupies three-
fourths of the circumference, and is 7T8oths inches wide at
the outer end. Here it joins the scoop, which lifts as much
water as fills the horn, which contains 4340 Swedish cubic
inches, each = 1.577 English. The machine makes six
turns in a minute, and raises 1354 pounds of water, or 22
cubic feet, 10 feet high in a minute.
402. The above account will, we hope, sufficiently ex¬
plain the manner in which this singular hydraulic machine
produces its effect. When every thing is executed by the
maxims which we have deduced from its principles, we are
confident that its performance will correspond to the
theory ; and we have the Florentine machine as a proof of
this. It raises more than ten-elevenths of what the theory
promises, and it is not perfect. The spiral is of equal cali¬
ber, and is formed on a cylinder. The friction is so incon¬
siderable in this machine, that it need not be minded ■: but
the great excellency is, that whatever imperfection there
may be in the arrangement of the air and water columns,
this only affects the elegance of the execution, causing the
water to make a few more turns in the spiral before it can
mount to the height required; but wastes no power, be¬
cause the power employed is always in proportion to the
sum of the vertical columns of water in the rising side of
the machine •; and the height to which the water is raised
by it is in the very same proportion. It should be made
to move -very slow, that the water be not always dragged
up by the pipes, which would cause more to run over from
each column, and diminish the pressure of the remainder.
403. If the rising-pipe be made wide, and thus room be
made for the air to escape freely up through the water, it
will rise to the height assigned; but if it be narrow, so
that the air cannot get up, it rises almost as slow as the
o
106
HYDRODYNAMICS.
On Ma- water, and by this circumstance the water is raised to a
chines for much greater height mixed with air, and this with hardly
raising any more power. It is in this way that we can account
Water. fm: tile great performance of the Florentine machine, which
~ ^ jg almost triple of what a man can do with the finest pump
that ever was made : indeed, the performance is so great,
that one is apt to suspect some inaccuracy in the accounts.
The entry into the rising-pipe should be no wider than the
last part of the spiral; and it would be advisable to divide
it into four channels by a thin partition, and then to make
the rising-pipe very wide, and to put into it a number of
slender rods, which would divide it into slender channels
that would completely entangle the air among the water.
This will greatly increase the height of the heterogeneous
column. It is surprising that a machine that is so very
promising should have attracted so little notice. We do
not know of any being erected out of Switzerland, except
at Florence in 1778. The account of its performance was
in consecnience of a very public trial in 1 / / 9, nnd honoui-
able declaration of its merit, by Sig. Lorenzo Ginori, who
erected another, which fully equalled it. It is shortly men¬
tioned by Professor Sulzer of Berlin, in the Sammlungen
Vermischlen Schristen for 1754. A description of it is
published by the Philosophical Society at Zurich in 1766,
and in the descriptions published by the Society in London
for the encouragement of Arts in 1 / / 6. The celebrated^
Daniel Bernoulli has published a very accurate theory oi
it in the Petersburgh Commentaries for 1772, and the
machines at Florence were erected according to his in¬
structions. Baron Alstromer in Sweden caused a glass
model of it to be made, to exhibit the internal motions for
121.
the instruction of artists, and also ordered an operative en« H'atei
gine to be erected ; but we have not seen any account of
its performance. It is a very intricate machine in its prin- v^acbiri
ciples ; and an ignorant engineer, nay the most intelligent,
may erect one which shall hardly do any thing ; and yet by
a very trifling change, may become very powerful. We
presume that failures of this kind have turned the atten¬
tion of engineers from it; but we are persuaded that it may
be made very effective, and we are certain that it must be
very durable. Fig. 121. is a section of the manner in which
the author has formed the communica¬
tion between the spiral and the rising-
pipe. P is the end of the hollow axis
which is united with the solid iron axis.
Adjoining to P, on the under side, is
the entry from the last turn of the spiral. At Q is the
collar which rests on the supports, and turns round in a
hole of bell-metal, ff is a broad flanch cast in one piece
with the hollow part. Beyond this the pipe is turned some¬
what smaller, very round and smooth, so as to fit into the
mouth of the rising-pipe, like the key of a cock. This
mouth has a plate e e attached to it. There is another plate
d d, which is broader than e e, and is not fixed to the cylin¬
drical part, but moves easily round it. In this plate are
four screws, such as g g, which go into holes in the plate
ff, and thus draw the two plates/f and d d together, with
the plate e e between them. Pieces of thin leather are
put on each side of ee ; and thus all escape of water is
effectually prevented, with a very moderate compression
and friction.
CHAPTER IV- ON MACHINES IN WHICH WATER IS THE CHIEF AGENT.
water
blowing
machine.
Sect. I. On the Water-Blowing Machine.
Descrip- 404. The water blowing machine, or trombe, zs the
tion of the ;French call it, consists of areservoir of water AB, fig. 122, into
the bottom of which the bent Fig. 122-
leaden pipe BCH is insert¬
ed ; of a condensing vessel
DE, into whose top the lower
extremity H of the pipe is
fixed, and of a pedestal P
resting on the bottom of this
vessel. When the water
from the reservoir AB is de¬
scending through the part
CH of the pipe, it is in con¬
tact with the external air by
means of the orifices or tubes
m,n, o, p ; and by the prin¬
ciple of the lateral communi¬
cation of motion in fluids, the air is dragged along with
the water. This combination of air and water issuing
from the aperture H, and impinging upon the surface
of the stone pedestal P, is dispersed in various directions.
The air being thus separated from the water, ascends
into the upper part of the vessel, and rushes through the
opening F, whence it is conveyed by the pipe FG to the
fire at G, while the water falls to the lower part of the
vessel, and is discharged by the openings M, N. That the
greatest quantity of air may be driven into the vessel DE,
the water should begin to fall at C with the least possible
velocity; and the height of the lowest tubes above the ex¬
tremity H of the pipe should be three-elevenths of the
length of the vertical tube CH, in order that the air may
move in the pipe FG with sufficient velocity.
405. A different form of the machine
is shewn in fig. 123, where AB is the
pipe of a conical form, and where the
water which flows down AB is supplied
with air by the pipes CB, DB.
406. In the machines of this kind used
at Alvar in Dauphiny, the diameter of the
conical pipe AB is 12 inches at A, and
5 at B, and only four tubes are used for
admitting the air. This machine gives
a powerful as well as an equal and conti¬
nued blast, but the air is considered to
be too moist and too cold.
407. Fabri and Dietrich imagined that the wind is pro-Way
duced by the decomposition of the water, or its transforma- whic *
tion into gas, in consequence of the agitation and percus- WU1
sion of its parts. But M. Venturi, to whom we owe then
first philosophical account of this machine, has shewn that
this opinion is erroneous, and that the wind is supplied from
the atmosphere, for no wind was generated when the lateral
openings m, n, o, p were shut. The principal object, there¬
fore, in the construction of water-blowing machines, is to
combine as much air as possible with the descending cur¬
rent. For this purpose the water is often made to pass
through a kind of cullender placed in the open air, and per¬
forated with a number of small triangular orifices. Through
these apertures the water descends in many small streams;
and by exposing a greater surface to the amosphere, it car¬
ries along with it an immense quantity of air. The water
is then conveyed to the pedestal P, fig. 122, by a pipe CH
opened and enlarged at C, so as to be considerably wider
than the end of the tube which holds the cullender.
408. It has been generally supposed that the waterfall
should be very high ; but Dr Lewis has shewn, by a variety
of experiments, that a fall of four or five feet is sufficient,
s ]{) iah’s
,] 'SS.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
107
Ca :s of
thi
wi;
and that when the height is greater than this, two or more
blowing machines may be erected, by conducting the water
from which the air is extricated, into another reservoir,
from which it again descends, and generates air as former¬
ly. In order that the air which is necessarily loaded with
moisture, may arrive at the furnace in as dry a state as
possible, the condensing vessel DE should be made as high
as circumstances will permit; and in order to determine
the strength of the blast, it should be furnished with a gage
a b filled with water.
409. The rain wind is produced in the same way as the
blast of air in water-blowing machines. When the drops
of rain impinge upon the surface of the sea, the air which
they drag along with them often produces a heavy squall,
which is sufficiently strong to carry away the mast of a ship.
The same phenomenon happens at land, when the clouds
empty themselves in alternate showers. In this case, the
wind proceeds from that quarter of the horizon where the
shower is falling. The common method of accounting for
the origin of the winds by local rarefaction of the air ap¬
pears pregnant with insuperable difficulties; and there is
reason to think that these agitations in our atmosphere
ought rather to be referred to the principle which we have
now been considering. The ventaroli which issue from
volcanic mountains, arise from the air which is carried
down the hollows by the falls of water. At the foot of the
cascades which fall from the glazier of Roche Melon, Ven-
turi found the force of the wind arising from the air drag¬
ged down by the water to be so strong, that it could
scarcely be withstood. For farther information on this
subject, the reader is referred to Lewis’s Commerce of Arts,
Wolfii Opera Mathematica, tom. i. p. 830, Journal des
Mines, No.XCI. or Nicholson’s Journal, vol. ii. 4to, p. 487,
vol. xii. p. 48.
Sect. II. Bramah’s Hydrostatic Press.
D ,ip. 410. The machine invented by Mr Bramah, depends
,ti( Bra. upon the principle, that any pressure exerted upon a fluid
m s ma- mass is propagated equally in every direction. It is repre-
cI|'- sented in fig. 124, where L is a strong metallic cylinder,
Fig. 124.
furnished with a piston A, perfectly water-tight at the neck Bramah’s
N. Into the side of this cylinder is inserted the end of Press,
the tube I, the interior orifice of which is closed by the ’J ^
valve at I. The other extremity of the tube communicates
with the forcing pump DCH, by which water or other
fluids may be driven into the cylinder L. The whole rests
on a solid mass of masonry EF, or a firmly fixed wooden
frame. A valve K, wrought by a screw, allows the water
to return to G from the pipe M. The body to be crushed,
broken, or pressed, is placed above the horizontal board B.
Then, if any pressure is exerted on the surface of the
water in the cylinder H, by means of the lever D, this pres¬
sure will be propagated to the cylinder L, and exert a cer¬
tain force upon the piston A, varying with the respective
areas of the sections of each cylinder. If the diameter of
the cylinder H, is equal to the diameter of the cylinder
L, and if a force of 10 pounds is exerted at the handle
D, then the piston A will be elevated with a force of
10 pounds; if the diameter of H be one-half that of
L, the piston A will be raised with a force of 40 pounds,
because the area of the one piston is four times the area of
the other. Or, in general, if D be the diameter of the
cylinder L, d that of the cylinder H, and F the force ex-
F X D2
ei'ted at the lever D, we shall have t?2: D2 F
d2
is the force exerted upon the piston B. Thus, it
2 inches, D = 24 inches, and F =: 10 pounds, then
which is
d
FxD2 10X24X24
rf2
2X2
— 1440 pounds, the force with
which the piston B is elevated. Now, as this force in¬
creases as d? diminishes, or as F and D2 increase, there is
no limit to the power of the engine; for the diameter of
the cylinder L may be made of any size, and that of the
cylinder H exceedingly small, w hile the power may be still
farther augmented by lengthening the lever D. The same
effects may be produced by injecting air into the pipe I by
means of a large globe fixed at its extremity. Upon the
same principles the power and motion of one machine may
be communicated to another; for we have only to connect
the twro machines by means of a pipe filled with water, in¬
serted at each extremity into a cylinder furnished with a
piston. By this means the power which depresses one of
the pistons will be transferred along the connecting pipe,
and will elevate the other piston. In the same way water
may be raised out of wells of any depth, and at any distance
from the place where the power is applied; but we must
refer the reader, for a detailed account of these applications,
to the specification of the patent obtained by Mr Bramah,
or to Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 120.
Sect. III. M. Mannoury Dectot’s Dunaide.
411. This machine, invented by M. Mannoury Uectot of Dev tot’s
Paris, consists of a cylindrical trough of tin-plate, nearly as Danaiiie.
high as it is broad, and having a hole in the centre of its
bottom. It is fixed to a vertical axis of iron, which passes
through the middle of the hole in the bottom, a vacant
space being left all around to permit the water to escape.
The axis turns with the trough upon a pivot, and is fixed
above to a collar.
A drum of tin-plate, close above and below, is fixed upon
the axis of the trough, and placed within the trough, so as
to be concentric with it, and to leave only between the
outer circumference of the drum and the inner circum¬
ference of the trough, an annular space not exceeding 11
inches. This annular space communicates with a space
less than 1^ inches, left between the bottom ot the drum
and the bottom of the trough, and divided into compart¬
ments by diaphragms fixed upon the bottom of the trough, ■
HYDRODYNAMICS.
108
Becfcot’d and proceeding from the circumference to the central hole
Danaide. in the bottom of the trough.
'v*^v—^ The water comes from a reservoir above by one ’or two
pipes, and makes its way into this annular space between
the trough and drum. The bottom of these pipes corre¬
sponds with the level of the water in the trough, and they
are directed horizontally, and as tangents to the mean cir¬
cumference between that of the trough and of the drum.
The velocity which the water has acquired by its fall along
these pipes, makes the machine move round its axis, and
this motion accelerates by degrees, till the velocity of the
water in the space between the trough and drum equals
that of the Water from the reservoir; so that no Sensible
shock is perceived of the affluent water upon that which is
contained in the machine.
This circular motion communicates to the water between
the trough and drum a centrifugal force, in consequence
of which it presses against the sides of the trough. This
centrifugal force acts equally upon the water contained in
the compartments at the bottom of the trough, but it acts
less and less as this water approaches the centre.
The whole water then is animated by two opposite forces,
viz. gravity, and the centrifugal force. The first tends to
make the water run out at the hole at the bottom of the
trough ; the second, to drive the water from that hole.
To these two forces are joined a third, viz. friction,
which acts here an important and singular part, as it pro¬
motes the efficacy of the machine, while in other machines
it always diminishes that efficacy. Here, on the contrary,
the effect would be nothing were it not for the friction,
which acts as a tangent to the sides of the trough and drum.
By the combination of these three forces, there ought
to result a more or less rapid flow from the hole at the bot¬
tom of the trough ; and the less force the water has as it
issues out, the more it will have employed in moving the
machine, and of course in producing the useful effect for
which it is destined.
The moving power is the weight of the water running
in, multiplied by the height of the reservoir from which it
flows above the bottom of the trough ; and the useful effect
is the same product diminished by half the force which the
water retains when it issues out of the orifice below.
In order to ascertain, by direct experiment, the magni¬
tude of this effect, MM. Prony and Carnot fixed a cord to
the axis of the machine, which passing over a pulley, raised
a weight by the motion of the machine. By this means,
the effect was found to be T75 of the power, and often ap¬
proached without reckoning the friction of the pulleys,
which has nothing to do with the machine. This effect
exceeds that of the best overshot-wheels. See the Report
of the Institute, 23d August 1813; or Thomson’s Annals
of Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 412.
Sect. IV. On Ctepsydrce or Water-Clocks.
History of 412. A clepsydra or water-clock, derived from kxIwtai,
clepsydrae- f0 steal, and water, is a machine which measures
time by the motion of water. The invention of this ma¬
chine has been ascribed to Scipio Nasica, the cousin of
Scipio Africanus, who flourished about two hundred years
before the Christian era. It was well known, however, at
an eaflier period, among the Egyptians, who employed it
to measure the course of the sun. It is highly probable
that Scipio Nasica had only the merit of introducing it
into his native country. These machines were in use for
a very long pefiod, and continued to be employed as
measurers of time till the invention of the pendulum clock
enriched the arts and sciences.
413. The earliest, and probably the simplest water-clock,
consisted of a hollow cone A (fig. 125), perforated at its apex,
and of a solid cone B, which exactly fitted the interior of A.
Theaperture’of thecone A was of such a size in relation to the
contents of A, that it discharged
all the water in A in the course
of the shortest day in winter.
The length of the cone was di¬
vided into twelve parts, which
indicated the hours as the water
was discharged. As the day
became longer, the line in which
the water was discharged required
to be increased; and, in order to
effect this, the solid cone B was
introduced into the hollow cone
A, and, in proportion to the depth
of its immersion, the water flowed
with less facility, and more slow¬
ly, from the aperture at the ver¬
tex of the cOne A. By this means the time of emptying
the cone was accommodated to the varying length of the
day, and the adjustment for this purpose was made by a
graduated scale BC, upon the handle of the solid cone.
413. The clepsydra, invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, cle
was an interesting machine. The water, which indicated the sydra oi
progress of time by the gradual descent of its surface, flowed Ctesibii
in the form of tears from the eyes of the human figure.
Its head was bent down with age : its look was dejected,
while it seemed to pay the last tribute of regret to the fleet¬
ing moments as they passed. The water which was thus
discharged was collected in a vertical reservoir, where it
raised another figure, holding in its hand a rod, which, by
its gradual ascent, pointed out the hours upon a vertical
column. The same fluid was afterwards employed in the
interior of the pedestal, as the impelling power of a piece
of machinery, which made this column revolve round its
axis in a year, so that the months and the days were always
shewn by this index, whose extremity described a vertical
line divided according to the relative lengths of the hours
of day and night. Among the ancients the length of the
hours varied every day, and even the hours of the day dif¬
fered in length from those of the night; for the length of
the day, or the interval between sunrise and sunset, was
always divided into twelve equal parts, while the length of
the night, or the interval between sunset and sunrise, was
divided into the same number of parts, for hours. A far¬
ther description of this beautiful machine, and others of the
same nature, may be seen in Perrault’s Vitruvius.
415. The method of constructing clepsydrae, when the
vessel from which the fluid issues is cylindrical or of any
other form, has been shewn in Prop. VII. Part II. In¬
stead of dividing the sides of the vessel, for a scale to as¬
certain the descent of the fluid surface, the following me¬
thod may be adopted. In the bottom of the cylindrical
vessel ABCD (fig. 126.), which is about twelve inches high,
and four inches in diameter, is inserted
a small glass adjutage E, which dis¬
charges the water in the vessel by suc¬
cessive drops. A hole F, about half an
inch in diameter, is perforated in the
cover AB, so as to allow the glass tube
GI, about sixteen inches long, and half
an inch in diameter, to move up anfl
down without experiencing any resist¬
ance. To the extremity of this tube is
attached the ball I, which floats on the
surface of the water in the vessel, and
is kept steady, either by introducing a
quantity of mercury int0 its cavity, if it
be hollow, or by suspending a weight, if
it is a solid which does not sink in wa¬
ter. When the vessel is filled with wa¬
ter, the ball I will be at the top AB ;
then, in order to graduate the tube C,
Fig 123.
Clepsydt
HYDRODYNAMICS.
109
'Clej
EHai
'clef
une let the water flow out at E, and by means of a watch
! ^ mark the points on the tube, which descend to F after the
lapse of every hour, and every quarter, and the instrument
will be finished. In order to use this hydroscope or water-
clock, pour into the vessel ABCD till the hour of the day is
about to descend below F ; and when this is done, it will
point out any succeeding hour till the vessel is emptied,
ton’s 359. The clepsydra, invented by the honourable Mr
dra. Charles Hamilton, is represented in fig. 127. An open
Fig. 127.
canal ee, supplied with a constant and equal stream by the
syphon d, has at each end/f, open pipes/l, /2, of exactly
equal bores, which deliver the water that runs along the ca- Clepsydrae,
nal e, alternately into the vessels <7!, g’2, in such a quan-v'—
tity as to raise the water from the mouth of the tantalus t,
exactly in an hour. The canal eeis equally poised by the
two pipes /i, f'2, upon a centre r ; the ends of the canal e
are raised alternately, as the cups Zz are depressed, to
which they are connected by the lines running over the
pulleys 11. The cups zz are fixed at each end of the ba¬
lance mm, which moves up and down upon its centre v.
til, n2, ai’e the edges of two wheels or pulleys, moving
different ways alternately, and fitted to the cylinder o by
oblique teeth, both in the cavity of the wheel and upon the
cylinder, which, when the wheel n moves one way, that is,
in the direction of the minute-hand, meet the teeth of the
cylinder, and carry the cylinder along with it, and slip over
those of the cylinder when n moves the contrary way, the
teeth not meeting, but receding from each other. One or
other of these wheels nn continually moves o in the same
direction, with an equable and uninterrupted motion. A fine
chain goes twice round each wheel, having at one end a
weight X, always out of the water, which equiponderates
with y at the other end, when kept floating on the sur¬
face of the fluid in the vessel g, which y must always be ;
the two cups z, z, one at each end of the balance, keep it
in equilibrio, till one of them is forced down by the weight
and impulse of the water, which it receives from the tanta¬
lus ti. Each of these cups z, z, has likewise a tantalus
of its own h, h, which empties it after the water has run
from g, and leaves the two cups again in equilibrio : q is
a drain to carry off the water. The dial-plate, &c. needs
no description. The motion of the clepsydra is effected
thus : As the end of the canal ee, fixed to the pipe/1, viz. the
lowest in the figure, all the water supplied by the syphon runs
through the pipe f\, into the vessel g 1, till it runs over the
top of the tantalus t; when it immediately runs out at i,
into the cup Z, at the end of the balance m, and forces it
down; the balance moving on its centre V. When one
side of m is brought down, the string which connects it to
f\, running over the pulley l, raises the end /T, of the ca¬
nal e, which turns upon its centre r, higher than f2 ; con¬
sequently, all the water which runs through the syphon d,
passes through f’2 into g 2, till the same operation is per¬
formed in that vessel, and so on alternately. As the height
to which the water rises in g in an hour, viz. from S to t,
is equal to the circumference of n, the float y rising through
that height along with the water, allows the weight X to
act upon the pulley n, which carries with it the cylinder o ;
and this, making a revolution, causes the index k to de¬
scribe an hour on the dial-plate. This revolution is per¬
formed by the pulley n 1 ; the next is performed by n 2,
whilst n 1 goes back, as the water in g 1 runs out through
the tantalus ; for y must follow the water, as its weight in¬
creases out of it. The axis o always keeps moving the
same way; the index p describes the minutes; each tan¬
talus must be wider than the syphon, that the vessels gg
may be emptied as low as S, before the water returns to them.
360. For farther information respecting subjects con¬
nected with hydrodynamics, see Mechanics, Resistance
of Fluids, Water-TFbrfo, &c. (n. n. n.)
110 H Y G
Hydrogra- HYDROGRAPHICAL Charts or Maps, usually call-
phical e(j sea-charts, are projections of some part of the sea or
Charts coas^ for tiie use 0f navigation. In these are laid down
HyJieine. t^ie rhumbs or points of the compass, the meridians,
parallels, &c. with the coasts, capes, islands, rocks, shoals,
shallows, &c. in their proper places and proportions.
HYDROGRAPHY, the art of measuring and describ¬
ing the sea, rivers, canals, lakes, and the like. With re¬
gard to the sea, it gives an account of its tides, counter¬
tides, soundings, bays, gulfs, creeks, as also of the rocks,
shelves, sands, shallows, promontories, and harbours ; the
distance and bearing of one port from another; with
every thing that is remarkable, whether out at sea or on
the coast.
HYDROMEL, honey diluted in nearly an equal weight
of water. When this liquor has not fermented, it is call¬
ed simple hydromel; and when it has undergone the spi¬
rituous fermentation, it is called the vinous hydromel or
mead.
HYDROMETER, an instrument for measuring the
gravity, density, &c. of water and other fluids. For an
account of different hydrometers, see the article Hydro¬
dynamics.
HYDROPHANES, or Oculus Mundi, a kind of pre¬
cious stone, which becomes transparent in water. It was
much esteemed by the ancients.
HYDROPHOBIA, literally an aversion to or dread of
water, a terrible symptom of the rabies canina, and which
has likewise been found to take place in violent inflamma¬
tions of the stomach, as well as in hysterical fits.
HYDROPHYLACIA, a word used by Kircher and
some others to express those great reservoirs of water
which, as he supposed, were placed in the Alps and other
mountains for the supply of the rivers which run through
the lower countries. The formation of these reservoirs
he considers as one of the great uses of mountains in the
economy of the universe.
HYDROSCOPE, an instrument anciently used for mea¬
suring time. The hydroscope was a kind of water-clock,
consisting of a cylindrical tube, conical at the bottom.
The cylinder was graduated, or marked with divisions, to
which the top of the water becoming successively continu¬
ous, as it trickled out at the vertex of the cone, indicated
the hour.
HYDROSTATICS is that branch of physics which
treats of the weight, pressure, and equilibrium of fluids.
See Hydrodynamics.
HYDROTHORAX, a collection of water in the chest.
HYDRUNTUM, in Ancient Geography, a noble and
commodious port of Calabria, from which there was a
shorter passage to Apollonia. It was famous for its an¬
tiquity, and for the fidelity and bravery of its inhabitants.
It is now Otranto, a city of Naples, situated at the en¬
trance of the Gulf of Venice. Long. 19. 15. E. Lat. 40.
12. N.
HYEMANTES, in the primitive church, were offend¬
ers who had been guilty of so great enormities, that they
were not allowed to enter the porch of the churches with
the other penitents, but were obliged to stand without,
exposed to all the inclemency of the weather.
HYGEIA, in Mythology. See Health.
HYGIEINE, 'Ty/s/vij, formed from uynjs, sound or heal¬
thy, that branch of medicine which relates to health,
and discovers proper means for the preservation of that
state.
Hygieine, more largely taken, is divided into three
parts : prophylactice, which foresees and prevents diseases ;
synteritice, which is employed in preserving health; and
analeptice, which relates to the cure of diseases, and the
restoration of health.
H Y G
HYGINUS, Caius Julius, an ancient Latin writer, Hyginu
who flourished in the time of Augustus. Suetonius, in
his work De Illustribus Grammaticis, says that he was by
birth a Spaniard ; but some think that he was a native of
Alexandria in Egypt. He was originally a slave of Julius
Caesar, who brought him to Rome ; but having distinguish¬
ed himself by his literary acquirements, he was emanci¬
pated by Augustus, and placed at the head of the library
which that sovereign had founded in the temple of the
Palatine Apollo. Whilst in this situation, he became in¬
timate with Ovid the poet; and Caius Licinius, a man of
consular rank, has informed us that he died very poor,
having been supported by the bounty of his friends; but
some think that Caius Licinius is a mistake for Caius
Asinius, who wrote a history of the civil war, and served
as consul with Cneius Domitius Calvinus, in the year of
the city 723. It is doubtful whether the works which have
been preserved under his name are really the productions
of the freedman of Augustus. These are Fabularum Li¬
ber, a collection of two hundred and seventy-seven fables,
principally derived from Greek sources, and which are of
great value in mythological inquiries; and Poeticon Astro-
nomicon, an astronomical and mathematical work in prose.
He is also supposed to have written on the subject of
agriculture, and to have composed a book of Genealogies,
of which mention is made in the Poeticon Astronomicon.
Of this last work, the first book treats of the world and
the doctrine of the sphere, and the second of the signs in
the zodiac; the third contains a history and description
of the constellations, and the fourth treats of the several
things relating to the planets. But whilst Hyginus de¬
scribes the constellations in the heavens, and enumerates
the stars belonging to each, he takes occasion to explain
the fables of the poets from which these constellations
were supposed to have originally derived their names,
and it is probably owing to this circumstance that the
work has been denominated Poeticon Astronomicon. It
has however come down to us in a very imperfect state;
and all that part of it which treated of the month, the
year, and the reasons for intercalating the months, has
been entirely lost. To the Poeticon Astronomicon is usu¬
ally appended a book of fables, containing a compendium
of the heathen mythology; but this is also imperfect, and
is moreover suspected to be spurious. The Liber Fabularum
and the Poeticon Astronomicon have been published toge¬
ther at Basle, 1555, and at Hamburg, 1674; and separately
at Paris, 1578, and at Leyden, 1670. The best editions are
those which appeared with the commentary of Muncker, in
a collection entitled MythographiLatini, Amsterdam, 1681,
reprinted with new notes by Van Staveren, Leyden, 1763.
There are other works under the name of Hyginus, but
they all belong to a later age : De Limitibus constituendis,
published in a collection entitled ReiAgrariceAuctores,cura
Goesii, Amsterdam, 1674; a Fragment on the proper
mode of pitching a camp, published firstby Scriverius, along
with Vegetius, Leyden, 1607, and reprinted with a learned
commentary by Schelius, Amsterdam, 1661, and also by
Graevius in his Thesaurus. Angelo Maio, the learned li¬
brarian of the Vatican, has added three new works on my¬
thology to those which we already possessed, and one of
these is under the name of Hyginus, but evidently by a
writer of the fifth century. Other manuscripts of the same
works have since been discovered at Gottingen, Gothe, and
Paris ; and Dr Bode has published a new edition, with a
careful collation of these manuscripts, Scriptores Perum
Mythicarum Latini tres Pomce nuper reperti, Celle, 1834.
For the life of Hyginus, freedman of Augustus, consult
Scheffer, De Hygini Script. Fabid. cetate atque stylo ; and
Muncker, De auctore, stylo, et cetate Mythologue (puce C.
Hygini nomen prccjert.
11]
HYGROMETRY.
ome-
v.
The formation of steam or aqueous vapour, and its dif¬
fusion in space or in a gaseous medium, have already been
r-" considered under the article Evaporation. We now
propose first to take a view of various methods and devices
which have been employed to detect the presence of aque¬
ous vapour, and to ascertain its amount, or how much of it
is contained in a given volume, whether w hen alone or dif¬
fused in a gaseous medium. This is necessarily connect¬
ed with, and will in a great measure consist of, the descrip¬
tion, theory, and use of such instruments as almost exclu¬
sively belong to this branch of inquiry, and which are usual¬
ly denominated hygrometers, from uygog, moist, and 1
measure. We shall then consider under what circumstances
moisture is deposited from the atmosphere, and shall exa¬
mine some of the more remarkable phenomena resulting
from or connected with the condensation of aqueous vapour,
class- Many contrivances bearing the name of hygrometers
hy- have appeared from time to time, and these, though ex-
icters. tremeiy various jn their constructions, w e shall only divide
into two very different classes: ls£, Such as are slow or un¬
certain in their indications, or are formed of decaying or
changing materials ; 2d, such as are not only more prompt
in their indications, but are formed of materials compara¬
tively free from change. The former are obviously unfit
for hygrometers, but have been so numerous, that a de¬
scription of the whole of them alone would greatly exceed
our limits; which is the less to be regretted, since the
greater and more superficial part have already served their
day, and gone entirely into disuse. It wrill, however, be
proper briefly to notice a few of those either already be¬
come obsolete, or soon to be so, were it only to show their
imperfection.
ertain The earliest account of hygrometers perhaps worth no-
chang- ticing is that contained in the Philosophical Transactions
cass’ for 1676, where several are described, and allusions made
to others; but both then, and during more than a century
which followed, the indications of such instruments depend¬
ed on the change which the weights or dimensions of bodies
undergo from a change of humidity. Thus, when the wea¬
ther becomes more damp, the deliquescent salts gradually
become heavier from absorbing moisture, and in drier wea¬
ther lighter from parting with it. The like happens with
certain stones and various other minerals; with sulphuric
acid and several other liquids; with sponges and many ve¬
getable and animal substances, whose dimensions are con¬
siderably though slowly altered by change of humidity. In
bodies of a fibrous structure, however, the change of dimen¬
sion occurs principally in a transverse direction, or across the
fibres, and but very slightly in the direction of their length.
Thus a beam of straight-grained wood becomes thicker and
broader by absorbing moisture, and vice versa ; while its
length is altered in a much smaller ratio. The same thing
takes place with whalebone, ivory, and other substances.
>oden As several sorts of wood are at first very susceptible of
;rome- participating in the dryness and moisture of the atmo¬
sphere, they have sometimes been employed in the con¬
struction of hygrometers. For this purpose a small and
very thin board is placed on edge, with its ends slightly
entering into grooves in two upright pillars, its fibres be¬
ing in a horizontal direction, so that the expansion or con¬
traction of the board may be vertical; for, as was noticed
above, it is principally in the lateral direction, or across the
fibres, that wood expands or contracts by change of humi¬
dity. On the upper edge of the board is fixed an upright
toothed rack, working in the leaves of a small pinion, on
whose axis is fixed a wheel, which turns another pinion on Hygrome-
the axis of the index. It is thus evident, that a very slight try.
motion communicated to the rack, by the rising or falling
of the upper edge of the board, will be greatly magnified
by the wheel-work, so as to be shown in a very sensible
manner by the index. But the defect of this and all simi¬
lar contrivances is, that the wood takes such a long while
to receive the impressions, whether of humidity or dry¬
ness, from the atmosphere, that by the time they indicate
greater dampness, the air may have really become drier,
and vice versa; and besides, the board gradually becomes
less sensible to these impressions, till at length the index
almost ceases to move.
An obvious consequence of the lateral expansion and
contraction of organic fibres is, that ropes, cords, or strings,
formed of such fibres twisted together, are rendered thick¬
er and shorter by absorbing moisture, and vice versa. On
this principle it has frequently been attempted to construct
hygrometers, as, for instance, by making fast one end of a
piece of rope, cord, or catgut, winding it backwards and
forwards over several pulleys, and suspending from its
other end a small weight, which, by rising and falling with
the alternate shortening and lengthening of the cord, marks,
on a graduated scale placed behind it, the changes of hu¬
midity. Sometimes the one extremity of the catgut being
made fast, the other carries a small weight, and an inter¬
mediate part is wound on a small axis, carrying an index
round a graduated plate, the degrees of which are meant
to mark the humidity or dryness of the air. When a
weight is suspended by a fine string, a piece of catgut, or
the naturally twisted beard of the wild oat, it will be seen
to turn in the one direction or the other, owing to the
twisting and untwisting of the cord, from the changes ot
humidity. The hygrometer or weather-house, commonly
sold as a toy, depends on this principle. It usually con¬
sists of a kind of box, representing a building with two
doors, within which is suspended a horizontal bar, by means
of a cord attached to its middle. Upon one end of this
bar is a figure of a man, with an umbrella to protect him
from the rain, and on the other that ot a woman with a
fan. They are so adjusted in respect of the doors, that
when the man appears it is a sign of rain; but when he
withdraws, and the woman presents herself, fair weather
is predicted. This contrivance unfortunately has just the
same faults as the one first noticed, being both liable to
change and decay, so as ultimately to lose almost entirely
its sensibility. It is therefore of no other use than as a
mere toy; for the value of an instrument employed as a
measure of any kind must depend not only on its being at
first accurately constructed, but likewise upon its indica¬
tions not being, cceteris paribus, liable to change.
The preceding remarks upon the effects of a change of Effects of
humidity on organic substances may enable us to correct changes ot
what we consider a great mistake. Slips of metal are 0n Cabinet
sometimes employed to strengthen or bind together ca-worj.
binet work ; and this has been objected to on the profes¬
sedly scientific ground, that the expansion and contraction
of the metal by change of temperature is apt to tear, warp,
or distort the wooden work. That some such effects as
have just been stated do frequently occur, cannot be de¬
nied ; but we have no hesitation in ascribing them to a
very different and far more powerful cause, the lateral ex¬
pansion and contraction of the wood itself by changes oi
humidity, and particularly the permanent contraction due
to the gradual loss of natural sap, if the wood has not been
112
HYGROMETRY.
Kater’s
hygrome
ter.
Hygrome- previously well seasoned; for the bad effects in question
try- rarely appear at first, and only occur at all when the me-
tal is of considerable length and fixed across the grain of
the wood, and more especially when the wood has not been
of the proper sort, or has been w orked when damp or badly
seasoned. Indeed, when a sufficiently strong slip of wood
is firmly applied in place of and in the same position as the
metal, there is^ccEterisparibus, no sensible difference in the
bad effects ; and it is particularly to be remembered, that
a rise of temperature which would alter the length of the
metal so as to do any harm in the manner supposed, would
seriously injure cabinet work although no metal wrere near
it. Wood in general, if exposed to drought, continues to
shrink permanently more or less, especially in the lateral
direction, or across the fibres, so long as it lasts ; and when
alternately exposed to the expanding and contracting in¬
fluences of moisture and drought, the permanent contrac¬
tion is upon the whole accelerated and increased.
The hygrometer invented by the late ingenious Captain
Kater depends upon the twining and untwining which the
changes of humidity produce in the naturally twisted beard
of grass known in the Canarese language by the name of
Oobeena Hooloo. This is the Andropogon contortum of
Linnmus, and is gathered in the Mysore country in Janu¬
ary. The frame of this instrument is commonly cylindri¬
cal ; and, that it may allow the air to pass freely through, it
is formed of small barsof brass, or sometimesof silver. Upon
one end of this frame is soldered a flat plate, having a
projecting rim, to protect the index which turns upon it
over a circular dial divided into a hundred equal parts or
degrees. The index, which is very slender and nicely ba¬
lanced, is put on one end of an axis of silver wire, which
has liberty both to turn round and to shift a little longi¬
tudinally through double conical holes in the frame. 1 he
axis extends about half the length of the frame ; and a
part of it next the index is formed into a screw of fourteen
or fifteen threads. This is effected by twisting tightly
round it a smaller silver wire. A loop and drop made of
fine gold wire are so formed, that when suspended from
the axis, the loop may slide freely along the screw, and by
the number of threads thus run over, it can show the num¬
ber of complete revolutions of the index. The farther
end of the axis is swelled a little, and has a notch to re¬
ceive the end of the Oobeena Hooloo, which is fixed by
drawing upon it a sliding ring. This beard is then extend¬
ed in the line of the continuation of the axis, till it meet
the frame, where its other end is fixed similarly to the for¬
mer one, but admits of adjustment by a screw which
stretches it slightly. Such is a brief outline of the very
simple and ingenious mechanism by which the gradual
expansion or contraction of the hygrometric substance
communicates a rotatory motion to the index ; so that
whilst the index shows the fraction of a revolution on the
graduated dial, the loop and drop indicate the number of
complete revolutions, or the integral number of hundreds
of degrees which the index has passed over on the dial.
So great is the sensibility of this instrument, that its index
makes ten or twelve revolutions, while that of Saussure’s
only makes one. Captain Kater recommended that all
observations made with his hygrometer should be re¬
duced to what they would have been had the entire scale,
or the utmost range traversed by the index, consisted of
a thousand degrees, which would be ten complete revolu¬
tions. By this, we suppose, he meant to render all hy¬
grometers of his construction comparable:; a property
which, however, belongs to no hygrometers whose prin¬
cipal parts are formed of animal or vegetable substances,
which are continually changing, and gradually becoming
less and less sensible to the influence of humidity.
Hygrometers have frequently been formed by suspend¬
ing from one arm of a balance some substance which
Balance
cygrome
ter.
strongly attracts moisture from the atmosphere, and nice- Hygrom
ly counterpoising it by a weight on the other arm. The try.
changes in the humidity of the air are then meant to be
indicated by the changes in the position of the beam, aris¬
ing from the gain or loss of w eight in the suspended body.
A great variety of substances have been used for this pur¬
pose, such as sponge, caustic potash, the deliquescent salts,
sulphuric acid, &c. These, like the former instruments,
are all too late in their indications, though some of them
might scarcely be liable to lose their sensibility, were it not
that they soon become useless from the accumulation of
dust, soot, &c. especially if in or near a large city.
But the expansions and contractions of hair and of w-hale-
bone are, from the tenuity of their, substance, somewhat
more expeditious in acquiring the humidity or dryness of
the surrounding air. They have therefore been employed
in the construction of hygrometers ; the former by Saus-
sure, and the latter by Deluc. Both these instruments are
impaired by time, and they sometimes acquire contrary
errors. Their indications generally differ materially, even
when graduated alike, and more especially when different¬
ly graduated ; but so unsteady is the relation between them,
even for the same state of the air, that no certain rule can
be given for reducing the one to the other. This is evi¬
dent from the circumstance, that scarcely two authors who
do not derive their information from the same source agree
respecting the relation between the indications of these in¬
struments. Deluc states, we think, very just objections to
Saussure’s hygrometer, and as justly does Saussure object
to his; so that, had it not been out of respect for the high
reputation of these philosophers, and the frequent reference
made to their instruments in scientific researches, and in
books of voyages and travels, we should scarcely have felt
warranted to give even the following brief description of
them here. We begin with that of Saussure, which is re¬
presented in fig. 3, Plate CCXCV.
The lower end of the hair ab is held by the screw-pin- Saussm
cers b at the bottom of the frame. These pincers, shown hygrom
separately at B, fig. 4, terminate in a screw which enters ter‘
the hollow screw C, fig. 5. By turning this screw, the ‘
pincers 6 or B may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The
other end a of the hair is held by the inferior mouth of
the double and moveable pincers a, seen separately at A,
fig. 6, and which, with their upper mouth, take hold of a
fine well-tempered silver wire, which is wound round the
arbor d. This arbor, seen separately at DF, fig. 6, car¬
ries the index ee, marked E in the separate figure 6, and
is cut like a screw, with a flat-bottomed groove to receive
the silver wire, which, as mentioned above, is connected
with the hair by means of the double pincers. The wire
was adopted from its being found that, when the hair it¬
self was wound on the arbor, it became rough, and con¬
tracted a stiffness, which the small weight g or G, em¬
ployed as a counterpoise, could not overcome; whereas a
proper wire always preserves the same flexibility. It
was necessary thus to cut the arbor like a screw, that the
wire might not have its coils wound one upon another, sq
as to thicken the arbor, or to take a position too oblique
and uncertain. The wire is fixed to the arbor by a small
pin F. The other end D of the arbor has the form of a
pulley, with a groove flat at the bottom to receive a fine
silk thread, by which is suspended the counterpoise mark¬
ed g in fig. 3, and G in fig. 6. This is intended to keep
the hair always gently stretched. One end of the arbor,
formed into a fine pivot, passes through the centre of the
dial, and carries the index eg on its extremity. Xhe other
end has a similar pivot turning in the arm h of Jhq doub¬
ly-kneed piece hi, or HI, fig. 7, which is fixed to the back
of the dial hh by the screw I. The dial is divided into
360 degrees, and is soldered to two tubes U, which sur¬
round and can be slid up and down the two upright wires
HYGROMETRY.
113
HHv: 'me- mm, mm of the frame. The dial can thus be fixed at any
r- place on the wires by means of the screws nn. The square
v-* -w Column pp carries a box q, to which is fixed a sort of pen¬
cil-case r, fitted to receive the counterpoise g. When the
hygrometer is to be transported to ano'ther place, and
some harm is apprehended from the vibrations of the
counterpoise, the case r is raised to receive it. Both are
then made fast by the screws s and t. When, again, the
hygrometer is to be used, the counterpoise is disengaged,
and the box lowered as in the figure. At the corners of
the base of the frame are four screws o, o, o, o, for the pur¬
pose of levelling the base, or making the instrument stand
upright. The three columns of the frame are connected
at the top by the crooked piece xyx, having a hole at y,
by which the instrument may be suspended.
The point of extreme dryness is obtained by placing
the instrument under a receiver, with a quantity of quick¬
lime or caustic alkali; and that of extreme moisture by
enclosing it in a receiver whose sides are kept continually
moistened. This last Deluc regards as very fallacious.
The scale of Saussure’s hygrometer sometimes contains
100 divisions or degrees, and sometimes a larger number.
That in our figure has 360. Saussure gives a decided
preference to human hair, which he first causes to under¬
go a preparation, for the purpose of divesting it of a kind
of natural oiliness, which, if not removed, would render it
less sensible to the action of humidity. This preparation
is made at the same time on a considerable number of
hairs forming a tuft, the thickness of which need not ex¬
ceed that of a quill. This tuft being enveloped in a bit
of fine cloth, as in a case, is immersed in a long-necked
phial full of water, holding in solution about the hundredth
part of its weight of sulphate of soda, and which is made
to boil about three minutes. The tuft is then passed
through two vessels of pure water at the boiling tempera¬
ture ; afterwards the hairs are drawn from their wrapper
and separated ; then they are hung up to dry. It only
remains to select those which are cleanest, softest, most
brilliant, and most transparent. The effects of dryness
and of moisture upon the hair are modified by those of
heat, which affect it in different ways. Thus, if it be
supposed, for example, that the air becomes warmer about
the hygrometer, its drying quality being thereby increas¬
ed, it will abstract from the hair a part of the water which
it had imbibed, thus tending to shorten it; while, on the
other hand, the heat, by expanding the hair, will tend,
though in a much smaller degree, to lengthen it; so that
the total effect will consist of the excess of the former
over the latter. It is therefore necessary, where precision
is aimed at, to consult the thermometer, and apply a cor¬
responding correction.
Pi erties In his Essais sur VHygrometrie, M. de Saussure, while
In lineCt ^le can(^^'y acknowledges the imperfection of his owm in-
[e: J°ie strument, enumerates the following as properties which
he thinks a perfect hygrometer ought to possess: ls£, Its
variations should be sufficiently extensive to show very
small changes of humidity or dryness; 2a, these indica¬
tions should be so prompt as to proceed pari passu wdth
the actual state of the air; 3<i, the instrument should al¬
ways accord with itself; that is to say, in the same state
of the air it should always be found at the same degree;
^th, it should be comparable; that is to say, any number
°f hygrometers constructed separately upon the same
principles should always indicate the same degree in the
same circumstances; bth, it should only be affected by
humidity or dryness properly so called; Qth, the varia¬
tions in the indications should be proportional to those of
the air; so that, in like circumstances, a double or triple
number of degrees should always indicate a double or
triple quantity of moisture.
1 his last property, however, we cannot regard as by
VOL. xn.
any means indispensable to a perfect hygrometer, though Hygrome-
we grant that an instrument possessing it is likely to be try.
somewhat more convenient. For it is quite clear, that if we
only knew the true relation between the indications of the
instrument and the state of the air, we could by that
means compute the degree of humidity with perfect cer¬
tainty ; no matter how much the variations of the indica¬
tions of the instrument and those of humidity differed
from simple proportionality.
We shall next give a brief description of Deluc’s hy-Dehic’s
grometer. The frame will be readily understood from in-hygrome-
specting fig. 1, Plate CCXCV. The principal part con-ter.
sists of a slip of whalebone, cut transversely, or across the
fibres, and is represented by ab. Its end a is held by a
very simple sort of pincers, made of a bit of flattened wire
bent and pressed together on the whalebone by a sliding
ring. The other end b is fixed to a bar c, which can be
moved by a screw for adjusting the index e, to have a
proper position at first on the dial. The loop of the pincers
which hold the whalebone is hooked to the end of a thin
brass wire, to the other end of which is also hooked a very
thin silver gilt lamina, which has at that extremity pincers
similar to those of the whalebone ; but its other extremity
is pinned into a hole in the axis. The spring d which
stretches the whalebone is made of silver gilt wire; it ex¬
erts a force equal to a weight of twelve grains, but with
this among other advantages over a weight, that in pro¬
portion as the slip is weakened by lengthening, the spring
relaxes its force by unbending. The axis has very small
pivots, whose ends are confined, to prevent the shoulders
from rubbing against the frame. A section of this axis is
shown on a large scale in fig. 2. The slip acts on the di¬
ameter aa, and the spring on the smaller diameter bb. The
point of extreme dryness is obtained by enclosing the in¬
strument under a receiver, along with some quicklime ;
that of extreme humidity, by wetting the whalebone with
water, or immersing the whole instrument in it. The gra¬
duated arc on the dial is about five sixths of the entire
circle, and is divided into 100 equal parts or degrees.
The zero denotes extreme dryness, and the 100th de¬
gree extreme humidity. Saussure, however, alleges that
the whalebone is more thoroughly soaked or swelled by
immersion in water than in the most humid air, which,
he says, never brings it to the extremity of the scale.
Deluc maintains that hairs and other animal or vege¬
table hygroscopic substances taken lengthwise, or in the
direction of their fibres, undergo contrary changes from
different variations of humidity; that when immersed in
water, they lengthen first, and then shorten; that when
they are near the extreme of humidity, they shorten with
an increase and lengthen with a diminution of humidity.
This he regards as the necessary consequence of their or¬
ganic reticular structure; and in illustration of it he has
given the following comparison between the correspond¬
ing indications of his own hygrometer and those of Saus¬
sure. The scale of each is supposed to be divided into
100 degrees.
Deluc.
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Saussure.
88-8
91-6
93-8
95-6
97- 2
98- 0
100
100
99- 3
98-3
Deluc.
Saussure.
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
15-6
29*4
40’9
50-5
59-2
68-8
73-0
78’3
82-1
86-1
HYGROMETRY.
114
Kygrome. From this it would appear, that after the hair becomes
try- very moist, its lateral expansion produces a contraction in
the length, as in the case of ropes. Saussure, however,
alleges that in this trial his instrument must have been in
bad order; and he even retaliates by ascribing as great
defects to that of Deluc. According to Boeckman, 10,
20, 30, 40, 45 of Deluc correspond to 33, 54, 65, 80, 86
respectively of Saussure; but in atmospherical observa¬
tions he found Deluc’s at 56 and 48, when Saussure’s in¬
dicated 85 and 90 respectively.
M. Gay-Lussac has made many experiments on the
hair hygrometer, which would place it in a rather more fa¬
vourable light than the above; and M. Biot has exerted
his great analytical skill in endeavouring to perfect its
theory, by giving, in his Traite de Physique (tome in p. 199),
a very elaborate investigation of the relation between its
indications and the actual humidity, which has been far¬
ther illustrated at great length by Signor Mellon!, in the
Annales de Chimie et de Physique for January 1830. But
unfortunately this relation is so soon deranged by the ra¬
pidly changing and perishable nature of the instrument,
as to render all such labours of very little use, no matter
how much learning or ingenuity may have been expended
on them.
It will be unnecessary here to notice Deluc’s ivory hy¬
grometer, because a description of an improved instrument
of the same kind will be found under the article Meteo¬
rology.
Wilson’s Mr Wilson’s hygrometer is very similar to a mercurial
hygrome- thermometer; but in place of the bulb being of glass, it
ter- consists of a rat’s bladder, which when new is very sensi¬
ble to changes of humidity; so that by expanding with
moisture, or contracting with drought, it produces corre¬
sponding depressions, or rises in the column of mercury in
the glass stem. This instrument must obviously have its
indications somewhat affected by changes of temperature
like a thermometer; and, in addition to some of the im¬
perfections common to the instruments already described,
it has been objected that the pressure of the column of
mercury in the stem must occasion a variable, and perhaps
increasing distension of the bladder.
Relations The foregoing we presume to be sufficient specimens of
of air to such hygrometers as are slow or uncertain in their indi¬
heat. cations, or formed of comparatively changing and perish¬
able materials. These, too, we should think, have been
treated at as great length as the little and decreasing im¬
portance now attached to them seems to warrant. But
since the science of heat lies at the foundation of all ac¬
curate knowledge in hygrometry, we now propose, prepa¬
ratory to entering on the consideration of such hygrome¬
ters as are more durable in their construction and con¬
stant in their indications, to investigate some relations of
air to heat, which will be useful in the sequel of this arti¬
cle. In so doing we shall reason from admitted principles
only; for we see no necessity for calling in the aid of the
old notion which some are so anxious to revive again, that
heat is a species of motion ; because such a hypothesis,
in place of solving the difficulties, is, like “ the occult
qualities,” a mere subterfuge for our ignorance, or an ex¬
cuse for not encountering the difficulties, and unavoidably
leads to still greater difficulties; whereas the more close¬
ly the other theory is traced, the more the difficulties,
numerous as they still are, disappear. Of this we shall
have occasion to notice several instances in the course of
this research. We now begin the investigation with a brief
demonstration of the following preliminary proposition.
Lemma.—If the area of a curve between every two or¬
dinates be such that, when cut by a third ordinate in a
given ratio, the two corresponding differences in the lo¬
garithms of the three abscissae are likewise in that ratio,
the curve is a hyperbola.
Let the curve ABC be such, that when AHKC, its Hygroi
area between any two ordinates AH, CK, is cut by any try,
third ordinate BI, making area AHKC to AHIB in the
given ratio of m to n, the three corresponding abscissae
reckoned on the'straight line GH from a fixed point G,
are related thus ; log. GK — log. GH : log. GI — log. GH
: : m : n, the curve ABC is a hyperbola.
For if not, with G as a centre, GH
as one asymptote and the other pa¬
rallel to AH, describe through B the
hyperbola «Bc cutting AH and CK
in a and c. Then by the well-known
property of the hyperbola,
area aHKc : aHIB : : log. GK
— log. GH: log. GI — log. GH.
But AHKC : AHIB : : log. GK
— log. GH : log. GI — log. GH ;
wherefore, by equality of ratios, alter¬
nation and division,
BIKC : BIKe:: AHIB : aHIB.
If cK < CK, and aH AH, and
if the curves do not again meet be¬
tween A and C, the first term of the
analogy last stated must exceed the
second, while yet the third is less than
the fourth, which is absurd. The like
would as readilyfollow,werecK^> CK
and aH AH.
But it is evident that in every case in which the hyper¬
bola is supposed to cut the other curve, the same process
of reasoning will lead to the like absurdity, if three ordi¬
nates intercepting areas in the given ratio be drawn so
close together as to embrace no other meeting of the
curves but the foresaid intersection. Now such a con¬
struction is always practicable; for in every case two of
three such ordinates may be drawn arbitrarily, viz. one
through the point of intersection, and a second as close as
we please to either side of it; whilst the abscissa which
gives the position of a third still nearer, if wished, on the
other side, may be had from such an analogy as was stated
above, namely,
log. GK — log. GH: log. GI — log. GH
It is indeed a supposable case, that the hyperbola, in
place of cutting, might have the other curve wholly on
one side, only touching it in the point B ; but then it is
evident that another hyperbola drawn near enough to
that side of the former one, and having the same asymp¬
totes, could not fail to cut the curve ABC. Of course,
three ordinates being drawn as before, viz. one through the
point of intersection, and the other two near enough to
it, would still produce the former absurdity. Hence the
curve ABC can only be a hyperbola.
The physical principles which we are about to employ
as data for investigating the relations of air to heat, are
essentially the same as those from which MM. de Laplace
and Poisson attempted to deduce the true scale of the air-
thermometer, as may be seen in the Mecanique Celeste
(tomev. p. 127), und Annales de Chimie et de Physique (tome
xxiii. p. 337); where, after proceeding so far, and with data
which, if properly managed, were amply sufficient for their
purpose, they abandoned the project, and contented them¬
selves with assuming that the common mode of graduat¬
ing an air-thermometer forms a true scale of temperature.
This they were forced to do in consequence of having
adopted a mode of investigation so unnecessarily abstruse
that it soon became quite unmanageable. That they
should have failed to prove the common scale to be the
true one, need excite no surprise; for we shall soon see
that such a result would be quite incompatible with the
very principles from which they attempted to deduce it,
and that, without the aid of any assumption, a much more
HYGROMETRY.
115
I «y 3me- simple process of reasoning, illustrated by a diagram or
^ r. two, would have necessarily led them to the legitimate,
' W •'W though a very different, result. These principles or data,
and some inferences from them, we shall now distinctly
state, numbering a few of the paragraphs as we proceed,
chiefly for the sake of after reference, and not as if we
were specifying so many independent data : for the whole
force of the reasoning rests on the first two; the third is
merely an inference from the second; and the only use
here made of the fourth and fifth is to trace more readily,
in known terms, the relation between the common scale
of the air-thermometer and the results to which this in¬
vestigation leads.
1. The law of Boyle and Mariotte, that at the same
temperature the elasticity or pressure of air is as its den¬
sity, or inversely as its volume; and consequently, while
air undergoes the same change of temperature, its volume
varies under a constant pressure, precisely in the same
proportion as the pressure would do were the air confined
in an inextensible vessel.
2. If s denote the specific heat of air when it sustains
a constant pressure, and s' the specific heat of the same
mass of air when confined in an inextensible vessel; then
it has been ascertained, through a great range of temper¬
ature and pressure, as will be afterwards explained, that s
always exceeds s' in a constant ratio, which we may now
call the ratio of in to n, which are constants; but their
values not being now given, will show our investigation to
be independent of the value of their ratio.
These two, viz. the law of Boyle and the constancy in
the ratio of m to w, are the principles to which we have
alluded above as being employed by MM. de Laplace and
Poisson, and as being quite sufficient, if properly manag¬
ed, to have unavoidably led these great mathematicians
to the conclusion that air expands in geometrical progres¬
sion for equal increments of heat. But this, and most of
the other legitimate results, they failed to reach, in con¬
sequence of unnecessary intricacy, and their introducing
an assumption which we shall shortly see to be quite in¬
compatible with the data now specified. The second
principle, as will be afterwards noticed more particularly,
was first shown by the illustrious M. de Laplace himself
to be a necessary deduction from the fact ascertained by
the experiments of MM. Desormes and Clement, and
more especially by those of MM. Gay-Lussac and Welter,
which were continued through a great range of tempera¬
ture and pressure, viz. that when the density of air suffers
a minute and sudden change, m times such variation of
density is to the whole density as n times the accompany¬
ing variation of pressure to the whole pressure. Or, g
being the density and p the pressure,
, , , ndp md»
md^: g :: ndp : p ; and — —*.
3. The last equation evidently expresses the relation
between the fluxions of the logarithms of the pressure
and density of air when the total heat in it is constant.
The fluent is n log. p — m log. £ + C ; so that if p' and
be put for the initial values of p and g, we have C z=: n
log. p' •— m log. d, and
which is the relation between the pressure and density of
air, when the total heat in it is invariable.
4. It has been ascertained by Dr Dalton, M. Gay-Lus¬
sac, &c. that on heating air under a constant pressure
from 32° F. to 212°, its bulk acquires an increase of three
eighths. Such increase, in the common graduation of the
air-thermometer, is divided into 180 equal parts or de¬
grees for Fahrenheit’s scale ; and the like divisions corre¬
sponding to equal variations of bulk, are continued both Hygrome-
above 212° and below 32°, viz. upward indefinitely, but try.
downward they have a limit; for as three eighths are to
180°, so is the whole bulk at the freezing point to 480° ;
and therefore more than 480 degrees cannot with proprie¬
ty be reckoned or put below 32° on the Fahrenheit scale
of an air-thermometer.
5. Since the freezing point is marked 32°, it is obvious
that 480 degrees will reach from it down to —448°. The
bulk of a given mass of air, therefore, under a constant
pressure, varies as its temperature reckoned from — 448°
on the common scale ; that is, as * + 448, the degrees of
Fahrenheit being t. Hence, by art. 1, the pressure of
air confined in an inextensible vessel, likewise varies as
t + 448.
We shall now apply these principles to determine the
scale of temperature for air. Let ABC be a curve, such
that, while AHIB, its area between any two ordinates, de¬
notes an addition to the heat contained in a given mass of
air, the straight line HI shows on the common scale the
consequent rise of temperature, under a constant pres¬
sure, viz. from H to I, as indicated on the common scale
of an air thermometer. Let DEF be a similar curve,
making AH ; DFI w m \ n, and cutting all the other or¬
dinates and areas of ABC in that same ratio. Hence,
area DHIE is equal to — (AHIB), and it therefore (art. 2)
represents the smaller addition of heat which would be
sufficient to raise the temperature of the same air from
H to I, were that air, in place of being free to expand
under a constant pressure, confined in an inextensible
vessel. For since the specific heats or the minute incre¬
ments are always in the ratio of m to n, so must any lar¬
ger addition of heat raising the temperature from H to I
under a constant pressure, be to that producing the same
rise under a constant volume. Let the common scale, of
which HI is a part, be continued downward to the point
G answering to — 448° Fahrenheit; then (art. 5) the
volume of the air is increased, under a constant pressure,
in the ratio of GI to GH, by its temperature being raised
from H to I. Suppose, therefore, that the air, after hav¬
ing, under a constant pressure, received an increase in its
total heat equal to AHIB, and thereby acquired the tem¬
perature I, is instantly compressed to its original volume;
by which means its temperature is suddenly raised from I
to K on the common scale, in such a manner that area
DHKF = AHIB ; be¬
cause the air is evidently
now raised to the same
temperature, and in every
respect brought to the
same state as if, with its
original volume all the
while invariable, it had
received the same increase
in its quantity of heat as
is mentioned above, and
which is now denoted by
area DHKF instead of
AHIB.
While the air was thus being compressed to its original
volume, or the density re-increased in the ratio of GI to
GH, the pressure has been thereby increased (art. 1) in
the same ratio compounded (art. 5) with the ratio of GK
to GI for the second rise of temperature; that is, in the
ratio of GK to GH ; and during this compression the total
quantity of heat in the air is supposed to be constant.
Hence,
/ 4- q\ HK p GI ?
n log.
GK _
GH“
m leg.
GI
GH’
116 HYGRO
Hygrome- and therefore log. GK — log. GH : log. GI — log. GH ::
try. m : n. But we have also area AHKC : AHIB :; m :
because AHIB = DHKF; and the same thing holds at
any part of the curves. Consequently, by the lemma, each
of these curves is a hyperbola, having G for its centre and
GH for an asymptote.
All the preceding reasoning evidently applies as well
to the accented letters in the lower part of the figure,
where AHI'B', the area between any two ordinates, de¬
notes a loss of heat, HI' the consequent depression of
temperature on the common scale in cooling from H to I'
under a constant pressure, and I'K' a farther depression,
such that area DHK'F = AHI'B'; being caused by sud¬
denly dilating, to its original volume, the air which had
just been contracted by cooling from H to I'.
Relation Since in each curve the segments of the area denote
between variations of heat, while the corresponding segments of
the varia- the abscis6ae denote variations of temperature on the com-
h™8in air mon scale, it follows from the known property of the hy-
and those perbola, that while the variations of the quantity of heat
of its vo- in air under a constant pressure are uniform, those on the
lume or common scale of an air-thermometer form a geometrical
pressure, progression. Or, in more general terms, while the va¬
riations in the quantity of heat in air are uniform, the va¬
riations of its volume, under a constant pressure, form a
geometrical progression, as do likewise the variations of
pressure under a constant volume.
Hence, in place of being equal, the divisions on a true
scale of an air-thermometer should form a geometrical
progression, increasing upward, such that the length of
'each division may be proportional to its distance from
 448° F.; and hence also the values of the degrees usu¬
ally put on Fahrenheit’s scale of an air-thermometer de¬
crease upward, the value of each being inversely as its
distance from — 448°. The same thing holds regarding
any other scale with equal divisions.
Such are some of the necessary results of the very
principles from which MM. de Laplace and Poisson failed
to deduce a corresponding scale of temperature ; we
mean a scale which should necessarily follow from, and be
compatible with, the law of Boyle and the foresaid con¬
stancy in the ratio of m to n. But having failed in this,
they attempted to supply the defect, by assuming that the
variations in the quantity of heat in air, under a constant
pressure, are proportional to the corresponding variations
on the common scale of an air-thermometer. We shall
merely notice so much of their investigation here as will
be sufficient to show the utter incompatibility of such an
assumption with the two principles just named. These
illustrious philosophers set out with an equation which,
adapted to Fahrenheit’s scale, is
/* + 448\
To this we have no objection. It just expresses the rela¬
tion between the law of Boyle and the common scale; p
being the pressure, g the density, and t the temperature,
of a given mass of air; also a is a constant and r a given
temperature on Fahrenheit’s scale. Having next intro¬
duced the assumption in question, they obtain the equa¬
tion,
— m
? = A + B 0 + 448) p m ,
where q is the quantity of heat to be added or withdrawn,
in order to change the temperature of the given mass of
air from r to A and B are constants, and m and n num¬
bers in the constant ratio already defined. By combining
the two equations, we have likewise
n
t , B (r + 448) p™
o= A H   —
M E T R Y.
Taking the fluxion of this with the density g constant, we Hygron, &
” 1 try. i
have dq varying, as pm dp. But the constancy in the 'WV< ’
ratio of mXo n provides that the change to be made in the
quantity of heat in air, in order to produce a given change
in its temperature, under a constant pressure, must be pro¬
portional to the change of heat necessary to produce the
same change of temperature, were the volume constant; and
it is well known to be the same thing, whether variations of
temperature on the common scale are reckoned by the va¬
riations of volume under a constant pressure, or by varia¬
tions of pressure under a constant volume. Hence La¬
place and Poisson assume the variations in the quantity of
heat to be proportional, as well to the variations of pres¬
sure under a constant volume, as to the variations of vo¬
lume under a constant pressure. Wherefore dq varies as
dp simply ; but we have just seen that it likewise varies as
”_1 -—1
pm dp. Consequently pm dp varies as dp ; and di-
n j
viding by dp, we have pm varying as a constant quan¬
tity, which is extremely absurd. Yet the very same data
and assumption which give rise to this contradiction, form
the foundation of many intricate formulae in the Mecanique
Celeste, and of a very long memoir on heat by M. Poisson,
in the eighth volume of the Memoires de VAcademic.
From the remarkable inconsistency just pointed out in
the principles adopted by these illustrious philosophers,
it is evident that they had not had so much as a conjec¬
ture of what the legitimate result should be. Nobody
wonders when a research of this sort fails in the hands of
an inexperienced tyro; but if those who are deservedly
regarded as at the head of their profession be liable to de¬
ceive themselves in so remarkable a manner, how cautious
ought we to be in receiving even what emanates from high
authority, if accompanied by nothing deserving the name
of argument or intelligible evidence ; for the foregoing in¬
vestigation, we presume, will be found to be both legiti¬
mate, and to depend on nothing but admitted principles.
It is long since our distinguished countryman, Dr Dalton,
proposed what he alleged to be the true scale of the mer¬
curial thermometer, founded on the supposition that the
expansions of liquids were everywhere as the squares of
their true temperatures, setting out from the greatest den¬
sity of each. With this he coupled another speculation:
he supposed that, relatively to equal intervals on his new
scale of temperature, the expansions of air, or of any other
gas, under a constant pressure, formed a geometrical pro¬
gression ; which evidently was a very ditferent scale from
the one we have deduced above, because, as will presently
be seen, it bore such a different relation to the expansion
of mercury. For, unfortunately, these views, which Dr
Dalton had never shown to be necessarily deducible from
admitted principles, were soon found to be mutually in¬
compatible ; but of the two hypotheses, that regarding the
expansion of mercury being the greater favourite with Dr
Dalton, he rather chose to retain it, and abandon the one
respecting the expansion of air; in place of which, he has
since, in his Chemical Philosophy (vol. ii. p. 298, published
in 1827), adopted the very different notion, that it.is the
forces of steam, and of other vapours in the state of satu¬
ration, which form geometrical progressions for equal in¬
tervals of temperature. It was absolutely necessary that
the one of his former hypotheses should be relinquished;
for they were not only inconsistent at extreme tempera¬
tures, but they required the common mercurial thermome¬
ter to be more than 7° below the common air-thermome¬
ter at 122° F.; whereas at that point, several eminent
French chemists declared they could find no such differ¬
ence ; and in their decision Dr Dalton at length acquiesced.
H-> 3Me-
f-
Cl: geof
tei ?ra-
tu' by
coi ion
sc; due
to ange
of lume.
H Y G R O
However, from the recent comparison of these two instru¬
ments by Dr Front, it appears that their indications do
not everywhere coincide throughout the interval between
the freezing and boiling points of water ; but. their differ¬
ence is quite of the contrary sort to that which Dr Dalton
alleged, the mercurial thermometer being in advance of
the other.
It was shown (art. 3) that ©”=(0" ; viz. that when
the total quantity of heat in a given mass of air is con¬
stant, the nth. power of the pressure varies as the mth
power of the density; and since m is greater than n, the
m
pressure varies faster than the density, or (i)”. But
in this, a part of the variation of pressure is due to change
of temperature ; for (art. 1) when the temperature is the
same, the pressure and density vary in the same ratio.
Also (by art. 1 and 5), when along with a change of den¬
sity from ( to g, the temperature changes from r to tf, and
the pressure from // to p, they are related thus; ^
t + 448
X — -; and if during this the total heat in the air
r + 448
undergo no change, this equation must coincide with the
preceding one. Hence
< -f- 448 /g
(0 • ■
r + 448 \g7 Kfj
and therefore, on the common scale, the change of tem¬
perature is
,_r =<V+!48)[(|) ”
= ('+««)[$) ” -1}
when the total quantity of heat in the air is constant. This
investigation is given in general terms, but we shall soon
see that m is to n either exactly or very nearly as 4 to 3 ;
and therefore,
— 1
— 3’
— 1
— 4’
Most of the formulae which have been proposed for
this purpose are fraught with inconsistencies, such as
making the rise of temperature which would be produced
by a quadruple compression, to be very different from the
sum of the separate rises which should be produced by
twice doubling the density ; and they are equally faulty
when we compare a quadruple dilatation with twice halv¬
ing the density. Nay, when we attempt to retrace our
steps by reversing either process, they do not restore the
air to the same temperature and pressure which it had
at first; but the formulae now given, unless when sadly
mismanaged, lead to no such inconsistencies. Thus, sup¬
pose the density of air at the temperature of 60° to
be quadrupled, the rise of temperature is (60 + 448)
>] =
2980,4. To effect the same thing by two
separate doublings, we have first 508 [2^— 1] = 132°*04,
which, added to the initial temperature 60°, makes 192o,04;
and by doubling again the density of the air at this higher
temperature, the second rise is (192-04 + 448) [2^— 1]
= 1660,36. So that the total rise is 132-04 + 166-36
M E T R Y. H7
= 298°-4, the same as before. The like consistency willHygrome-
he found to hold with any proper trial of these formulae. t try-
(See Edinburgh Phil. Journ. for July 1827, p. 153.)
From the foregoing investigation it is likewise evident, Quantity
that if the total heat in a given mass of air undergo no ^
change, while its density is being increased in any assigned ^°o^efl°r
ratio, as, for instance, in the ratio of G1 to GH (see the^y change
preceding figure), the temperature is thereby raised from 0f volume.
I to K on the common scale, making area DHKF =
AHIB. In this case the area EIKF = ADEB represents
the heat which has been elicited from a latent state, or ren¬
dered sensible by the compression. But if, on the con¬
trary, the density of the air were diminished in the ratio of
GF to GH, without any change in the quantity of heat,
the temperature would be thereby lowered from F to K',
making area DHK'F = AHFB'; and area ET'K'F' =
ADE'B' would denote the heat absorbed by the dilatation,
or rendered latent without being actually lost. Now,
area EIKF = (DHIE) = (DHKF), and
ET'K'F' = (DHFE') = ^-=^(DHK'F); where¬
fore area EIKF, or the heat evolved by compression, bears
the same ratio to DHIE that the part of the in-
n
crease in the logarithm of the density bears to log. GI —
log. GH; and the same is also the ratio which area
E'FK'F', or the heat absorbed by the dilatation, bears to
DHI'E', or which the W part of the decrease in the
n
logarithm of the density bears to log. GF — log. GH. In
both cases, the ^ ^ part, or one third of the change in
n
m — n
the logarithm of the density, is equal to the ——— part,
or one fourth of the change in the logarithm of the pres¬
sure ; the total heat remaining invariable. It matters not
what sort of logarithms are used.
Although the constancy in the ratio of the specific heats, Specific
or of?» to «, as already defined, had been well ascertained heat of air
by the experiments of Gay-Lussac and Welter, and been “™epend-
likewise adopted as a fundamental principle by the leading magnitU(]e
philosophers both here and on the Continent; yet the most0f jts vo_
important of its necessary and unavoidable consequences lume if con-
were long overlooked, especially how very different a gra- slant, and
duation of the air-thermometer it requires from what they ^hemten-
had assumed to be the true one, as was first pointed out pressure jp
by Mr Meikle in the Edinburgh Phil. Journ. for October constant.
1826, page 336. A more obvious consequence likewise no¬
ticed in that paper, and of importance here, is, that the spe¬
cific heat of the same mass of air under a constant pressure,
must be independent of the intensity of such pressure ; and
that when the same mass of air is confined in an inexten-
sible vessel, its specific heat must be independent of the
size of that vessel. This admits of the most rigorous de¬
monstration, and might even have been inferred from the
consideration that the above-mentioned constancy in the
ratio of the specific heats keeps the quantity of heat, which
merely raises the temperature quite distinct from what is
absorbed, or goes to enlarge the volume, and which is re¬
presented by the area between the two curves in the last
figure. Now the remarkable curiosity is, that in the Me-
canique Celeste, livre xii. chap. 3, formulae professedly de¬
rived from the same data are given for expressing the
different values which the specific heat is fancied to have
under different constant pressures, and also its supposed
different values under different constant volumes. The same
are given by M. Poisson (Annales de Chimie, xxiii. 338).
118
Hvgrome. M. Laplace had previously given in that journal (xviii. 185)
try- a very different, though still a variable to the speci-
heat of air ; but this he virtually discarded, by subse¬
quently adopting the other, though both are alike incom¬
patible with the principles from which they profess to be
deduced. Sanctioned by such names, these formula are
and must be received as orthodox by those who never
think for themselves, or who do not thoroughly examine
the investigations by which such expressions are deduced.
But since the clearing up of this point is of great impor¬
tance in researches of this nature, we shall endeavour to
put the matter beyond dispute, by giving, from the very
data used by Laplace and Poisson, a very simple demon¬
stration of what we have now alleged, and which is the
more satisfactory as it does not require the law of tempe¬
rature to be previously decided upon ; for since the same
degree may be used for the several specific heats, it may
be supposed to belong to any scale.
Let therefore the temperature of a given mass of air be
reckoned on any scale of which the straight line BE is a
part; and let CF be a line, no matter to our present pur¬
pose whether straight or curved, if it be such that every
two ordinates may, like BC and EF, intercept an aiea
BCFE proportional to the quantity of heat which would
raise the temperature of the mass of air, under a constant
volume, from any point B in the scale to any other point
E in it. Let DG be a similar line or curve, so as to make
the area EDGE proportional to the heat which would raise
the temperature of the same mass, if under a constant pres¬
sure, from B to E. Now the chief condition on which we
proceed is, that the quantities of heat represented by
every two areas, such as EDGE and BCFE, between the
same parallels, may be to each other in the given ratio of
m to n, and which is obviously the same with the ratio ot
any ordinate of DG to the corresponding ordinate of CF.
Let the point B mark the initial temperature, whatever
that may be, of the given mass of air ; raise this tempera¬
ture from B to any other point E under a constant pres¬
sure ; make Ee one degree, draw the ordinate cfff- Then
area EG^e is the specific heat, at the temperature E, of
the same mass of air dilated by heat under the original
pressure remaining constant. Now the specific heat,
when the pressure is constant, is always to the specific
heat when the volume is constant as m to n ; but area
EGffe : EFfe : : m : n; wherefore EF/e would be the
specific heat at the temperature E, under the dilated vo¬
lume, were it made constant. But since area BCFE is
the quantity of heat which would
raise the temperature from B to
E under the original volume, and
area EF/e the heat which would
raise it one degree more ; there¬
fore EF/e would still have been
the specific heat of the same mass
of air at the temperature E, and
all the while under the original
volume. Hence EFye is the spe¬
cific heat of the same mass of air
H Y G R O M E T R Y.
at the temperature E, whether under the dilated volume re- Hygrom*
maining constant, or under the original volume constant. try.
Again, suppose the air to be heated up from B to E
under the original volume remaining constant, by which
means the pressure will be gradually augmented; but by
the data, the specific heat at the temperature E, under the
augmented pressure, were that now made constant, must
exceed EF/e in the ratio of m to n; wherefore EGr/e,
which exceeds EF/e in that ratio, is the specific heat of
the same mass of air at the temperature E, whether under
the augmented pressure remaining constant, or, as in the
first case above mentioned, under the original pressure
constant. The same conclusions would obviously follow
by a similar process of reasoning, taking the second tem¬
perature at any point E' lower than B. Both cases might
also be proved in several ways, a little differently from the
preceding ; as, for instance, by showing that EF/e or E'F'
/V will be the specific heat of the same mass of air under
a constant volume, as well after the temperature has been
changed from B to E or E' by a change in the quantity
of heat only, as by a change in the volume only; and of
course EG^e or E'G'/e' will be the corresponding speci¬
fic heat under a constant pressure, whether under the ori¬
ginal pressure constant, or under the pressure made con¬
stant after being thus changed.
It is thus clearly established as a necessary result of ad¬
mitting the constancy of the ratio above mentioned, that
neither the magnitude of a constant volume, nor the inten¬
sity of a constant pressure, has any thing to do with the
specific heat of a given mass of air.1 From this it is obvi¬
ous that the specific heat of a given volume of air is, cczteris
paribus, as its mass or density.
The experiments of Desormes and Clement on the spe¬
cific heats of gases {Journal de Physique for December
1819), have been supposed to make the specific heat of a
given volume of air to vary as the square root of its den¬
sity ; but we do not see how they warrant any thing of the
sort. These distinguished chemists having enclosed air in a
glass globe, placed it in an empty trough, which they next
filled up with hot water, and assumed that the specific heat
of the air was exactly proportional to the time which it and
the globe took to acquire the same temperature with the
water ; whereas, for aught that is known to the contrary,
the specific heat of the air might follow some other power
or root, or some very complex function of the time. Nor
do they make any allowance for the share which the mass
or matter of this globe, which far exceeded that of the in¬
cluded air, had in protracting the time; or for the dif¬
ferent mobilities, and consequently different conducting
powers, of different gases, or of the same gas at different
pressures. Thus, when the globe was filled with hydrogen,
it was probably from the extreme mobility and great con¬
ducting power of that gas that the time of its attaining the
temperature of the hot water was scarcely two thirds of
that in the case of air ; and it is as natural to think, that when
filled with carbonic acid, it was the more sluggish motions
of that gas which rendered the time one half longer than
in the case of air; for the experiments of Dr Haycraft
> Many eminent writers, without any evidence, take it for granted that the specific heat of a body depends on, or is in exact
proportion to, its total or absolute heat; which is the more remarkable, considering that nothing is yet known, O^fik y ,
either of the real or relative values of the absolute heats of different bodies. But if we suppose, with far greater probability, that
the specific heats of other bodies, as well as that of air, have no dependence on their volumes, this would eoabk ust exneri-
more rational way than is usually done, for the heat accompanying friction, as, for instance, in Count Itumford s well-kno P
ments on the boring of cannon. Thus the grains of metal worn off by the intentionally blunt borer used on that occasion would be
grea ly compressedliy the abrasion, and so might emit much heat without having their specific heats m the least ^paired bythe di¬
minution of their volumes. In this way too the evolution of heat would continue as long as the wear and friction ; which affords an
explanation seemingly in accordance with the fact, without having recourse to the old notion that heat is a species of motion. The
investigation in the text indeed implies that the absolute heat of air is indefinitely greater than its specific heat; and certainiy many
difficulties could he explained on the supposition that the same thing holds of bodies generally, or that all the heat we ca p
to or abstract from bodies bears no proportion to their absolute heats.
Ht orne-
I I-
E) ri.
dk s for
de min-
iiij be
co: ants.
H Y G R O M E T R Y.
119
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. x. p. 195) are free from all
such objections, and show that, under equal volumes and
pressures, the specific heats of the different gases are equal,
a result equally fatal to the conclusions which were dedu¬
ced from the excessively complicated method of MM. De-
laroche and Berard. If, therefore, the experiments of Des-
ormes and Clement are so very erroneous for comparing
the specific heats of different gases, why should we put any
confidence in them for that of the same gas under differ¬
ent pressures ?
Experiments somewhat similar to those just noticed
have been made by MM. de la Rive and Marcet, and de¬
scribed in the Annales de Chimie for May 1829; but in
an article on the same subject in the next number of that
journal, M. Dulong has shown, that in these experiments,
from their being made on an exceedingly minute scale, the
mass of air operated on was so very small, compared with
that of the vessel, that they do not warrant any definite
conclusion at all. We are scarcely better satisfied with the
method which M. Dulong himself has there employed for
estimating the specific heats of the gases from the fre¬
quency of their vibrations, as supposed to be registered by
a kind of wind-instrument coupled with wheel-work, and
called a sirene ; because that method involves several ques¬
tions not yet cleared up. But what we particularly object
to is, that no allowance is made for the tendency which it
is natural to think the vibrations of the materials of the
wind-instrument itself must have to increase the frequency
of the vibrations of the gas under examination ; an over¬
sight similar to what, as we shall by and by see, pervades
the usually received theory of sound. Nor can there be a
doubt that the vibrations of strings, wires, &c. in musical
instruments are influenced by the vibrations of the materials
by which they are stretched.
Having completed the intended investigations, it may
now be useful to give some account of the experiments to
which we have several times alluded, for ascertaining the
value and constancy of the ratio of m to n. We shall first
give a familiar illustration of the principle, and then state
more nearly the actual mode of experimenting. Suppose
a vessel to be accurately closed, when occupied by air of
the same temperature and pressure as that around it or in
the apartment, and to be furnished with a gauge for show¬
ing any minute change of pressure. In this state let the
apparatus be carried into another room of a little higher
temperature, say m degrees warmer than the former; and
then the gauge will soon indicate an increase of elasticity,
which we may call m degrees. If the vessel admit of be¬
ing now opened sufficiently, and shut again so promptly as
just for the moment to allow the included air to regain the
external or its original pressure, without affording time for
its abstracting heat from the materials of the vessel, the
gauge will in a little time indicate a second but much
smaller increase of pressure, which we may call m —n de¬
grees. The reason of this may be traced in a general way
to the well-known fact, that air of whatever density is
cooled by dilatation. The gauge, while indicating m de¬
grees, shows the included air to be denser than that in the
second apartment; and therefore, on opening the vessel, the
superior elastic force within expels a portion of that air,
leaving the remainder of course rarer than that of the first
room, though still a little denser than that of the second ;
because it has been cooled, as the result shows, m — n de¬
grees below the temperature of the second room. For at
the instant of re-shutting the vessel, the elasticity of the
included air is in equilibrio with the external pressure;
but it must then be more dense than the air of the second
apartment, otherwise, its temperature being lower, it could
not balance the external pressure. On recovering there¬
fore from the small and momentary depression of tempera¬
ture, the excess of density shows itself by the gauge. The
escape of a small portion of air while the vessel is open Hygrome-
does not alter the result, because it only carries off its own ( tr3r>
heat. By this mode of operating, the ratio between the
small quantities m and m — n can evidently be ascertained
with incomparably greater exactness than by any thermo¬
meter whatever. The distinguished German philosopher
Lambert had long ago contrived to operate on air in such
a way that it showed the changes of its own temperature;
and no doubt it has been the uncertainty attending the
employment of thermometers in more recent researches on
air, that has led to such strange and paradoxical results,
and which has called in the aid of so many fanciful hypo¬
theses regarding the nature of heat. Indeed there is no
time for a thermometer of any sort acquiring the minute
change of temperature denoted by m — n.
Since we shall presently see that m is to n either exact¬
ly or very nearly as 4 to 3, it will conduce to greater sim¬
plicity if we now give this value to that ratio. But it is .
obvious, that during the small moment the vessel was open,
the air which remained in it, having its temperature slight¬
ly depressed, could not lose heat, and had not time to gain
any; so that the total heat in that remainder may be re¬
garded as constant during the operation. Hence the
same quantity of heat which had been sufficient to keep
the air m degrees or 4i0 above its original temperature
while confined in the vessel, shows itself to be only able,
while again put under the original pressure, to maintain an
excess of n degrees or 3° above that same temperature.
The variation of heat, therefore, which would produce a
given minute change, for instance, one degree in the tem¬
perature of air, and which variation is usually called its
specific heat, must be one third greater when the air is
free to change its volume under a constant pressure, than
if confined in an inextensible vessel.
It is evident that the experiment would be essentially
the same, if the vessel, in place of being brought from a
colder apartment, were to have as much additional air in¬
jected into it as should make the gauge indicate 4° above
the external pressure, after the temperature of the included
air has settled to that of the room; the rest of the pro¬
cess, as to opening and promptly shutting again the vessel,
being as already described. Now, in either method it is
obvious, that at the instant of suddenly re-shutting the
vessel, the included air, being brought to an equilibrium
with the atmosphere, had, with reference to pressure, lost
all the additional 4° ; while, as the second indication of the
gauge, viz. 1°, shows it had only lost 3° with regard to
density, one of the lost degrees of pressure being there¬
fore due to momentary depression of temperature. Hence,
the height of the barometer, or whole pressure, is to the
variation of pressure denoted by 4°, as p to dp. Also the
height of the barometer, or whole density, is to the varia¬
tion of density denoted by 3°, as g to dg. Consequently,
p : 3dp :: g : 4g^.
Such is nearly the mode of experimenting followed by Mr
Meikle, as detailed at length in the Edinburgh Phil. Journ.
for April 1827, and more recently repeated with an im¬
proved apparatus, fully as large as the former one, which
contained 2310 cubic inches, but with the advantage of
having four apertures, amounting together to twenty-five
square inches, which can be both opened and shut again
so promptly, that the time of their being open is only a
small fraction of a second. Something similar had been
previously practised, though with a less perfect apparatus
(Journal de Physique for Nov. 1819, p. 331), by MM.
Desormes and Clement, and had likewise, at the desire of
Marquis de Laplace (Mecanique Celeste, livre xii. chap. 3,
and Conn, des Temps for 1825, p. 372), been adopted by
MM. Gay-Lussac and Welter, who continued it through a
great range both of temperature and pressure ; but they do
not make the simultaneous variations of density and pressure
120
HYGROMET R Y.
tances.
Hygrome-exactly such, thatp : ?>dp:: g: idp, which is very nearly the
try- relation obtained by Mr Meikle from a mean of many expe-
riments, and with either apparatus; but they make p : 3dp
:: g : 4*1244^. The difference is not very considerable;
and the following consideration, we think, renders it ex¬
tremely probable that the former is the true relation. Sir
Isaac Newton has shown (Principia, lib. ii. prop. 23), that
if in an elastic fluid the cube of the pressure vary as the
r + 2 power of the density, the particles should repel
each other with forces inversely as the rth powers of their
distances; and similar investigations and results may be
seen in other elementary works. Now, these experiments
of the French philosophers just named make the cube of
the pressure proportional to the 4T244 power of the den¬
sity, as is evident if we put 3 and 4T244 in place of n and
Particles m in art. 3. Hence r — 2-1244, and therefore the parti-
of air repel cies would repel each other with forces inversely as the
each other 2-1244 powers of their distances; a law of which there
inversely asis no known parallel in nature. But if the ratio of n to m
the squares were that of 3 to 4, and these numbers were substituted
of their dis- / p \ 3 V
as indices in art. 3, we should have > or
cube of the pressure varying as the fourth power of the
density ; and consequently, the repulsion between the par¬
ticles of the air would vary inversely as the squares of their
distances, which is the only known law of repulsion, and
most likely the only one which exists.
It had long been well known in a general way, that
when air has its volume or bulk changed so suddenly as
to afford little or no time during the process for its either
imparting heat to or receiving it from surrounding bo¬
dies, the pressure is at that instant changed in a much
higher ratio than the density is. This was quite sufficient
to render it certain, that whatever might be precisely the
true law of repulsion, it must follow something very dif¬
ferent from the reciprocal of the simple distance, which
supposes the pressure and density to vary in the same
ratio. For it was as well known, that during cases where
the pressure has varied in the same ratio as the density,
time enough has always elapsed for the air either impart¬
ing to or receiving from surrounding bodies as much
heat as it may either have evolved by compression or ab¬
sorbed by dilatation ; because compression, by tending to
warm the air, induces it to give out heat, and dilatation,
by tending to cool the air, induces it to receive heat.
But when, from cases in which the pressure had varied
in the same ratio as the density, Newton inferred that the
particles of air repelled each other with forces inversely
as their simple distances, he was quite excusable ; because
the facts just noticed were not known in his time, nor were
they indeed attended to till towards the end of last cen¬
tury. The like excuse, however, cannot so well be plead¬
ed for Dr Dalton, who, in speculating on the constitution
of the atmosphere so lately as in the Phil. Trans, for 1826,
just adopts the law of repulsion deduced by Newton, and
without making the slightest objection to it on the score
now stated. The French savans, again, in having virtually
made the repulsion vary inversely as the 2-1244 power of
the distance, seem to have run a little into the opposite
extreme. But when they adopted that conclusion, they
were perhaps influenced a little by Laplace’s theory of
sound, which required something of the sort to help it out,
and for which indeed the experiments of Gay-Lussac and
Welter were purposely undertaken. The defect of the
theory, we presume, lies rather in its not including the
share which it is likely the re-action of the earth’s sur-
and ot'Uie ^ace ^as *n accelerating the transmission of sound. For it
vibrations seems reasonable to think, that since the air presses strong-
of gases, ly on the earth’s surface, it must, while propagating sound,
and, in return, have its
Probable
defect in
own vibrations accelerated thereby ; because the vibra-Hygrom It
tions of the earth’s surface should incline to be more fre- try.
quent than those of air. Such at least seems to be the ^
case with the vibrations of solids and liquids generally;
though these again differ widely among themselves, and
should of course affect the velocity of sound differently.
According to this suggestion, the louder or the more in¬
tense the sound, the more fully will the earth s surface be
brought into action, and consequently the greater, cceteris
paribus, should be its accelerating influence. A similar
defect, as we hinted above, seems to attach to the many
attempts which have been made to determine the fre¬
quency of the vibrations of elastic fluids by means of wind-
instruments ; no allowance being made lor the influence
which it is likely the vibrations of the materials compos¬
ing the wind-instruments have on the frequency of the vi¬
brations of the gas under examination.
W'e shall now enter on the consideration of hygrome-More di
ters which are formed of materials comparatively freerablecli
from decay, which are constant or consistent in their in-oflW'
dications, and wrhich, in short, seem in a great measure to
possess the first five of the properties already specified,
which Saussure considered necessary to a perfect hygro¬
meter : as for his sixth, we regard it as supererogatory.
The fact that humid air readily wets bodies which are
colder than itself, such as stones and walls at the com¬
mencement of a thaw, must have been familiar to man¬
kind from the remotest antiquitythough it has not been
long known that dew or hoar-frost affords the most uni¬
versal example of this all the world over; being moisture
deposited on bodies which have been sufficiently cooled
by radiation below the temperature of the incumbent air.
The ancients appear to have conjectured that a copious
deposition of moisture on cold bodies prognosticated bad
weather; but the first step perhaps towards applying this
principle to the construction of a hygrometer was made
by the Florentine academicians, who having suspended
in the open air a conical vessel filled with snow or pound¬
ed ice, supposed the humidity of the air to be propor¬
tional to the quantity of moisture which, being condensed
on the exterior surface of this vessel, trickled down its
sides, and dropt from the apex of the cone. This, how¬
ever, could afford but a very vague estimate of the humi¬
dity of the air; because the quantity of moisture thus
collected must obviously have depended in a great mea¬
sure on the velocity of the wind; and such an estimate
would be still more erroneous, or rather useless altogether,
in the time of frost. The same idea was farther improv¬
ed upon by M. Leroy of Montpellier, who, by dropping ice
into water contained in a vessel with a bright exterior
surface, gradually lowered its temperature, till dew began
to be deposited from the contiguous air on that surface.
Saussure substituted sal ammoniac for ice, and different
salts have been employed by others for the same purpose.
The temperature to which the vessel is thus brought at
the moment of incipient deposition, is obviously the tem¬
perature to which, if the air were cooled under the same
pressure, the vapour in it would be in a state of satura¬
tion, or ready to deposit dew upon any thing in the least
degree colder than itself. Such temperature is therefore
denominated the dew-point. Did the air, in cooling, un¬
dergo no diminution of volume, it would not be brought to
a state of saturation with moisture, till it were cooled be¬
low t, the temperature of the air through a range greater
t + 448
nearly in the ratio of 1 d ; to 1 than that which
8600
both set that surface a vibrating,
brings it to the dew-point. Some writers do not seem
aware of there being any difference between these points
of saturation; and others have such confused notions of
it, that not unfrequently they transpose them ; though no-
H Y G R O M E T R Y.
121
me- thing is more certain than that these temperatures cannot
|. be the same, and that the dew-point is the higher of the
two. For if t be the actual temperature of the air, and t"
the dew-point, since the pressure is the same in both
cases, the actual density of the air is to its density when
cooled to the dew-point, in the inverse ratio of £ + 448°
t0 ^ 4. 448°, as was shown above regarding the expan¬
sion of air; but since all elastic fluids yet tried expand or
contract at the same rate by the same change of tempe¬
rature, the density of the vapour at the dew-point must
therefore be greater in the above ratio than its density at
the actual temperature, which is the same as its density
would be were the air cooled without shrinkage. This,
however, is not meant to prove the above ratio to be the
very law of nature.
The following table is for facilitating computations of
this kind. The first column is the Fahrenheit tempera¬
ture the second the maximum force/of aqueous va¬
pour for that temperature; the third the corresponding
weight of moisture in a cubic foot expressed in grains.
t + 448
The fourth column, computed from the formula —4go~»
shows the ratio in which an elastic fluid is expanded or
contracted by having its temperature changed from 32°
to t; and this column, being everywhere in the ratio of the
temperature reckoned from —- 448°, may therefore de¬
note either the volume of a given mass of elastic fluid un¬
der a constant pressure, or the pressure under a constant
volume, the unit of each being at 32°. The second co¬
lumn is computed from the formula which M. Biot has
deduced from Dr Dalton’s experiments, viz.
log./=: 1-4771213 — -0085412197 (212 — t)
— *0000208109 (212 — <)2 + -0000000058 (212 —f)3;
but we have slightly increased a few of the numbers next
zero, to correspond with the experiments of Gay-Lussac,
because those of Dr Dalton did not go lower than 320.1
Vapours of all sorts, so far as yet tried, are found to ob¬
serve the general laws of elastic fluids, in having the den¬
sity directly as the pressure, and inversely as < + 448;
and from the experiments of Dr Rice it appears that a
cubic foot of water at 40° weighs 437,272 grains ; and this
again M. Gay-Lussac found to be 1700 times heavier
than a cubic foot of aqueous vapour at 212°, which
therefore weighs 257-2188 grains. Hence, to obtain theHygrome-
numbers for the third column, we have try-
30
/
212 + 448 't + 448'
257-2188
5658-81/
* + 448 ’
the number of grains in a cubic foot of aqueous vapour in
a state of saturation, at the temperature L
But when the vapour is not in a state of saturation, as,
for instance, when the actual temperature of the air is 60°,
and the dew-point only 40°, we proceed thus:—Opposite
40° in the first column of the table we find -2644 inch in
the second for the actual force of vapour in the air; but
from what has been shown above regarding the expansion
of elastic fluids, the density at 60°, corresponding to a
force of -2644, must be less than if the temperature were
40°, in the ratio of 40 + 448 to 60 + 448, or of 1-0167
to T0583 (viz. using the numbers in the fourth column
opposite 40° and 60°). We must therefore reduce in that
ratio the maximum weight in a cubic foot at 40°, namely,
1*0167
3-066 grains, which will make it . X 3-066 = 2-945
i’UooJ
grains for the actual weight of moisture in the air, corre¬
sponding to a temperature of 38°*8; so that, had the air
been cooled down to 38°-8, without shrinkage, or under
the original volume, the vapour would have been brought
to a state of saturation. The temperature 38°-8, as already
observed, is lower than the dew-point by very nearly
t -f- 448
8600 '
times the difference between the dew-point and
the temperature of the air. Thus 380*8 = 40° — (60 — 40)
508
; which affords a ready mode of computing this lower
obUU
point of saturation without the aid of any table.
It is much more convenient to use the grains in a cubic
foot than the small fraction of a grain in a cubic inch ;
because the latter requires more figures to express it with
the same accuracy. But it is not so much from preten¬
sions to superior exactness that we use so many decimal
places in these columns, as to render the differences of
the numbers more uniform, which is of consequence when
there is any occasion for taking proportional parts, or in¬
terpolating between them.
1 The committee of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, who made a very elaborate and extensive series of experiments on
the force of steam in 1829, as described at length in the Ann.' de Chim. for January 1830, give the following formula :
«= (l +-007153 (T —100))*,
where c is the elasticity in atmospheres, and T the temperature centigrade. This expression, however, becomes far too small at low
temperatures, and vanishes altogether at the freezing point of mercury. M. Roche, again, makes
log. e =
T — 100
T + 266-67
x 5-48.
But neither can any expression of this form be the law of nature; because, besides erring considerably at temperatures within the
range of observation, it would require the density of saturated steam to reach a maximum, and then decrease ; so that some of it
would become liquid by the addition of more heat, which is quite incredible. Indeed every formula which, so far as we know, has
yet been published, for expressing the force of steam, is liable to some such objections.
VOL. XII.
Q
]22
HYGROMETRY.
Hyirrome- Table of the Force, Weight, and Ratio of Expansion, of Aqueous Vapour in a state of Saturation, from 0° lahren- Hyg,,
' try. heitto 100°.
Tempera¬
ture.
0°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
S3
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Force in
Inches.
•0622
•0643
•0665
•0688
•0713
•0740
•0769
•0798
•0829
•0860
•0893
•0927
•0962
•0999
•1036
•1076
•1116
•1158
•1201
•1246
•1293
•1341
•1391
•1442
•1495
•1551
•1608
•1667
•1728
•1791
•1856
•1924
*1993
•2066
•2140
•2218
•2297
•2380
•2465
•2553
•2644
•2738
•2835
•2935
•3038
•3145
•3256
•3368
•3488
•3609
•3735
Grains in a
Foot.
•786
•810
•836
•864
•893
•925
•957
•992
1-028
1-065
1-103
1-143
1-184
1-226
1-270
1-315
1-361
1-409
1-459
1-510
1-563
1-618
1-674
1-733
1-793
1-855
1-919
1- 986
2- 054
2-125
2-197
2-273
2-350
2-430
2-513
2-598
2-686
2-776
2-870
2- 966
3- 066
3-168
3-274
3-382
3-495
3-610
3-729
3-851
3- 979
4- 109
4-244
Ratio of
Expansion.
•9333
•9354
•9375
•9396
•9417
•9438
•9458
•9479
•9500
•9521
•9542
•9563
•9583
•9604
•9625
•9646
•9667
•9688
•9708
•9729
•9750
•9771
•9792
•9813
•9833
•9854
•9875
•9896
•9917
•9938
•9958
•9979
1-0000
1-0021
1-0042
1-0062
1-0083
1-0104
1-0125
1-0146
1-0167
1-0187
1-0208
1-0229
1-0250
1-0271
1-0292
1-0313
1-0333
1-0354
1-0375
Tempera¬
ture.
50°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Force in
Inches.
Grains in a
Foot.
•3735
•3864
•3998
•4136
•4278
•4425
•4576
•4733
•4894
•5060
•5232
•5409
•5591
•5780
•5974
•6173
•6380
•6592
•6811
•7036
•7269
•7508
•7755
•8009
•8271
•8541
•8818
•9104
•9399
•9702
1-0014
1-0335
1-0666
1-1006
1-1356
M716
1-2087
1-2468
1-2860
1-3264
1-3679
1-4106
1-4544
1-4995
1-5459
1-5935
1-6425
1-6929
1-7446
1-7978
1-8524
4-244
4-382
4-524
4-671
4-822
4- 978
5- 138
5-303
5-473
5-648
5- 828
6- 013
6-204
6- 400
6-602
6-810
7- 024
7-243
7-469
7-702
7- 941
8- 186
8-439
8-699
8- 966
9- 241
9-523
9-813
10-111
10-417
10- 732
11055
11- 388
11- 729
12- 079
12- 439
12-808
13- 185
13- 577
13*977
14- 387
14- 809
15- 241
15- 684
16- 140
16- 607
17- 086
17- 577
18- 081
18- 598
19- 129
Ratio of
Expansion.
1-0375
1-0396
1-0417
1-0438
1-0458
1-0479
1-0500
1-0521
1-0542
1-0562
1-0583
1-0604
1-0625
1-0646
1-0667
1-0688
1-0708
1-0729
1-0750
1-0771
1-0792
1-0813
1-0833
1-0854
1-0875
1-0896
1-0917
1-0938
1-0958
1-0979
I’lOOO
1-1021
1-1042
1-1063
1-1083
'OIDl
try.
1104
1125
1146
1167
1187
1-1208
1-1229
1-1250
1 1271
1-1292
1-1313
1-1333
1-1354
1-1375
1-1396
1-1417
'Danieir
hygro¬
meter.
The principles already explained will make the con¬
struction and use of Professor Daniell’s elegant instru¬
ment easily understood. It is represented in its full di¬
mensions in fig. 8, Plate CCXCV. where a and b are two
thin glass balls of 1*25 inch in diameter, connected by a
tube having a bore of about *125 inch. The tube is bent
at right angles over the two balls; and the arm be con¬
tains a small thermometer de, whose bulb, which is of an
oval form, descends into the ball b. This ball having been
about two thirds filled with ether, is heated over a lamp
till the liquid boils, and the vapour issues from the capil¬
lary tube y on the under side of the ball a. The vapour
having expelled the air from both balls, the capillary tube
y is hermetically closed by the flame of a lamp. This pro¬
cess is familiar to those who are accustomed to blow glass,
and may be known to have succeeded after the tube has
become cool, by reversing the instrument, and taking one
of the balls in the hand, the heat of which will cause the
ether to boil rapidly, and pass wholly over by distillation
into the other ball. The ball a is now to be covered with
a piece of muslin. The stand gh is of brass, and the
transverse socket i is made to hold the glass tube in the
manner of a spring, allowing it to turn and be taken out
with little difficulty. Another small thermometer hi is in¬
serted into the pillar of the stand. The manner of using
the instrument is this:—After having driven all the ether
HYGROMETRY.
B •orae- into the ball b by the heat of the hand applied to the ball
y- a, the instrument is to be placed at an open window, or
w out of doors, with the ball b so situated as that the sur¬
face of the liquid may be upon a level with the eye of the
observer. A little ether is then to be dropped upon the
covered ball. Evaporation immediately takes place, which,
by abstracting heat, cools the ball a, and causes a rapid
and continuous condensation of the ethereal vapour with¬
in it, together with a diminution of pressure. The con¬
sequent evaporation from the included ether produces a
depression of temperature in the ball b, the degree of
which is measured by the thermometer de. This action
is almost instantaneous, and the thermometer begins to fall
in two seconds after the ether has been dropped. A de¬
pression of thirty or forty degrees is easily produced, and
the ether may be sometimes seen to boil when the ther¬
mometer is below the zero of Fahrenheit. So soon as the
ball b is cooled by this artificial process down to the dew¬
point of the surrounding air, a condensation of the atmo¬
spheric moisture takes place upon its surface, and this first
makes its appearance in a narrow ring of dew on a level
with the surface of the ether. The temperature at which
this occurs, viz. the dew-point, is to be carefully noted.
A little practice may be necessary to seize the exact mo¬
ment of first deposition, but certainty is very soon ac¬
quired. It is advisable, when the ball b of the instru¬
ment has been made of transparent glass, to have some
dark object behind it, such as a house or a tree, because
the cloud is not so readily perceived against the sky or
open horizon. The depression of temperature is first pro¬
duced at the surface of the liquid, where evaporation takes
place, and the currents which immediately ensue to effect
an equilibrium are very perceptible. We may here re¬
mark by the by, that since the covered ball a must be
fully the colder of the two, there is reason to think, that
while it is throwing off and furnishing latent heat for
ethereal vapour, it is very likely condensing aqueous va¬
pour and absorbing its latent heat. The bulb of the en¬
closed thermometer de is but partially immersed in the
ether, with the view of making the line of greatest cold
pass through it; but this we shall find to be a faulty ar¬
rangement. In very damp or windy weather, the ether
should be very slowly dropped upon the ball, otherwise
the descent of the thermometer will be so rapid as to
render it extremely difficult to be certain of the degree at
which deposition commences. In dry weather, on the con¬
trary, the ball requires to be well wetted more than once,
to produce a sufficient cold. If at any time there should
be reason to suspect the accuracy of an observation, it
may, according to Mr Daniell, be corrected by observing
the temperature at which the dew upon the glass again
disappears : the mean of the two observations should give
the true result; because their errors, he thinks, if any,
should lie in contrary directions. This, however, is on the
supposition that the error lies all with the observer, and
that the instrument itself is faultless; whereas we shall
shortly see reason to conclude that, unless it be agitated
during an observation, it has a tendency to give the dew¬
point too high, owing to every part of the bulb of the includ¬
ed thermometer not being alike exposed to the cooling ef¬
fects of the ether. It is obvious that care should be taken
not to permit the breath to come into contact with the glass.
Mr Daniell’s hygrometer may also be applied to artifi-
eial atmospheres, and experiments on air or other gas
confined in a vessel. Fig. 9 represents a receiver and
hygrometer prepared for this purpose; and the following
is the manner in which they were fitted up. A hole is
perforated in the side of the receiver, through which the
tube proceeding from the ball within it containing the
thermometer is first passed, and then welded by means
of a lamp to the tube attached to the other ball outside
123
the receiver. The stem is secured in the hole of the re- Ilygrome-
ceiver with cement, the ether is boiled, and the capillary try.
tube closed, as before described. The external ball is ^
then to be covered with muslin, and ether being dropped
upon it, the consequent evaporation produces, in the
manner already explained, a corresponding degree of cold¬
ness in the internal ball. The state of humidity within
may be ascertained by noting the temperature at which
dew begins to appear on that ball. In delicate experi¬
ments, a lighted taper in a glass lantern, placed behind
the instrument, renders the deposition more easily visible,
and ensures accuracy. The hygrometric properties of
any substance, or its power of absorbing moisture, may
thus be readily estimated, by placing it under the receiv¬
er, and marking the fall which it occasions in the dew¬
point. By means of this apparatus Mr Daniell made a
variety of experiments, from which it appeared, as Deluc,
Dalton, and others had asserted, that the quantity of
moisture which can exist in a given volume depends sole¬
ly on the temperature, and is not influenced by the pre¬
sence or density of air or other elastic fluids, provided no
chemical action occur.
There have been various attempts to improve upon Mr Attempts
Daniell’s hygrometer, or to contrive a more simple one ^ nnprov-
which should serve the same purpose. About ten years ^ *m'
ago, several instruments, essentially the same in principle, grometer,
though differing widely in contrivance from Mr DanieliV
were proposed in different quarters with this view. The
leading features in their construction are, to cover partially
the bulb of a large thermometer with muslin, silk, cambric,
or the like ; to wet this with ether ; and to observe at what
degree of that thermometer moisture is deposited on the
uncovered part of its bulb. A more simple construction for
directly observing the dew-point was scarcely to be expect¬
ed, but unfortunately it was soon found to be very fallaci¬
ous. For, owing to the uncovered partof the bulb not being
directly exposed to the cooling effects of the evaporation,
its temperature, viz. the dew-point, is generally several
degrees higher than the mean temperature of the bulb, or
that indicated on the scale of the thermometer; so that
such instruments generally give a dew-point considerably
below the truth, and the error is found to be greater when
the bulb is of an elongated or cylindrical form than when
spherical. This error may be made manifest in several
ways, but the preferable one seems to be to observe the
dew-point at the same time by the method of Leroy, as
improved by Saussure and Dalton, namely, to cool down
water in a bright vessel by dropping in colder water, ice,
or salts, and to stir it with a thermometer till dew just
begin to appear on the exterior surface of the vessel.
The thermometer will at that instant indicate the dew¬
point with great accuracy if the vessel is thin, and espe¬
cially if of metal.
The discovery of such a defect in these instruments Defect in
led to a careful examination of Mr Daniell’s hygrometer Daniell’s
by the same test; and the result was, that it is liable tohygrom®-
the contrary error of giving the dew-point above the truth.
For since in that instrument the deposition occurs in a
narrow ring or zone on a level with the surface of the en¬
closed ether, which, during the cooling, is considerably
colder at the surface than beneath ; and since the elon¬
gated bulb of the enclosed thermometer is only half im¬
mersed in this ether, it is evident that scarcely half of
this bulb is subjected to so great a cold as that which
produces the deposition of moisture. As to any cooling
effect of the ethereal vapour on the upper half of the ball,
it must be extremely feeble compared with the cooling
influence of that liquid itself, as is evident from the effect
which agitating the ether round the whole bulb of the
thermometer has in lowering its indication. In place
therefore of an observation with this hygrometer being
124
HYGROMETR Y.
Hyerrome-
try.
A die’s hy¬
grometer.
“ simple, expeditious, easy, and certain,” it is evident,
that unless the instrument is shaken, or the observation
made so slowly and cautiously as to allow the bulb of the
included thermometer time to become all of one tempe¬
rature, it cannot fail to give the dew-point too high ; so
that the more clever or expeditious any one fancies him¬
self to be in using this instrument, so much the farther
is his observation likely to be from the truth.
A substitute for this instrument, preferable to any of
the foregoing, has been contrived by Mr John Adie, and
is described in the Edinburgh Journal of Science (new
series, vol. i. page 60). A thermometer having a small bulb
is enclosed in an exterior bulb or case of black glass, which
is covered with silk, excepting a small space about a quar¬
ter of an inch in diameter, where the deposition is to be
observed. The space between the outer and inner bulbs
is nearly filled with any liquid not liable to freeze by the
depression of temperature required for finding a dew¬
point, as alcohol, mercury, linseed oil, &c. When an ob¬
servation is to be made, ether is applied to the silk, and
the instrument is kept in a state of gentle agitation, to
render the inner and outer bulbs all of one temperature.
With this instrument Mr Adie obtained constant results,
not differing more than half a degree from Leroy’s me¬
thod, already described. The following table exhibits the
results in twenty-eight cases, as observed with five dif¬
ferent dew-point instruments. The first column is the
temperature of the air ; the second the dew-point, as ob¬
served by Leroy’s method; the third, by Mr Adie’s in¬
strument; the fourth, by Mr Daniell’s; the fifth, by the
large thermometer, having a round bulb partially covered
with muslin ; the sixth, by the same kind of thermometer
with an elongated or cylindrical bulb.
Temperature
of the Air.
Leroy’s
Method.
55°
55
52
5J
63
50
54
51
42
55
47
51
50
42
34
48
47
42
45
42
47
43
41
39
39
38
28
32
Sum 1286
Mean 45-9
45°
44
44
41
54
43
44
45
32
46
39-5
43
38
28
27
39
38*5
30
35
33
42
30
32
26
26
26
21
17-5
1009-5
36-03
Adie’s.
Daniell’s.
45°
43-5
44
41
53-5
43
43-5
45
32
46
39
43
38
28
27
39
38-5
30
35
33
42
30
32
26
26
26
20-5
17
1006-5
35-93
Mean errors.
0-1
46°
45
47
42
55
44
45
47
32
47
41
46
41
31
32
46
42
34
39
38
43
35
35
29
29
31
24
24
1090
38-93
+ 2-9
Spherical
Bulb
43°
41
42
37
50
41
40
42
30
44
38
41
35
23
24
37
32
23
32
29
37
27
29
23
22
22
17
14
915
31-25
— 4-78
Long
Bulb.
41°
39
39
33-5
47
40
40
41
29
40
34
35
32
20
18
32
30
20
25
26
35
25
25
20
22
17
16
13
824-5
29-43
6-6
It has been objected to Mr Adie’s instrument, that the Hygrome
dew being formed alike quite over the uncovered part of try.
the outer bulb, it does not exhibit that fine contrast be-
tween the clean and bedewed parts which Mr Daniell’s
bulb does, and which renders the commencement of de¬
position better defined. But an equally good contrast,
we presume, might easily be produced by forming a small
blister air-bubble, or other double spot, in the glass or
metal of which the cover is made. No dew would form
on this spot, at least till long after it had begun on the
adjacent surface. Another objection is, that the air im¬
mediately round the spot where the deposition occurs is
strongly impregnated with ether, which may possibly have
some effect on the commencement of deposition, espe¬
cially at temperatures and pressures beyond the range of
these experiments, and where the dew-points are much
farther below the temperature of the air.
M. Pouillet has produced a different substitute for Mr Pouillet'
Daniell’s hygrometer. The stem of a thermometer de- hygrome
scends through, is closely fitted into, and secured in, ater-
perforation in the bottom of a small silver cup; the bulb
only of the thermometer being left above within the cup.
When this instrument is to be used, ether is poured into
the cup till it cover the bulb, and the consequent evapo¬
ration producing cold, causes a deposition of dew in the
form of a narrow ring on the outside of the cup, and on a
level with the surface of the ether. But owing to the
whole bulb of the thermometer not being exposed to so
great a cold as that at the surface of the ether, and which
causes the deposition of dew, we should suspect this con¬
trivance of being liable to give the dew-point too high,
though not perhaps to the same extent as Mr Daniell’s.
There is likewise reason to think that the cup, if deep,
would retard the evaporation, while, if shallow, it could
not prevent the wind from blowing the ether over its
sides. But perhaps both these inconveniences might be
avoided by having a bit of muslin stretched close over
the surface of the ether, and as if swimming in it; though
this again, by retarding the circulation of the ether in
the cup, might tend to augment the error in the indica¬
tion of the thermometer.
We have sometimes thought that a construction com- pr0jx»
bining the advantages, and avoiding the defects, of these constn
several contrivances, might be obtained, without depart- tion.
ing so far from the form of Mr Daniell’s instrument.
Thus, if the uncovered bulb b, which contains the ether
in his hygrometer, had a blister or air-bubble formed in
the glass, the exterior surface of this would remain dry
or free from dew, at least till the cold went far below the
dew-point; so that, without running any risk of obliterat¬
ing the contrast between the clear and bedewed parts of
the bulb, we might agitate the instrument sufficiently to
ensure that the thermometer within should indicate the
temperature of the bedewed surface. When the exterior
bulb is of metal, it would be equally easy to make a small
part of its side double for the same purpose. There would
then be no need for bending the tube, to keep the re-con¬
densed ether from running down and cooling the upper
half of the exterior bulb, if indeed that was the design
of bending it; for Mr Daniell assigns no reason either for
bending the tube or having it so very long. But it is
evident, that by keeping the tube straight and much short¬
er, the instrument would be greatly simplified, and ren¬
dered much less liable to accidents. In this form, too, it
could be as readily suspended perpendicularly as before,
by merely slipping the tube into the forked end of a
branch proceeding from the top of the pillar. Perhaps
it may be said that the design of the tube’s being so long
was to keep the ethereal vapour at a distance from the
spot where dew is to be deposited ; but this, if intended,
is effectually defeated by the bending of the tube, which
H Y G R O M E T R Y.
%Vf me- brings the bulbs as near each other as if the covered one
' t • were only a little above the stem of the enclosed thermo-
' ^ meter. Whether any chemical action may take place be¬
tween the aqueous and ethereal vapours, which could sen¬
sibly affect the deposition of dew, we could not pretend
io say; but it is natural to think that the expansive force
of the ethereal vapour should distend or dilate the air and
moisture, which would tend to lower the dew-point. Mr
Adie’s experiments, it is true, seem to give the dew-point
the same as by Leroy’s method ; but in his cases given
above, the dew-point is generally so little below the tem¬
perature of the air as to have required very little ether
to produce the requisite cooling; so that it may have
been owing to the comparatively feeble state of the ethe¬
real vapour that the dew-point was not sensibly affected ;
or possibly the chemical and mechanical effects of the
ether on the dew-point might be opposed to each other.
But it is surely more safe to avoid any risk of this sort
altogether. With any sort of dew-point instrument, it
must be difficult to observe at low temperatures the pre¬
cise degree at which the vapour is cooled to saturation,
owing to its extreme tenuity. For unless the bright sur¬
face be sensibly colder than the air to which it is pre¬
sented, the commencement of deposition is not likely to
be readily noticed in very attenuated vapour,
lyp, ,n’g Dr James Hutton seems to have been the first who
^hr;: me. thought of applying the comparison of the different indi-
ter. cations which a thermometer exhibits in a dry and in a
moistened state to the purposes of hygrometry. With
this view he had a thermometer enclosed in a glass tube
hermetically sealed, which he first held in a proper situa¬
tion till it acquired and showed the temperature of the
air. Then having dipped it in water, he held the end of
the tube which contained the bulb towards the current of
air, and observing how much the thermometer had been
lowered by evaporation, he regarded the depression as a
measure of the dryness of the air. This view of the mat¬
ter, though not quite correct, was a wonderful step, con¬
sidering how little was then known regarding the laws
which regulate the diffusion of aqueous vapour in air or
other elastic fluids. But instead of employing only one
thermometer, and enclosing it, as Dr Hutton did, in a
glass tube, it is found not only more convenient, but con¬
ducing to greater accuracy, to use two thermometers;
one of which notes the actual temperature of the air,
while the other, having its bulb covered with muslin, silk,
cambric, or the like, and moistened with pure water,
shows the temperature as depressed by evaporation. We
have found it to be still more convenient to have both
thermometers mounted on one broad and doubly gradu¬
ated scale, and both might be of the self-registering sort.
Soft paper has sometimes been used to cover the thermo¬
meter ; but if it contain any soluble matter, it is apt to
render the water impure, and vitiate the results. In
short, whatever sort of covering is used, care should be
taken to have it both clean and free from every thing
which may affect the purity of the water. Thus the ther¬
mometer is found to be much less cooled by evaporation
when moistened with brackish water than with fresh.
Some cover the bulbs of both thermometers, with the
view of having the surfaces as nearly alike as possible, and
of one colour, to obviate any unequal effects of light or
radiation ; the nearer to white of course the better.
This sort of hygrometer, after having been sadly ne¬
glected for thirty years, at least in any thing near its ori¬
ginal form,1 has at length become an object of interest
both here and on the Continent, particularly in Germany,
where it has been dignified with the name of the Psychro-
J25
meter. The British Association too has repeatedly ex-Hygrome-
pressed a desire to receive a satisfactory exposition of the tJ7*
theory of this instrument, and has requested observers to
institute comparative experiments between its indications
and the corresponding dew-points, as obtained by the me¬
thods already described. So that, when once comparisons
of this sort have been made in circumstances sufficiently
varied for the different states of the air, this hygrometer,
from the durability and simplicity of its construction, the
extreme facility with which it can be used, and the con¬
sistency of its indications in like states of the air, bids fair
to come into more general use than any other; and this,
we should think, is likely to be the case in a very few years.
One of its most remarkable features, and which adds great¬
ly to its value, is, that its indications are scarcely affected
by any ordinary wind. They are, however, as will be no¬
ticed after, somewhat under the influence of the atmo¬
spheric pressure, but so slightly, that at the same place
variations of pressure may in ordinary cases be neglected.
When the moist thermometer is below 32°, about an eighth
part of its depression below the temperature of the air is
owing to the expense of heat for liquefying the ice pre¬
viously to evaporation ; the heat of liquidity being about a
seventh part of the latent heat of the vapour ; but this is
a point which, so far as we knowT, has not yet been exa¬
mined by any direct experiments.
When this instrument is first exposed to the drying in¬
fluence of air, in which the aqueous vapour is not already
in a state of saturation, evaporation takes place, and lowers
the temperature of the moist bulb, by abstracting heat
from it for the formation of additional vapour; but a limit
is soon set to the fall of temperature by the surrounding
air, which, in successively touching the wet and colder sur¬
face, imparts heat to it; and also no doubt by the warmer
surrounding bodies throwing in a little heat upon the
colder bulb by radiation. The heat thus imparted and
thrown in is next to all we can think of as being conti¬
nually supplied to the moist surface, and spent in the for¬
mation of new vapour, the supply being of course exactly
equal to the expenditure, wdiich depends on the drying in¬
fluence of the air; and so does the difference of tempera¬
ture, though the precise relations between them have not
yet been determined. It might indeed be supposed that
the stem of the thermometer should convey a little heat
to the moist bulb; but the stem being of glass, is a bad
conductor, and any heat which it supplies must be very
inconsiderable, since it makes no sensible difference whe¬
ther wre apply a wet covering to the bulb alone, or conti¬
nue it along a part of the stem. However, in the Edin¬
burgh Encyclopaedia, art. Hygrometry, Dr Anderson ad¬
vances the doctrine, that the moist bulb itself furnishes all
the heat spent in the formation of new vapour ; whereas
we cannot conceive how it can continue to furnish the
smallest portion of heat after the process has fairly com¬
menced, any more than a hot iron could continue to fur¬
nish heat to the air after it has been cooled down to the
temperature of the air. Dr Anderson has, in the same ar¬
ticle, and afterwards in different volumes of the Edinburgh
Phil. Jour, (first series), given a variety of investigations
connected with the use of the moist-bulb hygrometer; but
as they involve the idea that the capacity of air for mois¬
ture is, cceterisparibus, proportional to the barometric pres¬
sure, his results necessarily diverge widely from the truth,
when applied to cases materially different from those on
which they are founded.
As already mentioned, the extent of the depression of
temperature is scarcely affected by any ordinary wind ;
but unless the heat which surrounding bodies throw in
1 A description of the late Sir John Leslie’s hygrometer will be found under life article Meteorology
126 H Y G R O
Hygrome- by radiation on the colder bulb be quite inappreciable,
try- this constancy of depression, so far from proving that the
cooling influence of evaporation is independent ot the wind,
•would rather argue that it is less as the velocity of the
wind is greater. For since evaporation increases with the
wind, while radiation is believed to be independent of it,
it follows that the heat supplied by radiation not increasing
in the same ratio as the expenditure or new vapour does,
the depression, in place of being constant, as it is found to
be, ought to increase with the velocity of the wind. Hence
either the heat supplied by radiation is inconsiderable, or,
which is more probable, the cooling influence of evapora¬
tion is less as the velocity of the wind is greater. From ex¬
periments described by Mr Meikle in the Edinburgh Phil,
Jour, for January 1827, it appears that giving a pretty ra¬
pid motion to a moist thermometer in air confined over
sulphuric acid, tended considerably to increase the depres¬
sion of temperature; but it may be questioned whether
this was not owing to the agitation of the apparatus ena¬
bling the acid to render the air drier.
Philosophers are by no means agreed regarding the
theory of this instrument, which, as we shall afterwards
see, is involved in great difficulty and obscurity; but this
is of less consequence, since a complete theory does not
seem necessary to enable us to apply it to hygrometric
M E T R Y.
purposes. For when once the dew-points corresponding Hygrom !
to a sufficient variety of indications of the wet and dry try. ! j
thermometers and of the barometer have been well ascer- '—’y>
tained, a table of dew-points may be constructed from
them, having for its entries or arguments the indications
of the wet and dry thermometers, corrected, if necessary,
for the particular pressure; so that, when aided by such
a table, the indications of the wet and dry thermometers,
and of the barometer, may obviously give us the dew¬
point, whether we know any thing of the theory or not.
The results of experiments determining the dew-point
for a considerable number of indications of the wet and
drv thermometers, and under various pressures, though
principally at pretty high temperatures, are given in a Cal¬
cutta journal, Gleanings in Science, Nos. II. and III. 1829,
and in the Edinburgh Phil. Jour, for October 1833, from
which we have obtained the following table. The sixth
column is derived from the formula
fd-
(/H-•66372)0-0 =
175,438ft U ’
where t is the Fahrenheit temperature of the air, t' that
of the moist bulb, and t" the dew-point; and ft, ft',//1 are
the forces of aqueous vapour in a state of saturation at
these temperatures respectively.
Barome¬
ter.
Tempera¬
ture of the
Air.
Tempera- Difference
ture of or Depres-
Moist Bulb. sion.
29- 75
30- 025
29-35
29.787
29-83
29-78
29-8
28-739
28-739
28-807
24-342
22-945
22-921
22-917
22-909
67°-2
56- 4
65-0
82-0
81-0
81-5
74-75
91-5
91-5
87-5
70-25
61*75
63-0
61-75
57- 75
52°-0
49-5
51-5
76-8
72-1
70-9
67-3
69- 2
70- 7
71- 48
60-0
54-37
53-46
46- 09
47- 75
Observed
Dew-point.
Computed
Dew-point.
Difference.
15°-2
6- 9
13-5
5-2
8- 9
10-6
7- 45
22-3
20-8
16-02
10-25
7-38
9- 54
15-66
10-0
35°-7
39-5
35- 45
74-0
68-0
66-5
63- 0
60-5
62-5
64- 0
54-0
48-0
46-0
26-5
36- 0
35°-7
40-7
36-6
75-0
68-6
66-5
63-6
60-1
62-7
65-4
53-6
47-98
45-3
25-0
35-7
Remarks.
Dr Anderson’s experiments.
Observations made in India at the level
of the sea by means of Leslie’s and
Daniell’s hygrometers.
f Do. on hills in the south of India.
The dew-points in the sixth column do not differ very
materially from observation; but the temperatures from
which they were computed had first to be corrected for
the barometric pressure, being different from thirty inches.
The precise rule for estimating such a correction is as yet
unknown ; but it appears that, for the same temperature
of the moist bulb, the difference between it and the dry
thermometer, when the pressure amounts to thirty inches,
is to their difference under any other pressure B, nearly
in the inverse ratio of 57 to 27 -f. B. On this supposi¬
tion, t — t’, the observed depression in the fourth column,
before being used in the formula, has been multiplied by
27 i b
—~— ; and the difference between the product and
t—t! has likewise been applied, with its sign changed, as
a correction to t, the temperature of the air. Although
the temperature of the moist bulb is the one which is more
immediately affected by pressure, it is considered easier
to compute a tolerable correction to be applied to the
other thermometer, so as still to lead to the same re¬
sult. Some account of experiments relating to this will
be found under the article Evaporation ; though, per¬
haps, owing to the greater dryness and small volume of
air operated on, the effect of pressure in most of the ex¬
periments there described seems to be greater than in the
open air.
A considerable number of experiments on the dew¬
points corresponding to the indications of the moist and
dry thermometers, though only between the temperatures
of 69°-5 and 56°-25, are given in the Edinburgh Phil. Jour.
for October 1834; but being made under the ordinary
pressure, they throw no light on the effects of different
pressures; and, considering how little the dew-points go
below the temperature of the air, these experiments can
scarcely be said to agree so well, either among themselves
or with the formula, as the other 15 given above. The au¬
thor supposes the discrepancies to be owing to the uncer¬
tainty attending the use of Daniell’s hygrometer, with
which they had been observed.
By means of the preceding formula for expressing the
relations between the temperatures t, t, if', the same in¬
genious author has computed the following table of dew¬
points, which, however, we have arranged in a more com¬
pact form, and curtailed considerably. For since it seems
better to leave extreme cases, and such as are of rare oc¬
currence, to be computed by some formula, than to swell
out the tables to embrace them, we have omitted all that
HYGROMETRY.
H ome- part of the table which went above the temperature of
■ U 100°; and really wish we had been possessed of data to
^ have authorized its extension downward, if possible, to the
zero of Fahrenheit. The argument or entry on the left-
hand side is the temperature of the air, while the excess
of that over the temperature of the moist bulb is the ar¬
gument on the top. But if at the time of observation the
barometer has differed from thirty inches, these argu-
127
ments should first be corrected by means of the small ta- Hygrome-
ble in the lower right-hand corner, which is to be entered try*
at the bottom with the barometric pressure, and on the
right side with the observed difference between the wet
and dry thermometers. The number thus obtained from
this small table is to be subtracted from both the argu¬
ments of the large table when the pressure falls short of
thirty inches, and added when it is greater.
Table of Dew-Points.
1
|l 98-8
97-8
96-8
977
96-7
95-7
90-8 94-6
94'8i93-6
93-8 92-C
92-8
91-8
90-8
89-7
88-7
87-7
85-7
84-7
83-7
82-7
81-7
80'7
79-7
78-6
77'C
76-0
75-6
74-6
73-6
72-6 7M
91-6
90-8
89-8
88-5
87'5
8G-5
86-7 85-5
84-5
83-5
82-4
81-4
80-4
79-4
78-3
77-3
7G-3
75-3
74-2
73-2
72'2
71-5
70-5
G9-5
•G8-5
167-4
1G6-4
65-4
»64-4
G3-3
IG2-3
*61-3
60-3
>58-2
157-2
1 55-1
54-0
53-0
151-9
150-9
2 49-8
148-8
147-7
146-6
8 45-5
1 44-4
6 43-4
5 42-2
141-1 381
3 40-1
2 38-9
0 3G-7
9G-6
95-5
94-5
93-4
92-4
91-4
90-4
89-4
88-4
87-3
86-3
85-3
84-3
83-2
82-2
81-1
80-1
79-1
78-1
77-0
76-0
75-0
73-9 72-5
701
G9-1
680
67-0
66-0
64-9
63-8
62-7
61-7
60-6
59-6
58-5
59-2 57-4
56-3
55-3
56-1 54-2
53-1
52-0
50-8
49-7
48-6
47-5
46-4
45-2
44-1
42-9
41-7
40-5
39-3
36-8
35-6
34
330
72-8
71-8
70-7
69-7
68-6
67-5
GG-5
65-4
64-3
63-2
62-2
GO-O
58-9
57-8
56-7
55-5
54-4
4
95-4
94-3
93-3
92-2
91-2
90-2
89-2
88-2
87-2
86-1
85-1
84-0
83-0
81-9
80-9
79-8
78-8
77-8
7G-7
75-G
74-6
73-5 7
94-2
93-1
92-1
91-0
90-0
890
88-0
87-0
85-9
84-9
83-8
82-7
81-7
80-6
79-6 78-2
71-4
70-3
69-2
G8-2
67-1
66-0
G4-9
63-8
62-7
61-6
60-5
6M 59-3
58-2
57-1
55-8
54-8
53-6
52-4
53-3 51-2
52-2
5L-0
49-8
48-G
47-5
46-2
45-1
43-8
42-0
41-3
40-0
38-7
37-4
30-1
34-7
33-2
330-3
28-8
50-0
48-8
47-6
46-3
45-0
43-8
42-4
41
39-7
38-4
37-0
35-5
34-0
32-5
30-9
29-3
31-8 27-6
25-8
0
930
91-9
90-9
89-8
88-8
87-8
86-7
85-7
84-6
83-6
82-5
81-4 80-1
80-4
79-3
78-5
77-5
76-4
75-3
74-2
73-2
2-1
71-0
694)
68-9
67-7
66-6
65-6
64-4
63-3
62-2
61-0
59 9
58-7
57-5
56-4
55-2
54-0
52-8
51-5
50-3
6
91-8
90-7
89-7
88-6
87-6
86-5
85-5
84-4
83-3
82-3
81-2
77-2
76-1
75-0
73-9
72-8
71-7
70-7
69-5
68-4
67-3
66-2'
65-1
64-0
62-8
61-6
60-5
59-3
58-1
56-9
55-7
54-5
53-2
52-0
50-7
49-4
48-1
49-1 46-8
47-8
46-5
45-2
43-8
42-4
41-1
39-6
1 38-2
36-6
351
33-5
31-9
30-1
28-4
26-2
24-7
22-7
20-6
18-1
45-4
44-0
79-1
78-0
76-9
75-8
74-7
73-6
72 5
71-4
70-3
69-2
68-0
66-9
65-8
64-6
63-4
62-3
61-1
59-9
58-7
57-5
56-3
550
53-7
52-5
51-2
49-8
48 I
47-1
45-7
44-3
42-9
41-4
8
42-0 39-8
41-1 38-2
39-6
38-1
36-6
34-8
36-6 33-2
35-031-4
33-3
31-6
29-7
27-9
29-5
27-5
25-5
23 3
25-7:20-8
2S-0 18-5
21-7 15-8
19-4
16-9
14-3
12-9
9-7
6-2
11-4 2-2
90-6
89-5
88-5
87-4
86-3
85-3
84-2
83-1
82-0
81-0
79-9
78-8
77-7
76-6
75-5
74-4
73-3
72-2
71-0
70-0
68-8
67-6
66-5
65-3
64-2
63-0
61-8
60-6
59-3
58-1
56-9
55-6
54-3
53-0
51-7
50-4
49 0
47-6
46-2
44-7
43-2
41-7
40-1
38-5
36-8
35-1
33-3
31-3
29-7
27-4
25-3
23-0
20-6
17-9
14-8
120
8-5
4-6
0-2
- 5-0
-11-5
9
89-4
88-3
87-2
86-1
851
84-0
82-9
81-8
80-7
79-7
78-6
77-4
76-3
75-2
74-1
73-0
71-8
70-7
69-6
68-4
67-2
66-1
650
63-7
62-5
61-3
60-1
58-8
575
56-2
55-0
53-7
52-3
51-0
49-6
48-2
46-7
45-1
43 7
42-2
40-6
39-0
37-2
35-5
33-6
31-8
29-7
27-4
25-3
22-9
20-4
17 7
147
11-4
7-4
3-6
-1-2
—7-0
10
88-1
87-0
85-9
84-8
83-8
82-7
81-6
80-5
79-4
78-3
77-2
76-0
74-9
73-8
72-7
71-5
70-4
69-2
68-1
66-9
65-7
64-5
63-3
62-1
60-8
59-5
58-3
57-0
55-7
54-4
53-0
51-6
50-2
48-8
47-3
45-8
44-3
42-7
41-1
39-4
37-7
35-9
34-0
321
30-0
27-8
25-6
23-0
20-5
17-7
14-7
11-2
73
31
—2-6
11
86-8
85-7
84-6
83-5
82-5
81-4
80-3
79-2
78-0
76-9
75-8
74-6
73-5
72-4
71-2
70-0
68-9
67-7
66"5
65-3
64-1
62-8
61-6
60-3
59-1
57-7
56-4
55-1
53-7
52-4
51-0
49-5
48-0
46-5
45-0
43-4
41-7
40-1
38-3
36-4
34-6
32-6
30-5
28-3
26-0
23-4
20-8
17-8
14-8
113
74
2-9
—2-4l
12
85-5
84-4
83-3
82-2
81-2
80-1
78-9
77-8
76-6
75-5
74-4
73-2
72-1
70-9
69-7
68-5
67-3
66-1
64-9
63-7
62-4
61-1
59-8
58-5
57-2
55-9
54-5
53-1
51-7
50-3
48-8
47-3
45-7
44-1
42-4
40-7
39-0
37-1
35-2
33-2
31-1
28-9
26-6
24-1
21-4
18-4
15-3
11-5
7-8
3.3
—2-0
13
84-2
83-1
82-0
80-9
79-8
78-7
77-5
76-4
75-2
74-1
73-0
71-8
70-6
69-4
68-2
67-0
65-7
64-5
63-2
62-0
60-7
59-4
58-1
56-7
55-3
54-0
52-5
51-1
49-6
48-1
46-5
44-9
43-2
41-5
39-7
37-9
36-0
34-0
31-9
29-7
27-3
24-8
22-1
19-2
16-1
12-4
8-5
3-7
—1-4
14
82-9
81-8
80-7 79-4
796
78-4
77-3
76-1
75-0
73-8
72-7
71-5
70-3
69-1
67-9
66-6
65-4
64-1
62-8
61-5
60-3
58-9
57-6
56-2
54-8
53-4
52-0
50-4
49-0
47-3
45-7
44-1
42-4
40-5
38-8
36-8
34-8
32-7
30-5
28-2
25-7
23-lH
20-1
17-0
13-5
9-6
4-9
 0-2
15
81-6
80-5
78-2
77-1
75-9
74-7
73-6
72-4
71-2
70-0
68-8
67-5
66-3
65-0
63-7
62-4
61-1
59-8
58 5
57 1
55-7
54 2
52-8
51-3
49-8
48-2
46-6
45-0
43-3
41-5
39-7
37-8
35-8
33 7
31-5
29-2
27-6
24-0
21-2
18-1
14-6
10-8
6-4
16
80-3
79-2
780
76-8
75-7
74-5
73-3
72-1
70-9
69-7
68-4
67-2
65-9
64-7
63-3
62-0
60-7
59-4
58-0
56-6
55-2
53-7
52-2
50-7
49-2
46-0
44-2
42-5
40-6
38-7
36-8
34-7
32-5
30-2
27-8
25-2
22-3
19-3
15-9
12-2
7-9
17
78-9
77-8
76-6
75-4
74-3
730
71-8
70-6
69-4
68-1
66-8
65-6
64-3
63-0
61-6
60-3
59-0
57-5
56-1
54-7
53 2
51-7
50-1
48-5
46-9
47-6 45-2
43-5
41-6
39-8
37-8
35-8
33-6
31-4
290
26-4
23-6
20-6
18
77-5
76-4
75-2
74-0
72-8
71-5
70-3
69-1
67-8
66-5
65-2
63-9
62-6
61-3
59-9
58-5
57-1
55-6
54-2
52-7
51-1
49-6
48-0
46-2
44-5
42-7
40-8
39-0
36-9
34-8
32-5
30-2
27-7
25-0
22-1
18-8
15-3
173 11-4
13-7
9-6
19
76-1
75-0
73-7
72-5
71-3
700
68-8
67-5
66-2
64-9
63-6
62-2
60-9
59-5
58-1
56-6
55-2
53-7
52-1
50 6
49-0
47-3
45-6
43-8
42-0
40-1
38-1
20
74-7
73-5
72-2
71-0
69-8
68-5
67-2
65-9
64-6
63-2
61-9
60-5
59-1
57-7
56-2
54-7
53-2
51-6
50-0
48-4
46-7
45-0
43-1
41-2
39-2
37-2
35-0
36 0 32-8
33-8 30-4
31-4
290
26-3
21
73-2
720
70-7
69-5
68-2
66-9
65-6
64-2
62-9
61-5
601
58 7
57-2
55-8
54-2
52*7
51-1
49-5
47-8
46-1
44-3
42-4
40-4
38-4
36 3
34-1
31-7
29-2
26-5
23-7
20-5
17-1
3-07
[2-88
3-022-69
|2-81 2-50
2-88 2-59 2-30
2-64 2-38;2-ll
2-402-161-92
2-16 1-94
1-73
1-51
1-30
1-08
•86
•65
•43
•21
L-92
11-68
11-44
1-20
•96
•72
•48
•24
20
21
1-73
1 54
1-34
1-15
•96
•77
•57
•38
•18
22
27-8
25 0
22-0
23-5 18-8
20-4 15-1
17-o|
13-2 2-64
2-52
2-88'
2-73
2-59
2-45
2-30
2-16
2-01
22
71-7
70-5
69-2
67-9
66-6
65-3
63-9
62
61-2
59-7
58-3
56-9
55-3
53-8
52-2
50-6
48-9
47-2
45-4
43-6
41-7
39-7
37-6
35-4
33-1
30-7
28-1
25-3
22-3
23
70-2
68-9
67-6
66-3
64-9
63-6
62-2
60-8
59-4
57-9
56-4
54-9
53-3
1-7
50-1
48-4
46-6
44-8
43-0
41-0
39-0
36 8
34-6
32-2
29-7
27-0
24
68-6
67-3
660
64-6
63-2
61-9
60-4
59-0
25
67’0
66-7
26
65-4
64-0
64-3 62-6
62-9
61-5
60-1
61-2
59-7
58-3
58-6 56-7
55-2
53-6
520
50-3
48-5
46-7
44-9
57-1
57-5 55-6
56 054-0
54-4 52-4
52-950-8
51-2|49-0
49-647-3
47-8|45-5 43 0
46-1 43-641-0
44-2 41-6 38-9
42-3!39-6j
40-3 37-4!
38-235-2
36-o!
33-7!
31-2)
27
63-7
62-3
60-8
59-4
57-8
56-4
54-7
53-2
51-5
49-8
48-0
46-2
44-3
42-4
28
61-9
60-5
590
57-5
55-9
54-4
52-7
51-0
49-3
47-5
45-6
60-1
58-6
57*1
55-4
29 301
58-3|
56-7
55-1
53-5
54-0 51-9
52-3
50-5
48-81
3-02
2-85
2-69
2-52
2-35
2-18
2-02
1-85
1-68
1-51
1-34
1-18
1-01
•84.
•67
•50
•33
•17
23
1-871-56
1-73
1-58
1-44
1-29
1-15
1-01
•86
•72
•57
•43
•29
•14
24
2-40
2-28
2-16
2-04
1-92
1-80
1-68
1-44
1-32
1-20
1-08
•96
•84
•72
•60
•48
•36
-24
•12
25
2-31
2-22
1-34
1-30
1-25
1-79 1-20
1-87
1-73
1-65
2-12 1-58
2-03 1-51
1-93
1-83
1-74
1-63
1-54
1-44
1-34
1-25
1-15
1-06
•96
•86
•77
•67
•57
•48
•38
•29
•19
•09
26
1-44
1-37
1-30
1-22
1-15
1-08
1-01
•94
•86
•79
■72
•65
•57
•50
•43
•36
•29
•19
•14
•07
27
1-15
1-10
1-05
1 01
•96
•91
•86
•82
•77
.72
•67
•62
•57
•53
•48
•43
•38
■33
•29
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•19
•14
•09
•05
28
32 31
29
•57
•47
•38
•28
•19
•09
•43
•36
•29
•21
•14
•07
29‘2
30-8
29-4
30-6
•29
•24
•19
•14
•09
•05
29-6
30-4
•14
•12
•09
•07
•05
•02
29-8
30-2
301
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14!
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
128
HYGROMETRY.
Hjgrome- A different mode of obtaining from the same data, not
try. only the dew-point, but likewise the force, weight, &c. of
moisture in the air, has been proposed by Mr Meikle, in
tric^odes" t^ie Edinburgh Phil. Jour, for July 1834 and April 1835,
’ to consist of certain graduated lines or scales delineated
on a plane, and are to be used by laying over it any thing
most convenient which will form a straight line, such as
a common ruler, a thread stretched, &c. This sort of
scheme is not deduced from theory, but merely from ob¬
servation, and seems to admit of being varied very consider¬
ably in its form ; though it is likely that, when more nume¬
rous and certain data have been obtained, some particular
modification will be found to have the advantage of the rest.
For we are not aware of any accurate experiments having
yet been made on the moist-bulb hygrometer at low tem¬
peratures. Plate CCXCVI. shows one of the various
forms proposed for this purpose in the articles just cited,
though it is not here followed up in every particular. The
mode of using it will be pretty evident from inspection.
If a straight line or ruler be applied to the temperature
of the air on the left-hand curve, and at the same time, to
the temperature of the moist bulb on the oblique straight
line, it will both mark the dew-point on the scale so named
on the right, and at the same time show' on the other scale,
a little farther to the right, the weight of moisture actual¬
ly diffused in a cubic foot of the surrounding air, in grains
and tenths of a grain. The like degrees of temperature
on the different scales are everywhere disposed in a hori¬
zontal straight line. If otherwise arranged, these scales
could not be used by simply laying a straight line over
them, as is evident if wre take a case in which the vapour
approaches saturation. The oblique straight line is an
asymptote to the two curves nearest it, which are meant
for hyperbolas; but the divisions for degrees of tempera¬
ture decrease a little downward in the lower part of the
figure. It has been objected, that the hyperbolas would
not suit air absolutely dry, and a dew-point infinitely low ;
but it is shown at length in the Edinburgh Phil. Jour, for
April 1835, that no such case can ever occur in using the
moist bulb, and that this scheme is not restricted to hy¬
perbolas. The results obtained by this method sometimes
differ considerably at low temperatures from those of the
large table of dew-points ; but we know of no experiments
to decide how far any of them may be right at low tem¬
peratures.
We have thought it better at present not to encumber
the diagram with what was originally proposed in this
scheme as a correction for pressure, because there seems
still to be some uncertainty regarding the precise allow¬
ance. But when the barometer differs from thirty inches,
the approximate correction, which was already noticed
above, may be employed here. It is equivalent to using
B 4- 27
t H 57— X (J — 0 in place of the actual tempera¬
ture of the air. The force of vapour corresponding to a
known dew-point is sufficiently well ascertained for ordi¬
nary purposes; but we have likewise at present omitted
the scale proposed for it, in order not to render the scheme
too complicated at its first outset. The same allowance
for frost will of course be required here as in any other
method with the moist-bulb hygrometer.
Were this project fully realized, that is, if by merely
laying a ruler across the plate in the manner above men¬
tioned, the dew-point and weight, &c. of the vapour in the
air could be indicated at once, and without computation, it
would obviously be one of the most convenient methods
yet employed for the purpose.
We shall now endeavour briefly to sketch out a few Hygrora
steps towards an investigation of the relation between the try.
dew-point and the corresponding indications of the moist-rv—S>'
bulb hygrometer, and have to regret that the present im-^heor.Vl
perfect state of the data does not warrant or enable us to
render it more complete. It was shown above, that thegromeje’
value of any particular degree on Fahrenheit’s scale of an
air-thermometer, that is, the increment or decrement of
heat necessary to produce a change of one degree by Fah¬
renheit’s scale, in the temperature of a given mass of air
under a constant pressure, will be inversely as the dis¬
tance of that degree from — 448°. But when the volume
and pressure are both constant, with a variable mass, the
increment, decrement, or specific heat for one degree
of Fahrenheit, will, so far as depends on change of tem¬
perature, be inversely as the square of the distance of
that degree from — 448°, viz. in the ratio compounded of
the mass or density of the air and the value of a degree,
each of which varies inversely as the temperature reckon¬
ed from —448. For we have likewise shown above, that
the specific heat of a given volume of air is, cceteris pari¬
bus, as its density. Strictly speaking, it is obviously the
fluxion of the heat which varies in this manner. Hence,
so far as depends on change of temperature, the fluxion
of the quantity of heat in a cubic foot of air cooling under
a constant pressure at the temperature t, will be directly
as — dt, and inversely as (t 448)2. It may therefore
be denoted by
— A dt
(t + 448)2
where A is a constant.1 The fluent of this taken between
the temperatures t and f is
(t + 448) (f + 448)’
which is the heat lost by the cubic foot of air while its
variable mass is cooling under a constant pressure from t
to Hence, if the specific heat of a cubic foot of dry air
of thirty inches pressure, and confined in an inextensible
vessel at 32° F. be reckoned unit, and of course only three
fourths of what it would be were the pressure constant,
the value of A for the cooling of air under any constant
pressure B, must be such that three fourths of it may
equal the denominator in the above formula, when B = 30
and (t + 448) (tf + 448) = (32 + 448)*;
so that, A = £ (480)* x Jjy
Now, from Dr Haycraft’s experiments, it appears that
at the same temperature the specific heats of all elastic
fluids, and mixtures of them, so far as yet tried, are equal
under equal volumes and pressures; and we have shown
above, that the specific heat of a cubic foot of air, under
a constant pressure, is directly as its density and inverse¬
ly as its temperature reckoned from — 448°. Combin¬
ing these together, it follows that the specific heat of a
cubic foot of elastic fluid is directly as the pressure and
inversely as the square of the temperature reckoned from
— 448° ; so that, at the same temperature, it is as the
pressure simply. It will therefore come to the same
thing if, in place of taking the sum of the separate speci¬
fic heats of air, and of the vapour previously in it, we sup¬
pose either to have the joint pressure of both, which will
equal that of the atmosphere. Consequently, the heat
which a cubic foot of air and vapour at the temperature t
would impart to the wet and colder surface, while cooling
through t — f degrees, under the constant pressure B,
will be
1 The fluxion of the heat due to the fluxion of the mass, which is the same with the absolute heat in the increment of the mass,
Is a very different thing, being positive whilst this is negative ; nor does it at all pertain to the specific heat.
HYGROMETRY.
129
Hv
>me-
J (<_(') (480)* x ^
{t + 448) + 448)
This perhaps would require to be slightly modified, for the
mechanical influence of the new vapour which enters into
the air during the observation.
ulties We should have been happy to have completed an in-
; way vestigation of the relation between the dew-point and the
ring indications of the moist-bulb hygrometer ; but in endea-
llob' vouring to prosecute it farther, we were met by difficulties
which we suspect have been in a great measure overlooked
by those who profess to solve the problem with perfect ease.
Thus, if we suppose the depressed temperature to extend
unaltered to a certain distance from the moist surface, and
then all at once to change into the actual atmospheric
temperature, is not this to assume an abrupt transition of
temperature having no known parallel in nature, especial¬
ly where the cooling process proceeds so slowly ? We
cannot comprehend, for instance, how the moist bulb, at
a temperature of 70°, could be surrounded by a shell of
air also exactly at 70° throughout its whole thickness,
while the air immediately outside of this could be at 90°.
Nor is there greater probability that the saturated vapour
terminates abruptly, or that both terminate exactly at the
same distance. Now, if neither the depressed tempera¬
ture nor the new vapour terminate abruptly or at the same
distance, is there any thing known of the nature of the
law according to which either the one or the other de¬
creases in the actual circumstances ? Until some light is
thrown on questions like these, every thing in the shape
of a solution of the problem must rest in a great measure
on conjecture; no matter how well successive trials and
alterations may bring such an empirical solution apparent¬
ly to agree with the phenomena. We should think it
highly probable that the air enveloping the moist bulb is
in a state of continual intermixture similar to that of a
fermenting liquor; but how such a state of the air and
humidity, if it exist, could be expressed algebraically, we
cannot pretend to say.
eoreti- Another point which, we presume, has not been suffi-
esti- ciently attended to in attempts to solve this problem, is
;e of the flie nature of the latent heat of aqueous vapour, particu-
‘nt heat larly the manner in which it probably varies in different
our°U9 circumstances, and the relation which it bears to its own
specific heat and that of air. These we shall now endea¬
vour to examine, in conformity with the foregoing inves¬
tigation respecting the relations of air to heat, though we
can scarcely accomplish this so independently ot hypothe¬
sis as we did in that case.
When detached from their generating liquids, steam or
aqueous vapour, and all elastic fluids yet tried, expand by
heat at the same rate as air does, and, like it, observe the
law of Boyle, by having the force at the same temperature
proportional to the density. But since the second princi¬
ple above stated regarding the constancy in the ratio of the
specific heats, or of m to w, seems to be closely connected
with the rate of expansion and the law of Boyle, analogy
renders it extremely probable that it likewise belongs to
all gaseous bodies. Besides, Dr Haycraft’s experiments
for comparing the specific heats of gases (Edinburgh Phil.
Trans, vol. x. p. 195, and Philosoph. Mag. for September
1824), p. 200) afford a farther presumption in favour ot this;
for they go far to establish as another general law, that un¬
der equal volumes, pressures, and temperatures, all elastic
fluids have equal specific heats. His apparatus is incompara¬
bly the best which, so far as we know, has been applied to
the purpose. That of Delaroche and Berard was so unne¬
cessarily complicated, that we cannot adopt their results.
repulsion between the particles of an elastic fluid vary in- Hygrome-
versely as any given power of the distance greater than tr^_,
unit, the second principle above mentioned holds respect-
ing that fluid; or its specific heat under a constant pres¬
sure exceeds in an invariable ratio its specific heat under a
constant volume; and that, if such be the case with steam,
the rises of true temperature produced in it by compres¬
sion must at least be proportional to those in air, whether
they may be exactly equal to them or not. This, to be
sure, is very different from the theory of Clement, to which,
we presume, fatal objections have been stated in our arti¬
cle Evaporation (vol. ix. pp. 425, 426). But since there
is no known instance of any other law of repulsion than
the reciprocal of the square of the distance, it is most un¬
likely that the particles of air alone should observe this,
and other gaseous particles different laws.
From such considerations we are led to conclude that
steam should have the ratio of its specific heats not only
constant (as Laplace and Poisson maintain), but the same
as in air, and consequently have its temperature raised at
the same rate by compression; and, till something else be
shown to the contrary, we shall adopt Mr Watt’s opinion,
which, we presume, few will be disposed to dispute, that
the latent heat of steam is the same with the heat which
would be evolved or rendered sensible by compressing
steam to the density of water. By means of these as data
we shall proceed to compute the latent heat of steam in
terms of its own specific heat- It has been usual to express
it in terms of the specific heat of an equal weight of water
at some low temperature; as, for instance, to^ reckon it
equal to 1000 times the specific heat of water. This quan¬
tity there is reason to suspect to be a very different thing
from the sum of the successive specific heats of water, ac¬
cording to the common graduation, continued up through
a range of 1000° ; in other words, the latent heat of steam
is probably very different from the quantity of heat which
would raise the temperature of an equal weight of water
up through a range of 1000° on Fahrenheit’s scale, though
they are usually assumed to be equal.
In conformity, then, with the principles which have been
laid down as above, let the specific heat of steam at 212°, or
the quantity of heat which it would be necessary to add to
raise its temperature 1° under a constant volume at 212°,
be represented by the variation for one degree in the loga¬
rithm of the temperature counted from — 448° on Fah¬
renheit’s scale of an air thermometer; namely, by log.
(448 + 213) — log. (448 + 212) = -0006576. Steam
having a pressure of one atmosphere at 212°, is, accoid-
ing to M. Gay-Lussac, 1694 times rarer than water at 32°,
and, consequently, about 1626 times rarer than water at
212°. Hence, on the principles now adopted, were such
steam suddenly compressed to the density of water, or to
the 1626th part of its bulk, it would have its true tempe¬
rature raised above 212° by a quantity proportional to,
and which might be represented by, | log. 1626; that is,
supposing that the specific heat of steam should, like that
of air, bear the same ratio to the heat which is evolved or
rendered sensible by compression, that -0006576 bears to
i log. 1626 (because m ~~ = £); and that the heat thus
evolved, and which is to raise the temperature of the
steam so much under the reduced volume, is equal to the
heat which it would have been necessary to have added to
the steam before its volume was reduced at all, in order to
raise its temperature as much under that original volume
unaltered. For we have seen that the magnitude of the
volume, if constant, makes no difference on the quantity of
heat necessary to raise the temperature of a given mass of
air through the same range, and that as little does the
Now* ffomThaTwe’ have "already ^quotel'from Newton intensity of the pressure ff constant. Now i log; lG2G
(Principia, lib. ii. prop. 23), it readily follows that, if the = 1-0703735, in which -0006576, the above representa
VOL. XII.
130
HYGROMETllY.
Hygrome- tive of one degree, is contained 1627-7 times; so that
try- - 1628° is the latent heat, in terms of the specific heat of the
steam itself at 212° under a constant volume. According
to MM. Delaroche and Berard, the specific heat of steam,
notwithstanding its vastly greater volume, is only -847 of
that of water; but since -847 refers to steam under a con¬
stant pressure, three fourths of it, or -635, will be the num¬
ber for steam under a constant volume. Hence the la¬
tent heat of steam, in terms of the specific heat of water,
should be 1627-7 X -635 = 1034°, which comes very
near the usual estimate; but to this we attach little im¬
portance, because we see no ground to believe that the
specific heat of steam can be so much, if at all, smaller than
that of water at the same temperature. Indeed, consider¬
ing the vague, complicated, and indirect manner in which
Delaroche and Berard obtained the number -847, it is asto¬
nishing that other philosophers should ever have adopted
it. Were we to suppose the specific heats of steam and
water to be equal at 45° (the mean temperature of the
water in which Dr Ure condensed the steam in his expe¬
riments), the latent heat of steam at 212° would be 1216°
in terms of the specific heat of water at 45°, because log.
(448 -f 46) — log. (448 + 45) = -00088, and is contained
1216-3 times in 1-0703735. This, to be sure, rather ex¬
ceeds the ordinary estimates, which is no great objection
to its accuracy; because in the most approved methods
hitherto followed for obtaining experimentally the latent
heat, there is reason to suspect that some of the steam, in
its passage from the boiler or retort, would be so much
cooled as to have either attained the liquid form or the
state of a cloud before it reached the cold water in which
it was to be condensed, a circumstance which would tend
to bring out a deficient result, especially if the steam
reached the cold water by a horizontal or descending tube,
which could not bring back to the boiler any water formed
from steam condensed by the way ; but it is doubtful if
any tube could entirely obviate this, or prevent cloudy va¬
pour from passing over. Besides, the latent heat being
generally computed from a slight rise produced by it in
the temperature of a large mass of water, it is obvious that
a small inaccuracy in measuring such rise may occasion a
considerable error in the latent heat; and it has often been
alleged that the heat which raises the temperature of
water one degree, is far greater than the thousandth part
of what would raise it a thousand successive degrees reckon¬
ed on the common scale.
But to come nearer our present purpose ; since the la¬
tent heat of steam, in terms of the specific heat of water,
is scarcely a necessary ingredient in the theory of the moist-
bulb hygrometer, we shall now compute the latent heat
of steam at 32° Fahrenheit, in terms of its own specific
heat under a constant volume at that temperature. Steam
in a state of saturation at 32° is about 177200 times rarer
than water at same temperature, and log. (33 + 448) —
log. (32 + 448) = - 0009039. This, which represents the
specific heat, or one degree at 32°, is contained 1935-5
times in T74949 = y log. 177200. Hence the latent heat
at 32° is 1935-5. Now, according to the view we have
taken of the subject, the latent heat of steam is expressed
by the number of times the above numerical value of the
specific heat of an equal weight of it at some particular
temperature is contained in one third the logarithm of
the number of times the steam is rarer than water. But if
we wish to express it always in terms of one quantity, as,
for instance, in terms of the specific heat of an equal weight
of it under a constant volume at 32°, we shall have log.
177200 to log. R. as 1935-5, the latent heat at 32°, to the
latent heat of an equal weight of aqueous vapour at a dif¬
ferent temperature, and whose rarity, compared with that
of water of its own temperature, is R ; so that the latent
heat, in the terms now specified, will be
1935-5 log. R
5-24846
368-77 log. R,
Hygronn
try,
which varies as the logarithm of the number of times the
steam is rarer than water, as was hinted in the article
Evaporation, vol. ix. p. 426. We there noticed, p.
425, an experiment which proves in a very decisive man¬
ner, and independently of any thing now stated, that not
only the latent, but the total heat in a given mass of steam
in a state of saturation must be less at higher temperatures
than at lower. Now-, both this and the results of our in¬
vestigation are consistent with, nay afford a very satisfac¬
tory reason for, the well-known economy of heat in high-
pressure engines ; whereas the usually-received theory of
Clement, which supposes the latent heat the same at every
temperature, is quite incompatible with such economy.
Our investigation also leads to a saving of heat in the case
of steam used expansively, as it is called; but it would
here be out of place to go through the computation at
length. For some interesting experiments and remarks
by Dr Haycraft, on this, which he calls surcharged steam,
see Repertory of Patent Inventions, vol. xii. p. 25.
M. de la Rive some time ago proposed for a hygrometer M. dela
the following contrivance, which is, in some respects, the Rive’s h
counterpart of the one wdth the moist bulb. A thermo- 8rometei
meter being dipped in sulphuric acid, and then exposed to
the air, absorbs and condenses the aqueous vapour, which,
by evolving its latent heat, and imparting it to the acid,
raises the temperature of the thermometer. From this in¬
creased temperature, and that of the air, M. de la Rive
computes the degree of humidity. In this case, the warm¬
ing effect of the condensed vapour is restrained by the
cooling influence of the air and the radiation of surround¬
ing bodies; whereas in the hygrometer with the moist
bulb, the cooling effect of evaporation is limited by the
warming influence of the air and radiation. But it is only
when the vapour is in a state of half saturation, that either
the changes of temperature or the effects of radiation are
likely to be nearly equal in the two hygrometers. Per¬
haps, therefore, a careful comparison of the indications of
these instruments in other states of the vapour might af¬
ford data for estimating how far they are under the influ¬
ence of radiation, which would tend materially to elucidate
their theories.
While the sulphuric-acid hygrometer displays consider¬
able ingenuity, the other instrument is on several accounts
so decidedly preferable, that the invention of M. de la
Rive is not likely ever to come into general use. Water
can more readily be obtained everywhere, and is much
more safe and portable, than sulphuric acid. Besides, ow¬
ing to sulphuric acid freezing at an uncertain or variable
temperature, depending on its strength, such an instrument
would be apt to give doubtful results at low temperatures.
For, whatever be the strength of the acid at first, it will
continue to decrease in an uncertain manner on the bulb by
gradually absorbing moisture. However, the heat derived
from the condensation of the vapour will sometimes be
sufficient to keep the acid in a liquid state at a temperature
which would freeze it in a close vessel; and whenever it
happens that sulphuric acid remains liquid on the bulb of
one thermometer, while water is frozen on that of another,
a comparison of the two instruments might throw some
light on the influence of frost on the temperature of the
latter. We presume, therefore, that the most important
use likely to be derived from this hygrometer of M. de la
Rive, would be to assist in perfecting the theory of the
moist -bulb hygrometer; and possibly some other absorb¬
ent substances might answer even better for this purpose
than sulphuric acid does.
Since the quantity of aqueous vapour which can exist in Hy£ro'
a given volume is independent of the density of the air, ittc^;
Hy >me-
y-
St ' al
h) ome-
te
HYGROMETRY.
131
is evident that, when the vapour in the air is in a state of
half saturation, we may bring it to complete saturation by
injecting additional air into a close vessel till the density
is doubled, and doing this either so slowly as not sensibly
to warm the air, or to wait a little till the temperature set¬
tle. If the vessel is large and of a globular shape, a depo¬
sition of moisture should be sensibly produced on its inner
surface, so soon as the density gets a very little beyond the
double ; but wdth a small vessel, a greater increase of den¬
sity would be required, because in that case the included
mass of vapour would be smaller in proportion to the sur¬
face. It would on several accounts be preferable that any
vessel for this purpose should be formed of metal with two
small openings on opposite sides, closed by bits of glass
which would become dim by the deposition of dew on their
interior surfaces. Whatever might be the proportion of
humidity in the air, it would in all cases be in the inverse
ratio of that in which the density was to be increased to
produce saturation, and so might be readily had from such
a manometer or gauge as is usually employed for showing
the pressure, only having a direct in place of an inverse
graduation. If a thermometer were included in the ves¬
sel, it would need to be cased like that of Dr Hutton’s
hygrometer, to protect it from the pressure, which, by com¬
pressing the bulb, might cause it to show a temperature far
above the truth.
A hygrometer depending on the increase of pressure
which additional moisture produces in air not thoroughly
damp, will be found described under the article Meteor¬
ology; but one depending on the effect which humidity
has on the specific gravity of the air might be had by
suspending two very light air-tight cylinders of equal di¬
mensions and weight, from the arms of a sensible balance.
Thus, if the one cylinder were suspended in a jar contain¬
ing either a little water, to render the air thoroughly
damp, or some drying substance, to render it perfectly
dry, the difference in the specific gravities of the exterior
and included air would produce a corresponding disturb¬
ance in the equilibrium; because the more humid the air,
it is the lighter under the same pressure and temperature.
The jar would of course need to be closed with a lid,
leaving only a small opening for the free motion of a
thread 'or wire suspending the cylinder. The opposite
cylinder, too, would need to be suspended in some vessel
or cage, only so close as to be a protection from the agi¬
tation of the wind.
Since the specific gravity of aqueous vapour is to that
of dry air as five to eight, it is evident that when the cy¬
linders, which are to be equal in volume and weight, are
both suspended in air of the same temperature and pres¬
sure, but differing in humidity, any small weight which,
being applied to the more buoyant one, would maintain
the equilibrium, must be proportional to the difference in
the densities of the aqueous vapour surrounding these two
opposite cylinders. So that, if the air around the one wrere
made perfectly dry, the requisite counterpoise would just
equal three eighths of the weight of as. much aqueous va¬
pour as is contained in a volume of air contiguous to the
other cylinder, and equal its bulk. This, however, is not
meant to apply to fog or cloudy air, nor are we aware
that any other hygrometer does apply to fog. But the
same result might be had without any counterpoise, by
making the arm of the balance show on a graduated arc
the disturbance of equilibrium corresponding to such
counterpoise. The apparatus now proposed, though it
might be somewhat bulky and expensive, would indicate
in the most direct manner, and without regard to tempe¬
rature or pressure, the actual weight of moisture in the
air; and might therefore be of great service in trying and
verifying other hygrometers, with the view of obtaining
the real values of their indications, and perfecting their
theories. It would, in short, possess all the properties Hygrome-
which Saussure considered essential to a perfect hygro- try.
meter.
Having obtained, by means of such an instrument,^ the
grains ofwapour in a cubic foot of air at the temperature
t, the actual force of the vapour will be
t + 448
f ~ 5658-81
X g.
This obviously follows, from what was shown above, in
giving the rationale of Leroy’s mode of finding the dew¬
point, namely, that
30 /
2I2T 448:* + 448
257-2188: s'.
It was just observed that the density of aqueous va-'Effect of
pour is less than that of dry air at the same tempera- aqueous
ture and pressure, in the ratio of five to eight. Hence, at|'aPour ^
the same temperature, the specific gravity of a mixture
air and vapour whose tension is/, is to that of dry air un- ments>
der the same pressure />, as p — 'SVSf to p ; and there¬
fore, in the mensuration of heights, the weight of a co¬
lumn of" air and moisture will have an effect upon the
barometer which, cazteris paribus, will be less than that of
an equally long column of the dry air, in the ratio of
p — -375/ to p. So that, in conformity with the usual
principles on which heights are measured, if D be the dif¬
ference in the logarithms of the corrected pressures at
the upper and lower stations, p the mean pressure of the
intercepted column of air, t its mean temperature, and /
the mean force of its vapour, the height in fathoms will be
 1: x
p — -375f
t "h 448
480
10000D.
This includes the reduction of the temperature of the air
to 32°; because, under the same mean pressure, the weight
of the column of dry air at the temperature t is to its
weight at 32° as 480° to t + 448°, which is the well-
known rate of the expansion of air. We do not, however,
mean, that this or any formula is applicable, when the air
happens to be foggy or cloudy. Nor would it be of any
use here to speculate on, or to attempt to employ, any law
according to which the quantity of aqueous vapour may
be supposed to vary at different heights, in the form of
an independent atmosphere; because the wind and other
uncertain vicissitudes of weather derange every thing of
this sort, as is evident from the dew-point being found to
vary at different heights in a manner which cannot be re¬
ferred to any definite law which it might be supposed to
have followed in perfectly still air.
From the above investigation, it is evident that under Formula
the pressure y? the specific gravity of a mixture of air andh^ the? spe-
vapour whose tension is/, will be to that of dry air
thirty inches pressure at same temperature, as — ■.375/ture of air
to 30. So that, if the specific gravity of the dry air ofandvapour-
thirty inches pressure at 32° F. be unit, the specific gravi¬
ty of the mixture at any temperature t will be
p _ -375/ 480 _ 16^ — 6/
30 ^ £ 4- 448 t + 448
Professor Daniell has given, in the second edition of
his Essays (p. 177), an extensive table for finding the spe¬
cific gravity of a mixture of air and vapour, under a pres¬
sure of thirty inches, and for facilitating corrections for
the effects of vapour and temperature on barometric mea¬
surements ; but it requires more trouble to apply it to ei¬
ther of these purposes than the preceding formulae do;
and it is curious that Mr Daniell does not seem aware
that the method he follows for correcting measurements,
even when aided by that large table, is only suited to a
column of air and vapour in a state of saturation, and
132
HYGROMETRY.
Hygrome-whose mean pressure is exactly thirty inches; though it
try. rarely happens in the mensuration of heights, that the
mean pressure of the air and vapour forming the column
is so great. Thus, the force of vapour in the third co¬
lumn of his table being expressed in terms of a pressure
of thirty inches as the unit, can of course suit no other;
yet in an example on page 183, he applies it as if the
mean pressure, 28‘77 inches, had been the unit; and no
doubt, when the pressure is smaller, it will lead to a more
considerable error. A similar objection attaches to the
weight or density of vapour in his fourth column; and
besides, when he applies it as the “ increase of density
for weight of vapour,” he uses the density of vapour cor¬
responding to the dew-point, which is always greater than
the actual density, except when the vapour is in a state of
saturation. It is this step in Mr Daniell’s method which
restricts it to thoroughly damp air; whereas the formulae
we have given above are of general application, only they
are not suited to foggy or cloudy air, nor are we aware
that any other method is.
Deposi- We shall now examine some of the more remarkable
tions of phenomena resulting from or connected with the deposi-
moisture, tion of aqueous vapour from the atmosphere. The inge-
&c. from n;ous p)r James Hutton proposed a theory of rain, which
11 h a-em0" raany receive as the true explication of it, viz. that rain
Sp eiC’ is produced by the mixing of different masses of moist air
having different temperatures. It is well known from ex¬
periment, that the variations in the capacity of air, or
more properly of space for moisture, proceed in a higher
ratio than the corresponding variations of temperature, as
reckoned on the common scales, but still more so with re¬
ference to the scale which we deduced above; where it
is shown necessarily to follow from admitted principles,
that air expands in geometrical progression for equal in¬
crements of heat (though this, as we have already no¬
ticed, is not precisely the same with the scale which Dr
Dalton long ago proposed, and afterwards relinquished).
Hence, if the space occupied by the mixture of the dif¬
ferent masses of air have either the mean temperature
of the whole, or one still lower, its capacity for moisture
would come short of the mean, and so a deposition of rain,
&c. will ensue, if the air has previously been sufficiently
moist. There can be no question that this theory is a
possible one; but it would be no easy matter to prove
that it is the actual and ordinary mode in which rain is pro¬
duced. In the Quarterly Journal of Science for April 1829,
Mr Meikle adduces some reasons countenanced by experi¬
ments, which seem to render it very probable that clouds,
rain, &c. may often be traced to a nearer and more natural
source. The Huttonian theory does not readily explain
why rain is more commonly preceded or attended with a
falling barometer; for it is as easy to conceive mixtures of
air occurring w'hilst the barometer rises, as when it falls;
and the like objection attaches to the electrical theory of
rain. Indeed, on many occasions electricity is as service¬
able to the moderns as the occult qualities were to the an- Hygrou !
cients ; for by referring any difficulty to electricity, we can try.
either evade the trouble of solving it, or the mortification -
of acknowledging our inability to solve it.
But this prognostic of the falling barometer did not
long escape notice after the Torricellian experiment had
been made f and the explanation then given, and for long
after received, was, that the air, from its rarity, was unable
to buoy up or support the denser vapours, and so of course
down they came. It was not then known, that, at the same
temperature and pressure, moist air, especially if transpa¬
rent, is lighter than dry. Yet the observers of that period
certainly inferred, on very probable grounds, that there ex¬
isted a connection between the concomitant circumstances
of decreasing pressure and depositions of rain, &c. from the
atmosphere. They are further to be commended in seek¬
ing an explanation in a principle which they supposed to
be known; because reason and facts are always preferable
to hypotheses. We are far from reckoning their statical
explanation to have no share in the phenomena; because
the denser the air, the more will it retard or obstruct the
descent of minute drops of water or particles of snow, &c.;
but the suspension of transparent vapour depends on the
temperature alone. For it is now well known, as noticed
more particularly under the article Evaporation, that the
quantity of vapour contained in a given space is indepen¬
dent of the presence or density of any other elastic fluid
with which it is not chemically combined; or that the
maximum quantity of vapour which can exist in a given
space is the same at the same temperature as it would be
did that space contain nothing else. Whenever, therefore,
the volume of the same mass of air increases, the capacity
of that volume for moisture should increase at the same
rate, were the temperature to remain the same; but when
air dilates from a diminution of pressure, its temperature
always falls, if there be no accession of heat from some
other source. A fall in the barometer, however, is not ne¬
cessarily attended with a reduction of temp'erature near
the earth’s surface. On the contrary, the temperature
there may often be preserved, or even raised (as we shall
afterwards explain), by the intermixture of the higher and
lower strata, and by the retention of heat, such as had pre¬
viously escaped upward by radiation from the earth’s sur¬
face, but which ceases to do so after the sky is obscured by
dense clouds. But where none of these extraneous cir¬
cumstances interfere, the reduction of temperature proper¬
ly due to dilatation lessens the capacity of the space so
cooled for moisture, far more than the enlargement in
bulk increases it; so that, generally speaking, if the air
be sufficiently moist, a fall in the barometer, or rarefying
the air, should tend to produce clouds, rain, &c.
For example, the volume of a given mass of air will in¬
crease about a ninetieth part by being raised through a
height of a hundred yards; and the capacity of that vo¬
lume for moisture would increase in the same ratio did
1 We are aware that some of the first observers are said to have coupled rain with a rising or high barometer; and indeed there
are exceptions. When the wind is shifting from west to east, the barometer generally rises, though followed by copious rain; and,
on the other hand, when the wund shifts from east to west, the barometer usually falls, though it remains dry. The motion of the
barometer is in such cases to a certain extent connected with the earth’s diurnal rotation, and is thus accounted for by Mr Meikle,
in the Edinburgh Phil. Jour, for December 1827, page 108 :—“ The curvilinear motion of the wind, describing a circle about the earth,
in place of always lowering the barometer, as many have supposed, ought frequently to augment the pressure of the atmosphere, and
consequently to raise the barometer. At first sight this may seem paradoxical enough, if not thoroughly absurd ; but to solve it we
have only to consider, that when the wind is from the east, its diurnal motion round the earth’s axis is thereby lessened, its centri¬
fugal force will be of course weakened, and so the air will be more at liberty to gravitate or press freely on the earth’s surface.
Westerly winds, on the contrary, by conspiring with the diurnal motion, increase the centrifugal force, and diminish the pressure.”
The influence of centrifugal force on the pressure will likewise afford a satisfactory reason for hills generally measuring higher by
the barometer during wind than during a calm ; the air being probably accumulated, or the pressure increased, at the bottom of the
hill, by the wind describing almost a straight line, or a curve which is convex downward, while the air is dilated or the pressure di¬
minished at the upper station, by the wind describing over the summit a curve which, compared with the other, is very concave
downward. But the difference of centrifugal force at the two stations will have little to do with the diurnal rotation, if the wind
has the same velocity and direction at both, though the velocity is more likely to be greater at the summit than below. As for the
difference of distance from the earth’s centre, it is scarcely worth attending to.
HYGROMETRY.
133
Hv
Ex
me
tra
the
rai:
ome- the temperature continue the same. But if the tempera-
r. ture lost one degree, the capacity for moisture would be
-w' thereby diminished about a thirtieth; and therefore, upon
the whole, aqueous vapour in a state of saturation would
have about its forty-fifth part condensed into water by
being raised a hundred yards, namely, a thirtieth minus a
ninetieth. However, for reasons given above, and to be
farther illustrated by and by, it is more likely that the tem¬
perature of an ascending current of air will often lose 1°'5 F.
or even more, by gaining an elevation of a hundred yards,
which would lessen the capacity for vapour about one
twentieth. Hence, a rise of a hundred yards would con¬
dense about a twenty-sixth part of the vapour, viz. the
excess of a twentieth over a ninetieth.
ri_ Such at least would be the result, calculating from the
illus-foregoing principles ; but the following simple experiment
g the affords a more direct proof that sufficient rarefaction will
f always change common undried air into a cloud. Connect
a small glass flask, containing the ordinary air, with the re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, by means of an intervening stop¬
cock. Exhaust the receiver w ith the cock shut; then
looking attentively at the flask, open it suddenly into the
receiver, by turning the stop-cock, wdien a momentary
mistiness will be perceived in the flask, which is aqueous
vapour condensed into a cloud by the cold produced by
the rarefaction. The cloud is here formed under peculiar
disadvantages, being everywhere surrounded at so short a
distance by a warmer surface throwing in heat upon it,
and especially by a vitreous surface which is known to ra¬
diate powerfully. But a cloud which is visible in so small
a volume would be pretty dense on the large scale. We
have never tried this experiment without succeeding; but
we believe it may fail when the air contains little mois¬
ture, if the receiver be not large compared with the flask,
or if the connecting stop-cock have a very narrow bore.
It is, however, rare for the external air, in a state of free
circulation, to contain so little as a third of the total va¬
pour which could exist in it at the actual temperature.
Since both modes of reasoning lead to the same results,
we presume enough has now been said to warrant us to
conclude, that when air ascends sufficiently in the atmo¬
sphere, it must, from being cooled by dilating, constitute a
cloud, or, if moist enough, produce rain, &c. For example,
if a current of air traverse the ocean till it becomes very
moist; and then, if, on arriving at the shore, this current
have to rise higher as the land rises, we have at once the
reason why rain so frequently commences nearer the sea,
and extends thence forward with the wind,—why more ele¬
vated situations are more liable to rain,—and why a wind
from the land is more rarely attended with rain on its ap¬
proaching the shore. But there is reason to think that a
stream of air xvhich has been gradually elevated by tra¬
versing a rising ground, does not always descend again
where the surface declines, but, on the contrary, may con¬
tinue for some time at that height, or, from the upward
force it has already acquired, may even rise higher. In this
manner it may deposit rain while rolling far above the tran¬
quil plain, as well as when contending with the asperities
of the more elevated surface; especially since the humi¬
dity, after being condensed, will be borne along with the
current, taking some time to force its way down through
the air, and the more so as the air is more dense. If the
space over which the raining current passes be not satu¬
rated with moisture, the air may revaporize a part or the
whole of the rain descending in it. This is no doubt the
way in which clouds seem suspended in the air, or even at
rest in the wind, though, in fact, they may be falling, and
changing into transparent vapour, so as to float on unseen
m the wind beneath ; whilst their place is continually sup¬
plied by the successive condensation of other vapour arriv¬
ing with the current, and which, in its turn, is revaporized
or swept away by the wind. Much in the same way clouds Hygrome-
are apparently stationed over elevated peaks, or even over try.
large portions of hills; while the fact is, that their particles s—'■y''-'’
are moving onward, and others coming in their stead. The
apparent motions of clouds may therefore differ so much
from the true as to afford a most fallacious measure of the
velocity of the wind.
The circumstance of clouds frequenting hills, or appa- Theory of
rently moving towards them, will admit of a similar explana- vnountain-
tion, without the aid of an imaginary force residing in hills caPs-
for the express purpose of attracting clouds, rain, &c. The
notion that mountain-caps, or clouds hovering about the
tops of hills, are produced by the cooling influence of the
summit, does not appear to be better founded; because
such phenomena frequently occur when the air is consider¬
ably colder than the surface of the hill, though they may
not continue long of very different temperatures. But
were the cloud really owing to the colder temperature of the
summit, it would not only touch, but be densest next the
surface of the hill, wetting it profusely; whereas the cloud
is often observed to be several feet, or many yards, clear of
the hill, and the surface as dry at least as that of the sur¬
rounding country ; a clear proof that the hill is not colder
than the cloud. A more natural explanation, we presume,.
is, that the cloud called the mountain-cap is formed in that
part of a current of moist air which is sufficiently cooled
by the rarefaction attending its sudden increase of eleva¬
tion in ascending and rolling over the summit; and that
this current will regain its transparency so soon as it after¬
wards passes on to where it either absorbs as much heat, or
acquires an increase of pressure sufficient to restore its for¬
mer temperature. The reason why the cloud is frequently
observed to keep clear of the summit for a considerable
time, especially during a brisk wind, is, that the centrifugal
force due to the curvature of the current over the hill car¬
ries it clear of the summit, and the intervening arched
space is left to be occupied by comparatively still air, into
which the air recently cooled by rarefaction scarcely en¬
ters ; and by this means the higher temperature of the
summit is preserved for some time. In the same way it
often happens, that whilst a storm acts with fury on the face
of a precipice, a person on the summit only hears the sound,
and feels himself as in a calm ; the arched current, with its
copious load of rain or hail, being carried clear of the sum¬
mit by the centrifugal force, while the intermediate space
is left almost free from wind, hail, or rain. Since caps rare¬
ly occur on hills of moderate height, except when the air is
pretty moist, they are not unfrequently precursors of rain.
Much in the same way as in the case of the mountain-
cap, may the origin of the cloud called the cumulus be
traced, especially by means of its horizontal base, to the
dilatation of air. Such a cloud may be situated partly in
an ascending portion of a current of moist air, and partly
in a descending portion ; or it may sometimes occupy the
most elevated part of an arched-like sweep cf the current.
Whenever the air reaches the requisite elevation, it will be¬
come opaque, but will regain its transparency so soon as it
descends again sufficiently to have its temperature restored
by increase of pressure. The opacity should terminate un¬
derneath nearly all at the same level, or in a horizontal plane,
if the heat and moisture have been uniformly or proportion¬
ally distributed through the air of the current. When the
distribution has been unequal, the base will of course be
uneven, or may deviate more or less from a horizontal plane.
Perhaps some other modifications of clouds might be ac¬
counted for on similar principles. We may farther observe,
that clouds, when seen in profile, especially the several
parts of the cirrus, when changing into cirro-cumulus, ge¬
nerally appear as if leaning forward like shrubs in the di¬
rection in which the wind moves; and longer pieces of
cloud are commonly lower in the rear than in front.
134
Hygrome
^try^
Gradation
of tempe¬
rature in
the atmo¬
sphere.
HYGROMETRY.
It is evident that moisture which has ascended in the
form of transparent vapour, and descended again as rain,
snow, &c. must have left its latent heat above. But much
heat no doubt moves upward, from its natural propensity
to render the atmosphere of one temperature throughout
its whole height, and from the tendency of warmer air to
rise above the colder. There is therefore good reason for
concluding, that air which has just been suddenly elevated
and dilated should be thereby reduced to a much lower
temperature than what obtains in air which has remained
at that elevation for some considerable time, receiving heat
from below, from the sun, or other sources. This is bot i
in accordance with direct observation, and with the con¬
clusions at which we arrived when investigating the rela¬
tions of air to heat. For the entire fall of temperature pro¬
perly due to dilatation, as expressed by either of the formu¬
lae given above, viz.
(r + 218) -1^, or (r + 418) - l]
far exceeds a reduction of one degree for every 100 yarns
of ascent. In Gay-Lussac’s famous ascent, the pressuie
was reduced in the ratio of ■432 to 1 at a height of 7600
yards, and the temperature fell 720,54, or from 870-44 to
14°-9 ; so that the density was very nearly halved. With
these data, the first formula gives (87*44 + 448) j
— 110°*46 for the fall of temperature; but the second gives
about 9° less, or (535*44) j^(*432)^— l^j = 101o*35; and
so it ought, because in Gay-Lussac’s ascent the cube of
the pressure decreased more slowly than in the ratio o> the
fourth power of the density. However, there is icason to
think that when a strong wind runs up a steep acclivity, the
temperature would be found to decrease very neaily in such
a manner that the cube of the pressure would, as in these
formulas, vary as the fourth power of the density. To make
a proper trial of this, it would need to be done on air which
is free from any tendency to deposit moisture, as also when
the surface of the acclivity is dry, and completely shaded
by elevated clouds from the sun and the aspect of a clear
sky, in order that the temperature of the air and surface
might everywhere correspond. As the wind is more likely
to escape past the sides of an elevated peak than go right
over its top, an acclivity proper for this purpose would need
to be of such an extent that the temperatures and pressures
could be observed in parts of the currents where we were
sure the air was making no lateral escape. Calculating
then from the second formula, it would follow, that when
such a current ascends to where the pressure is reduced in
the ratio of •432 to 1, the temperature should fall from
87°*44 to — 13°*91, or 101°*35, which, being greater than
72°*54, shows that, in this case, the density would not
be reduced quite to the half.
The experiment already described for producing the
cloud in the flask shows that if an equal weight of air
in the upper regions did not contain far more heat than in
the lower, the sky would be perpetually obscured with
clouds. This is further illustrated by the circumstance,
that when the atmosphere is much agitated and intermix¬
ed to a great height, it becomes obscured above, no doubt
from the dilatation rendering the recently ascended air cold¬
er there than corresponds to the constituent temperature
of the vapour which it had brought along with it, while the
air beneath, which has recently descended, being warmed
to or above the dew-point of its vapour, by compression
becomes quite transparent, though previously it might
have been opaque. In such cases the clouds often pre¬
sent a deep-blue colour. However, it is long since Dr
Dalton (ChemicalPhilosophy, vol. i. p. 123) proposed the Hygron,
hypothesis that heat was diffused^ equally, or in the same try,
proportion as the density of the air, throughout the whole -jT’!!)'''
height of the atmosphere; in other words, that a given
weight of air anywhere in a perpendicular column contain- the&k';
ed the same quantity of heat. In this he was followed by
several eminent philosophers, though it is quite incompa¬
tible with the facts now stated, and would, besides, require
tbe temperature to decrease so rapidly with the elevation,
that aqueous vapour, by its superior elasticity, would al¬
ways shoot up through the air to where it would be con¬
densed by the cold into a cloud, keeping the sky perpe¬
tually obscured, which is contrary to observation.
It has become a common maxim, that dry air is less
transparent than moist; the latter ol couise being free
from fog or cloud. If it is meant that mere dryness im¬
pairs the transparency, we should be very apt to question
such doctrine, though we do not dispute that the atmo¬
sphere is less transparent in very droughty weather. The
reason of this we presume to be, that much solid matter is
then diffused through the atmosphere in the form of dust
or smoke, a great part of which, had it been sufficiently
moist, would have been too heavy to float in the air; and
some of the remainder, had it been more humid, might
have assumed the gaseous form, so as to be transpaient.
The temperature at the tops of mountains is generally
found to be lower than that of air at the same height over
the plains ; and a probable reason for it is, that mountains,
besides having their temperatures reduced by radiation, are
apt to be further cooled by and enveloped in recently dilated
ascending currents of air rolling over them. But here again
it should be remembered, that our knowledge of the tempe¬
rature at great heights over the plains has for the most part
been derived from a few ascents in balloons, undertaken
during the day, and only in very serene and mild weather,
when there was scarcely any interchange going on between
the air of the different strata. Nothing is known of the de¬
crease of temperature over the plains in a coarse winter
night. The same remarks apply in a great measure to ascents Deere
Illglit. jl iJC same i  “ r.
on very high mountains ; so that in all probability the mean^^
decrease of temperature in the atmosphere has hitherto been bab) 1
greatly underrated. Snow-clad mountains are, besides,
cooled, particularly in very dry weather, by the evapora¬
tion from the snow; and we may remark, by the by, that
at the same temperature, dry air is, for the above reason,
less efficacious in melting snow than moist. Because the
moist air, in place of spending its heat to form vapour, does,
in consequence of its touching a colder body, part with a
portion of the latent heat of the vapour it already contain¬
ed, which must greatly aid in liquefying the snow. The
melting of snow therefore does not depend solely on the
temperature of the wind, but likewise upon its being pre¬
viously charged with moisture. Besides, when dry air
passes over snow on a high mountain, the evaporation, and
consequently the reduction of temperature, will be great¬
ly promoted by the diminished pressure which obtains at
such heights. This may help to explain why snow-winds,
as they are called, should be found so intensely cold; for
the mere circumstance of wind having passed over a cold
mountain is not a sufficient reason why it should be cold
after its descent. But we may here observe by the by,
that the reason why snow at great elevations is so little
affected by the action of the sun’s rays, is, that the rarity
of the air induces such a tendency to evaporation, that
the moisture evaporates just as fast as it melts, and in this
way expends by far the greater part of the sun’s heat on
the formation of vapour. For since the vaporization of
water consumes about seven times as much heat as the
melting does, it follows that the heat spent in both melt¬
ing and evaporating an ounce of snow, would melt no less
than eight ounces without evaporation.
H Y L
H >zo- The explanation which we proposed above of the phe-
s- nomena of clouds seeming stationary in the wind, appears
to be applicable to water-spouts. We readily allow that
the ascent of the water in them has been long accounted
for in a very rational way, which is briefly this: The col¬
lision of currents of air from different quarters produces a
whirlwind; the air near the axis of rotation is rarefied by
the centrifugal force; and the pressure on the spot under
this attenuated air is necessarily diminished. Of course,
when a whirlwind occurs on the sea, a lake, or a river, the
water rises in the axis of rotation, on the same principle as
in the common pump. But the rarefied air itself ascends
in virtue of its levity. Its place is supplied by the con¬
course of the heavier adjacent air, which being rarefied in
its turn, ascends; and in this manner an upward current
of air is produced, which aids the ascent of the water.
Thus far the explanation is very satisfactory. The other
principal part of the phenomenon, the apparent descent of
a dense stem from the clouds, nearly over the spot where
the water rises, has been ascribed to electricity. But this
w'e cannot help regarding as an evasion savouring of occult
qualities, rather than an explanation. It seems nearly al¬
lied to the notion that hills attract clouds. The column
which apparently descends from the clouds (for any de¬
scent is altogether illusory till water actually fall) may be
accounted for in the same way as the mountain-cap, viz.
that it is aqueous vapour condensed by the cold due to
the rarefaction which is occasioned both by the whirling
motion of the air and by its rapid ascent. The more swift
the rotation, the greater obviously will be the rarefaction
and cold; and of course the lower, down in the axis or
stem will the condensation of moisture extend. The sound
and flashes of light seem to be thunder and lightning in
miniature, according to a theory which will presently be
explained. In attending to this and other atmospherical
phenomena, most people are embarrassed with a precon¬
ception which is not easily overcome, namely, that clouds
are solids, or something more substantial than the air in
which they are formed.
Thj v of We have been long of opinion that the usually received
er theory of thunder and lightning, as well as that of rain, is
unnecessarily complicated and far-fetched, and we there¬
fore regard the following as a more natural and simple
one. Volta supposed that bodies, while passing into the
gaseous form, absorb electricity, which they emit again
on being condensed. Several objections have been made
to this, particularly by M. Pouillet; but as they rest in a
HYGROSCOPE. The same with Hygrometer.
HYLOZOISTS, formed from uAjj, matter, and £wri, life,
the name of a sect of atheists amongst the ancient Greek
philosophers, who maintained that matter had some natu¬
ral perception, strictly so called, without animal sensation
or reflection ; but that this imperfect life occasioned that
organization whence sensation and reflection afterwards
arose. Of these, some held that there was only one life,
which they called a plastic nature, presiding regularly and
invariably over the whole corporeal universe, represented
by them as a kind of large plant or vegetable. These
were called the cosmoplastic and stoical atheists, because
the Stoics believed such a nature, though many of them
supposed it to be the instrument of the Deity. But others
I thought that every particle of matter was endowed wfith
life, and represented the mundane system as depending
upon a certain mixture of chance and plastic or orderly
nature united together. These were called the Stralo-
nici, from Strato Lampsacenus, a disciple of Theophrastus,
called also Physicus (Cicero De Nat. Dear. lib. i. cap.
13), who was first a celebrated Peripatetic, and after-
H Y M 135
great measure on the assumption that we possess perfect Hymen-
electrometers, and that experiments made with them are £eus*
free from every source of fallacy, such objections have not,
we think, disproved the more probable opinion of Volta,
which has been adopted b}' several eminent philosophers,
who maintain that the electricity emitted by the conden¬
sation of steam is always positive. Thunder is unknown
in the polar regions, and rarely occurs anywhere in cold
weather; from which it appears that thunder does not
take place in air incapable of containing much moisture,
as is farther confirmed by its being ordinarily produced in
a dense cloud. The mode of explaining thunder, &c.
which we would therefore prefer, is, that when a large
mass of warm and damp air is suddenly moved upwards,
it dilates, is cooled, and deposits a considerable share of
its moisture, which, in laying aside the gaseous form, parts
with positive electricity so suddenly, and in such quantity,
that the air is unable to conduct or convey it away in an
imperceptible form ; and thus the cloud, at the moment of
its formation, may in ordinary language be said to emit
lightning. The sound may be partly a tremor which the
air sustains at the moment the pressure is relaxed by the
vapour suddenly losing the elastic form, and may be part¬
ly a tremor due to an effort of the electricity to make its
escape from the cloud. The thunder and lightning which
sometimes attend the condensations of large volumes of
steam emitted by volcanoes, are favourable to this theory,
as are likewise the noise and lightning of the water-spout
already mentioned, if not some parts of the northern lights.
A theory very similar to this, though more in detail, was
not long ago proposed to the Royal Society, by the Rev.
G. Fisher; but the same thing had been previously sug¬
gested by Mr Meikle, in the Quarterly Journal of Science
for April 1829.
Several important matters connected with this subject
we have not felt warranted to introduce, on account of
their not being yet determined by sufficiently extensive
observations ; such as the maximum, mean, and minimum
dew-points for different hours of the day, for different sea¬
sons of the year, for different heights in the atmosphere,
and in different countries. We now take leave of the sub¬
ject by referring again to the various works already cited
here, and in the article Evaporation ; as also to the Re¬
ports of the British Association, particularly the very ex¬
cellent one by Professor Forbes on Meteorology. See
also the articles Atmosphere, Aurora-Borealis, Cli¬
mate, Cloud, Dew, &c. in this work. (e. e. e.)
wards formed this new system of atheism for himself.
Besides these two forms of atheism, some of the ancient
philosophers were Hylopathians, or Anaximandrians, de¬
riving all things from dead and stupid matter, in the way
of qualities and forms, generative and corruptible ; and
others again adopted the atomical or Democritical sys¬
tem, by which the production of the universe is ascribed
to atoms and figures.
HYMENiEAL, something belonging to marriage, and
so called from Hymen.
HYMENiEUS, or Hymen, the god of marriage amongst
the Greeks, the son of Apollo and Calliope, or of Bacchus
and Venus. Others have thought that he was an Athe¬
nian youth, who disguised himself in female attire, that
he might accompany his mistress to Eleusis, when she
went with others to offer up sacrifice. They were seized
by pirates and carried to sea ; but Hymenams encouraged
his female companions, and with their assistance put the
pirates to death. The Athenians were so pleased at the
rescue of their friends, that they allowed him to marry
the lady of his affection, who had been refused to him
136
HYP
Hypatia.
Hymenop-till that time. Hymenaeus enjoyed so much happiness
tera from his marriage, that the Athenians invoked him so¬
lemnly at their nuptials, as the Romans did Thalassius.
He is represented by the poets as crowned with flowers,
particularly with marjoram, having a jlammeum (veil of
a flame colour) on his head, and a torch in his hand.
(Serv. Eel. viii. 30; 2En. iv. 99, 127; Donat. Ter. Adel.
v. 7, 6 ; Lactan. Stat. Theb. iii. 283.)
HYMENOPTERA, derived from membrane, and
crefov, wing, in the Linnaean system of natural history, is
an order of insects having four membranaceous wings,
whilst the tails of the females are furnished with stings,
which in some are used for instilling poison, and in others
for merely piercing the bark and leaves ot trees, and the
bodies of other animals, in which they deposit their eggs.
HYMETTUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Attica, near Athens, celebrated for its marble quarries,
and for its excellent honey. Pliny says that the orator
Crassus was the first who had columns executed from the
marble of Hymettus.
HYMN, a song or ode in honour of God, or a poem,
proper to be sung, composed in honour of some deity.
The word is Greek, u/avo;, hymn, formed from the verb
ioa?, celebro, I celebrate. Isidore remarks on this word,
that hymn is properly a song of joy, full of the praises
of God, by which, according to him, it is distinguished
from threna, which is a mourning song, full of lamenta-
tion.
St Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, is said to have been the
first who composed hymns to be sung in churches; and
he was followed by St Ambrose. Most of those contain¬
ed in the Roman breviary were composed by Prudentius.
They have been translated into French verse by Messieurs
de Port-Royal. In the Greek liturgy there are four
kinds of hymns; but the word is not employed in the
sense of a praise offered in verse, but simply of a laud or
praise. The angelic hymn, or Gloria in excelsis, is of the
first kind; the trisagion is of the second; the Cherubic
hymn is of the third; and the hymn of victory and tri¬
umph, called svivixioi, the last.
The hymns or odes of the ancients generally consisted
of three sorts of stanzas; one of which, called strophe,
was sung by the band as they walked from east to west;
another, called antistrophe, was performed as they return¬
ed from west to east; and the third part, or epode, was
sung before the altar. The Jewish hymns were accom¬
panied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, to assist the
voices of the Levites and the people.
HYPALLAGE, amongst grammarians, a species of hy¬
perbaton, consisting in a mutual permutation of one case
for another. Thus Virgil says, Bare classibus austros,
for dare classes austris; and again, Nec dum Mis labra
admovi, for nec dum ilia labris admovi.
HYPANTE, or Hyperpante, a name given by the
Greeks to the feast of the presentation of Jesus in the
temple. This word, which signifies lowly or humble meet¬
ing, was given to this feast from the meeting of old Simeon
and Anna the prophetess in the temple, when Jesus was
brought thither.
HYPATIA, a learned and beautiful lady of antiquity,
the daughter of Theon, a celebrated philosopher and ma¬
thematician, and president of the Alexandrian school, was
born at Alexandria about the end of the fourth century.
Her father, encouraged by her extraordinary genius, had
her not only educated in all the ordinary accomplishments
of her sex, but instructed in the most abstruse sciences.
In philosophy, geometry, and astronomy she made such
progress, that she was justly accounted the most learned
person of her time. At length she was thought worthy
to succeed her father in the government of the school
of Alexandria, and to teach from that chair where Ammo-
H Y P
nius, Hierocles, and many other great men, had taught be- Hjp,
fore ; and this at a time too when men of great learning ||
abounded both at Alexandria and in many other parts of H.VI«
the Roman empire. Her fame was so extensive, and her ton
worth so universally acknowledged, that her prelections "
were attended by a crowded auditory. One cannot re¬
present to himself, without pleasure, the flower of all the
youth of Europe, Asia, and Africa, sitting at the feet of
a very beautiful woman (for such we are assured Hypatia
was), all greedily imbibing instruction from her mouth,
and many of them, doubtless, love from her eyes; though
we are not sure that she ever listened to any solicitations,
since Suidas, who talks of her marriage with Isiodorus,
at the same time relates, not very consistently, that she
died a maid.
Her scholars were as eminent as they were numerous.
One of them was the celebrated Synesius, who afterwards
became bishop of Ptolemais. This ancient Christian Pla-
tonist everywhere bears the strongest as well as the most
grateful testimony to the virtue of his tutoress ; and never
mentions her without the most profound respect, and some¬
times in terms of affection little short of adoration. But
it was not Synesius and the disciples of the Alexandrian
school alone who admired Hypatia for her virtue and learn¬
ing. Never was woman more caressed by the public, and
yet never woman maintained a more unspotted character.
She was held as an oracle for her wisdom, which made her
be consulted by the magistrates in all important cases ; and
this frequently drew her into the greatest intercourse with
men, without the least censure of her manners. In a word,
when Nicephorus intended to pay the highest compliment
to the Princess Eudocia, he thought he could not do it bet¬
ter than by calling her another Hypatia.
Whilst Hypatia thus reigned as the brightest ornament
of Alexandria, Orestes governed the same place for the
Emperor Theodosius, and Cyril was bishop or patriarch.
Orestes having received a liberal education, could not but
admire Hypatia; and, as a wise governor, he frequently
consulted her. But this, together with an aversion which
Cyril entertained to Orestes, proved fatal to the lady. One
day about five hundred monks having assembled, attacked
the governor, and would have killed him, had he not been
rescued by the townsmen; and the respect which Orestes
entertained for Hypatia causing her to be traduced amongst
the Christian multitude, they dragged her from her chair,
tore her in pieces, and burned her limbs. Cyril is more
than suspected of having fomented this tragedy. Cave in¬
deed endeavours to remove from the patriarch the impu¬
tation of so horrid an action, and lays it upon the Alex¬
andrian mob in general, whom he calls levissimum homi-
num genus, a very fickle, inconstant race. But though Cyril
should be allowed to have been neither the perpetrator,
nor even the contriver, of the murder, yet it is strongly
suspected that he did not discountenance it in the manner
he ought to have done; and this suspicion is greatly con¬
firmed by reflecting that he was so far from blaming the
outrage committed by the monks upon Orestes, that he
afterwards received the dead body of Ammonius, one ot
the most forward in that outrage, who had grievously
wounded the governor, and who was justly punished with
death.
HYPER, a Greek preposition frequently used in com¬
position, where it denotes excess; its literal signification
being above or beyond.
HYPERBATON, in Grammar, a figurative construc¬
tion, inverting the natural and proper order of words and
sentences. The several species of the hyperbaton are,
the anastrophe, the hysteron-proteron, the hypallage, syn-
chysis, tmesis, parenthesis, and the hyperbaton strictly so
called.
Hyperbaton, strictly so called, is a long retention ot
HYP
r- the verb which completes the sentence, as in the follow-
i ing example from Virgil:
HYP
137
■bo- Interea Reges: ingenti mole Latinus
Quadrijugo vehitur curru, cui tempora circum
Aurati bis sex radii fulgentia cingunt,
Solis avi specimen : bigis it Turnus in albis,
Rina manu lato crispans hastilia ferro:
Hinc Pater .Eneas, Romanse stirpis origo,
Sidereo flagrans clypeo et coelestibus armis ;
Et juxta Ascanius, magnae spes altera Romae :
Procedunt castris.
HYPERBOLA, a curve formed by cutting a cone in a
direction parallel to its axis. See Conic Sections.
Hyperbola Deficient is a curve having only one asymp¬
tote, though two hyperbolic legs running out infinitely by
the side of the asymptote, but contrariwise.
HYPERBOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure by which the truth
and reality of things are either enlarged or diminished, ex¬
aggerated or depreciated. _ .
An object uncommon in respect of size, that is either very
great of its kind or very little, strikes us with surprise ; and
this emotion forces upon the mind a momentary conviction
that the object is greater or less than it is in reality. The
same effect precisely attends figurative grandeur or little¬
ness ; and hence arises the hyperbole, which expresses this
momentary conviction. A writer, taking advantage of this
natural delusion,, enriches his description greatly by the
hyperbole; and the reader, even in his coolest moments,
relishes this figure, being sensible that it is the operation
of nature upon a warm fancy.
It cannot have escaped observation, that a writer is ge¬
nerally more successful in magnifying by a hyperbole than
in diminishing. The reason is, that a minute object con¬
tracts the mind, and fetters its powers of imagination ; but
the mind, dilated and inflamed with a grand object, moulds
with great facility objects for its gratification. Longinus,
treating a diminishing hyperbole, cites the following ludi¬
crous thought from a comic poet: “ He was owner of a
bit of ground not larger than a Lacedaemonian letter.”
But, for the reason now given, the hyperbole has far the
greater force in magnifying objects.
Quintilian holds the hyperbole to be a natural figure:
“ For,” says he, “ not contented with truth, we naturally
incline to augment or diminish beyond it; and for this rea¬
son the hyperbole is familiar even amongst the vulgar and
illiterate ;” and he adds, very justly, “ that the hyperbole is
then proper, when the object of itself exceeds the common
measure.”
HYPERBOREAN, in Ancient Geography, a term ap¬
plied to those people and places which were to the north¬
ward of the Scythians. The ancients had but very little
acquaintance with the Hyperborean regions ; and all that
they tell us respecting them is doubtful, and much of it po¬
sitively false. According to Diodorus Siculus, the Hyper¬
boreans were so called by reason that they dwelt beyond
the wind Boreas; iwrag signifying above or beyond, and
Beocug, Boreas, the north wind. This etymology is natu¬
ral and plausible, notwithstanding all that has been said
against it by Rudbeck, who contends that the word is Go¬
thic, and signifies nobility. Herodotus doubts whether or
not there were any such nations as the Hyperboreans.
Strabo, wdio professes to believe that there were, does not
take hyperborean to signify beyond Boreas or the north, as
Herodotus understood it. The preposition iwrEf, in this
case, he supposes only to help to form a superlative, so
that hyperborean, on his principles, means no more than
most northern; from which it appears that the ancients
themselves scarcely knew what the name meant. Several
of our modern geographers, as Hoffman, Cellarius, and
others, have placed the Hyperboreans in the northern parts
of the European continent, that is, amongst the Siberians and
VOL. XII.
Samoieds. According to them, the Hyperboreans of the Hyperca-
ancients were those in general who lived farthest to the talectjc
north. The Hyperboreans of our days are those Russians
who inhabit the country between the Volga and the White
Sea. According to Cluvier, the name Celts was synony¬
mous with that of Hyperboreans.
HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and Latin poetry,
is applied to a verse that has one or two syllables too much,
or beyond the regular and just measure ; as,
Musas sorores sunt Minervae :
Also,
Musas sorores Palladis lugent.
HYPERCRITIC, an over-rigid censor or critic; one
who will let nothing pass, but animadverts severely on the
slightest fault. The word is compounded of super,
over, above, beyond; and xg/nxoj, from judex, a
verbal form of Kgnuti, judico, I judge.
HYPERDULIA, in the Roman Catholic theology, is
the worship rendered to the holy virgin. The word is
Greek, wrsgduXs/*, composed of 'jfsp, above, and bShtta., wor¬
ship, service. The worship offered to saints is called dulia ;
and that to the mother of God, hyperdulia, as being supe¬
rior to the former.
EIYPERIDES, a celebrated orator of Athens, was son
of Glaucippus, respecting whose private history we are
able to collect a few facts from the Orations of Demos¬
thenes and the Bibliotheca of Photius (p. 1479). The
exact date of his birth is not known ; but he was put to
death B. c. 322, the same year in which Demosthenes poi¬
soned himself. He studied philosophy under Plato, but
not along with Isocrates, as is stated by Photius; for Iso¬
crates was born b. c. 436, and must have been far advanced
in years when Hyperides was born. Hyperides adopted
the same line of politics as Demosthenes, and opposed with
great perseverance the proceedings of Philip of Macedon.
That monarch, dreading lest the Athenians should be in¬
clined to throw obstacles in the way of his projects, took
into his pay many of the chief orators of Athens, at the
head of whom was iEschines. Demosthenes, who was
chief of the opposite party, recommended an alliance with
the king of Persia, whose dominions were equally threat¬
ened by Philip; and it would appear that Hyperides and
Ephialtes were employed in a secret negotiation for this
purpose. When Euboea was threatened with invasion by
Philip, Hyperides, finding that the Athenians were wast¬
ing the time in vain debates, had sufficient influence with
the richer citizens to prevail upon them to fit out a fleet of
forty triremes, two of which he equipped at his own ex¬
pense. He was employed under Phocion, in the expedi¬
tion which was sent to the assistance of Byzantium, when
it was besieged by Philip, b. c. 339; and arter the battle
of Chseronea, B. c. 338, it was through his energetic means
that Athens obtained an honourable peace, tie was af¬
terwards accused by Aristogeiton of having violated at this
period all the laws of the republic ; but in his defence he
made that celebrated reply, that he had been dazzled by
the arms of the Macedonians, and that it was not he, but
the battle of Clueronea, which had caused the decree to
pass of which he was now accused. He was one of the
few whose lives were demanded of the Athenians by Alex¬
ander, after the destruction of Thebes, b. c. 335; but n
appears that Demades contrived to appease the wrath of
the prince, and Hyperides was allowed to remain in his
country. He seems to have been honourably distinguished
from the orators of his time by an entire freedom from
avarice; he resisted the bribes of Harpalus, and was there¬
fore employed to prosecute those who had allowed them¬
selves to be corrupted; he was also one of the accusers oi
Demosthenes. The troops, however, which Harpalus had
brought with him he advised the Athenians to retain , and
by means of these, upon the death of Alexander, b c. 323,
138 HYP
HYP
Hyperm- they were able to commence the Lamian war. Leosthenes
nestra general fell, with many of his troops ; and the funeral
Hypo- orati°n which was pronounced over them by Hyperides
gaeum. wras considered by the ancients as one of the most beauti-
ful of its kind. After the defeat of the Greeks, Hyperides
was banished from Athens; and having retired to Angina,
was there reconciled to Demosthenes. Being pursued by
the Macedonians, he fled to the Temple of Neptune at
Hermina, and he was there seized by Archias, who carried
him to Corinth, where Antipater then was. Being sub¬
jected to torture, some say that he bit oifliis tongue, that he
might not be induced to betray the secrets of his country;
whilst others assert that it was cut out by order of Antipater,
and that he was then put to death, b. c. 322. Cicero places
him immediately after Demosthenes as an orator. There
were fifty-two orations of his extant in the time of Pho-
tius, and twenty-five others which Photius did not consi¬
der as genuine. None of his works have been preserved.
HYPERMNESTRA, in fabulous history, one of the
fifty daughters of Danaus, king of Argos. She alone re¬
fused to obey the cruel order which Danaus had given to
all his daughters, to murder their husbands the first night
of their marriage ; and therefore saved the life of Lynceus,
after she had made him promise not to violate her virgi¬
nity. Danaus, enraged at her disobedience, confined her
closely in prison, whence Lynceus delivered her some time
afterwards.
HYPHEN, an accent or character in grammar, imply¬
ing that two words are to be joined, or connected into one
compound word, and marked thus - ;• as pre-established,
jive-leaved, and the like. Hyphens also serve to connect
the syllables of such words as are divided by the end of
the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the Materia Medico, such medicines as
in any way produce sleep, whether called narcotics, hyp¬
notics, opiates, or soporifics.
HYPO, a Greek particle, retained in the composition
of different words borrowed from that language, and lite¬
rally denoting under, beneath. In this sense it stands op¬
posed to wrig, supra, above.
HYPOBOLE, or Subjection (from wro, and fictKku, I
cast), in Rhetoric, a figure which is so called because se¬
veral things are mentioned which seem to make for the
contrary side, and each of them is refuted in order. This
figure, when complete, consists of three parts ; a proposi¬
tion, an enumeration of particulars with the answers to
these, and a conclusion.
HYPOCATHARSIS (compounded of mo, under, and
xatiaipu, I purge), in Medicine, a too faint or feeble purga¬
tion.
HYPOCAUSTUM, amongst the Greeks and Romans,
a subterraneous place, where there was a furnace to heat
the baths. The word is Greek, formed from the preposi¬
tion mo, under, and the verb xcc/w, to burn. Amongst the
moderns, the hypocaustum is that place where the fire is
kept which warms a stove or hot-house.
HYPOCHONDRIAC Passion, a disease in men, si¬
milar to the hysterical affection in women.
HYPOCRISY, viroxpffig, denotes dissimulation with re¬
gard to the moral or religious character. In other words,
it signifies one who feigns to be what he is not; and it is
generally applied to those who assume the appearances of
virtue or religion, without in reality having any thing of
either.
HYPOGvEUM, Moyaiov, formed from mo, tender, and
youu, earth, in the ancient architecture, is a name common
to all the parts of a building which are under ground ; as
the cellar, butteries, and such like places. The term hy-
pogeeum was used by the Greeks and Romans for subter¬
raneous tombs in which they buried their dead.
Hypog.£UM, Moyaiov, in Astrology, is a name given to
the celestial houses which are below the horizon; especi- Hyn
ally the imum codi, or bottom of heaven. tri'
HYPOGASTRIC, an appellation given to the internal ||
branch of the iliac artery. Hypott
HYPOGLOTTIS, or Hypoglossis, composed of iiro,
under, and yXuirra, tongue, in Anatomy, is a name given to
two glands of the tongue. There are four large glands of
the tongue ; two of them, called hypoglottides, are situated
under it, near the vence ramdares, one on each side of the
tongue. They serve to secrete a kind of serous matter of
the nature of saliva, which is discharged into the mouth by
little ducts near the gums.
Hypoglottis, or Hypoglossis, in Medicine, denotes an
inflammation or ulceration under the tongue, called also
ranula.
HYPOPYON, in Medicine, a collection of purulent
matter under the corner of the eye.
HYPOSCENIUM, in Antiquity, a partition under the
pulpit or logeum of the Greek theatre, appointed for the
music.
HYPOSTASIS, a Greek term, literally signifying sub¬
stance, or subsistence, and used in theology for person. The
word is Greek, Mocraoig, compounded of mo, sub, under,
and iarrifii, sto, existo, I stand, I exist; as if we were to say
subsistentia. Thus we hold that there is but one nature
or essence in God, but three hypostases or persons. The
term hypostasis is of a very ancient standing in the church.
St Cyril repeats it several times, as also the phrase “ union
according to hypostasis.” The first time it occurs is in a
letter from that father to Nestorius, where he uses it in¬
stead of ergotrwrov, the word we commonly render person,
which did not seem expressive enough. “ The philoso¬
phers,” says St Cyril, “ have allowed three hypostases.
They have extended the divinity to three hypostases ; they
have even sometimes used the word trinity ; and nothing
was wanting but to have admitted the con substantiality of
the three hypostases, to show the unity of the divine na¬
ture, exclusively of all triplicity in respect of distinction of
nature, and not to hold it necessary to conceive any re¬
spective inferiority of hypostases.”
This term occasioned great dissensions in the ancient
church ; first amongst the Greeks, and afterwards amongst
the Latins. In the council of Nice, hypostasis was defin¬
ed to denote the same thing with essence or substance ; so
that it was heresy to say that Jesus Christ was of a dif¬
ferent hypostasis from the Father; but custom altered the
meaning of the term. In the necessity they were under
of expressing themselves strongly against the Sabellians,
the Greeks made choice of the word hypostasis, and the
Latins of the word persona; a change which proved the
occasion of endless disagreement. The phrase r^ug mo-
vrafcig, used by the Greeks, scandalized the Latins, whose
usual way of rendering McCTueig in their language was by
substantia. The barrenness of the Latin tongue in theo¬
logical phrases allowed them but one word for the two
Greek ones, ouovaand MotSruGK, and thus disabled them from
distinguishing essence and hypostasis; for which reason they
chose rather to use the term ires personae, and tres hypo¬
stases. But an end was put to disputation, in a synod held
at Alexandria about the year 362, at which St Athanasius
assisted; and from this time the Latins made no great
scruple of saying ires hypostases, nor the Greeks of say¬
ing three persons.
HYPOTHECA, in the Civil Law, an obligation by
which the effects of a debtor are made over to his credi¬
tor, in security of his debt. The word comes from the
Greek Mo6r,xri, a thing subject to some obligation, from the
verb MoriQri/jjUi, suppo7io, 1 am subjected.
As the hypotheca is an engagement procured on pur¬
pose for the security of the creditor, various means have
been employed to secure to him the benefit of the con-
H Y P
,the- vention. The use of the pawn or pledge is the most an-
e cient, which is almost the same thing with the hypotheca,
all the difference consisting in this, that the pledge is put
iesis’into the creditor’s hands, whereas, in a simple hypotheca,
the thing remained in the possession of the debtor. It
was found more easy and commodious to engage an estate
by a civil covenant than by an actual delivery. Accord¬
ingly the expedient was first practised amongst the Ro¬
mans; and from them the Greeks borrowed both the
name and the thing ; only, the better to prevent frauds,
they used to fix some visible mark on the thing, that the
public might know it was hypothecated or mortgaged by
the proprietor; but the Romans, looking on such advertise¬
ments as injurious to the debtor, forbade the use of them.
The Roman lawyers distinguished four kinds of hypo¬
thecs ; the conventional, which was with the will and con¬
sent of both parties; the legal, which was appointed by
law, and for that reason called tacit; the praetor’s pledge,
when by the flight or non-appearing of the debtor, the
creditor was put in possession of his effects; and the ju¬
diciary, when the creditor was put in possession by vir¬
tue of a sentence of the court.
The conventional hypotheca is subdivided into general
and special. The hypotheca is general, when all the debt¬
or's effects, both present and future, are engaged to the
creditor. It is special, when limited to one or more par¬
ticular things. With regard to the tacit hypotheca, the
civilians reckon no less than twenty-six different species
of this genus.
HYPOTHENUSE, in Geometry, the longest side of a
right-angled triangle, or that which subtends the right
angle.
HYPOTHESIS, formed from u<ro, under, and po-
sitio, from udr\iu, pono, I put, is a proposition or principle
which we suppose, or take for granted, in order to draw
conclusions for the proof of a point in question.
Every conditional or hypothetical proposition may be
distinguished into hypothesis and thesis. The first re¬
hearses the conditions under which any thing is affirmed
or denied; and the second is the thing itself affirmed or
denied. Thus, in the proposition, a triangle is half of a
parallelogram, if the bases and altitudes of the two be
equal, the latter part is the hypothesis, and the former a
thesis.
In strict logic, we are never to pass from the hypothesis
to the thesis ; that is, the principle supposed must be
proved to be true, before we require the consequence to
be allowed.
It has become common, since the time of Newton, to
decry all reasoning from hypotheses, as useless and unphi-
losophical. But was not the theory of gravitation itself
founded upon a conjecture, that is, upon an hypothesis ?
It was founded upon the supposition that the power which
regulates the fall of heavy bodies also regulates the mo-
H Y T 139
tion of the moon ; a supposition upon which he proceed- Hypotra-
ed to reason before it was verified by calculation. The chelion
subject of the use and abuse of hypotheses in philosophi- J1
cal inquiries has been admirably illustrated by Mr Stew- j
art, in the second volume of his Philosophy of the Mind ;
and to that book we refer those who wish to form accu¬
rate notions on this subject.
HYPOTRACHELION, in Architecture, is used for a
little frize in the Tuscan and Doric capital, between the
astragal and annulets, and which is also called the colerin
and gorgerin. The word is applied by some authors in a
more general sense, to the neck of any column, or that
part of its capital below the astragal.
HYPSISTARII (formed from highest), a sect
of heretics in the fourth century, who were so called from
the profession they made of worshipping the Most High
God. ' _ .
The doctrine of the Hypsistarians may be considered
as an assemblage of Paganism, Judaism, and Christianity.
They adored the Most High God with the Christians ; but
they also revered fire and lamps with the heathens, and
observed the sabbath, and the distinction of clean and un¬
clean things with the Jews.
The Hypsistarii bore a near resemblance to the Eu-
chites, or Massalians.
HYRCANIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of the
Farther Asia, lying to the south-east of the Mare Hyrca-
num or Caspium; with Media on the west, Parthia on
the south, and Margiana on the east.
HYSTERICAL Affection, or Passion (formed from
iiarsgu,, womb), a disease in women, called also suffocation
of the womb, and vulgarly fits of the mother. It is a spas-
modico-convulsive affection of the nervous system, pro¬
ceeding from the womb.
HYSTERON Proteron, in Grammar and Rhetoric,
a species of the hyperbaton, in which the proper order of
construction is so inverted, that the part of any sentence
which should naturally come first is placed last. Thus in
Terence, Valet et vivit, for vivit et valet; and in Virgil,
Moriamur, et in media anna ruamus, for In media arma
ruamus, et moriamur.
HYTHE, a borough town of the county of Kent, in the
parish of Saltwood, in the hundred of Horne, sixty-seven
miles from London. It is one of the Cinque Ports, and as
such returns one member to the House of Commons, who
is chosen by about 420 voters. It consists chiefly of one
long and well-built street, parallel to the shore, about a
mile from the sea. In a vault under the church is a vast
collection of dry human bones, which, according to tradi¬
tion, are the remains of a great battle fought here be¬
tween the Danes and the Britons antecedent to the Nor¬
man conquest. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
1365, in 1811 to 2318, in 1821 to 2181, and in 1831 to
2287.
140
I
I A M
I T or i, the ninth letter and third vowel of the alphabet,
II is pronounced by throwing the breath suddenly
Iambus. aga;nst the palate, as it comes out of the larynx, with a
smail hollowing of the tongue, and nearly the same open¬
ing of the lips as in pronouncing a or e. Its sound varies ;
in some words it is long, as high, mind; in others short, as
bid, hid, sin; in others, again, it is pronounced like?/, as in
collier, onion ; and in a few it sounds like ee, as in machine,
magazine, and the like. No English word ends in i, e be¬
ing either added to it, or else the i turned into y. But
besides the vowel, there is tlnejod consonant, which, be¬
cause of its different pronunciation, has likewise a differ¬
ent form, thus, J, j. In English it has the soft sound of
g ; nor is it used excepting when g soft is required before
vowels, where g is usually hard. Thus we say, jack, jet,
join, instead of gack, get, goin, which would be contrary
to the genius of the English language.
I, used as a numeral, signifies one, and stands for as
many units as it is times repeated: thus I. one, II. two,
III. three ; and when put before a higher numeral, it sub¬
tracts itself, as IV. four, IX. nine, and so on. But when
placed after it, as many are added to the higher nu¬
meral as there are I’s added. Thus, VI. is 5 + 1, or six;
VII. 5+2, or seven; VIII. 5 + 3, or eight. The an¬
cient Romans likewise used 10 for 500, CIO for 1000,
100 for 5000, CCIOO for 10,000. Further than this
they did not go in their notation, but, when necessary,
repeated the last number, as CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, for
200,000 ; CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, for 300,000;
and so on. The ancients sometimes changed i into u ; as
decumus for decimus; maxumus for maximus, and so on.
According to Plato, the vowel i is proper to express de¬
licate but humble things, as in the verse of Virgil :
Accipiunt inimicum imbrern, rimisque fatiscunt.
7, used as an abbreviature, is often substituted for the
word Iesus, of which it is the first letter.
IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a sort of verse, so called
from its consisting either wholly, or in a great measure, of
iambuses. See Iambus.
Ruddiman makes two kinds of iambic verse, viz. dimeter
and trimeter ; the former containing four feet, and the lat¬
ter six. And as to the variety of feet, they consist wholly
of iambuses, as in the two following verses of Horace :
l 2 3 4 5 G
Dim. Inarjsit se|stuo|sius|
Trim. Suis|et ijpsa Itojma vi|ribus|ruit.
Or a dactyle, spondee, anapest, and sometimes a tri-
brachys, obtain in the odd places ; and the tribrachys also
in the even places, excepting the last. Examples of all
this may be seen in Horace. Thus,
1 2 3 4 5 6
Canidi|a tra|ctavit|dapes|
Vide | re prope|rantesjdomum|
Quoquo|scele|sti rui[tis aut|cur dexjteris.
Prius|que cce|lum si|det in|ferius|mari.
Aliti|bus atjque cani|bus homi|cid’ He|ctorem.
Pavidum|que lepo|r’ aut adjvenam laqueo|gruem.
IAMBUS, in the Greek and Latin prosody, a poetical
foot, consisting of a short syllable followed by a long one ;
as in
0-0— 0-0-
©say, Deb, Vficas.
I B Y
“ Syllaba longa brevi subjecta vocatur iambus,” as Horace Iberia
expresses it; and he also calls the iambus a swift, rapid |
foot, pes citus. ^jce'
The word, according to some, took its rise from Iambus,
the son of Pan and Echo, who invented this foot; or, per¬
haps, who only used sharp, biting expressions to Ceres,
when afflicted for the death of Proserpine. Others de¬
rive it from the Greek /05, venenum, poison ; or from ta/x-
maledico, 1 rail or revile, because the verses com¬
posed of iambuses were at first used only in satire.
IBERIA, Spain, so called by the ancients, from the
river Iberus or Ebro.
Iberia was also the name of an inland country of
Asia, having to the west Colchis, with part of Pontus ; to
the north Mount Caucasus ; on the east Albania; and on
the south Armenia Magna. It is now the western part
of Georgia.
IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet who flourished 550 b. c.,
and of whose works there are only a few fragments re¬
maining. It is said that he was assassinated by robbers,
and that when dying he called upon some cranes he saw
flying past to bear witness. Not long afterwards one of
the murderers seeing some cranes, said to his companions,
“ There are the witnesses of Ibycus’s deathwhich be¬
ing reported to the magistrates, the assassins were put to
the torture, and having confessed the fact, were hanged.
And hence arose the proverb Ibyci Grues.
ICE, a solid, transparent, and brittle body, formed of
some fluid, particularly water, by means of cold.
M. Lemery observes, that ice is only a re-establish¬
ment of the parts of water in their natural state; that
the mere absence of fire is sufficient to account for this
re-establishment; and that the fluidity of water is a real
fusion, like that of metals exposed to the fire; differing
only in this, that a greater quantity of fire is necessary
to the one than the other. Galileo was the first who ob¬
served that ice was lighter than the water which composed
it; and hence it happens that ice floats upon water, its
specific gravity being to that of water as eight to nine.
This rarefaction of ice seems to be owing to the air-bub¬
bles produced in water by freezing, and which, being
considerably large in proportion to the water frozen, ren¬
der the body so much specifically lighter. These air-
bubbles, during their production, acquire a great expan¬
sive power, so as to burst the containing vessels, though
ever so strong.
M. Mairan, in a dissertation on ice, attributes the in¬
crease of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement of the
parts of the water from which it is formed ; the icy skin
on the water being composed of filaments, which, accord¬
ing to him, are found to be constantly and regularly join¬
ed at an angle of 60°; and which, by this angular dispo¬
sition, occupy a greater volume than if they were paral¬
lel. He found the augmentation of the volume of water
by freezing, in different trials, a fourteenth, an eighteenth,
a nineteenth, and, when the water was previously purged
of air, only a twenty-second part; that ice, even after its
formation, continues to expand by cold; for, after water
had been frozen to some thickness, the fluid part being
let out by a hole in the bottom of the vessel, a continu¬
ance of the cold made the ice convex; and a piece of ice
which was at first only a fourteenth part specifically lighter
than water, on being exposed some days to the frost, be-
ICE
ICE
14!
1 BH
1 ths
ce-'
of came a twelfth part lighter. To this cause he attributes
ce the bursting of ice on ponds.
Though it has been generally supposed that the natu-
use‘ ral crystals of ice are stars of six rays, forming angles of
^ 60° with each other, yet this crystallization of water, as it
may properly be called, seems to be as much affected by
circumstances as that of salts. Hence we find a consi¬
derable difference in the accounts of those wrho have un¬
dertaken to describe these crystals. M. Mairan informs
us that they are stars with six radii; and his opinion is
confirmed by observing the figure of frost on glass. M.
Rome de 1’Isle determines the form of the solid crystal
to be an equilateral octahedron ; M. Hassenfratz found it
to be a prismatic hexahedron ; but M. d’Antic found a me¬
thod of reconciling these seemingly opposite opinions. In
a violent hail-storm, where the hailstones were very large,
he found that they had sharp wedge-like angles of more
than half an inch ; and in these he supposed it impossible
to see two pyramidal tetrahedra joined laterally, and not
to conclude that each grain was composed of octahedrons
converging to a centre. Some had a cavity in the mid¬
dle ; and he saw the opposite extremities of two opposite
pyramids, which constitute the octahedron ; he likewise
saw the octahedron entire united in the middle ; all of them
were therefore similar to the crystals formed upon a thread
immersed in a saline solution. On these principles M.
d’Antic constructed an artificial octahedron resembling
one of the largest hailstones, and found that the angle
at the summit of the pyramid was 45°, but that of the
junction of the two pyramids 145°. It is not, however,
easy to procure regular crystals in hailstones, where the
operation is conducted with such rapidity ; in snow and
hoar-frost, where the crystallization goes on more slowly,
our author is of opinion that the rudiments of octahedra
may be discovered. (See the section on Congelation,
in the article Cold.)
Blink of the Ice, is a name given by the pilots to a bright
appearance near the horizon, occasioned by the ice, and
observed before the ice itself is seen.
IcE-Boats, boats so constructed as to sail upon ice, and
which are very common in Holland. They go with in¬
credible swiftness, sometimes so quickly as to affect the
breath, and are found very useful in conveying goods and
passengers over lakes and great rivers. Boats of different
sizes are placed in a transverse form upon a two-and-a-
half or three-inch deal board. At the extremity of each
end are fixed irons, which turn up in the form of skaits.
Upon this plank the boat rests, and the two ends serve as
out-riggers to prevent oversetting; whence ropes are fast¬
ened that lead to the head of the mast in the nature of
shrouds, and others passed through a block across the bow¬
sprit. The rudder is made somewhat like a hatchet with
the head placed downwards, which being pressed down,
cuts the ice, and serves all the purposes of a rudder in the
water, by enabling the helmsman to steer.
IcE-House, a repository for ice during the summer
months. The aspect of ice-houses should be towards the
east or south-east, for the advantage of the morning sun to
expel the damp air, as that is more pernicious than warmth;
for which reason trees in the vicinity of an ice-house tend
to its disadvantage. The best soil for an ice-house to be
made in is chalk, as it conveys away the waste water with¬
out any artificial drain; the next to that is loose stony
earth or gravelly soil.
Ice may be preserved in a dry place under ground, by
covering it well with chaff, straw, or reeds. Great use is
made of chaff in some places of Italy to preserve ice; the
ice-house for this purpose need only be a deep hole dug
in the ground on the side of a hill, from the bottom of
which they can easily carry out a drain, to let out the
water which is separated at any time from the ice, that it
may not melt and spoil the rest. If the ground is toler- Ice-Island,
ably dry, they do not line the sides with any thing, but
leave them naked, and only make a covering of thatch
over the top of the hole. This pit they fill either with pure
snow, or else with ice taken from the purest and clearest
water; because they do not use it, as we do in England,
to set the bottles in, but really mix it with the wine. They
first cover the bottom of the hole with chaff, and then lay
in the ice, not letting it anywhere touch the sides, but
ramming in a large bed of chaff all the way between; they
thus carry on the filling to the top, and then cover the sur¬
face with chaff. Ice packed in this manner will keep
as long as they please. When they take any of it out
for use, they wrap up the lump in chaff, and it may then
be carried to any distant place without waste or melting.
It appears from the investigations of Professor Beck¬
man, in his History of Inventions, that the ancients, from
the earliest ages, were acquainted with the method of pre¬
serving snow for the purpose of cooling liquors in summer.
“ This practice,” he observes, “ is mentioned by Solo¬
mon ; and proofs of it are so numerous in the works of
the Greeks and the Romans, that it is unnecessary for
me to quote them, especially as they have been collected
by others. How the repositories for keeping it were con¬
structed we are not expressly told ; but it is probable that
the snow was preserved in pits or trenches.
“ When Alexander the Great besieged the city of Pe¬
tra, he caused thirty trenches to be dug, and filled with
snow, which was covered with oak branches, and which
kept in that manner for a long time. Plutarch says that
a covering of chaff and coarse cloth is sufficient; and at
present a like method is pursued in Portugal. Where
the snow has been collected in a deep gulf some grass
or green sods, covered with dung from the sheep pens,
is thrown over it; and under these it is so well preserv¬
ed, that, the whole summer through, it is sent the dis¬
tance of sixty Spanish (nearly 180 English) miles to Lis¬
bon.
“ When the ancients, therefore, wished to have cool¬
ing liquors, they either drank the melted snow, or put
some of it in their wine; or they placed jars filled with
wine in the snow, and suffered it to cool there as long as
they thought proper. That ice was also preserved for
the like purpose, is probable from the testimony of va¬
rious authors; but it appears not to have been used so
much in warm countries as in the northern. Even at pre¬
sent snow is employed in Italy, Spain, and Portugal; but
in Persia ice. I have never any where found an account
of Grecian or Roman ice-houses. By the writers on agri¬
culture they are not mentioned.”
IcE-Island, a name given by sailors to a great quantity of
ice collected into one huge solid mass, and floating about
upon the seas near or within the polar circles. The motion
of the lesser pieces is as rapid as the currents : the greater,
which are sometimes two hundred leagues long, and sixty
or eighty broad, move slowly and majestically ; often fix for
a time, immoveable by the power of the ocean, and then
produce near the horizon that bright white appearance
called the ice-blink. The approximation of two great
fields produces a most singular phenomenon ; it forces the
lesser (if the term can be applied to pieces of several acres
square) out of the water, and adds it to the surface;
a second, and often a third succeeds, so that the whole
forms an aggregate of a tremendous height. These float
in the sea like so many rugged mountains, and are some¬
times five or six hundred yards thick ; but the far greater
part is concealed beneath the water. These are conti¬
nually increased in height by the freezing of the spray of
the sea, or the melting of the snow which falls on them.
Those which remain in this frozen climate receive conti¬
nual additions; others are gradually wafted by the northern
142
ICELAND.
Icebergs
II
Iceland.
History.
winds into southern latitudes, and melt by degrees by the
heat of the sun, till they waste away, or disappear in the
boundless element.
ICEBERGS are large bodies of ice filling the valleys
between the high mountains in northern latitudes. Among
the most remarkable are those of the east coast of Spitz-
bergen. The glaciers of Switzerland seem contemptible
when compared to these, but present often a similar front
into some lower valley. At times immense fragments
break off and tumble into the water with an alarming
splash. Frost sports wonderfully with these icebergs, and
gives them majestic and singular forms. Masses have
been seen assuming what an Arabian tale would scarcely
dare to relate. Icebergs are the creation of ages, and re¬
ceive annually additional height by the falling of snows,
and of rain, which often instantly freezes, and more than
repairs the loss occasioned by the influence of the sun.
ICELAND, one of the largest islands in Europe (being
little inferior, in point of superficial extent, to Ireland), is
situated in the north part of the Atlantic Ocean, between
the 63d and 67th degrees of north latitude, and the 12th
and 25th degrees of west longitude. Its extreme length
from east to west is about 280 miles, and its breadth from
north to south varies from 180 to 200.
The precise period at which this island was discovered
and first colonized is unknown ; but, from the Landnama-
bok, an ancient Icelandic chronicle, and a work generally
relied upon as authentic, we learn that the Norwegians
were the first settlers upon its coasts. Naddodr, a famous
pirate of that adventurous nation, was, on his return to the
Feroe Islands from a predatory excursion, about the year
860, driven by a tempest upon the coast of Iceland. He
ascended to the summit of a mountain, but observing
around him neither the vestige of a human residence, nor
aught else than vast and trackless fields of snow, he
immediately abandoned it. Probably aware of this dis¬
covery, Gardar Svarfarson, a Swede, followed the same
track a few years afterwards, and, succeeding in circum¬
navigating the country, discovered it to be an island. He
there spent the winter, but finding little inducement to
make it a permanent residence, he in the following spring
returned to Norway. The third adventurer on this coast
was one Floki, another celebrated Norwegian pirate, who,
during two seasons, explored a considerable portion of the
southern and western coasts. His attempt at forming a
permanent settlement proved, however, like that of his pre¬
decessor, a failure ; his cattle-died, his expected crops were
ruined, and, after experiencing numerous distresses and
hardships from the inclemency of the weather, he determin¬
ed to repair to a warmer region, and gave to the island at
his departure the name by which it has ever since been
known. That this name, and the report which he spread
on his return, of the inhospitable nature of the island, were
principally the effect of prejudice and disappointment, is
evident from the contradictory account given of it by his
companions, one of whom thought he could only convey
an adequate idea of its richness and fertility by declaring
that butter dropped from every plant.
These expeditions, though affording a slight knowledge
of the country, would probably not have led to its coloni¬
zation, had not disturbances in Norway induced some of
the inhabitants of that country to quit their native soil.
Harold Harfagra having subdued most of the petty prin¬
ces of that country, put an end to the system of liberty
and independence which the inhabitants of Norway had
hitherto enjoyed; and thus drove many even of its nobi¬
lity, with their families and dependents, from their homes.
A body of these voluntary exiles, under the conduct of
Ingolf, one of the discontented subjects, sailed from Nor¬
way, a. d. 874, from which year the Icelanders date the
occupation of their island. When Ingolf approached the
coast of Iceland, we are informed that he threw into the Icelant
sea the wooden door of his former habitation in Nor-
way; and finding it some time afterwards cast upon the
shore at Reikiavik, he fixed his abode on the spot where
the capital of the island now stands. He was followed by
several others, and in a short time considerable portions
of the southern and eastern districts of the island were
taken possession of. Harold, it appears, did not at first
oppose the emigration of his subjects ; but afterwards find¬
ing it carried on to a great extent, he imposed a fine of
four ounces of fine silver upon every person who should
leave Norway to settle in Iceland. The Landnamabok,
already mentioned, whose object was to afford a picture
of the colonization of the island, describes with singular
minuteness the arrival and spreading of the different set¬
tlers, and records, together with those of the Norwegians,
the names of many Danes and Swedes, and even some
Scotch and Irish, who at this period selected Iceland as
their place of residence. The natural consequence of pro¬
gressive colonization under the feudal tenure which was
thus produced, was frequent contention between the new
comers and those who had already settled in the country.
To obviate these, a chief was named, under whose guid¬
ance and direction the concerns, interests, and feelings
of the vet separate communities might be regulated and
assimilated. This beneficial change was effected a. d.
928, and a republican form of government was thus esta¬
blished, well calculated to provide for the emergencies
which gave it birth. We say a republican form of govern¬
ment ; because, though there was only one supreme magis¬
trate, who decided all disputes, and presided at the all-
thing, or great general assembly of the nation, still he was
elected to this office by the free choice of the people, and
retained it no longer than while he preserved their confi¬
dence. This state of liberty the Icelanders enjoyed with
uninterrupted harmony for the space of nearly 400 years.
During this period, education, literature, and even the
refinements of poetical fancy, flourished amongst them;
and the well-known sagas or tales of the country, the
most remarkable literary productions of that dark age,
were principally penned prior to the fourteenth century.
The ancient Icelanders possessed, as is still the case
with their posterity, few of the luxuries or refinements of
life; and were occasionally exposed to severe privations,
from the nature of their soil, and the seasons under which
they lived. There is reason, however, to believe, though
the fact cannot with perfect accuracy be ascertained, that
the climate of Iceland was once less austere than it now
is, and that not only trees and shrubs, but even corn, were
grown upon the island. Of the ancient existence of the
former, the trunks occasionally discovered in the bogs af¬
ford pretty satisfactory evidence. Corn of any descrip¬
tion is not now a native of the island; and a few birch
twigs afford the only approach towards timber. Like the
present inhabitants, the ancient Icelanders were much
dispersed over the country, their habitations being seldom
grouped together, but placed wherever the situation and
nature of the soil appeared suitable. Their occupations and
modes of life appear also to have borne much similitude.
The produce of the farm, and the capture of fish, afforded
them, as they do their posterity, the principal means of
subsistence ; and their traffic with foreign countries made
a valuable addition to their domestic comforts. The mo¬
ral habits of the people were good, though, prior to the
introduction of Christianity, in the year 1000, they were
blended with superstition and some unnatural customs,
such as the exposure of their infants. The putting down
of heathenism is not the least remarkable event in the
early history of Iceland. Frederic, a bishop of Saxony,
was the first who preached Christian doctrines in this dis¬
tant land. The propagation of his tenets, however, met
ICELAND.
143
Ic< nd. with every species of opposition ; but the numbers who
w- ^ adopted them gradually increased so considerably, that
the national assembly which met at Thingvalla in the
year 1000 took the matter into consideration. Whilst the
question was warmly debated, the story told is, that a
messenger hurried into the assembly and announced that
fire had burst from the earth in the southern part of the
country, and was carrying destruction before it. ihe
heathen party instantly exclaimed that this was the ven¬
geance of the gods against the presumption of their op¬
ponents. But Snorro, who was a zealous advocate for the
Christian cause, immediately demanded, “ For what rea¬
son was the anger of your gods kindled when the very
rock was burning on which we stand ?” Thingvalla being
in the midst of a volcanic country, and precipitous cliff's
of lava surrounding the place of public assembly. The
promptitude of the reply had the desired effect, and ulti¬
mately procured a decision in favour of the Christians.
On the promulgation of Christianity, all religious contest
was suspended ; the whole people espoused the new faith ;
and a church establishment was soon afterwards formed.
The Icelanders appear to have equalled the blindest of their
fellow Catholics in their attachment to the hierarchy ;
and it was not till the year 1551 that the Reformation,
under Christian III. of Denmark, found its way into the
island. Since that period the form and ceremonies of the
Icelandic church have been strictly Lutheran, though,
from the poverty of the country, their churches are in
general extremely wretched, and the pittances allotted to
their clergy still more so.
But to return to earlier periods. We are indebted to
the enterprise of the ancient inhabitants of Iceland for
the discovery both of Greenland and Newfoundland. A
mariner named Eric accidentally approached the former
of these countries about the year 972, and was so delight¬
ed with Ids discovery, that he gave it the name which it
still bears. His flattering accounts of the country had
the desired effect of alluring his countrymen to its shores;
and in this he so far succeeded, as in a short time to form
an extensive and thriving settlement. I he colonists main¬
tained a constant commercial intercourse with Iceland and
Norway; and the records of the settlement come down un¬
interruptedly to the beginning of the fifteenth century,
when at once every trace and vestige of it was lost. The
causes of this singular fact have never yet been fully as¬
certained, although the most probable supposition is, that
an accumulation of ice took place about this time on the
Greenland coast, which prevented the access to it by sea.
The breadth of the sea between the two countries does
not exceed 100 miles ; and yet the fate of this ancient co¬
lony, commonly called by distinction Old Greenland, is
quite unknown. The northern shores of America were
first known from Biono Heriolforn, a native of Iceland,
being driven upon them during a voyage to Greenland in
1001. Attracted by the account of this discovery, Leif,
another enterprising navigator, pursued the same route
considerably farther southwards, and finding an agreeable
and pleasant country, he wintered there, giving it, from
the circumstance of wild vines growing on it, the appella¬
tion of Vinland. This was subsequently, to a partial ex¬
tent, colonised by the Icelanders ; but few particulars are
known of their progress, and what ultimately became of
the colony is now a mere matter of speculation.
The independent and happy state of Iceland was not
destined to be uninterrupted. About the year 1250, par¬
ty disputes and internal feuds arose, which the ambition
of the mother country enabled Haco, the then king of
Norway, to foment. In 1261 a formal proposal was con¬
sequently made in the national council, to submit to that
sceptre; but in doing so, the Icelanders stipulated that
they should be allowed to retain their ancient laws and
privileges, that they should be exempt from taxes, and Iceland,
that the annual importation of the most necessary articles
of foreign produce should be secured to them. For up¬
wards of a century Iceland was under the dominion of
Norway, without any occurrence taking place of the
slightest importance; and when in the year 1380 that
country became subject to Denmark, the island was
transferred to the same power, without tumult or op¬
position. The change in the constitution of the island,
from its annexation to a European monarchy, naturally
produced a corresponding change in the character and
habits of the people. Not that the foreign yoke wras a
tyrannical one, otherwise a portion at least of the an¬
cient vigour and activity of the inhabitants would have
displayed itself in occasional acts of insurrection. On
the contrary, the Danish monarchs not only exercised
their sway with a lenient and forbearing hand, but paid
much attention to the welfare and the wants of this re¬
mote part of their dominions; and thus repose and se¬
curity succeeding to internal broils, produced a state
of comparative apathy and indolence. Rank and pro¬
perty became more nearly equalized, and the trade of the
country was gradually transferred to the natives of other
kingdoms. A plague which devastated the island in
1402, and carried off, it is said, nearly two thirds of the
whole population, tended still further to depress the spi¬
rit of the people, and destroy the strength and prosperity
of the country. The reformation of religion, which, as
above stated, took place in Iceland in the year 1551, was
the first dawn of an improvement amongst the natives,
which the introduction of printing and the establishment
of a press about the same period aided greatly in extend¬
ing. The recent history oflceland is principally charac¬
terised as a record of physical calamities, which, from
1707, when the ravages of the small-pox carried off six¬
teen thousand of its inhabitants, down to 1753 and 1759,
when the inclemency of the seasons created the most
dreadful and distressing famines, and lastly, the memo¬
rable year 1783, when the great eruption from the Skaptaa
Yokull took place, have rarely ceased in one form or ano¬
ther to devastate the island. The scene of this last-men¬
tioned eruption is amongst lofty mountains in the inte¬
rior of the island, known only to the natives by the re¬
mote view of their snow-clad summits. From this de¬
solate and unfrequented region, Sir George Mackenzie
remarks, vast torrents of lava issued forth, overwhelm¬
ing all before them, and filling up the beds of great rivers
in their progress towards the sea. For more than a year,
a dense cloud of smoke and volcanic ashes covered the
whole of Iceland, extending its effects even to the north¬
ern parts of continental Europe ^ the cattle, sheep, and
horses of the country were destroyed; a famine, with its
attendant distresses, broke out amongst the inhabitants;
and the small-pox invaded the island at the same time,
with its former virulent and fatal effects. From these
combined causes, more than eleven thousand people pe¬
rished during the period of a few years ; an extent of ca¬
lamity which can only be understood, by considering that
this number forms nearly a fourth part of the whole po¬
pulation of the country. The destruction of the fishery
upon the southern coasts of the island by these volcanic
eruptions was another more permanent source of distress,
and one which is not even now fully removed.
The government of Iceland is committed to an officer Govern-
appointed by the crown of Denmark, who is occasionally ment,
a native of the island, but more frequently a Dane by laws> &c'
birth. This supreme magistrate has the title of Stiftamt-
man, and is intrusted with a general superintendence of
every department. Under him are the amtmen or pro¬
vincial governors, each of whom rules one of the four pro¬
vinces of the island, and possesses a similar jurisdiction
144 I C E L
Iceland, over his respective quarter, as his superior officer does
over the whole island. Each province again is divided
into syssels or shires, over which the sysselmen preside.
This "office is likewise in the appointment of the crown;
and, on account of its importance, it is always given to one
of the most respectable landed proprietors within the dis¬
trict. The rank of sysselman corresponds in some degree
to that of sheriff in this country. The hreppstiore is a
subordinate parochial officer, whose duty it is to attend to
the condition of the poor, and to assist the sysselman in
the preservation of the peace. He is usually chosen from
among the farmers; whilst the forlikunarmen are those
appointed as arbiters for the decision of disputes among
the parishioners. The laws of Iceland, like the general
form of government as established nearly six hundred
years ago, have undergone little important alteration; but
the judicial changes have been more considerable, and the
forms of justice in most respects now resemble those of
Denmark. . . .
Crimes are rare; the gentle and peaceable disposition
of the natives, their moral and religious education and
sober habits, act as preventives of such as are of a flagrant
description. Small thefts, especially of sheep, are the
most frequent; but the high court has seldom to decide
more than six or eight cases annually. The whip is the
only punishment applied in the country, excepting fines;
those who are punished with hard labour or banishment
being sent to Copenhagen.
There are about 194 parishes or livings on the island;
but the clergy number at least 300, as many of the pa¬
rishes have two churches, the great distance and the dan¬
ger of travelling, particularly in winter, when the rugged
fields of lava are covered with snow, making it frequently
impossible for all the peasantry of the same parish to at¬
tend at one church. The clergy are partly supported by
a species of tithes, which are mostly paid in kind. Ihese
stipends, however, are extremely miserable ; the largest in
the island not exceeding 185 dollars, and the average be¬
ing little above 35 dollars, or L.6 sterling, per annum. They
must therefore depend almost entirely for subsistence on
their glebe land and their stock of cattle, and a small pit¬
tance they are entitled to for the few baptisms, marriages,
and funerals that occur among their parishioners. “ The
clergy,” observes Mr Barrow, “ almost universally submit
to every species of drudgery from necessity. Their in¬
comes are too small to allow them to hire and feed la¬
bourers ; and nothing is more common than to find the
parish priest in a coarse woollen jacket and trousers, or
skin boots, digging peat, mowing grass, and assisting in all
the operations of haymaking. They are all blacksmiths
also from necessity, and the best shoers of horses on the
island. The feet of an Iceland horse would be cut to
pieces over the sharp rock and lava if not well shod. The
great resort of the peasantry is the church; and should
any of the numerous horses have lost a shoe, or be likely
to do so, the priest puts on his apron, lights his little char¬
coal fire in his smithy (one of which is always attached to
every parsonage), and sets the animal on his legs again.”
Their poverty was quaintly but verjr contentedly alluded
to by one of themselves, when he said, in a few lines he
composed on occasion of Mr Henderson’s visit to his man¬
sion :—“ Ever since I came into the world I have been
wedded to poverty, who has now hugged me to her bo¬
som these seventy winters all but two; and whether we
shall ever be separated here below, is only known to Him
who joined us together.”
The clergyman of the parish having thus to undergo
the same toils and hardships as the most humble of his
flock, and enjoying no superior comforts or refinements,
must feel that it is by his intellectual attainments only he
$an retain that station, and command that respect from
AND.
his parishioners, which it is so necessary for him to pos- Iceb
sess. Literary pursuits are therefore the principal occu-
pation of the clergy during the long and dreary period of
winter; and it is astonishing, considering the difficulties
in their way, the progress most of them have made. The
history and literature of the more refined nations of Eu¬
rope now form a part of their studies. The English lan¬
guage, in which they find so many words of their own,
and so many borrowed from the Latin, is cultivated by
many of the clergy. The German they find still more
easy; the Danish and Norwegian languages approximate
to their own ; and many of the choicest works in all these
dialects have been translated into Icelandic. The pre¬
sent state of literature in Iceland thus appears to be of a
different description from what it was in ancient times.
Its supposed decline is the subject of general complaint,
though in point of fact it has only changed its character
from the'heroic and romantic to the useful and intelligi¬
ble. Von Trod, in comparing the state of the sciences in
the island to the four stages of human life, remarks that
“ their infancy extended to the year 1056, when the in¬
troduction of the Christian religion produced the first dawn
of light. They were in their youth till 1110, when schools
were first established, and the education and instruc¬
tion of youth began to be more attended to. Their manly
age lasted till about the middle of the fourteenth century,
when Iceland produced the greatest number of learned
men. Old age appeared towards the end of this same
fourteenth century, when the sciences gradually decreased,
and were almost entirely extinct, no work of any merit
appearing. History now drooped her head, poetry had
no relish, and all other sciences were enveloped in dark¬
ness.” But a new dawn of knowledge spread rapidly over
the island after the Reformation; and the introduction of
the printing press produced the same beneficial effects in
Iceland as in other parts of Europe. A very important
change took place in the nature of the studies pursued t
and the clergy in particular, instead of occupying their
time in making and transcribing eddas and sagas, that is,
political and lustorical romances, have turned their at¬
tention to sober history, to the collection and registration
of events, and to other literary productions of more intrin¬
sic value, which the printing press, still actively employed
on the small island of Vidoe, opposite Reikiavik, affords
them the opportunity of turning to account.
There are no public hospitals, or charitable institutions
of that description, on the island; the sick and the poor
being almost wholly supported by their own families. In¬
deed a sort of disgrace attaches to those who send them
away to be taken care of by strangers, even though main¬
tained at their own expense. On the other hand, there is
an important collegiate school at Bessestad, which may
well be considered as the only public institution of import¬
ance in the country. It is intended principally for the
education of young men destined for the church, and is
attended by about forty scholars. There are three mas¬
ters, the one, professor of theology, instructs the pupils
in Hebrew and Greek, as far as the Greek Testament,
and Xenophon ; the second, who is the lecturer, teaches
them Latin, history, mathematics, and arithmetic; and
the third the Danish, Norwegian, German, and Icelandic
languages. Their attendance is constant from October
to May, the intermediate months being the period ol
vacation, when the students go to their several homes.
The funds appropriated for this excellent institution are
said to be sufficient to pay the teachers, and to afford
board, books, and clothing to the scholars gratis.
Property is held either of the crown or in fee simple;
the crown lands and many others are let to farmers, on
what may almost be called perpetual leases. The rent
is paid in two parts; the land rent, fixed at an old valua-
ICELAND;
145
ilfct. td. tion, which it has not been found necessary to alter, and
a rent for the number of cattle which it is calculated the
farm is able to support; and these are transferred from
one tenant to another, each succeeding one taking them,
and leaving a similar number on quitting the farm. This,
however, does not prevent a farmer keeping as much stock
as he can maintain, without paying an additional rent.
The tenant is for life, provided he does not injure the
farm ; but he may quit whenever he pleases, on giving six
months’ notice. His rent is generally paid in produce, on
the coast in fish, in the interior in wool, tallow, butter,
sheep, &c. or, according to agreement, in money. Indi¬
viduals who cultivate their own properties, and tenants
who are in easy circumstances, generally employ one or
more labourers, who, besides board and lodging, have
from ten to twelve dollars of annual wages. In Iceland,
as in Norway, there is no such thing as entailed property,
and the law of descent excludes primogeniture. If an indi¬
vidual dies intestate, his estate is sold or valued, and di¬
vided amongst the children, so as to give equal shares to
the sons, and half shares to the daughters. If, however,
any of the brothers can pay the shares to his brothers and
sisters, it is generally arranged that the freehold estate be
made over to him, in order to retain it in the family.
’opii tion. The gross population of Iceland is about 53,000, a very
scanty proportion for an island whose surface is to that
of Ireland as four to five; but that surface, it is true, from
its nature, and the character of the climate, is perhaps as
unfavourable as any which exists between the limits of the
two arctic circles. Deducting the areas of the numerous
fiords with which it is intersected, the square contents of
the land may be calculated at 37,388 statute miles; but
as the centre of the island consists entirely of snowy and
uninhabited mountains, the peopled portion cannot be
considered more than 25,000 square miles; and the popula¬
tion therefore will not much exceed two persons on each
square mile. The number of births in the year 1832 was
2516; and the number of deaths during the same year
amounted to 1390, of which 784, considerably more than
one half, were children under ten years ol age. The
whole population is employed either in farming, which oc¬
cupies about three fourths of them, or in fishing. Other
employments do not exist, nor is there any other class
of people or townsmen, save the small number of mer¬
chants in Reikiavik and the other trading establishments.
Every branch of industry is therefore domestic, and con¬
fined chiefly to articles of clothing, such as coarse cloth,
gloves, mittens, and stockings. The peasantry are gene¬
rally ingenious, and manufacture such simple pieces of
furniture as their cottages require; some also aspire to
make trinkets of silver, and articles from the walrus tusks.
The trade of Iceland has never been managed in a way to
be of important benefit to its inhabitants, those who are
engaged in it being almost exclusively Danes, and other
foreigners. Of late years, however, there has been an an¬
nual export of from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 pounds of
raw wool, besides about 200,000 pairs of knitted stock¬
ings, and 300,000 mittens, or gloves without fingers. Ihe
Iceland sheep have remarkably fine fleeces of wool, which
the farmers in the spring of the year take off whole ; their
weight being usually from four to five pounds. Ihe other
exports of Iceland are dried fish, salted cod, and other
species, for the quality of which the fishing banks of the
island are celebrated, but which latterly have been much
invaded by the French and Dutch fishermen, to the great
grievance of the nation. Fish-oil, whale-blubber, skins,
eider-down, feathers, and the lichen Islandicus for medi¬
cinal purposes, may also be included amongst their list of
exports. These the natives dispose of to the Danish mer¬
chants in exchange for coffee, sugar, tobacco, snuff, a
small quantity of brandy, rye and rye-bread, biscuit,
VOL. XII.
Iceland.
wheaten flour, salt, soap, and such other small articles as
are in constant use for domestic purposes. Those who
can afford it purchase a supply of linens and cottons,
which of late years have become of more common use,
and which must tend greatly to cleanliness, and the pre¬
vention of those diseases which woollen clothing worn
next the skin tends to engender. The traffic thus occa¬
sioned takes place in the early part of summer, and whilst
it lasts creates a kind of fair, with no little bustle and busi¬
ness, in the capital. All the articles brought from the in¬
terior for sale at the sea-ports, and all those taken back
for winter consumption, are transported on pack-horses.
There is not, in fact, in all Iceland such a machine as a
wheel-carriage ; and indeed if there were, they would be
useless, as there is nothing in the shape of a road on which
they could move.
The Icelanders are generally middle sized and well
made, though not very strong. Their manners are ex¬
ceedingly simple, and they are very respectful as well as
obliging to strangers. Though their poverty disables them
from imitating the hospitality of their ancestors in all re¬
spects, yet they cheerfully give away the little they have
to spare, and express the utmost satisfaction if the gift shall
have proved acceptable. They possess but few peculiar
customs, and those not of particular interest. Their sole
occupation during summer is to provide means of subsist¬
ence for the winter season; and when confined during
the dreariness of an arctic winter to their huts, their great
source of amusement is the tales of olden times, wdien the
learning of their country rendered it renowned in every
quarter of Europe. “ Being of quiet and harmless dispo¬
sitions,” says Sir George Mackenzie, “ having nothing to
rouse them into a state of activity, nothing to inspire emu-
htion, no object of ambition, the Icelanders may be said
merely to live. But they possess innate good qualities,
which, independently of the consciousness of their former
importance, have preserved their general character as an
amiable community. They have indeed become negligent
with respect to the cleanliness of their persons and dwel¬
lings, but they deserve a high place in the scale of ino-
rality and religion, lo religious duties they are strictly
attentive ; and though the clergy are not generally raised
above the level of the peasantry in any respect but in
their sacred office, yet they have been able to preserve
the regard due to those who are considered as peculiarly
the servants of the Supreme Being. The poor Icelander,
too, is strongly attached to his native soil, and, like the
Swiss, has been known to throw up lucrative appoint¬
ments which he held elsewhere, for the sake of rejoining
his family and friends on the island, being never so happy
as when he sees a prospect of returning to it.
Few countries in the world present a more forbidding Topogra-
aspect, or have less apparently to invite the approach either phy.
of the traveller or the merchant, than Iceland. The appella¬
tion given it by its first discoverers seems still peculiarly
its own ; and if the statement be accurate, of its having in
former days grown considerable forests, whilst now scarce
a shrub will rear its head, there is little probability of that
name ever being belied. “ Imagine to yourself,” says Von
Troil, “ a country which, from one end to the other, pre¬
sents to your view only barren mountains, whose summits
are covered with eternal snow, and between them fields di¬
vided by vitrified cliffs, whose high and sharp points seem
to vie with each other to deprive you of the sight of a lit¬
tle grass, which scantily springs up among them. These
same dreary rocks likewise conceal the few scattered habi¬
tations of the natives, and nowhere a single tree appeais
which might afford shelter to friendship and innocence.
The prospect before us, though not pleasing, was uncom¬
mon and surprising. Whatever presented itself to our
view bore the marks of devastation; and our eyes, accus-
146 ICELAND.
Iceland, tomed to behold the pleasing coasts of England, now saw It is extremely probable that Iceland owes its origin to Icelin
nothing but the vestiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven some great convulsion of nature ; for no part of the globe
knows how ancient.” Nor does Reikiavik, the capital of presents such a number of volcanic mountains, so many
the country, the residence of the governor, the centre of boiling springs, or such immense tracks of lava. Thefre-
its trade, present a much more inviting prospect to a quent and long-continued eruptions of its volcanoes are
stranger on his arrival. “ He perceives,” says Mr Barrow, all on record in the historical annals of the island ; their
“ only a long row of houses, or rather the upper parts of number since the year 1004 is stated at sixty-five. Of
houses, running parallel to and close behind a rising beach Hecla no less than sixteen great eruptions are mentioned;
of a black shingle, their red or brown roofs being the most but, with the exception of that in 1818, this celebrated
conspicuous, and the tops of the doors only, and perhaps mountain has been in a quiescent state since the middle
about half of a row of windows, peeping above the said of last century. By far the most dreadful occurrence of
beach ; but he sees enough of them to satisfy himself that this description was that already mentioned, which took
they are of a low, mean character. On each extremity of place from the great range of the Skaptaafell Yokul in the
this line of houses he will observe arising eminence, scarce- year 1783; an eruption which devastated the finest por-
ly deserving the name of a hill, on which he will perceive tion of the island, and produced famine and disease amongst
a number of sod or turf huts, raised a little, and but a little, its inhabitants to an extent scarcely credible,
above the level of the ground; their roofs, and generally The boiling springs of Iceland have long attracted the (j^,
their sides too, verdant enough and well clothed with grass, attention of scientific men, and they are assuredly amongst
the abodes chiefly of fishermen, labourers in the merchants’ the most curious and most remarkable phenomena which
employ, and idlers, of which there are not a few saunter- it presents. These are very numerous in many quarters of
ing about. Among these hovels, or rather above them, on the island ; but it is to the fountains termed the Geysers
the western eminence, stands conspicuously the house of that we would now particularly allude. These extraordi-
the physician-general of Iceland, or perhaps more properly nary springs are situated in the western part of the island,
surgeon and apothecary of Reikiavik; for he acts in all in a small plain sixteen miles north of the village of Skal-
these capacities ; which tall building, speaking compara- holt. The siliceous depositions of the waters of the Great
tively with its neighbours, is kept in countenance by a still Geyser have formed for it a basin about fifty-six feet in
taller one, the only windmill on the island.” “ The lower the greatest diameter, and fifty-two in the narrowest, a
part of their turf huts is built of rude stones to the height projection from one side causing the circumference to de-
of about four feet, and between each row layers of turf are viate from a perfect circle. A mound has thus been pro-
placed with great regularity, to serve instead of mortar, duced, which rises considerably above the surface of the
and in fact to keep out the wind. A roof of such wood as plain, and slopes on all sides to the distance of a hundred
can be procured rests upon these walls, and is covered with feet or thereabouts, from the borders of the basin on its sum-
turf or sods. A window is a luxury ; a cask or barrel, with mit. The basin is from four to five feet deep, and slopes a
the two ends knocked out, answers the purpose of a chim- little, like a saucer, towards the centre. At this point there
ney ; but the smoke is frequently allowed to escape through is a cylindrical pipe or tube, about twelve feet in diameter
a hole in the roof. The only fire ever burnt within their and seventy feet deep, up which the boiling water rises and
walls is that of the kitchen, which forms a small separate the eruptions burst forth. At intervals of some hours, when
apartment, frequently detached.” the basin is full, explosions are heard from below like
The surface of the country is for the most part highly the distant firing of cannon, and at the same time a tre-
mountainous and rugged ; some of the yokuls or snow- mulous motion of the ground is felt around the basin,
capped eminences, as the Snaefell, the Skaptaa, Kateja “We observed,” remarks Sir John Stanley, “ the water
Torsa, and Hecla, rising to the height of from 4000 to in the basin to be much agitated; it boiled violently, and
6000 feet above the sea. The centre of the island, how- heaved as if some expansive power were labouring be-
ever, is traversed by considerable plains, some of which are neath its weight, and some of it was thrown up a fevv feet
covered with tolerable pasture, whilst others form exten- above the basin. Again there were two or three shocks
sive wastes, morasses, and fields of lava. It is also water- of the ground, and a repetition of the same noise. _ In an
ed by a number of large rivers, which, from the rapid melt- instant the surrounding atmosphere was filled with vo-
ing of the snows in summer, present a turbid, and some of lumes of steam rolling over each other as they ascended,
them so white an appearance, that they are denominated in a manner inexpressibly beautiful, and through which
from that circumstance. The smaller streams which rise columns of water shivering into foam darted in rapid suc-
in the lower grounds are however transparent, and are cession to heights which at the time we were little quali-
celebrated for the abundance and beauty of the salmon fied to estimate, but afterwards ascertained by means o
which frequent them. There are also a number oflakes, a quadrant to be about ninety-six feet. At last, the wa-
of which the principal are called Thingvalla Vatn, an ex- ter having filled the basin, it rolled in great waves over
panse of water from ten to fifteen miles in length, and six its edge, and forming numerous rills, made its way down
to eight in width, on whose banks the great assemblies of the sides of the mound. Much was lost in vapour also,
the nation used to be held ; My Vatn, in the north-east- and still more fell to the ground in heavy showers of
ern extremity of the island ; and Fiske Vatn, a lake so de- spray. The intervals at which the several jets succeeded
signaled from the fine fish it affords to the inhabitants of each other were too short for the eye to distinguish. As
the midland districts. they rose out of the basin, they reflected by their density
The coast, like that of Norway, is in every direction the purest and most brilliant blue. In certain shades the
deeply indented with creeks and arms of the sea ; few of colour was green, like that of the sea; but in their farther
them, however, afford safe anchorage; and along the ascent all distinction of colour was lost, and the jets,
southern coast, eastward from where the great river Elvas broken into a thousand parts, appeared wdiite as snow,
empties itself into the sea, there are extensive shoals, Several of them were forced upwards perpendicularly,
formed partly, no doubt, by the depositions of the rivers but many, receiving a slight inclination as they burst
proceeding from the great range of yokuls to the east- from the basin, were projected in beautiful curves, and
ward of Mount Hecla, but principally from the remains of the spray which fell from them, caught by a succeeding
volcanoes, which, like the Sabrina and Graham Islands, jet, was hurried away still higher than it had been per-
have at one period appeared above the surface, but from haps before. The jets were made with inconceivable ve-
the action of the waves have subsequently sunk below it. locity, and those which escaped uninterrupted terminated
ICELAND.
147
I Ice ,d. in sharp points, and lost themselves in the air.” After
continuing for some minutes, the explosions cease, when
the pipe and basin are both found empty.
Such are the phenomena presented during an eruption
of the Great Geyser. In external appearance, as well as
in the magnitude and violence of its ejections, this Gey¬
ser differs materially from the other two principal springs
in its vicinity. Indeed, although it has been satisfactorily
ascertained from historical records that they have been
playing for the last six hundred years,^ yet very material
changes are evidently taking place from time to time
amongst them. One which Sir George Mackenzie men¬
tions as being particularly active when he visited the island
in 1809, and whose eruption Sir John Stanley describes as
incessant, is now, by Mr Barrow’s account, extinct; and the
surface of the neighbourhood has been so totally altered,
that it is with difficulty the accounts of recent travellers can
be made to coincide with those at the commencement of
the century. It is admitted, however, that the phenomena
they all exhibit are occasioned by the production and con¬
finement of steam in cavities, so formed, that when the ac¬
cumulation arrives at a certain point, the pressure of the
water opposing its escape is overcome, and the water is
thrown out before it. The siliceous incrustations which
are formed around the brim of the basin, and along the
edge of the streamlets running out of it, are not the least
remarkable productions of the Geyser. They consist of
little tufts or knobs, grouped in such a manner as to bear
a resemblance to the heads of cauliflowers; of so delicate
a texture, however, that it is almost impossible to remove
them in a perfect state. This deposit is principally form¬
ed from the condensed steam or vapour. The sides of
the tube and the bottom of the basin, on the contrary,
are, doubtless from the constant friction of the water,
perfectly smooth, and as hard as agate.
Another very remarkable hot spring is the mud vol¬
cano of Reykialid, near Myvatn, towards the north-east¬
ern extremity of the island. This occupies the crater of
Mount Krabla, one of the principal volcanoes of Iceland,
and is thus described by Henderson, who made the cir¬
cuit of the island during the year 1815. “ At the bot¬
tom of a deep gulley lay a circular pool of black liquid
matter, at least three hundred feet in circumference, from
the middle of which a vast column of the same black li¬
quid was erupted with a loud thundering noise. This co¬
lumn is equal in diameter to that ejected by the Great
Geyser at its strongest eruptions. The height of the jets
varies greatly, rising on the first propulsions of the liquid
to about twelve feet, and continuing to ascend, as it were,
by leaps, till they gain the highest elevation, which is up¬
wards of thirty feet, when they again abate much more
rapidly than they rise; and after the spouting ceases, the
situation of the aperture is rendered visible only by a gen¬
tle ebullition, which distinguishes it from the general sur¬
face of the pool; the eruptions take place every five mi¬
nutes, and last about two minutes and a half.” In the
same vicinity are the hot springs of Husavik, which,
though they bear no comparison in magnificence to those
of Skalholt, are extremely interesting in many respects.
The pipe of one of them, the Oxahver, which is said to
have derived its name from the circumstance of an ox
having fallen into it, is about eight feet in diameter, is
surrounded with a strongly incrusted brim, and shortly
below the surface trends to one side, and becomes quite
irregular. Its jets rarely exceed twenty feet in height,
but, according to Henderson’s account, they are conduct¬
ed with the utmost regularity in point of time. It was
amongst the beautiful incrustations formed around the Iceland,
basin of this spring that Mr Rose of Edinburgh, during his
mineralogical excursion a few years ago, observed that va¬
riety of apophyllite, to which the synonyme of Oxahverite
was subsequently applied.
Though it cannot be denied that these springs have some
communication with the volcanoes which abound in the
island, yet it is a remarkable fact that they are seldom
found very near them, although dispersed throughout the
whole country. They possess unequal degrees of heat,
ranging from 188° to 212°, and are generally devoid either
of taste or smell, although the flavour of sulphur is occa¬
sionally perceptible. When their situation suits, they are
turned to good account by the inhabitants, both as bathing
quarters, and for various culinary purposes, in boiling fish,
evaporating sea-water, and the like. At Reikholt there is
a celebrated bath of this description, which was construct¬
ed six hundred years ago by the famous Snorro Sturleson.
It is fourteen feet in diameter and six feet deep, being sup¬
plied, by means of covered conduits, both with hot and cold
water, from springs about a hundred yards distant, so that
any desired temperature might be obtained.
The contents of the Geyser water Dr Black ascertained
to be, in 10,000 grains, or about one sixth of a gallon, of
water,
Soda 0-95 gr.
Alumina 0*48
Silica 5*40
Muriate of soda 2‘46
Dry sulphate of soda 1 ‘46
Total 10-75
Though Iceland has been visited at different periods by Geology,
several scientific men, little is comparatively known either
of its geology or its mineralogy. To Sir George Macken¬
zie the world is indebted for a pretty minute description of
the mineral products of the south-western portion of the
island J but of the east coast, which has long been cele¬
brated for its magnificent zeolites and splendid calcedonies,
little has as yet been made public. The island, from one
extremity to the other, exhibits undoubted demonstrations
of volcanic origin ; immense tracks of lava, extensive beds
of tuff, basaltic columns, greenstone, and amygdaloid, ap¬
pear in succession at every step. The surfaces of some of
the lavas which Sir George Mackenzie observed in Iceland
he describes as not unlike coils of ropes or crumpled cloth ;
in other respects they appear to resemble the lavas of re¬
cent volcanoes elsewhere, being, like those of TEtna, thrown
up into large flattened masses. These, it is well known,
are produced by the formation of a crust on the lava dur¬
ing its course, which, as it accumulates, breaks through the
hardened surface; and thus, when it cools, leaves a wide
extended plain of the most rugged and impassable descrip¬
tion. In some places the surface has swelled during the
course of the lava into knobs, from a few feet in diameter
to forty or fifty, many of which have burst, and disclose
caverns lined with melted matter in the form of stalactites.
Of these some remarkable instances are mentioned amongst
the extremely rugged lava of Buderstad, in the vicinity of
the Snaefell Yokul, where several of the caverns extend to
the depth of forty yards. Stappen, in the same part of the
island, presents, for the extent of about two miles, the most
striking columnar appearances, both in the cliffs which
form the shore, and in the numerous insulated rocks
which appear at different distances from the land. In ge¬
neral, the ranges of columns assume a vertical position,
and an elevation of about fifty feet; but in some places
1 The Museum of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is enriched by an extremely interesting suite of minerals, collected by Sir
George Mackenzie in this part of Iceland, and presented by him to the Society.
148 ICE
Iceland, they are disposed indiscriminately upon one another in
bundles, and in several instances appear diverging from a
centre. Sir John Stanley describes a cavern on this coast
which his party rowed into, as more curious even than the
cave at Staffa; the columns, which were very lofty, di¬
verging considerably from the roof towards the base. Fre¬
quently these columnar basalts are associated with or im¬
bedded in tuffa, a volcanic production of the most univer¬
sal occurrence. “ Lava and tuffa,” says Sir George Macken¬
zie, “ are sure indications of each other. The mountains
of the Guldbringe Gyssel are almost entirely composed of
tuffa. The hills round Mount Hecla, near the Snaefell
Yokul, and in the neighbourhood of every lava I met with,
consist of that substance; in fact, it appears to be the
predominant rock.” Amygdaloid forms the larger portion
of the eastern extremity of the island, and it is imbedded
in this that those splendid specimens of calcareous spar par
excellence denominated Iceland-spar are found. This rock
is likewise the matrix of all the different varieties of the
zeolite tribe, of the magnificent calcedonies, and in fact of
most of the fine minerals which have long rendered Ice¬
land so celebrated a locality among collectors. Fossilized
wood is found in several places ; that variety termed Sur-
turbrand is peculiar to the north-eastern volcanic district.
It is remarkable that the specimens hitherto brought home
of this last substance appear to be oak. It burns with
flame, and can be cut and shaped like jet; but from its
brittleness does not admit of being sliced into shavings.
Pumice, obsidian, and other volcanic minerals appear in
great beauty in many districts of the island, particularly
near Hecla, and to the north of Krabla.
Zoology. There is little remarkable in the zoology of Iceland.
The only wild animals are foxes, which in some parts of
it are very numei’ous, and do.much damage to the farmers
in destroying their lambs and other produce. Rein-deer
were introduced from Sweden about the middle of last
century, and have since increased and run wild. The Ice¬
land horse is small, but hardy, active, and capable of sus¬
taining considerable fatigue. Dogs and cats they have in
abundance, and rats and mice are proportionally numerous.
The floating ice occasionally transports a polar bear or two
from the Greenland coasts during spring, which, however,
are no sooner heard of than the neighbouring country are
up in arms to kill them, and they are consequently hunt¬
ed down and destroyed without mercy. The skins of the
foxes, particularly those of the blue species, are valued as
an article of commerce.
Amongst the land-birds of the island are the sea-eagle or
erne, a very destructive bird among the eider-ducks ; the
falcon, which used formerly to be a valuable item in the
exports of the island; and the raven, which is a larger and
more powerful bird than those of Britain, frequently
pouncing upon and carrying off young lambs, and destroy¬
ing poultry ; it is met with in great numbers, particularly
on the cliffs near the sea-coast. The ptarmigan, snipe, gol¬
den plover, wagtail, and curlew, are well known. Water-
fowl of every description, common to northern latitudes,
are met with on the coasts and in the lakes. Of these the
most valuable to the inhabitants is the eider-duck, which
is strictly preserved, a penalty of half a dollar being exigi¬
ble for shooting one of these birds. From this circum¬
stance they become so remarkably tame, especially in the
breeding season, that they frequently make their nests
close to the houses, and in spots which have been prepared
by ridges of stones artificially built up for them; and in
such places, during the process of incubation, it is not un¬
usual for the female to remain on the nest, and suffer her¬
self to be fondled. The lining of their nests, being the
downy substance plucked off their own breasts, is taken
away, even a second and third time, until the poor bird
has plucked herself nearly naked. Their eggs, too, are re-
I C H
moved once or twice, and are eaten in the same manner ice,
as plovers’ eggs. Swans are very numerous in some of the |
lakes of the central part of the island, where they remain
unmolested until the ice sets in, when they betake them- Pj1.'
selves to the sea-shore. The eggs, the feathers, and the 1
down of this fine bird, like those of the eider-duck, supply
the peasantry with an article of food, and also of commerce.
The vegetable productions of the island, as already
stated, are the reverse of luxuriant. With the exception
of a few stunted birch, rarely above six feet high, and
some dwarf willows, in the southern and eastern districts,
nothing in the shape of a tree occurs; and, even in the
sheltered situations afforded by the gardens surrounding
the merchants’ houses near Reikiavik, all attempts to
raise the most common culinary vegetables occasionally
fail. Even in good years, Dr Hooker remarks that in
many of these little enclosures the cabbages were so lan¬
guid and small that a half-crown piece would have cover¬
ed the whole of the plant. It is a curious fact, however,
that timber has in former periods grown in more abun¬
dance, as is evident from the logs so frequently met with in
the morasses and peat-bogs of the country. These the
peasants are in the habit of extracting and using for fire¬
wood. The Surturbrand, already mentioned, has nothing
to do with the antediluvian state of the island.
The scanty produce of the land is, however, to a great
degree compensated for by the abundance of fine fish
which occurs on the coast. In several parts of the island,
particularly on the north and north-west, the shark fishery
is a regular occupation. Strong hooks fastened to chains
are baited and anchored a little way out to sea, and the
fish when caught are thus towed to shore. Of the skin
shoes are made, a considerable quantity of oil is extracted,
and some parts of the flesh are occasionally smoked and
used by the natives for food. The cod is very plentiful;
the haddock grows to a large size; ling, skate, flounders,
and halibut are likewise very common; the herring, too,
frequents the fiords in vast shoals, but this branch of the
fishery has hitherto been little attended to. The salmon
in the rivers are said to be very fine, and no country in
the world produces them in greater quantity. Seals are
particularly numerous on the shores of the Breide-fiord
and the western coast.
Such is a rapid sketch of the most remarkable features
of Iceland. The ardour, however, with which the sciences
of natural history and geology are now pursued in Britain,
coupled with the increasing facility every year afforded by
means of steam navigation, will no doubt, in the course of
a very few summers, present us with more minute and
more accurate information respecting the truly extraordi¬
nary natural productions of this wild but wonderful island.
(See Letters on Iceland, by Von Troil, in 1772 ; Travels
in Iceland, by Sir George Mackenzie, in 1810; Journal of
a Residence in Iceland during the Years 1814 and 1815,
by Ebenezer Henderson; and Visit to Iceland in the
Summer of 1834, by John Barrow, Esq. Jun.)
ICENI, the ancient name of the people of Suffolk, Nor¬
folk, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire, in England.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in perspective, the view of any
thing cut off by a plane parallel to the horizon, just at the
base of it. The word is derived from the Greek
footstep, and y^acpu, I write, as being a description of the
footsteps or traces of a work. Amongst painters it signi¬
fies a description of images or of ancient statues of mar¬
ble and copper, of busts and semibusts, of paintings in fres¬
co, mosaic works, and ancient pieces of miniature.
Ichnography, in Architecture, is a transverse or hori¬
zontal section of a building, exhibiting the plot of the whole
edifice, and of the several rooms and apartments in any
storey, together with the thickness of the walls and parti¬
tions ; the dimensions of the doors, windows, and chim-
1 C H
|r neyS. and the projectures of the columns and piers, with
every thing visible in such a section.
i'°- ICHOR properly signifies a thin watery humour like
• serum, but is sometimes used for a thicker kind flowing
fr0m ulcers, called also sanies.
ICHTHYOCOLLA, Isinglass, a preparation from the
fish known by the name of huso. The word is Greek,
formed of /^u;, fish, and xoXXa, glue. The method of
making isinglass was long a secret in the hands of the
Russians. The following account of it was published by
Mr Humphrey Jackson, in the 63d volume of the Philo¬
sophical Transactions.
“ All authors who have hitherto delivered processes
for making ichthyocolla, fish-glue, or isinglass, have great¬
ly mistaken both its constituent matter and preparation.
To prove this assertion, it may not be improper to re¬
cite what Pomet says upon the subject, as he appears to
be the principal author, whom the rest have copied. Af¬
ter describing the fish, and referring to a cut engraved
from an original m his custody, he says, ‘ As to the man¬
ner of making the isinglass, the sinewy parts of the fish
are boiled in water till all of them be dissolved that will
dissolve; then the gluey liquor is strained, and set to
cool. Being cold, the fat is carefully taken off, and the
liquor itself boiled to a just consistency, then cut to pieces
and made into a twist, bent in form of a crescent as com¬
monly sold ; then hung upon a string and carefully dried.’
“ From this account, it might be rationally concluded
that every species of fish which contained gelatinous prin¬
ciples would yield isinglass; and this parity of reasoning
seems to have given rise to the hasty conclusions of those
who strenuously vouch for the extraction of isinglass from
sturgeon; but as that fish is easily procurable, the negli¬
gence of ascertaining the fact by experiment seems inex¬
cusable.
“ In my first attempt to discover the constituent parts
and manufacture of isinglass, relying too much upon the
authority of some chemical authors whose veracity I had
experienced in many other instances, I found myself con¬
stantly disappointed. Glue, not isinglass, was the result
of every process ; and although, in the same view, a jour¬
ney to Russia proved fruitless, yet a steady perseverance
in the research proved not only successful as to this ob¬
ject, but in the pursuit to discover a resinous matter plen¬
tifully procurable in the British fisheries, which has been
found by ample experience to answer similar purposes. It
is now no longer a secret that the lakes and rivers in
North America are stocked with immense quantities of
fish, said to be the same species with those in Muscovy,
and yielding the finest isinglass; the fisheries whereof,
under due encouragement, would doubtless supply all
Europe with this valuable article.
“ No artificial heat is necessary to the production of
isinglass, neither is the matter dissolved for this purpose ;
for, as the continuity of its fibres would be destroyed by
solution, the mass would become brittle in drying, and
snap short asunder, which is always the case with glue,
but never with isinglass. The latter, indeed, may be re¬
solved into glue with boiling water; but its fibrous recom¬
position would be found impracticable afterwards, and a
fibrous texture is one of the most distinguishing charac¬
teristics of genuine isinglass.
“ A due consideration that an imperfect solution of
isinglass, called fining by the brewers, possessed a pecu¬
liar property of clarifying malt liquors, induced me to at¬
tempt its analysis in cold subacid menstruums. One
ounce and a half of good isinglass, steeped a few days in
a gallon of stale beer, was converted into good fining, of
I C H
149
a remarkable thick consistence ; the same quantity of Ichthyo-
glue, under similar treatment, yielded only a mucilaginous colla.
liquor, resembling diluted gum-water, which, instead of
clarifying beer, increased both its tenacity and turbidness,
and communicated other properties in no respect corre¬
sponding with those of genuine fining. On commixing
three spoonfuls of the solution of isinglass with a gallon
of malt liquor, in a tall cylindrical glass, a vast number of
curdly masses became presently formed, by the recipro¬
cal attraction of the particles of isinglass and the feculen-
cies of the beer, which increasing in magnitude and spe¬
cific gravity, arranged themselves accordingly, and fell in
a combined state to the bottom, through the well-known
laws of gravitation ; for in this case there is no elective
attraction, as some have imagined, which bears the least
affinity with what frequently occurs in chemical decom¬
positions.
“ If what is commercially termed long or short stapled
isinglass be steeped a few hours in fair cold water, the
untwisted membranes will expand, and re-assume their
original beautiful hue,1 and, by a dexterous address, may
be perfectly unfolded. By this simple operation we find
that isinglass is nothing more than certain membranous
parts of fishes, divested of their native mucosity, rolled
and twisted into the forms above mentioned, and dried in
open air.
“ The sounds or air-bladders of fresh-water fish in ge¬
neral are preferred for this purpose, as being the most
transparent, flexible, delicate substances. These consti¬
tute the finest sorts of isinglass ; those called book and or¬
dinary staple are made of the intestines, and probably of
the peritoneum of the fish. The belluga jdelds the great¬
est quantity, as being the largest and most plentiful fish
in the Muscovy rivers ; but the sounds of all fresh-water
fish yield, more or less, fine isinglass, particularly the
smaller sorts, found in prodigious quantities in the Caspian
Sea, and several hundred miles beyond Astracan, in the
Wolga, Yaik, Don, and even as far as Siberia, where it is
called Me or kla by the natives, which implies a glutinous
matter; it is the basis of the Russian glue, which is pre¬
ferred to all other kinds for its strength.
“ The sounds, which yield the finer isinglass, consist
of parallel fibres, and are easily rent longitudinally; but
the ordinary sorts are found composed of double mem¬
branes, whose fibres cross each other obliquely, resem¬
bling the coats of a bladder; hence the former are more
readily pervaded and divided with subacid liquors; but
the latter, through a peculiar kind of interwoven texture,
are with great difficulty torn asunder, and long resist the
power of the same menstruum ; yet, when duly resolved,
are found to act with equal energy in clarifying liquors.
“ Isinglass receives its different shapes in the following
manner: The parts of which it is composed, particularly
the sound, are taken from the fish while sw^eet and fresh,
slit open, washed from their slimy sordes, divested of every
thin membrane which envelopes the sound, and then ex¬
posed to stiffen a little in the air. In this state they are
formed into rolls about the thickness of a finger, and in
length according to the intended size of the staple. A
thin membrane is generally selected for the centre of the
roll, round which the rest are folded alternately; and
about half an inch of each extremity of the roll is turned
inwards. The due dimensions being thus obtained, the
two ends of what is called short staple are pinned together
with a small wooden peg; the middle of the roll is then
pressed a little downwards, which gives it the resemblance
of a heart-shape ; and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up
in the air to dry. The sounds which compose the long
1 If the transparent isinglass be held in certain positions to the light, it frequently exhibits beautiful prismatic colours.
150 I C H
Ichthyo- staple are longer than the former; but the operator
colla. lengthens this sort at pleasure, by interfolding the ends of
0ne or more pieces 0f ^e sound with each other. The
extremities are fastened with a peg, like the former; but
the middle part of the roll is bent more considerably
downwards, and, in order to preserve the shape of the
three obtuse angles thus formed, a piece of round stick,
about a quarter of an inch diameter, is fastened in each
angle with small wooden pegs, in the same manner as
the ends. In this state it is permitted to dry long enough
to retain its form, when the pegs and sticks are taken out,
and the drying completed; lastly, the pieces of isinglass
are colligated in rows, by running pack-thread through
the peg-holes, for convenience of package and exportation.
“ The membranes of the book sort, being thick and re¬
fractory, will not admit a similar formation with the pre¬
ceding; the pieces, therefore, after their sides are folded
inwardly, are bent in the centre, in such manner that the
opposite sides resemble the cover of a book, from whence
its name; a peg being run across the middle, fastens the
sides together, and thus it is dried like the former. This
sort is interleaved, and the pegs run across the ends, the
better to prevent its unfolding.
“ That called cake-isinglass is formed of the bits and
fragments of the staple sorts, put into a flat metalline
pan, with a very little water, and heated just enough to
make the parts cohere like a pancake when it is dried;
but frequently it is overheated, and such pieces, as before
observed, are useless in the business of fining. Experience
has taught the consumers to reject them.
“ Isinglass is best made in the summer, as frost gives it
a disagreeable colour, deprives it of weight, and impairs
its gelatinous principles ; its fashionable forms are unne¬
cessary, and frequently injurious to its native qualities.
It is common to find oily putrid matter, and exuvice of in¬
sects, between the implicated membranes, which, through
the inattention of the cellarman, often contaminate wines
and malt liquors in the act of clarification. These peculiar
shapes might probably be introduced originally with a
view to conceal and disguise the real substance of isin¬
glass and preserve the monopoly; but, as the mask is now
taken off, it cannot be doubted to answer every purpose
more effectually in its native state, without any subse¬
quent manufacture whatever, especially to the principal
consumers, who hence will be enabled to procure sufficient
supply from the British colonies. Until this laudable end
can be fully accomplished, and as a species of isinglass
more easily produceable from the marine fisheries may
probably be more immediately encouraged, it may be ma¬
nufactured as follows:
“ The sounds of cod and ling bear great analogy with
those of the accipenser genus of Linnaeus and Artedi, and
are in general so well known as to require no particular
description. The Newfoundland and Iceland fishermen
split open the fish as soon as taken, and throw the back¬
bones with the sounds annexed in a heap; but previous
to incipient putrefaction, the sounds are cut out, washed
from their slimes, and salted for use. In cutting out the
sounds, the intercostal parts are left behind, which are
much the best; the Iceland fishermen are so sensible of
this, that they beat the bone upon a block with a thick
stick, till the pockets, as they term them, come out easi¬
ly, and thus preserve the sound entire. If the sounds
have been cured with salt, that must he dissolved by
I C H
steeping them in water before they are prepared for isin- ic(,t]1T(k
glass; the fresh sound must then be laid upon a block of colla.
wood, whose surface is a little elliptical, to the end of'^Vv
which a small hair-brush is nailed, and with a saw-knife
the membranes on each side of the sound must be scraped
off. The knife is rubbed upon the brush occasionally, to
clear its teeth; the pockets are cut open with scissars,
and perfectly cleansed of the mucous matter with a coarse
cloth; the sounds are afterwards washed a few minutes
in lime-watei-, in order to absorb their oily principle, and
lastly in clear water. They are then laid upon nets to
dry in the air; but if intended to resemble the foreign
isinglass, the sounds of cod will only admit of that called
book, but those of ling both shapes. The thicker the
sounds are, the better the isinglass, colour excepted; but
this is immaterial to the brewer, who is its chief con¬
sumer.
“ This isinglass resolves into fining, like the other sorts,
in subacid liquors, as stale beer, cider, old hock, and the
like, and in equal quantities produces similar effects upon
turbid liquors, except that it falls speedier and closer to
the bottom of the vessel, as may be demonstrated in tall
cylindrical glasses; but foreign isinglass retains the con¬
sistency of fining preferably in warm weather, owing to
the greater tenacity of its native mucilage. “ Vegetable
acids are in every respect best adapted to fining; the mi¬
neral acids are too corrosive, and even insalubrious, in
common beverage.
“ It is remarkable, that during the conversion of isin¬
glass into fining, the acidity of the menstruum seems
greatly diminished, at least to taste, not on account of
any alkaline property in the isinglass, probably, but by its
enveloping the acid particles. It is likewise reduced in¬
to jelly with alkaline liquors, which indeed are solvents of
all animal matters; even cold lime-water dissolves it into
a pulpous magma. Notwithstanding this is inadmissible
as fining, on account of the menstruum, it produces admi¬
rable effects in other respects; for, on commixture with
compositions of plaster, lime, &c. for ornamenting walls ex¬
posed to vicissitudes of weather, it adds firmness and per¬
manency to the cement; and if common brick-mortar be
worked up with this jelly, it soon becomes almost as hard
as the brick itself; but for this purpose it is more commo-
diously prepared by dissolving it in cold water acidulated
with vitriolic acid, in which case the acid quits the jelly,
and forms with the lime a selenitic mass, while, at the same
time, the jelly being deprived in some measure of its mois¬
ture, through the formation of an indissoluble concrete
amongst its parts, soon dries, and hardens into a firm body;
whence its superior strength and durability are easily com¬
prehended.
“ It has long been a prevalent opinion, that sturgeon, on
account of its cartilaginous nature, would yield great quan¬
tities of isinglass ; but, on examination, no part of this fish,
except the inner coat of the sound, promised the least suc¬
cess. This being full of rugae, adheres so firmly to the ex¬
ternal membrane, which is useless, that the labour of sepa¬
rating them supersedes the advantage. The intestines,
however, which in the larger fish extend several yards in
length, being cleansed from their mucus and dried, were
found surprisingly strong and elastic, resembling cords
made with the intestines of other animals, commonly called
catgut, and, from some trials, promised superior advantages
when-applied to mechanic operations.”
151
%ntr uc-
ti •
ICHTHYOLOGY.'
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
SECT. I.—DEFINITION AND GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. THE
PRINCIPAL EPOCHS IN THE SCIENCE OF ICHTHYOLOGY.
Fishes may be technically defined as vertebrated animals
with red blood, breathing through the medium of water by
means of branchiae or gills. This definition, as Baron Cu¬
vier has remarked, is the result of observation ; it is a pro¬
duct of analysis, or what is termed in physics an empyrical
formula; but its accuracy is demonstrable by the inverse
method, for, when once duly perceived, we may in a great
measure deduce from it a knowledge of the entire nature
of the beings to which it is applied. Being vertebrated,
they must be possessed of an internal skeleton ; of a brain
and spinal marrow, enclosed in a vertebral column ; of mus¬
cles exterior to the bones ; of four extremities only ; and of
the organs of the first four senses, situate in the cavities
of the head; with other relations not necessary to be here
named.
The greater portion of the surface of the earth is cover¬
ed by the waters of the translucent sea ; and wherever con¬
tinents and the larger islands protrude their rocky bulk,
we find them coursed by flowing rivers, or intersected by
lakes and marshes. These present in their aggregate an
enormous mass of waters,, and afford protection and nou¬
rishment to myriads of living creatures, probably superior
in number, and in no way inferior in beauty, to those
which inhabit the earth. On land, the matter susceptible
of life is mainly employed in the construction and conti¬
nuance of vegetable species; from these herbivorous ani¬
mals draw their nourishment; and this being animalized
by assimilation, becomes an appropriate food for the carni¬
vorous kinds, which scarcely amount to more than one half
of the terrestrial creatures of all classes. But in the liquid
element, and more especially among the saline waters of the
ocean, where the vegetable kingdom is so much more re¬
stricted, almost all organized substances are pervaded by
animal life, and each lives at the expense of some smaller
or feebler foe. There we meet not only with the greatest
and most wonderful variety of forms, but also with the ex¬
tremes in respect to size,—from the myriads of microscopic
monads, which, but for artificial means, must have remain¬
ed for ever invisible and unknown, to the ponderous whale,
which surpasses by twenty times the bulk of the largest
elephant. There, too, we may discover the majority of those
magnificent combinations of organic structure, on the rela¬
tions of which naturalists have established the distinction
of classes, or great primary groups,—in other words, the
sea may be said to contain representatives of each ; for,
even among birds, those aerial creatures which usually in¬
habit so light an element, we find species so constructed as
to dwell almost for ever on its waves. The mammiferous Introduc-
class is still more fully represented in the numerous tribes t^on' t
of seals, morses, manaties, and whales, all of which require
a moist abode, and some of which immediately perish
when deprived of it. Most reptiles are aquatic, many in¬
sects are so, more particularly in their larva state ; and al¬
most all the Mollusca, the Annelides, the Crustacea, and
Zoophytes,—four great classes, which on terra firma are few
and far between,—exist in countless numbers in the waters
of the ocean. Hence that ancient dictum recorded by
Pliny, “ Quicquid nascatur in parte naturae ulla, et in mari
esse ; praeterque multa quae nusquam alibi.”
But amongst all the teeming wonders which vivify the
vast expanse and liquid depth of waters, none so predo¬
minate, or are so truly characteristic, as the subjects of our
present treatise; nor are any more worthy of our devoted
consideration, whether we regard the beauty or eccentri¬
city of their forms, the metallic splendour of their colours,
or the innumerable benefits which, through the foresight
of Providence, they confer upon the human race. We there¬
fore deem it incumbent upon us to exhibit an ample view
of the present condition of Systematic Ichthyology ; but
before doing so, we shall endeavour to add to the interest
of the subject by a few general observations.
We may state, in the first place, that we here intention¬
ally refrain from any bibliographical inquiry, or historical
exposition of the progress of Ichthyology. If such were
complete, or even ample, it would occupy too much of that
space which we deem more usefully devoted to the actual
condition of our subject-matter. We more willingly set
that department aside, when we consider how perfectly it
has been presented by Baron Cuvier.2 We shall, however,
briefly allude to what may be regarded as the principal
epocha in the progress of Ichthyological Science. During
many remote ages it consisted, in common with all the
kindred branches of human knowledge, of nothing more
than a few partial and disjointed observations. Aristotle,
about 350 years before the Christian era, made some pro¬
gress towards connecting these together as a body of doc¬
trine ; but still it was a feeble body, reposing upon truths
(perceived indeed with surprising skill when we consider
the scanty data) as yet obscurely known and vaguely ex¬
pressed, owing to the entire absence of all proper standards
for the distinction of species. For more than eighteen
hundred years ensuing, those who wrote on natural history
can scarcely be regarded in any other light than as either
copiers or commentators of Aristotle ; but about the mid¬
dle of the sixteenth century, Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani,
the true founders of modern Ichthyology, made their ap¬
pearance (we mean as authors), by a singular coincidence,
almost precisely at the same time,—the first in 1553, the
second from 1554 to 1555, and the third from 1554 to
1558. Differing from their compiling predecessors, they
1 From ix6v$, a jlsh, and Xoyos, a discourse. ... . n /»v«
2 See the Tableau Historique des Progres de V Ichtyologie^ dcpuis son origine jusqu a nos jours, m the first volume of his great though un-
fortunately uncompleted work, the Hist.oire NatureUe des Poissons. We deem ourselves fortunate beyond our predecessors in ency-
clopsedic labour, in having as a guide in so difficult a subject as that on which the reader is about to enter, the first nine volumes
of Baron Cuvier’s signal publication. We should act unwisely were we to present a crude compendium of the works of foreign and
British writers, such as has hitherto sufficed for publications similar to that in which we are now engaged. A1! e prefer adhering
throughout to Cuvier’s system of arrangement, as one which, without doubt, is entitled to supersede all others hitherto proposed. e
shall also avail ourselves, wherever our doing so seems likely to instruct the reader, of whatever general or miscellaneous information
is scattered through his work, presenting it in a form and sequence the most advantageous to those unacquainted with the \olumi-
nous original; and adding, especially in relation to our native species, whatever we find of interest in recent authors, among whom, as
elucidators of “ British Fishes,” Messrs Couch and Yarrell stand pre-eminent. We beg to make this general acknowledgment of the
infinite advantage we have derived from Baron Cuvier’s labours, in the formation of the present treatise, in reference both to oui in¬
troductory and systematic portions.
152 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- saw and examined for themselves, and made drawings from the Baron has observed, that almost all have likewise in- Introiiu
tion. nature, if not with the elegant accuracy of modern days, at jured the justness of their ordinal division, by a combina- tion,
least with a recognisable exactness. Yet, true to the ge- tion of certain species which resembled the true cartila-
nius of their time, they continued to attach much more ginous kinds merely in the softness of their skeleton. Thus
importance to the ascertainment of the names which the the genera Lophius and Cyclopterus, except in that soft-
species bore in the classical pages of antiquity, than to the ness, do not differ in any respect from the ordinary osseous
composition of their history, as it were afresh, by the light fishes, and therefore ought not to be withdrawn from them,
of nature and their own knowledge. Nevertheless they But there are others which, in addition to the softness of
rectified as well as extended the observations of Aristotle, their bones, present peculiar characters in their tegumen-
and laid a positive base or new foundation of the subject, tary system, in their teeth, and especially in the disposition
by figures and descriptions of a certain number of well-de- of the skeleton of the head, which render theii immediate
termined species. About the close of the seventeenth cen- union with either of the great groups of osseous or carti-
tury, Willughby, and his illustrious friend John Ray, gave laginous fishes a matter of greater doubt and difficulty,
for die first time a history of fishes, in which the species Such, for example, are the genera Tetrodon, Diodon, Os-
were not only clearly described from nature, but distribut- tracion, and Batistes. The Syngnathi, or pipe-fish, like-
ed in accordance with characters drawn solely from their wise present, in their peculiar branchiae, distinctive charac-
structure, and in which we are no longer unnecessarily ters of great importance. The remarkable external aspect
burdened with inapplicable passages from either Greek or of these different genera had long induced the majority of
Roman writers. Finally, about the middle of the eigh- naturalists to separate them from the others; but it so
teenth century, Artedi and Linnaeus completed what the happened also that the same majority were by no means
others had commenced, by establishing well-defined generic fortunate in discovering the true characters of separation,
groups, consisting of ascertained species precisely charac- Thus Artedi not only re-united them to the Lophii and
terised. From that period it may be said that no radical lump-fish, in the order of branchiostegous fishes, but he
defect existed, nor any obstacle in the way of a gradual established that entire order on a false supposition—to wit,
perfecting of the system, which could not be overcome by that they possessed no rays in their branchial membrane
zeal, accuracy, and perseverance. Nevertheless it is to the (“ branchiis assets, ossibus destitutis,”—“ branchiostegi in
genius of Baron Cuvier that we owe the gigantic stride branchiis nulla ossicula gerunt,”1)—while the fact* is, that
which has been made in our own more immediate days, they all possess those rays, and that even Artedi himself has
Prior to 1815, the methods of almost all the modern syste- inadvertently described both their nature and their number
matic writers were little else than modifications, variously (membrana branchiostega ossicula sex gracilia continet) in
disguised, of the Linnaean system,—that is, with alterations, his notice of the lump-fish ( Cyclopterus) in question.2
generally for the worse, of the nomenclature of the illus- Linnaeus,3 after placing the chondropterygian fishes
trious Swede. They darkened knowledge by a multipli- among the reptiles, and adding thereto the genus Lo-
city of vain words and when any principle of classifica- pbius ; after referring the Mormyri and Syngnathi to the
tion was brought forward,—if new, then it was untrue to branchiostegous fishes of Artedi, and assigning to them
nature,—if true to that beautiful abstraction, then it was the character of wanting not only the rays of the branchiae,
already familiar as household words. But forty years assi- but the opercula (the contrary in several species being ob-
duously devoted to Ichthyology,—that is, to a deep study vious to the most simple observation); afterwards combin-
of all preceding authors, to a constant ascertainment of ed4 the Chondropterygii and Branchiostegi into a single or-
whatever could be gathered of the habits of fishes, and to der of reptiles {Amphibia Nantes), on the supposed but quite
the formation of an unrivalled museum of comparative ana- erroneous basis of their being possessed at once of lungs
tomy, where both their outward and internal forms were and gills. Gmelin re-established the two orders of Artedi,
perfectly displayed,—convinced the great French naturalist but still attributing to the Branchiostegi the absence of
that many heterogeneous groups still formed portions of rays. Gouan characterised them merely by the incom-
our ichthyological system, and that a salutary reformation pleteness of their branchiae,—a vague expression, and in¬
might consequently be effected in numerous minor details, deed contestable in almost all the genera. Pennant com-
it was obvious, from an attentive consideration of the bined them with the Chondropterygii, under the common
subject, that the differences of both external and interior name of Cartilaginous, a term adopted by M. Lacepede;
organs, by which fishes might be distinctly characterised, but which Cuvier has shown, in relation to the actual con-
were not less numerous than decided ; and, that in truth tents of the group, to be improper. The great French ana-
there were few classes of created beings among which it tomist has observed that the appellation is by no means
was more easy to recognise the existence of natural groups, applicable, either in a positive or a negative sense. It can-
But with a view to dispose of the genera and families in a not in any way be maintained that the skeleton of the Ba-
becoming order, it was necessary to seize upon a small Ustes is cartilaginous; and among the number of species
number of important characters, from which might result which Pennant and his followers leave among the osseous
certain great divisions, not likely to break up natural rela- fishes, there are several, for example, the Leptocephali, in
tions, and yet sufficiently precise and perceptible to leave which we can scarcely perceive the vestige of a skeleton.5
no doubt as to the place of each species. This was a prin- Baron Cuvier’s great object thus became, to disentangle,
cipal desideratum, and one which the industry and perse- as it were, those anomalous groups, or at least to separate
verance, not less than the genius and high attainments, of all such as seemed to differ sufficiently from the type of
Cuvier, have gone so far to satisfy. ordinary fishes to authorize such separation. His next
The numerous characters held in common by the chon- object was the discovery of precise characters, capable of
dropterygian or cartilaginous fishes were too remarkable to being clearly expressed in words. This examination soon
have escaped detection by those who loved and sought for convinced him that such genera as Lophius, Cyclopterus,
the light of system. Thus all Ichthyologists have agreed Centriscus, Mormyrus, and Macrorhynchus, had been er-
in the formation for these fishes of a separate order; but roneously w ithdrawn from the great group of ordinary
1 Genera Piscium, p. 85.
2 Ibid. p. 62.
& Systerna Naturae, 10th ed.
4 Systerna Naturae, 12th ed.
* Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. i. p. 555.
ICHTHYOLOGY. 153
g h s from which in fact they essentially differed in no- rious modifications have since been proposed of the Lin- Introduc-
tio * thine' But he satisfied himself that the singular genus naean arrangement, but our present limits will not admit of
sjri * Snmnathus, of which the form and economy are so re- our entering upon these as exhibited m the various works
markable were distinctively characterised by their bran- of Gouan, Lacepede, Dumeril, Risso, Itafinesque, Goldfuss,
chiie, in the form of tufts (hence the title of lophobranchial Oken, and others who have laboured to amend the modern
fishes), concealed beneath an opercle which permits the system.2
water to escape only by a small opening towards the nape
of the neck; and that the genera Zh'oefow, Telrodon, Os- SECt. ii.—the external form and character of
tracion, and Bolistes, independently of the singularity of fishes.3
their general form, and the incompleteness of their skele- , . ,, ,
ton have the laws, and in general all the bones of the head, The form and structure of fishes are as admirably adapt-
somewhat differently arranged from the corresponding parts ed for rapid movement through the water, as are those of
in the generality of fishes, the upper jaw and the palatine birds for that aerial motion called night. Suspended in a
bones being articulated with each othei*, and with the vo- liquid element of almost equal specific gravity with them-
mer by immoveable sutures—-a structure which leaves selves, external organs resembling those ot birds in size
them much less freedom in the opening of their mouths,- would have been disproportioned and unnecessary ; but the
and is also the cause (in connection with the tightness of air-bladder (the functions of which, by no means entire y
the te°-umentary envelope which fastens down the bran- understood, have never been satisfactorily explained m all
chial apparatus) of so many naturalists having failed to per- their bearings) is known to possess the power of contrac-
ceive that the genera in question were furnished with rays tion and dilatation, the exercise of which is followed by
and opercula like other species. a corresponding descent or ascent of the animal s body.
But these groups once separated, there remained nine Thus a small, central, and inconspicuous organ effects, in
tenths of the whole class of fishes, among which the first the easiest and most simple manner, the same object which
o-reat distinctive division which presents itself is, into such even the soaring eagle or giant condor can only attain by
as have soft fins, or of which the rays are branched and great exertion of the wings, and after laborious and tie-
articulated, and into such as have spiny fins, of which a quently repeated gyrations. We shall ere long, however,
portion of the rays consist of pointed bones without have occasion to observe, that the an-bladder, although es-
branches or articulation,—two primary divisions, corre- sential to the economy of such species as possess it, is by
spending to the great groups named respectively Mala- no means indispensable to the class of fishes, as in many
copterygii and Acanthopterygii by Artedi. Even tribes it is entirely wanting. .
this principle of classification is not universally prevalent; Fishes being without a neck, and the part called the tan
for, in its practical application, we are obliged to keep out for the most part equalling at its origin the portion ot the
of view the first rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins in cer- trunk from which it springs, the prevailing snape is some-
tain species of the genera Cyprinus and Silarus, in which what uniform, diminishing gradual.y towards either end.
these rays exhibit strong and solid spines, although we still Doubtless, however, a vast variety of form is exhibited in
class them with the Malacopterygii, or soft-finned division.1 a class which is now calculated to contain from six to eig it
In like manner* there are, among the other great division, thousand collected species. Of these forms a sufficiently
corresponding exceptions to the acanthopterygian character, accurate idea may be acquired by inspecting the numerous
as in the blennies and certain Labridae, of which the spines plates which accompany the present treatise, and we shall
are so small, so feeble, or so few in number, as almost to therefore not attempt any further verbal dlustration or the
escape detection. However, if the principle referred to is subject, although we shall add a few notices regarding the
not quite precise in relation to these slight anomalies, it is general aspect and character of the principal external pai ts.
on the whole well founded, and certainly does not force us The mouth of fishes either opens from beneath, as in the
to separate numerous species which nature has approxi- rays, or at the extremity of the muzzle, as in the majority
matej_ of the class, or from the upper surface, as in Umnoscopus.
The same cannot be asserted of those distinctions which It also varies greatly in its relative dimensions, from the mi-
naturalists have sought to establish on other principles, nor nute perforation of Centriscus, to the vast expansion o the
of those on which so many of the secondary divisions have angler fish.
been founded. Thus the general form of the body, and Exteriorly only two of the organs of the senses are visi-
the absence of the ventral fins, the characters assumed by ble, the orifices of the nostrils and the eyes. 1 he former
Ray, anterior to those deduced from the spines, force a may be simple, as in the rays and sharks, or double, as in
heterogeneous grouping of the eels, the gobies, the Syng- the generality of osseous fishes; and they differ in t leir
nathi, the Xiphias, and the moon-fish. Linnaeus was the position in relation to the jaws, the eyes, or the extremity
first (in the tenth edition of the Systema Nature), while of the muzzle. The eyes vary extremely in respect to
neglecting the distinction of the spiny rays, to imagine the size in the different species, and even sometimes disappear
division of ordinary fishes into apodal, jugular, thoracic, entirely beneath the skin ; and they also differ great y in
and abdominal, according to the absence or position of the their position, being usually placed laterally, one on eac
ventral fins; and in so doing obliged himself to place the side of the head, although in Uranoscopus (as the name
genera Xiphias, Trichiurus, and Stromateus with the eels implies) they look upwards, and in most ot the flat fishes
and Gymnoli, the Gadi between the weevers and the blen- they both occupy the same side.
nies, Pleuronectes between Zeus and Chcetodon, and the Am- In regard to those important organs, the branchiee or
as intermediate with and/.orican’«. Va- gills, a single family alone, the chondropterygian hs les,
1 These spines, however, as Cuvier remarks, are formed, in the two genera above named, by the agglutination of a multitude of
smaller parts, of which the articulations, though not obvious, are perceptible.
2 For critical notices of their works, see the 1st volume of the Hist. Nat. des Poissons. _ _
3 We may here premise, that in the ensuing sections several interesting and important particulars in the structure and physiology
of fishes are very slightly/or even not at all, touched upon, in consequence of their having been already detailed in the article
Comparative Anatomy of this work. (See vol. iii* p» &c.) deemed it more advisable that the reader should be made to
incur the slight inconvenience of referring occasionally to a separate treatise^ than that the present publication should be burdened
by a repetition of the same subject. u
VOL. XII. 4.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
154
Introduc- are characterised by having their exterior margin fixed to
ti011* the skin, with as many openings for the issue of the water
as there are intervals between the branchiae themselves;
but all other fishes have the external margin of the bran¬
chiae free, and the water which enters the mouth escapes
by the opening of the gill-covers.
A certain number of the fins are vertical, and serve the
fish somewhat in the same way as a vessel is served by her
helm and keel. Of these, some, called dorsal, are attached
to the back, others, beneath the tail, are named anal, while
a fine expansion, which usually terminates the body, is
known as the caudal fin. All these are vertical fins, and
vary in different tribes, either in number, or dimensions, or
the nature of the rays by which they are supported, and
which are sometimes spiny, sometimes branched and com¬
posed of numerous articulations. The other fins are dis¬
posed in pairs, and represent the four external members of
the higher classes, such as quadrupeds and birds. Those
which correspond to the fore-legs of quadrupeds and the
wings of birds are named the pectoral fins, and are always
attached behind the gills ; those again which are regarded
as the analogues of the hinder extremities of the other
classes are named the ventral fins, and have a considerable
range of position in different species, from as far forward
as beneath the throat, to the origin of the tail. Like the
vertical fins, they also vary in size, and in the number and
structure of their rays; and one or even both pairs are oc¬
casionally wanting, as in eels, which have no ventral fins,
and Murense, which have neither ventral nor pectoral fins.
Indeed the Apterichti have no fins at all.
Those fishes are named Malacopterygian, of which
all the rays of the fins are articulated, and of a softer struc¬
ture ; while such as are characterised by having at least a
portion of their rays hard, simple, and in the form of spines,
are included under the general title of Acanthoptery-
gian fishes.1 These great divisions apply solely to the os¬
seous species. We have already mentioned that the car¬
tilaginous kinds are distinguished by the name of Chon-
droptery gian, while two lesser groups, in some respects
intermediate between these and the preceding, fall under
the orders Lophobranchii and Plectognathi of Baron
Cuvier.
The differences hitherto alluded to are connected with
intimate structure—with the skeleton or bony frame-work
of the fist* There are of course others of a slighter or
more superficial character. The jaws may be armed with
teeth of all sorts, and these weapons sometimes occupy all
parts of the mouth, and are found occasionally even in the
throat. The lips are frequently furnished with a kind of
fleshy beard or barbies, which differ greatly in number, size,
and substance. Some have long fleshy isolated filaments
hanging to the body, as in Scorpcena; and occasionally one
or more of the rays is to a certain extent detachable from
the fin, and susceptible of independent movement.
The nature of the surface or external tegument of fishes
also varies greatly. Some may be called naked, while
others are scaly, spinous, or plated, in whole or in part.
If to these considerations we add the infinitely varied cha¬
racter of colour in all its admirable distributions, and the
differences in size and weight observable in fishes, we shall
be able to form a general idea of the external aspect of this
great and important class.
SECT. III.—THE OSTEOLOGY OF FISHES.
In regard to the texture of the bones of fishes, their
skeletons are either bony, fibro-cartilaginous, or truly car¬
tilaginous. Those distinguished by the last-named charac- lntroCii ^
ter are the chondropterygian groups, such as the sturgeons, lion.' I
sharks, and rays, all of which exhibit throughout the whole /
of their frame-work, in their branchiae (the external bor¬
der of which is fixed to the skin, and through which the
water is allowed to escape only by narrow openings), and
in other important parts of their organization, distinctive
characters, which obviously separate them from all other
fishes. They are in fact destitute of true bones, their har¬
der parts consisting only of a homogeneous and semitrans¬
parent cartilage, which is merely covered on the surface
in certain genera by a layer of small, opake, calcareous gra¬
nules, closely set together. In the lampreys even this en¬
velope is wanting, \vhile among the Ammoccetes the skele¬
ton continues in an actually membranous condition. The
sturgeons and Chimerae partake in some measure of the
lamprey character in relation to the softness of their spines,
but the first-named genus is possessed of many true bones
of the head and shoulder.
Other fishes differ in their osteological character chief¬
ly in the hardness of their skeleton, and it is without rea¬
son that the- fibro-cartilaginous kinds have been associ¬
ated by some authors with the Chondropterygii. The
calcareous matter, that is, the phosphate of lime, is de¬
posited in layers and fibres in the cartilage which forms
the basis of their bones, precisely in the same manner
as among the hard-boned species, but less abundantly;
and the texture of the bone never becomes so hard and
homogeneous as among the osseous kinds. Thus in Te-
trodon Mola we peTceive, as it were, only scattered fibres
amid the membranes, and in Lophius piscatorius they are
nearly as soft. The other Tetrodons and Diodons, the
Balistes and the Ostracions, have denser bones; and in
some species these parts can scarcely be distinguished
from those of the osseous fishes. It is certain also that
the bony frame-work of the fibro-cartilaginous kinds is
constructed on the same plan as that of the truly osseous
species, and not in accordance with those of the Chon¬
dropterygii ; and it is in opposition to the known truth of
nature that both Artedi and Linnaeus have denied them
the possession of opercula and branchiostegous rays.
The Balistes have even ribs,—their only osteological dif¬
ference consisting in the granulation of their jaws ; while
the Syngnathi have regular bony jaws, although they
want the ribs and branchiostegous rays.
The majority of osseous fishes have bones fully harder
than those of other animals, and it is quite a gratuitous
assumption to suppose that the observed longevity of cer¬
tain species arises from the softer consistence of those
parts. Certain fish bones, in fact, exhibit neither pores
nor fibres, and appear almost vitreous to the eye. But
neither the osseous nor the cartilaginous kinds have ei¬
ther epiphyses to the bones, or medullary canal within
them; but there are some, such as the trouts, in which
the tissue of the bones is more or less penetrated by an
oilyjuice ; while in others, such as the Dory, the inter¬
nal portion continues cartilaginous, while the surface is
completely ossified. Finally, in certain species, while
the general skeleton is very hard, particular portions of
it are cartilaginous. Such are the bones which consti¬
tute the head of the pike.
When viewed in relation to their general structure,
the bones of fishes, like those of other vertebrated ani¬
mals, are composed of an organic base penetrated by
earthy matter. The latter consists of phosphate of lime
and of magnesia, with oxide of iron, supposed to be unit¬
ed to phosphoric acid. There is also a certain portion
1 It may be here noted, however, that certain malacopterygian kinds, such as carps and siluri, have the articulations of some ot
the rays soldered together, in such a manner as to appear simply spinous.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
!i trc ic- of subcarbonate of lime. The animal matter is of two The anterior members, commonly called the pectoral
:ntic kinds:—the one, of an azotised nature, forms the base of fins, consist of the shoulder, an osseous semicircle com-
J ttie cartilage ; the other is fatty, in the form of a pervad- posed of several bones suspended above from the cranium
ing oil. The cartilage of fish'bones differs from that of or the spine, and joined beneath to the corresponding
mammiferge and birds, in as far as it yields no gelatine portion of the other side. We can here also distinguish
when subjected to the process of boiling. The oil is certain bones analogous to the two pieces of the omoplate
composed chiefly of oleine, impregnated with an odorous of reptiles, to the humerus, and to the bones of the fore¬
principle and a yellow colouring'matter. The oil itself arm ; and further back there is usually a small projec-
is easily convertible into soap, and then produces oleic tion, composed of two pieces, which have been supposed
acid, p-lycerine, and a minute portion of margaric acid. to represent the coracoid bone, and even the clavicle.
The skeleton of osseous fishes consists of the head; What is more assured is, that the two bones which Cu-
of the respiratory apparatus, having always a large bony vier compares to the cubitus and radius, bear on their
development; of the trunk, including body and tail ; and margin a range of little bones, which seem to represent
of members, that is, the pectoral and ventral fins. The those of the carpus, and which themselves support the
vertical fins, viz. those of the back, anus, and tail, may rays of the pectoral fin, excepting the first of the latter,
likewise be viewed as belonging to the trunk. which articulates directly w ith the radial bone.
The head, possessing many more moveable parts than The posterior members, much more variable in their
that of the Mammalia, is subdivisible into a great many position than the corresponding limbs of the Mammalia,
regions, such as the cranium, the maxillae, the bones and of which the external and moveable portions are
beneath the cranium and behind the jaws, and which aid named the ventral fins, project sometimes in advance of,
in their movement and suspension ; the bones of the oper- sometimes beneath, and sometimes behind, the anterior
cles, which open and shut the overtures of the bran- or pectoral members. They are composed of four bones,
chiee; the bones, almost exterior, which surround the of which the largest, which are likewise the most con-
nostrils, the eye, and the temples, or which cover a por- stant, being always placed in advance of the anus and of
tion of the cheek. the generative system, may be regarded as a sort of pu-
In the majority of fishes the inter-maxillary bone forms bis, and bear upon a portion of their posterior margin the
the edge of the upper jaw, and has behind it the maxil- rays of the fin, without any smaller intermediate bones
lary, commonly called the mystax, or labial bone. A pa- which can be compared either to the femur, the tibia,
latine arch, composed of the palatine, of the two ptery- the peroneum, or tarsal bones. The rays of both the
goid processes, of the jugal, tympanic, and squamous pectoral and ventral fins are likewise divisible lengthwise
bones, constitutes, as among birds and snakes, a kind of into halves, like those of the vertical fins before mention-
interior jawy and provides posteriorly an articulation to ed. Ihese rays, with the exception of the external ven-
the lower jaw, which has usually two bones on each side, tral one of the Acanthopterygii (which is spinous), are al-
In the Chondropterygii, hov/ever, these various pieces are most always articulated.
greatly reduced in number. The skeleton of the CJw)7iclvopt€Tygity such as sharks and
Besides the apparatus of the branchial arches, the hy- skates, is composed of pieces consisting of no fibrous tis-
oid bone carries on each side certain rays which support sue characteristic of bone. The interior continues in a
the branchial membrane ; a kind of lid or clapper, com- cartilaginous state, and the surface alone becomes indu-
posed of three bony pieces, the opercle, the sub-opercle, rated by the accumulation of small calcareous granules,
and the inter-opercle, unites with that membrane to close which produce externally a stippled aspect. Ihe form
the great opening of the gills ; it articulates with the os of the cranium is similar to that of other fishes, but ne-
tympani, and plays on the piece called the pre-opercle. But, vertheless consists of only one enclosure, without sutures,
like the parts before mentioned, this apparatus is likewise Ihe face is very simple, with only two bones in the pala-
wantingin many of the Chondropterygii. to-temporal arch ;—tiie first descending from the ciani-
The trunk is composed of the vertebrae of the back um, at the articulation of the jaws,—the other repiesent-
and tail (for we can scarcely say that there is any neck, ing the upper jaw, and bearing the teeth. Ihe maxillary
and the sacrum is rvanting); of ribs; of the mterspinal and inter-maxillary bones are merely rudimentary. Ihe
bones, which give support to the dorsal and anal fins ; under jaw has also but one bone (the articular) on each
and of the rays of those fins, and of the caudal. These side, bearing the teeth; of the others only a single ves-
rays, whether branched and articulated, or simply spi- tige is discoverable, concealed beneath the skin of the
nous, may be always divided lengthways into halves. lip. Ihe opercular apparatus is wanting, but the hyoi-
The vertebrae of fishes are characterised by the conical dean and branchial structure is very conformable with the
hollow on each of their faces. Double hollow cones are same parts in osseous fishes. Sharks have, moreover, op-
thus formed in the interval between two vertebrae, fill- posite to the external attachment of each branchia, a slen-
edbya soft membranous and gelatinous substance, which der bone, which may be regarded as the genuine vestige
passes from one void to another by means of an opening of a rib. The branchial system is situate further back
through each vertebra, and forms as it were a gelatinous than in osseous fishes, and hence the humeral girdle is
chaplet through the whole. They have, as in other ani- also more posterior. The spinal ribs, if they exist, are
mals, an annular portion in their superior part, for the usually very small, except in the sturgeons. In that ge-
passage of the spinal marrow. nus, indeed, the branchial system is in some respects inter-
Fish rarely possess a sternum properly so called, and mediate between the cartilaginous and osseous fishes,
when it does exist, it is formed of almost external pieces, Several bones of the head and shoulder are as hard as
which unite the inferior extremities of the ribs. stone, yet the spine is almost as soft as that of lampreys.1
1 For the sake of a more explicit comprehension of the principal portions of the osteological system of fishes, we have figured
(from Cuvier) the skeleton of the perch. We shall here subjoin the names of the bones, in reference to the engraved numerals. See
Plate CCXCVII. figs. 1, 2, 4, 5.
Cranium: Principal frontal, 1; anterior frontals, 2 ; ethmoidal, 3 ; posterior frontal, 4; basilary, 5; sphenoid, C; parietals, 7;
inter-parietal, 8; external occipital, 9 ; occipital lateral, 10; great ala, or temporal ala, 11; mastoidean, 12; rupes, 13; orbitary
ala, 14; anterior sphenoid, 15; vomer, 16. Upper jaw : Inter-maxillary, 17; maxillary, 18. Nasal, sub-orbitary, and supra-temporal
bones: First sub-orbitary, 19; chain of bones attached to the last named, and ending at the posterior frontal (these are conspi¬
cuous in Trigla and Scorpsena), likewise numbered 19; nasal, 20 j supra-temporals, 21. Palatine arch, or palatino-pterygoidean and
156
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc¬
tion.
SECT. IV. THE MUSCLES AND MUSCULAR MOTIONS OF
FISHES.
The spinal column, composed of numerous articula¬
tions united by cartilages which permit of certain move¬
ments, curves with great facility from side to side ; but
the vertical motion is much more restricted, chiefly in
consequence of the projection of the upper and under Introdu,
spiny processes of the vertebrae. tion,
The great organ of movement in all fishes is the tail.
The muscles by which it is brought into play extend in
lengthened masses on either side of the vertebral column.
The body being supported chiefly by the swimming blad¬
der (which, however, is absent in several species), is pro-
temporal system : Palatine, 22 ; temporal, 23 ; transverse bone, 24 ; internal apterygoidean, 25 ; jugal, 26; tympanal, 27- Opercular
bones: Operculum, 28; styloid, 29; pre-operculum, 30; sympletic, 31 ; sub-operculum, 32; inter-operculum, 33; this last-named
bone furnishes an attachment to the branch of the hyoid bone at the point where it is itself joined to the styloid, which suspends it
on the temporal bone, and hence the opercular shutters can neither open nor close without a corresponding movement of the hyoidean
branches. Lower jaw : Dental, 34 ; articular, 35 ; these are the usual divisions, but there is often a third bone, the angular, 36,
and sometimes a fourth, on the internal face of the articular, corresponding to the opercular of reptiles, 37. I hus the head of
fishes usually consists of about sixty bones—the amount being sensibly greater in such species as have the upper maxillary subject
to division. _
Hyoid bone and branchiostegous rays. The three opercular pieces above mentioned do not of themselves effect the closure of those
great clefts observable on each side of a fish, between the head and shoulder, and within which are the respiratory organ sor bran-
chise. This closure is completed by the branchiostegous membrane, which adheres to the hyoid bone. (See l late CT^yLYIT. figs. 2,
4, and 5.) This bone is placed as in other vertebrated classes, but is always suspended to the temporal bones. It is composed of
two branches, each consisting of five pieces, viz. the styloid, 29, by which it is suspended to the temporal; two large lateral pieces,
37 and 38, placed one behind the other, and forming the principal portion of the branch (the posterior, 38, being that which attaches
to the inter-operculum); lastly, two small pieces, 39 and 40, placed one above the other at the anterior extremity of the branch,
and serving to unite it with the corresponding portion of the other side. Anterior to this junction is the lingual bone, 41, and be¬
hind it, in the angle formed by the meeting of the two branches, and beneath the branchise, is a single piece, usually vertical, 42 (fig.
5), which represents the tail of the hyoid bone, so well known in birds and lizards. It is this piece which, uniting with the syin.
physes of the humerals, forms what is called the isthmus, which separates the two branchial openings from below. Thus in its tota-
lity the hyoid bone of fishes is composed of twelve bones.
The rays, 43, which support the branchiostegous membrane, adhere by moveable articulation, or by simple ligaments, to the infe¬
rior margin of the principal portions already mentioned (37, 38) of the hyoid bone. They vary in form and number, some species
having three, others thirty. The perch, which forms the subject of our illustration, has seven branchial rays ; and that number is the
most common among the acanthopterygian fishes.
Bones which support the branchiae. As fishes cannot respire except by making the water which they have taken into the mouth flow
out by the openings behind the lateral part of the head, it thus passes between the branchiae, those well-known comb-like organs,
usually four in number on each side, composed of a great quantity of thin, narrow, forked laminae, of a membranous or cartilaginous
nature, and placed in files. These four pair of branchiae are supported by four pair of arches, adhering by their inferior extremities
to the two sides of a chain of small intermediate bones, which is itself attached to the angle formed by the anterior portions of the
hyoid bone, and above the tail of the latter. These arches ascend in a curve, and are attached at their other extremity beneath the
cranium, but bv means only of cellulosity, or of ligaments. The intermediate chain of bones just alluded to forms, in a certain sense,
a continuation of the lingual bone. There are usually three : the first, 53 (see chiefly fig. 4), is attached at the base of the angle formed
by the two branches of the hyoid bone ; the second, 54, affords attachment to the first pair of arches ; and the third, 55, affords the like
attachment to the second pair, while the third pair adheres to its extremity ; the fourth pair of arches is connected with the angle of the
third pair. Each arch is composed of two parts, moveable on each other, and the inferior portion of the first three pair itself consists
of two pieces, 5? and 58 ; in the last pair there is only a single piece, 60. The upper portion of the arches, 61, is simple, except in
the first pair, which is usually suspended from the cranium by a small stylus, 59. The inner face of these arches is furnished with
small plates or cones of osseous lamina, usually armed with teeth variously disposed according to the species. The most general uses
of this armature are to arrest the progress of such substances as the fish is swallowing,—to prevent their escaping with the respired
water, or their producing inconvenience amid the interstices of the branchiae. It may be likened in its functions to the epiglottis of
quadrupeds, or the dentations of the margins of the larynx of birds. Besides the interior range of conical plates, the perch possesses
an external row of slender pointed teeth, resembling those of a garden rake, upon its first pair of arches, see 63.
Pharyngeal bones. At the entrance to the oesophagus, and immediately below the branchial apparatus, are placed the pharyngeal
bones, which produce a second mastication, often more powerful than the first; for this purpose they are armed with teeth of very
variable form and number, according to the species. These bones are usually two inferior, 56, and six superior, 62.
Vertebrae. We have already described the general character of the vertebral bones of fishes. Their special forms will be best un¬
derstood by an inspection of Plate CCXCVII. fig. 1, Nos. 67, 68, 69, with the processes, marked a, b, c. The ribs are shown at 72;
the stvles or appendages which frequently adhere to those parts, at 73- In a fe'v fishes the ribs are entirely wanting.
Vertical fins. These are supported by rays composed of an internal portion, named the interspinal, 74, which serves as a sustaining
root, by penetrating the flesh among the great lateral muscles, and an external portion, which exhibits the rays properly so called, as
seen at 75. We sometimes find an interspinal bone which bears no rays, 76. A certain number of these vertical rays are pointed
bones, and are then named spines, or spiny rays ; others are bony or solid only towards their base, their remainder being formed of
a multitude of small articulations, and frequently ramified into lesser branches, themselves still further divided ; in these states they
are named articulated, soft, or branched rays. Those of the tail, 71? are always soft and articulated ; although, towards the root, both
above and below, 78, they gradually diminish till only the solid portion of the base remains. In a great number of fishes the vertebra
at which the abdomen terminates and the caudal part begins, and even that which follows it, 83, 83, have a great inferior spinous pro¬
cess, to which is joined a more or less voluminous bone, 79, extending behind the anus, and thus forming the posterior boundary of
the abdominal cavit3r.
The sternum does not exist in all fishes. When present, it consists of a series of single bones of various configuration, according
to the genera, and at these the ribs terminate.
Bones of the shoulder and arm. In osseous fishes, we find on each side, immediately behind the orifice of the gills, a suite of bones,
forming a kind of frame, on which the opercle rests when closed. These bones, usually attached to the head from above, and unit¬
ing together below, form an osseous belt, surrounding that part of the body. Their inferior symphysis unites by ligaments to the
tail of the hyoid bone (formerly mentioned, 42), and forms with it the isthmus, which separates the external openings of the gills from
each other beneath, just as the cranium separates them above. This cincture, when complete, is composed on each side of three bones,
which represent the shoulder and the arm, to which adheres, posteriorly, a group of two or three others, occupying the place of the
fore arm, and bearing the pectoral fin, which may be considered as the hand; lastly, there is almost always suspended a style, com¬
posed of one or two bones, which Cuvier regards as the analogue of the coracoidian bone. The highest of these first three bones, 46,
is usually forked, and attached by its two crests to the lateral crests of the cranium. It is visible externally at the top of the bran¬
chial opening, resembling a scale, larger than the others, and is sometimes toothed on its edges. The second, 47, continues along the
margin of the branchial opening. The third, 48, always the largest, completes the cincture, by uniting with its counterpart beneath
the throat. To the inner surface of the last-mentioned bone adheres a fourth, 51, and fifth, 52, placed one above the other. The
free side of these bones bears the pectoral fin, but by means of an intermediate range of four or five small bones, 53. These bonelets
may be supposed to represent the carpal series; and if so, then the two others, 51 and 52. will be the cubitus and radius. The third
ICHTHYOLOGY.
157
IC- pelled forwards by the rapid flexure of the extremity
acting laterally upon the resistance offered by the water.
^ Generally speaking, neither the pectoral nor the ventral
fins are of any material use during swift progressive mo¬
tion ; they rather serve to balance the body, or to aid its
gentler movements while in a state of comparative re¬
pose. In flying fishes, as they are called, the pectoral
fins are of such great length and expansion as to support
the animal in the air; and the strength of muscular ac¬
tion might probably suffice even for a longer flight, but
for the necessity of constant moisture for the purposes of
respiration. The drying of the gills in an individual of
this class is«attended by results analogous to those pro¬
duced by submersion in the case of a land animal;—and
a flying fish is obliged to descend to respire, in like man¬
ner as a swimming quadruped, or disguised mammiferous
animal (as we may term a whale), is under the necessity
of ascending for the same purpose.
The head of fishes exercises but a slight movement
independent of the rest of the body ; but the jaws, hyoid
bone, palato-temporal and branchial arches, and pharyn-
gial and opercular bones, are very free in their motions.
The muscles of fishes, like those of other vertebrated
animals, are composed of fleshy fibres more or less colour¬
ed, and of tendinous fibres of a white or silvery colour.
With the exception, however, of certain special muscles
which are sometimes of a deep red, the flesh of fishes is
much paler than that of quadrupeds, and still more so than
that of birds. In some species it is even entirely white.
sect. V THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSES OF FISHES.
The sensitive system of fishes, like that of the higher
classes, is composed of the external senses, of a central
medullary apparatus, and of nerves of communication.
As in the classes alluded to, the central portion of* the ner¬
vous system, that is, the brain and spinal marrow, occu¬
pies the cavity of the cranium and vertebral column.
As fishes respire through the intervention of water alone,
that is, as they can scarcely avail themselves, in rendering
their blood arterial, of any thing more than the small por¬
tion of oxygen contained in the air which is suspended in
the water, their blood is necessarily cold, and their gene¬
ral energy, and the activity of their senses and movements,
are less than among Mammalia and birds. Their brain
also, though of similar composition, is proportionally much
smaller; and the external organs of the senses do not seem
of such a nature as to be capable of impressing or convey¬
ing towards it any vivid excitement. Indeed the most
striking characteristic of the brain of fishes is its extreme
smallness, when compared either with the total size of the
body, writh the mass of nerves which proceed from it, or
with the cavity of the cranium in which it is contained.
In the burbot, or Gadus lota, the weight of the brain to
that of the spinal marrow is estimated by Carus to be as 8 Introduc-
to 12, and to that of the whole body as 1 to 720. It was
previously known that the brain of the pike weighed in
proportion to that of the whole body as 1 to 1305. Now,
in many small birds, the brain, viewed in relation to the rest
of the body, is equal to a twentieth part. In the genera¬
lity of fishes, the spinal marrow extends along the whole
of the caudal vertebrae ; and it is thus that it preponderates
over the brain. The Lophius piscatorius, however, and a
few other species, form remarkable exceptions to this rule,
as in them the spinal marrow^ disappears before it reaches
the eighth vertebra; but in the greater proportion of
cases it may be said that the spinal cord in this class
terminates by a single thread in the last caudal vertebra.1
The brain of fishes by na means fills up the cavity of the
cranium ; and the interval between the pia-mater which en¬
velopes the brain itself, and the dura-mater, which lines
the interior of the skull, is occupied only by a loose cellu-
losity, frequently impregnated by an oil, or sometimes, as
in the sturgeon and thunny, by a rather compact grease.
It has also been remarked, that this void between the cra¬
nium and the brain is much less in young subjects than in
adults ; from which it may be inferred, that the brain does
not increase in an equal proportion with the rest of the
body. Cuvier, in fact, has found its dimensions nearly
the same in different individuals, of which the general size
of the one was double that of the other.
When compared with that of quadrupeds, the brain of
fishes has been said to possess an embryonic character,
and to have its greatest development in the cerebellum,
the seat of the appetites. Of all vertebrated animals, fish
in fact exhibit the smallest apparent signs of sensibility.
Having no elastic air to act upon, they are necessarily
mute, or nearly so; and all the sensations which the de¬
lightful faculty of voice has called into being among the
higher tribes, are to them unknown. Their glazed im¬
moveable eyes, their fixed and bony faces, their bodies and
members moving altogether, if they move at all, admit of
little play in their physiognomy, and of scarcely any ex¬
pression to their emotions. Their ears, surrounded on
every side by the bones of the cranium, destitute of exter¬
nal conch, without any internal cochlea, and composed
merely of some sacks and membranous canals, scarcely
suffice for the perception of the loudest sounds. Even
their sight may be supposed to find but little exercise in
those profound depths where so many of the inhabitants of
ocean dwell, although the largeness of the visual organs in
many species probably in some measure makes amends for
this deficiency of light. But even in those species the eye
cannot change its direction ; still less can it alter its focus,
so as to accommodate the vision to a varying distance ; for
the iris neither dilates nor contracts, and the pupil remains
for ever the same in all degrees of light. No tear moistens
its glazed surface, no eyelid clears or protects it, and it
bone of the cincture, which supports the two last named, will then necessarily represent the humerus, and the first and second (40-/)
the shoulder blade. There still remains to be mentioned a species of style, almost always composed of two pieces, 49 and 59.
Carpal bones. At the outer edge of the radial and cubital bones adhere the small flat bones, 53, compared to the carpus. I heir
function is to support the rays of the pectoral fin, 53, a, however numerous these may be, with the exception of the first, which arti¬
culates directly with the radius or upper bone, 62. .
Bones of the hinder extremity. The os innominata, the thigh, the tibia, and the tarsus, are represented in fishes by a single bone,
80, usually of a triangular form, but more or less complicated by processes and projecting plates. Its posterior side affoids attach¬
ment to the rays of the ventral fins. In eels and others, in which the ventral fins are wanting, the bone is also absent. ^ _
The rays of the extremities. These ravs, that is, those of the pectoral and ventral fins, 82 and 53, a, without being as symmetrical as
those of the vertical fins, are equally divisible into halves. Except the external ray of the ventral in the Acanthopterygii, 81, they
are almost always articulated, but their bases become solid, and there the articulation is scarcely if at all perceptible.
1 In regard to the shortness of the spinal cord in Lophius, the fact, as above referred to, is taken from the dissertation of Apostolo-
Arsaki, a Greek doctor, who published De pisciian cerebro et medulla spinali, Halle, 1813 ; but in a note to the Hist. A at. dcs Poissons
of Cuvier (vol. i. p. 437), we find the foliowiqg correction of that statement“ Sa moelle regne presque tout le long de 1 epine ;
mais elle est enveloppee et cachee par les nerfs, qui naissent beaucoup plus haut qu’ils ne sortent.” It is certain, however, fiom u-
vier’s recent statement, that the supposed character is truly exhibited by the moon-fish (Lampris guttatus, lletz ; opah oi 1 ennant),
11 Oil la moelle epiniere est tellement raccourcie qu’elle ne semble qu'une petite preeminence conique de I’encepnale, de laquelle les
diflerentes paires de nerfs partent comme une queue de cheval.” (Ibid.)
158 I C H T H Y
Introduc- consequently offers but a dull and feeble representative of
tion. that beautiful and most expressive organ, so full of life and
animation in the higher tribes.
The position, direction, and dimensions of the eyes of
fishes vary greatly. In some they have an upward aspect,
and are often very close upon each other; in others they
are lateral, and so wide apart as to be even directed slight¬
ly downwards. But of all anomalies, one of the most ex¬
traordinary which their position presents, is that of the
Pleuronectes (such as turbot, flounders, soles, &c.), in
which the two eyes are placed, as it were, the one above
the other, and both upon the same side of the head. In
certain species of the eels and Siluri, they are so small as
to be scarcely visible; while in other groups, such as Pria~
canthus and Pomutomus, they surpass in proportional dia¬
meter whatever is known of the same organs in the higher
classes. It may be said in general that the eye of fishes
is large, and that its pupil especially is broad and open; a
character probably connected with the necessity of collect¬
ing whatever devious rays of light may penetrate the ob¬
scure depth of waters. Fishes have no true eyelids. The
skin always passes over the eye, to which it is slightly ad¬
herent ; and it is for the most part sufficiently transparent
for the passage of the solar rays. In some species, such as
eels, it passes over without the slightest fold or duplication ;
while in a few, for example, the Gastrobranchus caucus of
Bloch, it continues quite opake, so as entirely to conceal
the eye. In others, as the well-known mackerel and her¬
ring, it forms an adipose fold both before and behind; but
these folds are fixed, and being unprovided with muscles,
have no mobility. Sharks have one, somewhat more move-
able, on the inferior margin of the orbit. The globe of the
eye itself is very slightly moveable, although, like that of
man, it is furnished with six muscles. Perhaps the most sin¬
gular eye presented by the class of fishes is that of Anableps,
which has two corneae, separated by an opake line, and two
pupils pierced in the same iris, so that one might deem it
double ; but there is only one retina, and a single vitreous
and crystalline humour. In accordance with the general
structure of the eyes of fishes (which we shall not further
detail), the nearly spherical form of the crystalline humour,
the immobility of the pupil, and the difficulty with which
it changes the length of its axis, we can scarcely doubt
that the vision of this class is comparatively imperfect.
Images must be but feebly painted in their retina, and
their visual perceptions must be indistinct and dull. At
the same time it is evident that they perceive their prey
from a considerable distance; and the angler, who knows
either how rapidly they seize or how cautiously they avoid
his lure, and with what discrimination they sometimes pre¬
fer one colour or kind of artificial fly to another, must be
impressed with the belief that the power of vision, at least
of certain species, is by no means devoid of clearness and
precision.
The organ of hearing in fishes consists of little more than
the labyrinth, and that a much less complicated one than
the corresponding part in either quadrupeds or birds.
They have no external ear, unless we may bestow that
name on a small cavity, sometimes slightly spiral, which
we find in the rays. It is however always covered by the
skin, and is not perceptible among the osseous fishes. A
few of the latter, such as the genus Lepidoleprus, and certain
Mormyri, have merely openings in the cranium closed by
the skin, by means of which the vibrations of the element
by which they are surrounded may be conducted to the
labyrinth. In some other species, as Myripristis, the cra¬
nium is open beneath, and its orifice is closed by a mem¬
branous partition, to which the swimming bladder adheres;
but these communications are very different from that
which takes place by means of the tympanum, and still
more by means of the Eustachian tube in other classes.
O L O G Y.
Both these parts, as well as the bones, are in fact wanting intl0(j
in the class of fishes. Those who find in the bones of the tion.
operculum the four bones of the ear of man suddenly andy>
prodigiously developed, hazard such a notion merely on the
assumption that the bony pieces are the same in number
in all crania; but it must be borne in mind, that neither
the form, nor the relations, nor the functions of these bones,
nor their nerves nor muscles, support such a comparison.
The ear of fishes, then, is much less complete than that of
quadrupeds, birds, or even of the majority of reptiles.
There is no doubt that they possess the sense of hearing;
but it is merely a general sense of sound, and is in all
probability incompetent to perceive any variety or range
of intonation. In truth, the simple fact of fishes being as
a class entirely mute, is of itself a logical ground for be¬
lieving that their perception of sound is extremely dull.
. A few lines may now be devoted to the consideration of
the sense of smell. The nostrils of fishes are not so placed
as to be traversed either by air or water, in connection
with the act of respiration. They consist merely of two
openings, situate near the extremity of the muzzle, and
lined by the pituitary membrane, which is raised in ex¬
tremely regular folds. In the ordinary fishes, the bones
which Cuvier regards as the nasal serve as the arch or
covering; while the vomer, the maxillary, and inter-maxil¬
lary contribute to sustain the sides, the first sub-orbitary
forming the inferior portion. The shape of the nostrils is
sometimes oblong, sometimes round or oval. They are
placed either at the end of the muzzle or on its sides;
sometimes on its superior face, and even occasionally, as
in skates and shax-ks, on its under surface near the angle of
the mouth. In the lamprey they are approximate on the
top of the head, and open by one common orifice. In the
great majority of fishes, perhaps in all the osseous kinds,
each nostril opens by two orifices, the one posterior to the
other, and in some cases at a considerable distance. These
are what are called double nostrils; an inaccurate term, in
as far as each pair of holes leads only to a single cavity.
The margins of the anterior orifice are often tubular, as
in the eel, and sometimes a single side of the tubular mar¬
gin is prolonged into a tentacular appendage, as in several
Siluri. In the genus Lophius the nostrils are borne upon
a little pedicle, so as somewhat to resemble mushrooms.
Various other modifications are observable in different ge¬
nera, although not necessary to be here narrated. It does
not appear, at least in the osseous fishes, that the envelope
of the nostrils possesses mobility, or that the orifices are
furnished with muscles by means of which they can be
opened and shut.
It is certain, however, that fishes possess the faculty of
perceiving odours ; that various scents attract or repel
them; and there is no reason to doubt that the seat of that
perception lies in the nostrils. It may be reasonably con¬
jectured that its strength depends mainly on the degree of
development produced by the number and extent of the
interior folds.
In regard to the sense of taste in fishes, it is evident that
as, with few exceptions, they swallow their food rapidly
and without mastication, their perception of that faculty
must be in noways acute. The same may be inferred
from the fact of their tongue being almost immoveable,
often entirely osseous, or beset with teeth or dental plates,
and from its receiving very slender nerves, and these but
few in number. Even those species of which the jaws
are so armed as to enable them to cut and bruize their ali¬
ments, cannot long retain the latter in their mouths, on
account of the position and the play of the respiratory or¬
gans. No salivary glands discharge their moisture on the
organs of taste. The tongue itself is not seldom entirely
wanting; and even when it exists in its most distinct and
apparently fleshy state, it consists merely of a ligament-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
159
its boldest flight at some familiar urchin’s call. Other spe- Introduc-
cies will even imitate man’s noblest faculty, the power of tion-
speech,—and it is thus with somewhat doubtful feelings
that we deny to them the gift of reason.
But the silent dweller in the deep knows few attach¬
ments, expresses no language, cherishes no affections.
Constructing no dwelling, he merely shelters himself from
danger among the cavernous rocks of the ocean, or be¬
neath the murky shade of the overhanging banks of ri¬
vers ; and the cravings of hunger seem alone to exercise a
frequent or influential action over his monotonous move¬
ments. We must not, however, suppose that the life of
fishes is not one of enjoyment, for we know that the great
Creator “ careth for all his creatures and it ought perhaps
rather to be said that we cannot appreciate the nature of
their feelings, than that they are in any way fore-doomed
to a negation of pleasure. Assuredly, however, the hand
of nature has been most prodigal in bestowing on their ex¬
ternal aspect every variety of adornment. Their special
forms are infinite, their proportions often most elegant,
their colours lively and diversified, and nothing seems want¬
ing in them to excite the admiration of mankind. Indeed
it almost appears as if this prodigality of beauty was in¬
tended solely for such an end. The brightness of metallic
splendour, the sparkling brilliancy of precious gems, the
milder effulgence of the hues of flowers, all combine to
signalise fishes as among the most beautiful objects of crea¬
tion. When newly withdrawn from their native element,
or still gliding submerged in its liquid coolness, their co¬
lours, fixed or iridescent, are seen mingling in streaks or
bands, or broader flashes, always elegant and symmetrical;
sometimes richly contrasted, sometimes gradually softened
into each other ; and in all cases harmonizing with a chaste
fulness of effect, which Titian or Rubens might envy, but
could never equal. For what reason, then, it has been
asked, has all this adornment been so lavishly bestowed on
creatures which can scarcely perceive each other amid the
dim and perpetual twilight of the deep ? Shakspeare has al¬
ready said that there are “ more things in heaven and earth
than are dream’t of in our philosophy and we fear it is no
answer to the foregoing question to add, that the same ob¬
servation applies with even greater truth to the “ waters
beneath the earth?
> ous or cellular substance, applied on front of the lingual
bone. It is never furnished with muscles capable of pro-
J ducing any movement of extension or retraction, as in
quadrupeds.
Fishes cannot be said to be more highly favoured in re¬
spect to the organs of touch than those of taste. The fa¬
culty is greatly deadened over the general surface by the
coating of scales, and in the particular members by the in¬
flexibility of the rays. It is chiefly confined to the lips,
and even these parts in many species are themselves as
hard and insensible as bone. Certain soft and delicate ap¬
pendages called barbies, possessed by many species, such
as the cod and loach, are supposed to enjoy a more deli¬
cate perception of the sense of touch. It is by means of
the dermis that that peculiar matter, so remarkable for its
silvery metallic lustre, and which bestows so much of bril¬
liancy upon the class, is secreted beneath the scales. It is
composed of small polished plates resembling burnished sil¬
ver, and capable of being removed by washing, either from
the skin itself, or from the inferior surface of the scales. It
is this substance that is used in the formation of false pearls.
It is also secreted by many species in the thickness of the
peritoneum, and in the envelopes supplied by that part to
particular viscera, especially the swimming bladder. The
scales of the majority of fishes are imbricated, that is, placed
partially over each other, like the tiles or slates of the roof
of a house. They are not equally distributed, nor of the
same form or consistence, over the general surface of the
body. The head is frequently destitute of scales, and those
of the lateral line of the body are distinguished from the
others by one or more small tubes by which they are per¬
forated, and by other peculiarities.1
It thus appears that the external senses of fishes convey
to them few lively or distinct impressions ; and by what¬
ever scenes in nature they are surrounded, their percep¬
tions are probably indistinct and dull. Their sexual emo¬
tions, cold as their blood, indicate only individual wants.
Few species pair, or enjoy any connubial gratification, for
the males seek the eggs rather than the females which de¬
posit them, and neither sex ever recognises its offspring.
At least the exceptions to these generalities are extremely
few, and the prevailing economy of fishes may be said in
all these respects to be exactly the reverse of that of birds.
These gay creatures of the sky have the power of survey¬
ing distinctly at a glance an immeasurable extent of hori¬
zon ; their acute perception of hearing appreciates all
sounds, and every intonation ; and their glad voices are ex¬
quisitely skilled in their production. Though their bills
be hard, and their bodies covered by down and feathers,
they are by no means deficient in the sense of touch. They
enjoy all the delights of conjugal and parental affection,
and perform their incumbent duties with devotedness and
courage ; they cherish and defend their offspring, and will
sometimes die in that defence ; and of all the wonderful
labours of instinctive art, none is so beautiful as the forma¬
tion of their mossy dwellings. With what deep and con¬
tinuous affection does the female brood over her cherish¬
ed treasures ! how unwearied is the gallant male in his ten¬
der assiduities, and in the rich outpouring of that varied song
by which he seeks to soothe her sedentary task ! The same
principle of attachment and discrimination is even made
available in a state of domestication by the skill of all-en¬
grossing man. A bird acquires a knowledge of its master,
and submits to and obeys that master’s will; and the proud
falcon, which in its natural state
Doth dally with the wdnd, and scorn the sun,
will wheel in airy circles over a wrell-trained dog, or stoop
SECT. VI THE NUTKITION, MANDUCATION, AND DEGLUTI¬
TION OF FISHES.
The nutritive functions of fishes follow the same order
of progression as those of the other vertebrated classes ;
they seize and in some measure divide their food with their
teeth ; they digest it in the stomach, from whence it passes
into the intestinal canal, where it receives a supply of bile
from the liver, and frequently a liquid similar to that of
the pancreas ; the nutritive juices absorbed by vessels ana¬
logous to lacteals, and probably taken up in part also di¬
rectly by the veins, are mingled with the venous blood
which is flowing towards the heart, from whence it is push¬
ed to the branchiae, in which, coming into contact with the
w^ater, it is converted into arterial blood, and then pro¬
ceeds to the nourishment of the whole body. As in other
animals, also, certain properties are carried off from the
blood by transpiration, the secreting power of the kid¬
neys, &c.
Fishes in general are extremely voracious, and the rule
of “ eat or be eaten” applies to them with unusual force.
They are almost constantly engaged in the pursuit and
capture of their prey ; their degree of power in these re¬
spects depending of course on the dimensions of the mouth
1 See Hist. Nat. da Poissons, t. i. chap. vi.
160 I C H T H Y
Introduc- and throat, and the strength of the teeth and jaws. If the
tion. teeth are sharp and hooked, they are capable of securing
the slenderest and most agile animals; if they are broad
and strong, they are able to bruise the hardest aliment; if
they are feeble or entirely wanting, they are only service¬
able in procuring some inert or unresisting prey. Fishes
indeed show but little choice in the selection of their food,
and their digestive powers are so strong and rapid as to
suffice to dissolve very speedily all kinds of animal sub¬
stances. They greedily swallow other fishes, notwithstand¬
ing the sharp spines or bony ridges with which they may
be armed; they attack and devour crabs and shell-fish,
gulping them entire if they cannot otherwise attain their
object; they do not object occasionally to swallow the
young even ot their own species, and tne more povvei-
ful kinds carry their warfare into other kingdoms of na¬
ture, and revel on rats, reptiles, and young ducklings, to
say nothing of the ferocious shark, which not seldom
makes a meal even of the lord of the creation. The spe¬
cies which live chiefly on vegetable substances are few in
number.
The growth of fishes depends greatly on the nature and
supply of food, and different individuals of the same species
exhibit a great disparity in their respective dimensions.
They grow less rapidly in small ponds or shallow streams,
than in large lakes and deep rivers.1 * The growth itself
seems to continue for a great length of time, and we can
scarcely set bounds to, certainly we know not with preci¬
sion, the utmost range of the specific size of fishes. Even
among species in no way remarkable for their dimensions,
we ever and anon meet with ancient individuals, favourably
situated, which vastly exceed the ordinary weight and mea¬
surement of their kind.
The teeth of fishes are sometimes spread over all the
bones which envelope the cavities of the mouth and pha¬
rynx ; on the maxillary, inter-maxillary, and palatine bones ;
on the vomer, the tongue, the branchial arches, and pha¬
ryngeal bones. In certain genera they exist on all those
parts; while in others they are wanting on some, or are
even entirely absent on all. The denominations of the
teeth are derived from their position, that is, from the
bones to which they are attached, and are consequently as
numerous as the varieties of their situation. Their forms
are not less varied than their stations, and give rise to
terms still more numerous. The majority are conical or
hooked, more or less acute. When these hooks are in con-
siderable number, and disposed in several rows, or in quin¬
cunx, they are compared to those sharp points which beset
the instruments called cards, used in the working of wool
or cotton. It is to this form and distribution that we allude
in the descriptive portion of the present treatise when we
happen to use the French term en carde. Sometimes the
teeth of fishes are slender, and so closely set together as
to resemble to the eye the pile of velvet, in which case they
are said to be en velours;* when they are at the same
time extremely short and close, they are likened to smooth
velvet; when feeble and elongated, they are said to be
brushy or hair-like. Lastly, those kinds of teeth are some¬
times so extremely small and short as to be reduced to
mere asperities, sensible rather to touch than sight. The
O L O G Y.
whole are simple, and spring from an equally simple pulpy Introdi
germ. ^10D'
In the majority of osseous fishes, besides the lips, which,
even when fleshy, having no peculiar muscles, can exert
but little strength in retaining the aliments, there is gene¬
rally in the inside of each jaw, behind the anterior teeth, a
kind of membranous fold or valvule, formed by a replica¬
tion of the interior skin, and directed backwards, of which
the effect is to hinder the alimentary substances, and espe¬
cially the water gulped during respiration, from escaping
again by the mouth. This structure, as formerly supposed,
does not constitute a character restricted to the genus
Zeus, but exists in an infinity of fishes. The food seized
by the teeth of the maxillae, and detained by the valve just
mentioned, is carried still farther back by the teeth of the
palate and tongue when these exist, and is at the same
time prevented by the dentations of the branchial arches
from penetrating between the intervals of the branchiae,
where it might injure the delicate organs of respiration.
The movements of the maxillae and tongue can thus send
the food only in the direction of the pharynx, where it un¬
dergoes additional action on the part ot the teeth ot the
pharyngeal bones, which triturate or carry it backwards
into the oesophagus. The last-named part is clothed by a
layer of strong, close-set, muscular fibres, sometimes form¬
ing various bundles, the contractions of which push the
alimentary matter into the stomach, thus completing the
act of deglutition.3
sect. vii.—the circulation of fishes.
Fishes, in common with warm-blooded animals, are pro¬
vided with a complete circulation for the body, and with
another equally complete for the organs of respiration, and
with a particular abdominal circulation terminating at the
liver by means of the vena porta ; but their peculiar cha¬
racter consists in this, that the branchial circulation alone
is provided at its base with a muscular apparatus or heart,
corresponding to the right auricle and ventricle of the high¬
er classes, while nothing of the kind exists at the base ot
the circulating system of the body; in other words, the
left auricle and ventricle are entirely wanting—the bran¬
chial veins changing into arteries without any muscular en¬
velope.
The muscular apparatus of their circulation is composed
of the auricle, the ventricle, and the bulb of the pulmonary
artery, and the auricle itself is preceded by a large sinus, in
which all the veins of the body terminate; a structure
which gives rise to four cavities separated by restrictions,
into which the blood must flow in its progress from the
body to the branchiae. Their size is small in proportion to
the dimensions of the body, and does not increase in the
same ratio with the growth of the individual. Three of these
receptacles, the auricle, the heart, and the bulb, are lodged
in a pericardium, w hich is itself placed beneath the pharyn¬
geal bones, between the inferior parts of the branchial
arches, and for the most part protected externally by the hu¬
meral bones. The great venous sinus is not placed in the
pericardium, but between the posterior partition of that
cavity and the membrane which represents the diaphragm,
1 The writer of this treatise kept a minnow little more than half an inch long in a glass tumbler for a period of two years, during
which time there was no perceptible increase in its dimensions. Had it continued in its native stream, subjected to the fattening in¬
fluence of a continuous flow of water, and a consequent increase in the quantity and variety of its natural food, its cubic dimensions
would probably have been twenty times greater; yet it must have attained, prior to the lapse of a couple of years, to the usual peno
of the adult state. _ _ . it j • nn<
i The French expression of dents en velours, which so frequently occurs both in the Regne Animal and the Hist. Nat. des l Otis ,
is one of the many instances, as Dr M‘Murtrie has remarked, in which Baron Cuvier’s expressions bid defiance to all English sy¬
nonyms. . . . f
o The various notices (as already intimated) of the internal structure of fishes contained in the article Comparative Anatomy
this work (vo'l. iii.) absolve us from the propriety of presenting any details regarding the form and constitution of the intestinal canal,
and of certain other important interior organs of the class.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
161
jo and which is merely the anterior portion of the peritoneum
strengthened by aponeurotic fibres. This sinus is extend-
eci transversely, and receives by several different trunks
the veins of the liver, of the generative organs, of the kid¬
neys, of the fins, branchiae, and throat, and finally those of
the head, which themselves partly pass by a sinus at the
back of the cranium. The first-mentioned sinus sends the
whole of this blood by a single orifice of its anterior con¬
vexity into the auricle, which receives it through the open¬
ing of its anterior portion. Two thin membranous valvules
protect this communication, and are turned towards the
auricle. The latter organ is placed in the pericardium, in
front of the great sinus, and above the ventricle, that is, on
its dorsal aspect. It presents very various and often re¬
markable configurations. In osseous fishes it is usually of
a tetrahedral form,—in the cartilaginous kinds more fre¬
quently rounded and depressed. It is situate beneath the
auricle, the cavity being so turned as to be almost vertical
next that organ, and horizontal towards the bulb. Its coats
are extremely robust, and furnished internally with power-
fishes becomes subjected to the influence of an ambient Introduc-
fluid. This fluid is of course water, which is made to flow tion.
incessantly between the branchiae by the movement of the
jaws, and of the opercular and hyoidean apparatus. This
mode of respiration is equally necessary to fishes, as the di¬
rect respiration of air is to other animals ; but the action
of water on the blood is much more feeble than that of air.
It appears that it is neither the water itself, nor the oxygen
contained in it, which effects the respiration, but the smah
portion of air which is held in solution or mingled with the
water. If this is expelled by ebullition, fishes cannot live ;
and many species are obliged to rise frequently to the sur¬
face for the purpose of breathing atmospheric air. It is
easy to suffocate various kinds, by keeping them beneath
the surface, enclosed in a gauze net. In the respiration of
fishes, as in that of other animals, both the atmospheric air
and that contained in the water give out their oxygen.
The absorption of the latter, however, is very trifling
among these aquatics, for it has been calculated that a man
consumes fifty thousand times more than is required by a
ful fleshy columns, its substance being composed of two tench. When fishes are deprived of water, they perish not
different layers. But it is in the bulb of the branchial ar- so much for want of oxygen, as because their branchiae be-
tery that we find the most vigorous fibres, usually disposed come dry, and their blood can no longer circulate with
in a circular form. The prolongation of this bulb issues freedom. Hence the species of which the branchial orifice
from the pericardium, and becomes the branchial artery, is small, as the eel, or those which possess receptacles foi
advancing forward beneath the single chain of small bones moisture, like Anabas and Ophicephalus, long survive ex-
which unites the arches of the branchiae. The branchial posure; while such as have their gills greatly cleft and open,
artery soon divides, and in such a manner as to send a as the herring, expire almost instantly when withdrawn
branch to each branchia. These branches pass along a from their moist abode,
hollow groove on the convexity of each branchial arch,
and more external than the vein which follows the same
track, but in an opposite direction. To the arch are attach¬
ed a great number of leaflets, parallel to each other, usu¬
ally terminated in a forked point, and sometimes deeply
divided. The principal branch which passes along the
groove of the arch gives a smaller branch to each of the
leaflets ; and this branch, after being twice bifurcated, fur¬
nishes an infinity of lesser branchlets, which meander over
SECT. IX.—THE SWIMMING BLADDER OF FISHES.
One of the most remarkable and characteristic organs of
fishes is the swimming bladder, commonly so called. In
many genera it has no opening or external communication,
and the air which it contains must therefore be the result
of secretion. It is composed of an extremely fine internal
tunic, and of another of a thicker texture and peculiar
the surface of each leaflet, till they are finally converted fibrous structure, remarkable for producing the finest kind
   ’ of isinglass. It is enclosed within the general coating with
which the peritoneum invests the other viscera. It is
sometimes simple, as in perch, sometimes furnished with
more or less numerous appendages, as in some of the had¬
dock tribe, or branched, as in certain Scioeme} Occasion¬
ally we find it divided, as it were, into two parts, by a re¬
striction, as in the genus Cyprinus, many of the Salmonidce,
and others. The Catastoma have it even divided into
into extremely minute veins. These little vessels meet on
each side in a branchial vein, which proceeds along the in¬
ternal margin of the lateral lobe of the leaflet, and the two
veins open into the trunk of the great vein of the bran¬
chia.
On passing out of the dorsal side of the branchia, the
branchial veins assume the structure and functions of arte-
even before their arrival at this point, the anterior
have already sent several branches to different portions of three. It is chiefly among the abdominal fishes that we
the head; and it is necessary to remark, that the heart and find it communicating by a tube or tunnel with the intes-
several parts situate in the chest receive their blood from
a branchial vein, by means of an offset issuing from near
its source, and consequently anterior to its exit from the
branchiae. Nevertheless, it is only by the re-union of the
trunks proceeding from the four branchiae that the great
artery is formed which carries the blood to the viscera and
all the parts of the trunk, and which is by consequence
the representative of the aorta of the Mammalia,—but of the proportion of oxygen, which is estimated
  .  • 1    ^.1 swnrt+m* K/xtl-s Kxt f ^nY-kTirr liar'll i arm rsi Sinmn vili
tinal canal, and either directly with the oesophagus, as in
Cyprinus, or with the base of the stomach, as in the her¬
ring. That of the sturgeon opens into the former portion
by means of a large orifice. The contents of the swim¬
ming bladder are usually found to be azote, mingled with
some fractional parts of oxygen or carbonic acid. A dif¬
ference of opinion, however, seems to exist regarding
as much
greater both by Configliachi and Biot. Some physiologists
appear to have regarded the swimming bladder as a true
lung, which both admitted and returned the external air ;
but in many species the air-duct which connects the bladder
with the gullet is entirely wanting; and in many others
which remain constantly at prodigious depths, the quantity
of oxygen gas in the swimming bladder is greater than in
those the abode of which is near the surface. Indeed the
oxygen is said to increase in quantity in proportion to the
It is thus by an almost infinite subdivision of the vessels depth at which the species dwells. Carus considers it pro-
over the surface of the branchia; or gills, that the blood of bable that the vessel in question performs a part analogous
an aorta which possesses neither auricle nor ventricle at
its base. Thus, according to Cuvier’s views, the left cavi¬
ties of the heart of quadrupeds do not exist in fishes, but
are replaced by a simple vascular apparatus, situate above
the branchiae, in like manner as the right cavities are placed
beneath them.
SECT. VIII. THE RESPIRATION OF FISHES.
1 For representations of various forms of the swimming bladder of fishes, see Plate CCXCVII. figs. 3, 6, 7, &
VOL. XII.
X
ICHTHYOLOGY.
162
Introduc- to that of the expiratory functions of the lungs in the
ti°n. higher classes, by not only separating excrementitious azote
and superabundant oxygen from the blood, but even dis¬
charging those elements in such species as have this parti¬
cular viscus provided with an air-duct.
The more obvious use, however, of this organ seems to
be to maintain the fish in equilibrium, or to lighten or in¬
crease its relative weight, so as to cause an ascension or a
sinking, in proportion as the bladder is compressed or ex¬
panded. This is probably eftected by the contraction or
dilatation of the ribs. At all events, it is certain, that when
the air-bladder bursts, the fish remains at the bottom, usu¬
ally turning up its belly, and exhibiting other irregularities
in its locomotion. Another curious effect is observable in
regard to fishes which have been suddenly brought from a
great depth by means of a long fishing line, and which
having no time either to compress or partially empty the
organ in question, the air which it contains being no longer
pressed by the heavy weight of water, either expands so
as to burst the bladder, or by its dilatation forces the sto¬
mach and oesophagus into the fish’s mouth. When the air-
bladder is pierced artificially, the fish almost immediately
turns upon its back, and sinks to the bottom.
We have already alluded to the physiological opinion
which regards this organ as an auxiliary to the respiratory
system, and have likewise adverted to the argument against
that opinion, deduced from the fact of its being imperforate
in many species, and entirely wanting in others. We may
add, that Weber1 2 has pointed out a remarkable connection
between the swimming bladder and the organs of hearing.
It would appear that the former in several instances sub¬
serves the latter as a membrana tympani; but its primary,
or at least most important purpose, seems to be to regulate
the ascending or descending movements. Though of the
highest importance in the structure of such species as pos¬
sess it (and these are by far the greater number), yet the
swimming bladder is not indispensable in the general eco¬
nomy of the class of fishes. In several genera (e. r/. Pleu-
ronectes) it is entirely wanting, and the species in such
cases generally remain at the bottom, and, swimming ob¬
liquely on one side, propel themselves forward by a nearly
vertical motion of the tail. In such cases both eyes are
on the same side, and the whole structure of the fish, espe¬
cially the skeleton of the head, presents an unsymmetrical
aspect of a very extraordinary kind.® In many cartilagi¬
nous fishes, such as rays (commonly called skates), the ab¬
sence of the swimming bladder seems compensated by the
enormous size of the pectoral fins, which, of all the exter¬
nal organs, are probably the most efficient in raising the
body, as the caudal extremity is the power chiefly employ¬
ed during an onward course. The lamprey, which has
neither swimming bladder nor pectoral fins, dwells in the
mud. Flat fishes being unprovided with swimming bladders,
are supposed for that reason to raise themselves with dif¬
ficulty to the surface; and they do not appear to strike the
water laterally like other fishes, but swim rather after the
manner of the Cetacea, by a motion alternately up and
down. In all the other animals of this class the chief organ
of progressive motion is the tail, or prolongation of the
body, terminated by a caudal fin, the position of which,
unlike that of the great aquatic mammalia called whales,
is vertical. The reason of the difference is obviously this :
A true fish, possessing the power of extracting air from
water by means of its gills, does not (except at rare inter¬
vals) require to mount to the surface for the performance
of the vital act of respiration; but all cetaceous animals
being furnished with lungs, which cannot perform their Introd
functions except through an immediate communication tion
with the atmosphere, require their bodies to be terminat-
ed by a horizontal expansion, the action of which is the
most efficient for an ascending course.
It is, however, difficult to account for the fact that so
considerable an organ as the swimming bladder should
have been denied to so many species, not only of the
more indolent kinds, which dwell composedly at the bot¬
tom of the waters, but to many others which yield to none
of their class in the ease and velocity of their move¬
ments. Its presence or absence does not even accord
with the other conditions of organization ; for while it is
wanting in the common mackerel, it is found to occur in
a closely allied species, the Scomber pneumatophoras of
Laroche.
Another singular peculiarity connected with the organi¬
zation of certain fishes may be also shortly noticed in this
place, we mean the power of conveying electrical shocks.
In Torpedos, the apparatus consists of membranous tubes
filled with mucous matter, divided by transverse cham¬
bers closely set together, like the cells of honeycomb,
and disposed in two groups placed on each side of the
head. They receive enormous branches of nerves from
the fifth and eighth pair. In the Gymnotus this extraor¬
dinary structure occupies the under surface of the body
throughout its entire extent, and to a considerable thick¬
ness. It is composed of parallel plates separated by thin
layers of mucilage. The effect of this natural galvanic
pile will be detailed in the course of the systematic por¬
tion of this article, when we shall have occasion to men¬
tion the electric fishes in their proper place.
SECT. X.—THE GENERA^. POSITION AND RELATIONS OF
FISHES, CONSIDERED AS A GREAT CLASS IN THE ANI¬
MAL KINGDOM.
It results not less from this general exposition of the
structure of our present class, than from all observation
of special organization, that fishes form a class of animals
distinct from every other, and destined by the totality of
their conformation to live, move, and have their being in
the waters. The liquid element forms their proper place in
the creation ; there they had their origin, there they must
remain till the final consummation of all things,—and it is
either through slight and superficial approximations, or
by vain metaphysical speculation, that any modern wri¬
ter could regard them as proceeding from an exalted or
more perfect development of the molluscous tribes. Equal¬
ly unfounded is of course that other and corresponding
opinion, which, in the spirit of the same philosophy, looks
upon fishes as forming an elementary stage, or fcetal con¬
dition, of the other vertebrated classes. It is true that
the Mollusca, in common with fishes, respire by means of
branchiae ; they equally possess a nervous and circulating
system, an intestinal canal and a liver; “ and nobody,”
says Cuvier, with a justifiable pride, “ knows these things
better than I, who was the first to make known with any
degree of completeness the anatomy and zoological rela¬
tions of the molluscous tribes.” As animal life, he con¬
tinues,3 has received but a limited number of organs, it
necessarily happens that some of these organs are com¬
mon to several classes. But where is in other respects
the resemblance ? The skeleton of these animals, and
their entire system of locomotion, are they comparable in
the least of their parts ? And even §uch organs as are
1 De Aure et Auditu, &c.
2 In several insects of the genus Blatta we have observed a want of symmetry both in the size and markings of the elytra. AYe
do not mean an accidental variation of one side, but an evidently pre-ordained disparity of form and colour.
* Hist. Nat. dee Poinone, t. i. p. 544.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
In- luc- common alike to the Mollusca and to fishes, can they be
t i- brought into relation with those connections which the
^ latter exhibit with the other vertebrated classes ? By
what passage does nature conduct us from the one to the
other ? It is certainly by no means difficult, while dis¬
regarding numerous disagreements, so to compose a defi¬
nition as to embrace only those points which they possess
in common ; but that definition assuredly will always re¬
pose upon a pure abstraction of the mind, a definition
simply nominal, an assemblage of vain words, which can
never be represented by a harmonious and existing plan,
notwithstanding whatever extraneous details may be col¬
lected or conceived in support of such visionary views.
By a like procedure, there is in truth no two things, how¬
ever remote or dissimilar, which may not be so allied ; for,
whatever their disresemblance, there will always be some
particular point or other in which they may be found to
agree. But when we look to the characters in which ob¬
jects differ, we shall find reason to view the subject in an¬
other light. The heart itself in those Mollusca which have
only one, is placed in a contrary mode from that of fishes ;
it is at the junction of the branchial veins and arteries of
the body that that organ is attached ; in several the mem¬
bers are placed upon the head, in others the generative
system is lateral, and frequently the respiratory organs
are placed above those of digestion, and extend more or
less over the dorsal surface. Perhaps all that can be said
regarding any positive or important relationship between
Mollusca and fishes is, that both classes are possessed of
branchiae.
It may indeed be observed, that whenever we proceed
from these purely verbal or metaphysical formula, we find
ourselves lost among the most inadmissible comparisons.
According to one theorist, the shells of bivalves represent
the opercula of fishes ; according to another, the buckler
of the cuttle-fish is a true fibrous bone; according to a
third, the large scales of the sturgeon, and the spines of
the diodons, are to be regarded as an external skeleton.
Others search for the desired analogies among the Crus¬
tacea, of which the margins of the thorax represent the
opercula. Beneath these margins the branchiae actually
occur, but if we continue the comparison, all is changed.
The medullary cord is towards the abdomen, the heart
towards the back, and the latter organ, as among the
Mollusca, receives the blood from the branchiae, but does
not send it thither. Finally, some observers, apparently
despairing of their transcendental cause, perceive the rays
or spiny apophyses of vertebrated animals in the legs of
the Crustacea, forgetting that, were it so, an obvious de¬
gradation rather than amelioration of organic structure
must have befallen the class of fishes.
The affinity of fishes to other classes of vertebrated ani¬
mals is much better founded. At least we here find the
commencement of sensible relations in the number of or¬
ganic systems, and in their mutual connections ; but we
are still far from discovering a progressive and continuous
course. We cannot in this place report the conclusive
reasoning of Baron Cuvier regarding the distinctions of
these classes. We shall merely state his conclusion to be,
that if there is a resemblance between the organs of fishes
and those of the other great groups of the animal king¬
dom, it is only in so far as the functions of such organs
are similar; that if we assert either that fishes are Mol¬
lusca of an ameliorated or higher grade, or that they re¬
present a commencing or foetal state of reptiles, we can do
so only in an abstract or metaphysical acceptation, and
that even with that restriction we by no means convey an
accurate notion of their organic structure ; that we can¬
not regard them either as links of an imaginary chain of
successive forms (of which none could serve as the germ
of another, since none is capable of a solitary or isolated
163
existence), nor of that other chain, not less fanciful, of si- Introduc-
multaneous and transitionary forms, which has no reality
but in the imagination of certain naturalists, more poeti¬
cal than observant. They pertain in truth, and solely, to
the actual chain of co-existent beings,—of beings neces¬
sary to each other, and which by their mutual action
maintain the resplendent order and harmony of created
things.
These are thy glorious works, Parent of good,
Almighty ! Thine this universal frame.
Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous then !
Unspeakable, who sitt’st above these heavens,
To us invisible, or dimly seen
In these thy lowest works; yet these declare
Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine.
SECT. XI.—THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES.
The class of fishes is of all others the most difficult to
divide into orders, according to fixed and perceptible
characters. We shall here give a brief view of Baron
Cuvier’s arrangement, the details of which we shall after¬
wards exhibit in our systematic view.
Fishes are divisible, in the first place, into two great and
distinct series, viz. Fishes properly so called, embra¬
cing the great majority of species ; and Chondroptery-
gian or Cartilaginous Fishes, such as sharks and
rays.
The general character of the latter series consists in
the absence of the bones of the upper jaw, the place of
which is supplied by those of the palate. Their entire
structure also exhibits sundry analogies, to be afterwards
described. Cartilaginous fishes are further divisible into
three principal orders.
ls£. Cyclostomi, the jaws of which are soldered into
an immoveable ring, and the branchim open by means of
numerous holes. Example, the Lamprey.
2d. Selachii, which possess the branchiae of the Cyclos¬
tomi, but not their jaws. Example, Sharks.
■id. Sturiones, of which the branchial opening is in
the usual fissure-like form, and furnished with an opercle.
Example, Sturgeons.
The other great series, or that of the Ordinary Fishes,
presents a first subdivision into those in which the maxil¬
lary bone and the palatine arch are fixed to the cranium.
They constitute Cuvier’s order Plectognathi, which
comprises two families, the Gymnodontes and Sclero-
dermi. Examples, the genera Diodon and Ostracion.
The next subdivision of the ordinary fishes contains
certain species with perfect jaws, but the branchiae of
which, instead of being comb-shaped, resemble a series of
small tufts. They constitute an order called Lopho-
branchii, which comprises the two genera Syngnathus
and Pegasus of Linn. Example, the Pipe-fish.
Of the ordinary fishes there then remains an immense
assemblage, to the general classification of which no other
characters can be applied than those of the external or¬
gans of motion. After a long and laborious research,
Baron Cuvier became satisfied that the least objection¬
able of these characters is still that long ago employed
by Ray and Artedi, drawn from the nature of the first
rays of the dorsal and anal fins. Thus the great body of
the ordinary fishes is divided into Malacopterygii, in
which all the rays are soft, with the occasional exception
of the first of the dorsal, or of the pectorals ; and Acan-
thopterygii, in which the first portion of the dorsal, or
the first dorsal if there are two fins of that kind, is al¬
ways supported by spinous rays, and where some similar
spines are also found in the anal fin, and at least one in
each of the ventrals.
Of these two last-mentioned groups, the former, or
164
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Introduc- Malacopterygii, may be conveniently subdivided accord-
tion. ;ng to the position of the ventral fins, whether situate
behind the abdomen, suspended to the apparatus of the
shoulder, or entirely wanting. This view furnishes us
with three great orders, the Malacopterygii Abdomi-
nales (such as pike, salmon, and herring), the M. Sub-
brachiati (such as cod, haddock, and flat fish), and the
M. Apodes (such as eels).
But such a basis of subdivision is altogether inapplicable
to the remaining group of ordinary fishes, viz. the Acan-
thopterygii, which at present can only be placed to¬
gether in a certain series of natural families. Fortunate¬
ly, several of these families are possessed of characters
almost as precise as those which could he assigned to
genuine orders. It is, however, impossible to assign to
the families of fish the same marked gradation so percep¬
tible among those of the Mammalia, dhus the Chon-
dropterygians are related to serpents on the one hand
by the organs of the senses, and in certain cases even by
the generative system ; while, on the other, they bear an
alliance to the Mollusca and worms in the occasional im¬
perfection of their skeleton.
Before proceeding with our systematic exposition of the
minor divisions, we shall present our readers with a sketch
of Baron Cuvier’s views regarding the general character
and relations of certain groups. After forty years devot¬
ed to the study of Ichthyology, that great observer be¬
came convinced that no acanthopterygian species ought
to be mingled in classification with the fishes of other fa¬
milies, as attempted by many of his predecessors ; and he
also came to the conclusion that the acanthopterygian
order, which comprises about three fourths of the entire
class, contains the characteristic type, and is the most
accordant and homogeneous, even amid all the variations
which it undergoes.
The acanthopterygian character prevails over all the
others, and these ought to be employed only as subservient
to it, and never in opposition; but the extreme constancy
of the general plan, and the predominating influence of
the regulating character, render it a matter of greater diffi¬
culty to apply precise and perceptible characters of a sub¬
ordinate nature. It is thus that the various families of
the acanthopterygian order pass so insensibly from one to
another, that we are often at a loss to define the transition.
The family of Percidse, for example, which is essentially
distinguished from that of the Sciaenida? by its palatinal
teeth, comprises a group of some extent, and extremely
natural in its construction, which yet contains a portion of
species possessed of those teeth, while the other portion is
without them. The same thing happens in the family
with mailed cheeks (joues cuirassees), the majority of which
are allied to the perches,—the others to the Sciaenidae.
The sciaenoid genera themselves approach in part to the
Chaetodontes in the scales which in several instances more
or less cover their vertical fins, and yet it is necessary to
assimilate them still more closely to the Sparidae, by rea¬
son, in many other instances, of the entire absence of those
scales.
The malacopterygian families are distinguished by
stronger and more obvious differences, and several of them
are not only natural, but subjected to fixed limits, so that
each, in its separation from the other, preserves within it¬
self a great resemblance in details. This precision is so
sensible, that the majority of natural families established
by Cuvier in this part of the class had been already signa¬
lised by Artedi as generic groups. His Siluri, Cyprini,
Salmones, Clupece, and Esoces, may remain unbroken,
and there is even no inconvenience in distributing them
according to the position of the ventral fins, because in
those genera the character in question, however trivial in
itself, is constant; but it is clearly impossible to preserve
the distinction of jugular, thoracic, and abdominal fishes, intro
in the mode established by Linnaeus. It is, as Cuvier ob- tio
serves, of small consequence, in fact, whether the ventrals
manifest themselves externally a little before or a little
behind the pectorals, or immediately beneath them; but
the circumstance of importance, as connected with the
structure of the fish, is to ascertain whether the pelvis be
attached to the bones of the shoulder, or whether it is sim¬
ply suspended in the muscles of the abdomen. To desig¬
nate the fish belonging to the former category, the name
of Sub-brachians has been bestowed by Cuvier, and that
without any reference to the external position of the ven¬
trals,—that circumstance being dependent on the greater
or less extent of the bones of the pelvis. To those of the
second category he leaves the older name of Abdominals.
Lastly, the term Apodes naturally designates the Mala-
copterygians destitute of ventral fins.
Cuvier’s systematic exposition of fishes commences with
the Acanthopterygians, which constitute in reality only a
single family of vast extent. He then places in succession
the various families of Malacopterygians, in the order in
which they seem allied to the preceding great division;
but he guards the student from inferring that these rela¬
tions follow only in a single line or series. If the abdomi¬
nal Malacopterygians may be so arranged, and may even
be made to commence with those which possess some
spiny rays, they are not followed in so natural a succession
by either the apodal or sub-brachian tribes. The Gadi,
for example, are as nearly related as any of the Abdomi¬
nals to certain species of the acanthopterygian order, and
there would be no reason for placing them after the Abdo¬
minals if the question were mooted respecting the station
they should hold in nature. If they are actually arranged
subsequent to the latter in our systems, it is because the
exposition of facts in a book necessarily requires a succes¬
sive order.
The spirit of the same observation is applicable to the
rest of the fishes ;—to those of which the upper jaw is
fixed (Pleclognathi),—to such as have tufted branchiae
(Lophobranchii),—and, above all, to the great and impor¬
tant series of Chondropterygians, which terminate the
class. It. is indeed chiefly among those last mentioned
that we perceive the futility of whatever system seeks to
arrange the objects of creation in a single line. Several
of the genera alluded to, the rays and sharks, for example,
may be said to rise above the rank of ordinary fishes by
the complicated nature of some of their organs of sense,
and by that of the generative system, which is more fully
developed in some particulars than even that of birds;—
while other genera of the same series, and at which we
arrive by graduated transitions, such as the Lampreys and
Ammocsetes, become so simplified in their structure, that
they have even been regarded as affording a connecting
link between the class of fishes and that of the articulated
worms. The genus Ammoccetes certainly possesses no
skeleton, and its muscular apparatus is attached solely to
tendinous or membranous supports.
Let it not therefore be imagined, says Cuvier, that be¬
cause one genus or family is placed anterior to another, it
is for that reason to be regarded as more perfect, or supe¬
rior to those that follow. He alone will indulge in that
fond fancy, who pursues the chimerical project of ranging
beings in a single series,—a project, be it remembered, now
renounced by philosophy. The further we advance into
the penetralia of the temple of nature, the more we shall
feel convinced that a falser notion was never entertained in
relation to natural history. Genuine systems view each
being not as intermediate merely to two others, but as
central among many;—they show the wonderful radiations
that link it more or less immediately with the vast web of
organic life; and it is by such extended views alone that
Intr ic-
iti
ICHTHYOLOGY. 165
we shall acquire ideas wortliy of nature and of nature’s into which, for our own convenience, we must arrange the Introduc-
God. It is therefore not so much in the position which a objects of creation, as natural in themselves, and as near-
being occupies in our published systems, which are neces- ly related to their neighbours, as is consistent with the ne-
sarily linear or consecutive, that we are to seek for those cessity of placing them in our descriptive systems in a
multifarious relations, or for the actual degree of organisa- single fixed position,—a position, be it remembered, in
t;ori) but in accurate descriptions of structure afforded which their numerous and mixed relations can neither be
by those who possess the use of their eyes and pen. It philosophically exhibited nor fully expressed,
is not, however, to be in any way maintained that no di¬
rect classification is possible, or that species should not be We here terminate our introductory chapter, or gene-
formed into groups, and embraced by definitions. These ral exposition of the class of fishes, and shall now proceed
approximations are on the contrary so real, that the natu- to a detailed enumeration of the characters of the principal
ral understanding of man has ever inclined towards them, genera, adding, as occasion requires, a succinct descrip-
and in all ages and countries the vulgar as well as the tion and history of the most interesting or important spe-
learned have formed their genera. It is in truth one of cies. W7e give in a note below a tabular abstract of the
the great objects of science to render the various groups Ichthyological System.1
1 Systematic View of the Orders, Families, Genera, and Sab-genera of Fishes, according to the arrangement of Baron Cuvier.
N. B In this abstract we follow the system of the Regne Animal, as sufficing for a tabular view ; but in the body of our article
we shall introduce notices of such new or amended genera as have been signalised by our illustrious guide in those volumes of the
Hist. Nat. des Poissons, which have made their appearance posterior to the publication of the second edition of the Animal Kingdom.
CLASS FISHES.
First Great Series, called OltDINARY or OSSEOUS FISHES.
ORDER I—ACANTHOPTERYGII.
FAMILY I PERCIDiE.
With thoracic ventrals.
Seven branchial rays, two dorsals,
teeth small and crowded.
Perea.
Labrax.
Lates.
Centropomus.
Grammistes.
Aspro.
Huro.
Etelis.
Niphon.
Enoplosus.
Diploprion.
Apogon.
Cheilodipterus.
Pomatomus.
Some of the teeth long and pointed.
Ambassis.
Lucio-Perca.
With a single dorsal, and canine
teeth.
Serranus.
Serranus proper.
Anthias.
Merrus.
Plectropoma.
Diacope.
Mesoprion.
With a single dorsal, and small
crowded teeth.
Acerina.
Ilypticus.
Polyprion.
Centropristis.
Gristes.
With less than seven branchial rays.
A single dorsal, and some canine
teeth.
Cirrhites.
A single dorsal, all the teeth small
and crowded,
Chironemus.
Pomotis.
Centrarchus.
Priacanthus.
Dules.
Therapon.
Datnia.
Pelates.
Helotes.
Two dorsals.
Trichodon.
Sillago.
With more than seven branchial
rays.
Holocentrum.
Myripristis.
Beryx.
Trachicthys.
With jugular ventrals.
Trachinus.
Percis.
Pinguipes.
Percophis.
Uranoscopus.
With abdominal ventrals.
Polynemus.
Sphyraena.
Paralepis.
Mullus.
Mullus proper.
Upeneus.
FAMILY II BUCCjE LORICATE.
OR MAILED CHEEKS.
Trigla.
Trigla proper.
Prionotus.
Peristedion.
Dactylopterus.
Cephalacanthus.
Cottus.
Cottus proper.
Aspidophorus.
Hemitripterus.
Hemilepidotus.
Platycephalus.
Scorpsena.
Scorpaena proper.
Taenianotes.
Sebastes.
Pterois.
Blepsias.
Apistus.
Agriopus.
Pelor.
Synanceia.
Menocentris.
Gasterosteus.
Oreosoma.
FAMILY III. SCI^ENID^E.
With two dorsals.
Sciaena.
Sciaena proper.
Otolithus.
Ancylodon.
Corvina.
Johnius.
Umbrina.
Pogonias.
Eques.
With one dorsal, and seven bran¬
chial rays.
Haemulon.
Pristipoma.
Diagramma.
With less than seven branchial rays,
the lateral line continuous.
•f.i . !
Lobotes.
Cheilodactylus.
Scolopsides.
Micropterus.
With less than seven branchial rays,
the lateral line interrupted.
Amphiprion.
Premnas.
Pomacentrus.
Dascyllus.
Glyphisodon.
Heliasus.
FAMILY IV SPARID.*.
Spams.
Sargus.
Chrysophris.
Pagrus.
Pagellus.
Dentex.
Pentapoda.
Lethrinus.
Cantharus.
Boops.
Oblada.
FAMILY V MENIDiE.
Maena.
Smaris.
Caesio.
Gerres.
FAMILY' VI SQUAMMIPENXES.
Chaetodon.
Chaetodon proper.
Chelmon.
Heniochus.
Ephippus.
Taurichtes.
Holocanthus.
Pomocanthus.
Platax.
Psettus.
Pimelepterus.
Dipterodon.
Brama.
Pempheris.
Toxotes.
FAMILY VII SCOMBERID«.
Scomber.
Scomber proper.
Thynnus.
Orcynus.
Auxis.
Sarda.
Cybium.
Thyrsites.
Gempylus.
Xiphias.
Xiphias proper.
Tetrapturus.
M akaira.
Histiophorus.
Centronotus.
Naucrates.
Elacates.
Lichia.
Trachinotus.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
J66
Acanthop- FIRST GREAT SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES,
terygii.
ORDINARY OR OSSEOUS FISHES.
ORDER I.—ACANTHOPTERYGII.
These, as already mentioned, form much the most nu¬
merous division of the class. They are distinguished by
the spines, which occupy the place of the first rays of the
dorsal fin, or which alone sustain the anterior dorsal when
there are two. Sometimes, instead of an anterior dorsal,
there are only a few free spines. 1 he first rays of their
anal fin are also spinous, and there is generally one of a
similar nature to each of the ventrals. The Acanthoptery-
gians bear so many relations to each other,—their several Acants
natural families exhibit so many variations in the apparent ten
characters which one might suppose capable of indicating 1>erc
orders or other subdivisions,—that it has been found im- ^
possible to divide them, otherwise than by those natural
families themselves, which are thus left without any higher
combinations.
FAMILY I—PERCIDiE.
So named because well typified by the common perch.
Their bodies are of an oblong form, covered with scales,
which are generally hard and rough; the opercle andpre-
opercle, and frequently both, have the margins toothed or
Rhinchobdella.
Macrognathus.
Mastacembelus.
Notocanthus.
Seriola.
Nomeus.
Temnodon.
Caranx.
Caranga.
Citula.
Vomer.
Olistus.
Scyris.
Blepharis.
Gall us.
Argyreiosus.
Vomer proper.
Zeus.
Zeus proper.
Capros.
Lampris.
Equula.
Mene.
Stromateus.
Pampla.
Peprilus.
Luvarus.
Seserinus.
Kurtus.
Coryphsena.
Coryphsena proper.
Caranxomorus.
Centrolophus.
Astrodermus.
Pteraclis.
TAMILY VIII.—T^ENIOIDjE.
The muzzle elongated, teeth strong.
Lepidopus.
Tricbiurus.
The muzzle short, mouth small.
Gymnetrus.
Stylephorus.
The muzzle short, mouth cleft, head
obtuse.
Cepoia.
Lophotes.
FAMILY IX THEUTIDJE.
Siganus.
Acanthurus.
Prionurus.
Naseus.
Axinurus.
Priodon.
FAMILY X L A liY HINT II IF OHM
PHARYNGEALS.
Anabas.
Polyacanthus.
Macropodius.
Helostoma.
Osphromenus.
Trichopodus.
Spirobranchus.
Ophicephalus.
FAMILY XI MJJGILID^E.
Mugil.
Tetragonurus.
Atherina.
FAMILY XII. GOBIDAE.
Blennius.
Blennius proper.
Pholis.
Myxodes.
Salarias.
Clinus.
Cirrhibarba.
Gunellus.
Opistognathus.
Zoarcus.
Anarrhicas.
Gobius.
Gobius proper.
Gobioides.
Tsenioides.
Periopthalmus.
Eliotris.
Callionymus.
Trichonotus.
Comephorus.
Platypterus.
Chirus.
FAMILY XIII PECTORALES
PEDICEL ATI.
Lophius.
Lophius proper.
Chironectes.
Malthe.
Batrachus.
FAMILY XIV LABRID^E.
Labrus.
Labrus proper.
Cheilinus.
Lachnolaimus.
J ulis.
Anampses.
Crenilabrus.
Coricus.
Epibulus.
Clepticus.
Gomphosus.
Xirichthys.
Chromis.
Cychla.
Plesiops.
Malacanthus.
Scarus.
Calliodon.
Odax.
Cyprinus.
Cyprinus proper.
Barbus.
Gobio.
Tinea.
Cirrhinus.
Abramis.
Labeo.
Catastomus.
Leuciscus.
Chela.
Gonorhynchus.
Cobitis.
Anableps.
Psecilia.
Lebias.
Fundulus.
Molinesia.
Cyprinodon.
FAMILY II ESOCIDiE.
Esox.
Esox proper.
Galaxias.
Alepocephalus.
Microstoma.
Stomias.
Chauliodus.
Salanx.
Belone.
Scomberesox.
Hemiramphus.
Exocetus.
Mormyrus.
FAMILY III SILURIDAE.
Silurus.
Silurus proper.
Schilbe.
Mystus.
Pimelodes.
Bagrus.
Pimelodes proper.
Synodontis.
Aguieiosus.
Doras.
Heterobranchus.
Macropteronotes.
Plotosus.
Callichthys.
FAMILY XV FISTELAHIDJE.
Fistula ria.
Fistularia proper.
Aulostomus.
Centriscus.
Centriscus proper.
Amphisile.
Malapterurus.
Platystachus.
Loricaria.
Hypostomus.
Loricaria proper.
FAMILY IV SALMCML/5.
Salmo.
Salmo proper.
Osmerus.
Mallotus.
Thymallus.
Coregonus.
Argentina.
Characinus.
Curimata.
Anostomus.
Gasteropelecus.
Piabucus.
Serrasalmo.
Tetragonopterus.
Chalceus.
Myletes.
Hydrocyon.
Citharinus.
Saurus.
Scopelus.
Aulopus.
Sternoptyx.
FAMILY V CLEPID.3E.
Clupea.
Ciupea proper.
Alosa.
Chatoessus.
Odontognathus.
Pristigaster.
Notopterus.
Engraulis.
Thryssa.
Megalops.
Flops.
Butirinus.
Chirocentrus.
Hyedon.
Erythrinus.
Amia.
Sudis.
Osteogiossum.
Lepisosteus.
Polypterus.
ORDER II MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.
FAMILY I. CYPRINIDiE.
I CHTHYOLOGY.
& _ gpiny ; and the jaws, the front of the vomer, and almost al-
E v,p" ways the palatine bones, are furnished with teeth.
pLle. Xhe species of this family are extremely numerous, es-
J pecially in the tropical seas. Their flesh is in general
wholesome, and of an agreeable flavour. By far the great¬
er number have their ventral fins attached beneath the
pectoral, and thus form a first division, named
Thoracic Percidje.1
A. Seven branchial rays ; two dorsal Jins.
a. All the teeth small and crowded.
Genus Perca, Cuv. Pre-opercle dentated ; bony
opercle terminated by two or three sharp points ; tongue
smooth. Sometimes the sub-orbital and humeral bones are
slightly dentated.
The common perch (Perca Jluviatilis, Linn.), Plate
CCXCV1II. fig. 1, one of the most beautiful of the fresh¬
water fishes of Europe, is too familiarly known to require de¬
scription. It inhabits both lakes and rivers, but shuns salt
water.2 As an article of food it is still in some estimation,
although the character given of it in that respect by Au-
sonius is higher than accords with modern views. The
female deposits her ova, united together by a viscid matter,
167
in lengthened strings, a peculiarity noted by Aristotle. Acanthop-
The number of these eggs sometimes amounts to nearly a ^-V.gm
million. The perch occurs over all Europe, and most of YY*
the northern districts of Asia. Pennant alludes to one
said to have been taken in the Serpentine River, in Hyde
Park, which weighed nine pounds. But even one half of
that weight would be regarded as extraordinary in the pre¬
sent species.
The Perca Italica occurs in the south of Europe, and is
distinguished by the want of the black bands so conspicu¬
ous in the common kind. Several other species are found
in North America. P. ciliata is a native of Java; and P.
trutta occurs in Cook’s Strait, New Zealand.
Genus Labrax, Cuv. Distinguished from the preced¬
ing by scaly opercula terminating in two spines, and by
the roughness of the tongue.
To this genus belongs the basse or sea-perch (P. labrax,
Linn.; Labrax lupus, Cuv.), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 2, a fish
of a chaste and pleasing aspect, though destitute of the
more strongly contrasted colours of the fresh-water spe¬
cies. Its upper parts are gray, with bluish reflections,
which gradually shade away into a silvery whiteness on
the under surface. The pectoral fins are slightly tinged with
red. It occurs along the Dutch and British shores, but is
ORDER HI—MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BItACHIATI.
FAMILY I. GADIDJE.
Gad us.
Morrhua.
Merlangus.
Merluccius.
Lota.
Motella.
Brosmius.
Brotula.
Phycis.
Raniceps.
Macrourus.
FAMILY II FLEL RONECTIDAJ.
Pleuronectes.
Platessa.
FAMILY I ANGUILLIFORME3.
Muraena.
Anguilla.
Anguilla proper.
Hippoglossus.
Rhombus.
Solea.
Monochirus.
Achirus.
Plagusia.
FAMILY III. DISCOBOLI.
Lepadogaster.
Lepadogaster proper.
Gobiesox.
Cyclopterus.
Lumpus.
Liparis.
Echeneis.
Conger.
Ophisurus.
Muraena proper.
Sphagebranchus.
Monopterus.
Synbranchus.
Alabes.
Saccopharynx.
Gymnotus.
Gymnotus proper.
Carapus.
Sternarchus.
Syngnathus.
Syngnathus proper.
Hippocampus.
FAMIL^ I GYMNODONTES.
Diodon.
Tetrodon.
Orthagoriscus.
Triodon.
Gymnarchus.
Leptocephalus.
Ophidium.
Ophidium proper.
Eierasfer.
Ammodytes.
Solenostomus.
Pegasus.
FAMILY II—^SCLERODERMI.
Batistes.
Batistes proper.
Monocan thus.
Aluteres.
Triacanthus.
Ostracion.
ORDER IV MALACOPTERYGII APODES.
ORDER V—LOPHOBRANCHII.
ORDER VI PLECTOGNATHI.
Second Great Series, called CHONDROPTERYGII, or CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
ORDER I. (7th of the entire Class.)—STURIONES, or CHON-
DROPTERYGII WITH FREE BRANCHLE.
Acipenser. Chimoera.
Spatularia. Chimiera proper.
Callothynchus.
ORDER II. (8th of the entire Class.)—CHONDROPTERY¬
GII WITH FIXED BRANCHI/E.
FAMILY I SELACHII.
Squalus.
Scyllium.
Squalus proper.
Carcharias.
Lamna.
Galeus.
Mustelus.
Notidanus.
Selache.
Cestracion.
Spinax.
Centrina.
Scymnus.
.Zygaena.
Squatina.
Pristis.
Raia.
Rhinobatus.
Rhina.
Torpedo.
Raia proper.
Trygon.
Anacanthus.
Myliobatis.
Rhinoptera.
Cephaloptera.
FAMILY II. SUCTORII.
Petromyzon.
Myxine.
Heptatremus.
Gastrobranchus.
Ammooetes.
1 Almost all the species were included by Linnaeus in his genus Perca, but Cuvier has divided them, as shown above, according
to the amount of the rays of the branchiae, the number of the dorsal fins, and the nature of the teeth.
2 Pallas, however, is said to have remarked, in a work, we believe, still unpublished {Zoograplxia Russo-Asiatka), that about spawn¬
ing time both pike and perch are found in a gulf of the Caspian Sea, about thirty verstes from the mouth of the Terek.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
168
Acanthop - much more abundant in the Mediterranean. It is a voracious
terygii. fish, remarkable for the size of its stomach, and was known
Percidse. ^ t]le ancients under the appropriate name of lupus.
Genus Lates, Cuv. Scarcely differs from Perea, ex¬
cept in having deep dentations, and even a small spine at
the angle of the pre-opercle, and by stronger dentations
also on the sub-orbital and humeral bones.
We shall here notice only the L. Niloticus, the largest
and one of the finest-flavoured fishes of the celebrated
Nile. It is altogether of a silvery tint, tinged on the up¬
per parts and fins with olive brown. Individuals of a very
great size are sometimes found in Upper Egypt, and, ac¬
cording to Paul Lucas, the species occasionally attains to
the weight of 300 pounds. Other kinds occur in India,
where they are highly esteemed as food.
Genus Centropomus, Lacepede. Pre-opercle den-
tated ; opercle obtuse, and unarmed.
C. undecimalis, Cuv. is a large and excellent fish, known
along a great extent of the South American shores, where
it is much used as an article of consumption, under the
name of brocket or pike. In the form of its muzzle, and
general shape, it somewhat resembles that fresh-water fish,
and indeed it frequently ascends the great rivers to a con¬
siderable height. A kind of caviar is made of its row. It
attains to the weight of twenty-five pounds.
Genus Grammistes, Cuv. Opercle and pre-opercle
spined, but not dentated ; dorsal fins approximate ; scales
small, as if sunk beneath the epidermis; anal fin without
apparent spine.
Of this genus there seems to be only a single species,
G. orientalis, a small fish, native to the Indian seas.
Genus Aspro, Cuv. Body elongated; dorsals not ap¬
proximate ; ventrals broad; teeth small and close (en ve¬
lours) ; head depressed; muzzle reaching beyond the
mouth, and terminating in a rounded point.
We are acquainted with only two species of this genus,
both of which are known in the fresh waters of the conti¬
nent of Europe. We have represented A. vulgaris {Perea
asper, Linn.), on Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 3. It is a small
fish, rarely exceeding half a foot in length, common in the
Rhone, especially between Lyons and Vienne.
We shall here pass over some limited genera, of which
the species are all foreign to Europe; such as Huro,
which contains the black bass, or black perch, of the
English inhabitants of the banks of the Huron; Etelis,
Niphon, Enoplosus, and Diploprion. The species of
the last two genera are remarkable as resembling Chae-
todons in their general form, rather than percoid fishes.
Genus Apogon, Lacepede. Body short, and, in com¬
mon with the opercles, furnished with large scales which
are easily dislodged; dorsal fins very separate ; a double
dentated border on the pre-opercle.
Ihe Apogon rex Mullorum of Cuvier {Mullus imberbis,
Linn.) is a small Mediterranean species, of a red colour,
with a black spot on each side of the tail. It measures
about three inches in length. The foreign species seem
chiefly confined to the Indian seas, at least they have
not yet been observed in those of Africa or America.
A few have been met with along the shores of New Hol¬
land, New Guinea, &c.
Genus Pomatomus, Risso. Resembles the preceding
in the separation of its dorsals, and its deciduous scales ;
but the pre-opercle is simply striated, the opercle emar-
ginate, and the eye enormously large.
The only known species is the P. telescopium, a fish ofAcan
excessive rarity. According to Risso, it scarcely ever ten
leaves the bottom of the deep sea. He is aware of only Peri
two specimens having been taken near Nice during a pe-
riod of thirty years. It measures about twenty inches in
length. The colours are brownish violet, with red and
blue reflections, the fins being brownish black. Whether
the prodigious dimensions of its eyes are in any way con¬
nected with the depth and consequent darkness of its
abode, is a point which we have not at present any means
to determine.
b. Some long and pointed teeth mixed with the close-set
kind.
Genus Ambassis, Commerson. Resembles Apogon
in form; the pre-opercle has a double dentation towards
the base, and the opercle terminates in a point; but the
two dorsals are contiguous, and the anterior one is pre¬
ceded by a spine.
A peculiarity in the intestinal canal, that is, the want of
appendages to the pylorus, renders the present position
of this genus in the system somewhat doubtful. The
species are small fishes found in the fresh waters of In¬
dia. One of them, A. Commersonii, Cuv. is abundant in
a small lake in the island of Bourbon, where it is prepar¬
ed as the Europeans do anchovies.
Genus Lucio-Perca, Cuv. Margin of the pre-oper¬
cle with only a simple dentation, dorsal fins not approxi¬
mate.
This genus receives its name from the supposed com¬
bination which certain of its species exhibit of the cha¬
racters of the pike and perch,—that is, they possess the
fins and banded markings of the latter, with the elongat¬
ed head and body, and acute lengthened teeth, of the
former. The best known species is the L. sandra of Cu¬
vier {Perea lucioperca of Bloch), an excellent fish, found
in the lakes and rivers of Germany and the east of
Europe, but unknown in France, Italy, and England. It
sometimes attains to the size of a large salmon. Its
growth is remarkably rapid, and its flesh is said to be rich
and agreeable. Great quantities, preserved by salt or
smoke, are exported from Prussia and Silesia.
B. Seven branchial rays ; only one dorsal Jin.
This subdivision is divisible, like the preceding, accord¬
ing to the nature of the teeth, the spines and dentations
of the opercles, and other characters.
a. Teeth hooked or canine.
Genus Serranus, Cuv. Pre-opercle dentated, bony
opercle terminated by one or more points.
This extensive genus has been recently partitioned
into several minor groups. Serranus proper contains
the Perea scriba of Linn.; so called on account of some
peculiar markings in the cheeks, resembling written cha¬
racters.1 Anthius is represented by A. sacer of Bloch,
a beautiful fish of the Mediterranean, of a ruby-red co¬
lour, changing into gold and silver, with yellow bands
upon the cheeks. The third ray of the dorsal fin is
greatly elevated, and the ventrals are much prolonged.
This fish appears to have been known to ancient writers,
and was regarded as sacred by the divers for marine pro¬
ductions, from the fond belief that no dangerous species
would approach its haunts. When an individual happen-
’ The smooth Serranus {S. cabrilla, Cuy.; Perea channus. Couch) has been described as a British species. Mr Couch regards it
as a common fish, well known to the Cornish fishermen. He mentions {Magazine of Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 19) that it keeps in the
neighbourhood of rocks not far from land ; and adds, as a singular fact, that the spasm which seizes it when taken never passes off
Hence it is found long after death in a state of rigidity and contortion, with the fins preternaturally erect. Both- Cuvier and Cavo-
lini have described this and other species of the genus as actual hermaphrodites,—one portion of each lobe of roe consisting of true
ova, the other having every appearance cf a perfect milt.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
lea lop- ed unfortunately to be caught by the fisherman’s hook,
fte jii* it was supposed that its companions immediately severed
pe the line by means of their sharp spines. Merrus of Cuv.
v,,,' ^ contains the Perea gigas of Gmelin, a species which some¬
times attains to the weight of sixty pounds.1 This sub¬
division of the genus Serranus contains a great amount
of species. The only other which we shall here mention
is that which we have shown in Plate CCXCVIII. fig.
4, under the name of Serranus altivelis, which is chiefly
remarkable for the great size of the posterior portion of
the dorsal fin. It occurs in the seas around Java.
Genus Plectropoma, Cuv. Differs from Serranus
chiefly in the more or less numerous dentations of the in¬
ferior margin of the pre-opercle, being directed obliquely
forward,—recalling in some measure the teeth of the
rowel of a spur. All the species are foreign to Europe ;
and the same observation applies to the genus Diacope,
the characters of which we shall not here detail.
Genus Mesoprion, Cuv. Agrees with Serranus in its
teeth, fins, and dentated pre-opercle, but differs in its
opercle being terminated by an obtuse angle, not spinous.
The species are remarkable for the varied richness and
lustre of their colours. They inhabit both the eastern
and western seas, but occur chiefly in those of India,
China, and Japan, concealing themselves in the hollows
of rocks, and leaving their sombre haunts only during
fine weather, to prey on the delicate Mollusca with which
those waters swarm. Many of the species are large, and
excellent as articles of food. M. vivanus attains the
weight of forty pounds. We have figured, on Plate
CCXCVIII. fig. 5, an American species of great beauty,
described by Cuvier under tbe name of M. uninotatus.
The back and upper portion of the head and cheeks are
of rich steel blue, the lower part of the cheeks and sides
of a fine rose colour, the abdomen silvery. The entire
body is coursed by many bands of a golden hue, irregular
and disconnected on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fin
is rose-colour, with three yellow bands; the other fins
are gamboge yellow. This species seldom much exceeds
a foot in length.
b. Teeth fine, and closely set.
Genus Acerina, Cuv. Distinguished by cavities or
depressions in the bones of the head, and by the opercle
and pre-opercle having only small spines, without denta¬
tions.
We shall here name only the Acerina vulgaris {Perea
cerma, Linn.), a British species,commonly called the ruffe,
much esteemed for the delicacy of its flesh. Mr Yarrell
informs us that it is common to almost all the canals and
rivers of England, particularly the Thames, the Isis, and
the Cam. Though said to be unknown in Spain, Italy,
and Greece, it occurs pretty generally over the colder
portion of the European continent, preferring slow, shaded
streams, and a gravelly bottom.2
It is angled for with a small red worm, and being gre¬
garious, six or eight dozen may sometimes be taken at a
single stand.
Genus Rypticus, Cuv. Small spines on the opercles ;
scales likewise small, and concealed, like those of Gram-
mistes, beneath a thick epidermis. The genus, however, is
well distinguished from the latter by the single dorsal fin.
The species have been named Savonniers by the
French, in consequence of their soft and soapy surface,
which feels as if it had been lubricated by some unctuous
matter.
169
Genus Polyprion, Cuv. In addition to spines on the Acanthop-
opercle, and dentations on the pre-opercle, the former is terygii.
furnished with a rough bifurcated crest, and the bones of lerrid®-
the head generally are marked by asperities. .
P. cernium is an enormous fish, extremely common in
the Mediterranean, but very indistinctly characterised or
understood before the time of Cuvier and his able coadju¬
tor M. Valenciennes. It attains the length of five or six
feet, and sometimes weighs a hundred pounds. The flesh
is white, tender, and well tasted. It is frequent, according
to Risso, near Nice, where it delights in rocky bottoms,
and is occasionally captured at the vast depth of three
thousand feet.
Cuvier here places the singular genus Pentaceros, of
which the sole species, bearing some resemblance in its
general aspect to the Ostracion auritus of Shaw, was
brought to Holland by M. Horstock. We shall here
likewise merely name the genera Centropristis and
Gristes of Cuvier, the former containing the Black Har¬
ry of the Americans, an excellent fish, common near New
York,—the latter, the species called growler in the Uni¬
ted States.
The ancient unrestricted genus Perca, as defined by
Artedi and Linnaeus, terminates in this place. But there
remains a large assemblage of allied species referrible to
various distinct genera, though still pertaining to the
great family of Percid^e.
C. With less than seven branchial rays.
а. With a single dorsal fin, and canine teeth mingled with
the others.
In this subdivision we place the genus Cirrhites
alone. The species are from the Indian seas, and have
only six branchial rays.
b. With a single dorsal fin, and small close-set teeth.
Here are classed the genera Chironemus, Centrar-
chus, and Pomotis. To the last belongs the P. vulgaris,
Cuv. {Labrus auritus, Linn.), called pond-perch in New
York. It is frequent in mill-dams and other tranquil
waters, and is often angled for in America, both for plea¬
sure and profit. According to Dr Richardson, it is called
sun-fish around Lake Huron. See Plate CCXCVIII. fig.
б. Of the genus Priacanthus we shall merely observe,
that the species are peculiar to the seas of hot climates.
The genus Dules resembles Centropristis already de¬
scribed, except that it possesses only seven branchial rays.
D. rupestris bears resemblance to a carp, and is found in
the fresh waters of the islands of Bourbon and the Mau¬
ritius, where it is highly esteemed for the excellence of
its flavour. We have figured one of the most remarkable
of the genus (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 7), named Buies
auriga by Cuvier, on account of the long whip-like form
assumed by the third spine of the dorsal fin. It was
brought from Brazil by M. Delalande.
We shall conclude this subdivision by a brief notice of
the genera Therapon, Datnia, Pelates, and Helotes.
It has been observed that these constitute a group, form¬
ed, as it were, to make naturalists despair, by showing
how nature laughs at what we deem characteristic com¬
binations. The genera above named, possessing a mul¬
titude of mutual relations, as well interior as external,
sufficient to forbid their distant separation, and bearing a
great resemblance to the entire percoid family, at the
same time combine species furnished with palatine teeth,
1 It is synonymous with Perca robusta of Mr Couch, made known by that gentleman as a British species, from a single specimen
taken with a line. (See Magazine of Natural History, vol. v. p. 21.)
* History of British Fishes, p. 18.
VOL. XII. Y
170
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Percidae.
Acanthop. along with other species which seem to be constantly de-
Jterygii. prived of these organs. They also possess close-set teeth
in the jaws, and dentations on the sub-orbital, the pre-
opercle, and not unfrequently on the shoulder bone ; none
has more than six branchial rays; no scales are visible
on the cranium, muzzle, or maxillae ; the dorsal spines
are folded back into a groove of the back ; and the swim¬
ming bladder is constantly divided by a restriction into
two distinct sacks, as in Cyprinus, Choracinus, and Myri-
pristis,—a character somewhat remarkable in any group
of the acanthopterygian order.
c. With two dorsal fins}
Genus Trichodon, Steller. Pre-opercle with several
strong spines; opercle terminating in a flattened point;
no scales ; mouth almost vertically cleft.
Of this genus only one species has been yet discovered,
the T. Stelleri of Cuv. It was found by the unfortunate Stel¬
ler near Cape Cronock, and especially at the island of
Unalaschka. It inhabits sandy shores, in which it con¬
ceals itself on the ebbing of the tide, and is there collected
by the natives with their hands. The females deposit their
eggs in little hollows in the sand, and offer, it is said, an
exception to the ordinary instinct of fishes, in attending
to their young ones after they are hatched.
Genus Sillago, Cuv. Head somewhat drawn to a
point; mouth small; small crowded teeth on the jaws,
and before the vomer; opercle terminating in a small
spine; six branchial rays ; dorsal fins contiguous ;—the
spines of the first slender, of the second long and low.
The species occur in the Indian Seas, and are held in
high esteem for the delicate flavour and brightness of their
flesh. The most noted species is the peche madame of
Pondicherry (*9. domina), of a brownish colour, and re¬
markable for the first ray of the dorsal fin being elongated
to a filament as long as the body. Another species, called
Soring by Russell (the Sdcena malaharica of Bloch), mea¬
sures about a foot in length, and is of a fulvous colour.
It is regarded as one of the best fishes in India.
D. With more than seven branchial rays.
The genera of this group, besides possessing eight bran¬
chial rays, are distinguished by this further peculiarity,
otherwise unexampled among the acanthopterygian tribes,
that they possess, besides the spine, seven soft rays, or even
more, to each of the ventral fins. Many of the species are
remarkable for their beauty.
Genus Holocentrum, Artedi. Scales brilliant and
dentated; opercle dentated and spinous; pre-opercle not
only dentated, but furnished at its angle with a strong
spine directed backwards.
The species of this genus are widely distributed, occur¬
ring in the warmer portions of both the Pacific and Atlan¬
tic Oceans. Few species are more remarkable, either for
the magnificence of their integuments, or the strength of
their spines. The lustre of their scales equals that of a
mirror, and is rendered still more brilliant by bands of red
and spots of brown variously distributed. They bear a
close resemblance to each other. That which we have se¬
lected as an illustration (Plate CCXCVlII. fig. 8) is the
H. hastatum of Cuvier, which exists in the Royal Mu¬
seum of Paris. Its native country is unknown, although
it is presumed to have been brought from the African
coast, and seems identical with specimens more recently Acank
collected by MM. Quoy and Gaymard at the Cape de Verd ter '
Islands. Peril
Genus Myripristis, Cuv. Resembles the preceding ^ 1
in splendour, form, and scales; but the pre-opercle has
a double dentated margin, and wants the spine at the
angle.
This genus is remarkable for its swimming bladder being
divided into two portions, of which the anterior is bilobed
and attached to the cranium in two places, where it is
merely covered by a membrane, and which correspond to
the cavities of the ears.
The genera Beryx and Trachichtys are nearly allied
to the preceding. The latter was originally characterised,
and somewhat vaguely, by Dr Shaw, from a specimen re¬
ceived from the New Holland seas.
All the percoid fishes to which we have hitherto alluded
are characterised by having their ventral fins inserted be¬
neath the pectorals. But in several genera these import¬
ant organs are otherwise placed. Thus, in the ensuing
group, their position is in advance of the pectorals, that is,
upon the throat. They are hence called
Jugular Percidas.
Genus Trachinus, Linn. Head compressed; eyes ap¬
proximate ; mouth oblique ; first dorsal very short, the se¬
cond very long ; pectorals large ; opercle furnished with a
strong spine.
Several of the species occur in the European seas, and
two species, known in our own country as the greater and
lesser weevers ( T. major and draco), occur occasionally on
the English coasts. They remain concealed in the sand,
and the wounds inflicted by their spines are not only pain¬
ful, but dangerous.
“ That the greater weever,” observes Mr Yarrell, “ pre¬
fers deep water, that it lives constantly near the bottom,
that it is tenacious of life when caught, and that its flesh
is excellent, are four points that have been already noticed;
but this subject, in reference to fishes generally, may be
farther illustrated. It may be considered as a law, that
those fish that swim near the surface of the water have a
high standard of respiration, a low degree of muscular ir¬
ritability, great necessity for oxygen, die soon, almost im¬
mediately, when taken out of water, and have flesh prone
to rapid decomposition. On the contrary, those fish that
live near the bottom of the water have a low standard of
respiration, a high degree of muscular irritability, and less
necessity for oxygen ; they sustain life long after they are
taken out of the water, and their flesh remains good for
several days. The carp, the tench, the various flat fish,
and the eel, are seen gaping and writhing on the stalls of
the fishmongers for hours in succession ; but no one sees
any symptom of motion in the mackerel, the salmon, the
trout, or the herring, unless present at the capture. These
four last named, and many others of the same habits, to
be eaten in the greatest perfection, should be prepared for
table the same day they are caught;2 but the turbot, de¬
licate as it is, may be kept till the second day with advan¬
tage, and even longer without injury ; and fishmongers
generally are well aware of the circumstance, that fish
from deep water have the muscle more dense in structure,
—in their language, more firm to the touch,—that they are
. ^n. tke indication of this group in the Ilegnc Animal, t. ii. p. 149, there seems to be a typographical error where the words
a moms des six rayons branchiaux” are used, instead of sept. The mistake has been copied as a matter of course into all the Eng¬
lish and American translations.
w*uThe c5lub swims near the top of the water, and is caught with a fly, a moth, or a grasshopper, upon the surface; and Isaac
Walton says, But take this rule with you—that a chub newly taken and newly dressed is so much better than a chub of a day’s
keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so fitly as to cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have
been bruised and lain a day or two in water.”
ICHTHYOLOG Y.
171
« 0p. 0f finer flavour, and will keep longer, than fish drawn from
t: it shallow water.
Pell®- “ The law referred to has its origin in the principles of
' organization ; and though it would be difficult for the ana¬
tomist to demonstrate those deviations in structure be¬
tween the trout and the tench which give rise to these
distinctions and their effects, it is only necessary to make
the point of comparison wider to be assured of the fact.
“ Between a fish with a true bony skeleton, the highest
in organization among fishes, and the lamprey, the lowrest,
the differences are most obvious. If we for a moment
consider the lamprey, which is the lowest in organization
of the vertebrated animals, with only a rudimentary ver¬
tebral column, as the supposed centre of zoological struc¬
ture, and look from thence up and down the scale of or¬
ganization, we on the extreme on one side arrive at man,
to whom division of his substance would be destruction ;
but on the other w'e come to the polype, the division of
which gives rise to new animals, each possessing attributes,
not only equal to each other, but equal also to the animal
of which they previously formed but a small part.”1 The
species represented in our accompanying illustration (see
Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 9) is T. radiatus, well known in the
Mediterranean.
The Trachini of exotic regions, if such exist, are un¬
known. They are in some measure represented there by
the genus Percis of Bloch and Schneider, which is found
in the Indian, African, and New Holland seas.
The genus Pinguipes, of a heavy form, is distinguished
by its strong conical teeth ; its fleshy lips, and teeth upon
the palate; and by its thick ventrals. The only known
species is from Brazil. The genus Percophis, on the
contrary, is much elongated in its shape (combining, as it
were, that of the perch and serpent,—from whence the
name); some of the teeth are long and pointed, and the
extremity of the lower jaw projects. The sole species is a
rare and remarkable fish from Rio Janeiro, discovered by
the French naturalists attached to Freycinet’s expedition.
Genus Uranoscopus, Linn. Eyes placed on the upper
surface of a nearly cubical-shaped head ; mouth vertically
cleft; pre-opercle crenate towards its base ; a strong spine
at each shoulder ; gills with only six rays.
In the interior of the mouth of this remarkable genus,
and in front of the tongue, there is a long and marrow
shred, which they can exsert at pleasure, and which it is
said they use while lying concealed in the mud, to attract
their prey, consisting of the smaller fishes. Another sin¬
gularity in their structure consists in the immense size of
the gall-bladder, a fact well known to ancient observers.
In some of the species the first dorsal, which is small and
spinous, is separated from the second, which is soft and
long. Such is U. scaber, a Mediterranean species, not un-
frequently used as food, although of a most ugly and re¬
pelling aspect. In others the dorsal is single, and its spi¬
nous and softer parts continuous. Such is U. inermis, the
species represented in Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 10, which at¬
tains to the length of a couple of feet, and is native to the
coast of Coromandel. It dwells in the sand, and the In¬
dian fishers allege, what is no doubt a gross exaggeration,
that it sometimes penetrates to a depth of twenty feet.
In the third principal division of the percoid family the
ventral fins are inserted behind the pectorals. They are
hence named
Abdominal Percid^e.
Genus Polynemus, Linn. Several of the inferior rays
of the pectorals free, and forming so many filaments ; ven-
terygu.
Percidse.
trals not greatly posterior to the pectorals ; pelvis still sus- Acanthop-
pended to the bones of the shoulder.
The species are allied to the Percidae in general by the ,
close set teeth upon their jaws, vomer, and palate; but
they possess the arched or convex snout, and the scaly-
vertical fins, which distinguish so many of the Sciaenidse.
Their two dorsals are distant; their pre-opercle dentated,
and their mouths greatly cleft. They appear to inhabit
the seas of all warm countries. P. longlfilis of Cuv. (P.
paradiseus and quinquinarius, Linn.) is the noted mango-
fish of India, so called from its fine yellow colour. According
to Russel and Hamilton Buchanan, it is the most delicious
of all the species eaten in Bengal. It is fished for all the
year round, at the mouths of rivers, where the waters are
saline. It ascends to some distance about spawning time
in spring, but not beyond the influence of the tide. When
in prime condition, the mango-fish, though only a few inches
long, sells so high as a rupee. The eggs are also much
esteemed. The colours of this species, like those of other
fishes, seem to vary greatly, probably in relation to the
condition of individuals, or the season of the year. M.
Dussumier describes it as of a citron yellow, with the fins
and filaments of a beautiful orange. Buchanan states that
the greater number are silvery, with reflections of gold
and purple, and a greenish tint upon the back; the fins
being then yellow, and the upper parts spotted with black.
The same author names the silvery mango-fish P. risua,
and the yellow ones P. aureus ; but he hesitates to make
them distinct species, and rather opines that the fine co¬
lour is the result of season, and that it continues only du¬
ring spawning time. This view of the subject is well
confirmed by the fact, that the high-coloured specimens
sent to Europe by M. Dussumier were full either of roe
or milt, and is moreover in exact conformity with the ob¬
servations of all practical anglers and Ichthyologists in
relation to the species of our own country. We here
figure (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 11) a recently-discovered
species, received by Baron Cuvier from Senegal. It is
named P. quadrifilis, having only four free rays on the
pectoral fins.
In the ensuing genera of the abdominal Percidae, the
ventrals are placed farther back, and the pelvis no longer
adheres to the bones of the shoulder.
Genus SphvrJena, Bloch and Sch. Form elongated;
two distant dorsals; head oblong, with the lower jaw
forming a projecting point beyond the upper one; a por¬
tion of the teeth large, pointed, and cutting; opercle
without spines; pre-opercle without dentations ; seven
branchial rays ; numerous appendages to the pylorus.
These fish were formerly classed with the pikes; and
the Italians still name them Lucii marini, on account of
their strong and pointed teeth. The Mediterranean spe¬
cies (-S’, vulgaris, Cuv.; Esox sphyrama, Linn.) attains to
the length of three feet. S. picuda, from the coast of
Brazil, is extremely similar. This fish, though used as
an article of food, is occasionally poisonous. M. Poey
alleges that the malady produced by eating it is some¬
times mortal; but he adds that it is easy to distinguish
the dangerous individuals beforehand, by a peculiar black¬
ness at the base of their teeth. Another species (£. bar¬
racuda, Cuv.; Esox barracud, Shaw), which likewise oc¬
curs along the Brazilian shores, and among the Antilles,
is said to be extremely formidable, on account of its fero¬
cious habits. It is among the number of those marine
monsters of which Rochefort speaks in his Histoire des
Antilles, as greedy of human flesh. He states it to at¬
tain the length of seven or eight feet, and that it darts
with fury upon any man whom it perceives in the wrater.
1 British Fishes, p. 22.
172 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- The wounds of its teeth are said to be mortal. Dutertre immense prices. Martial mentions one of four poundsAcan
Pevcidse a^*;r^utes to ^ same great size and malign qualities, weight, which had cost 1300 sesterces ; and it is said that ter
1 _e-an^ regarcis it as more dangerous than the fiercest shark, the Emperor Tiberius sold one weighing nearly five
Neither noise, nor any kind of threatening movement, has pounds for 4000 sesterces. Asinius Celer, one of the ^ori
the slightest effect in producing intimidation ; on the consuls, is reported by Pliny to have paid 8000 ; and, ac- W
contrary, such signs of dislike only excite it to a greater cording to Suetonius, 30,000 sesterces had been given
readiness to seize upon its victim. It must be a most dis- for three mullets.”1
agreeable creature. The surmulet, or striped mullet (Af. Surmuletus, Linn.),
Genus Mullus, Linn. Surface of the body and is larger than the preceding, and measures about a foot
opercles covered by large deciduous scales ; pre-opercle in length. It is much more common as a British species
without dentations; mouth small, or but slightly cleft, than the preceding, being of frequent occurrence along
and feebly toothed; dorsal fins distant from each other; the extended line of our southern coast, from Cornwall
a pair of barbies or appendages depending from the sym- to Sussex ; but becoming rarer as we proceed from thence
physis of the lower jaw. northward by the eastern coast. It has been regarded
This genus, although allied to the Percidae by several as migratory, yet it appears in the shops of the London
anatomical and external details, is yet characterised by fish-mongers throughout the year, though in much greater
so many peculiarities of organization, that it might al- plenty during May and June, at which time their colours
most be regarded as forming of itself a special family, are most vivid, and the fish, as food, is in the best condition.
Cuvier, however, has placed it d la suite of the Percidae, The striped red mullet spawns in spring, and the young
and we shall therefore follow that great authority in this are five inches long by the end of October.2 The spe-
as in the other portions of our ichthyological system, cies is much more extensively distributed than the red
The genus Mullus is now divided into two. mullet, and is not confined, as Baron Cuvier seems to
1. Mullus proper. Branchiae with three rays; opercle suppose, to European coasts. It occurs not far to the
spineless ; no teeth to the upper jaw; two large plates south of New York, and has been found in much greater
of small teeth en pave on the vomer; no swimming blad- numbers along the southernmost coasts of South Ame-
der. rica.3 It has been supposed that to this species the
To this sub-genus belongs the famous red mullet (Jf. larger specimens of mullet mentioned by the ancients
barbatus), Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 12, which, by reason both are referrible. Pliny indeed states expressly that the
of its great personal beauty, and the exquisite flavour of its large mullets were found especially in the Northern and
flesh, has for so many ages ministered to the degenerate Western Oceans.
and heartless luxury of man. It is very frequent in the 2. Upeneus, Cuv. Branchiae with four rays; teeth
Mediterranean, and also occurs occasionally along the on both jaws, but frequently none on the palate ; opercle
outer and more northern coasts of Europe. It is brought with a small spine ; a swimming bladder,
occasionally to the London markets during the mackerel The species of this sub-genus are native to the seas of
season ; but it is doubtful whether Muller is not in error India and America. That which we have selected for
in assigning to it so northern a locality as Denmark, illustration (Plate CCXCVIII. fig. 13) is the H. Vlamingii
“ The great and rich among the Romans were in the ha- of Cuvier. It was sent to Paris by MM. Quoy and Gay-
bit, according to Varro, of preserving the red mullet in mard, and when opened its stomach was found filled with
artificial waters, as one of the most convincing proofs of small Crustacea.
their individual wealth. Cicero has ridiculed the sense- We here terminate the family of Percid-®, or perch¬
less ostentation with which they exhibited fine speci- like fishes, and proceed to
mens of this fish, domiciliated in their own ponds; but
Seneca and Pliny have rendered their countrymen odious
in the eyes of posterity, and of other nations, by relating FAMILY II BUCCvE LORICATAE, or MAILED
the cruelty with which, in their disgusting orgies, they CHEEKS,
revelled over the dying mullet, while the bright red co¬
lour of its healthy state passed through various shades of There are a certain set of fishes which, in the totality
purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually receded, of their structure, certainly approach the preceding fa-
till the convulsions of death put an end to the pleasing mily of the perches ; but on which the singular aspect of
spectacle. Ihey had these devoted fish enclosed in wa- their variously-armed heads bestows so peculiar a phy-
ter in vessels with sides of crystal, over a slow fire, on siognomy, that they have always been classed together
their tables, and derived a fiend-like pleasure from the in special genera. As examples, we may mention the gur-
lingering sufferings of their victims as the increasing heat nards, father-lashers, and river bull-heads, belonging to
of the water gradually destroyed them, before the final Trigla and Coitus. The common character of all these
operation of boiling had rendered them fit to gratify the fishes consists in the sub-orbital bone being more or less
refined taste of civilization. One cannot indeed read these extended over the cheek, and articulating behind with
revolting histories of old time without a blush at certain the pre-opercle. The genus Uranoscopus alone of the
modern practices far too analogous with them: the sense preceding family exhibits some affinity to this form of
of taste may, in the cases alluded to, be alone consulted ; structure ; but still in that case, the sub-orbital, though
but the difference is nothing to the suffering animal, very broad, is connected posteriorly, not with the opercle,
■whether its torments gratify one or more of the evil pas- but with the temporal bones. It is then from this pecu-
sions of its tormentors. The skinning of eels, and the liar extension and attachment of one or both of the sub¬
boiling of live Crustacea, would be as disgusting as the orbitals that the family of the mailed cheeks derives its
gradual boiling of a mullet, did not, in this as in many name.
other cases, the practice of evil destroy the feeling of its In the Linnaean system these fishes formed three ge-
iniquity. So extravagant was the folly of the Romans nera, Trigla, Cottus, and Scorpcena, groups which have
with regard to this fish, that they often gave for them been considerably subdivided by Cuvier, who has more-
* Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 277- 2 Yarrell’s British Fishes, p. 27.
3 Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 278.
ICHTHYOLOGY. 1"3
t > over added to them a certain portion of the genus Gaste-
ter' • rosteus, or stickle-back tribe.
BuV Genus Trigla, Linn. Here the family character is
f''c strongly marked. An enormous sub-orbital covers the
^ entire cheek, and even articulates by means of an im¬
movable suture with the pre-opercle, which in this way
possesses no separate movement; the sides of the head
are nearly vertical, producing a form approaching that of
a cube or of a parallelepiped, and the bones are hard and
granulated; the back bears two distinct dorsals, and be¬
neath the pectorals are three free rays ; in the interior
we find about a dozen caeca, and a broad bilobed swim¬
ming bladder.
This extensive genus has been subdivided by modern
writers.
Trigla proper contains the gurnards commonly so
called. They have small close-set teeth on the maxillae,
and before the vomer; and their pectoral fins, though
large, are incompetent to sustain them through the air.
T. cuculus, Linn. (J7. pmi of Bloch), our red gurnard,
is a voracious species, common in the European seas.
T. lyra, named the piper, is another British species re¬
markable for the hissing sound which it produces when
caught, by expelling air through its gills. It is a beauti¬
ful fish, of a bright red above, and silvery white below.
T. cuculus of Bloch (7'. Blochii, Yarrell) is another red
gurnard, distinguishable by a black spot on the first dorsal
fin. T. lucerna is a Mediterranean species, so named
because it shines in the dark. T. hirundo is a British
species, known as the sapphirine gurnard. Its pectoral
fins are rich green and blue. The only other species we
shall mention is the grey gurnard (T7. gurnardus), Plate
CCXCVIII. fig. 1. Its muzzle is bifurcated, with three
spines on each side. It is easily taken with a hook, and
is common in the British seas.
Prionites of Lacepede contains species analogous to
those last named, but with pectorals so long as occasion¬
ally to sustain them in the air. Their precise character,
however, consists in their having a band of small close-
set teeth on each palatine.
Peristedion of Lac. is separated from Trigla proper,
with still more correctness. The whole body is as it
were cuirassed over by great hexagonal scales, forming
longitudinal ridges ; the muzzle is divided into two points,
and bears branched barbies beneath ; the mouth has no
teeth. The only well-known species is the T. cataphracta,
Linn, a Mediterranean fish, called Malarmat both at Mar¬
seilles and Genoa, probably by an antiphrase, as it is one
of the most red_oubtably armed of all the fishes of the
European seas.
Dactylopterus of Lac., yet further removed from
Trigla, contains certain (though not the whole) of those
species known under the famous name of flying fishes.1
Their sub-pectoral rays are much more numerous and ex¬
tended, and instead of being free, as in the preceding
groups, they are united by a membrane so as to form a
supernumerary fin, longer than the fish itself, and capable
of supporting it in the air.
The common Dactylopterus, or flying fish of the Me¬
diterranean (Trigla volitans, Linn.), is a species too re¬
markable for its functions, so opposite to those of its class
in general, not to have attracted from an early period the
attention of mankind. It is extremely common in the
Mediterranean, and has been mentioned by all the au¬
thors who have treated of the fishes of that inland sea.
The ardour with which it is pursued by the dolphins
and bonitos, the sudden effort which it makes to escape
these predaceous creatures by vaulting into the air, the
new and probably unthought of dangers which there await Acanthop-
it from gulls and other aquatic birds, render it an object
of the highest interest to the unaccustomed landsman,
somewhat wearied with the monotony of a sailor’s life.
“ It is by the extension of the pectoral rays and mem¬
brane that the fish is enabled to raise itself from its pro¬
per element to the regions of the air, though this is by
no means a continual flight, for the utmost it can do is to
describe an arch over the surface of the water extending
to a distance of about 120 feet, and sufficiently elevated
for the fish sometimes to fall on the deck of a large ves¬
sel. This power of flight or momentary suspension would
be much greater if the pectoral membrane could preserve
its humidity longer: this is soon evaporated in the heat
of the tropics; and the membrane, as it becomes dry, loses
its buoyant power, and the fish falls. They are some¬
times so numerous as to afford much pleasure to the spec¬
tator by their repeated flights; and at particular times,
especially on the approach of rough weather, in the night,
numbers of them may be seen, by the phosphoric light
they emit, marking their arched passages in apparent
streams of fire.2”
It is singular that the species to which we now allude
(Z>. volitans), though so frequent in the Mediterranean,
should be almost entirely unknown along the oceanic
coasts of Europe. Still more singular is it, in relation to
that exclusion, that it should at the same time be found
across the Atlantic, and spreading not only along all the
central and southern shores of the New World, but ex¬
tending even as far north as the chilly waters of New¬
foundland. The great Gulf Stream may however prove
influential in the northern distribution of many western
species.
We shall conclude this notice by observing, that the
fish in question measures about a foot in length ; it is
brown above, reddish below, with blackish fins, variously
spotted with blue. Its most formidable weapon of of¬
fence consists of the long and pointed spine of the oper-
cle, which it can raise and render almost perpendicular
to its body. With this organ it is easy to conceive that
it may produce serious, or even dangerous wounds; and
we therefore wonder the less that a poet like Oppian
should have declared them mortal.
There seems to be only one other clearly ascertained
species of the genus Dactylopterus. It is the D. orientalis
of Cuvier, and occurs in the Indian seas.
Genus Cottus, Linn. Head broad and depressed,
mailed, and variously armed by spines or tubercles; two
dorsal fins; teeth in front of the vomer, but none on the
palatines ; six rays to the branchiae, and only three or
four to the ventral fins. The inferior rays of the pecto¬
rals, as in the weevers (genus Trachinus), are not branch¬
ed ; the caecal appendages are less numerous than in Tri¬
gla, and the swimming bladder is wanting.
The fresh-water species of this genus have the head al¬
most smooth, and only a single spine to the pre-opercle.
Their first dorsal is very low. The most common is the
river bull-head ( Cottus gobio, Linn.), sometimes called the
miller’s thumb. It is a small dark-coloured fish, four or
five inches in length, and frequent in most of the streams
of Europe and the north of Asia. It usually lies con¬
cealed beneath stones, from whence it darts with great
rapidity upon its prey. It is said to be extremely prolific;
and the female, when with spawn, becomes so greatly en¬
larged, that her ovaries protrude like mammae. The bull¬
head, like the salmon, has a reddish hue when boiled. It
affords a good and wholesome food, much sought after by
the mountain tribes of several countries; yet Pallas as-
1 Others, for example, belong to Exoccctus, one of the genera of Malacopterygii aldominalcs, to be afterwards described.
2 Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 280.
174 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- sures us that in Russia no one will taste it, although
terygii. the common people hang it around their necks as an amu-
Loricate ^et’ un(*er t^e impression that it acts as a preservative
against attacks of tertian fever. We have represented in
{ this work (Plate CCXCVIIL fig. 2) a salt-water species, C.
scorpius, commonly called the father‘lasher, and frequent
around our rocky coasts. Under the English name of father-
lasher, two species, however, seem to have been confound¬
ed.1 2 There are many other species of the genus, one of
which is extremely common in all the bays and gulfs of
Greenland.
Under the generic name of Aspidophorus, several
Cotti have been separated from the parent group. Their
bodies are cuirassed by angular plates, and the teeth are
wanting on the vomer. Such is a small fish common on
our shores, and of which the membrane of the gills is gar¬
nished with fleshy filaments. It is the C. cataphractus of
Linn., our common Pogge, or armed bull-head. See Plate
CCXCIX. fig. 3.
We may here name three genera as intermediate be¬
tween Coitus and Scorpcena, viz. Hemitripterus (ibid,
fig. 4), Hemilepidotus, and Peatycephalus. We can¬
not enter into any details regarding them.
Genus Scorpjena, Linn. Head, as in Cottus, mailed
and jagged, but compressed laterally ; body covered with
scales; seven rays to the branchiae ; a single dorsal fin.
These are small fishes of a repulsive aspect, to be al¬
most inferred from the vulgar names bestowed upon them
in most countries, such as scorpion, toad, sea-devil, &c.
The species represented on the above Plate, fig. 5, was re¬
ceived from the Isle of France. Many others occur in
the Indian seas, as well as in those of more northern
countries.
The genus Sebastes of Cuv. possesses most of the cha¬
racters of Scorpcena, although the head is less jagged and
scaly. The species are widely dispersed through both
the northern and southern seas. We have selected as an
illustration (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 6) S. variahilis, which at¬
tains to the length of two feet, and occurs in great abun¬
dance in the seas about Kamtschatka and the Aleutian
Isles, where it is used as food. To this genus belongs
another northern species (S. norvegicus, Cuv.; the sea-
perch of Pennant), occasionally found along the British
shores, and known to the Shetlanders under the name of
Bergylt, or Norway haddock.'1
The genus Pterois of Cuv. contains the Scorpcena vo-
litans of Gmelin and other authors, remarkable for its
enormous pectoral fins, which resemble those of the fly¬
ing fish, except that they are feebler, and, from being
so deeply notched, incapable of aiding the fish in leaving
its native element. Mr Bennet was assured by the fish¬
ermen of Ceylon, where the species is very common, that
they had never seen it fly.
The genus Apistus, Cuv., resembles Scorpcena in its
palatine teeth and dorsal fin ; but the few rays of the pec¬
torals are all branched. The distinguishing character,
however, consists in the strong spine of the sub-orbitals,
which on being projected from the cheek becomes a dan¬
gerous weapon; the more so, as in a state of repose it is
scarcely perceptible. In fact, their generic name is de¬
rived from (micros, perfidious. M. Ehrenberg has made
us acquainted with a species from the Red Sea, which
greatly resembles the Indian Woorah-minoo described by
Russel. It measures about four inches in length, and is
of a reddish colour on the back, and whitish on the sides
and abdomen. This Apistus flies like a Dactylopterus.
Ehrenberg observed it in the vicinity of Tor; and when¬
ever the sea was agitated, several fell into his vessel. AsAca'.
it is the only flying fish of the Red Sea, and is extremely ten-!
abundant along those desert coasts over which the Israel- Buc|
ites so long wandered, he has conjectured that the food ^
mentioned in Exodus, ch. xvi. ver. 13, and by us translat- w('
ed quails, was in reality the fish in question. It is named
by the Arabs Gheradel bahr, a term which we understand
to signify sea locust. The genus is rather numerous. We
have figured (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 7) Ap. marmoratus, a
species transmitted by Peron from Timor. It surpasses
the others in size, as well as in the lustre and precision of
its marbled markings.
Genus Agriopus. No sub-orbital spine; dorsal still
higher than in the preceding genus, reaching as far for¬
ward as between the eyes; the nape of the neck elevated;
muzzle narrowed; mouth small and slightly toothed;
body without scales.
The fish called sea-horse (see paard) by the Dutch
colonists at the Cape, and used by them as food, belongs
to this genus. It is the A. torvus of Cuvier.
Genus Pelor, Cuv. Dorsal undivided, and teeth on
the palate, like Scorpaena ; body without scales ; two free
rays beneath the pectorals; anterior portion of the head
appearing crushed ; eyes approximate ; dorsal spines very
high, and almost free; sub-orbital spine wanting.
The fantastic shape and almost monstrous aspect of
these fishes are alone sufficient to distinguish them from
every other genus. It is scarcely possible by words alone
to convey an idea of their extraordinary forms. • They in¬
habit the Indian seas, and one of the most remarkable is
P.filamentorum, a species from the Isle of France, disco¬
vered during Duperrey’s expedition. It may be inferred
to feed upon Crustacea, as the remains of squillne were
found within its stomach.
The genus Synanceia of Bloch and Schneider is quite
as hideous as that of Pelor, and indeed surpasses all the
Scorpsenae in ugliness. Their heads are rough, tubercu-
lated, but not compressed, and frequently enveloped in a
loose and fungous skin ; their pectoral rays are all branch¬
ed, their dorsals entire; they have no teeth either on the
vomer or palatines.
S. horrida, as the title implies, exhibits by no means an
inviting aspect. It is named Ikan-swangi, or sorcerer fish,
by the Malays. S. hrachio of Cuv. is the species called
fi-fi, or hideous, by the Negroes of the Isle of France, who
hold it in great abhorrence. In fact, nothing can be con¬
ceived more frightful. At first sight, no one would consi¬
der it a fish, but rather as a mass or unformed lump of
corrupted jelly. “ Totum corpus,” says Gommerson,
“ muco squalidum et quasi ulcerosum.” Its head and
members seem enveloped in a sack of thick, soft, spongy
skin, vrarty and wrinkled like that of a leper, and irregu¬
larly blotted over with various tints of brown and grey.
Sometimes it appears entirely black ; but it is always
gluey and disgusting to the touch. The little eyes are
scarcely discernible in the large cavernous head. This
species is said to possess great tenacity of life, and sur¬
vives for a long time out of the water. The skin, in fact,
forms a little ring like that of Pelor, in the upper part of
the gills, above the point of the opercle, through which
the fish can respire at pleasure, leaving the remainder of
the cover closed, and the branchiae consequently unex¬
posed to desiccation. The inhabitants of the Isle of
France regard it rather as a reptile than a fish; and they
fear what they call its sting (that is, the wound inflicted
by its spines) more than that of snakes or scorpions.
Genus Monocentris, Bloch. Body short, thick, and
1 ^}st' d£s Poissons, t. iv. pp. 160-165 ; and YarrelT^ British Fishes, pp. 60-63.
2 Fleming s British Animals, p. 212.
I C H T H ¥ O L O G Y.
175
> completely mailed with enormous angular scales, rough
and carinated ; dorsal fin represented by four or five thick
spines; each ventral consisting of a single enormous spine,
8' in the angle of which some small soft rays lie concealed;
head large and mailed ; front gibbous ; mouth large ; small
and close-set teeth in the jaws and palatines, but none
upon the vomer; eight branchial rays.
Of this remarkable genus there is only a single species
known, a small fish of a silvery whiteness, measuring about
six inches in length. It inhabits the seas of Japan. See
Plate CCXCIX. fig. 8.
Genus Gasterosteus, Cuv. Cheeks mailed, but the
head neither spined nor tuberculated, as in the preceding
genera. The special characters consist in the freedom of
the dorsal spines, which do not form a fin, and in the pel¬
vis being united to larger humerals than usual, thus fur¬
nishing the abdomen with a kind of bony cuirass. The
ventrals, placed posterior to the pectorals, are reduced al¬
most to a single spine. There are only three branchial
rays.
The species are small fishes familiarly known under
the name of Stickle-backs (Scotice, Benticles), extremely
common in all the fresh waters of Europe. Gesner indeed
asserted that they did not occur in Switzerland; but the
contrary has been long since ascertained. Our most
common species is G. aculeatus, Linn. (Plate CCXCIX.
fig. 9), under which name, however, it is supposed that
more than a single kind has been confounded. It is an
active and greedy little fish, extremely destructive of the
fry of other species, and consequently injurious in ponds
where these are sought to be preserved. Mr Henry Ba¬
ker informs us that it will spring not less than a foot per¬
pendicularly out of the water, and to a much greater dis¬
tance in an oblique direction, when it desires to overcome
any opposing obstacle. “ It is scarcely to be conceived,”
he adds, “ what damage these little fish do, and how
greatly detrimental they are to the increase of all the fish
in general among which they live ; for it is with the ut¬
most industry, sagacity, and greediness that they seek out
and destroy all the young fry that come in their way,
which are pursued with the utmost eagerness, and swal¬
lowed down without distinction, provided they are not too
large; and in proof of this, I must assert that a bannstic-
kle which I kept for some time, did, on the 4th of May, de¬
vour, in five hours’ time, seventy-four young dace, which
were about a quarter of an inch long, and of the thickness
of a horse-hair. Two days after it swallowed sixty-two ;
and would, I am persuaded, have eat as many every day,
could I have procured them for it.” The stickle-back
sometimes swarms in prodigious numbers. Pennant states,
that at Spalding, in Lincolnshire, there are once in seven
years amazing shoals, which appear in the Welland, com¬
ing up the river in the form of a vast column. This con¬
course is supposed to arise from the multitudes which
have been washed out of the fens by the floods of several
years, and which collect in deep holes, till, overcharged
with numbers, they are obliged to attempt a change of
place. The quantity may perhaps be conceived from the
tact, that a man employed in collecting them gained for
a considerable time four shillings a day by selling them
at the rate of a halfpenny a bushel. G. pungitivus, com¬
monly called the smaller or ten-spined stickle-back, is
the least of all our fresh-water fishes. In common, how¬
ever, with a more truly marine species (G. spinochia, Linn.,
which forms a sub-genus), it is also found in the sea.1
We shall here conclude our exposition of the family
with mailed cheeks.
FAMILY III.—SCLENIDjE. Acanthop-
terygii.
This family is closely related to the Percidae, and exhi- pciemdse.
bits almost all the same combinations of external charac-
ters, especially the dentations of the pre-opercle, and the
opercular spines ; but the Sciaenidae have never any teeth
either on the vomer or palatines; the bones of the face
and cranium are generally cavernous, and the muzzle more
or less gibbous; a form rarely observed among the Per¬
cidae. The vertical fins are frequently somewhat scaly.
Even in its interior organization our present family
bears a considerable resemblance to the perches; but
there are greater variations, and especially a more compli¬
cated structure of the swimming bladder. In several spe¬
cies that organ is furnished with a multitude of branched
appendages (See Plate CCXCVII. figs. 6, 7, 8) ; and al¬
though we cannot trace in it any connection with the ex¬
terior, yet when we consider that many of the Sciaenidae are
more remarkable even than the gurnards for the produc¬
tion of extraordinary sounds, it is difficult to believe that
the peculiar structure of the swimming bladder is not in
some way connected with their utterance. The Sciaenidae
are almost as numerous as the perches ; they are charac¬
terised in a great measure by similar habits, and present
the same advantages to the human race. They almost
all afford excellent eating ; of several, indeed, the flavour
is exquisite; and a few are of great size. The famous
maigre, for example (S. aquila, Cuv.), commonly weighs
about sixty pounds, and sometimes attains to the length
of six feet.
A. Two dorsal fins.
Genus Scialna, Cuv. Head gibbous, supported by ca¬
vernous bones; two dorsals, or one deeply emarginate,
with its softer portion much longer than the spinous ; a short
anal fin ; a dentated pre-opercle ; an opercle terminated by
points ; keven branchial rays.
The species bear a great resemblance to perch, except
that they want the teeth upon the palate. Their whole
head is scaly, their swimming bladder frequently furnished
with remarkable appendages, and the stony bones of the
ear are larger than in most fishes. One of the most re¬
markable is the maigre above alluded to (£'. aquila), call¬
ed Umbrina by the Romans, and held in high esteem
even at the present day. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 10.) It is a
rare fish on the outer coasts of Europe, and disappears almost
entirely towards the north. The only example with which
we are acquainted of its appearance in the northern parts
of our own country is recorded by Dr Patrick Neill.2 It
was caught off Ugea in Northmavine, Shetland, in Novem¬
ber 1819, and was first observed by the fishermen while
endeavouring to escape from a seal. It measured five feet
four inches in length, and when lifted into the boat, made
its usual “ purring sound.” Other instances are mention¬
ed by Mr Yarrell. It is, however, extremely common in
many parts of the Mediterranean, especially along the Ro¬
man states. Paul Jovius mentions that many are taken
there at the mouths of rivers, along with sturgeons. They
swim in troops, and are said to utter at times a singular
low bellowing beneath the waters. It is recorded that
three fishermen, guided by this sound, dropt their net on
one occasion so successfully as to secure twenty fine fish
at a single throw. The noise may be heard at a depth of
twenty fathoms, and is often very perceptible when the ear
is placed upon the gunnel of the boat. Its tone seems to
vary, as some have compared it to a dull buzzing, others
to a sharp whistle. Some of the fishermen allege that the
1 It appears that we now possess seven British species of stickle-back, of 'f/hxch.Xhe four-spined (G. spinulosus, Yarrell) was discovered
by Dr James Stark in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. He exhibited specimens to the Wernerian Nat. Hist. Society in 1831.
1 Edin. New Phil. Journ. No. 1.
176
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- males alone are musical during spawning time, and that it
Sdenk]1' *S clu‘te Possible to capture tliem without any bait, merely
by imitating this peculiar sound. One alluded to by Cu¬
vier as having been entangled in a net spread along the
shore at Dieppe, was at first found sleeping; but on being
handled, it roused itself so suddenly, and with such vio¬
lence, as to precipitate the fisherman into the water, and
force him to call for assistance before he could become its
master. High, though of course imaginary virtues, were
formerly attributed to the stones which occur in the ear
of this, as of other osseous fishes. They were worn on the
neck, set in gold ; and Belon says they were called colic-
stones, being renowned for the cure, and even prevention,
of that complaint. It was necessary, however, that they
should be received as a gift,—such as were purchased be¬
ing found to lose their virtue.
The species above mentioned belongs to the genus Sci-
jena proper of Cuvier, a subdivision characterised by the
feebleness of the anal spines, and by the want of canine
teeth and barbies.
Other subdivisions of the principal genus Scia:na are as
follows :—Otolithus and Ancylodon are foreign groups
(from India and America), which we shall merely name.
Corvina of Cuvier differs from Sciaena proper chiefly in
the much greater strength of the second anal spine. An
abundant species in the Mediterranean's the C. nigra, of
a silvery brown colour, with the ventral and anal fins black.
It occurs in salt marshes and the sea, but does not appear
to ascend rivers. It is less esteemed than the maigre, but
* is not unfrequently sold for that fish in the Italian markets.
Johnius of Bloch is closely allied to the preceding. We
here figure as an example of that minor group, the C. den-
tex of Cuv., a species from St Domingo. (Plate CCXCIX.
fig. 12.) Several of the fishes used as food in India belong
to the genus Johnius. Their flesh is light, but not highly
flavoured. They are called whitings by the English in
Bengal. The species are tolerably numerous, and inha¬
bit both seas and rivers. Umbrina of Cuvier is distin¬
guished from the other Scisenae by bearing a barbie on
the symphysis of the lower jaw. (Ibid. fig. 11.) The spe¬
cies represented ( U. coroides) is a native of Brazil. The
bearded Umbrina (U. vulgaris, Cuv.), a species frequent
on the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain, was captured in
the river Eye in 1827, as recorded in the minute-book of
the Linnaean Society. Pogonias, Lacepede, resembles
the preceding ; but it is furnished with several barbies in¬
stead of one. The species are remarkable for their size,
some of them weighing occasionally above a hundred pounds,
and for the singular sounds uttered by them, and which
have gained them the vulgar name of drums. Mr John
White, an American lieutenant, who (in 1824) published
a Voyage to the China Seas, relates, that being at the
mouth of the river Cambodia, himself and crew were great¬
ly astonished by certain extraordinary sounds, which were
heard from around and beneath the vessel. They resembled
a combination of the base of an organ, the sound of bells,
and the guttural cries of a large frog, with certain tones,
which the imagination might attribute to a gigantic harp.
It might almost have been said that the vessel trembled at
those uncertain sounds. For some time they increased,
and finally formed a loud and universal chorus, the entire
length of the vessel, and on either side. In proportion as
they ascended the river the mysterious sounds diminished,
and finally altogether ceased. The interpreter gave the
information that they were produced by a troop of fishes
of a flattened oval form, which possess the faculty of ad¬
hering firmly to various bodies by their mouths. A simi¬
lar phenomenon was noticed by the illustrious Humboldt
in the South Seas, although he was unable at the time to
divine the cause. It would, as Cuvier has remarked, be
an object of curious research to discover by what organ
these sounds are produced. We have already mentioned, Acantb
that the majority of the Sciaenidae, especially such as are the teryg
most remarkable for the utterance of the sounds in ques-
tion, have large swimming bladders, furnished with strong
muscles. In some species the organ is characterised by
prolongations, more or less complicated, which even pene¬
trate the intervals of the ribs. It must, however, be borne
in mind that these swimming bladders have no communi¬
cation with the intestinal canal, nor in general with any
part of the exterior. The example of the genus here figured
is P.fasciatus (Labrus Grunniens of Dr Mitchell), a North
American species. (Plate CCXCIX. fig. 13.)
Genus Eques, Bloch. Recognisable by a compressed
elongated body, raised at the shoulders, and finishing in a
point towards the tail; the first dorsal is elevated, the se¬
cond long and scaly.
All the known species are American. See Plate
CCXCIX. fig. 14.
B. A single dorsal fin.
a. Seven branchial rays.
The genera of this subdivision are H^emulon, Dia-
gramm a, and Pristipoma, foreign groups, of each of which
we have figured an example. See Plate CCC. figs. 1,2,3.
b. Less than seven branchial rays.
This minor group is again subdivisible in accordance
with the character of the latei’al line. Those in which
that part is continuous to the tail are the genera Lobo-
tes (Plate CCC. fig. 4), Cheilodactylus (ibid. fig. 7),
Scolopsides (ibid. fig. 6), and Latilus (ibid. fig. 9).
Those in which it is interrupted are Amphiprion (ibid,
fig. 5), Premnas (ibid. fig. 8), Pomocentrus (ibid. fig.
11), Dascyllus, Glyphisodon (ibid. fig. 10), and He-
eiases. All these last-named genera consist of small
species, which, with few exceptions, are natives of the
Indian seas, the shores of which they embellish by the
splendour of their colours, which are in general extremely
brilliant. They may be perceived swimming about inces¬
santly, and with great vivacity, among the rocks, and in
the watery pools left by the ebbing tide. Although for the
most part eatable, none of the species furnishes an im¬
portant article of consumption, on account of the smallness
of their size, and their not occurring in numerous shoals.
FAMILY IV.—SPABIDAE.
The genera of this family, like those of the Sciaenidae,
have the palate destitute of teeth, and in their general
forms, as well as in several particulars of their organiza¬
tion, they bear a strong alliance to that family ; but they
have no scales upon the fins. Their muzzle is not gib¬
bous, nor the bones of their head cavernous. There are
no dentations to the pre-opercle, nor spines to the opercle.
The pylorus is furnished with caecal appendages. None
of the species possesses more than six rays to the bran¬
chiae. They are further divisible according to the form
of their teeth.
Genus Sargus, Cuv. Cutting incisors in front of the
jaws, almost similar to those of the human race.
The species in general feed on shells and the smaller
Crustacea, which they easily crush with their molar teeth.
Certain kinds appear to devour fuci, at least Cuvier found
the stomachs of some which came from the Red Sea, and
of others from the Atlantic Ocean, filled with that marine
vegetation. Many vague notices of the Sargi are con¬
tained in ancient authors. iElian and Oppian inform us
that the male is polygamous, and fights with great fury
against his own sex for the possession of many females-
ICHTHYOLOGY. 177
ii|.t ). The same authors attribute to it a feeling still more ex-
erv traordinary,—a lively passion for goats, which it exhibits
' pan • by always swimming with great rapidity towards those
/ animals, and indulging in playful gambols before them.
So blind was this passion, that a fisherman (it was so al¬
leged) might catch as many as he pleased by disguising
himself with the skin and horns of a goat, and scattering
in the water flour steeped in goats’ broth. We have some¬
where seen a doggrel rhyme in allusion to this strange
and foundationless fancy (it may have been an attempted
translation of an ancient epigram), in which it was ex¬
pressed that the Sargus
Went courting she-goats on the grassy shore,
Horning those husbands who had horns before.
The best-known species inhabits the Mediterranean.
It is the S. Rondeletii of Cuv. (Plate CCC. fig. 12.) The
American shores produce several others, one of which
(S. avis) is called the sheep's-head by the Americans.
Dr Mitchell speaks in the most eulogistic terms of the
superexcellence of its flesh, and of the high esteem in
which it is held at the tables of New York. It yields in
his opinion to few fishes, and is worthy of being served at
the most sumptuous entertainments. The price varies
from a dollar to a dollar and a half for a middle-sized in¬
dividual, and above that size the price ranges even so
high as from four to seven pounds sterling. They some¬
times weigh from fourteen to fifteen pounds. The fish¬
ery of this species forms an object of importance along
the coasts of the state of New York. It approaches those
of Long Island in the hot season from the month of June
till the middle of September, after which it seems to seek
retirement in the deep abysses of the ocean. As they
swim in troops, they may be advantageously fished for
with the net, and many hundreds are sometimes taken at
a single cast. With the great nets used at Rayner town,
and the two islands, thousands are drawn ashore. They
are immediately packed in ice, and despatched during the
cool of the night to the markets of New York. It is diffi¬
cult to take the sheep's-head with a line, because it con¬
trives to snap the very hooks asunder with its cutting
teeth.
Genus Chrysophris, Cuv. Round molars on the
sides of the jaw, forming at least three rows on the upper
one; a few conical or blunted teeth in front.
The species of this genus are numerous, and extended
through many seas. Those of the Mediterranean are
only two in number, and are called Daurades by the
Irench, no doubt from the Latin Aurata, a term applied
to them by ancient authors. The Greeks named them
Chrysophris, which signifies golden eye-brow, in allusion
to the brilliant spot of gold which the common species
bears between its eyes. That the Aurata of the Latins
was identical with the Chrysophris of the Greeks, may be
inferred from a passage in Pliny, which is obviously bor¬
rowed from Aristotle, and where the former word is used
as the translation of the latter. According to Columella,
the Aurata was among the number of the fishes brought
up by the Romans in their vivaria ; and the inventor of
these vivaria, one Sergius Grata, is supposed to have de¬
rived his surname from the fish in question. flElian tells
us that the Chrysophris is the most timid of all fishes,
and that branches of poplars planted in the sand during
a reflux so terrified a party of these fishes which were
carried upwards by the flux, that in the succeeding re¬
flux they did not dare to pass the poplars, but allowed
themselves to be taken by the hand.
The only species we shall here notice is the C7irj/so-Acanthop-
phris aurata (Plate CCC. fig. 14), described under the terygii.
name of Gilt-headby Pennant.1 This fish seldom quits the
vicinity of the shore, and grows extremely fat in the salt
ponds. We owe to Duhamel whatever information we
possess regarding its habits. The fishermen informed that
author that it agitates the sand forcibly with its tail, so
as to discover the shell-fish which may lie beneath con¬
cealed. It is extremely fond of muscles, and its near
presence is sometimes ascertained by the noise which it
makes while breaking their shells with its teeth. It great¬
ly dreads cold, and many were observed to perish during
the severe winter of 1766. The Gilt-head is a British
species, but of extremely rare occurrence.
Genus Pagrus, Cuv. Differs from the preceding by
having only two rows of small rounded molar teeth in
each jaw; the front teeth are either like those of a wool
card, or small and crowded.
We have figured the best-known species, Pagrus vul¬
garis, C\xw. (Sp. pagrus, Linn.), the braize or becker of
English authors, which appears to be confined chiefly to
the Mediterranean. (See Plate CCC. fig. 13.) Its sy¬
nonyms seem confused and contradictory, and are great¬
ly mingled in the works both of British and foreign au¬
thors with those of certain Pagelli and other Sparidae.
Its history as a British species is obscure. Dr Fleming
no doubt records it in his British Animals, p. 211; but
as he indicates it by “ a dark spot at the base of the pec¬
torals,” it is probable that his actual species was Pagellus
centrodontus, Cuv. synonymous with Sparus orphus of Linn.
Mr Couch, however, observes that it appears on the Cor¬
nish coast in moderately deepwater throughout the sum¬
mer and autumn, and retires in winter and spring.2
Genus Pageleus, Cuv. Teeth nearly resembling
those of Pagrus, but the molars, equally in two rows, are
smaller; the conical teeth in front are slender and more
numerous; and the physiognomy is different in conse¬
quence of a more elongated muzzle.
Several species occur in the European seas. P. erythri-
nus, commonly called the Spanish Bream (Plate CCC.
fig. 15), is very abundant in the Mediterranean, and even
enters the Atlantic, advancing pretty far north. It is
very rare along the British shores. The fish figured by
Donovan (British Fishes, iv. pi. 89) as the Sparus aurata
of Linn. (Pennant’s Gilt-head) belongs to our present ge¬
nus. It is the Pagellus centrodontus just before referred
to, which Pennant also erroneously regarded as synony¬
mous with Sparus pagrus of Linn. It is by no means a
rare British species, although usually concealed by our
modern authors under some other name. It is the sea-
bream of Couch and Montagu.
Genus Dentex, Cuv. Conical teeth even on the sides
of the maxillae, usually in a single row, and of which some
of the anterior are lengthened into large hooks.
The Dentex vulgaris, a fish of a silvery hue, shaded
into blue upon the back, with reddish pectoral fins, and
sometimes attaining to the weight of twenty pounds, has
occurred upon the Sussex coast. The specimen figured by
Donovan, pi. 73, was obtained in Billingsgate market.
Genus Cantharis, Cuv. Teeth small and closely
set all round the jaws, the outer range being the strong¬
est ; body elevated and thick ; muzzle short; jaws not pro¬
tractile.
The species of this genus, of which four inhabit the
European seas, are very voracious, and easily taken by
hook and line. We may name as an example the fish
called the black bream by Montagu3 (Cantharus griseus,
2 .. 1 The GUt-head of Donovan and Turton is, however, another species, the Pagellus centrodontus, Cuv.
inn. Turns. voL xiv. p. 79* 3 Mein, of Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p. 461.
VOL. xn. ‘ z
178
Acanthop-
terygii.
Menidse.
Squammi-
pennes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Cuv.; Pagrus lineatus, Fleming; Spams brama, Linn.).
Other species occur about the Cape of Good Hope, and
in the Indian seas; but it does not appear that any have
yet been observed along the American shores, or around
the islands of the Atlantic.
The genus Boops,1 with which we shall conclude our
sketch of the Sparidae, has its outer row of teeth of a tren¬
chant or cutting form; the mouth small, and not at all
protractile. Two species occur in the European seas, more
particularly in the Mediterranean. They differ from most
of their congeners in living entirely on marine plants, such
as algae and fuci of various kinds. In accordance with
this vegetable diet, their intestinal canal is very long,
though they have few appendages around the pylorus.
They are celebrated for the beauty of their colours.
FAMILY V—MENIDA5.
The genera of this family differ from those of the pre¬
ceding in their upper jaw being capable of projection and
retraction, in consequence of the length of the intermaxil¬
lary pedicles, which withdraw between the orbits. Their
body is scaly like that of Spams, of which genus they
formed a part, until their re-arrangement by Baron Cuvier.
As we have nothing of general interest to state regard¬
ing the fishes of this comparatively limited group, we
shall merely refer, in relation to its general contents, to
our Systematic Table (note to page 165), and proceed to
FAMILY VI.—SQUAMMIPENNES.
So called because the softer, and frequently also the
spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins are covered
with scales, which as it were encrust them, and render
their discrimination from the rest of the body by no means
easy. This is the most obvious character of these fishes,
of which the form is in general much compressed. The
intestines are rather long, and the caeca numerous. This
family was comprised by Linnaeus in his genus Ch^todon,
so called from the long, slender, and hair-like character of
the teeth ; and the species in general arealike remarkable
for their singular forms and splendid colours.
The seas of the torrid zone have indeed no cause to
envy the productions of those famous lands, the shores of
which they have so long bathed with their translucent
waters. If the equatorial regions of Africa and Ameri¬
ca possess, among their feathered tribes, the brilliant soui-
mangas, the lustrous humming birds, and the gorgeous
chatterers, the intermediate ocean and the Indian seas
contain countless thousands of the finny race which sur¬
pass even these in splendour. The Chaetodons, in parti¬
cular, form a family on which nature has bestowed her
ornaments with a most lavish hand. The deep purple of
the iris, the paler richness of the rose, the azure blue of
the “ crystalline sky,” the darkest velvet black,—these
hues, and many more, are seen commingled with metallic
lustre over the pearly surface of this resplendent group.
The eye of man receives the greater pleasure from their
contemplation, in as far as being of moderate size, and
haunting habitually the rocky shores, at no great depth of
water, they are seen to sport in the sunbeams, as if desir¬
ous to exhibit their splendid liveries to the greatest ad¬
vantage in the blaze of day.
Tribe 1st. Teeth Hair-like.
Genus Ch^todon, Cuv. Body more or less elliptical,
the spinous and the softer rays continuing in a nearly Acan t
uniform curve; muzzle more or less advanced; the pre- tery <
opercle sometimes finely dentated. Squat ^
The species resemble each other not only in the more |)ent ’
essential characters just stated, but even in the distribu- 4
tion of their markings. The majority, for example, are
characterised by a black vertical band, in which the eye
is placed. In some we find several additional vertical
bands parallel to the one mentioned; in others they are
oblique or horizontal. Certain species are distinguish¬
ed by a filament which results from the prolongation of
one or more of the soft rays of the dorsal fin. The ge¬
nus is very extensive, containing upwards of sixty spe¬
cies even in its restricted constitution. We must here
confine ourselves to a slight notice of two or three of
these. Cheetodon reticulatus, Cuv. (Plate CCCI. fig. 1)
is a beautiful example obtained by MM. Lesson and
Garnot at Otaheite. Its sides are mailed or reticulated
by a longitudinal series of scales. It measures about six
inches in length, and four in height. Ch. lunula, Cuv.
(ibid. fig. 2), occurs at the Isle of France. It is nearly of
the same size as the preceding. A third species, of even
more singular markings, is Ch. Ephippium of the same
author (ibid. fig. 3). It was found at the Moluccas by
M. Reinwardt—at Bolabola one of the Society Islands,
by MM. Lesson and Garnot,—and appears, by a coloured
drawing in the Banksian Library, to have likewise oc¬
curred at Otaheite during Cook’s third voyage.
Genus Chelmon, Cuv. Separated from Chaetodon on
account of the extraordinary form of the muzzle, which is
long and slender, open only at the extremity, and form¬
ed by the inordinate horizontal prolongation of the inter¬
maxillary bone above, and of the inferior jaw. These
parts are united for two thirds of their length by a mem¬
brane, so that the mouth is nothing more than a small
terminal cleft. The teeth are rather fine and closely set
than hair-like. Chelmon restrains ( Chcet. rost. Linn.) is
the most anciently known. It is a small fish, measuring
from six to eight inches in length, and is remarkable for
the following peculiarity. It feeds on flies and other
winged insects, and when it perceives one of these either
hovering over the surface, or settled on a twig or blade
of grass, it ejects against it with considerable force a drop
of liquid from ist tubular snout, so as to drive it into the
water. In shooting at a sitting insect it generally ap¬
proaches cautiously within a few feet before it explodes
the water. Schlosser has described this curious device
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1764, after Hum¬
mel, and it has since been confirmed by Reinwardt. It
is even said to be an amusement of the Chinese in Java to
keep this fish in confinement in a large vessel of water,
with a view to observe its dexterity in the practice of
this admirable instinct. They fasten a fly or other insect
to the side of the vessel, when the Chelmon immediate¬
ly bombards it with such precision as very rarely to miss
the mark. In a state of nature it is said to inhabit both
the coasts and rivers of Java. We are as yet acquainted
with only one other species of this restricted genus. It
is the Ch. longirostris of Broussonet, of which the reader
will find an accurate representation on Plate CCCL fig.
5. It is not known de facto to possess the same singu¬
lar mode of capturing its prey as the preceding, but that
it does so may be almost inferred from its similarity of
structure.
Genus Henochius, Cuv. Differs from Chaetodon in
the spines of the back, particularly the third and fourth,
being greatly increased in length, and forming a filament
sometimes double the length of the body.
1 The generic name is changed to Box in the Hist. Nat. des Poissons, i. vi. p. 346.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
I pm p* H. macrolepidotus is a large fish, celebrated in the
\tr\ East for the excellence of its flavour. It is called Vlag-
:juai a-man by the Dutch colonists, in allusion to the long fila-
16111 ' ment upon the back. They also name it Tafel-visch, on
account of its frequent use as food. Ruysch asserts that
atAmboyna no good dinner is ever served without it, and
he compares its taste to that of the finest flounder. The
specimens hitherto sent to Europe do not seem to exceed
the length of ten inches; but the species must at times
greatly exceed that size, if, as Renard and Yalentyn as¬
sert, it weighs from twenty to twenty-five pounds. As
an example of this extraordinary genus we have figured
Henochius monoceros, a species recently transmitted from
the Isle of France by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, Plate
CCCI. fig- 4. The specimen represented does not mea¬
sure above seven inches, and its height is almost equal to
its length.
The genus Zanclus of Commerson is closely allied to
the preceding, but the scaling is so much more delicate
that the skin appears almost smooth to the naked eye.
The external aspect is, ifi possible, still more extraordi¬
nary. We have here engraved L. cornutus of Cuv.
(Plate CCCI. fig. 8), which, on account probabty of its
singular form and horned front, has become an object al¬
most of superstitious reverence among the fishermen of
the Moluccas. It is alleged, that when they happen to
capture one of this species, they immediately salute it
by certain genuflexions, and then cast it into the sea. It
is, however, an excellent table fish, which attains a weight
of fifteen pounds, and resembles the turbot in flavour. It
is rather widely diffused, occurring both in the Indian seas
and Pacific Ocean.
Genus Ephippus, Cuv. Distinguished by a deep
emargination between the spinous and softer portion of
the dorsal fin; the former part has no scales, and can be
folded into a groove on the back.
An American species (E. gig ns) is remarkable for the
great club-shaped enlargement of the first inter-spinal of
the anal and dorsal fins, and by a similar enlargement of
the crest of the cranium. A fish which may be referred
to a subdivision of this genus, occurs among the fossils of
Mount Bolca.1
Baron Cuvier has remarked,2 that among all the strange
and fantastic fishes preserved in the representations of
Ruysch, Renard, and Valentyn,3 and which have so long
excited the mistrust of naturalists, none seems more likely
to provoke that feeling than the species which these wri¬
ters designate by the Malay name of Skankarbauw, or buf¬
falo-fish ; and yet it now turns out that none is more
accordant with the truth of nature. Its sharp recurved
horns, the protuberance above the head, the compressed
and unequal spines, and the singular distribution of colour,
—all exist in a species recently received from the Indian
Archipelago. It has accordingly been named Taurich-
thys by Cuvier,—the Greek translation of the Malay
name. The species here figured is T. varius, which is
from four to six inches long, with a height almost equal to
its length. See Plate CCCI. fig. 7.
Genus Hoeacanthus, Lacep. A large spine at the
179
angle of the pre-opercle, the margins of which are usually Acanthop.
dentated. terygn.
The species are remarkable for the great beauty and quaninu-
symmetrical distribution of their colours, and for their ex-
cellence as articles of food. They are numerous both in
the Indian and American seas. One of the most celebrat¬
ed for the splendour and singularity of its aspect, is that
named the Emperor of Japan by the Dutch, Chcetodon
Imperator of Bloch, figured in many wrorks. Its body is
deep blue, traversed all over by about two and thirty nar¬
row bands of orange yellow.4 The pectoral fins are black,
and the entire tail bright yellow. It is a large fish of its
kind, sometimes attaining the length of fifteen inches, and,
as an article of food, is one of the most esteemed of all the
Indian species, resembling our own much-prized salmon in
flavour. Another and more recently discovered species is
II. semicirculatus, Cuv. It occurs both at Timor and New
Ireland. Its colours are white and blue, its length from four
to five inches. The inhabitants of Waigiou call it Mami.
Genus Platax, Cuv. Anterior to the brush-like
teeth, a row of cutting teeth, each of which is divided into
three points; body much compressed, and apparently pro¬
longed into thick, greatly elevated, scaly, vertical fins,
in the anterior edge of which a small number of spines lie
concealed.
Almost all the known species occur either in the Indian
or Pacific Oceans. One or two were found by Ruppell in
the Red Sea. They are esteemed as food. Words can
convey but a feeble idea of the anomalous form of these
fishes, some of which, if we include the vertical fins, are
more than twice as high as they are long. Wre here figure
the Chcetodon teira of Bloch, which is a true Platax, Plate
CCCI. fig. 6. It was brought by M. Dussumier from the
coast of Malabar. It is said to attain to the length of two
feet, a g^eat size for a fish of this genus, many of which
measure only a few inches. P. punctulatus, indeed, may
be regarded as one of the smallest of known fishes, as it
is only an inch long. It occurs at Timor.
Genus Psettus, Commerson. Form resembling the
preceding; but all the teeth are small and crowded, and
the ventral fins are reduced to a single small spine, without
soft rays.
The species are natives of the Indian seas. Their teeth
are rather short and close than in the usual bristle-like
form of our present tribe of Squammipennes, yet they can¬
not be arranged under tribe third, in as far as they want
the teeth upon the palate. The Chcetodon rhombeus of
Bloch and Schneider belongs to this genus. It was an¬
ciently represented by Seba (t. iii. pi. 26, fig. 21), and
now bears the name of Psettus Sebce. The species is ex¬
tremely rare, and its native country was unknown, till in
recent times a specimen was transmitted from the Senegal
coast by M. Perottet. It measures six inches in length,
and is considerably higher than long. See Plate CCCII.
fig. 1.
Tribe 2d. With cutting teeth.
Genus Pimelepterus, Lacep. Distinguished from
all other fishes by a single range of teeth borne upon a ho-
Ittiol. Veronese, plate 5, fig. 2. 2 Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. vii. p. 146.
3 l he works alluded to above are tne following:—1. The Theatrum Anitnalium of Henry Ruysch (son of the celebrated anato-
mist), two vols. in folio, Amsterd. 1716, which is in fact a third edition of Johnston’s prior work of the same name, with the addition
°t the plates of fishes, to be afterwards noticed. 2. A Dutch work entitled East India, Ancient and Modern, in five vols. folio, Am¬
sterd, 1724-26. The author was Francis Valentyn, a Protestant clergyman of Amboyna. 3. A Collection of Figures of Fish, and
other Marine Creatures, published by Francis Renard, in one vol. folio, Amsterd. 1754. This recueil was formed about thirty years
prior to its publication, and was engraved from a collection of native Indian drawings, which, under a necessarily extraordinary
aspect, are now known to exhibit with accuracy many truly interesting species. The same series of drawings, or a corresponding
C0Py, seems to have supplied the originals of both the other works just named.
Miaw describes this magnificent fish as of a “ golden-yellow, longitudinally but somewhat obliquely striped with very nume¬
rous bright blue parallel rays.” This seems in some measure the reverse of the above, but is accounted for by the equal propor.
turn ot the two colours, either of which may be regarded as the groundwork.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop-rizontal base or heel, on the anterior edge of which is a
terygn. vertical cutting portion. The body is oblong, the head
pennes.1 ob£use’, and the bns rendered thick by means of the scales
^ -w with which they are covered.
P. Boscii is a small Atlantic species, which measures
about five inches in length. Bose, by whom it was brought
from the coast of Carolina, has seen it following vessels in
the high seas, and assembling in troops around the stern, in
order to seize upon whatever is thrown overboard. It is
shy at seizing a hook, and is said to know how to carry oft'
the bait without being captured. It is sought after as
food by the French, though held in slight esteem by the
natives of Britain.
The only other genus of this tribe is that named Dipte-
rodon by Lacepede.
Tribe 3d. Teeth, either close-set or en carde on the jaws and
palate.
Genus Brama, Bloch and Schneider. Pertains to our
present family, so far as concerns the scales which cover
the vertical fins, which have only a small number of spiny
rays concealed in their anterior margins ; but the teeth
are en carde on the jaws and palate, the profile elevated,
the muzzle very short, the front descending vertically,
the mouth almost vertical when closed. The scales reach
as far as the maxillaries ; there are seven rays to the gills ;
a low dorsal and anal fin, each commencing by a salient
point; a short stomach, a small intestine, and only five
caeca.
Of this genus there was known till recently only a sin¬
gle species, that of the Mediterranean, the Sparus Ixaii of
Bloch.
It is only of late that its characters and history have
been rendered in any way clear or satisfactory—a fact the
more remarkable when we consider its large size, its singu¬
lar form, its extreme abundance, and the exquisite flavour
of its flesh. In spite of all these circumstances, most mo¬
dern authors seem to have written regarding it as if they
were blindfolded. Bloch regarded it as a northern fish,
simply because so far back as 1681 a specimen was thrown
ashore on our Yorkshire coast; and Lacepede describes it
i as an oceanic species. The individual above alluded to
was described by Ray in his Synopsis (p. 115), under the
title of Brama marina cauda forcipata. Pennant figures
and describes it in his British Zoology (2d edition) by the
name of toothed Gilt-head, and it seems indicated by Mr
Couch (iq Linn. Trans, xiv. 78) as a Chaetodon seen off
the coast of Cornwall. There is no doubt that its central
dominion is in the Mediterranean, as it is extremely com¬
mon along many coasts of that inland sea.1 It is called
Rondanin in the markets of Genoa. At the same time
there is no doubt that it wanders occasionally as far north
even as Denmark, and that many accidental specimens have
been captured along both the British and Irish shores.
Tw o other species have lately been discovered in the equa¬
torial seas.
Genus Toxotes, Cuv. Body short and compressed;
dorsal situate on the hinder part of the back, strongly
spined, its softer portion, as well as the corresponding part
of the anal, scaly; muzzle depressed, short; lower jaw
more advanced than the upper; small close-set teeth in
either jaw, on the vomer, the palatines, the pterygoids,
and tongue ; six branchial rays; very fine dentations on
the inferior margin of the sub-orbital bone and pre-
opercle. Stomach short and broad ; twelve cmcal appen¬
dages upon the pylorus ; swimming bladder large and thin.
The Toxotes jaeulator (Plate CCCII. fig. 2) is a small 4C
Javanese species, measuring six or seven inches in length te
remarkable for possessing the same faculty as that men- Sd
tioned in our notice of Chelmon rostratus. When it per- r
ceives a fly or other insect upon an aquatic plant, it dex- ^
terously drives it into the wmter by a shower of drons.
Cuvier received a specimen from Batavia, the stomach of
which was entirely filled with ants. This species has been
erroneously multiplied in systematic works. It is twice
described by Shaw2 under two different names (Scam
Schlosseri and Labrus jaculator), neither of which is the
right one ; and there is no doubt of its being identical
with Hamilton Buchanan’s Coins chatereus, a supposed
new species from the Ganges.3 It seems pretty widely
distributed throughout the Indian Archipelago, and is
known to the Malays by the name of Ikan-sumpit.
FAMILY VII.—SCOMBERIDA:.
One of the most useful to the human race of the entire
class of fishes, whether we consider their agreeable fla¬
vour, their considerable size, or their inexhaustible pro¬
ductive powers. W’e may mention the mackerel, the
tunny, and bonito, as familiar examples.
When considered isolately, these celebrated fishes are
by no means difficult to characterise. The simple sepa¬
ration of the posterior of the second dorsal, and of those
of the anal fin, would of itself suffice; but the species
above named are the chiefs of a numerous series of gene¬
ra and sub-genera, in which the more typical form gra¬
dually alters, and passes insensibly into others which do
not exhibit either the character just mentioned, or almost
any other by which the principal types are distinguished.
Scales usually very small, causing the greater part of the
skin to appear as if entirely smooth ; opercular pieces
without spines or dentations, and in general numerous
caeca;—these are almost the only prevailing characters
which can be assigned to the family, which at the same
time exhibits a likeness in the aspect of its constituent
groups which never leaves it. In short, it forms what bo¬
tanists call a family by series or transition. The majori¬
ty have the sides of the caudal extremity carinated, or
armed with scales or shields, which are themselves cari¬
nated ; or the terminal rays of the second dorsal or of
the anal are free; or the spiny rays of that dorsal want
their uniting membrane. Most frequently the caudal fin
is of great size, and corresponding vigour. In the majo¬
rity, also, the first spiny rays of the anal fin are separated
from the others, and form, as it were, a small distinct fin
by themselves. But none of these characters is common
to the whole.
We may here group, as forming the First Great Tribe,
those genera of which the anterior dorsal jin is entire, but
the terminal rays of the posterior one are detached or iso¬
lated, forming what may be called Jinlets or spurious fns
(jpinnee spurioe).
Genus Scomber, Cuv. The mackerels, properly so
called, have a fusiform body covered by scales, uniformly
small and smooth ; sides of the tail not carinated, but
merely raised into two small cutaneous crests; a vacant
space between the first and second dorsal fin.
The common mackerel (Sc. scombrus) is one of the
most beautiful of fishes, and too well known to require a
1 -Mr ^ however, has brought together various instances of its occurrence along the British shores ; and as it is mentioned
by Nilsson in his Prodromus as occurring on the coast of Norway, and by Reinhardt as a Danish species, it rather appears that Baron
Cuvier regarded Ray's Bream too exclusively as a Mediterranean specie’s.
2 General Zoology, vol. iv. part ii. pp. 398, 485. 3 Fishes of the Ganges, part 201, plate 14, fig. 34.
.can >p-
ter >•
:Scoi e-
ri(
ICHTHYOLOGY.
minute description. The back is blue, crossed by many
dark transverse bands, nearly straight in the males, but
finely waved in the females. The sides and abdomen are
of a silvery hue, glossed with brilliant tints of gold. The
name is said to refer to the spotted appearance of the up-
181
Scombe-
ridae.
   t i 11   —   
per parts, and to be derived from the Latin macularius.
We shall here avail ourselves of Mr Yarrell’s history of
this important species
“ The mackerel was supposed by Anderson, Duhamel,
and others, to be a fish of passage, performing, like some
birds, certain periodical migrations, and making long voy¬
ages from north to south at one season of the year, and the
reverse at another. It does not appear to have been suffi¬
ciently considered, that, inhabiting a medium which varied
but little either in its temperature or productions, locally,
fishes are removed beyond the influence of the two prin¬
cipal causes which make a temporary change of situation
necessary. Independently of the difficulty of tracing the
course pursued through so vast an expanse of water, the
order of the appearance of the fish at different places on
the shores of the temperate and southern parts of Europe
is the reverse of that which, according to their theory,
ought to have happened. It is known that this fish is now
taken, even on some parts of our own coast, in every month
of the year. It is probable that the mackerel inhabits al¬
most the whole of the European seas; and the law of na¬
ture which obliges them and many others to visit the
shallower water of the shores at a particular season, appears
to be one of those wise and bountiful provisions of the
Creator, by which not only is the species perpetuated with
the greatest certainty, but a large portion of the parent
animals are thus brought within the reach of man, who,
but for the action of this law, would be deprived of many
of those species most valuable to him as food. For the
mackerel dispersed over the immense surface of the deep,
no effective fishery could be carried on ; but, approaching
the shore as they do from all directions, and roving along
the coast collected in immense shoals, millions are caught,
which yet form but a very small portion compared with the
myriads that escape.
“ Ihis subject receives farther illustration from a fresh¬
water fish, as stated in the Magazine of Natural History,
yol. vii. p. 637 : ‘ When the char spawn, they are seen
in the shallow parts of the rocky lakes (in which only they
are found), and some of the streams that run into them:
they are then taken in abundance, but so soon as the
spawning is over, they retire into the deepest parts of the
lake, and are but rarely caught.’
“ It May be observed farther, that as there is scarcely a
month throughout the year in wrhich the fishes of some one
or more species are not brought within the reach of man
by the operation of the imperative law of nature referred
to, a constant succession of wnolesome food is thus spread
before him, which, in the first instance, costs him little
beyond the exercise of his ingenuity and labour to ob¬
tain.
On the coast of Ireland, the mackerel is taken from
the county of Kerry in the west, along the southern shore,
eastward to Cork and Waterford; from thence northward
n 4ntrim’ ancI north-west to Londonderry and Donegal.
Dr JVLCulloch says it visits some of the lochs of the West¬
ern Islands, but is not considered very abundant. On the
ormsh coast this fish in some seasons occurs as early as
the month of March, and appears to be pursuing a course
rom west to east. I hey are plentiful on the Devonshire
coast, and swarm in West Bay about June. On the
ampshire and Sussex coast, particularly the latter, they
arrive as early as March; and sometimes, as will be shown,
even in February: and the earlier ki the year the fisher-
Men go to look for them, the farther from the shore do
■ej seek for and find them. Duhamel says the mackerel
are caught earlier at Dunkirk than at Dieppe or Havre: Acanthop-
upon our own eastern coast, however, the fishing is later. Jerygii.
The fishermen of Lowestoffe and Yarmouth gain their
great harvest from the mackerel in May and June. Mr
Neill says they occur in the Forth at the end of summer;
and Mr Low, in his Fauna Orcadensis, states that they do
not make their appearance there till the last week in July
or the first week in August.
“ The mackerel spawns in June; and, according to
Bloch, five hundred and forty thousand ova have been
counted in one female. I have observed, by the mackerel
sent to the London market from the shallow shores of Worth¬
ing and its vicinity, that these fish mature and deposit their
roe earlier on that flat sandy shore than those caught in
the deep water off Brighton. The young mackerel, which
are called shiners, are from four to six inches long by the
end of August. They are half grown by November ; when
they retire, says Mr Couch, ‘ to deep water, and are seen
no more that winter; but the adult fishes never wholly
quit the Cornish coast; and it is common to see some ta¬
ken with lines in every month of the year.’ Their princi¬
pal food is probably the fry of other fish; and at Hastings
the mackerel follow towards the shore a small species of
Clupea, which is there called, in consequence, the mackerel
mint. I have been unable hitherto to obtain any specimens
ot this small fish; but, from various descriptions, I think
it is probably the young of the sprat. It is described as
being about one inch long in July.
“ The mackerel as feeders are voracious, and their growth
is rapid. T.he ordinary length varies from fourteen to six¬
teen inches, and their weight is about twro pounds each;
but they are said to attain the length of twenty inches,
with a proportionate increase in weight. The largest fish
are not, however, considered the best for the table.
“ As an article ot food they are in great request; and
those taken in the months of May and June are generally
considered to be superior in flavour to those taken either
earlier in spring, or in autumn. To be eaten in perfection,
this fish should be very fresh. As it soon becomes unfit for
food, some facilities in the way of sale have been afforded
to tlm dealers in a commodity so perishable. Mackerel
were first allowed to be cried through the streets of Lon¬
don on a Sunday in 1698, and the practice prevails to the
present time.
“ At our various fishing towns on the coast, the macke¬
rel season is one of great bustle and activity. The fre¬
quent departures and arrivals of boats at this time form a
lively contrast to the more ordinary routine of other pe¬
riods ; the high price obtained for the early cargoes, and
the large return gained generally from the enormous num¬
bers of this fish sometimes captured in a single night, be¬
ing the inducement to great exertions. A few particulars
from various sources may not be uninteresting.
“ In May 1807, the first Brighton boat-load of mackerel
sold at Billingsgate for forty guineas per hundred—seven
shillings each, reckoning six score to a hundred; the high¬
est price ever known at that market. The next boat-load
produced but thirteen guineas per hundred. Mackerel
were so plentiful at Dover in 1808 that they were sold
sixty for a shilling. At Brighton, in June of the same
year, the shoal ot mackerel was so great, that one of the
boats had the meshes of her nets so completely occupied
by them, that it was impossible to drag them in; the fish
and nets, therefore, in the end, sunk together, the fisher¬
men thereby sustaining a loss of nearly sixty pounds, ex¬
clusive of what the cargo, could it have been got into the
boat, would have produced. The success of the fishery in
1821 was beyond all precedent. The value of the catch
of sixteen boats from Lowestoffe, on the 30th of June,
amounted to L.5252; and it is supposed that there was no
less an amount than L. 14,000 altogether realised by the
ICHTHYOLOGY.
132
Acanthop- owners and men concerned in the fishery of the Suffolk
tervgii. coast.1 In March 1833, on a Sunday, four Hastings’ boats
iscombe- brought on shore ten thousand eight hundred mackerel;
v ^3e' and the next day two boats brought seven thousand fish.
Early in the month of February 1834, one boat’s crew from
Hastings cleared L.100 by the fish caught in one night;
and a large quantity of very fine mackerel appeared in the
London market in the second week of the same month.
They were cried through the streets of London three for a
shilling on the 14th and 22d of March 1834, and had then
been plentiful for a month. The boats engaged in fishing
are usually attended by other fast-sailing vessels, which are
sent away with the fish taken. From some situations
these vessels sail away direct for the London market; at
others they make for the nearest point from which they
can obtain land-carriage for their fish. From blastings
and other fishing towns on the Sussex coast the fish are
brought to London by vans, which travel up during the
night.
“ The most common mode of fishing for mackerel, and
the way in which the greatest numbers are taken, is by
drift-nets. The drift-net is twenty feet deep, by one hun¬
dred and twenty feet long; well corked at the top, but
without lead at the bottom. They are made of small fine
twine, which is tanned of a reddish-brown colour, to pre¬
serve it from the action of the sea-water ; and it is thereby
rendered much more durable. The size of the mesh is
about two and a half inches, or rather larger. Twelve,
fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of these nets are attached
lengthways, by tying along a thick rope, called the drift-
rope, and at the ends of each net, to each other. When
arranged for depositing in the sea, a large buoy attached
to the end of the drift.rope is thrown overboard, the vessel
is put before the wind, and, as she sails along, the rope,
with the nets thus attached, is passed over the stern into
the water till the whole of the nets are run out. The net
thus deposited hangs suspended in the water perpendicu¬
larly twenty feet deep from the drift-rope, and extending
from three quarters of a mile to a mile, or even a mile and
a half, depending on the number of nets belonging to the
party or company engaged in fishing together. When
the whole of the nets are thus handed out, the drift-rope is
shifted from the stern to the bow of the vessel, and she
rides by it as if at anchor. The benefit gained by the
boat’s hanging at the end of the drift-rope is, that the net
is kept strained in a straight line, which, without this pull
upon it, would not be the case. The nets are shot in the
evening, and sometimes hauled once during the night, at
others allowed to remain in the water all night. The fish
roving in the dark through the wrater, hang in the meshes
of the net, which are large enough to admit them beyond
the gill-covers and pectoral fins, but not large enough to
allow the thickest part of the body to pass through. In
the morning early, preparations are made for hauling the
nets. A capstan on the deck is manned, about which two
turns of the drift-rope are taken. One man stands forw ard
to untie the upper edge of each net from the drift-rope,
which is called casting off the lashings ; others hand in the
net with the fish caught, to which one side of the vessel is
devoted ; the other side is occupied by the drift-rope,
which is wound in by the men at the capstan. The wdiole
of the net in, and the fish secured, the vessel runs back
into harbour with her fish; or, depositing them on board
some other boat in company, that carries for the party to Acanth
the nearest market, the fishing vessel remains at sea for tem
the next night’s operation.”2 Scorat
Another mode of fishing is with a hook and line, angled ^
w ith a coarse rod, from a boat under rapid sail. A slice
from the mackerel’s own body affords an excellent bait,
and even a piece of scarlet cloth or leather is often used
with great success. The line is weighed down by a heavy
plummet; and when the fish are numerous, two men will
thus capture from 500 to 1000 in a single day. It is a
singular fact, that the common mackerel has no swimming
bladder, although that organ is found in several closely al¬
lied species. What necessity of nature, Cuvier asks, can
require it in the one, and not in the other ? What can have
produced it ? These are great problems, both in the study
of final causes, and in the general philosophy of nature.
Genus Thynnus, Cuv. A kind of corselet round the
thorax, formed by scales larger and coarser than those of
the rest of the body; sides of the tail with a cartilaginous
keel between the two crests above mentioned. The ante¬
rior dorsal is prolonged almost to the posterior one.
The tunny ( Th. vulgaris, Cuv.; Scomber thynnus, Linn.),
(Plate CCCII. fig. 3), is one of the largest fishes of the
ocean.3 When it weighs only a hundred pounds, the Sar¬
dinians give it the name of scampirro, a diminutive deriv¬
ed from Scomber. When above that weight, and onwards
to three hundred pounds, it is called mezzo-tonno, or half
tunny. The larger individuals frequently weigh a thou¬
sand pounds ; and Cetti asserts that old males are taken
occasionally weighing eighteen hundred pounds.4 The
fishery of the tunny dates from the most remote anti-
quity ; and the city of Byzantium was more especially
enriched by it. The shoals which entered the Bosphorus
were said to meet near Chalcedon with a white rock,
which so terrified them that they turned into the Gulf
of Byzantium, now the port of Constantinople. It was,
according to Cuvier, in consequence of this abundance
of tunnies, that the gulf in question received the name
of the Golden Horn ; and the oracle of Apollo designat¬
ed Chalcedon as the City of the Blind, because its foun¬
ders did not perceive the inferiority of its site in relation
to these valued fish. Gibbon, however, tells us, that
“ the curve which it describes might be compared to the
horn of a stag, or, as it should seem, with more propriety,
to that of an ox. The epithet golden was expressive of
the riches which every wind wafted from the most dis¬
tant countries into the secure and capacious port of Con¬
stantinople.” The same prodigious quantities of the
tunny are still seen there as in ancient times. According
to Syllius, twenty vessels might be filled by a single cast
of the net; and they may frequently be taken by the
hand without the aid of nets. When ascending towards
the port, they may be killed with stones; and even wo¬
men take them in quantities, merely by suspending a large
basket by a cord from the windows.5 The tunny fishery
was of still more ancient practice in the West. The Phoeni¬
cians established it at a very early period on the coasts ot
Spain, both within and beyond the columns of Hercules.
It is thus that we find the tunny on the Phoenician medals
of Cadiz and Carteia. Its salted preparation was known
to the Romans as an esteemed article, under the name
of Saltamentum Sardicum.
The tunny fishery does not seem to be now carried on
1 “ In an interesting and useful sketch of the natural history of Yarmouth and its neighbourhood, by C. and J. Paget, it is stated
at p. 16, that in 1823, one hundred and forty-two lasts of mackerel were taken there. A last is ten thousand.”
2 British Fishes, p. 121.
3 We may here note, in regard to the engraved illustrations of the present treatise, that we found it impossible to maintain a pro¬
portional size in our figures. Thus the tunny, a gigantic species, appears, upon the plate above referred to, as smaller than its neigh¬
bour Toxotes jaculator, which is scarcely more than half a foot long.
* Histoire Natvrdk de Sardaigne, t. iii. 134, 135. * De Constantinop. Topographia, in preef.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
rantiiP- at Constantinople on a great or systematic scale, but is
tery • chiefly concentrated in the interior of the Mediterranean,
’icon, - The species sometimes wanders along the British shores ;
"(i and a fine specimen, measuring nine feet in length, was
killed in the beautiful Gairloch, opposite Greenock, in
July 1831. It is preserved in the Andersonian Museum,
Glasgow.
The fish known to navigators under the name of Bonito
belongs to our present genus. It is the Th. pelamys of
Cuv. and sometimes occurs along the British shores. It
resembles the tunny in form, but is a great deal smaller,
seldom exceeding the length of thirty inches. It is cele¬
brated in the tropical seas for its eager pursuit of the fly¬
ing fish. The bonito of the Mediterranean, however, he
it remembered, belongs to the following genus.
Genus Auxis, Cuv. Corselet and pectoral fins as in
Thynnus; but the dorsal fins distant, as in Scomber.
We here engrave (Plate CCCII. fig. 5) a species com¬
mon in the Mediterranean, where it is called bonito,
Auxis vulgaris, Cuv. It is of a fine blue colour above,
with oblique blackish lines. The flesh is red and coarse.
We have eaten it during a voyage to Genoa, in the course
of which the vessel was followed by a flock for an entire
day. We struck them with a small harpoon from the
bowsprit. The species seldom exceeds six pounds.
In regard to the genus Pelamys of Cuv.1 we shall here
merely state, that it is distinguished from the tunnies by
its strong, separate, and pointed teeth. The vague name
of bonito is likewise applied to one of the species, the
Scomber sarda of Bloch, common in the Mediterranean.
The genus Cybium has the body elongated, without corse¬
let, the teeth large, compressed, cutting, in the form of
lancets. On the palatines there are only the close-set
kind of teeth. The species inhabit the warmer parts both
of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and some of them at¬
tain a great size. The genus Thyrsites differs from the
preceding in having the anterior teeth longer than the
others, as well as the palatines being furnished with point¬
ed teeth.
The genus Gempylus is allied in many respects to that
last named, but it wants the teeth upon the palate, and
theventrals are almost imperceptible. See Plate CCCII.
fig. 6, where we have represented G. prometheus, Cuv., a
species discovered at St Helena, by Messrs Quoy and
Gaimard.
We shall here briefly notice two genera which cannot
be better placed than in succession to the preceding
Scomberidae. We allude to Lepidopus and Trichiurus,2
which resemble the two last-named groups in almost
every thing, except that they entirely want the finlets, or
false fins, and even the soft rays of the dorsal. There is
merely a vestige of the ventral fins. It is a singular thing,
as Cuvier has observed, that a fish so generally met with
as the great Lepidopus argyreus of the European seas
(there is no other species), so handsome, and so large,
should have remained unknown to naturalists so recently
as the end of the eighteenth century, and that it should
have been afterwards successively described by various
writers, under a new name, and by each in ignorance of
the labours of his predecessor. If we figure to ourselves
a large and broad riband of silver, swimming with a wavy
motion through the water, and casting from it in its pro¬
gress the most beautiful reflections of light, we may form
some notion of the general aspect of this creature in its
lv mg state. Its length, as described by Montagu3 (under
183
the name of Zipotheca tetradens), was five feet six inches, Acanthop-
with a depth at the gills of four inches and a half; it gra- terygii.
dually decreased from the vent to the commencement of Scpmbe-
the anal fin, where it measured only two inches in depth ;
at the end of that fin the form was nearly round, and the
diameter only half an inch. The weight, without the in¬
testines, was about six pounds. Montagu’s specimen was
taken in Salcomb Harbour, on the coast of South Devon,
on the 4th June 1808. It was swimming with astonish¬
ing velocity, with its head above water, going, as the fisher¬
men said, “ as swift as a bird,’’ and was killed by the blow
of an oar. It occurs occasionally on most of the Euro¬
pean coasts; is more frequent in some parts of the Medi¬
terranean ; and has been captured as far south as the Cape
of Good Hope. See our representation on Plate CCCII.
fig. 4.
The other genus to which we have alluded, that of
Trichiurus, Linn., resembles the preceding in its head
and teeth, but it has not even a vestige of a ventral fin ;
the anal is replaced by a series of very small spines, which
scarcely project above the skin, and the tail terminates
in a filament or lengthened point, without any caudal fin.
We here figure (Plate CCCII. fig. 8) an Indian species,
named Trichiurus savala by Cuvier. We believe it is
synonymous with T. armatus of Mr Gray’s Illustrations
of Indian Zoology. Some additional species are figured
in Mr Griffith’s valuable edition of the Animal King¬
dom, and that called the silvery hair-tail, or blade fish
( T. lepturus, Linn.), was some years ago cast ashore on the
Moray Firth.4
Another group of Scomberidae, or rather a branch of
the first great tribe, contains the sword-fish, and a few
other species, which modern Ichthyologists, anterior to the
time of Cuvier, placed too much apart from each other,
solely because some were possessed of ventral fins, while
in others those parts were wanting, “ difference,” observes
our author, “ qui ne sert qua prouver de plus en plus le
peu d’importance de ces nageoires pour un methode na-
turelle.”5 Their relationship to the tunnies and macke¬
rels has been still less appreciated, although very obvi¬
ous in the form of the tail, the structure of the intestines,
the quality of the flesh, and even in the parasitical ani¬
mals by which they are infested ; but as they differ in
wanting the false fins, all actual resemblances have been
set aside, at least in regard to such as are destitute of
ventral fins.
Genus Xiphias, Linn. Pertains to the family Scom¬
beridae, and approaches the tunnies especially in the ex¬
treme smallness of the scales, the carination of the sides
of the tail, the strength of the caudal fin, and the whole
of the interior organization. The distinctive character
consists in the lengthened beak or sword-like prolonga¬
tion of the muzzle or upper jaw, which forms a powerful
weapon of offence, and enables them to attack and over¬
come the largest marine animals. This beak is composed
chiefly of the vomer and intermaxillaries, strengthened
towards the base by the ethmoid, the frontals, and maxil-
laries. The branchia: are not divided like the toothing
of a comb, but formed each of two large parallel plates,
of which the surface is reticulated. The rapidity of their
course is excessive, the quality of their flesh excellent.
Such is a brief indication of the characters of the genus
Xiphias of Linnaeus, which has been divided as follows, in
more recent times.
HA Genus Xiphias proper, Cuv. No ventral fin.
t VHi' P‘ 149' The genUS Pelamys corresPond9 to that named Sarda in the second edition of the
- Both genera were formerly placed by Cuvier in the ensuing family TiENioin^. (See Regne Animal, t. ii. p. 217.)
Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat. Hist. Society, vol. i. p. 82.
Linn. Trans, vol. xi. p. 200.
* Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t- viii. p. 254.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
184
Acanthop- The only- known species seems to have received the
terygii. game name from all nations. Gladius, Epee, Dard, Pesce-
sPad(l' Schwerd-fish, Sword-fish, and the Greek generic
name Xiphias, all indicate the formidable weapon with
’ which the front is armed. So remarkable a creature in
size and structure could indeed have scarcely remained
unknown at any period. All ancient wrriters within whose
province it could possibly fall, speak of it in such a man¬
ner as clearly to prove an intimate knowledge of its nature.
They describe its offensive weapon, the blow's which it in¬
flicts, the dreadful combats which it sustains, the attacks
which are made upon it, and the stratagems by which, in
spite of its strength, it is lured to its destruction. Although,
in relation to its European distribution, the Mediterranean
may be said to be its chief dominion, yet the older indivi¬
duals especially often enter the ocean, and astonish the
natives of colder climes by spreading along the northern
shores. It has been frequently captured on the British
coasts. It even enters the Baltic, and has been seen near
Lubeck, of an enormous size.1 Pennant is doubtful of its
occurrence as a North American species, although it is
named as such by Catesby. It is not noticed by Dr Mit¬
chell, in his description of the fishes of New York, and for
this reason Baron Cuvier does not admit that it crosses the
Atlantic. It is, however, fully described by Dr Smith, in
his Fishes of Massachusetts; and the same writer as¬
sures us, on the authority of an old pilot, that the sword¬
fish is by no means uncommon off that portion of the Ame¬
rican shore. It cannot, however, be traced far south in
any part of the western w orld; whilst, like many of the
Mediterranean species, it advances along the African coast
as far as the Cape of Good Hope.
The fish now alluded to is the Xiphias gladius, Linn.
(Plate CCCII. fig. 7.) Its horizontal snout is flat and
cutting, like the blade of a sword. The sides of its tail
are strongly carinated. It has but one dorsal fin, which
i*ises both before and behind, but of which the middle por¬
tion in the adults becomes in some manner so worn away,
that an appearance is at last presented of twro dorsal fins.
This will be perfectly understood by comparing the figure
last referred to, with fig. 10 of the same plate, where we
have represented the young of the present species.2
Sword-fish, though by no means uncommon, are sel¬
dom captured, owing to their extreme vigilance. Captain
Beechey informs us, that while in the Pacific Ocean, near
Easter Island, “ as the line was hauling in, a large sword¬
fish bit at the tin case which contained our thermometer,
but fortunately failed in carrying it off.” Their mode of
capture in the Mediterranean may be likened to whale
fishing in miniature, and is said to be a very amusing and
exciting sport. A watchman placed upon a mast, or
standing on the summit of a neighbouring rock, gives
warning by signal when he sees a fish approach. The
fishermen then row towards it; and, being so skilful as
frequently to strike the fish from a great distance, they
throw a harpoon into it attached to a long line. An ardu¬
ous struggle then commences, during which the aggres¬
sors are sometimes pulled about by the fish for many
hours before they can get it into the boat.
We shall conclude by observing,’ that the sword-fish isAcant
not only one of the largest species of the European seas, ter?
attaining sometimes to a length of fifteen feet, but that it ^
is also much esteemed as an article of diet. When young, ^
especially, the flesh is white, firm, and of excellent fla- ^
vour.
2d. Genus Tetrapterus, Rafinesque.3 Point of the
muzzle shaped like a stiletto ; ventrals consisting each of
one unjointed slender bone ; two small projecting crests,
like those of the mackerel, at each side of the base of the
caudal fin.
The sole European species is T. belone of the Italian
author. It is a large Mediterranean species, of about six
feet in length, and weighing from 150 to 200 pounds.
2>d. Genus Makaira, Lacep. Possesses the points of
the two small caudal crests of the preceding genus, but it
wants the ventral fins.
We shall merely mention as an example the X. Makai¬
ra, or short-snouted sw'ord-fish of Shaw.4
bth. Genus Histiophorus, Lacep. Characterised by
the beak and caudal crests of Tetrapterus, but the dorsal
fin is so greatly elevated as to serve as a sail when swim¬
ming on the surface, and the ventrals are long, slender,
and composed of two rays.
This genus contains that large and showy species (H.
indicus, Plate CCCII. fig. 9) known to the Malays by the
name of fan-fish, and called by the corresponding title of
sail-fish by the Dutch. It sometimes attains to so great a
size as to have been compared to a small whale. When
swimming near the surface, its dorsal fin may be seen pro¬
jecting, from the distance of a league at sea. Many years
ago a letter was addressed to Sir Joseph Banks by the
captain of an East Indiaman, containing an account of the
astonishing strength occasionally exerted by this species.
The bottom of the ship was pierced through by it in such
a manner that the snout or sword was buried almost to its
base, and the animal itself was killed by the violence of
the blow. Accidents of a similar nature have also occur¬
red with the common sword-fish ; and it is the opinion of
naturalists that both species mistake our wooden walls for
the vast abdomen of some great cetaceous animal which
they desire to encounter and destroy.
We here figure, under the name of Histiophorus pul-
chellus, a beautiful dwarf species taken by M. Raynaud on
his return from the Cape to France in 1829. It measured
only four inches in length, and possesses certain special
characters, which lead to the conclusion that, notwith¬
standing its minute size, it ought not to be regarded as
the young of any previously described species. See Plate
CCCII. fig. 11.
We now enter upon a group of genera which form the
Second Great Tribe of Scomberidae, and are character¬
ised by having the spiny rays of the hack not continuous,
but separate.
The Scomberidae, as has been already remarked, have the
caudal fin in general very strong, although the other verti¬
cal fins are often extremely feeble. We have now noticed
1 Captain Crow, in a work recently published, relates the following spectacle, witnessed during a voyage to Memel. “ One morn¬
ing, during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at three a. m. to witness a battle between several of the fish
called thrashers, or fox-sharks {Carcharius vulpes), and some sword-fish on one side, and an enormous whale on the other. It was in
the middle of summer, and the weather being clear, and the fish close to the vessel, we had a fine opportunity of witnessing the con¬
test- As soon as the whale’s back appeared above the water, the thrashers, springing several yards into the air, descended with great
violence upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, the sound of which re¬
sembled the reports of muskets fired at a distance. The sword-fish, in their turn, attacked the distressed whale, stabbing from be¬
low ; and thus beset on all sides, and wounded, when the poor creature appeared, the w'ater around him was dved with blood. In this
manner they continued tormenting and wounding him for many hours, until wre lost sight of him ; and I have no doubt they in the
end completed his destruction.” (Quoted from Mr YarrelPs British Fishes, p. 144.)
2 It was probably this disparity of the dorsal fin in different individuals that induced Dr Leach to apply the new name of Ai-
phias Rondelelii to the old species. (See Wernerian Memoirs, vol. ii. part i. p. 58.)
* Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi, &c. della Sicilia, p. 54. 4 General Zoology, vol. iv. part i. p. 104, pi. 16.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
j. t]ie genera of the first great tribe, in which the posterior
;en portion of the second dorsal and of the anal fin possess
'icorn • io continuous membrane between its rays, which thus re-
main free and disconnected, under the name of finlets.
^ But in the group which we are about to enter it is the
anterior dorsal which wants the membrane, and of which
the rays are consequently free, and capable of isolated
movement. Certain species even conjoin with this cha¬
racter that of the preceding tribe, and have finlets behind,
at the same time that they possess free rays upon their
anterior portion.
Genus Naucrates, Rafin. Dorsal spines free; body
fusiform; a carina or keel on the sides of the tail, as in
the tunny, and two free spines before the anal fin.
This genus contains JV. ductor, the famous pilot-fish of
navigators (Gasterosteus ductor, Linn.), so named from its
habit of keeping company with ships at sea, and frequent¬
ly swimming beneath their bows. It would seem, from
early indications of a similar instinct, to be the Pompilius of
the ancients, described as pointing out the way to dubious
or embarrassed sailors, and as announcing the vicinity of
land by its sudden disappearance. It was thus regarded
as a sacred fish. The other story of its serving as a guide
to the shark does not appear to have been transmitted to
us from so remote a source. It is not mentioned even by
the Ichthyologists of the sixteenth century; and Cuvier
regards as the first allusion to it, that of Dutertre in his
Description of the Antilles, printed in 1667. Since that
period it has been carefully repeated by all voyagers
and compilers; and Osbeck even makes it a subject of
pious reflection on the wonderful ways of Providence. We
are told by a greater than Osbeck that “ they that go
down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters;
these see the works of the Lord, and his wonders in the
deep:” but the fact in the present instance seems reduci¬
ble to this, that the pilot accompanies both ships and
sharks, sometimes swimming before, sometimes behind,
for the sake of preying upon whatever may be thrown
over board in the one case, or left uneaten in the other.
It is true that the shark never attacks it; but it is also
true that the hawk does not attack the swallow; and in
both instances the reason is the same ; the pilot being too
nimble for the unwieldy shark in the water, just as the
feebler but more agile bird is too swift in its movements
farfalco in the air. It is thus that the apparent alliance
of these dissimilar fishes may be explained even upon ge¬
neral principles, to say nothing of Bose’s observation, who
assures us that he has seen hundreds of pilot-fish, that
185
they always keep at a respectful distance from the shark, Acanthop-
and swim about swiftly in different directions, that they terygii.
may more certainly avoid it. If any food be thrown over
board, the pilot stops to seize it, and abandons both the
shark and vessel. Geoffroy no doubt tells a story of two
pilot-fish having been seen to take a great deal of trouble,
swimming to and fro, in order to conduct a shark towards
a baited hook ; but admitting the truth of the details, it is
clear, that whatever advantage might eventually accrue to
the conductors, the probable result to the shark was a
cruel death, and one is consequently the more inclined to
admire how the narrative itself should find place in a
Memoir Sur Taffection mutuelle des quelques animaux l1
The pilot-fish in question is chiefly a Mediterranean
species, although it also spreads into distant oceans, hav¬
ing been found by Daldorf under the equator. A great
extent of geographical distribution may indeed be expect¬
ed in reference to a species which is said to suffer itself
to be led away immense distances in its eager pursuit of
ships. Dutertre records that he saw one which followed
his vessel for more than 500 leagues. Whether he kept his
eye upon it night and day during all that time, or in what
other way he ascertained it to be the same individual
throughout so long a traverse, is what he does not state, and
we therefore cannot explain. “ In the year 1831,” Mr Yar-
rell observes, “ two specimens of pilot-fish were caught on
the opposite side of the British Channel, and more than one
instance has occurred of their following ships into Guern¬
sey. A few years since, a pair accompanied a ship from the
Mediterranean into Falmouth, and were both taken with
a net. In January 1831, the Peru, Graham master, put
into Plymouth, on her voyage from Alexandria for Lon¬
don, after a passage of eighty-two days. About two days
after she left Alexandria, two pilot-fish, Gasterosteus duc¬
tor, made their appearance close alongside the vessel,
were constantly seen near her during the homeward voy¬
age, and followed her into Plymouth. After she came to
an anchor in Catwater, their attachment appeared to have
increased; they kept constant guard to the vessel, and
made themselves so familiar, that one of them was actu¬
ally captured by a gentleman in a boat alongside, but, by
a strong effort, it escaped from his grasp, and regained
the water. After this the two fish separated; but they were
both taken the same evening, and, when dressed the next
day, were found to be excellent eating. In October 1833
nearly one hundred pilot-fish accompanied a vessel from
Sicily into Catwater, but they were not taken.’’2 * * * The
pilot-fish is of a silvery blue colour, paler below, with
1 Annates du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. t. ix. p. 469. In further illustration of the subject, we shall subjoin a short extract from a recent
publication, Dr Meyen’s Iteise um die Erde. “ The pilot swims constantly in front of the shark ; we ourselves have seen three in¬
stances in which the shark was led by the pilot. When the sea-angel neared the ship, the pilot swam close to the snout, or near one
of the breast fins of the animal; sometimes he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards, as if looking for something, and constantly went
back again to the shark. When we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the shark was about twenty paces
from the ship. With the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the shark,
swimming many times round his snout, and splashing, as if to give him exact information as to the bacon. The shark now began to
put himself in motion, the pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook. Once we watched a pilot for many
■ fl v, who.lcePt constantly swimming close before the keel of the ship. The sailors say, as of a thing well known and familiar, that such
a hsh so situated has lost his shark, and is seeking another. Upon a later occasion, we observed two pilots in sedulous attendance on
a blue shark, which we caught in the Chinese Sea. It seems probable that the pilot feeds on the shark’s excrements, keeps his
company tor that purpose, and directs his operations solely from this selfish view.” On this very singular subject we are tempted
to quote another anecdote, which, notwithstanding what we have said in the text above, if correctly observed and recorded, would
certainly indicate something remarkable in the association of these species. The account was furnished to the editor of the English
edition °f the Animal Kingdom (vol. x. p. 636), by Colonel Hamilton Smith, an accurate and accomplished naturalist. “ Captain
tichards, It. N., during his last station in the Mediterranean, saw on a fine day a blue shark, which followed the ship, attracted
perhaps by a corpse which had been committed to the waves. After some time a shark-hook, baited with pork, was flung out. The
s ark, attended by four pilot-fish, Scomber ductor, repeatedly approached the bait; and every time that he did so, one of the pilots,
pieceding him, was distinctly seen from the taff'rail of the ship to run his snout against the side of the shark’s head, to turn it away.
'¥T-,er S£mf ^ar^ier play, the fish swam off in the wake of the vessel, his dorsal fin being long distinctly visible above the water,
co w” i l’0"6 * * *’ l10";ever, a considerable distance, he suddenly turned round, darted after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish
hiU . ,over . e lffm aritl interpose, snapped at the bait and was taken. In hoisting him up, one of the pilots was observed to cling to
wbR1 6 Un^1 'ie was above water, when it fell offl All the pilot fishes then swam about awhile, as if in search of their friend,
Srn'tt I.el"'Vi aPParent.rnarlf °f anxiety and distress, and afterwards darted suddenly down into the depths of the sea. Colonel H.
i n has himself witnessed, with intense curiosity, an event in all respects precisely similar.”
Br%ush Fishes, p. 151. 1 J
186
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- bands of deeper blue upon the upper portions. It varies
terygii. from four inches to a foot in length, and the larger indi-
^ricke*5" V1(^ua^s have much the aspect of a mackerel. The name
of pilot has been bestowed on various other fishes, and the
genus Naucrates itself contains several species. N. In-
dicus, Cuv. was brought from Amboyna by Messrs Lesson
and Garnot.
Other genera of this tribe are Elacate, Lichia, Cho-
kinemus, and Trachinotus, which we cannot here do
more than name.
Genus Rhinchobdella, Bl. and Schn. Free spines
on the back, as in the preceding genera, and two free
spines in front of the anal fin, but the ventrals are absent,
as in Xiphias proper. The body is lengthened.
Of this genus Cuvier has formed two minor groups,—
Rhinchobdella (JSIacrognathus, Lacep.), including such
species as have the muzzle concave, and striated beneath,
and the three vertical fins separate ; and Mastacomblus,
Gronovius, containing such as have the muzzle simply
conical, neither striated nor concave, and the vertical fins
more or less completely joined.
The species of both genera inhabit the fresh waters of
Asia, and are widely distributed, from Syria to the isles of
Sunda, the Moluccas, and China. Their snouts are fur¬
nished with a delicate organ of touch, and it appears that
they employ it while searching in the mud for small worms,
or other slender substances on which they feed. They are
generally regarded as poissons de bon gout, the flavour of
their flesh bearing some resemblance to that of eels.
The genus Notocanthus (of which N. Nasus is the
sole species) is characteristic of the most northern seas.
We next proceed to a group of the Scomberidae which
forms the Third Great Tribe, distinguished by having
the sides furnished icith a cuirassed lateral line.
In the tunnies, sword-fish, and other Scomberidae al¬
ready discussed, a projecting cartilaginous portion is ob¬
servable, forming a kind of ridge or keel on each side of
the tail, at the extremity of the lateral line. In the ge¬
nera of the same family of which we have now to treat,
this ridge is no longer a simple prominence of the dermis,
but is covered by scaly shields, themselves crested, and
overlapping each other. These shields, frequently ending
in a point or hook, are not always confined to the termi¬
nation of the lateral line, but sometimes spread over its
entire length, and usually occupy a considerable portion.
In relation to this character, however, the tribe may be di¬
vided into two sections : the first of which, comprising only
the great genus Caranx, exhibits this kind of armour in its
greatest strength and extension ; while the second (of which
the genus Vomer is the type) shows its gradual reduction
to small scales, not surpassing those of the rest of the body.
Genus Caranx, Cuv. Lateral line armed to a greater
or less extent with scaly shields, raised into a keel, and
pointed.
As an example, we here figure the Caranx hoops, a
beautiful fish from Amboyna, of a fine silvery hue, tinted
towards the back with brilliant steel blue, with green re¬
flections. A pure line of orange extends from the gills to
the tail, but this ornamental character is said to disappear
speedily after death. The pectoral fins are likewise orange.
It varies from a few inches to a foot in length. See Plate
CCCIL fig. 12. The genus is extremely numerous, con¬
taining probably not fewer than seventy different kinds;
but the only other species we shall here notice is a fish
called the scad, or horse-mackerel (Caranx trachurus,
Lacep. and Cuv.), which occasionally occurs in prodigious
shoals along the British shores. Ten thousand have been
taken by a foot-sean in a single evening in August. ItAcant
likewise occurs in the Mediterranean, and in the vicinity tery
of Madeira. Scoin
Of genera allied to Caranx, and consisting chiefly of ^
species heretofore and erroneously referred to Zeus, Baron
Cuvier has established or retained the following, viz. Olis-
tus, Scyris, Blepharis, Galeichtys, Argyreyosus,
Vomer, and Hynnis. Of these our restricted limits pre¬
vent our exhibiting the detailed characters. We shall
merely present the reader with a figure of that singular
little fish Gallichtgs JEgyptiacus, brought by Ehrenbergfrom
the neighbourhood of Alexandria. It measures only from
one to two inches in length, and is of a truly remarkable
form. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 1.
We have now arrived at the concluding group or Fourth
Great Tribe of the Scomberidee, in which thefinlets, the
free spines of the back, and the armour of the sides of the
tail, are all wanting.
The genera of this tribe, it will be perceived, are com¬
bined by means of merely negative characters, and it may
therefore be expected that they will exhibit mutual rela¬
tions of a less intimate kind than those of the preceding
tribes. They form in fact a group, as it were, by con¬
tinuity,—one of those series of which there are many in
nature, and of which the agreement is not the less evi¬
dent and harmonious, although it may be difficult to point
out a precise character in common.
As we have little to say of general interest regarding
their history or habits, we think it more suitable to the na¬
ture of this article to reserve a principal portion of our al¬
lotted space for the elucidation of those species concerning
which some important or amusing information has been re¬
corded. We shall therefore do little more than name the
genera of our present tribe.
The genus Seriola scarcely differs from Caranx, ex¬
cept in the lateral line being either unprovided with a cui¬
rass, or at least merely furnished with scales which slightly
surpass those of the rest of the body. S. Dumerilii of
Risso occurs near Nice, and elsewhere in the Mediterra¬
nean. It sometimes attains to the great weight of nearly
200 pounds, and dwells in deep and inaccessible places of
the sea, rarely approaching the shores, unless when com¬
pelled to do so by hunger. Its flesh is of a reddish colour,
firm, and of an exquisite flavour.
The genus Temnodon greatly resembles the preceding,
but its teeth are cutting. There are two small spines in
advance of the anal fin, but almost concealed beneath the
skin. We here place the Perea sedtatrix of Linn, called
skip-jack by the Americans. Its geographical distribution
is extremely extensive.
The genus Nomeus, Cuv. was for a long time combined
with the Gobies. It is related in several particulars to
Seriola, but the very large broad ventrals, attached to the
body by their inner edge, produce a peculiar character and
aspect. We here figure a small species, of which the
ground colour is like brilliant silver. The ventrals are tra¬
versed by two black bands. It was transmitted to the Mu¬
seum of the Low Countries from Java, by MM. Kuhl and
Van Hasselt. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 4. Three other genera
are described by Cuvier in this portion of his great work,
which, however, we shall merely name,'—viz. Nauclerus,
Porthoneus, and Psenes. The next genus is of more
general interest.
Genus Coryph^na, Linn. Body compressed, elon¬
gated, covered by small scales; head compressed, profile
circular; eyes low, approaching the angle of the mouth;
dorsal fin rising from the cranium, and stretching con-
1 Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. ix. pp. 247-67-
ICHTHYOLOGY.
18
*7
/
lean tinuously to the tail, towards which it decreases in ele-
leijii. vation.
H?.ie' This noted genus has been remodelled in recent times,
n and now consists of the following minor groups.
1st. Genus Coryph^na proper. Cuv. Head very ele¬
vated, profile curved and perpendicular, eyes low ; mouth
well cleft; teeth like those of a wool card.
The generic term is derived from xogupt], vertex, or top
of the head, in reference to the height of the crest of the
cranium. This division contains the famous dolphin of the
Mediterranean (Cor. hippurus, Linn.), so celebrated for the
beauty of its versatile tints.
 parting day
Dies like the dolphin, whom each pang imbues
With a new colour as it gasps away,
The last still loveliest, till—’tis gone—and all is gray.
The species are still in some measure indistinctly cha¬
racterized. They occur in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans,
and the Mediterranean Sea, and are remarkable, among
other things, for their keen pursuit of flying fish, which, in
the first place, they force to leave their native element,
and then following swiftly in a corresponding track, receive
with open mouth the moment they descend exhausted to
the surface. The Coryphaenae may be regarded as among
the most brilliant inhabitants of the sea. It is necessary,
according to Bose, to have seen them following a vessel in
troops, before we can form a proper estimate of their beauty.
When they swim embodied near the surface, and beneath
the light of a cloudless sky, they seem effulgent with the rich¬
est gold, combined with the sparkling lustre of the topaz,
the emerald, and the sapphire,—and every brilliant hue in
perpetual change, accordant with the vivacity and varied
grace of their movements. It is indeed a spectacle suffi¬
cient anywhere to excite our unfeigned admiration; and
when seen suddenly amid the waves of the lonely and
monotonous ocean, it comes upon us like a glad surprise.
The beauty of these fishes has in every age attracted the
wonder
Of all who on the wide deep wandering are;
and it is so far to be regretted, that their fugitive colours
have been the chief object of attention,—their more pre¬
cise description and specific discrimination having been
greatly disregarded.
The Coryphsenae are strong, active, and voracious fishes.
While swimming rapidly, they seem rather as if impelled
or projected forwards by some exterior force, than by any
exertion of their own. But, on attentive examination, a
strong and rapid muscular movement may be detected, by
the constant undulation of the long dorsal fin, a movement
which greatly contributes to the throwing off of those lus¬
trous metallic reflections for which they have so long been
noted. The Mediterranean species, Cor. hippurus, if not the
most beautiful, is the largest known. It sometimes attains
to the length of five feet. Its colours, so far as they are ca¬
pable of description, are silvery blue above, with markings
of a deeper azure, and reflections of pure gold—the lower
parts citron yellow, marked with pale blue. The pectoral
fins are partly lead colour, partly yellow; the ventrals are
yellow on their under surface, and black above ; the anal
fin is yellow. The iris of the eye is made of apparent gold.1
One or two other kinds, not so distinctly known, occur Acanthop-
in the Mediteiranean, and many others in more distant terygii.
seas. We here figure a large species, measuring nearly Scombe-
four feet in length, taken by M. Dussumier about fifty ae‘
leagues to the wrest of the Azores, for which reason it bears
the name of Coryphcena Azorica, see Plate CCCIII. fig. 2.
The Portuguese name more than one species Dorade,ci term
which, from its similarity to Daurade (a frequent appella¬
tion of our gilt-head, Chrysophris auratd), has produced
some confusion. Not less ambiguous is the name of Dol¬
phin, which appears to have been first misapplied to the
Coryphfenae by the Dutch. It is scarcely necessary to ob¬
serve, that the English word Dolphin, as synonymous with
the Greek AiXtpig, the Latin Delphinus, and the French
Dauphin, was originally, and is still correctly, applied only
to designate a group of cetaceous animals (allied in struc¬
ture to the whales), to which the classical dolphin of anti¬
quity assuredly belonged. But by some conversion, into
the history of which it is not worth while to inquire, the
term has been applied by most modern writers, particularly
poets, to a creature of another class, a genuine fish, of the
genus Coryphcena. No fault therefore can be imputed to
the naturalist, if the general misapplication of the term is
now found to occasion any misconception. There is no
doubt, however, that the animal beloved by gods and men,
the Hieros Ichthys of the heroic Greeks, and the revered
symbol of the Delphic Apollo, was nothing more than a
pellock or porpoise.2
2c?. Genus Lampugus,3 Cuv. Head oblong; central crest
of the forehead much lower than in Coryphsena ; dorsal fin
equal, and low throughout its whole extent.
More than one species occurs in the Mediterranean,
but the most common in that sea is L. pelagicus, which
almost in every thing resembles the so-called dolphin,
except in the form of its head, and more diminutive di¬
mensions.
3c?. Genus Centrolophus, Lacep. Form more length¬
ened ; palatine teeth wanting; an interval between the
occiput and the commencement of the dorsal fin.
Most of the species occur in the Mediterranean ; and
the black perch of Pennant, the black fish of Couch and
Yarrell (Cent, pompilus, Cuv.), is referrible to this genus.
It is a fish of great strength and velocity, measuring from
two to three feet, and is one of our rare British species.
Genus Astrodermus, Bonelli. Head elevated and
sharp; mouth slightly cleft; only four branchial rays ; ven¬
trals very small, and placed upon the throat; scales scat¬
tered upon the body, and assuming the radiated form of
little stars. It is from the latter circumstance that the
genus derives its name.
There is only a single species of this genus,—recently
discovered, and still extremely rare. It has been taken
near Nice, and also in the Gulf of Cagliari in Sardinia,
and was originally described by M. Risso under the name
of Coryphcena elegans.
Genus Pteraclis. Head and teeth as in Coryphcena,
but the scales are larger, the ventrals very small, and
placed upon the throat; the dorsal and anal fins prodi¬
giously extended.
This eccentric genus is founded on a fish described by
Pallas in his Spicilegia, under the name of Coryphcona ve-
1 Every voyager seems to describe the dolphin in his own way ; and it is by no means easy for a landsman to ascertain which is
the right one. The play of colour, as it is called, may no doubt admit of great diversity in the expressions used. The above de¬
scription is from the recorded observation of the living fish by M. Biberon. Another eye-witness, Colonel Bory St Vincent, de¬
scribes the back as being of a sea-green colour, sprinkled with orange spots ; the abdomen silvery ; the lateral line yellow ; the dorsal
fin celestial blue, with golden-coloured rays; the caudal fin surrounded by a green hue ; the other fins yellow. (Dictionmire Clas-
sique d'Hist. Nat. t. iv. p. 528.)
2 Wilson’s Illustrations of Zoology, vol. i. article Dei.fhinafterus.
3 Synonymous with the genus Caranxomus of Lace'pede, which was adopted by Cuvier in the Rcgne Animal, but is now, so far as
the name is concerned, handed over to oblivion.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
188
Acanthop- lifera, and it was with a feeling of doubt that Cuvier
terygii. placed it where it now stands. It is not easy to conceive
Scombe- use 0f jts dorsal and anal fins, so enormously large in
if- proportion to the size of the body. Pallas indeed ima-
gined that they might serve to sustain it in the air; but
in that case the fish must fly, as a flounder swims, upon
its side. The species are unfortunately so rare, that it
may be long before an opportunity occurs of throwing
any light upon the subject. The only known specimen
of PL ocellatus, Cuv. was taken entire from the stomach of
a bonito in the Straits of Mosambique. The species re¬
presented in this work (See Plate CCCIII. fig 3) was
brought to Europe by MM. Quoy and Gaymard, but we
know not from what locality.
Genus Stromateus, Linn. Distinguished among the
Scomberidse by the want of the ventral fins, and by a
single dorsal, the spiny rays of which, few in number, are
concealed in its anterior margin. The vertical fins are
covered by scales, as among the Squammipennes.
The Mediterranean produces a beautiful species {St.
fiatola, Linn.), remarkable for its spots and broken bands of
gold upon a lead-coloured ground. The black pomfret of
India, a delicious fish for table uses, pertains to this genus.
It is the St. niger of Bloch. According to Russel, it is
abundant at Vizagapatam during the months of March
and April, and vanishes and re-appears alternately every
two or three days. It requires to be eaten immediately
after capture, i A singular circumstance in the geographi¬
cal history of this genus is, that although the species
seem common along a great extent of Indian coast, and
spread as far as China, none is known at the Isle of France,
nor in any part of the Indian Archipelago.
Genus Rhombus,1 Lacep. Extremity of the pelvis
forming, anterior to the anus, a small pointed and cutting
blade, which resembles a vestige of the ventral fins.
As an example, w e may mention the Harvest fish of New
York, an excellent article for the table. It is the Rh.
longipinnis of Cuvier, erroneously placed by Linnaeus
among the Chaetodons.
The genus Luvarus of Rafinesque resembles the pre¬
ceding. There is only one species distinctly known
(L. imperialis), a fish of fine flavour, but extremely rare.
It measures five feet in length; the whole body is of a
reddish silvery colour, more obscure upon the back. It
was dashed ashore near Solanto, in Sicily.2 A species
unknown to the fishermen was taken in 1826, at Isle-de-
Re, which Cuvier regards as referrible to this genus. The
genus Seserinus, Cuv. possesses the characters of Stro¬
mateus, but very small ventrals are perceptible, or at
least the vestiges of these organs are apparent. The only
known species is S. Rondeletii, a small fish of the Medi¬
terranean.
Genus Kurtus, Bloch. Allied to Rhombus, but differs
in the dorsal fin being shorter, and the ventrals more
developed. The scales are so fine as to be imperceptible
in the dried state. There are seven branchial rays. The
pelvis show's a spine between the ventrals, and several
small cutting blades are visible anterior to the dorsal fin,
at the base of which is a spine directed horizontally for-Acantho
wards. teypi
The skeleton in this genus presents a striking pecu- ^comlx
liarity in the ribs, which are dilated, convex, and in the yj1^'
form of rings which come in contact with each other,—
thus enclosing a conical empty space, which is prolonged
beneath the tail, in the inferior rings of the vertebrae, into
a long thin tube enclosing the swimming bladder. The
species inhabit the Indian seas, and are few in number.
K.cornutus, called somdrum-hara-moddee at Vizagapatam,
and which Cuvier regards as the male of K. Blochii, La-
cepede, is an excellent eating fish, remarkable for being
almost transparent in a state of freshness.
We shall conclude our exposition of the Scomberidas
by a brief notice of the genus Zeus, Linn, from which
some of the preceding genera, such as Gallychtis, Argy-
reyosus, &c. have already been detached. In its more
restricted form it contains fishes of a compressed body,
protractile mouth covered by small scales, with teeth
feeble and few in number. It is further divisible as
follow's:
Genus Zeus, Cuv. Dorsal fin emarginate, its spines
accompanied by long slips of the membrane; a series of
forked spines along the base of the dorsal and anal fins.
The type of the genus is Zeus faber, commonly called
the Dory (Plate CCCIII. fig. 5), probably f-om the French
term doree, in allusion to the golden tints of its body.3 Its
surface has at the same time a smoked appearance, on
which account the French name it forgeron, a word which
corresponds to the Latin trivial name of faber, or black¬
smith. It is also called the fish of St Peter, from an an¬
cient traditionary belief that it was from the mouth of
this species that the apostle extracted the tribute-money,
and the black spot on either side of its body is supposed
to be a record of its capture at that time.4 The dory is
a fish greatly esteemed for the table. It occurs both in
the Mediterranean Sea, and along the oceanic coasts of
Europe. According to Pennant, the largest are found in
the Bay of Biscay. Willughby alludes to it as common
in his day on the shores of Cornwall; and it is still taken
both there and along the Devonshire coast, occasionally
even in profusion. Mr Couch, as quoted by Mr Yarrell,
considers the dory rather as a wandering than a migra¬
tory fish, and as regulated in a great measure by the move¬
ments of the smaller kinds on which it preys. When the
pilchards approach the shore, it is frequently taken in
considerable numbers. In the autumn of 1829, more than
sixty were hauled on shore at once in a net, some of them
of large size, and yet the whole were sold together for
nine shillings. The largest specimens of the London
market weigh from ten to twelve pounds, but the aver¬
age weight is scarcely more than five. The dory is a
bold, voracious species, preying greedily upon the more
timid kinds, and pouncing readily upon all sorts of bait.
Its flesh was highly esteemed in the time of Pliny. Co¬
lumella, who was a native of Cadiz (where it was regard¬
ed as the best of fishes), has recorded that it had been
long known by the name of Zeus—a designation which in
1 In the second edition of the Regne Animal, this genus bears the name of Pepriitts ; Cuvier not having been at that time
aware that it had been previously designated by Lacepede under the name of Rhombus. We deem the choice of the latter name
equally unfortunate, seeing that it had been previously applied generically to that group of the Pleuronectidae called Turbots. But
we leave it to more influential authors to propose a second change.
2 liafinesque, Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi, &c. della Sicilia, p. 22.
3 A variety of derivations, however, have been assigned to the English name. In addition to the one above alluded to, we
shall merely mention the following: St Christopher, while wading through an arm of the sea, and bearing the infant Saviour, is
said to have caught a dory', and to have impressed its sides with the two peculiar marks, as a perpetual record of the fact. The
name was therefore said to be from the French adoree, worshipped, as something unusually sacred.' The designation of John Dory
is in all probability derived from the French jaune doree, in allusion to the tints of a golden yellow hue with which it is adorned.
Some, however, refer it (and again in connection with St Peter) to the Italian term janitore, or door-keeper, by which it seems the
species is known to the fishermen of the Adriatic.
4 The common haddock also bears a share in this tradition.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
!i£tl i- itself argues pre-eminence, Zeuc in Greek signifying the
eryi monarch of the gods.
enk e. Genus Capros, Lacep. Dorsal fin emarginate, as in the
‘t '' preceding, and the mouth still more protractile ; but there
are no spines to either the anal or dorsal fin. The body
is covered with strong rough scales.
The only species with which we are acquainted is the
Zeus aper of Linn, a small fish of the Mediterranean. A
specimen was taken in Mounts Bay in October 1825,1 and
more recently it was observed in the Bridgewater fish-
market, as we are informed by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq.
Genus Lampris, Retzius. A single dorsal fin, high in
front, where it is furnished with one or two small spines.
The ventrals have ten long rays, and the lobes of the
caudal fin are considerably elongated, but these prolonga¬
tions seem to become effaced by age. The sides of the
tail are carinated.
The only known species (Z. guttatus, Zeus luna, Gme-
lin) occurs, though rarely, off the French coasts, and in
the British seas, where it is known as the opah or king-
fish. It is one of the most splendid and remarkable of
European fishes. Its back is of a deep blue spotted with
silver,—the rest of its body like polished gold, reflecting
all the colours of the rainbow. It is certainly sufficiently
singular that a species included by Nilsson in his Prodro-
mus of the fishes of Scandinavia, should likewise be enu¬
merated by Kaempfer as occurring in Japan. The opah
is a fish of great size, measuring sometimes five feet in
length. Its flesh is said to taste like beef. See Plate
CCCIII. fig. 6.
The remaining genera are Equula, Cuvier, and Mene,
Lacepede. The Zeus insidiator is an example of the for¬
mer,—the Zeus maculatus, of the latter.
FAMILY VIII.—TAINIOIDAI.
This family is closely connected with the Scomberidae.
The species are of a very lengthened form, and flattened
laterally, from which they have obtained the name of rib¬
bon-fishes. Their scales are very small.
The first tribe2 comprehends those genera of which the
mouth is small, and but slightly cleft.
Genus Gymnetrus, Bloch. Body elongated and flat;
anal fin entirely wanting; dorsal fin long, with prolonged
anterior rays, which, however, are easily broken ; ventrals
also very long, when not worn away by use, or otherwise
fractured; the caudal, composed of few rays, rises verti¬
cally on the extremity of the tail, which finishes in a
little hook. There are six branchial rays.
The species are so soft and tender that they often pre¬
sent themselves as it were with false characters, from the
natural mutilation of the rays. For this reason they are
as yet indistinctly characterized by systematic writers.
Even the central skeleton, and especially the bones of the
vertebrae, are extremely soft. The stomach is long ; there
are numerous caeca; the swimming bladder is wanting;
and the flesh, of a mucous nature, decomposes with great
rapidity. The European species occur in the Mediter¬
ranean, and also occasionally in the British and more
northern seas. The fish called king of the herrings by
the Norwegians belongs to this genus. We here figure as
189
a curious example the Gymnetrus falx. See Plate CCCIIL Acanthop-
fig. 8. We may add, that the Gymnetrus Hawkenii of terygii.
Bloch, a species originally described from a specimen taken Theutidae.
near Goa, in the Indian Sea, was many years ago drawn
ashore dead on the south coast of Cornwall. It measured
nearly nine feet, and weighed forty pounds. The vaag-
nmer, or deal-fish, has also been recorded by Dr Fleming
as a British species.3 It is the Gymnetrus Arcticus of sys¬
tematic authors.
That very singularly-formed fish, the Stylephorus cor-
datus of Shaw, forms the remaining genus of the present
tribe.4
In the second tribe of TiENioiD.® the muzzle is short,
and the mouth obliquely cleft.
Genus Cepola, Linn. Dorsal and anal fin long, each
reaching to the base of the caudal, which itself is rather
large ; the cranium is not raised or crested; the muzzle
is very short, with the superior curved upwards ; the teeth
are distinct, and the ventral fins perceptibly developed.
There are a few unarticulated rays in the dorsal fin, which
are as flexible.as the others; the spine of the ventrals
alone being stiff and pointed. There are six branchial
rays. Both the abdominal cavity and stomach are very
short. Some caeca are perceptible, and a swimming blad¬
der, which extends into the caudal extremity. The occa¬
sional occurrence of a Mediterranean species of this genus
( Cep. rubescens, Linn.) along the coasts of Devon and Corn¬
wall has been recorded both by Montagu and Couch.5
Genus Lophotes, Giorna. Head short, surmounted
by a raised osseous crest, on the summit of which is ar¬
ticulated a long and powerful spiny ray, bordered behind
by a membrane, and followed by a low simply rayed con¬
tinuous fin, which spreads onwards to the point of the tail.
Caudal fin distinct but small; and beneath the above-
mentioned point there are two scarcely perceptible ven¬
tral fins furnished with four or five exceedingly small
rays. The teeth are pointed, and not very close toge¬
ther ; the mouth directed upwards, and the eyes very
large. There are six branchial rays, and the abdominal
cavity occupies almost the entire extent of the body. We
are acquainted with only a single species (Loph. Lacepe-
dianus), which inhabits the Mediterranean, where, how¬
ever, it is extremely rare. It attains to a large size, that
is, to about four feet in length.6
FAMILY IX.—THEUTIDjE.
This family is perhaps as closely allied to the Scombe¬
ridae as the preceding, but its alliance proceeds from other
points,—such as the armature of the sides of the tail in
several genera, or the horizontal spine anterior to the
dorsal fin in others. It comprises but a small number of
foreign genera, with compressed oblong bodies, small
mouths, slightly or not at all protractile, armed on each
jaw with cutting teeth upon a single range, the palate and
tongue without teeth, and a single dorsal fin. The species
are of herbivorous habits, feeding chiefly on fuci and other
marine vegetation. Their intestines are ample. We are
compelled to be brief in our indications of the generic
groups.
The genus Siganus, Forsk. of which the species are
' Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1833, p. 113.
i . I;11,1116 Animal, t. ii. p. 217, the first tribe of the family above named is composed of the genera Lepidopus and Trichiurus,
icn, however, m Cuvier’s later work {Hist. Nat. det Poissons, t. viii. p. 21?) are placed as an appendix to the first tribe of the Scom-
f ’ ^here we have accordingly placed them in the present article. We therefore commence the T^nioiija with what was
formerly the second tribe.
3 Magazine of Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 215. 4 See General Zoology, vol, iv. part i. p. 87-
f Trans, vol. vii. p. 291, and vol. xiv. p. 17- ^
See Mem. de VAcad. de Turin, 1806-8, p. 19; and Ann. du Museum, t. xx. fig. 17.
190 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- numerous in the Indian seas, is characterized by a fea-
terygii. ture believed to be unique among fishes, that of having
thifbrm" t^e outer anc^ inner ray of the ventral fins spiny.
Pharvn- genus Acanthurus, Bloch, has the teeth cutting
geals. and dentated, and a strong moveable spine on each side
the tail, capable of inflicting a severe wound on those
who grasp it incautiously. On this account a species
greatly sought for in the West Indies as food has re¬
ceived the name of surgeon, Ac. Chirurgus. As an ex¬
ample we here figure the Acanthurus Delisianus. See
Plate CCCIII. fig. 7. In the genus Naseus the sides of
the tail are armed with fixed spines, and the teeth are coni¬
cal. The great peculiarity, however, consists in a horn¬
like prominence on the front of the head. The skin re¬
sembles leather. Forskall relates of one species (W. fron-
ticornis, Lac.) that although of peaceable demeanour and
herbivorous habits, it knows how to defend itself from
unprovoked aggression ; and he reports the observations
of some Arabian fishermen, who saw a troop of them come
to the rescue of a companion who had been transfixed on
the surface of the water by an eagle. They so bothered
the “ Bird of Jove” as eventually to produce his death by
drowning. This, however, savours more of an “ Arabian
Tale” than of a fact in natural history. See Plate CCCIII.
fig. 9. The reader will perceive in the two preceding re¬
presentations a resemblance to the genus Chaetodon. The
remaining genera of this small family are Axinurus and
Priodon, Cuv.
FAMILY X—LABYRINTHIFOIiM PHARYNGEALS.
By this term Baron Cuvier means to designate the pe¬
culiar structure of a part of the upper pharyngeal bones,
which are divided into leaflets more or less numerous
and irregular. This formation produces cells capable of
containing water, which flows upon and moistens the
branchiae for some time after the fish itself has been re¬
moved from its natural element; and this refreshing in¬
fluence is rendered the more effectual by the closeness of
the opercula or gill-covers. The consequence is, that most
of the species possess the power of quitting their streams
and pools, and creeping, as it were, to some little distance
from their watery homes,—a faculty not unknown to an¬
cient writers, and one which in India has led to the belief
that these fishes fall from heaven.
Genus Anabas. In this genus the labyrinths alluded
to attain the greatest degree of complication. Neverthe¬
less the third pharyngeals have teeth en paves, and there
are others beneath the back of the cranium. The body
is round, covered by strong scales; the head large ; the
muzzle short and obtuse ; the mouth small; the lateral
line interrupted about its posterior third. The margins
of the opercle, sub-opercle, and inter-opercle, are strong¬
ly toothed, but not those of the pre-opercle. The bran¬
chial membrane has five rays. There are many spiny
rays to the dorsal, and even to the anal fin. The stomach
is of medium size, rounded. The pylorus has only three
appendices.
The generic name is derived from the Greek, avafiaim,
to ascend, and refers to the singular instinct of the only
known species {An. scandens, Plate CCCIII. fig. II), which
induces it to climb trees.1 It performs this action by
means of the spiny processes of the gill-covers, and moves
at pleasure up the trunks of trees which grow by the
water side. It was observed by Lieutenant Daldorff, at
Tranquebar, ascending by a fissure in the stem of the
palm called Jiabellifer, and was also found to Acaiv
be so tenacious of life as to move about upon the dry ter?
sand for some hours after it was captured on the tree.2 habi
At the same time other respectable observers who have ^
attended to this species in its natural state, make no men- 1>!la
tion of the fact. M. Reinwardt has frequently taken the ^
Anabas at Java, but never heard any climbing propensi- ^
ties attributed to it; M. Leschenault, who transmitted se¬
veral specimens to Pondicherry, simply observes that they
dwell in rivers and fresh-water ponds; while Mr Hamil¬
ton Buchanan proceeds still further, and not only denies
the fact, but regards it as contrary to the laws of nature.
One point, however, is certain, that it is capable oflivinc
an unusual length of time out of the water, a fact in per¬
fect accordance with the peculiar structure of its pharyn¬
geals. It also creeps about upon the ground for hours
together, and the fishermen are alleged to keep it alive
for five or six days in a dry vessel. It is thus brought
alive to the markets of Calcutta from the great marshes
of the district of Yazor, which are distant more than a
hundred and fifty miles. “ Les charlatans et jongleurs,”
says Cuvier, “ dont ITnde abonde, ont generalemefit de
ces poissons avec eux dans des vases, pour amuser la po¬
pulace de leurs mouvemens.”3
Passing over the nearly allied genera of Helostoma,
Polyacanxhus, Colisa, and Macroeodus, we arrive at
the
Genus Osphronemus of Commerson, of which the
forehead is somewhat .concave, the anal fin larger than
the dorsal, the sub-orbitals and base of the pre-opercle
finely dentated, and the first soft ray of the ventrals re¬
markably prolonged. There are six branchial rays, and
the general form of the body is much compressed.
This genus contains the Os. olfax, or Gourami, one of the
most famous for its flavour of all the fishes of the East.
See Plate CCCIII. fig. 10.) It grows as large as a turbot,
and is even more delicious than that favourite food. Com¬
merson has recorded in his manuscript that he never tast¬
ed so exquisite a fish,—“ Nihil inter pisces turn marinos
turn fluviatiles exquisitius unquam degustaviand he
adds, that the Dutch of Batavia rear them in large earth¬
en vessels, renewing the water every day, and feeding
them on aquatic plants, particularly Pistia natans. That
navigator was also of opinion that the species had been
imported originally from China to the Isle of France, and
it appears to have been recently conveyed to the French
colonies in South America by Captain Philibert. Its im¬
portation to Europe would be well worth attempting, and
would probably be attended by success if the Gourami,
like the golden carp, is actually a native of China. It
does not, however, appear that any mention is made of it
in any natural history notices of that empire, and it seems
as yet unknown in India. It is said that the female Gou¬
rami hollows out a little foss in the side of the pond where
she is kept, for the purpose of depositing her eggs in
safety.
The remaining genera of this group are Trichopus,
Spirobranchus, and Ophicephalus. Of the former two
only a single species is known of each. The last named is
more numerous, and is deserving of a brief notice.
The Ophicephali resemble all the preceding genera of
the family in the majority of their characters, and particu¬
larly in the cellular disposition of their pharyngeals, which
seem equally adapted for the singular retention of water
before alluded to. They can consequently also creep to a
considerable distance from their liquid abodes ; but what
particularly distinguishes and even separates them from all
1 It is synonymous with Perea scandens of Daldorf, and Coins coboius of Buchanan. In the Tamoul language it is called Paneiri,
or the tree climber.
* Linn. Trans, vol. iii. p. 62. » Hist. Nat. des Poissons, t. vii. p. 332.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
191
cant p* other acanthopterygian fishes, is the absence of spines to
;ery the fins, except the single one to the ventrals, which itself,
uBril e' though simple, is neither stiff nor pointed. The body is
^ elongated, and almost cylindrical; the muzzle short and
obtuse ; the head depressed, and furnished with polygonal
scales, or rather plates, as in Anabas. It may be said, how¬
ever, that it is by means of the solitary ventral spines alone
that they exhibit the normal character of the great division
of acanthopterygian fishes with which we have been hitherto
engaged. They thus, by such ambiguous combination of cha¬
racter, almost break up the grand distinction of acanthop¬
terygian and malacopterygian species, a distinction other¬
wise so well grounded as to have hitherto produced no dis¬
ruption of the relations of natural affinity. “ If it were pos¬
sible,” says Cuvier, “ to admit that anomalous beings exist¬
ed in nature, there is certainly none to which the title is so
justly due as to the Ophicephali.” Their watery reservoirs
enable them to journey from one marsh to another, and
they are moreover so tenacious of life that their bowels
mav be torn out, and themselves cut to pieces, without pro¬
ducing immediate death. They are often thus carried about
alive, or sold in the markets slice by slice ; and the con¬
sumers refuse to give the best price when so much has
been cut away that the remainder ceases to move. This
seems a parallel case to that of the beef-steaks from the
oxen of Abyssinia. We here figure as an example of this
singular genus the Ophicephalus striatus, a species which
seems spread over the whole of India. See Plate CCCIII.
fig. 12. Buchanan describes another species under the
name of Gachua ( Oph. marginatus, Cuv. ?), which some¬
times grows to a foot in length. It is very common in the
ponds and fosses of Bengal, and is one of the species most
generally believed to fall from the clouds in wet weather.
During the first heavy showers of the rainy season, they
are certainly seen crawling on the grass ; but their object
in so doing is doubtless to escape from the corrupted water
of the narrow dykes which they had previously inhabited,
and to go in search of a purer element, and a fresher and more
ample food. The species called Barca by Buchanan lives
in holes in the vertical banks of the Brahmapootra, with no¬
thing visible but its head, that it may the more readily ob¬
serve and seize its prey. It is a large fish, measuring three
feet in length, and is regarded as good eating. On the
whole, however, the species of this genus are consumed ra¬
ther by natives than Europeans,—the latter probably re¬
garding them too much in the light of reptiles. We may
add, that the Ophicephali are often exhibited by the Indian
jugglers, and that even the children amuse themselves by
forcing them to crawl upon the ground.
FAMILY XI MUGILID.E.
The fishes which compose our present group (corre¬
sponding to the genus Mucin of Linn.) exhibit so many
peculiarities of organization, that Cuvier has deemed it ad¬
visable to form them into a distinct family. The body is
almost cylindrical, covered with large scales, and furnished
with two distinct dorsal fins, the first of which has only
four spiny rays. The ventrals are attached somewhat be¬
hind the pectorals. The gills have six rays. The head is
rather depressed, also covered with large scales or polygo¬
nal plates. The muzzle is very short. The transverse
mouth forms an angle by means of a prominence of the
middle of the lower jaw, corresponding to a depression of
the upper one ; and the teeth are excessively fine, indeed
in some cases imperceptible. The pharyngeal bones, greatly
developed, give an angular form to the oesophagus resem- Acanthop-
bling that of the mouth, which permits only fluids or very terygii.
small substances to enter the stomach, notwithstanding
which the latter terminates in a kind of fleshy gizzard, ana-
logous to that of birds. The pyloric appendices are few
in number, but the intestine is long and folded.
The species are excellent as articles of food. They re¬
sort in vast troops to the mouths of large rivers, where
they may be observed continually springing out of the wa¬
ter.
The Mugil cephalus, or Mediterranean gray mullet (the
English name must not mislead the unpractised reader to
confound it with the genus Mullus, formerly described), is
distinguished from all the other European species by its
eyes, which are half covered by two adipose veils adherent
to the anterior and posterior margin of the orbit, and by
the peculiar concealment of the maxillary bone, which,
when the mouth is closed, is completely hidden beneath
the sub-orbital. The base of the pectoral fin is surmount¬
ed by a long carinated scale. See Plate CCCIII. fig. 13.
The species just referred to is the best and largest of the
Mediterranean kinds. It weighs about ten or twelve
pounds, and does not appear to have been yet detected
in the seas or estuaries of Britain, nor along the oceanic
shores of France. It is very common on the coast of Spain,
especially around the island of Ivica, where the fishermen
are said to recognise two varieties under the names of Mu»
gil and Lissa. When surrounded by a net, it endeavours,
and often successfully, to effect its escape, by leaping over
the edges into the unencumbered sea.1
“ Its hearing is very fine, as has been noticed by Aris¬
totle, and it feeds on worms and small marine animals;
but it is doubtful, though it has been advanced, that it can
live on vegetable substances. It appears to be of a stupid
character, a fact which was know n in the time of Pliny, for
that author tells us that there is something ludicrous in the
disposition of the mullets ; for if they are afraid they con
ceal their heads, and thus imagine they are entirely with¬
drawn from the observation of their enemies.
“ When, towards the end of spring and the commence¬
ment of summer, the fishes of this species, excited by the
necessity of living in the fresh water, approach the shores
and advance towards the mouths of the rivers, they form
such numerous troops that the water through which they
are seen, without being clearly distinguished, appears to
be bluish. This particularly happens in the Garonne and
the Loire at these periods. The fishermen there adopt the
plan of surrounding these legions of mullets with nets, the
enclosure of which they gradually contract, taking care to
make a noise to frighten the fish, and oblige them to press
together, and heap themselves as it were one upon the
other.
“ Of the mullets thus taken some are eaten fresh, others
are salted and smoke-dried; it is with their eggs salted,
washed, pressed, and dried, that the preparation called bo-
tarcha is made, which is a condiment greatly in request in
Italy and the southern provinces of France. The flesh of
this mullet is tender, delicate, and of an agreeable flavour ;
it is fatter and more in estimation when it is taken in the
fresh water. The ancients, who from the time of Aristotle
were acquainted with this fish, had it in great request; and
the consumption of it is still very considerable in most of
the southern countries of Europe. According to the re¬
port of Athenseus, those mullets were formerly in very high
esteem which w^ere taken in the neighbourhood of Sinope
and Abdera; while, as Paulus Jovius informs us, those were
very little prized which had lived in the salt marsh of Or-
* f ile Mugil salient derives its specific name from the extraordinary velocity with which it springs into the air when it finds it-
fie if about to be enclosed.
m ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- bitello in Tuscany, in the lagunes of Ferrara and Venice,
terygii. in those of Padua and Chiozza, and such as came from the
Gobioidse. neighbourhood of Commachio and Ravenna. All these
places in fact are marshy, and the streams by which they
are watered are brackish, and communicate to the fish
which they support the odour and the flavour of the mud.”1
At the conclusion of this family Cuvier places the two
following genera, the first of which is allied partly to the
mullets and partly to the Scomberidae, while the second
partakes of characters intermediate between the Mugilidae
in general, and the ensuing family of Gobioidae.
Genus Tetragonurus, Risso, so called from two sa¬
lient crests on each side, near the base of the caudal fin.
The body is elongated; the spinous dorsal long, but very
low,—the soft dorsal approximate, but higher and short,
with an anal of corresponding form ; the ventrals are a
little behind the pectorals ; the branches of the lower jaw
are vertically raised, and furnished with a range of pointed
cutting teeth, forming as it were a saw, and fitting, when
the mouth is closed, into those of the upper jaw. The sto¬
mach is garnished interiorly with hard and pointed papillae.
The only known species (T. Cuvieri, Risso) is found
along the Mediterranean shores, but only at great depths.
It is of a black colour, measuring about a foot in length,
and is covered by hard, toothed, striated scales. Its flesh
is said to be poisonous.
Genus Atherina, Linn. Body elongated; dorsals
wide apart; ventrals further back than the pectorals;
mouth very projectile, and furnished with extremely small
teeth. The transverse processes of the last abdominal ver¬
tebrae are bent so as to form a little conical bag for the re¬
ception of the point of the swimming bladder.
All the known species are characterised by a broad sil¬
very band along the sides. They are highly esteemed for
their delicacy; and the fry, which continue for a long time
together in crowded troops, are eaten along the Mediter¬
ranean shores under the name of Nonnat. A. hepsetus, Linn,
was till very recently regarded as indigenous to the seas
and estuaries of Britain. There was reason, however, to
believe that several species had been confounded under
that name ; and Mr Yarrell has ascertained that the Bri¬
tish species, commonly called the Atherine, coincides in
its characters with the Atherina presbyter of Cuvier. It is
a common fish at Brighton, where, under the name of
sand,-smelt, it is eaten in large quantities by the inhabitants
and visitors during the winter months. It partakes of the
cucumber smell and flavour of the true smelt, and is a small
handsome fish, measuring from five to six inches. It is
rarely brought to the London market. It spawns in May
and June.
FAMILY XII—GOBIOID/E.
Ibis family derives its name from the Linnaean genus
Gobius, and is distinguished by having the dorsal spines
slender and flexible. The viscera of all the fishes pertain-Acam
ing to it are nearly of the same conformation ; the intestinal terj
canal is equal, ample, and without caeca, and there is noGob»
swimming bladder. ^
The species referrible to the genus Blennius, Linn, pre¬
sent a very distinctive character in having their ventral
fins placed before the pectorals, and composed only of
two rays. Their bodies are elongated and compressed,
and they bear only a single dorsal, composed almost en¬
tirely of simple and flexible rays. They live in small com¬
panies in rocky streams, and can survive for a consider¬
able time out of the water, in consequence of their skin
being covered with a kind of mucus, a circumstance which
has caused the Greek name Blennius to be applied to
them. Many of them are viviparous, and both sexes have
a tubercle near the anus, which seems to be subservient to
the purposes of copulation. They are now arranged under
the following genera:
Genus Blennius, Cuv. Includes the blennies properly
so called, and is characterised by long, equal, and closely-
placed teeth, forming only a single and rather regular row
on each jaw, terminating behind in some species by a
long and hooked tooth. The head is obtuse, the muzzle
short, and the forehead vertical; the intestines broad and
short. Several species occur along the coasts of Britain.
Of these we may mention the butterfly blenny {B. ocelh-
ris), distinguished by having the dorsal bi-lobed, the an¬
terior lobe being very elevated, and marked with a round
black spot, cinctured with a white and black circle. See
Plate CCCIV. fig. 1.
Genus Myxodes, Cuv. Separated from the blennies
properly so called, in consequence of the head being elon¬
gated, the snout pointed, and projecting beyond the
mouth ; the range of teeth like those of the blennies, but
without the canine teeth.
Genus Salarias, Cuv. Teeth laterally compressed,
hooked at the extremity, exceedingly slender, and in pro¬
digious numbers. The head of these fishes is very much
compressed superiorly, and of great breadth across the
base: their lips are fleshy and thick, their forehead quite
vertical, and their intestines, spirally convoluted, are
longer and more slender than in the common blennies.
All the known species are from the Indian Ocean.
Genus Clinus, Cuv. Teeth short and pointed, dis¬
posed in several rows, the first of which is largest. Their
muzzle is less obtuse than in the two preceding groups,
the stomach broader, and the intestines not so long.
Genus Cirrhibarbus, Cuv. The general form is
that of the preceding genus; the teeth are crowded, and
there is a small tentaculum over the eye, and another on
the nostril, besides three large ones at the extremity of
the muzzle, and eight under the point of the lower jaw.
Only one species is known, a native of the Indus. It is of
a uniform reddish-yellow colour.
Genus Gunellus. [Mureenoides, Lacep.) Distinguish¬
ed from all the other blennies by having the ventrals so
confounded all tlie °Firmn!''n^^^ ingdom, v ol. x. p. 300. According to Baron Cuvier, Linnaeus and several of his successors have
that denomination to °r f™7 ?U. Cts undfr tIle sinSle specific name of M. ccphalus. The French naturalist restricts
is the mutril cavito of CnvW on • c.har?ctei lsed above, and which has not yet been detected along our island shores. Our gray mullet
Europe ' “ '/he nartialitv ” ^ in \aTbltant n°t 011 ^ «f the Mediterranean, but also of all the western shores of the temperate parts of
effecTof con&fiLP?rem 7’it ^ 1 ^ e,X,hlbited by the ^ mullet for fresh ™ter has led to actual experiment of the
pondat Guernsey which is of ahnn/tV Mr Arnould Put.a number of the fry of the gray mullet about the size of a finger into his
fet of four pound?weight werl and haS been before referred to under the article Basse. After a few years, mul-
sea Of all the various salt uaUvfit Prov®d 10 be fatter, deeper, and heavier for their length, than others obtained from the
t2ho7i'%irullet appird ,ofbe u,e r* $-w«■««*^ «■»«:
of snort to the angler Tlmv riL fvfu f fu n ’ P' 2°?7 rhe same author informs us that the gray mullet is frequently an object
Thev are stronrm .L vnlS 3 f°r tr0ut’ and eveH at the larSer and more gaudy flies Led for salmon,
the thick lipped irrav mullet 7 careful hand m consequence of their impetuous plunging. Our other British species are
ii/clrS We mav W iw’ a Sma11 ®Pecies described by Mr Yarrell under the name of short gray mullet, mu-
present note and to the red and 'trin^d ^ u unfoi'tunate that the English term mullet should be applied both to the subjects of our
theTatter weVe termedL^l^ ’f T bel°ng t0 a ver>' different Sen us of the family Percidm, before described. If
tier weie termed surmullets, or the former mugih, the ambiguity of a double application of the same name would be avoided.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
193
, n ,p. small as to be almost imperceptible, and often reduced to several transverse stripes or bands of a darker hue. The Acanthop-
5" !P" a single ray. The head is very small, and the body elon- dorsal fin, as already mentioned, extends along the whole terygii*.
iobi' £• gated like the blade of a sword; the back garnished length of the back, and is composed of seventy-three Gobioidae-
s throughout its whole length with a uniform dorsal fin, all rays. The fore teeth project considerably, and diverge a
the rays of which are simple and without articulations, little from each other, forming a powerful kind of arma-
The teeth are as in the genus Clinus, the stomach and ture, moved by jaws of such strength that the animal has
intestines of a uniform character. been known to imprint the marks of its teeth on a bar of
One species, the common gunnel (B. gunnellus), is very iron. The uninviting aspect of this fish has probably not
abundant on the coasts of Britain, and in other northern .been without influence in producing a prejudice against
seas. It varies from six to ten inches in length, is of a it as an article of food. Its flesh, however, is far from
yellowish-brown colour on the body, with the belly white, being unsavoury, and bears considerable resemblance to
and the dorsal fin ornamented with a series of dark ocillat- that of the eel. It is in great request among the Ice-
ed spots along the base. landers, who eat it dry and salted ; while the other parts
Genus Opistognathus, Cuv. Presents the form of of the fish are likewise converted to useful purposes, the
the blennies properly so called, but differs from them in skin forming shagreen, and the gall being used as soap,
having the maxillaries very large, and prolonged posterior- The gobies ( Gobius, Linn.) are at once distinguished
ly into a kind of long flat moustache. The teeth in each from their associates by having their thoracic ventrals
jaw are rasp-like, the exterior range being strongest. The united, either throughout their whole length, or only to-
ventrals are placed exactly under the pectorals, and con- wards the base, and forming a single hollow disk, more
sist of three rays. Only one species seems to be known, or less tunnel-shaped.
which was brought from the Indian Ocean by M. Sonne- The spines of their dorsal fins are flexible; the open-
rat, after whom it was named by Baron Cuvier. ing of the gills, provided there are only five branchial
Genus Zoarcus, Cuv. The species of this group are rays, is generally very small ; and, like the blennies,
destitute of a spiny ray ; they have an anal tubercle, the they can live for some time out of the water. Their sto-
intestines are without caeca, and there are six branchial mach is without a cul-de-sac, and the intestinal canal has
rays. The ventrals have three rays; the teeth are conic, no caeca: the males have an appendage, like the blen-
and placed in a single row along the sides of the jaws, nies, behind the anus; and some species are known to
but in several in front; the palate is without teeth, produce their young alive. They are small or middle-
Their dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are united, although sized fishes, and usually frequent rocky places near the
the first named experiences a great depression. margin of the waters which they inhabit. The greater
The viviparous blenny (B. viviparus) is a well-known number are provided with a simple air-bladder,
species, and has been long celebrated for a peculiarity Genus Gobius, Cuv. Includes the gobies properly
which is chiefly observable among cartilaginous fishes, so called. They have their ventrals united throughout
that, namely, of producing its young alive. These are so their whole length, and even anterior to their base, by a
matured at the time of their birth, that on their first ex- traverse, so as to form a concave disk. Their body is
elusion they swim about with the utmost agility. No elongated; the head of moderate size, and rounded, the
fewer than 200 or 300 young are sometimes produced by cheeks inflated; and the eyes placed near each other,
an individual, and the abdomen of the mother is so dis- The back bears two fins, the posterior one rather long,
tended before parturition, that it is impossible to touch Several species occur in European seas, the characters of
it without causing them to be extruded. Full-grown in- which have not been sufficiently examined. They fre-
dividuals seldom exceed twelve inches in length; the quent waters having a clay bottom, and pass the winter
body is slender and smooth ; the colour yellowish olive, in excavations which they make for that purpose. In the
pale beneath, and marked on the upper parts with dusky spring they prepare a kind of nest in places which abound
spots. It is a littoral fish, and of frequent occurrence with Fuci, and cover it with the roots of theZostera: the
under stones. When boiled, the back-bone acquires a male remains there waiting the arrival of the females,
green colour. America produces a much larger species, which come in succession to deposit their eggs. These
which sometimes exceeds the length of three feet. It he fecundates, and afterwards watches and defends coura-
has been described under tbe name of Blennius labrosus. geously.
Genus Anarrhichas, Linn. Bear so much affinity The black goby {Gobius niger, Linn.) is not a scarce
to the blennies, that the species have been termed by species on the coasts of Britain. It is about five inches
Cuvier Blennies without ventrals. The dorsal fin, en- long, of a dark-brown colour above, and white beneath,
tirely composed of simple rays, but without stiffness, be- variegated with darker spots and stripes. The tail is
gins at the nape, and extends, in common with the anal rounded, and the superior rays of the pectorals are free at
one, nearly to the caudal fin, which is rounded like the the extremity. Several others are found in the Mediter-
pectorals. The whole body is smooth and covered with ranean, such as G.jozzo, G. capita, and G. cruentatus. A few
mucus. Their palatines, vomer, and mandibles, are arm- are inhabitants of fresh waters, such as the small dark-co¬
ed with large osseous tubercles, which are crowned with loured species described by Bonelli under the name of G.
small enamelled teeth ; but the anterior teeth are longer Jluviatilis. Among foreign kinds the most remarkable are
and conical. Such a conformation of the teeth makes the Coitus macrocephalus of Pallas, in which the head is
them very powerful instruments, and these fishes, from unusually large; and the G. lanceolatus of Bloch, distin-
their large size, are thereby rendered ferocious and dan- guished by its elongated form, and pointed caudal fin.
gerous. They have six rays in the gills ; the stomach is The genus named Gobioides by Lacepede differs
short and fleshy, with the pylorus near its base ; the in- from the gobies only in having their dorsals united so as
testine short, thick, and without caeca ; and the swimming to form a single fin, and in the body being more elongat-
bladder is wanting. ed. The Tenioides of the same distinguished Ichthyo-
The most common species is the A. lupus. Plate legist have likewise a continuous dorsal line, and the
V-AGIV. fig- 2. It is of frequent occurrence in most of the body is still more lengthened. These fishes present a
northern seas, and is well known along the coasts of Britain very peculiar aspect, in consequence of having their upper
by the names of sea-wolf and sea-cat. Its ordinary length is jaw very short, and the lower one high and convex, rising
from three to four feet, but examples sometimes occur near- above it, both of them being armed with long crooked
ly double that size. The colour is obscure livid brown, with teeth, while the eye is reduced to a mere point, and en¬
voi. xii. 2 b
194
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Gobioidae.
Acanthop. tirely concealed under the skin. The cavity of the mouth
terygii. js filled with a fleshy tongue almost of a globular shape,
and the lower jaw has a few barbels beneath. The Tm-
nioides Hermann is the only species known: it is a native
of the East Indies, and is usually found in the mud of
stagnant waters.
Genus Periophthalmus, Schn. Contains such as
have the head entirely scaly, the eyes placed quite close
to each other, and furnished on their lower margin with
an eye-lid capable of covering them; the pectoral fins
clothed with scales for more than half their length, which
makes them look as if supported by a kind of arm. Their
gills being still narrower than those of the other gobies,
they can live for a longer period out of the water ; and in
the Moluccas, their native country, they are often observ¬
ed to leap out on the mud in order to escape their ene¬
mies, or to seize the small shrimps, which form their prin¬
cipal nourishment. In some the ventrals have a concave
disk like the gobies properly so called; while in others
these fins are separated almost to the base. Plate CCCIV.
fig. 3. _
Genus Eleotris, Cuv. In common with the gobies,
the fishes referred to this genus have the first dorsal with
flexible spines, and an appendage behind the anus; but
the ventrals are perfectly distinct, the head obtuse and
a little depressed, the eyes remote from each other, and
the branchial membrane with six rays. The lateral line
is faintly marked, and the viscera resemble those of the
Gobii. The greater proportion of the species live in
fresh water, and often in the mud. I hat named E. dor-
mitatrix is a native of the Antilles ; it is of considerable
size, with the head depressed, the cheeks dilated, and the
fins spotted with black. Others occur in Senegal and
the Indies, and a small gilded species, marked with a
black spot at the base of the pectoral (the Gobius aura-
tns of Hiss.), inhabits the coasts of the Mediterranean.
Genus Callionymus, Linn. Possesses very strongly
marked characters in the gills being open only by a hole
on each side of the nape, and in the ventral fins being
placed under the throat, remote, and larger than the pec¬
torals. The head is oblong and depressed, the eyes ap¬
proximating when seen from above, the inter-maxillaries
very protractile, and the pre-opercles elongated behind
and terminating in a few spines. The teeth are crowded,
and are wanting on the palate. They are beautiful fishes,
with a smooth skin, and having the anterior dorsal sup¬
ported by some setaceous rays, occasionally much ele¬
vated. The second dorsal is elongated, as well as the
anal. The same appendage is observable behind the anus
as in the preceding genera. The stomach is not in the
form of a cul-de-sac, and they are without caeca and air-
bladder. Of this handsome genus we may mention as
an example the gemmeous dragonet ( C. lyrd), which oc¬
curs not unfrequently in the British seas. Plate CCCIV.
fig. 4. It derives its specific name from the form of the
dorsal fin, which has been thought to bear an obscure
resemblance to a lyre. The full-grown fish is about a
foot in length. It is of a beautiful orange or yellow co¬
lour, spotted and striped with violet; the pupils of the
eyes fine deep blue, and the pectoral fins light brown.
The sordid dragonet (C. dracunculus) differs from the
above only in having the dorsal fin short and without a
fillet: by many it is conjectured to be the female of C.
lyra. Several species inhabit the Mediterranean, such
as C. lacerta, cithara, jaculus ; and not a few are found
in foreign countries.
Genus Trichonotus, Schn. Differs from the typical
Callionymi only in having the body very much elongat¬
ed, and the continuous dorsal and anal of proportionate
extent. The genus Comephora of Lacepede compre¬
hends but one species, from the Lake Baikal, which is
usually found dead after storms, and is of so soft and fat Acanth,
a substance as to afford a considerable quantity of oil. tervgi
It is distinguished from all the other members of this ^ton
group by being destitute of ventrals. The genus Pla- ^u!
typteron is constituted by a few Indian fishes, which, f'
to the large and remote ventrals of the Callionymi, unite
a short depressed head, a small mouth, open branchiae,
and large scales: their two dorsals are short and remote.
Genus Chirus, Steller (Labrax, Pallas). Placed by
Cuvier at the end of this family, presents so many dis¬
tinctive characters, that it may not improperly be regard¬
ed as the type of a new family group. The body is elon¬
gated, and garnished with ciliated scales ; the head small
and unarmed ; the mouth but slightly cleft, and furnished
with small unequal conical teeth ; the spines of the dor¬
sal are almost invariably slender, and that fin extends
along the whole back. But their most distinctive feature
consists of numerous series of pores, resembling several
lateral lines. Their intestines are without caecal appen¬
dages ; they have often a tuft on the eye-brow, like cer¬
tain kinds of blenny ; but their ventrals are composed of
five soft rays, as is usual in the allied species. All the
known kinds, amounting to six or seven in number, are
from the sea of Kamschatka, and were first described by
Pallas in the 11th volume of the Memoirs of the Academy
of Petersburg for 1810.
FAMILY XIII PECTOllALES PEDICULATI.
This family, in Baron Cuvier’s arrangement, compre¬
hends such acanthopterygenous species as have the carpal
bone prolonged in order to form a kind of arm, which sup¬
ports the pectorals. From this peculiarity they have de¬
rived their family name. Only two genera are here in¬
cluded, and these are closely allied to each other, although
the generality of authors have placed them widely apart.
Genus Loprnus,Linn. Besides the semi-cartilaginous
nature of the skeleton, and the want of scales on the skin,
has for its general character pectorals supported as if by
two arms, each of them sustained by two bones, which
have been compared to the radius and cubitus, but which
in reality belong to the carpus, and are more elongated
in this genus than in any other. The ventrals are placed
greatly in advance of the pectorals, and the opercles and
rays of the branchiae are enveloped in the skin, while the
gills open only by a single hole, pierced behind the pec¬
torals. The species are voracious ; they have a large sto¬
mach and a short intestine, and are able to live for a very
long period out of the water, on account of the small open¬
ing of their gills. The kinds now included in this genus,
in the restricted sense attached to it by Cuvier, have the
head excessively large in proportion to the rest of the
body, and at the same time broad and depressed, and
spiny in many places ; the opening of the mouth very
wide, and armed with pointed teeth; and the lower jaw
furnished with numerous barbels. There are two distinct
dorsals, of which the anterior possesses some detached
rays, moveable over the head, where they rest on a ho¬
rizontal inter-spinal; the branchial membrane forming a
very large sac opening in the axilla, and supported by six
very long rays ; the operculum small. It is asserted that
they lie among the mud, and by putting in motion the
rays of their head, attract small fishes, which, mistaking
the broad and fleshy extremities of these rays for worms,
thus become the prey of the Lophii. It is also said that
they can seize and retain their prey by means of then
large branchial sacs. Their intestine has two very short
caeca towards its origin, and the swimming bladder is
awanting. Of these fishes, the most remarkable is the
Lophius piscatorius of Linnaeus. Plate CCCIV. fig-5. It
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ican ’P- is a Iar£e (measuring from four to five feet in length)
ter i- of the European seas, with a wide mouth, depressed head,
Lab a- numerous teeth, and a bearded tongue. Its aspect is ex-
^ tremely repulsive. The Mountsbay Angler of Borlase,1
and the one from Bristol,2 are, according to Dr Fleming,
only mutilated specimens of the species just alluded to.
The Chironectes {Antennarius, Commers.) have free
rays on the head, like the preceding, the first being slen¬
der, often terminating by a tuft; and the following, in¬
creased by a membrane, are sometimes greatly inflated,
and at other times united into a single fin. Their body
and head are compressed, and the mouth opens vertically ;
their gill-covers, provided with four rays, open only by a
canal, and a small hole behind the pectoral; the dorsal
occupies nearly all the back. The whole body is some¬
times garnished with cutaneous appendages. The bran¬
chiae are four in number; the swimming bladder is large,
and the intestine of moderate size and without caeca. By
filling their enormous stomach with air, after the manner
of the Tetrodons, they can inflate their abdomen like a
balloon. When on land, their fins assist them in creep¬
ing, which they do almost after the manner of small quad¬
rupeds, the pectorals, from their position, performing the
office of hinder legs. Moving about in this manner, they
can live without entering the water for two or three days.
They are found in tropical seas ; and Linnaeus appears to
have confounded several species under the name of Lo-
phius histrio.
Genus Malthe, Cuv. Has the head unusually large
and flattened, principally by the projection of the sub-oper¬
culum : the eyes placed very far forwards ; the muzzle
projecting like a little horn, and the mouth situate under
it, the latter being of moderate size and protractile; the
gill-covers supported by six or seven rays, and open to¬
wards the back by a hole above each pectoral; the single
dorsal small and soft; the body covered with osseous tu¬
bercles, and having barbels along the sides, but there are
no free rays over the head. The swimming bladder and
caeca are wanting.
Genus Batrachus. Derives its name from a Greek
word signifying a frog, to which the species are thought
to bear some resemblance, in consequence of the enlarge¬
ment of the head. The latter is flattened horizontally, and
wider than the body ; the gape wide, and both the opercle
and sub-opercle spiny; the gill-covers six-rayed ; the ven-
trals narrow, attached under the throat, and consisting
only of three rays, of which the first is wide and elongat¬
ed ; and the pectorals supported by a short arm, form¬
ed by the prolongation of the carpal bone. The first dor¬
sal is short, supported by three spiny rays; the second
long and soft, which is also the case with the corre¬
sponding anal one. The lips are often garnished with fila¬
ments. Such as have been dissected have their stomach
in the form of an oblong sac, the intestines short and
without caeca. The swimming bladder is deeply furcate
anteriorly. They conceal themselves in the sand, lying
in ambush for their prey. The wounds made by their
spines are supposed to be dangerous. The species, which
vary considerably in their form and aspect, occur both in
the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
FAMILY XIV—LABRIDiE.
Easily recognised by its external aspect. The body is
o png and scaly, and the single dorsal fin is supported an-
enor y by spines, each of which is generally garnished
1 i a membranous appendage. The jaws are covered
195
by fleshy lips ; the two upper pharyngeals are supported Acanthop-
against the cranium, and the lower one is large, all the terygii.
three armed with teeth, sometimes en pave, at other times Labridae.
pointed or in the form of plates, but generally stronger
than usual. The intestinal canal is entirely without caeca,
or only with two very small ones ; and there is a strong
swimming bladder.
The genus Labrus of Linnaeus forms an extensive group
of fishes, very like each other in their oblong shape, and
double fleshy lips (from which circumstance they derive
their name), one of which is immediately connected with
the jaws, and the other with the sub-orbitals ; the gills are
serrated, and have five rays; the maxillary teeth conic,
the middle and anterior ones being longest; the pharyn¬
geal teeth cylindrical and blunt, disposed en pave, the
superior on two large plates, the inferior on a single one
corresponding to the two above. The stomach is not in
the form of a cul-de-sac, but is continuous with an intes¬
tine without caeca, which, after two convolutions, termi¬
nates in a large rectum. The swimming bladder is robust
and simple. The species are numerous, and the colours
of many of them liable to so much variation that it is dif¬
ficult to distinguish them with precision.
In recent times the Linnaean genus has been subdivid¬
ed as follows:
Genus Labrus, properly so called. Opercle and pre-
opercle destitute both of spines and dentations ; cheeks
and opercle covered with scales ; lateral line straight, or
nearly so.
Four different kinds have been described as inhabiting
the British seas, but some of these seem to be mere va¬
rieties, such, for example, as the L. halanusoxiA L. comber
of Pennant, which are probably referrible to the Labrus
maculatus of Bloch. L. lineatus is likewise a British spe¬
cies. The ground colour is reddish, with one or more ir¬
regular clouded bands of a deeper colour along the flanks.
The dorsal has from sixteen to seventeen spines, and is
marked with a dark-coloured spot anteriorly.
Genus Cheilinus, Lacep. Differs from the Labri
properly so called, by the lateral line being interrupted
opposite the dorsal fin, and commencing again a little
lower. The scales at the extremity of the tail are large,
and partially envelope the base of the caudal. They are
fishes of considerable beauty, and are found in the Indian
seas.
The next genus of interest is that named Juris, in
which the head is entirely smooth and without scales,
and the lateral line is much bent opposite the end of the
dorsal. Several species occur in the Atlantic and Medi¬
terranean, and most of them are of very beautiful colours.
The most common European one (Labrus Julis, Linn.) is
frequent in the Mediterranean, and has likewise been
found on the coast of Cornwall. It is about seven inches
in length, and of a beautiful violet, relieved by a bright
zigzag orange band on each side.
Genus Crenilabrus has been separated by Cuvier
from the Lutjani of Bloch, and associated with the Labri,
to which all their characters, both external and internal,
correspond, except the dentation of the edge of the pre-
opeicle. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 6.) Several species are
found in the northern seas, such as Lutjanus rupestris,
Bloch, J50, of a yellow colour, with clouded vertical bands.
The British species (C. tinea') known under the name of
old wife, or wrasse, belongs to this genus, as does likewise
the gibbous wrasse of Pennant’s British Zoology. The
Mediterranean furnishes a great number adorned with
the most beautiful colours, such as the Labr. lapimx,
Forsk, which is silvery, with three broad longitudinal
1 Cornwall, 266, t. 27, f. 6.
2 Phil. Tranr. liii. p. 170, t. 13.
196
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Acanthop- bands formed by dots of vermillion ; the pectorals yellow,
t^rvcrii  1 4.1— r. Kln^ TV/Toxr 1 itrnrMr»Q 1
terygii
Labridae.
and the ventrals blue. Many likewise occur in tropical
countries, of which we may mention Lut. verres (Bl. 255),
Lut. notatus, L. virescens, and L. chrysops.
To the characters of the Crenilabri, the genus Cori-
cus of Cuvier joins that of a mouth nearly as protractile
as in the Epibuli. The latter group are very remarkable
for this property, being capable of extending it to a great
length, and suddenly forming it into a kind of tube by a
peculiar movement of the maxillaries. They practise this
artifice to seize small fishes as they swim within reach of
this singular instrument. Several allied genera avail
themselves of the greater or less protractility of their
jaws to procure their food in a similar manner.
The whole body, and the head of the Epibuli, are covered
with large scales, the hinder row of which encroaches even
on the anal and caudal fins, as likewise takes place among
the Cheilini. The lateral line is interrupted in a similar
manner, and, in common with these last-named fishes, and
the Labri, they have two long conical teeth in front of each
jaw, and behind them small blunt ones. Those of the
pharynx have not been observed. The Spams insidiator
of Pallas is the only species hitherto discovered. It is of
a reddish colour, and found in the Indian Ocean.
Genus Clepticus. Furnished with a small cylindrical
muzzle, which rises suddenly like that of the Epibuli, but
is not so long as the head, and scarcely permits the view
of a few small teeth ; the body is oblong, the head obtuse,
the lateral line continuous, and the scales envelope the
dorsal and anal fins, almost as far as the summit of the
spines. The only ascertained species ( C. genizara) is of
a reddish purple colour, and inhabits the Antilles.
Genus Flops, Commers. Gomphosis, Lacep. Has the
head entirely smooth, as in Julis, but the muzzle is in the
form of a long and slender tube, formed by the prolonga¬
tion of their inter-maxillaries and mandibularies, which the
integuments bind together as far as the small opening of
the mouth. Of these fishes, the Gomphosis cceruleus, and
G. variegatus, Lacep., may serve as examples. They are
taken in the Indian seas, and many of them are said to
form a delicious article of food. The preceding genei’a,
from Labrus properly so called inclusive, may be all re¬
garded as Linnaean Labri. We now come to
Genus Xirichthys, Cuv. Which comprehends fishes
resembling the Labri in form, but they are very much
compressed, and the forehead descends suddenly towards
the mouth by a deep and nearly vertical line, formed by
the ethmoid and the ascending branches ot the inter-max¬
illaries. The body is covered with large scales; the late¬
ral line interrupted; the jaws armed with a row of coni¬
cal teeth, of which the medial ones are longest, and the
pharynx paved with hemispherical teeth; the intestinal
canal is continuous, with two convolutions, and no caeca,
nor is the stomach in the form of a cul-de-sac. They pos¬
sess a pretty large air-bladder.
Naturalists, anterior to the time of Cuvier, ranged the
species with the Coryphcence, from which they greatly dif¬
fer in their structure, internal as well as external. They
approximate to the Labri, to which, however, they are dis¬
similar in the profile of the head.
Genus Chromis, Cuv. Has the lips and protractile in¬
ter-maxillaries, the pharyngeal bones, and dorsal filaments,
of the Labri ; but the teeth are en carde upon the jaws and
pharynx, with an anterior range of a conical shape. The
vertical fins are filamentous, and even those of the abdo¬
men are often prolonged into long filets, and the lateral
line is interrupted. The stomach is a cul-de-sac, but
there are no caeca. One small species, of a chestnut-
brown colour (Spams chromis). is found in immense num¬
bers in the Mediterranean. The Nile produces another,
which attains the length of two feet, and is regarded as
the best fish occurring in Egypt. It is the Labrus iVifotfcwAcanthi
of Hasselq. and Sonnini. The genus Cychla differs from tervg
the preceding by having all the teeth crowded, and placed ^tu]
in a broad band, and by the body being more elongated.
Plesiops, Cuv., has the head compressed, the eyes near '
each other, and the ventrals very long. Malacanthus
possesses the general characters of the Labri, and the
maxillary teeth are also similar to theirs, but those of the
pharyngeals are en carde ; the body is lengthened, the
lateral line continuous, the opercle terminated by a small
spine, and the long dorsal has only a small number of
slender, flexible, anterior spines. One species is found
in the Antilles, of a yellowish colour, irregularly rayed
across with violet; it is the Coryphena plumieri, Lacep.
iv. viii. 1.
Genus Scarus, Linn. Comprehends fishes very re¬
markable on account of the form of the jaws (that is, their
inter-maxillary and pre-mandibularybones), which are con¬
vex, rounded, and garnished with teeth like scales upon
their edges and anterior surface; these teeth succeed
each other from behind forwards, so that those of the base
are the newest, and in time come to form a range upon
the cutting edge. Naturalists have erroneously thought
that the jaw-bones themselves were naked or exposed.
These jaws are, besides, covered while the fish is alive by
fleshy lips, but there is no double lip adherent to the sub-
orbitaries. The species have the oblong form of Labrus,
with large scales, and the lateral line interrupted; they
bear on their pharynx two plates above and one below,
garnished with teeth like the pharyngeal plates of the
Labri, but these teeth are in the form of transverse laminae,
and not en pave.
Cuvier is of opinion that the Scams creticus of Aldro-
vandus is the species so celebrated under the ijame of
Scarus by the ancients, and in search of which (in the
time of Claudius) Elipertius Optatus, the commander of
the Roman fleet, went to Greece, with a view to effect its
introduction to the Italian seas. It is still used in our
days as an article of food in Greece. The species are nu¬
merous in the seas of warm climates, and are vulgarly
known, on account of the peculiar form of the jaws, and
the splendour of their colours, under the name of parrot
fishes.
FAMILY XV.—FISTULARIDA:.
Characterised by a long tube formed in front of the cra¬
nium, by the prolongation of the ethmoid, the vomer, the
pre-opercles, inter-opercles, &c. at the end of which the
mouth is placed, composed, as usual, of inter-maxillaries,
maxillaries, palatines, and mandibularies. The intestine
is without any considerable inequalities, or many convo¬
lutions, and their ribs are either short or wanting. Some
of them (the Fistularice) have the body cylindrical, others
(the Centrisci) have it oval and compressed.
Genus Fistularia, Linn. Acquires its name from
the long tube common to all the family. The jaws are at
the extremity, opening but little, and nearly in a horizon¬
tal direction. The head, thus elongated, composes a third
or fourth part of the whole body, which is itself long and
slender. There are six or seven rays in the gills; the
osseous appendages likewise extend behind the head to
the anterior part of the body, which they tend more or less
to strengthen. The dorsal corresponds to the position 01
the anal, and the stomach, in the form of a fleshy tube, is
continuous with a narrow canal, without folds, at the com¬
mencement of which there are two caeca. In Fistu¬
laria properly so called, there is only one dorsal, which,
as well as the anal, is composed chiefly of simple rays; the
inter-maxillaries and lower jaw are armed with small teeth;
ICHTHYOLOGY.
197
alac and between the lobes of the caudal there issues a filament
>m sometimes as long as the whole body ; the tube of the
xior muzzle is very long and depressed, the swimming bladder
ialei excessively large, and the scales invisible. In the subdivi-
?rin ’sion called Aulostoma by Lacepede, a name derived from
^ avXog, a flute, and <rro/ia, the mouth, the dorsal is preced¬
ed by numerous free spines, and the jaws are without teeth.
The body, which is very scaly, is broad, and compressed
between the dorsal and anal, the latter followed by a short,
small tail, terminated by the usual fin. The tube of the
muzzle is rather short, large, and compressed; the swim¬
ming bladder very large. We are acquainted with only
one species {Fistularia chinensis, Bl.), which is found in
the Indian seas.
The Centrisci of Linn, possess the tubular trunk of
this family ; the body, however, is not elongated, but oval
or oblong, compressed laterally, and sharp on the under
side; the gills have only two or three slender rays; the
first dorsal is spiny, and the small ventrals are placed be¬
hind the pectorals. The mouth is extremely small, and
opens obliquely; the intestines are without caeca, folded
three or four times; and the swimming bladder is of con¬
siderable size. In Centriscus properly so called, the
anterior dorsal, which is placed very far forwards, has its
first spine long and strong, supported by an apparatus
connected with the shoulder and head. The species are
covered with small scales, and have several broad and
denticulated plates on the apparatus just mentioned. The
C. scolopax, or trumpet-fish, is a very common species in
the Mediterranean, about five inches long, and of a silvery
lustre. (See Plate CCCIV. fig. 7.) It occurs occasion¬
ally on the south-western coasts of England. In the
sub-genus Amphisile, the back is defended with large
scaly pieces, of which the anterior spine and the first dor¬
sal have the appearance of being a continuation. All the
species hitherto known to us are from the Indian seas:
we may mention as examples, Centriscus scutatus, Linn.,
and Centriscus velitaris, Pallas.
We here terminate our abstract of the Acanthop-
terygii, or first great order or division of the ordinary
fishes.
The second division of common fishes, or that named
Malacopterygii, contains within itself three orders,
which admit of being characterised by the position of the
ventrals, or, in certain cases, by their absence.
ORDER II.i—MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES.
These are distinguished by having their ventrals sus¬
pended to the under part of the abdomen, and behind the
pectorals, without any attachment to the shoulder bone.
This is the most numerous of the three orders, and in¬
cludes a large proportion of the fresh-water fishes. It is
divisible info five families.
FAMILY L—CYPRINIDA:.
May be known by having the mouth but slightly cleft,
the jaws weak and generally without teeth, and their edge
formed by the inter-maxillaries ; by pharyngeals strongly
toothed, thus compensating for the imperfect armature of
the jaws; and by the branchial rays being few in num¬
ber. Their body is scaly, and there is no adipose dorsal, Malacop-
such as is observed in Siluri and salmon. Their stomach terygii
has no cul-de-sac, and the pylorus is without coecal ap-
pendages. They are the least carnivorous of fishes. Cvnrinid®.
The typical genus Cyprinus is a very natural one, and
comprehends a great number of species, which are readi¬
ly distinguished by the small mouth, toothless jaws, and
the three flat branchial rays. Their tongue is smooth, and
the palate provided with a soft and singularly irritable
substance, vulgarly known by the name of Carp's tongue.
The pharynx presents a powerful instrument for mastica¬
tion, consisting of large teeth attached to the inferior
pharyngeal bones, and capable of pressing the food be¬
tween them, and a stony disk enclosed in a wide cavity
under an apophysis of the basilary bone. These fishes have
only one dorsal, and the body is covered with scales, most
frequently of large size. They inhabit fresh waters, and
are perhaps the least carnivorous of their class, subsisting
chiefly on grains, grass, and even on mud. Their stomach
is continuous, with a short intestine without caeca, and
the bladder is divided into two by a constriction.
The genus Cyprinus,2 Cuv. including the Carps pro¬
perly so called, has a long dorsal, which, as well as the
anal, has a spine for the second ray. Of these, some have
barbels at the angles of the upper jaw, and others are
destitute of these appendages. Of the former we may
cite as an example the common carp ; and the gold fish of
China affords an instance of the latter.
Cyprinus carpio, the common carp. This well-known
fish is of an olive-green, yellowish beneath, having the
anal and dorsal spines strong and denticulated, and the
barbels short; the pharyngeal teeth are flat and striated
on the crown. It is a native of the central countries of
Europe ; but, owing to its value as an article of food, it
was early distributed by human agency over the whole of
that Continent. The ease with which it can be transport¬
ed from one place to another, and its speedy growth and
propagation in ponds and artificial reservoirs, afforded
great facilities for its rapid dispersion. The year 1614 is
assigned as the date of its first introduction into England ;
but it was naturalized in Germany and Sweden nearly
half a century before that period. It delights in tranquil
waters, preferring such as have a muddy bottom, and
the surface partially shaded with plants. Its food consists
of the larvae of aquatic insects, minute Testacea, worms,
and the tender blades and shoots of plants. The leaves
of lettuce, and other succulent plants of a similar kind, are
said to be particularly agreeable to them, and to fatten
them sooner than any other food. Although the carp
eats with great voracity when its supply of aliment is
abundant,—to such a degree, indeed, as sometimes to pro¬
duce indigestion, which occasionally proves fatal,—it can
subsist for an astonishing length of time without nourish¬
ment. In the winter, when they assemble in great num¬
bers, and bury themselves among the mud and the roots of
plants, they often remain for many months without eat¬
ing. They can also be preserved alive for a considerable
length of time out of the water, especially if care be taken
to moisten them occasionally as they become dry. Ad¬
vantage is often taken of this circumstance to transport
them alive, by packing them among damp herbage, or
wet linen ; and the operation is said to be unattended with
any risk to the animal, especially if the precaution be
taken to put a piece of bread in its mouth steeped in bran¬
dy ! In a similar way, the Dutch preserve them by sus¬
pending them from the roof of a damp apartment in a
bag-net filled with moss, which is continually kept moist,
Of the general Class of Fishes.
2 The name is of Grecian, origin, and was applied to the species because they were dedicated to Venus, in consequence of their
extraordinary fecundity.
198
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- and they are fed with vegetables and bread steeped in
Abdom' —a mode of treatment by which they are not only
nates!1" a^ve» actually thrive and fatten.
Cyprinidse. The fecundity of these fishes is very great, and their
numbers consequently would soon become excessive, but
for the many enemies by which their spawn is destroyed.
No fewer than 700,000 eggs have been found in the ova-
ria of a single carp, and that too by no means an indivi¬
dual of the largest size. Their growth is very rapid, more
so perhaps than that of any other fresh-water fish, and
the size which they sometimes attain is very considerable.
In certain lakes in Germany and Prussia, individuals are
occasionally taken weighing thirty or forty pounds ; and
Pallas relates that they occur in the Volga five feet in
length, and even of greater weight than the examples just
alluded to. The largest of which we have any account
is that mentioned by Bloch, taken near Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, which weighed seventy pounds, and measured near¬
ly nine feet in length.
Cyprinus auratus (gold fish). This beautiful species,
the most brilliantly adorned of all our fresh-water fishes,
and scarcely surpassed even by the more richly ornament¬
ed inhabitants of the ocean, is well known to be a native
of China, although it is now domesticated, so to speak, in
almost every country, both of the old and new world.
Like the carp, it has the dorsal and anal spines denticu¬
lated. When young it is of a blackish colour, and it gra¬
dually acquires the fine golden red by which it is charac¬
terised ; but some examples are of a silvery hue, and
others are variegated with three different shades of co¬
lour. Like most other animals that have been long estran¬
ged from their natural habits, and subjected to artificial in¬
fluences, this species presents a great many varieties, ex¬
tending even to some important parts of structure. In¬
dividuals occur without a dorsal, others with a very large
one, others with the caudal greatly enlarged, and divided
into three or four lobes ; and in some instances the eyes
are enormously dilated.1 The golden carp is said to have
been originally confined to a lake near the mountain
Tsienking, in the province of The-kiang, in China, about
the 30th degree of N. lat. It was first brought to Eng¬
land in 1691, but wns very scarce till 1728, when a con¬
siderable number were imported, and they soon became
generally known. They do not flourish in rivers and open
ponds, not, however, because such places are uncongenial
to them, but because they are exposed to many enemies,
against which they have no means of defence. When kept
in confinement they ought to be nourished with fine
crumbs of bread, small worms, flies, and yolks of eggs dried
and powdered, and the water ought to be frequently chan¬
ged. The ordinary length of this species is from four to six
inches ; but they have been sometimes known to reach a
foot. Although natives of a warm climate, they can sus¬
tain a great degree of cold uninjured. An individual,
which was accidentally exposed during the night, was
completely frozen up in the centre of its glass jar; but as
thejce thawed it recovered its vigour, and seemed to suf¬
fer no further inconvenience.
To this group belongs the smallest of the European
Cyprini, viz. C. amarus, which is about an inch long,
greenish above, and of a fine red beneath. During the
time of spawning, which takes place in April, it has a
steel-blue line on each side of the tail; the second dorsal
ray forms a rather stiff spine.
Genus Barbus of Cuvier, contains such species as
have the dorsal and anal short, with a strong spine for
the second or third ray of the dorsal, and four barbels,
two of which are at the extremity, and two at the angles Make
of the upper jaw. As an example, we may refer to the terj|
Cyprinus barbus, or barbel, which may be known by its
oblong head. It is very common in clear and runningrna!es
waters, where it sometimes attains to a length exceeding ^
ten feet. Several allied species are found in Italy, having '
the spine weaker, but which, nevertheless, differ from the
following genus by possessing four barbels. Such are
Barbus caninus, Bonnelli; B. plebeius, Val.; B. eqm,
Id. Various species of Barbi occur in the Caspian Sea, in
the Nile, and in India ; and not a few have been ascertain¬
ed to inhabit America.
Genus Gobio, Cuv. Has the dorsal and anal short, both
of them without spines, and the mouth furnished with bar¬
bels. Of this genus the gudgeon ( Cyprinus gobio) may be
cited as an example. It is a small fish, seldom exceeding
seven or eight inches, and is found in most parts of Europe
in small lakes and gently flowing rivers. It is of a pale
olive-brown colour, slightly spotted with black, especially
on the fins, the sides and abdomen being silvery white.
It spawns in the spring, and as it deposits its ova at dis¬
tant intervals, the operation generally continues for a con¬
siderable time. It is a very prolific fish ; and as its flesh
is of a very delicate flavour, it is much sought after for
the table.
Genus Tinca, Cuv. Unites to the characters of the
gudgeons that of having very minute scales; their bar¬
bels also are very small. This genus includes the com¬
mon tench (Cyprinus tinca, L.), which is of a deep yel¬
lowish brown, sometimes, however, assuming a fine gol¬
den colour. Its usual length is from twelve to fourteen
inches ; but instances are on record of its having reached
three feet. It inhabits stagnant waters with a muddy
bottom ; and in the winter conceals itself among the mud,
and seems to undergo a kind of torpidity. In May and
June it deposits its ova among aquatic plants; these are
very minute, of a green colour, and so numerous that
297,000 have been reckoned in one female. The tench
is very extensively distributed, appearing to occur through¬
out the whole globe. Its flesh is not much esteemed, as
it is soft, insipid, and difficult of digestion.
Genus Abramis, Cuv. Distinguished by wanting spines
and barbels; the dorsal is short, placed behind the ven-
trals, and the anal long. Two species are known, the
common bream (Cyp. bramd), and the little bream (Cyp.
blicca, C. latus, Gm. Bl. 10). The former is the largest
fish in this subdivision; there are twenty-nine rays in the
anal, and all the fins are obscure. It is common in slow
flowing rivers and lakes in most European countries. It
sometimes acquires two feet and a half in length, but its
ordinary dimensions may be stated to be about a foot.
Worms, confervae, and aquatic plants are its usual food;
but, like many allied species, it often swallows mud, which
renders its flesh unsavoury. “ There exists in the river
Trent, in the neighbourhood of Newark, two species or
varieties of bream. The common bream, Cyprinus bra-
ma, is known there by the name of Carp Bream, from its
yellow colour, and has been taken of nearly eight pounds
weight. The other species or variety, which I believe to
be a non-descript, never exceeds a pound in weight. It is
of a silvery hue, and goes by the name of White Bream.”1
Omitting the genera Labeo and Catastomus, of
which the species are all foreign, and imperfectly known,
we now come to the generic group named Leuciscus
(Klein), comprehending several kinds indigenous to Eu¬
rope. They have the dorsal and anal short, and are des¬
titute of spines and barbels, and there is nothing particu-
* ^aVe a®3r^e^ materials for a kind of monograph by Sauvigny, and a painter of the name of Martinet*
ICHTHYOLOGY.
lIL* lar in the structure of the lips. The species of this sub-
division are considerable in amount, but they are held in
ido'1 little estimation as articles of food. They are distinguished
)a!®s by the position of the dorsal, a character, however, which
Jr; is not always sufficiently defined. In some it corresponds
to the position of the ventrals; such is the case with
~ Lew. dobula ( Cyprinus dobula, Linn.), in which the head
is broad, the muzzle rounded, and the pectorals red.
Lew. rutilus (the roach), has the body compressed and
silvery, and all the fins red. In others, the dorsal cor¬
responds above to the interval which is between the ven¬
trals and the anal. This is exemplified in Leuc. alburnus
(the bleak), in which the body is narrow, and of a bril¬
liant silvery hue; the fins pale ; the forehead straight,
and the inferior jaws somewhat elongated. It is com¬
mon throughout Europe ; and is one of the fishes whose
nacre (or silvery-looking substance) is employed in fabri¬
cating artificial pearls. Leuc. phoxinus (common minnow)
likewise pertains to this group. The appearance of this
beautiful little fish is familiar to all. It is the smallest
species of the genus found in Europe, the greatest length
which it attains seldom exceeding three inches. It first
makes its appearance in March, and disappears in Octo¬
ber, passing the winter beneath the mud. It is well known
to be a gregarious species, and small shoals are to be
found in almost every shallow stream, especially in clear
weather, as they seem to delight in warmth and sunshine.
They usually spawn in the month of June, but their ova
are often found at a much later period. The flesh of the
minnow is delicate and well flavoured, but its size is too
small to admit of its being of much value as an article of
food. It is principally used as a bait for the capture of
larger kinds.
Certain species of the present genus (the Chelae of Bu¬
chanan) have the dorsal corresponding to the commence¬
ment of the anal, and in several of these the body is com¬
pressed nearly in the same manner as in some of the CAu-
pece. Such is Leuc. cultratus, which is further remarka¬
ble for its lower jaw, which ascends in front of the upper,
and for its large pectorals shaped like a scythe.1 The ge¬
neric group Gonorhynchus, Gronov. is dissimilar from
all the other Cyprini, by having the body and the head
elongated, and covered, as well as the opercula, and even
the membrane of the branchiae, with small scales ; the muz¬
zle projecting in front of the mouth, which is small, and
without teeth or barbels ; three branchial rays, and a small
dorsal above the ventrals. Only one species is known
{Cyprinusgonorhynchus, Gm.), which is found at the Cape
of Good Hope.
Genus Cobitis (loach). Has the head small, the body
elongated, clothed with scales, and covered with a mucous
matter; the ventrals placed behind, and above them a small
single dorsal; the mouth at the end of the muzzle, but little
cleft and without teeth, but surrounded with lips fitted for
sucking, and by barbels; gill-covers little opened, and having
only three rays. Their inferior pharyngeal bones are rather
strongly dentated, their intestines are without any caeca, and
their swimming bladder, which is very small, is enclosed in
an osseous bilobate case, attached to the third and fourth
vertebrae. Three species are found in the fresh waters of
Europe, viz. C. barbatula, C.fossilis, and C. tcenia. The
first of these, the bearded loach, is a ■well-known fish in this
country,as it occurs plentifully in almost every small stream.
It is about four or five inches long. The second species,
which does not occur in Britain, measures sometimes afoot
m length. It dwells in the mud of ponds, and is so tena¬
cious of life as to live a long time after being stiffly frozen,
or even dried. In stormy weather it rises to the surface
199
and agitates the water. It swallows quantities of air, Malacop-
which it converts, according to M. Ehrman’s observations, terygii
into carbonic acid. Its flesh is soft, and savours of mud. Abdoun-
The third species was introduced into the British Fauna by WgocicL
Berkenhout. Turton says it occurs in the “ clear streams
of Wiltshire.”
The fishes which Bloch distinguished by the name Ana-
bleps (a term first used by Artedi, and signifying to raise
the eyes, or to look up, being derived from dvuBXiru) were
long united with the loaches, although they afford charac¬
ters of a very distinctive kind. Their eyes, which are very
salient, and placed under an arch formed on each side by
the frontal bone, have the cornea and iris divided into two
portions by transverse bands, in such a manner that they
have two pupils, and appear double, although in reality there
is only a single crystalline and vitreous humour, and one re¬
tina,—a peculiarity of which no other instance is to be
found among vertebrate animals. The organs of genera¬
tion, moreover, and the bladder of the male, have their ex¬
cretory canal in the anterior border of the anal fin, which is
thick, long, and clothed with scales ; its extremity is per¬
forated, and no doubt subserves the generative functions.
The female is viviparous, and the young are not produced
till they have attained a considerable size.
The body of these fishes is cylindrical, and covered with
scales; there are five branchial rays, the head is flat, the
muzzle truncated, the mouth cleft transversely at the end,
and armed in both jaws with numerous small teeth. The
inter-maxillaries are without a pedicle, and suspended un¬
der the nasal bones, which form the anterior edge of the
muzzle. The pectorals are in a great measure scaly, and
a small dorsal is placed over the tail, and further back than
the anal. Their pharyngeal bones are large, and provided
with numerous small globular teeth; their air-bladder is
very large, and also their intestine; but the latter i-s with¬
out caeca. Only one species is known, which is an inha¬
bitant of the rivers of Guiana. It is the Anableps tetrop-
thalmus, Bl. 361. See Plate CCCIV. fig. 8.
Genus Pcecilia, Schn. Has the two jaws flattened ho¬
rizontally, protractile, slightly cleft, furnished with a series
of small and very fine teeth, the upper side of the head
flattened, the opercula large, five branchial rays, the body
not much elongated, the ventrals not far back, and the
dorsal placed just above the anal. They are all small vi¬
viparous fishes, and inhabit the fresh waters of America.
The only remaining genera included in the present family
are Lebias, Cuv., Fundulus, Lacep., Molinesia, Lesueur,
and Cyprinodon, Lacep., which comprehend but a limited
number of species, most of them of small size, and pre¬
senting no peculiarities of particular interest.
FAMILY IL—ESOCIDiE.
Corresponds to the undivided genus Esox, as established
by Linnaeus. It is characterised by the want of the adi¬
pose dorsal; by having the edge of the upper jaw formed
by the inter-maxillary, or at least, when not wholly formed
by that bone, the maxillary is without teeth, and concealed
in the thickness of the lips. They are a very voracious tribe
of fishes ; their intestine is short and without caeca, and all
are provided with a swimming bladder. With the excep¬
tion ot the Microstoma, all the kinds with which we are
acquainted have the dorsal opposite the anal.
In the Cuvierian system this family is divided into many
genera, of the principal of which we shall now proceed to
give some account. Such fishes as belong to
Genus Esox, in its present restricted acceptation, have
Ihe genus Leuciscus contains also the dace, chub, and other well-known British species.
200
Malacop-
terygii
Abdonii-
nales.
Esocidse.
ICHTHY
small inter-maxillaries provided with minute pointed teeth
in the middle of the upper jaw, of which they form the two
thirds; but the maxillaries occupying the sides are with¬
out teeth. The vomer, the palatines, the tongue, the
pharyngeals, and the arches of the branchise, are covered
with teeth resembling those of a card ; and, in addition to
these, a series of long pointed teeth occupy the sides of
the lower jaw. Tire snout is oblong and obtuse, broad and
depressed; and there is only one dorsal opposite the anal.
The stomach, which is large and plicate, is continuous with
a slender doubly-folded intestine without caeca. The swim¬
ming bladder is very large. There is only one European
species, viz. Esox Indus, Linn, (the common pike), Plate
CCCIV. fig. 9. During the earliest stage of its life it is
of a greenish hue, but in the second year it becomes gray
with pale spots, the latter ultimately acquiring a yellow¬
ish colour. Its markings, however, are very variable, and
instances have occurred of its being perfectly white. It
is one of the largest of fresh-water fishes, and indeed, if
the accounts which some writers give are not exaggerat¬
ed, it occasionally attains a size not greatly inferior to the
gigantic inhabitants of the ocean. Individuals are record¬
ed as measuring from five to nine feet in length. They
frequently weigh above thirty pounds in the lakes of the
north of England ; and Dr Grierson mentions one taken in
Loch Ken, in Galloway, which weighed sixty-one pounds.
Bloch indeed examined a portion of the skeleton of ano¬
ther which could not be less than eight feet in length.
The most remarkable pike, however, of which we have
any authentic account, is that caught at Kaiserslautern,
near Manheim, in 1497, which was nearly nineteen feet
in length, and weighed 350 pounds. The skeleton of this
extraordinary specimen was for a long time preserved,
and bore a brass ring with an inscription to the effect that
the fish was put into a pond by the hands of the Emperor
Frederick II., the 5th of October 1262. From this it is
inferred that it was upwards of 235 years old. Pikes are
proverbially voracious. There seems indeed to be no
bounds to their gluttony, for they devour indiscriminately
whatever edible substances they fall in with, and almost
every animal they are able to subdue. “ It is,” says M.
de Lacepede, “ the shark of the fresh waters; it reigns
there a devastating tyrant, like the shark in the midst of
the ocean ; insatiable in its appetites, it ravages with fear¬
ful rapidity the streams, the lakes, and the fish-ponds
where it inhabits. Blindly ferocious, it does not spare its
species, and even devours its own young ; gluttonous with¬
out choice, it tears and swallows with a sort of fury, the
remains even of putrified carcasses. This blood-thirsty
animal is also one of those to which nature has accorded
the longest duration of.years; for ages it terrifies, agi¬
tates, pursues, destroys, and consumes the feeble inhabit¬
ants of the waters which it infests; and as if, in spite of
its insatiable cruelty, it was meant that it should receive
every advantage, it has not only been gifted with strength,
with size, with numerous weapons, but it has also been
adorned with elegance of form, symmetry of proportions,
and variety and richness of colour.”1 A singular instance
of its voracity is related by Johnston, who asserts that he
saw one killed which contained in its belly another pike of
large size, and the latter on being opened was found to
have swallowed a water-rat!
The pike inhabits almost all the fresh waters of Europe,
but seems to flourish most in the northern and middle
countries. It likewise occurs in abundance in Asia and
North America. Its flesh is well flavoured and easy of
digestion, and is consequently much sought after as an
O L O G Y.
article of food, especially for convalescents, and others of Malaci
weakly habit. It is most tender and nutritive in young terVg
individuals, but full-grown pikes are occasionally found, Abdon
in which the flesh on the back and near the vertebral co- nalei
lumn acquires a greenish colour, which is held in high re-
pute, and often purchased at a great price. W’Y'
Genus Galaxias, Cuv. Has the body without appa¬
rent scales, the mouth slightly cleft, pointed teeth of mo¬
derate size on the palatines and both jaws, the upper jaw
having almost its entire edge formed by the inter-maxil¬
lary. There are also some strong hooked teeth on the
tongue. The Esox truttaceus, Cuv., Esox alepoditus, Forst.
exhibits the structure above described.
Genus Alepocephalus, Risso. The species of this
genus bear a very close resemblance in their general form
to those of the preceding group, but their head only is
destitute of scales, the body being covered with scales of
large size; their mouth is small, and the teeth small and
crowded. The eye is very large, and the gills have eight
rays. Only one species is known, and it inhabits the
deepest parts of the Mediterranean. It is the A. rostra-
tus, Risso, 2d ed. f. 27.
Genus Microstoma, Cuv. Have the snout very short,
the lower jaw more advanced, and furnished, as well as
the small inter-maxillaries, with very fine teeth; three
broad and flat branchial rays ; the eye large, the body
elongated, and having the lateral line garnished with a
series of strong scales. There is a single dorsal a little
behind the position of the ventrals, and the intestines
are similar to those of the pikes. The only species known
(Serpa microstoma, Risso, p. 356) inhabits the Mediter¬
ranean.
Genus Stomias, Cuv. Muzzle extremely short, the
mouth cleft almost to the gills, the opercula reduced to
small membranous leaflets, and the maxillaries fixed to
the cheek; inter-maxillaries, palatines, and mandibles
armed with small bent teeth, and the tongue with similar
ones. Their body is elongated, their ventrals altogether
behind, and their dorsal opposite their anal, on the hinder
extremity of the body. We are acquainted with two spe¬
cies of these singular fishes, Esox boa, Risso, and Stomias
barbatus, both from the Mediterranean.
The genera Chauliodus (of which the sole species,
found near Gibraltar, is shown on Plate CCCIV. fig. 10),
Salanx, and Belone, comprehend a few species found
chiefly in the Mediterranean. In the last-mentioned genus,
the inter-maxillaries form the whole edge of the upper jaw,
which is prolonged, as well as the inferior, into a long
snout, and both provided with small teeth; there are no
other teeth in the mouth, and those of the pharynx are
en pave. Their body is long, and covered with indis¬
tinct scales, except a longitudinal carinated range on each
side, near the inferior edge. The bones are very remark¬
able for their fine green colour. The intestines differ in
their structure from those of the pikes. One species in¬
habits the European coasts, which is about two feet long,
green above, and white beneath. It affords a good dish,
in spite of the prejudice caused by the colour of its bones.
It is the Esox belone, sea-pike, or gar-Jish. Species near¬
ly allied are to be found in all seas. Of these, one is said
to reach eight feet in length, and its bite is reported to be
dangerous.
Genus Scomber-esox, Lacep. Has a snout of the
same structure as in Belone, nearly the same appearance
and arrangement of the scales, but the last rays of the
dorsal and anal are detached in spurious fins, as in the
mackerels. One of them occurs in the Mediterranean, viz.
1 Quoted in Griffith’s edition of the Rtgne Animal. We cannot, however, agree with M. Lacepede in his admiration of the gene¬
ral appearance of the pike, for we think its long lank jaws and sunken eye give it rather a diabolical aspect.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
aV acop- Esox saurus, Bl. Sch. pi. Ixxviii. 2, and is also found along
i ygii the British shores, where it is known under the name of
i, oral- Egyptian herring. It sometimes leaps so actively out of
*idiE ^ie water as t0 Pass over a sPace °P thirty or forty feet.
^ Of the nearly allied genus Hemi-ramphus, Cuv. several
species are to be found in the warm latitudes of both he¬
mispheres. Although their flesh is oily, it is of an agree¬
able taste.
We now come to a tribe of fishes which have attracted
much attention, owing to the power they possess of leap¬
ing to a great height into the air, and even sustaining
themselves in that element for a perceptible time. This
faculty, which has caused them to be named flying fishes,
they owe to the excessive development of their pectorals,
a peculiarity which readily distinguishes them from all
other abdominal fishes. Their head and body are clothed
with scales, and a longitudinal series of carinated scales
forms a salient line at the bottom of each flank, as in
some of the genera last described. The head is flattened
above and on the sides; the dorsal is placed above the
anal, the eyes are large, the inter-maxillaries without pe¬
dicles, and themselves forming the edge of the upper jaw.
The two jaws are furnished with small pointed teeth, and
the pharyngeal bones with teeth en pave. Such as pre¬
sent these characters are to be referred to the
Genus Exocetus, Linn., a name which signifies lying
out, and which was given by the ancient Greeks to a fish
that was reported to be in the habit of coming to repose
on shore. They are further characterised by having ten
branchial rays, a very large swimming bladder, and straight
intestines without ca^ca; the upper lobe of the caudal fin is
the shortest.
The Exocetus volitans, Bloch, 398 (see Plate CCCIV.
fig. 11), is a well-known flying fish of the ocean (but not
to be confounded, as it has sometimes been, with the
Trigla volitans, or flying gurnard, already alluded to under
the genus Dactylopterus). It is common in many of the
warmer parts of the northern hemisphere, especially be¬
tween Teneriffe and the line. It is also said to occur oc¬
casionally in the Mediterranean, and may be recognised
by its large eyes, and the smallness of the ventral fins,
which are placed in advance of the centre of the body.
Its mouth is slightly tubular, its scales deciduous, and its
size from six to twelve inches. A species more common
in the Mediterranean is the E. exiliens, Bloch, 397, of
which the ventrals are long, and placed behind the centre
of the body. It attains to the length of fifteen inches.
The young have black bands upon the fins.
Some difference of opinion seems still to exist in regard
to the mode of flight in these fishes. Mr Bennet sup¬
poses, that because they do not use their pectoral fins in
the air precisely as birds use their wings, that their pro¬
gression ought rather to be termed leaping than flying.
“ In fish,” he observes, “ the organ of motion for propel¬
ling them through the water is the tail, and the fins di¬
rect their course; in birds, on the contrary, the wings
are the organs of motion, and the tail the rudder. The
only use of the extended pectoral fins in the fish is for the
purpose of supporting the animal in the air, like a para¬
chute, after it has leaped from the water by so7ne power
which is possessed even by the whale. From the struc-
ture of the fin, I cannot consider it at all calculated for
repeated percussions out of the water ; while in that fluid,
it continues its natural action uninjured ; but it soon dries
when brought into contact with the air, and the delicacy
o the membrane between the rays would very readily
become injured were the organ similarly exerted in that
201
medium. The greatest length of time that I have seen Malacop-
these volatile fish on the fin, has been thirty seconds by teiTgu
the watch....Their usual height of flight is from two to three ■^b<l°rni-
feet; but I have known them come on board at a height jgna
of fourteen feet; and they have been well ascertained to , _S0C1_^‘,
come into the channels of a line-of-battle ship, i. e. as
high as twenty feet and upwards. But it must not be
supposed that they have the power of elevating them¬
selves in the air, after having left their native element:
on watching them, I have often seen them fall much be¬
low the elevation at which they first rose from the water,
but never in any one instance could I observe them raise
themselves above that height. I therefore regard the
elevation they take to depend on the power of the first
spring or leap they make on leaving their native element.”1
Colonel Bory St Vincent, on the other hand, regards that
opinion as erroneous which limits their aerial movements
to a single sudden spring. “ Je n’ai pas vu les exocets
s’tilever tres-haut; mais je souvent observe qu’ils ne se
replongeaient dans la mer qu’a une bonne portee de fusil
au moins du point d’ou ils etaient partis. Selon foccasion,
ils changent la direction de leur vol, et s’abaissent ou
s’elevent parallelement aux flots agites; ils ont enfin la
faculte de voler d’une maniere bien plus parfaite qu’on ne
la leur suppose generalement.”2 The double chase of this
unfortunate species was indicated by Duquesne so far
back as 1690. “ Ce petits animaux,” observes that voy¬
ager, “ n’ont nul repos, ni dans 1’eau, ni dans fair; dans
1’eau, a cause des bonites, dans fair, a cause des oiseaux
qui fondent sur eux avec plus de rapidite que le faucon
ne fond sur la perdrix.”3 Indeed, all voyagers, whether
ancient or modern, have recorded the delight with which
they witnessed these sudden emergencies; and Bose in
particular describes the flying fish as sometimes rising in
hundreds, and even thousands, around his vessel, and dart¬
ing over the waves in all directions, scouring away, as
Coleridge has beautifully said in relation to another group
of animals, “ like a Tartar troop over the wilderness.”
We shall conclude this notice by observing that the flesh
of flying fishes is savoury and delicate, and that they thus
present another claim to the attention of the voyager.
At the end of the family of the Esocid^e is to be placed
a genus which differs but a little from them, except in
having long intestines provided with two caeca, and which
will probably be formed into a particular family.
Genus Mormyrus, Linn. Body compressed, oblong
and scaly; tail slender at the base, and enlarged towards
the fin ; head covered with a thick naked skin, envelop¬
ing the opercula and the branchial rays, and leaving for
their aperture only a vertical cleft, a circumstance which
has caused some naturalists to deny the existence of
opercula, although they are as complete as in any other
fish, and to assign to them only two branchial rays, al¬
though there are five or six. The opening of the mouth
is very small, almost as in those Mammalia named ant-
eaters, and the maxillaries form its angles. The teeth,
which are slender and notched at the end, cover the in¬
ter-maxillaries and the lower jaw; while on the tongue,
and under the vomer, there is a band of small and crowd¬
ed teeth. The stomach is in the form of a rounded sac,
followed by two caeca, and a long slender intestine al¬
ways enveloped in a profusion of fat. The bladder is
long, large, and simple. Many of these fishes inhabit the
Nile, and they are ranked among the best which that
river produces. It is conjectured that it was one of them
which the ancient Egyptians held in religious veneration,
and which they named oxyrhincus.
1 Wandering* in New South Wake, Sec. vol. ii. p. 31. * Voyage aux quatre ike d'Jfrique, t. i. p. 83.
8 Voyage aux Indcs Orientates, t. i. p. 236.
VOL. XII. 2 c
202
Malacop-
terygii
Abdomi-
nales.
Siluridse.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
FAMILY III.—SILURIDjE.
Is distinguished from all the others in the order by hav¬
ing no true scales, but only a naked skin, or large osseous
plates. The inter-maxillaries, suspended under the eth¬
moid, form the edge of the upper jaw; and the maxillaries
are reduced either to mere vestiges, or are lengthened
into barbels. The intestinal canal is large, folded, and
without caeca; the bladder large, and adhering to a pe¬
culiar osseous process ; the dorsal and pectorals have al¬
most always a strong articulated spine for the first ray,
and there is very frequently an adipose fin behind, as in
the Salmonidae. .
Genus Silurus. A numerous genus, known by its
want of scales, the mouth cleft at the end of the snout,
and, in the greater number of sub-genera, by the first ray
of the pectoral being composed of a strong spine. This
is articulated to the shoulder bone, in such a manner that
the animal at pleasure can either draw it towards its body
or erect it perpendicularly, in which case it becomes a
dangerous weapon, and inflicts wounds which in some
countries are considered venomous, doubtless because
tetanus or lock-jaw sometimes ensues. The head of the
Siluri is depressed; the maxillaries very small ; and the
covering of the branchiae wants that piece which has been
named by Cuvier the sub-opercle.
In some species (Silurus, Lacep. properly so called)
there is only one small fin, with few rays on the anterior
part of the back, but the anal is very long, and reaches
nearly to the caudal. In others, more especially so nam¬
ed by Artedi and Gronovius, the small dorsal is without
any apparent spine ; the teeth on both jaws are like those
of a wool card, and behind the inter-maxillary band of
teeth there is a vomerian band. Of this kind of structure
an example is found in Silurus glanis, L. which is the
largest of European fresh-water fishes, and the only one
of this extensive genus inhabiting the Continent. See
Plate CCCIY. fig. 12. It is smooth, greenish black, spot¬
ted with black above, and yellowish-white beneath. The
head is large, with six barbels. It sometimes attains the
length of twelve or fifteen feet, and the weight of 300 or
400 pounds. As this creature is somewhat unwieldy in
its motions, it does not pursue its prey, which consists of
small fishes, but lies concealed among the mud, and seizes
such unwary stragglers as happen to come within reach.
It has occasionally been observed in the sea, but always
near the mouths of rivers, and in such other situations as
to leave no doubt that its appearance there is to be as¬
cribed to accidental causes. The flesh is fat and sweet,
and its lard has been employed in some places as a sub¬
stitute for that of the hog. Sir Robert Sibbald, at the
conclusion of his list of river fishes, adds, “ Silurus sive
Glanis j”1 from which it has been inferred that this gigan¬
tic species may at one period have inhabited the Scottish
rivers.2
A few fishes, found hitherto only in the Nile, differ from
the Siluri in having their bodies compressed vertically, and
by having a strong and denticulated spine to the dorsal.
Their head is small and depressed, the nape suddenly raised,
and the eyes placed very low—circumstances which be¬
stow upon them a very singular appearance. They consti¬
tute the genus Schilbus. The Pimelodi of Lacepede
are characterised by the body being covered only by a
naked skin, without lateral armature. This definition, how¬
ever, comprehends a great number of fishes, many of which
present so many differences in appearance and structure,
that it is necessary that they should be grouped in several
subordinate genera. The first of these, established by Malaco
Cuvier, and which he names Bagrus, has in each jaw a terygi
band of small crowded teeth, and behind those of the up- Abd°m
per jaw a parallel band which belongs to the vomer. They
admit of still further subdivision, from the number of their
barbels and the form of their head. Among those having '
eio-ht barbels, some have the head oblong and depressed; in
others it is broad and short. Of such as are furnished with
six barbels, the most remarkable have the muzzle depres¬
sed and broad, after the manner of the pike ; while others
have the head of an oval form, and its shagreened bones
forming a kind of helmet. The Pimelodi, however, pro¬
perly so called, have no band of teeth on the vomer, paral¬
lel to that of the upper jaw, but there are often some on
the palatines. In the number of their barbels, and in the
form of their heads, these fishes present still more nume¬
rous varieties than the Bagri. Thus, among such as have
only a single band of teeth, some are observed to have the
head helmeted, and a distinct osseous plate or buckler be¬
tween the helmet and the spine of the dorsal. Such is Sil.
clarias, Bl. xxxv. 1, 2. In others the buckler is united to
the helmet, aftd forms only a single body with it, the hel¬
met thus extending from the muzzle as far as the dorsal.
In some instances the head is oval, clothed only by the
skin, through which the bones do not appear ; in this
group the species have either six or eight barbels. In
those called cat-fish, the head is naked but very broad,
and their barbels also vary, according to the species, from
six to eight. We ought probably to place here the Mathe-
megh of the Cree Indians (Silurus felis, Gm.?), described
by Dr Richardson as found sparingly in the lakes that flow
into the Saskatchewan, and more abundantly in the lakes
and rivers to the southward. It is much prized as a rich
food.3 Numerous other modifications of structure are to
be found in this extensive genus, of which the greater pro¬
portion of the constituent species have but recently become
known to naturalists. Several have the muzzle elongated,
and these lead to a group of still more remarkable confor¬
mation, viz.
Genus Svnodontis, Cuv. In which the muzzle is nar¬
row, and the lower jaw supports a packet of teeth much
flattened laterally, terminating in hooks, and each suspend¬
ed by a flexible pedicle ; a kind of dentition of which no
other example is known. The rough helmet, formed by
the cranium of these fishes, is continuous, without any in¬
terruption, with an osseous plate, which extends to the
base of the spine of the first dorsal; and that spine is very
strong, as is likewise the case with those of the pectorals.
The lower barbels, and sometimes also the maxillaries,
have lateral barbels. The species are found in the Nile
and Senegal, and are known to the inhabitants of Lower
Egypt by the general name of Schal, while in the upper
regions of the same country they are termed Gurgur.
Their flesh is not accounted of any value. The Age-
neiosi of Lacep. possess all the characters of the Pimelodi,
but they are without the barbels properly so called. Silu¬
rus inermis (Bl. 363) affords an example.
Genus Doras, Lacep. Contains such Siluri as have
a second adipose dorsal, and the lateral line defended by
a row of osseous pieces, each relieved by a spine or pro¬
jecting keel. Their dorsal and pectoral spines are very
strong, and powerfully dentated. Their helmet is rough,
and is continued as far as the dorsal, as in Synodontis, and
the humeral bone forms a point behind.
Genus Heterobranchus, Geoff". Has the head pro¬
vided with a rough, flat buckler, wider than in any other
of the Siluri, because the frontals and parietal s produce
1 Scotia Illustrata, p. 25. 2 Fleming’s British Animals, p. 198.
* Appendix to Captain Franklin’s first Voyage to the Polar Sea, p. 724.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
icop- lateral plates which cover the orbit and the temple. The
gii opercle is still smaller in proportion than in the foregoing
jmi- genera, and the peculiarity observed by Geoffrey distin-
?s' guishes them from all other fishes, viz. that besides the or-
dinary branchiae, they have ramified appendages like trees
adhering to the superior branch of the third and fourth
branchial arch, and which appear to be a kind of supernu¬
merary branchiae. All the species pertaining to this genus
are found in the Nile, Senegal, and a few of the Asiatic
rivers. Their flesh is either of indifferent quality, or alto¬
gether unfit for food. This is not the case, however, with
the Sharmuth or Black-fish ( Silurus anguillaris, Hasselq.),
which is common in Egypt and Syria, and constitutes in
the latter country a valuable article for the table.
Genus Plotosus, Lacep. Is characterised by a second
radiated dorsal, of great length, as well as the anal; and
both uniting at the caudal, form a point, as in the eel.
Their lips are fleshy and pendent; the throat armed an¬
teriorly with conical teeth, behind which there are others
of a globular form, which at the upper jaw pertain to the
vomer. The head, as well as the rest of the body, is en¬
veloped in a thick skin, and the branchial membrane has
nine or ten rays. All the known species are from the
East Indies. They have eight barbels, and, behind the
anus, the fleshy and conical tubercle common to all the
Siluri; and there is, besides, a fleshy ramified appendage,
the functions of which, though unknown, are probably re¬
markable. Some have the dorsal and pectoral spines
dentated, and of considerable size. Such is Platystacus
anguillaris, Bl. 373, while others have them concealed
beneath the skin. The latter is the case with Plotosus
ccesius, Buchan, xv. 44. Certain fishes referred by Lin¬
naeus to the genus Callichthys, and pertaining to that nam¬
ed Cataphractus by Lacep., have their bodies almost
entirely cuirassed, so to speak, on its sides, by four rows
of scaly pieces ; and there is likewise on the head a com¬
partment of these pieces. The extremity of the muzzle,
however, is naked, as well as the under side of the body.
The second dorsal has but a single ray in its anterior
edge; the pectoral spine is strong, but the dorsal is slen¬
der or short. The mouth is but little cleft, and the teeth
nearly imperceptible ; the barbels, four in number; the
eyes small, and placed on the sides of the head. These
fishes can crawl for some time on dry land like the eel.
In some the pectoral spine is merely rough, in others it is
dentate, as in the majority of the Siluri.
Genus Malapterurus, Lacep. Distinguished from
all the true Siluri by having no rayed fin upon the back,
but only a small adipose one on the tail, and by the want
of a spine to the pectorals, of which the rays are entirely
soft. But one species is known with six barbels, the head
not so thick as the body, which is inflated in front. It is
the famous electric Silurus (Silurus electricus, Linn.) of
the Nile and of Senegal; the Raash or Thunder of the
Arabs, which gives electrical shocks like the Torpedo and
Gymnotus. It appears that the seat of this faculty is a
particular tissue situate between the skin and muscles,
and which presents the appearance of an adipose cellular
substance, abundantly supplied with nerves.
Genus Aspredo, Linn. Platystacus, Bl. Presents very
peculiar characters in the flattening of the head, and the
enlargement of the anterior part of the trunk, which prin¬
cipally results from the size of the humeral bones; in the
proportional length of the tail; in the small eyes placed
m the superior face ; and in the inter-maxillaries being in¬
clined under the ethmoid, directed backwards, and bear¬
ing teeth only on the hinder edge. In addition to these
203
peculiarities, they are the only osseous fishes known which Malacop-
have no mobility in the operculum, because the pieces tervgii
which ought to compose it are soldered to the tympanum Abdomi-
and pre-opercle. Only a few species have come under §”^^1
the cognizance of naturalists, such as the Silurus Aspredo, nidu,.
Linn.; Plat, cotylephorus, Bl. 372 ; Silurus hexadactylus, N—.-y-'*-/
Lacep. They have six or eight barbels, and it is remark¬
able, that when there are eight, one pair is attached to the
base of the maxillary barbels ; the four of the lower jaw
are in pairs, one behind the other. Globules are seen on
some of these fishes, which appear to be their eggs, ad¬
hering to the thorax by means of pedicles.
Genus Loricaria, Linn. Is so named on account of
the rigid angular plates which completely cover the body
and head, as with a coat of mail, and is further distin¬
guished from such kinds as possess a somewhat similar
defensive armour by having the mouth pierced under
the muzzle. In position and mode of conformation, this
mouth is most analogous to that of Synodontis ; the inter-
maxillaries are small and suspended under the muzzle,
and the mandibular bones, which are transverse and sepa¬
rate, bear long flexible teeth, terminating in a hook.. A
broad, circular, and membranous veil surrounds the aper¬
ture ; and the pharyngeal bones are garnished with nu¬
merous teeth enpave. The true opercula are immoveable,
as in Aspredo, but two small, moveable, external plates seem
to perform their office. The branchial membrane has four
rays ; and the first rays of the dorsal and pectorals, and
even of the ventrals, are strong spines. There is neither
caeca nor air-bladder. The species may now be arranged
in two sub-genera, viz. Hypostoma, Lacep., which has a
second small dorsal, provided with a single ray, as in
Callichthys. Their labial veil is simply papillose, and
bears a small barbel on each side. They have no plates
under the belly, and the intestines, which are spirally
convoluted, areas slender as a pack-thread, and twelve or
fifteen times longer than the body. They are caught in
the rivers of South America. Loricariaplecostomus, Linn.,
Bl. 376, and Hyp. etentaculatum, Spix, iv. are examples
of this sub-genus. Loricaria, properly so called, has
but a single dorsal in front: their labial veil is garnished
on its edges with many barbels, and sometimes covered
with villosities ; the belly is defended by plates, and the
intestines are of moderate thickness. To this group be¬
long L. cataphracta, Linn.; L. rostrata, Spix ; Rinelepis
aspera and Acanthicus hystrix, Id.
FAMILY IV—SALMONIDAD
The fourth family of the Malacopterygii of Cuvier is
composed almost entirely of the Linnaean genus Salrno,
and has in consequence received from modern Ichthyolo¬
gists the title of Salmoniix®. It will remain, however, to
future observation to determine whether the family shall
take its title from the salmon, as typical of the form, or
from some other group, leaving to the above-mentioned
fishes the value of a sub-family only. As it is, the circum¬
stance of the present Salmonidae possessing a small adi¬
pose fin, placed between the dorsal fin and the tail, has
been used in a light purely artificial, and too much conse¬
quence has been attached to it. Mons. Agassiz is of opi¬
nion that the Clupeae should be added to them, as differing
only in the want of this fin ; while all the Salmones of Cu¬
vier do not possess a true adipose fin,—that part being
composed of rays in the genera Serrasalmus and Myletes.
The family, as it now stands, may be characterised by
1 As an illustration of the Sal mo n id.-e, we here figure (from Mr Griffith’s Animal Kingdom) Salmo Canadensit, a North American
species, beautifully spotted with blood red on a white circle. See Plate CCCV. fig. 1.
204
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- a lengthened form, the body covered with scales of no
terygii great size, and furnished with two dorsal fins. The first
^nales”" ^orsa^ *s comPosed of soft rays; the second, gene-
Salmo- rally a fatty substance, resembling a fold of the skin,
nidte. is usually of small size. The tail is remarkably power-
ful, acting as an elastic lever, and, as usual, constitutes
the principal organ of locomotion. The margins of the
jaws are formed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary
bones, and, with the vomer and palate bones, are com¬
monly thickly studded with teeth, strong, conical, and
bending backwards. The maxillary and inter-maxillary
bones constitute a single continuous arch, as in the higher
animals. The pyloric portion of the stomach is furnished
with numerous appendices connected with a pancreas. The
swimming bladder is large and oblong, and opens into the
gullet near the extremity. They are voracious, feed on
insects, the less Crustacea, and small fishes. Many of the
species are migratory, and approach the mouths of rivers,
or ascend their streams for the purpose of spawning. In
the breeding season they are marked by some appendage
peculiar to the time, or by a change to colouring of more
brilliant tints. They reach a large size. The flesh is well
flavoured and wholesome.
In the modern arrangement it was found necessary to
separate the SalmonidjE into groups ; and in the present
sketch we shall follow those proposed or adopted by Ba¬
ron Cuvier in the last edition of the Hegne Animal,—
having deeply to regret that his decease should have pre¬
vented his great ichthyological work from advancing to a
branch of the subject which still stands in need of revi¬
sion, and which would undoubtedly have derived the most
signal advantage from the exercise of his critical skill.
Genus Salmo, Cuv. Edges of the upper jaws form¬
ed by the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones, which,
with the palatine bones, vomer, and tongue, are armed
with strong conical recurved teeth ; rays of the gill-covers
from ten to twelve ; tail very powerful ; posterior dorsal
fin adipose ; ventral fins placed opposite the anterior dor¬
sal, anal opposite the posterior; vertebrae from fifty-six to
sixty. The male fish has the nose elongated and the un¬
der jaw hooked during the breeding season. The silvery
colours change to gray and red. The species inhabit the
sea and fresh waters. Some migrate at the breeding sea¬
son ; all spawn in shallow streams, and both sexes assist
in forming the spawning bed. They inhabit Europe, Asia,
and America.
The fishes which constitute this genus are of great im¬
portance, and are by far the most esteemed and valuable
of all those which inhabit the fresh waters. The value of
the fisheries, with the number of men engaged in them,
is very great, and the expense of the materials which are
consumed in the capture of one or two species is immense.
In Britain they are mostly consumed in the great towns,
either in a recent or prepared condition. In the north
of Europe and America numbers are salted or otherwise
cured for exportation. At the commencement of the ge¬
nus is generally placed
Salmasalar, or common salmon, a species which likewise
occupies the foremost place in the estimation of both sports¬
man and epicure. I he salmon is a fish of great elegance,
combining a form fitted alike for strength and swiftness ;
and its depth and thickness, while in good condition, are so
proportioned to its length as at once to convey the idea of a
pleasing symmetry. The body above is of a rich bluish or
greenish-gray, changing below to silvery, sprinkled above
the lateral line with rather large sub-cruciform black spots,
a few of which at the shoulders generally extend below the
line. The characters which distinguish it from its British
congeners are the different form of the opercular bones,
which show a rounded outline to the posterior edge of the
gill-covers, the longest diameter of which to the nose would
be in a line through the eye, while in all the other British Malai
migratory species the same line would pass much below the teryj
eye. The black inner surface of the pectoral fin is nearly Abdo
a constant mark. The tail is forked in the young state, but snille
fills up to a nearly square outline in the adult, in which ^
the width between the extremities is proportionally wider
than in S. eriox, the only migratory species which attains
a weight at all approaching that of the salmon. The out¬
line of the scales also presents distinguishable differences.
The common salmon inhabits the seas around Great
Britain, and extends to the north of Europe and to Asia;
but it is not properly ascertained that those found in
North America are identical. Its true abode may be
called the sea; for as soon as it has entered the rivers
it begins to deteriorate in condition, the scales lose their
brilliant silvery lustre, and the flesh becomes soft and pale.
It is drawn to the fresh waters by that natural instinct so
wisely implanted for the purpose of its reproduction, an
instinct which enables it to stem the current of the most
rapid rivers, to ascend precipitous falls, and to pass through
weirs and obstacles of human intervention, which no other
power could overcome. This desire of looking for a suit¬
able place in which to deposit their ova is their sole rea¬
son for thus seeking the “ rivers of water,” the torment
of sea insects, or other causes which have been assigned,
having no influence. This may be at once understood
from the fact of the barren fish continuing their usual
haunts along the coast, while a great many do not for a
year at all enter the fresh waters. It is during this run
to the proper spawning beds that the greatest numbers are
captured, either by weirs, cruives, nets, or the rod ; and it
is then also that the snorting angler alone can ply his vo¬
cation, almost all attempts to angle the salmon in salt wa¬
ter having yet proved unsuccessful. Many fish far ad¬
vanced with spawn are by these means destroyed; for
unfortunately the most advanced are the most voracious,
and a needy fisherman looks more to his present gain than
to an expected produce of another year. It would be
well and wise if the net fisheries of this valuable species
were more confined to the tide-ways, where, in some es¬
tuaries, they are extensively carried on (as well as in the
rivers) by means of stake-nets. These are so constructed
as to intercept the fish entering the rivers, all in a high
state of condition, and are sometimes wrought to such
an extent as to employ several miles of netting.
Salmon generally delay entering the rivers in great num¬
bers until the streams become somewhat swollen by rains,
although in the larger rivers there may be said to be a
limited daily run. When the flood has fairly mingled with,
and to a certain extent has saturated, the estuaries, the rush
of fish is often very great, especially if there has been a
continued tract of dry weather. In the latter case they
collect at the mouths of rivers, and are seen and often
taken in vast numbers ; but they do not then attempt an
ascent, deterred perhaps by the clearness of the stream, or
by some instinctive feeling that the water would yet be de¬
ficient to carry them through. As the fresh approaches, how¬
ever, an increased activity may be perceived ; and, as far as
we can judge, the change is probably indicated by the nostrils
receiving a sense of the mixture of the waters, by means of
the large ramification of nerves with which they are supplied;
and to this same sense may perhaps be attributed the singu¬
lar fact of the greater proportion of salmon returning to the
very streams in which they were spawned. The fish, on en¬
tering the river, rush forward as long as the flood continues,
seldom resting in their course during the time that the water
continues discoloured. From ten to twenty-five miles daily
is the rate, as far as can be ascertained, at which they are
supposed to travel.
In their more lengthened courses, where the rivers are
deeper and the interruptions less frequent, the rate at
ICHTHYOLOGY.
acop- which salmon travel is probably much more rapid. We
vgii know indeed little as yet regarding the identity of species
lomi- between our own and those of foreign regions, but if, as
les- some suppose, our salmon attains to the lofty Cordilleras
j^0' of South America, by means of the mighty Maragnon,
then it must run a course of about 800 leagues. Bear¬
ing in mind, however, that the salmon is a truly northern
fish (that they occur in some abundance in the arctic re¬
gions, may be inferred from the fact, that Commander
Ross, during his recent voyage, took three thousand three
hundred and seventy-eight at one haul, in the month of July;
and that his uncle Sir John obtained a ton weight of salmon
from an Esquimaux, in exchange for one or two knives!),
and also remembering those laws of distribution which re¬
gulate, and, with a few exceptions, circumscribe, the loca¬
lities of living creatures, we think it more than likely that
the South American salmon belong to another species.
We know, however, that our common kind (Salmo salar)
makes its way by the Elbe into Bohemia, and through the
Loire as far as the environs of Puy, in the ancient Velay.
We also know that it works its way up the Rhine, and
visits a portion of the rivers of Switzerland, although the
irresistible torrent of the Falls of Schaffhausen prevents
its ingress to any part of the basin of the great Lake of
Constance. But we feel less assured of its occurrence in
the Persian Gulf, or of the identity of the species found
in the Caspian Sea. Neither can we credit that it advances
unrepelled by the gloomy terrors of a subterranean journey,
and that salmon from the Gulf, adorned by the fanciful
Persians with rings of gold and silver, have been found in
the Caspian. The non-existence of the supposed commu¬
nication is of itself a pretty sufficient barrier, even did no
other exist in the law's of nature, and were light and atmo¬
spheric air dispensable.
In our lower and clearer waters, however, they travel at
a much slower rate than that above alluded to,—resting
for some time in the pools by the way, and now and then
taking a regular lie in some chosen spot, which they will
return to daily as long as the river continues unfitted for
their progress. Upon the least accession, however, to the
water, either directly or from some swollen tributary, they
are again upon the alert; and it is often felt by them
several hours before the quickest or most experienced hu¬
man eye can perceive a rise upon the river. Having as¬
cended to a considerable height, they remain more station¬
ary, and proceed more slowly with the subsequent floods,
till the spawn increases in size. This increase, if not in¬
fluenced by, is at least so connected with, the commence¬
ment of the colder weather, as then to proceed at a more
rapid rate. As the spawn advances, the symmetry of the
form is disfigured ; the female becomes disproportionate¬
ly large, the colours lose the brightness of their silvery
tints, and become dull and gray. The male becomes thin
upon the back, the nose elongates, and the under jaw turns
up in a large and strong hook, which enters a hollow in the
nose before the inter-maxillary bones. The colours and
markings become brown and red, those on the head and
gill-covers being particularly brilliant, and disposed in lines
almost like the marking of a Spams.1 In this full breeding
dress the male and female seek some ford or shallow stream,
and commence to excavate a trench or furrow (chiefly by
the exertions of the female). In this the spawn is depo¬
sited, and impregnated at the same time, and finally cov-
205
ered with gravel by the exertions of the fish. The fur- Malacop-
row is generally from six to nine inches in depth ; and tervgii
when the spawn has appeared to be covered beyond that Abdomi-
depth, this has occurred from some other circumstances,— SalnM'
such as the stream or floods having carried downward addi-
tional masses of gravel, &c. After this great effort has been
accomplished, both sexes are reduced to a state of remark¬
able emaciation. The elongated nose, and hooked jaw,
and brilliant colours, are almost immediately lost; the old
scales are cast, and the fish retire to some pool to regain
their strength and complete their new clothing. They
finally redescend to the sea by easy stages, where their
former condition and silvery lustre are regained, their
strength invigorated, and all their functions so repaired as
to enable them ere long to renew their visit to the flowing-
streams, again to multiply their race.
The ova continue covered by the gravel during the win¬
ter, and begin to vivify from about the end of March to
the commencement of April. The fry remove from under
the gravel when nearly an inch in length, with the ovum
still attached; and at this period, if the spawning bed or
furrow be turned up, it will appear in motion. When dis¬
engaged from the ova, the fish increase in size most rapid¬
ly, and about the end of April and during May commence
and perform their first migration or journey to the sea.
At this time they are from four to six inches in length, of
a greenish gray above, silvery below, the scales extremely
delicate and very deciduous. From the time they reach
the sea, for two months or ten weeks, we lose sight of
them, and can only infer their growth from the fact, that
after the lapse of that period we find them again ascending
the rivers with a weight of from two and a half to four
pounds. They are then known under the name of gilse or
grilse ; and their size, as they ascend from the sea, increases
with the advance of the season. The gilse which thus ascend
spawn during the ensuing winter, and are then entitled to
the name of salmon. Descending in a weak state (as be¬
fore mentioned), they return again in the summer of the
following year, as fish of from ten to fifteen pounds weight,
according to special circumstances. A third year would
still increase their weight, as would several ensuing sea¬
sons, till the attainment of an enormous size. Pennant,
for example, mentions a salmon which weighed seventy-
four pounds; and although we now regard with something
of wonder a fish which weighs even the half of that amount,
yet there is no doubt that not many years ago salmon of
forty pounds were much more frequent than in these de¬
generate days.2 The absence of salmon of the largest class
from many of the Scotch rivers, where they formerly
abounded, is in fact owing to the injudicious perfection of
our fisheries, which occasions the constant capture of the
species in the state of gilse, or other early condition ; and
the chances are by consequence greatly against any indi¬
vidual escaping the various dangers by which it is environ¬
ed, for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of
its attaining to its full dimensions. The destruction by
poachers in the higher parts of the rivers, of the large en¬
feebled kelts, or fish which have completed their spawning
operations, is also extremely prejudicial; for these indi¬
viduals (almost utterly useless as food at the time alluded
to) would, if allowed to descend to the salubrious sea, ere
long revisit their native streams, greatly increased in size,
and full of health and vigour.3
' In this state it has received from Cuvier the erroneous name of S. hamutus, as if it were a distinct species. See Rcgne Animal.
t. n. p. 303.
2 We observe that a salmon above fifty pounds weight was recently taken at the mouth of the Leven in Dumbartonshire. The
general capture this season (1835) has been very great in Scotland. Nearly 800 were taken at one haul in a bay of the island of
Islay; and our calculation, from accurate data, is, that for some time past about a hundred thousand salmon (including grilse) have
been shipped in Scotland weekly from our eastern ports alone. A friend of our own lately saw a salmon of sixty-one pounds weight
on a fishmonger’s stall in London.
The reader will consult with advantage the Parliamentary Reports of evidence taken by a Committee of the House of Commons,.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
206
Malacop- Salmo eriox, or hull trout, is another British species which
a^ta'ns a iarge s'ze> and does not seem as yet clearly de-
nales”" scribed as inhabiting any of the other European waters.1
Salmo- It reaches a weight of twenty-five pounds. It is thicker
nicke. in proportion to its length than the salmon; the fins are
much more muscular; the tail particularly so, and per¬
fectly square at the end in all the stages of growth, while
the distance between the two extremes of the web is
smaller proportionally than in any of the other species.
The head is larger in proportion than that of the salmon
of a similar weight, and the opercular covering is more
lengthened. The toothing is very strong. The general co¬
lours are, above greenish gray, the lower parts silvery
white ; the body above the lateral line being thickly cover¬
ed with large cruciform black spots. In the breeding
dress they assume a much blacker tint than the salmon,
and want much of the red markings. All the under parts,
jaws, and cheeks, become blotched with deep blackish
gray. The flesh is of a yellowish tint, and is coarse, ex¬
cept in the young state ; it has the least flavour, and is
consequently less esteemed in the market than any of the
other species. The hook of the under jaw of the male
does not become so elongated as in the salmon. The old
fish commence to enter the rivers about the end of July,
and appear to deposit their spawn and return to the sea
about a month earlier than the salmon. The young fish,
of from two to three pounds weight, and in this state
known as ivhitlings, enter the rivers about the beginning
of June. In all its states it is a very powerful fish, and
feeds voraciously and indiscriminately. When hooked it
springs repeatedly from the water, and runs (to use an
angler’s expression) with extraordinary vigour to free it¬
self. The river Tweed and its tributaries are among the
principal localities for this fish. It occurs also, though
more sparingly, in some of the rivers of the Solway, but
appears to be rare on the west and north coasts of Scot¬
land.2
Salmo trutta and albus.—These fish have been by most
modern Ichthyologists described as distinct. The charac¬
ters of each, however, are extremely difficult to determine ;
and it is most probable that they will both be found to
merge into one species, entitled to the name of Salmo trutta.
Both fish are very abundant, and are taken in great quan¬
tities in the Solway and its tributaries, and along the great¬
er part of the west and north coasts of Scotland. In the
first-named locality, they bear the name of sea trout,
her ling, and whitling ; in the two latter, of white trout and
finnock; and being transported to the markets of our
metropolis, they receive the additional name of salmon
trout. Thus we may easily conceive the immense con¬
fusion that may and has arisen from the use or abuse of
provincial names. Along the south-east coast of Scotland
they appear less abundant; but this may arise from the
larger mesh employed in the nettings. The Tay and the
Forth supply the Edinburgh market. In its largest state, or
as known under the specific title of trutta, it enters the rivers
from two and a half to six pounds weight in the end of May.
It is of an elegant form, and possesses all the symmetry of
the salmon, jhe head is small, the back remarkably broad
when viewed from above ; the tail slightly forked, and wide
at the extremity of the web ; the colour above greenish,
inclining to bluish-gray, lower parts of the clearest silver;
body above the line spotted, as in S. eriox, with large, deep- Malac
black spots, but generally much fewer in number. The ^
flesh is pink, richly flavoured, and much esteemed for the ^0I
table. It ranks next to that of the salmon, and by many is
esteemed more delicate than even that prized species. The ^
S. albus, or smaller and younger state in which it is found, is C-y.
very nearly of the same proportion, form, and colours. They
approach the mouths of the rivers in the end of July and
commencement of August, in immense profusion, and im¬
mediately enter the fresh waters, where an angler may
take almost any quantity without the exercise of great
skill. In the north they form a perquisite to the tax-
men or kayners of the salmon fisheries,—above a thou¬
sand being sometimes taken at a sweep of the net. In the
Solway they are taken in equal abundance in houses of
the stake-net, covered for the purpose with net of a
small mesh, and are then carried to the various country
markets, and during the height of the run to the villages,
in cart-loads, for sale. The flesh of this smaller fish (whe¬
ther species or variety, as the case may be) is also pink,
and delicately flavoured. Its food is likewise the same as
that of the larger kind; in the sea small Crustacea (Zb/^n/s
locusta being a favourite and common food),—in fresh wa¬
ter aquatic insects, worms, minnows, or other small fish.
They appear also to spawn rather earlier than the salmon,
and after the same manner. The colours of both sorts
during the breeding season are deep-grayish black, slight¬
ly tinted with brown in the males; and at this time they
offer a most marked contrast (being black and lean) to the
symmetrical form and brilliant silvery tints of their per¬
fect condition.
The preceding species (S. salar, eriox, trutta, and al¬
bus)—whether three or four in number, is still, as we have
said, a dubious point—appear to be the only migratory
salmon yet known to inhabit the waters of Great Britain,
On the Continent of Europe, however, we have the
Salmo hucho, said to be peculiar to the waters of the
Danube, but most probably migratory to the Black Sea,
and certainly not a native of the British waters, though
inserted in many of our lists. It is a fish of extraordinary
power, attaining to the weight of sixty pounds; and is of
more lengthened proportions than the common salmon.
The flesh pale coloured, and rather coarse. The young
have large transverse bands upon the back and sides;
with age these break up into spots, and gradually disap¬
pear, till the ground colour becomes uniform, and is only
broken by the ordinarily black or violet spotting. In Ame¬
rica, again, we have in this division the
Salmo Hearnii, or Copper-mine River salmon. Above
olive-green, pale on the sides, and shading into bluish
white, marked with longitudinal rows of flesh-red spots,
largest on the sides, where they are about the size of a pea.
The scales, like those of the other salmon of America,
are much smaller than those of the European species, and
in this fish they possess peculiar lustre. The teeth are weak
and few, their size inferior to those of the common salmon.
Their flesh is red. This fish is abundant during July and
August, below the falls of the Copper-mine River.
The migratory salmon are distinguished from those
which inhabit only the fresh waters by the clear grayish
blue of the upper half of the body, and the brilliant sil¬
very lustre of the belly and lower parts. Among those
appointed to investigate the subject of the salmon fisheries. We beg also to refer to Dr Knox’s Observations, published in the 12th
volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
1 i-he young is the •whitling oi the Tweed, the Berwick trout of the London markets; but the •whitling of all our Scottish rivers is not
necessarily the young of S. eriox, in as far as provincial names are sometimes variously applied. In regard to the more scientific
synonyms of this species, we know not what degree of relationship its adult state may bear to the Truite de Mcr of the French,—
Salmo Schiefermullcn, Bloch, 103.
^ 2 \\ e have no doubt that the Norway salmon of the Sutherlandshire fisheries is identical with the above-described species,—that
is, with the full-grown Salmo eriox.
ICHTHY
.. cop. whicli in common language receive the appellation of
S t£ gii trouts, the colouring is more varied and of brighter tints,
Iai 'tni- in which yellow and orange predominate, changing to
r ;s- various shades according to locality. The best and most
I ‘ familiar example is
ZiJ Salmo fario, or common trout. This lovely fish is
^ most extensively distributed over the whole of Northern
Europe, being found in every burn and tarn, in every lake
and river. It may be also said to be one of the most
pleasing in its appearance; and, when newly taken in
“ o-olden glory” from some translucent stream, is exqui¬
sitely beautiful. The variation of the tints of the ground
colour is infinite ; yellow, however, is the most predomi¬
nant, varying to the most brilliant orange ; while at other
times the ground colour of the body runs from a dark-
greenish black to violet, in most instances numerously
spotted with black and red. Sometimes, however, the
black is alone present in the form of large round spots,
placed in a pale circle, but in all cases beautifully reliev¬
ed, and breaking up the uniformity of the other colours.
In'a few instances the spots have been observed to be
wanting altogether. One cause of the variation in the
trout, is the difference of food ; and, according to every in¬
formation we possess, those which feed on fresh-water
shells, Gammari (screws, or fresh-water shrimps, as they
are sometimes called), are of the most brilliant tint, and
also of the finest flavour, with a decided pinkness in their
flesh. Those feeding on the ordinary water insects are
next in brilliancy and flavour, while such as live chiefly
upon aquatic vegetables are dull in colour, and of soft
consistence. This is further confirmed by the trout in
stews being always finished, or fed off as it is called, on
the foresaid Gammari, collected often from a distance. It
is only in this way also that we can account for the varia¬
tion in the appearance and flavour of trout found in two
adjoining bays of the same lake. The individuals, in fact,
do not appear to stray to any distance, but seem to be
satisfied with whatever food is found within a limited dis¬
trict, and which of course will be in many instances of a
peculiar and local kind. It is also true, that the colours
of trout accommodate themselves to the tint of the water,
and to the prevailing tone of the bottom, whether of rock
or gravel, or of softer substance ; and so constantly is this
the case, that an experienced and observant angler has little
difficulty in accurately predicating the general aspectof the
fish of any lake or river. The presence of moss, so frequent
in alpine districts, has invariably the effect of deepening
the tints, particularly the shades of green and yellow.
In form this fish, when in perfect condition, may be
said to be nearly symmetrical; the head only being some¬
times rather large in proportion to the body, when con¬
sidered in relation to what we regard as the beau ideal.
The fins are of moderate strength, those of the body as¬
suming a variation of form, from a rounded to a lengthen¬
ed extremity. The tail is almost always forked ; the fins
are always coloured, that is, never of the transparent
whiteness observable in the migratory species; and their
tints are generally of a paler shade than those of the corre¬
sponding parts of the body. The anal fin is often border¬
ed on its lower surface with white. The scaling is propor¬
tionally less than in the migratory kinds. I he toothing
is in general strong, and very prominent on both the tongue
and vomer.
The average growth of the common trout, taking the
species generally, may be stated at about a pound, and
certainly not more than a pound and a half. In almost all
O L O G Y. 207
rivers, fish weighing beyond this may certainly be found ; ^^acoT'
but they are comparatively uncommon. Individuals from
two to six pounds weight are occasionally taken, even in nales
what may be termed a “ wild state.” In ponds or stews, Salmo-
again, they reach a much greater size, but cannot be said nidae.
to be in the natural condition of unenclosed fish. The y-'-''
Thames trout seem to reach most frequently the largest
size, being short compared to their length, but of great
thickness and well flavoured. Two were lately taken, the
one of eleven, the other of fifteen pounds weight. The
lakes in the north of England produce trout of very fine
quality, and which are often passed off for char. Loch Le-
ven, too (of which the barren isle and now dismantled
castle are famous in history as the prison-place of the
beautiful Queen Mary), has long been celebrated for its
breed of trout. These, however, have fallen off of late con¬
siderably in their general flavour and condition, owing, it is
said, to the partial drainage of the loch having destroyed
their best feeding ground, by exposing the beds of fresh¬
water shells, which formed the greater portion of their
food. Farther north (as in Sutherlandshire) the immense
multitude of lochs produce a corresponding abundance
and variety of trout. Of these, however, only a few are
of superior quality; but these few may assuredly vie with
the trout of any country in the world.1 Another large
species, occurring in the British waters, and not yet dis¬
tinctly known elsewhere, is the
Salmo ferox, Jardine. This species reaches a weight of
tw'enty-eight pounds, and is of very great power compared
with its size. The characters which distinguish this fish
from S. fario are the great size which it attains in a natural
state, the large proportional size of the head, the square
extremity of the tail in all the stages of its growth, the
relative position of the fins, and the number of rays in the
dorsal, which vary from 2—11 to 4—11. The external
skin or covering of the scales is also extremely tough;
and there is a difference in the form of the scales of the
lateral line. In colour the upper parts are generally of
a deep purplish brown, shading into purplish gray, and
finally, on the lower parts, to greenish or grayish yel¬
low, more or less tinted with orange. 4 he spotting is
large and not numerous, and consists of black spots placed
in a pale circle, and of large pink spots with a similar
light area. These extend over the gill-covers, upper fins,
and often over the tail itself. A variety occurs in Loch
Loyal, in Sutherland, above purplish brown, beneath
blackish gray, the whole body spotted over with dark se-
pio-coloured spots, of a smaller size on the lower portions.
Salmo ferox appears to be entirely confined to the lakes,
seldom ascending or descending rivers, or wandering in
and out of them, and never migrating to the sea. When
spawning, it ascends for a short way up the rivers oi
streams which run into the lakes, but never, as far as yet
known, descends those which run out of them. It inha¬
bits, among the English lakes, Ulswater; but does not
there reach a size above ten or eleven pounds. In Ire¬
land, as far as we can yet learn (specimens having not
yet reached us on this side of the water), it is found in
Loch Neagh and some other large lakes; and in Scotland
we have taken it in Loch Awe, Loch Laggan, the upper
end of Loch Shin, and Lochs Loyal and Assynt. It is a
fish of remarkable ferocity, and as great an enemy to its
smaller companions as the pike. It may be taken by night
lines, or by strong trolling tackle, baited with a small trout,
and will return a second and third time to the bait, even
after it has been dragged for forty or fifty yards/
1 We may here note the existence of a strongly marked and peculiar variety, called the gillaroo trout of Galway. It is remark¬
able for feeding on shell-fish, in consequence of which (as is supposed) the coats of the stomach acquire a great degree of thickness,—
from which peculiarity it is sometimes called the gizzard trout- . - .
s For a detailed account of the mode of fishing for this and the other species, see our article Angling, in the third volume ot tne
present work.
208
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- S. salmulus, or parr. An abundant species in all the
terygii clear running streams in England and Wales, and the south
Anal°e™1* ^co^an(^' ^ut tf'6 last-named country it begins to
Salmo- decrease, so as to become comparatively rare, towards the
nid*. north. It frequents the clearest streams, delighting in
w1 the shallower fords having a fine gravelly bottom, and
hanging there in shoals, in constant activity apparently
both day and night. It is found during the whole year
in the rivers ; but its breeding has not yet been discover¬
ed, though the fish are found in such a state as to shed
their spavrn when handled, close to the verge of the tide¬
way. It is a remarkably beautiful little fish when newly
taken from the water, above of a greenish gray, beneath
white inclining to yellowish, the sides marked with dull
bluish patches of an oval form, and the body above the
lateral line sparingly spotted with brownish-black and red.
On the gill-covers there are two black spots, one of which
is often indistinct. This fish has been always confounded,
and still is so, with other species. Many maintain it to be
the young of the salmon, while others insist that it bears
that relationship to the common trout. The presence of
the dark finger-like markings upon their sides has naturally
assisted in this confusion. These marks, however, are dis¬
tinguished by being always narrower in their form than in
the trout or young salmon.1 Besides the external aspect
being so distinct that any observer will without difficulty
separate them when seen together, the whole skeleton of
our present species is more delicately formed, as are also
the teeth. The form of the opercular bones is likewise
different, and the length of the maxillary bones is much
less in the S. salmulus, or parr, showing a very marked
difference when the open mouths of the different fish are
exhibited together. Another distinction is, the great
width and power of the pectoral fins, evidently a special
provision, as the principal organ of support in those rapid
streams where this little fish is almost always found.
Although the history of the parr is still, in truth, ob¬
scure, we certainly deem ourselves authorized to state
that it is not the young of the salmon. It may be found
in rivers throughout the year, and is more especially a-
bundant during those midsummer months in which the
acknowledged young of the salmon is unknown except as
a fish returning from the sea. The most characteristic
and irrepressible instinct of the latter seems to consist in
its descent to the sea a few weeks after exclusion from
the egg; and if our summer parr is also the young of the
salmon, the fact presents a very rare and remarkable ex¬
ample of different individuals of the same species vary- Mala
ing in their instinctive habits. The occurrence of parr in tery
rivers so long after midsummer, and the entire disappear- A,xio
ance of smoults (as the young salmon are sometimes call- ^alt
ed) anterior to that period, is a main argument in favour ^
of their being distinct kinds; and we cannot get over the y./j
difficulty by simply asserting, that such as go down to the
sea early are parr, and that such as go down late are parr
also. It is admitted that the ova of salmon are hatched
in spring, and that the growth of the young (by whatever
name we choose to call it) is extremely rapid. Now, as
nobody ever finds a parr above a few inches long (six
inches is a large one), and as by the end of summer they
must be several months old, how can we (in the belief of
their being young salmon) reconcile their imputed 3ge
with their actual dimensions ?2 Still more difficult will it
be to explain, in connection with that belief, how the
brood which has descended seawards in the spring should,
after the lapse of the same period, be found in their na¬
tive rivers weighing many pounds.
The preceding are all the species belonging to our pre¬
sent group which have been yet ascertained to inhabit the
waters of Britain. On the Continent of Europe we have
the S. lacustris, Linn., found in the lakes of Lower Aus¬
tria, and in the Rhine above Constance, and reaching to an
enormous size.3
In the northern parts of North America, according to
Dr Richardson, trout abound in every lake and river. In
the Appendix to that gentleman’s first expedition under
Captain Franklin, the different varieties are all placed un¬
der S. fario, or common trout. It is doubtful, however,
whether that species exists at all in America; and several
species entirely distinct will be described in the third vo¬
lume of the Northern Zoology, which have much of the co¬
louring of some varieties of the European trouts, but differ
remarkably in the smallness of the scales.4 Specimens of
forty pounds in weight were seen; and in Lake Monito
they were said to attain the weight of ninety pounds.
Another small group, which has hitherto been placed
among the true Salmones, contains the fish commonly
known under the name of Char. They differ from the
trouts in the very small and narrower form of the scales,
in the more delicate toothing (the vomer furnished with a
single minute tuft at the tip, instead of being armed for
its whole length), in the remarkably brilliant change which
takes place during the season of breeding, a change very
much more completely developed than in any of the other
.1- ,G 'T0U <1 alS° slWst’ as, a g°od logical argument against the fact of S. salmulus being the young of the common salmon,
that it is trequent in streams where salmon are scarcely ever seen. “ What a pity it is,” observes the Itev. George Low, “ that I
am almost obliged to deny the salmon a place in the Orkney zoology ; yet true it'is, that this noble fish is so seldom got here, that
it is considered as a wonder when one is thrown ashore, or runs so tar up one of our burns as to be taken. I have not heard of above
ree or tour instances ot salmon being taken in Orkney, three of which (if they were all salmon) were killed and brought on shore
™mile>’0tt’TU,tr°m the ®?a’ and P1C , UP by the country people, and a fourth which stuck in a mill-wheel, and was caught by the
,ibe saiPe writer, under the article Parr, observes, “ Vvetiy frequent in the shallower lakes and clear burns, though not in
aS 1 Jf''6 °1bSerVed them ln Scotland.” (Fauna Orcademis, pp. 220 and 223.) The reader will also bear in mind, that
Te nor,;hwards m our own island, the parr becomes scarcer, the salmon more abundant,—and that while in the icy
*;^aX wnrSf alct.lc/^ons the former has not yet been detected, the latter swarms in (elsewhere) unequalled numbers. It is
mule between the'Jrout and salmon 1 0Pim°n maintained ^ the late Sir HuillPhl7 DavJ aild others, that the parr is a hybrid or
nrdbIi^rpt<lr!lw/a1KthfSe?teniber 1835^ W]lile anSling in the Nortb Esk, above the beautiful residence called The Bum, in Kin-
however as usual snotted wiTiT ^i’ tVV ° °if W,hlch’ !n,easurinS eiSht inches in length, were the largest we had ever seen. They were,
nmitod or, ’ u r0tt.t Mtb red ,alon£ tbe lateral line, and tinged all over the under parts, like trouts, with yellow. They ex-
of the othersTmo/th^i^ C^laracte,r of the salmon, nor any departure from the usual aspect of the parr. The majority
misinformed reo-ardimr ^ S1Zl?’ ^ so“e,of them 80 sraa11 as to render it entirely incomprehensible—unless we are totally
• ^ . c ..pawning periods of the salmon, and the time of its exclusion from the egg—by what process of rea-
soiung they could be maintained to be the young of that fish. ^ Process u
and oureowenSr^POS^ ^:)ud8e c'ondusively regarding the identity or distinction of the great lake trouts of Switzerland,
dans quelnues lacs voisins a la't^^ IfC de.Genev® {Salmo lemanus, N.),” says Baron Cuvier, “ qui se trouve aussi
wlc/'f L k d0! Se,nieS df pfltes taches rondes et noiratres sur un fond blanchatre; sa chair est ires
“■ 3C3° Nowf*-* - *•«<>
with ^ ^ plate.s f°r the volume above alluded to have been for some time engraved, and their publication,
with tne corresponding descriptions, will afford an important addition to the library of the Ichthyologist. p tion,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
j acop- species, and in their food consisting in a great measure of
ygii minute entomostraca. The best and most familiar exam-
i onu- p|e 0f group is the char of England.
^ Sabno wmhla, Agassiz,—apparently confounded by most
jg.. authors, in consequence of its great variety of aspect, and
w synonymous, according to the above-named naturalist, with
S. alpinus and salvelinus, Linn. It is abundant in the
English and Welsh lakes, and in the greater number of
those in the north of Scotland, when of any considerable
extent; but more seldom seen there, from the absence of
the practice of netting, and the general unwillingness of
char to take a fly or bait. This fish is of great repute
in the Lake of Geneva, and is also found in many of the
alpine lakes of northern Europe. The common char
reaches a considerable size, being sometimes taken in Bri¬
tain above two pounds in weight, although the more usual
weight is under three quarters of a pound. When in full
condition, it is a fish of very great beauty, above of a gray¬
ish green, shading into the most delicate white on the
lower parts, and tinted with a blush which is comparable to
that seen on the breasts of some of the gull tribe when
newly shot in spring. The body is sprinkled over with
pale spots of a considerable size. In this state they re¬
main in the deeper parts of the lakes, and are not frequent¬
ly taken, although we doubt not they might be so were
the practice adopted of hanging a herring-net in the deep
water, instead of trying only the winter practice of bawling
in shore. We ourselves caught them by the former me¬
thod, in their prime silvery state, in Sutherland, during the
month of June. On the approach of the breeding time,
they seek the mouths of the small tributaries, and are
taken in vast numbers at the very period when their pre¬
servation ought to be most strictly attended to, and when,
in truth, they begin to fall off in their condition. At this
season the colour of the upper parts is darkened, the fins
are very rich, and the sides and belly become of ^ beauti¬
ful and brilliant red, the whole spotted with small marks of
a paler tint.
Although we here follow our friend M. Agassiz in pla¬
cing the two supposed species under one denomination,
yet we willingly admit, and indeed particularly desire our
readers to remember, that the history of the char, whether
single or distinctive, has not yet been clearly made out.1
We have already mentioned (in the article Angling of
this work) that both kinds occur in Windermere, to wit,
the char or case char (Salmo alpinus), and the torgoch
or red char (Salmo salvelinus). These are usually thus
distinguished :—the former by having the first rays of the
ventral and anal fins white; the latter by having those
parts plain, that is, of the same colour as the other rays.
A remarkable distinction is also observable in their natu¬
ral habits,—the case char ascending rivers, and spawning
about Michaelmas,—the red char depositing its ova along
the shores of the lake, and not till the end of December
or the beginning of the year.2 Let these facts be duly
regarded in determining upon the distinction or identity
of species. We hope ere long to investigate the subject
steadily. In the mean time, to illustrate the character of
colour, we shall extract from our note-book some memo-
209
randa made a few seasons ago, on six specimens of char Malacop-
(supposed to exhibit examples of the different varieties or terygii
kinds) selected from a hawl taken (by net) in Windermere Abtloml-
on the 12th December. “ No. 1 is a very beautiful fish,— Salmo-
the ground colour of the body pale ashy brown, somewhat nidaJ
lighter beneath the lateral line. The sides are richly
marked with scarlet spots of different sizes ; the whole of
the under surface, from the pectoral fins to the tail, are
brilliant scarlet. The fins are margined anteriorly with
an opake white stripe, followed by a blackish-brown por¬
tion, passing posteriorly into deep crimson. The tail is
blackish brown. The nose and front part of the head are
marked by a black spot. The dorsal fin is of the same
pale-brown colour as the back, slightly inclining to blue.”
This seemed a male. “ No. 2 is a smaller fish, brown
upon the back, and becoming gradually paler beneath ;
the abdomen and lower parts are dingy white, tinged with
bluish colour. The ventral and anal fins are margined
with white, their other parts flesh colour; the pectoral
fins are reddish brown ; the dorsal fin and tail blackish
brown. The sides of this specimen are indistinctly mark¬
ed with pale yellowish-red spots.” This was a male red
char, which appeared to have spawned. “ No. 3 is of a
blackish-brown colour, somewhat silvery, paler beneath the
lateral line, and passing into yellowish white on the belly.
The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are brown, tinged
with red. The dorsal fin and tail are brownish black.
The upper part of the head is also black. The sides of
this specimen are distinctly marked with numerous very
pale, almost colourless, spots. No. 4 resembles the last
described, but is smaller.” These the fishermen called
two geld fish, full grown and half grown. “ No. 5 is a
very dark fish, brownish black upon the back and sides, be¬
coming, as usual, gradually paler beneath the lateral line.
The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins are distinctly margined
anteriorly with opake white; the central portion of these
fins are brownish black, and their interior margins flesh
colour. The upper part of the head is dark; the belly of
a dingy red. No. 6 resembles the preceding, except that
the under surface, instead of being dingy red, is pale red¬
dish white. The ventral and analfins are reddish brown,
margined anteriorly with white. The pectoral fins are
reddish brown, the dorsal fins are brownish black. Both
these specimens are marked on the sides with obscure
pale-reddish spots.” These two fish were what the fish¬
ermen called case char (Salmo alpinus ?), male and female,
—yet the pectoral, ventral, and anal fins of the former,
and the ventral and anal fins of the latter sex, were con¬
spicuously margined with white, although that character
is usually regarded as distinctive of the torgoch or red
char. Perhaps the fact of the male having the pectorals
so margined, while those of the female were of uniform
colour, may be regarded as of some importance, as tend¬
ing to show that the character itself is in some measure
variable, and therefore insufficient to constitute a specific
distinction.3 Every angler knows that the under fins of
the common trout are frequently margined on one edge
with an opake line of milky white.
Although the art of angliftg is not immediately connect-
1 We understand that Mr Yarrell has obtained what he considers as a second species of char, from Wales, which will be described
in an early number of his British Fishes. We are as yet, however, uncertain whether he makes out the two common kinds to be iden¬
tical, and has discovered a new species, or whether his observations merely go to prove that the said kinds (as formerly supposed) are
distinct from each other.
2 The chief feeder or head stream of Windermere is composed of two branches, the Brathay and the llothay, which meet a short
way above the lake, into which they speedily pour their united waters. The Brathay is the left-hand branch (as we ascend from the
take), and draws its sources from the mountain vales of Langdale, reaching Windermere without any resting place,—while the
itothay has previously formed and flowed from two consecutive lakes, Grassmere and Rydal. The char, in ascending from Winder-
mere to spawm, invariably turn to the left, and ascend the Brathay (though to no great distance), and as invariably avoid the lake-
descended waters of the itothay. They also spawn lower down the Lake of Windermere, at the mouth (or a short way upwards) of
the stream called Troutbeck, which is also derived from the flow of mountain tributaries, without any lesser or intermediate lake.
3 The specimens above alluded to are now deposited in the Edinburgh College Museum.
VOL. XII. 2 D
210 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- ed with the science of Ichthyology, it is at the same time which during the breeding season it ascends to spawn. It ]yfajaf
terygii evident that the successful practice of that art necessarily is abundant on the British coasts, and in many parts of teryJ
Abdomi- i]iustrates the f00d 0f fishes, and therefore makes us ac- Europe, and is taken in immense quantities, being much Abdoi .
Sal mo quainted with an important portion of their natural his- esteemed for the table. nale
1^^ ' tory. For this reason we insert the following memoranda, Genus Mallotus, Cuvier. Characterised by the teeth, s,al«
  transmitted to us by Mr John Wilson, junior:—“ The which are fine, closely set, and nearly concealed ; eight rays
season for fishing char (with rod and line) in Winder- to the branchial membrane; the body lengthened and co-
mere and Coniston commences about the end of May, and, vered with minute scales ; the first dorsal and ventral fins
I should say, is over by the first or second week in July, placed beyond the middle of the fish, pectoral fins very
Trolling with a smallish minnow is by far the most sue- large and round; the male during the breeding season with
cessful mode of angling for this fish. It may, however, be the scales of the lateral line furnished with lengthened ap-
taken with the artificial fly, the green and gray drake pendages resembling hairs.
being the .favourites. I killed three one day in May last The only species is M. Groenlandicus, Cuv.; S. Groen-
with a small red pvoJhssoT} A Bowness fisherman on the Icindicusj Bloch ; CctpclcM) or Loddc, A small fish of from
same day, trolling without intermission from six in the four to seven inches in length, the under jaw longer than the
morning till six in the evening, killed six and twenty, being upper; above of a greenish gray, changing to whitish be-
the greatest number that has been taken in Windermere, low ; and remarkable for the structure of the scales on the
in a single day, by one person, for many years. In Co- lateral line, and the size of the pectox-al fins. Abundant in
niston, where this fish is more abundant, I believe it is by the Arctic Seas, where it is taken in immense profusion
no means uncommon to kill three or four dozen in a day. when approaching the coasts to spawn, and is used as the
In regard to the size of char in Windermere, 1 should principal bait for cod. A few are cured and brought to
say they average three to the pound. I never saw one this country in barrels, where they are sold, and used as a
that was a pound. Billy Balmer told me that he once saw relish by the curious in wines.
one that was a pound and a quarter, and that it was the Genus Thymallus, Cuvier; grayling. Has been se-
largest ever taken in Windermere.” In relation to the parated from the Guiniads, principally on account of the
same subject, in a different locality, we may also add the small scaling, and large dorsal fin. The species approach
following extract from another hand. “ A small red char nearer in form, colour, habits, and food, to the trouts,
is found in Loch Acidity, Ross-shire, on the property of They have the mouth with sides, that is, but slightly cleft,
Sir George Mackenzie. It takes the fly greedily in warm, the teeth very fine, the body spotted, the branchial mem-
still weather, and, what is singular, during all the summer brane with seven or eight rays. The stomach is very mus-
and autumnal months. I have captured eighteen in a cular. They inhabit rivers, and feed on aquatic insects, &c.
forenoon in July,—raising many more. My flies were of England produces a beautiful species, commonly called the
various sorts, from a midge to one as large as a sea-trout grayling, or
fly. The water of Lodi Acidity is singularly deep and Thymallus thymus? Salvianus. The grayling delights
transparent,—the soil is rich and loamy, and contains in clear rapid streams, and is found in many of those bear-
large quantities of imbedded wood,—black oak especially, ing that character in the more hilly or mountainous parts
It is supplied by numbers of minute streams, but has no of England, particularly in Shropshire, Yorkshire, and
visible outlet, being supposed to discharge itself subter- Derbyshire,—reaching as far north as some of the tri-
raneously. The char found in it average eight or nine butaries of the Tyne in Northumberland. The European
inches in length; we, however, caught one much larger, range of this fish seems extensive, if all the authors are
They rise with less velocity than the trout, and on miss- correct in their designation. According to the Flora
ing the fly, unless injured, will return to the hook. In Lapponica, it is common in Lapland, and the viscera are
Strathglass there is a Loch Bruiach, where char are there used instead of rennet, with the milk of the rein-
caught of a much larger size, but chiefly with the net,— deer. It is also found in Siberia, in Prussia, and Pome-
except in the month of October, when, as our informant, rania. It is a very beautiful fish, above of a dusky bluish
the Rev. Mr Chisholm, told us, they may be taken in the green, changing to a fine silvery gray. The lower edges
shallows with the rod, but at no other season.”1 2 3 of the scales are dusky, which gives the appearance of
On dissecting the char which we killed last summer in dark streaks running along the fish. The most marked
Sutherland, with a view to ascertain their food, we found feature is the dorsal fin, of very large size, and darkly
the stomach usually empty, but the lower part of the in- spotted between the rays, in the form of transverse bands,
testine filled with green vegetable residuum. This we The ordinary size is from a foot to sixteen inches in
found to be the remains of the cases of aquatic larvae length, but instances of one or two from four to five
(.Phryganidce), a few of which we discovered in a half di- pounds are recorded. By some authors the grayling is
gested state in the upper portion of the intestinal canal. said to be a migratory fish, passing the winter in the open
Following the preceding groups, or Salmones properly sea, and the summer in the fresh waters. This may, how-
so called, Cuvier has placed the ever, be the habit of the fish in some countries only, as in
Genus Osmerus of Artedi. Characterised by two rows certain of the English rivers they seem to remain during
of teeth on each palate bone, the vomer with a tuft on the the winter. This species, as far as we know, appears to
fore part, the branchial membrane with only eight rays, be the sole example of the form in Europe; and it is on-
the body without spots, and the ventral fins placed a little ly seen again in North America, in a very beautiful fish,
more forward than in the true salmon. the
The best-known species is the O. eperlanus, Arted., Thymallus signifer, Cuv.; Coregonus signifer, Rich-
Salmo eperlanus, Linn.; called spirlin in Scotland. It ards. This grayling was met with by the expedition un¬
is a small fish of delicate but brilliant colours, clear green der Captain Franklin, in the strong rapids and clear rivers
on the upper parts, passing into silvery on the sides and to the northward of Great Slave Lake, where it rose ea-
beily. It frequents the sandy bays at the mouths of rivers, gerly at artificial flies, and afforded good sport from its
1 A noted fly, so named in honour of the Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,—a gentleman who is
said to conjoin with various other accomplishments, considerable skill in angling.
3 From the manuscript of Mr Thomas Tod Stoddart, an ingenious angler, of the Scotch bar.
9 So named from its supposed scent or flavour resembling thyme.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
211
lacop- powerful motions in the water. Dr Richardson describes
rygn its sides as tinged with lavender purple, mixed with blu-
tomi- jgh without streaks; the belly blackish gray, with
)les‘ several irregular white blotches ; and there are five or six
longitudinal rows of uniform quadrangular spots of Prus-
sian blue on the anterior part of the body. There is a
large blue mark underneath the lower jaw on each side.
The dorsal fin, which forms a prominent feature in the
fish, is of a blackish-gray colour, with some lighter
blotches. Superiorly it.has a narrow margin of light lake-
red, and posteriorly it is beautifully ornamented with
spots of Berlin blue. The ventrals are streaked with red,
and with whitish lines in the direction of their rays. The
scales are moderately large, and have no great lustre;
their exterior margins are rotund and entire, or very slight¬
ly undulated, those on the anterior part of the belly being
much smaller than the others. Of the fins the dorsal is
the most extraordinary, being, according to Dr Richard¬
son, “probably by far the largest in this genus.” Its co¬
lours, as above mentioned, are beautiful, and, with its great
size, form the chief ornament of the fish. It contains twen¬
ty-four rays ; the first two or three are small; but the
others increasing rapidly in height, as their origin is more
posterior, become more and more branched, and cause the
fin to play loosely like a flag over the posterior part of
the body; the insertion of the fin occupies about one third
of the length of the body, and the extremity of the poste¬
rior ray, which is five inches long, reaches as far as the
adipose fin.1 Specimens were taken sixteen inches in
length. Another American grayling, found in the same
northern localities, is the Thymalhis thymalloid.es, Cuv.;
Coregonus thymalloides, Richard. Resembles Th. signi-
fer, but differs i-emarkably in the size of the dorsal fin.
The body is compressed, and of a bluish gray, with pur¬
ple reflections when moved in the light. The dorsal fin
contains from twenty-two to thirty-four rays ; but the
posterior ones do not branch out in the same manner, and
scarcely exceed the others in height; hence the fin has a
very different aspect. It is about one inch high, has a dark
bluish-gray colour, with several rows of spots, having pur¬
ple centres and light-red borders. The usual length is
eight inches.2
Genus Couegonus, Artedi. Distinguished from the
last by the still finer teeth, larger scaling, and small dor¬
sal fin ; live in shoals in lakes or still waters, and only ap¬
proach the edges during spawning time. Of delicate
structure; feed much on entomostraca,and aquatic insects
and their larvae. Flesh white and delicate. The best-
known British species is the Guiniad, or
Cor. lavaretus, Salmo lavaretus, Linn. Frequent in the
lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and also found
in some of the Scotch lochs,—for example, Loch Lo¬
mond, where, as in the north of England, it is termed the
schelky. According to the best authorities, it likewise
occurs in those of Alpine and Northern Europe. It does
not reach a very large size; the average may be stated
fiom nine inches to a foot in length. The colours chaste
and delicate, of a greenish gray above, changing to whit¬
ish, with a silvery lustre. The scales are of considerable
size, and, when examined narrowly, are seen to be cover¬
ed with minute black dots. It is used for the table, but
is not so delicate as our other British species. It is known
under the name of fresh-water herring in most of its loca¬
lities.
Cbr. maramula, found in the Swiss lakes and some
other parts of the Continent of Europe, is a small species,
o nearly the same colours as the last. This fish was sup¬
posed to be found in some parts of Britain, and the ven-
dace of the Lochmaben lochs was thought referrible to it. Malacop-
When Scotch specimens, however, were shown to Mons. terygii
Agassiz during the autumn of 1834, he considered them Abdomi-
distinct from the species known to the continental Ich- liales-
thyologists as C. maromula, and the title of C. Willugh- S°'
hii was suggested for the Scottish kind. Continental spe- w-Vw
cimens of C. marcenula have not yet been received by us, !
and the distinctions, therefore, cannotat presentbe detailed.
The vendace of Lochmaben, whatever scientific name it
may ultimately receive, or whether it may be identical or
not with the species inhabiting the lakes of Continental
Europe, may be described as an interesting example of
the genus. It is one of the most elegant, though of a
small size, reaching from four to ten inches in length. The
head is of an angular shape, and small compared with the
size and depth of the body. The crown of the head is
very transparent, and the form of the brain, which is
heart-shaped, is seen through the integuments. This
peculiarity is one of the first things pointed out to the
stranger naturalist who visits Lochmaben to see this spe¬
cies. The eye is large and brilliant; the body rises grace¬
fully to the back fin, and recedes with a gradual line to
the tail; the under line is nearly straight from the gills to
the ventral fin. The upper parts are of a delicate green¬
ish brown, shading gradually into a clear silvery white;
the dorsal fin greenish brown, the anterior edge much
lengthened and pointed ; the lower fins all bluish white;
the tail much forked. They spawn about the commence¬
ment of November. The roe is minute and abundant, and
of a bright orange colour. The flesh is white and rich,
and highly prized as food ; but as it requires almost to be
eaten on the spot, it is not useful as a market commodity
when transmitted to any considerable distance. The
lochs of Lochmaben are the only authentic British habi¬
tat for this species.
Several other species inhabit the Swiss lakes, and are
known chiefly from the works of the continental Ichthy¬
ologists, particularly M. Jurine, who has devoted a paper
to the fishes of the Lake of Geneva. He there describes
C. fera and hyemalis (the latter so named from its ap¬
pearing only in winter) ; and Baron Cuvier notices a third
from the Lake Neufchatel, under the title of C. palcea.
In America several species are found in the lakes and
rivers. The white fish of Dr Richardson seems to belong
to the genus. It is the C. albus of Lesueur, and is call¬
ed by the Cree Indians Attihhawmegh, a name corrupted to
Tittameg by the traders. This fish attains a weight of
from three (the ordinary size) to twenty pounds. It
abounds in every lake and river, and is much esteemed
as food, in many parts forming the sole article of diet
for years together, without producing satiety. The sto¬
mach is of great thickness, generally filled with earth
mixed with slender roots, and small white worms. It
spawns in October. Another species is C. quadrilateralis,
Richardson, of which the colour of the upper parts is in¬
termediate between honey yellow and wood brown ; the
scales with a thin border of blackish gray round their ex¬
terior margins ; the belly white, with a pearly lustre ; the
eye moderately large, the iris with a silvery hue ; the
mouth without teeth ; the fins are yellowish ; the adipose
fin attached for its whole length. The stomach not
thickened. The food small insects. Inhabits the Arctic
Sea, and the small rivers about Fort Enterprise. The
average size is about fifteen inches in length.
Under this division also appears to rank the Inconnu of
Mackenzie and the Canadian Voyagers, although it is
placed by Dr Richardson in the genus Salmo, under the
name of S. Mackenzii. We therefore here record it as
Richardson, in the Appendix to Franklin’s Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 711.
s Ibid. p. 714.
212 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malcop- the Coregonus MacJienzii. The colour of the back and
terygii gides changeable from bluish to greenish gray, according
Abdomi- as jj. js m0ved in the light. The belly bluish white ; the
Salmo sca^es sub-orbicular, four lines in diameter, and possess-
nidce. much pearly lustre. From the form of the body, the
size of the scales, the fineness of the teeth, and their
distribution, this fish evidently belongs to the genus Co¬
regonus. It reaches a weight of thirty or forty pounds.
The flesh is white but agreeable. It is found in Mac¬
kenzie’s River, and the lakes and streams which flow into
it; also in Salt River, which, however, is its most south¬
erly limit.1
Genus Argentina, Linn. The mouth small, depress¬
ed horizontally; no teeth on the jaws, but with a small
tuft on the vomer, and having the tongue with teeth ra¬
ther strong and hooked, as in the trouts. Six rays to
the branchial membranes. The internal structure as in
the trouts. The genus is composed of a single species,
the
^4r^. sphyrcena, Linn. Found in the Mediterranean
sea, and remarkable for the thickened coats of the swim¬
ming bladder, which, as well as the scales, is plentifully
charged with that silvery secretion used in the manufac¬
ture of “ I'essence d'orient” an article employed in the
formation and lustre of false pearls. For this purpose
the species is fished in great numbers along the coast of
Tuscany. It is a small fish, scarcely exceeding four or
five inches in length, of delicate tints,—the integuments
being transparent, and giving a clear brilliancy to the co¬
lours. The upper parts are grayish, the sides and lower
surface of a brilliant silvery lustre.
Following this fish, Cuvier adopts the genus Chara-
cinus of Artedi, as a group to contain all the species of
the Linnsean Salmones, which have only four or five rays
to the branchial membrane, but as the form, toothing,
&c. vary in most of these fishes, he has thought it neces¬
sary to subdivide them into subordinate genera. It is
remarkable that many of them have the caecal or pancre¬
atic appendages, and at the same time the narrowing or
girth of the air-bladder, which is seen in many of the Cy-
prini. The first subdivision is
Genus Curimata, Cuv. In form the species resemble
Thymallus. The teeth are, however, variable, and the
divisions of this group may yet require examination. The
number of branchial rays not exceeding five, must be
remembered ; some of the species, with the exception of
that distinction, approaching very nearly to the genus
just named. They inhabit the rivers of South America.
As an example may be noted a new species, the Curi¬
mata Gilbert of Quoy and Gaimard. This fish some¬
what resembles a small Cyprinus, but is distinguished,
even on a superficial view, by the presence of the adi¬
pose fin. The scales are rather large in proportion ; the
upper parts are bluish gray, changing into silvery; the
fins yellowish ; the body appears spotted, or rather blotch¬
ed, with indistinct dark markings, conspicuous only when
placed in particular lights. This species was discover¬
ed in the fresh waters of Brazil, near the river Macaca,
and appeared to prefer those places which were of a marshy
character.
Genus Anastomus, Cuv. Characterised by combining
with the form of the graylings a mouth cleft somewhat
vertically, and furnished with fine teeth. It contains a
single species, a native (it is said) both of South America
and India, the Salmo anastomus, Linn. Is it not likely
that two species are confounded here ?
Genus Gasteropelecus, Bloch. With the mouth
placed vertically as in the last, but with the belly com- Ma,
pressed. The ventral fins very small, and placed far back, tei f
The first dorsal fin placed above the anal, which is very Ab i
long. Conical teeth in the upper jaw, in the lower sharp ^ ■
and cutting. n r
Gast. sternicla, Bloch, is a very small species, scarce- ^ w
ly two inches in length, which inhabits the waters of Su¬
rinam. Its form is very much compressed, and sharply ca-
rinated beneath ; above bluish gray; beneath silvery.2 The
fins gray, ventrals extremely minute, the anal extending
nearly from them to the tail; the tail much forked.3
Genus Piabucus, Margrave? Characterised by a length¬
ened form; a small head, with the mouth deeply cleft
and armed with strong teeth. The body compressed; the
belly carinated, but smooth ; the anal fin much extended.
The species inhabit the rivers of South America, and are
carnivorous and voracious.
P. bimaculatus. About four inches in length by about
two in breadth. Above brownish, lower parts silvery;
fins pale yellow; on each side of the body beyond the
gills an oval spot of black, with a similar one at the base of
the tail. Inhabits the rivers of Surinam, and is esteemed
as food.4
Genus Serrasalmus, Lacepede. The body compress¬
ed; the belly carinated, and toothed or serrated on its
lower margin; the teeth triangular and cutting ; some
species with a concealed spine before the first dorsal fin.
Ser. rhomboides, Bloch. Above of a dusky red, mark¬
ed with a few small scattered dusky spots ; sides and belly
silvery, the latter strongly carinated and serrated by a se¬
ries of aculeated processes. The fins yellowish ; tail ter¬
minated by a black border. Found in the rivers of Suri¬
nam, where it reaches a considerable size; feeds on fish
and water fowl ! Two other species, G. aureus and nigri¬
cans, are figured in the work of Spix.
Genus Tetragonopterus. This group was formed by
Artedi, and after being thrown out by Ichthyologists, was
re-established by Cuvier as a sub-genus. The form con¬
tinues compressed, the anal fin much extended, and the
teeth sharp and cutting ; but there are two rows of teeth
on the upper jaw, and the belly is neither carinated nor
serrated, as in the preceding.
Genus Chalceus, Cuvier. Characterised by the same
form of the mouth, and the same cutting teeth, as the pre¬
ceding fishes ; but the body is of an oblong form, and nei¬
ther carinated nor serrated beneath. The maxillary bones
have three small round teeth. Inhabit South America.
The species are C. macrolepidotus, Cuv., and C. anyula-
tus. Spix.
Genus Myletes, Cuvier. Characterised by the singu¬
lar form of the teeth, in the shape of a triangular prism,
short, rounded at the corners, and with the upper surface
so hollowed by mastication, that the three angles form
three projecting points. The mouth small, with two rows
of teeth on the inter-maxillary bones. None on the max-
illaries. The under jaw with a single row of teeth. The
form elevated; a spine before the vertical fins. The belly
carinated and serrated. Inhabit America and Africa.
Some of the species attain to a large size, and have the flesh
well flavoured.
M. Hasselquistii, Cuv., Salmo dentex, Hasselquist, is
found in the Nile. It is a fish of a lengthened form, with
the dorsal fin occupying the position which corresponds
to the space between the ventral and anal fins. The teeth
are very strong. The colours above are brownish, with
three or four indistinct longitudinal lines upon the sides ;
the under parts silvery.5 M. paco is an American species.
1 Richardson in the Appendix to Franklin’s Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 707.
2 Schneider. 9 Shaw. 4 Schneider, Shaw.
s Schneider.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
i acop- Genus Hydrocyon, Cuvier. Extremity of the muzzle
ygii formed by the inter-maxillary bones ; the maxillaries com-
i tomi‘ mencing near or before the eyes, and completing the up-
des. r ;aw> The tongue and vomer always smooth, but there
'n0‘ are conical teeth on both jaws. A large sub-orbitary bone,
v, thin and bare as the opercle, covers the cheek.
Certain species have a close row of small teeth on the
maxillary and palatine bones, the first dorsal fin corre¬
sponding to the space between the ventral and anal fins.
They are of agreeable taste, and inhabit the rivers of the
torrid zone. To this group belongs the Hyd. falcatus,
Quoy and Gaim. Above of a violet tint, beneath pale,
but tinted generally with a shade of silvery. A silvery
band extends the whole length of the body from the oper¬
cle to the tail, and at each extremity is marked with a dark
spot. The fins gray at the base, and brown at the extre¬
mity. The eyes of a golden red. The scales small and
deciduous. The specimens brought by Freycinet were
from five to six inches in length. They were taken in
Brazil.
Other species have a double row of teeth on the inter-
maxillaries and lower jaw, a simple row on the maxillaries,
and none on the palatine bones. The first dorsal fin is
placed above the ventrals. A Brazilian species, H. bre-
videns, Cuv., exemplifies this minor group.
Others again have only a simple row of teeth on the
maxillaries and lower jaw, but the teeth are alternately
small and very large, especially the two second from be¬
low, which pass through hollows of the upper jaw when
the mouth is shut. The lateral line is composed of scales
of a larger size, and the dorsal fin is so placed as to corre¬
spond to the interval between the ventral and anal fins.
H. scomberoides, Cuv. or Cynodon vulpanus, Spix, is an
example of this peculiar form.
Another form has the muzzle pointed, the maxillary
bones very sharp, and the inter-maxillaries and lower jaw
furnished with a single row of very close, small teeth ; the
body covered with strong scales. A Brazilian species, H.
lucius, Cuv. affords a characteristic example.
A fifth form has teeth only on the inter-maxillaries
and lower jaw, and these few in number, but strong and
pointed. The first dorsal fin is placed above the ventrals.
A single species from the Nile, the Characinus dentex of
Geof. (Pois. d'Egypte), presents the sole example of this
limited group.
Genus Citharinus, Cuvier. Characterised by their
depressed mouth, the upper edge formed entirely by the
inter-maxillary bones. The maxillaries small and without
teeth ; the tongue and palate smooth ; the adipose fin co¬
vered with scales, together with the greater part of the
tail. The species inhabit the waters of Africa.
Some have the upper jaw only furnished with very fine
teeth; the body elevated as in Serrasalmus, but without
the carinated or serrated abdomen.
Salmo cyprinoides exemplifies this division of the genus.
Others have on both jaws a number of teeth, thickly placed
in several rows. These fish are more lengthened in their
form, and appear to lead to the next genus. Salmo JEgyp-
ticus, Linn, serves as an illustration.
Genus Saurus, Cuvier.1 Distinguished by its length¬
ened and cylindrical form, and by the large scales, which
cover also the cheeks and opercles. The edges of the
upper jaws are formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries;
and on each, as well as on the palatine bones and the
tongue, are numerous pointed teeth, which are wanting
on the vomer. The first dorsal fin is placed much pos¬
terior to the ventrals, which are large. The interior struc-
213
ture resembles that of the trouts. They are very vora- Malacop-
cious. terygii
This form is illustrated by the Salmo saurus of Bloch •^1^11'
and Linn., a native of the Mediterranean; above of a
greenish blue, varied with numerous narrow undulated nidse.
transverse bands, reaching as far as the lateral line, wdiich
is itself bounded beneath by a continued stripe of brown;
abdomen silvery. The fins pale, the pectorals crossed
with a few brown bars.2
S. variegatus, Lacepede, Quoy, and Gaimard. The
jaws, tongue, and palate wdth formidable sharp teeth. The
upper parts of a dull gray, banded transversely with eight
or nine brown bands, broad and irregular when ceasing at
the centre of the fish. The under parts tinted wdth rose
colour. The eye red and brilliant. In this fish the second
dorsal fin is so small as not easily to be perceived. Found
in the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.3
S. gracilis, Quoy and Gaimard. A small species, reach¬
ing only about four inches and a half in length. The co¬
lours are unobtrusive, being a dull gray blotched with ir¬
regular blackish spots, most defined on the sides and to¬
wards the tail. All the fins are covered with brownish
specks, which on the pectorals are so disposed as to
form three transverse bands. This fish was also found in
the neighbourhood of the Sandwich Isles.4
Genus Scopeles, Cuvier. Mouth .and opening of the
gills wide ; the jaws furnished with very fine teeth ; the up¬
per jawformed entirely by the inter-maxillaries; the tongue
and palate smooth ; the branchial rays from nine to ten ;
the adipose fin small, but having a trace of bony rays. The
species are small in size, and live in shoals. They are
found in the Mediterranean Sea. The Sc. Humboldtii of
Risso offers a characteristic example.
Genus Aulopus, Cuvier. In this form the characters
of the Cod or Gadi, and Salmoiies, are united. The mouth
is widely cleft, the inter-maxillary bones, which form the
border of the upper jaw, are furnished, together with the
palatine bones, the vomer, and the lower jaw, with a nar¬
row stripe of teeth en carde. The maxillary bones are
longer, and without teeth. The ventral fins are placed
almost under the pectoral fins, and have the outer rays
strong, and simply forked. The body, cheeks, and oper¬
cles, are covered with large ciliated scales. Salmo Jilamen-
tosus of Bloch illustrates Aulopus.
Genus Sternoptyx, Herman. These curious fish have
by Cuvier been placed under the above title at the conclu¬
sion of his Salmonidae. They embrace two forms, which,
he thinks, will eventually be converted into sub-genera.
They are of small size, the body high, and very compress¬
ed ; the mouth directed upwards. The humeral bones
form on the fore-part a sharp crest or ridge, terminated be¬
low by a small spine. The pelvic bones form another and
similar crest, also terminated by a small spine placed before
the ventral fins, which are so minute as to have escaped
the observation of the first observer. On each side of the
last ridge there is a row of small hollows, which has been
regarded as a fold of the sternum, and has suggested the
name of Sternoptyx. Before the dorsal fin there is a bag or
membranous ridge, and behind this fin there is a small
membranous projection, .which is thought to represent the
adipose fin of the true Salmones.
The first form of this genus has very fine teeth, with five
rays to the branchial membrane, and is represented by St.
Hermannii. The second has the teeth hooked, and nine
rays to the branchial membrane. St. Olfersii exhibits the
only known example. Both species are from the warmer
parts of the Atlantic Ocean.
1 Named from their lengthened Saurian or lizard-like form, and distinguished from the other groups derived by Cuvier from the
genus Characinus of Artedi, by the branchial rays ranging from eight to fifteen in number.
4 Shaw, General Zoology, vol. v. * Voyage de Freycinet.
214
Malacop-
terygii
Abdomi-
nales.
Clupidae.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
FAMILY V—CLUPIDiE.
Fishes allied to herrings are easily recognised by their
having no adipose fins ; their upper jaw is formed as in
trouts,—in the middle by inter-maxillary bones without
pedicles, and on the sides by the maxillary bones; their body
is always very scaly. The majority of the species possess a
swimming bladder and numerous caeca. Those which as¬
cend rivers are comparatively few in number.
The great genus Clupea of Linnaeus may be known by
two well-marked characters ; Is;, by the narrow and short
inter-maxillary bones, which constitute only a small por¬
tion of the upper jaw, the sides of which are completed by
the maxillaries in such a wray that the lateral parts only are
protractile ; and, by the compressed and sharp inferior
edge of the body, upon which the scales project like the
teeth of a saw. Besides, the maxillaries are divided into
three pieces. The branchial openings are very much cleft;
and hence these fishes speedily die when removed from
their native element.
Their branchial arches are furnished on the side next
the mouth with pectiniform dentations. The stomach has
the form of an elongated pouch ; the swimming bladder is
long and pointed, and in some species sends forwards two
long and small processes, which communicate with the in¬
ternal ear in a remarkable manner. Their caeca are nume¬
rous. Of all fishes, these have the most numerous and the
finest bones.
Genus Clupea, Cuv. Herrings, •properly so called.
The maxillary bones arched anteriorly, and longitudinally
divisible into several pieces ; the opening of the mouth of
moderate size ; the upper lip not emarginate.
C. harengus, Linn. The common herring; le liar eng,
Fr. ; der Haring, Ger. This well-known fish has visible
teeth in both its jav/s ; the carina of the belly is but slight¬
ly marked; the sub-opercle is rounded; there are veins
on the sub-orbital, pre-opercle, and upper part of the
opercle. The attachment of the ventral fins corresponds
to the middle of the dorsal; the head is one fifth of the
length of the whole fish, and by carrying backwards from
the first dorsal fin the distance of that organ from the snout,
we arrive at the middle of the caudal. The anal fin has
sixteen rays.
The investigation of the habits of this fish has not re¬
ceived that attention which its importance as an article of
food to the inhabitants of this country demands ; and there
are several circumstances respecting its economy which
still require farther examination. It is generally believed
that the herring inhabits in winter the depths of the Arctic
Ocean, or other seas in northern latitudes, and that during
the rest of the year it makes migrations southwards. In
summer and autumn they appear on the north and west
coasts of Europe in immense shoals, and about the same
season they arrive at some parts of the coast of America
and Asia. It has been supposed that those coming from
the north divide into two detachments, one of which pro¬
ceeds along Newfoundland to America, the other along
Norway to the south of Europe, and that one subdivision
of this second detachment goes up the Baltic, while the
other proceeds along Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, and
France, as far as the western coast of Spain.
Ihis is the description of the annual migrations of the
herring given by Pennant; but some doubts have been en¬
tertained as to its accuracy, from the circumstances, Is;,
that while in some places the herrings do not make their
appearance for years, in others they are taken in abundance
all the year round ; and, 2d, that they have never been
observed on their return northwards. Other naturalists
suppose that they come merely from the deep into shallow
water during the spawning season, and that in so doing
they do not make any very lengthened journeys. In truth
we are not as yet furnished with sufficient data to decide the
question; but, in the mean time, w^e do not feel inclined
entirely to reject the generally received opinion, that the
herrings migrate from north to south in summer and autumn.
In migrating, the herrings proceed in vast troops,—so
great, indeed, that the sea is sometimes covered with them
for miles, and that they have even been known to be
stranded or crushed in immense quantities in confined
bays, or when thrown by the wind or by currents upon
the shore. The shoals are said to be generally preceded,
sometimes for days, by one or two males. The largest
generally go first, to act in some measure as guides; and,
as they proceed onwards, immense numbers fall an easy
and unresisting prey to rapacious birds, or to their own not
less rapacious kindred of the sea.
It is generally believed that the herrings captured far
north are larger, fatter, and of a better quality, than those
of the south ; and for this reason, in the month of July, our
fishermen go out to meet the shoals as far as Orkney and
Shetland. The greatest number are taken on the coasts
of Norway and Sweden, in the first of which countries it
is said that about 400 millions are taken in one year, and
sometimes twenty millions in a single fishery. The inha¬
bitants in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg, in Sweden,
take as many as 700 millions in a year. Herrings are
fished also in great quantity in this country, Germany,
France, Holland, the United States, and Kamtschatka.
The average size of the herring is stated to be about ten
inches. According to Dr Knox, the females are consider¬
ably larger than the males,—the largest female he found on
the east coast of Scotland measuring eleven inches, the
largest male nine inches and a half. It does not appear to
be precisely known at what age they attain their full size.
Considerable doubt has at all times prevailed regarding
the food of the herring. They were generally stated to
live on small crabs and fishes, and on a minute crustaceous
animal named by Fabricius Astacus harengum. But this
was chiefly matter of supposition, for most practical fisher¬
men described the stomach of the fish when in good state
as quite empty, or, at most, as containing a little brownish
mucus ; and it has appeared difficult to reconcile the fact,
that it is when the stomach appears thus empty that the
fish is in its best condition, viz. fullest, with the finest fla¬
vour, and most capable of keeping,—with the notion, that
when it appears upon our coasts it has quitted its natural
feeding ground, and has been longer and longer in a state
of starvation the more southern the latitude in which it is
found. Dr Knox’s interesting observation, that the prin¬
cipal food of the salmon and vendace consisted of minute
crustaceous animals, led him to examine carefully with the
microscope the brownish matter contained in the alleged
empty stomachs of the herring; and he then formed the
opinion, that this matter consisted of the debris of a very
minute entomostracous animal.1
It is well known that the herrings caught upon the east
coast of Scotland are much inferior to those taken on the
west coast, and more particularly to those of Loch Fine,
and other lochs of Argyleshire. Dr Knox states that the
herrings taken near the Firth of Forth in July are foul, or
are engaged in spawning, while those of the west coast, in
the same season, have the organs of reproduction very
slightly developed; and he conjectures that that species
of crustaceous animal which forms their appropriate and
most favourite food may exist abundantly in the bays on
the west coast of Scotland, and either not at all, or not in
Malacop.
terygii
Abdomi.
Bales.
Clupidae,
1 It is figured in the Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. xii. pi. x.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Mi :up* sufficient quantities, along our eastern coasts. It appears
te to be chiefly after these fishes have been absent for some
At mi' time from their proper feeding places that they eat marine
n ,3' worms and small fishes; and when so feeding they lose
f-1' ^ much of their flavour, and run rapidly into putrefaction
^ after being captured. The time of spawning seems to vary
considerably, both in the same and in different districts;
so that we may have spring, summer, and autumn herrings,
as we know they have in some parts of the Baltic. Dur-
in°- the spawning season they are seen to rub their bellies
against the rocks or sand. As many as 68,606 eggs have
been counted in one female. The young do not accom¬
pany the larger herrings in their migrations.
Of the genus Chipea, Cuvier makes four other species
besides the common herring, viz. the sprat, white-bait, pil¬
chard, and sardine. Of these we shall now give a short
account.
Clupea sprattus, Bl. The sprat, mellet (Esprot, Bar an-,
guet, Fr.), bears a very close resemblance in form to the
herring, but does not attain the same size. The number
of its vertebrae is forty-eight, and the dorsal fin is placed
farther back than in the herring. It has no veins on the
opercle ; a gilded band runs along the sides in the spawn¬
ing season. This fish is eaten in considerable quantity in
this country, both in the fresh and salted condition. It ap¬
pears in the Thames from November to March.
Clupea latulus, Cuv. White-bait (Blanquette, Fr.; die
Breitling, Germ.) has the body more compressed, and the
belly sharper, than the herring. The length of its head,
and height of its body, are each one fourth of the whole
length of the fish. The dorsal fin is placed farther for¬
wards, the anal is longer and situate nearer the caudal fin,
than in the herring.
Considerable difference of opinion formerly existed
among ichthyological writers as to the exact specific na¬
ture of the white-bait. Pennant and Shaw considered it
as allied to the bleak, Cyprinus alburnus. Turton, Dono¬
van, and Fleming, regard it as the young of the shad
Clupea alosa, an opinion which was generally received as
correct, until Mr Yarrell in 1828 ascertained that the num¬
ber of vertebrae in the white-bait is invariably fifty-six, and
in the shad only fifty-five ; and he is thus supposed to have
demonstrated that the well-known white-bait ought to be
regarded as a species distinct from every other. It is a
very small fish, seldom exceeding four inches in length.
It is of a very brilliant silvery colour, and has a black spot
on the end of the snout. The flavour of the white-bait is
considered as particularly delicate, and great numbers are
eaten by the Londoners in the month of July, at which
time innumerable quantities make their appearance in the
Thames.
Clupea pilchardus, Bl. The pilchard (le Celan, Fr.)
nearly equals the herring in size, and bears a considerable
resemblance to it in form. The sub-opercle is quadran¬
gular, the pre-opercle and opercle striated ; the head pro¬
portionally shorter than in the herring, and the dorsal fin
placed farther forwards. The ventral fins begin as it were
under the end of the dorsal; the anal consists of eighteen
rays; and on each side of the caudal two scales longer than
the rest project. The habits of this fish seem to be near¬
ly the same as those of the herring. It is believed, like it,
to reside in winter and spring in the northern seas, and to
proceed southwards in the beginning of summer. It is
fished in enormous quantities off the coast of Cornwall for
the purpose of salting and exporting to the Mediterranean,
especially to Naples. It appears there in July. Its flavour is
considered by some as even superior to that of the herring.
Clupea sardina, Cuv. The sardine, which is esteemed
lor the extreme delicacy of its flavour, differs only in size
from the pilchard. Numbers are taken off the coast of
Brittany, and also in the Mediterranean.
215
Genus Alosa, Cuv. This genus is distinguished from Malacop-
the herrings properly so called, by an emargination in the terygii
upper jaw; its other characters seem in all respects the AMomi-
same as those of the pilchard and sardine. ?®'
Alosa vulgaris, Cuv.; Clupea alosa, Linn. Plate CCCV. OXP^,'
fig. 2. The shad is distinguished by the absence of sen¬
sible teeth, and by an irregular black spot behind the gills.
This fish is much larger than the herring, attaining some¬
times to the length of three feet. It is also of a much
flatter shape; its tail is much forked; and on each side of
the lower margin of the belly the scales are very large. It
is a native of the Mediterranean, as well as of the North
Atlantic and Caspian Seas. According to Pennant, the
best in this country are found in the Severn. The shad
ascends rivers in spring and the beginning of summer, and
it is then highly esteemed ; but it is of a dry and disagree¬
able flavour when taken at sea. The Russians believe that
the shad has deleterious properties. The Arabs smoke-dry
it. This species lives chiefly on vermes, insects, and smfill
fishes ; and Dr Fleming informs us that he has taken small
herrings from its stomach. The number ascending rivers
varies very much in different years.
Alosa finta ; Clupea finta, Lacep. The veuth of the Flem¬
ish is more elongated than the shad, and has well-marked
teeth in both jaws; there are five or six black spots along
the flanks. It is found as far south as the Nile. Its taste
is very inferior.
Genus Chatoessus, Cuv. The chatoessi are true her¬
rings, with the last dorsal ray prolonged into a filament.
Some have the jaws equal and the snout not prominent,
and a small mouth devoid of teeth. In others the snout
is more prominent than the jaw's ; an equally small mouth
with the preceding ; the upper combs of the first pair of
gills unite together so as to form a very singular pennated
point beneath the palate.
At the end of the true herrings Cuvier has placed some
foreign genera which resemble them in their sharp and
dentated belly.
Genus Odontognathus, Lacep.; Gnathobolus, Schn.
Has the body much compressed, and very sharp dentations
along the whole of the belly ; the anal fin long, and pro¬
jecting little ; the dorsal so brittle as to be almost always
destroyed ; six rays in the branchial covers. The maxil¬
lary bone is somewhat prolonged into a point, and is arm¬
ed with small teeth directed forwards. There are no ven¬
tral fins.
One species only is known. It comes from Cayenne ;
resembles a small sardine, and is called by Lacepede the
Qdontognathe Aiguillonne.
Genus Pristigaster, Cuv. Has the head and teeth
similar to those of the herrings ; four rays to the gill-covers,
and no ventral fins ; the belly much compressed, its low-er
edge arched, and sharply dentated.
The Prist, tardoore and Prist, cay anus are mentioned
by Cuvier as known, species existing in both oceans.
Genus Notopterus, Lacep. Was placed among the
Gymnoti for some time, on account of a resemblance occa¬
sioned by the extreme length of the anal fin. The spe¬
cies have scaly cheeks and opercles; the sub-orbitals,
lower part of the pre-opercles, the inter-opercles, the two
crests of the lower jaw, and the keel of the belly, dentated ;
there are fine teeth in both palates and jaws, and strongly
hooked teeth on the tongue. The branchiostegous mem¬
brane has only one strong osseous ray. There are two
very small ventral fins, followed by an anal, which occu¬
pies three fourths of the whole length of the fish, and unit¬
ed as in the gymnoti to the caudal fin. A small dorsal fin
with soft rays is placed opposite to the middle of the cau-
dal.
One species only is known, inhabiting the fresh-water
ponds of the East Indies.
216 ICHTHY
Malacop- Genus Engraulis, Cuv. The Anchovies differ con-
terygii siderab.ly from the true herrings in having the mouth cleft
Abdomi- £ar eyes. the gills more open, with twelve or
Clunkhe a greater number of rays; the maxillaries straight and
elongated, and there projects in front of the mouth a small
pointed muzzle, under which are fixed very small inter-
maxillaries.
The best known have not the sharp-edged belly ; their
anal fin is short, and the dorsal is placed opposite to the
ventrals.
Clupea encrasicolus, Linn. The common anchovy (/’An-
chois, Fr.) has the back of a bluish-brown colour, the
belly silvery. It measures from four to seven inches
long. The anchovy formed one ingredient of the garum,
a favourite sauce of the Romans; and when pickled it is
much prized at the present day. It is fished in greatest
quantity in the Mediterranean, but is found as far north
as the coast of Holland. It lays its spawn near the shore,
from December to March, at which time it is supposed to
leave the deep sea and approach the coasts. Engraulis
meletta, Cuv., an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, is small¬
er than the common anchovy. Among some remarkable
American species of this genus, the Eng. edentulus is with¬
out teeth. Others, as the Chip, atherinoides, Clup. te-
lara, and Clup. phasa, have the body compressed, and its
lower edge serrated.
Genus Thryssa, Cuv. Differs from the last-mention¬
ed anchovies only in the great prolongation of the maxil¬
laries. The species occur in the East Indies.
Genus Megalops, Lacep. Differs from the herrings
in having the belly blunt, and the body not compressed.
The jaws and palatine bones are covered with small, even,
sharp teeth ; there are from twenty-two to twenty-four
rays in the gill-covers; and the last ray of the dorsal fin,
as also often that of the anal, is prolonged into a filament,
as in Chatoessus.
One species is found in America, the Savalle or Apa-
like {Clup. cyprinoides, Bl.), which attains the enormous
length of twelve feet; it has fifteen dorsal rays. Ano¬
ther Indian species, Megalope Jilamenteux of Lacep., has
been confounded by Russel with the preceding, under the
name of Apalike. Its dorsal fin has seventeen rays.
Genus Elops, Linn. Is very similar in structure to
Megalops, but wants the elongated filament of the dorsal
fin. It has thirty or more rays in the branchiostegous
membrane; a fiat spine on the upper and lower edge of
the caudal fin. The species are found in both hemi¬
spheres.
Elops saurus is described by Sir Hans Sloane as be¬
longing to America. According to Cuvier, the Argentina
machnafa, Forsk., Mugil salmoneus, Forsk., the Tinagow,
Russ., Synode chinois, Lac., Mugil appendiculatus, Bose,
the Pounder, Sloane, and the Argentina Carolina, Linn.,
are all the same as Elops saurus, while the Saurus maximus,
usually confounded with it, belongs to a different genus.
Genus Butirinus, Commerson. Muzzle prominent
like that of the anchovies, and the mouth slightly cleft;
twelve or thirteen rays on the branchiostegous membrane ;
close and even teeth on the jaws ; and (a peculiar charac¬
ter) the tongue, vomer, and palatines closely paved with
rounded teeth. These fishes are described under various
names by different authors.
The Elopes and Eutirini are found in both oceans.
They are pretty, silvery-looking fishes, and make excel¬
lent soup.
Genus Chirocentrus, Cuv. Have the jaws formed like
those of the herrings ; both maxillaries and inter-maxilla-
ries furnished with strong conical teeth, two of which
above and all below are very long. The tongue and
branchial arches are bristled with teeth like a comb, but
there are none on the vomer or palatines. Their gill-
O L O G Y.
covers have seven or eight rays, of which the external Mali
are very broad. Above and below each pectoral fin is a ter
long, pointed, membranous scale, and the rays of those AM
fins are very hard. The body is elongated, compressed,
and sharp beneath, but not serrated. The ventral fins
are very small, and the dorsal shorter than the anal,
opposite to which it is placed. The stomach forms a long,
narrow, and pointed sac, the pylorus being near the cardia;
no caeca; the swimming bladder long and narrow.
One species only is known, of a silvery hue, and from
the Indian Ocean. It is the Esoce chirocentre, Lac., Clup.
dentex, Schn. and Forsk., Clup. dorab, Gmel., Wallach, Russ.,
and probably also the Parring or Chnees of the Moluccas.
Genus Hyodon, Lesueur. Possesses the general form
of the herrings, and their sharp belly, but that part is not
serrated. The dorsal fin is placed opposite to the anal;
the gill-covers have eight or nine rays; hooked teeth on
the vomer; palatines and tongue as in trouts.
Those which are known live in the fresh waters of
North America.
Genus Erythrinus, Gronov. A range of conical
teeth in each jaw, some of which in front are longer than
the rest; the palatines are covered with close even teeth.
The gill-covers have five broad rays; the head is without
scales ; and the cheeks covered by hard sub-orbitals. The
body long, little compressed, covered with large scales
like those of the carp. The dorsal fin is placed above the
ventrals. The stomach forms a broad sac, and there are
numerous small caeca. The swimming bladder is very large.
We may mention as a characteristic species the Esox
Malabaricus of Bloch.
These fishes inhabit the fresh waters of warm climates.
Their flesh is agreeable.
Genus Ami a, Linn. Similar to the preceding in many
respects, but with twelve rays in the gill-covers. Below
the lower jaw is an osseous buckler, which exists also in
Megalops and Elops, though of smaller size in those ge¬
nera. The dorsal fin, beginning between the pectorals
and ventrals, extends nearly to the caudal; the anal is
short. Each nostril has a small tubular appendage. The
stomach is ample and fleshy; the intestine without caeca.
The swimming bladder is cellular, like the lung of a reptile.
Only one species, Amia calva, is known. It resides in
the rivers of Carolina, where it feeds on crabs. It is sel¬
dom eaten.
Genus Sums, Cuv. The characters of this group are
nearly the same as those of Erythrinus, excepting that
their body is proportionally longer, and the dorsal and
anal fins are placed opposite to each other, and, nearly of
an equal size, occupy the posterior third of the length of
the body. The species live in fresh water.
Three kinds are now known. One, Sudis Adansonii,
Cuv., was found in Senegal by Adanson, and in the Nile
by Riippel. Another, of a much larger size, with great
bony scales and an oblong muzzle, is a native of Brazil,—
the Sudis gigas, Cuv. A third, Sudis Niloticus, discover¬
ed by Ehrenberg in the Nile, has a singular spirally con¬
voluted funnel adhering to the third gill, which may be
analogous to what has been observed in Anabas and neigh¬
bouring genera.
Genus Osteoglossum, Vandelli. Distinguished from
Sudis principally by two barbels, which depend from the
symphysis of the lower jaw ; the anal and caudal fins are
united. The tongue is rendered very rough by a cover¬
ing of short straight teeth, so that it may be used as a
rasp to reduce fruits to a pulp.
Osteoglossum Vandellii, Cuv., is a native of Brazil.
Genus Lepisosteus, Lacep. Muzzle formed by the
union of the maxillaries, inter-maxillaries, and palatines,
with the vomer and ethmoid, which the lower jaw equals
in length. The jaws have along their edge a row of long
ICHTHYOLOGY.
217
M
*t<
Su
r'
cop< and pointed teeth, and their inner surface is rendered
gii bristly by a covering of sharp, rasp-like teeth. The gill-
’{a" covers are united below by a common membrane, having
tu three rays on each side. These fishes are covered with
scales of a stony hardness. The dorsal and anal fins,
which are opposite to one another, are both situate very
far back. The two outer rays of the tail, and the first
ray of all the other fins, are furnished with scales so as to
make them appear dentated. The pylorus has many short
caeca. The swimming bladder is cellular, as in Amia.
There appear to be several species or varieties of this
fish. They inhabit the rivers and lakes of the warm parts
of America. They grow to a considerable size, and are
considered to be good eating. Dr Fleming observes, that
the claims of Lepisosteus osseus to rank 'as a British spe¬
cies are very doubtful. Berkenhout indeed has inserted
it in his Synopsis (p. 81), with the habitat of Sussex coast;
and Mr Stewart, in his Elements of Nat. Hist. (vol. i. p.
374), intimates its occurrence in the Firth of Forth ; but
we are not aware of its having been seen among us in re¬
cent times. We here figure the Lepisosteus spatula of
Lacepede (Esox Cepedianus, Shaw), a native of the seas
and rivers of America. Plate CCCV. fig. 4.
Genus Polypterus, Geoff. Distinguished at once
from other genera by a number of separate fins placed
along the back, each supported by a strong spine, to the
posterior edge of which are attached some soft rays. The
caudal fin surrounds the end of the tail, and the anal is
very near it; the ventrals are very far back. The body
is covered with bony scales like those of the preceding
genus, and the whole cheek is covered by an osseous
plate, shagreened in a similar manner to those on the rest
of the head. Around each jaw there is a row of conical
teeth, and behind some close or rasp-like teeth. Their
stomach is capacious, the intestine narrow, with a spiral
valve and one caecum. The swimming bladder is double,
with large lobes, particularly that on the left side, com¬
municating by a wide aperture with the oesophagus.
Polypt. bichir (P. Niloticus, Shaw) may be named as a
species of the genus. It has sixteen dorsal fins, and was
discovered by M. Geoffroy in the Nile. (See Plate CCCV.
fig. 3.) Polypt. Senegalus, Cuv. is another species from
Senegal. It has only twelve dorsal fins. The flesh of
these fish is good eating.
ORDER III.—MALACOPTEHYGII SUB-BRACHIATI.
This order is characterised by the attachment of the
ventral fins beneath the pectorals,—which latter may be
regarded as analogous to the arms, and hence the name
Sub-brachian. The pelvis is suspended immediately from
the bones of the shoulder.
Ihis order contains as many families as Linngean genera.
FAMILY I—GADID.-E.
Comprehends the members of the great Linnaean genus
Gadus, containing the well-known cod and haddock.
The Gadi in general are recognised by the ventral fins
being pointed and attached to the throat. The body is
moderately elongated, slightly compressed, and covered
with soft and not very large scales. The head is well
proportioned, and without scales; all the fins are soft.
I he jaws, and the front of the vomer, are armed with
several rows of pointed, irregular, middle-sized, or small
teeth, forming a sort of currycomb or rasp. Their gill- Malacop-
covers are large, with seven rays. Most of the species terygii
have two or three fins on the back, one or two behind the
anus, and a distinct caudal. Their stomach forms a large
muscular sac ; the crnca are very numerous. The swim-
ming bladder is large, and has strong parietes, frequently
dentated on the sides.
These fishes generally live in cold or temperate cli¬
mates, and constitute a very important article of fishery.
The greater number are considered wholesome, and form
a light and agreeable food,—the flesh separating easily by
boiling, into white flaky layers. The great sand bank of
Newfoundland is the most famous station of the cod fish¬
eries, and is resorted to by English fishermen, who chiefly
use the hook and line. The fish abound in this place
probably on account of the great quantity of the smaller
animals which serve as food, viz. mussels, clams, &c.
The family of Gadid;e has been divided by Cuvier into
Morrhua, or cods properly so called, Merlangus or
whitings, Merluccius or hakes, Lota or lings, Motella,
Brosmius, Brotula, Phycis, and Raniceps.
Genus Morrhua, Cuv. Has three dorsal fins and
two anal; a tuft at the point of the lower jaw. The spe¬
cies are extremely prolific.
M. vulgaris ( Gadus morrhua, L.). The common cod
(la Morue, Fr.; Kabliau, Germ.) measures from two to
three feet in length. The back is spotted with yellowish
brown. It inhabits the whole Northern Ocean, and occurs
in vast profusion.
This fish dwells in salt water only. It is not found
nearer the equator than the 40th degree of latitude. The
weight of the common cod varies from twelve to eighty
or even 100 pounds. It is extremely voracious, and its
digestive powers are seemingly very great. It feeds upon
smaller fishes, such as herrings, on Mollusca, worms, and
Crustacea, and even on the young of its own species. It
has a strong muscular stomach, and is said to possess the
power of rejecting by the mouth substances, such as wood,
tkc. which it finds indigestible.
In spring they come nearer the shore in order to depo¬
sit their spawn. This happens in January in England, in
February in Norway, Denmark, and Scotland, and in
March in Newfoundland. One female is said to contain
from four to nine millions of eggs !
The most extensive cod fisheries o.i our coasts are off
the Western and Shetland Isles, but they are still greater
in more northern countries. The cod has been fished on
the coast of Sweden since the year 1368, by the inhabitants
of Amsterdam. The English resorted to Iceland before
the year 1415; and it is stated that in the year 1792, 200
French vessel^ of a burden of 191,153 tons were employed
in the cod fishery. Every year more than 6000 European
vessels are employed in this fishery.1
The flesh of the cod has a good flavour, and may be
easily preserved. The tongue, salted and dried, has been
considered a great delicacy. The gills are preserved and
used as bait. The liver is eaten, and is sometimes used
for the production of oil. The swimming bladder affords
a very good isinglass.
This important species constitutes a principal article of
food to the inhabitants in some parts of Iceland, Norway,
and other northern countries. In a dried state it is also
much used in some papal kingdoms of the south.
In the neighbourhood of the Isle of Man, and elsewhere,
there is a variety of the cod named the red or rock cod,
the skin of which is of a brightish vermillion colour. Its
flesh is much esteemed.
t> Weca»n°t in this place enter upon the important subject of Fisheries ; but the reader, may consult with advantage Pennant’s
untish Zoology, vol. hi. and Duhamel’s Traite General des Fetches.
V°L. XII. o _
218
Malacop-
t.erygii
Sub-bra-
chiatL
Gadidae.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
M, oeglefinus ( Gadus <zglefinus, Linn.). The haddock
(VEgrefin, Fr.; Scholljisch, Germ.) is as w ell known, and al¬
most as important, as the cod in this country; it is of a
smaller size, usually eighteen inches long. The back is
brown, the belly silvery, and the lateral line black. There
is a blackish spot behind the pectoral fin, which tradition
assigns to the impression of St Peter’s finger and thumb
when he took the tribute-money out of the mouth of a fish,
supposed the haddock. The upper jaw is longest.
The haddock is found, like the cod, in the Northern
Ocean, but has not been seen in the Baltic. It annually
approaches the shores, in February and March generally,
in order to deposit its spawn. The regularity with which
it re-appears in some districts on a stated day is quite re¬
markable. On the coast of Yorkshire, since the year
1766, they have annually made their appearance on the
10th of December. At this place they are supposed to
form an immense shoal three miles broad, and extending
eighty miles in length,—from Flamborough Head to the
mouth of the Tyne. It is in autumn that they visit the
shores of Holland and East Friesland, and the neighbour¬
hood of Heligoland.
The haddock frequents our coasts during the greater part
of the year, although the largest are taken in winter. The
flesh is generally best in the months of May and June, -i
It is stated, that in the north, when the sea is frozen near
the shore, these fish collect in troops beneath any openings
in the ice, and the Greenlanders are thus enabled to catch
them in considerable numbers. The seals and foxes adopt
the same method of securing them for food. The food of
the haddock is very similar to that of the cod, which spe¬
cies it resembles in its voracious habits,
M. callarias ( Gadus callarias, Linn.). The dorse (Faux
Merlan, Fr.) is smaller than the haddock, being only eleven
or twelve inches long. It is spotted like the cod, and has
the upper jaw longer than the under. The lateral line is
placed near the back. It resembles the whiting in taste,
and is considered by many as the best eating fish of all
the Gadus tribe. It is much sought after on the shores of
the Baltic.
This fish frequents the mouths of large rivers, which it
sometimes ascends along with the salt water. It is gene¬
rally taken in June. The Icelanders salt and dry it, and
the Greenlanders are said frequently to eat it in a state of
semi-putrefaction.
To these fishes, which are among the best-determined
species of the old genus Gadus, may be added Gadus bar-
batus or whiting pout, a fish about eighteen inches or
two feet long, which is eaten by the Greenlanders, but
not much esteemed. Gadus minutus, the capelan or poor,
Gadus punctatus, the speckled cod, and Gadus luscus, the
bib, may be named as other species which occur along the
British shores.
Genus Meblangus, Cuv. The whitings have the same
number of fins as the cods, but they want the barbels.
M. vulgaris (Gadus merlangus, Linn.). The whiting,
Merlan, Fr.; Witling, Germ. The body a foot or more in
length ; upper jaw long ; pale reddish-gray back, and sil¬
very belly ; lateral line yellow, nearly straight.
This fish is very common on our coasts, and is valued
on account of its abundance, and the wholesomeness and
fine flavour of its flesh. It is often salted and dried in this
country, as well as in Holland. The shoals of whitings
sometimes occupy a space three miles long, and one and
a half broad. It is generally fished in summer in this
country, and is taken both with the line and net. The
food of the whiting is similar to that of the haddock. It
is more frequently found near the shore than that species.
M. carbonarius (Gadus carbonarius, L.). The coal-fish
(Merlan noir ou Colin, Fr.; Kohlfisch, Germ.) is twice the
size of the whiting, and of a deep brown colour; the upper
jaw shortest; the lateral line straight and white. The flesh \raiicc
of the young is rather delicate ; that of the adult is some- tervgil
what leathery, but it is used when salted and dried, like the Sut>-tr8
cod. This is tire podley, silloch, cuddy, &c. of our coasts. „L,iualu
The young swarm along the British shores, and form a fre-
quent sustenance of the lower orders of the Western High- ^
lands. On one occasion we killed thirty-three dozen with
the rod in a few hours, using a line with six small flies. By
giving the line one or two additional turns through the wa¬
ter, we frequently pulled six ashore at once. It even consti¬
tutes an important article of exportation from our northern
coasts. In Norway the poor feed upon it; and oil is made
from its liver. The adult fish is taken principally in sum¬
mer ; it deposits its spawn in this country in February and
March. The coal-fish is found in the North Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the
Mediterranean Sea,—for example, near Nice.
M. pollachius ( Gadus pollachius, L.). The pollock or
pollack, Merlan jaune, Fr. About eighteen inches long;
resembles M. carbonarius in its general form and struc¬
ture of the jaws ; brown above and silvery beneath ; sides
spotted ; lateral line curved, black. The flesh of the pol¬
lock is considered better than that of the coal-fish, and
inferior only to that of the dorse and whiting; it inhabits
the Atlantic, and is gregarious. It is commonest on the
coasts of Norway and the north of England, and sometimes
occurs in the Mediterranean in winter. It is easily caught
with a white fly.
Gadus virens, Ascan., the sey, may also be included in
the genus Merlangus.
Genus Merluccius, Cuv. The hakes have only two
dorsal fins and one anal, and resemble the whitings in the
absence of the barbels.
M. vulgaris ( Gadus merluccius, L.). The hake (le Mer-
lus, Fi\) is generally from one to two feet long, but some¬
times much larger. The back of a brownish-gray colour ;
the anterior dorsal fin pointed; the lower jaw longest.
Great numbers are taken in the ocean, and in the Me¬
diterranean. On the coasts of the Mediterranean it is
called merlan or whiting; and, when dried, it receives in
the north the name of stock-fish, in the same way as the
cod. It is said to be very abundant in the Bay of Gal¬
way on the west of Ireland, and at Penzance in Cornwall.
The flesh is white and flaky, and its liver is considered a
delicacy.
Gadus magellanicus, Forst., and Gadus maraldi, Risso,
may be included in this group.
Genus Lota, Cuv. The lings have the same fins as
the hakes, but are also provided with barbels to a great¬
er or less amount.
Lota molva (Gadus molva, L.) or common ling (h
Lingue, or Morue longue, Fr.),is the best-known species. It
measures from three to four feet in length, and sometimes
even attains the size of seven feet;, it is named ling from
its lengthened shape. Olive above, silvery beneath. The
fins have a white margin ; the two dorsal fins are of equal
height. The lower jaw rather the shortest, and furnish¬
ed with a single barbel.
This fish spawns in June ; it inhabits the same seas as
the cod, and is fished in the same manner during the
spring months. It is preserved dry, and exported in con¬
siderable quantity.
Lota Jluviatilis (Gadus lota, L.), river ling or burbot
(la Lotte commune, Fr.), is from one to two feet long. Its
colour yellow, marbled with brown; a single barbel on
the chin. The two dorsal fins are of equal height, the
second extending to near the tail. The body is almost
cylindrical, and the head slightly depressed, so as to give
the fish a peculiar appearance, somewhat resembling that
of an eel; hence its occasional name of Eel Pout. See
Plate CCCY. fig. 5.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
219
\ scop- This is the only Gadus which inhabits fresh water ; it
ygii ascends rivers to a considerable distance, and inhabits
S -bra' lakes. It is very abundant in North Asia and the Indies.
at‘’ It is also well known in North America. In England it is
f ldse‘ found only in a few rivers. The flesh and liver of the
^ burbot are esteemed.1
To this sub-genus may be added Gadus Bacchus, Forst.,
Gadus maculosus, Lesueur, and Lola elongata, Risso.
Among the lings, Cuvier has distinguished another
small group named
Genus Motella, Cuv., in which the anterior dorsal
fin is so small as scarcely to be perceptible.
As species we may name Gadus mustela, L. described
by Bloch as G. tricirrhatus. It is of a fawn-coloured
brown, with blackish spots ; two barbels on the upper
jaw, and a third on the lower one. Gadus cimbricus,
Schn. (Cr. qumquecirrhatus, Penn.) is also a Motella. The
species are called Gades by English writers.
Genus Brosmius, Cuv. The torsks or tusks have only
one dorsal fin, which extends nearly the whole length
from the head to the tail.
B. brosme, or Scotch torsk, seldom ventures farther
south than the Orkneys or Caithness ; it is very nume¬
rous near the Shetland Isles. It is called Brosme by the
fishermen, from its resemblance to the blenny genus.
The name of torsk is applied in Norway and Sweden to
the Gadus callarias (a true Morrhua), which has three
dorsal fins. This circumstance has given rise to some
confusion. Donovan described the Scotch torsk from a
specimen sent him alive from Shetland. It is salted and
dried in the north.
Genus Brotula, Cuv. Dorsal and anal fins united with
the caudal, so as to form a single fin, terminating in a point.
One species only (JEnchelyopus barbatus of Bloch and
Schneider) is known. It has six barbels, and comes from
the Antilles.
Genus Phycis, Art. and Schn. Differs from the other
Gadi in having ventral fins with only one ray,—fre¬
quently forked. The head is thick, the chin with one
barbel. Two dorsal fins, the second of which is long.
Some species are found in European seas.
Such is Phycis Mediterraneus, Laroche, sometimes call¬
ed the sea tench (Blenniusphycis, Linn.). Anterior dor¬
sal round, and not higher than the other; the ventrals of
the same length as the head. This is a common species in
the Mediterranean.
Phycis blennoides, Schn., S. furcatus, or forked hake
of Pennant, occurs also in the ocean. The first dorsal
fin is more elevated, and its first ray considerably elon¬
gated ; the ventral fins are twice the length of the head.
It is a British species, though a rare one.
Genus Raniceps, Cuv. The head more depressed
than in Phycis and the other Gadi; the anterior dorsal fin
so small that it is lost in the thickness of the skin. Inha¬
bits the ocean.
The trifurcated hake of Pennant belongs to this genus.
Genus Macrourus, Bl. Lepidoleprus, Risso. The sub¬
orbitals unite in front with each other and with the bones
of the nose, so as to form a depressed snout, which pro¬
jects above the mouth, and beneath which the latter pre¬
serves its mobility. The head and body are covered with
hard and spiny scales. The ventral fins are small and
somewhat jugular; the pectorals of moderate size ; the
first dorsal short and high ; the second dorsal and anal
both very long, and uniting with the caudal; very fine
short teeth in the jaws.
The species inhabit deep water, and when taken from it
utter sounds resembling those of the genus Gristes. Only
two species have been as yet described, the Lep. ccdor-
hynchus and trachyrynchus of Risso. They occur both in
the Mediterranean and along the oceanic coasts of France.
Malacop-
terygii
Sub-bra-
chiati.
Pleuronec-
tidae.
FAMILY II.—PLEURONECTIDJE.
This family of the sub-brachian malacopterygian order
comprehends the great Linnean genus Pleuronectes,
which includes all those osseous species usually known un¬
der the name offlat fish.
They are at once distinguished by a character unique
among vertebrated animals, viz. the want of symmetry in
the construction of the head ; both eyes being placed on
the same side, or on that which remains uppermost when
the animal swims, and which is always of a darker colour;
while the side in which the eyes are wanting faces the
ground, and is always whitish, or very pale. Some of the
other organs participate in this irregularity of the orbits;
thus the two sides of the mouth are unequal, and the two
pectoral fins are generally of different sizes. Their body
is much compressed, and raised vertically. The dorsal fin
runs along the whole of the back, the anal occupies what
may be regarded as the under part of the body, and the
ventrals have almost the appearance of continuing that fin
forwards, so much do they often appear as if united toge¬
ther. There are six rays in the branchiostegous mem¬
brane. The abdominal cavity is small (the anus being far
forwards) ; but it is prolonged into a sinus in the thickness
of the two sides of the tail, in which some portion of the
viscera is lodged. There is no swimming bladder, and
these fishes seldom quit the bottom.
The Pleuronectid.® furnish an agreeable and whole¬
some food, and occur along the coasts of almost all coun¬
tries. The disposition of the bones of the head is curious,
on account of the inversion which brings the two orbits to
the same side; still we recognise in it all the pieces com-
moq to the other genera, but of unequal size. Individuals
termed reversed are sometimes found, having the eyes placed
on a different side from that on which they are situated in
the rest of their species. Others, having the two sides of
the body of the same colour, are called double. The brown
or upper side is more frequently thus repeated than the
white one ; but the rose-coloured flounder of Shaw pre¬
sents an instance of the duplication of the paler side.2
The genus Pleuronectes was formerly subdivided ac¬
cording as the eyes were placed on the right or left side of
the middle line ; but, on account of the irregularity of in¬
dividuals in this respect, Cuvier has rejected the charac¬
ter, and has distinguished various groups, as follows:
Genus Platessa, Cuv. Has on each jaw a range of
obtuse cutting teeth, and generally some teeth in the form
of pavement {en paces') on the pharyngeal bones. The
dorsal fin advances forwards as far as the upper eye, and
leaves, as well as the anal, a naked interval between it and
the caudal. The form of the body is rhomboidal; the ma¬
jority have the eyes on the right side. They have two or
three small caeca. Several inhabit the British seas.
O" estimc fort m chair, et surtout son foie, qui est singulierement volumineux,” observes Baron Cuvier, Regne Animal, t. ii. p.
• 4. A different opinion, however, has been formed of it in the western world. “ The burbot,” says Dr Richardson, “ is so little
es eemed as food, as to be eaten only in cases of necessity. Very good bread, however, may be made of the roe, and the livers are
a ways prized. Dogs ■will scarcely ever eat this fish.” (Appendix to Captain Franklin’s first Journey to the Polar Sea, p. 724.) Dr R.
a cis, that this species preys upon every kind of fish that it can swallow, and that in spring its stomach is generally so crammed with
cray-fish as to distort the shape of the body.
* Gen. Zool. vol. ir. part 2, pi. xliii.
220
Malacop-
terygii
Sub-bra-
chiati.
Pleuronec-
tidje.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
P. vulgaris (Pleuronectes platessa, L.). The plaice
( Carelet, Fr.; Scholle, Germ.) is recognised by six or seven
tubercles forming a line on the right side of the head be¬
tween the eyes, and by spots of a bright yellow colour,
which relieve the brown of the body on that same side.
This fish is three times as long as it is high. Plate CCCV.
fig. e.
The plaice grows sometimes to the size of fifteen or six¬
teen pounds weight, but those weighing seven or eight
pounds are considered large; its flesh is more tender than
that of any other species of the genus. It inhabits the Me¬
diterranean, Baltic, and North Seas, and spawns in spring.
A large plaice, PL borealis, Fabr., having the spine
behind the anus concealed under the skin, is described as
belonging to the northern regions.1 2
PL latus, Cuv. The broad plaice {la Plie large, Fr.)
is a much rarer species. It has the same tubercles as the
common plaice, and differs from it chiefly in being only
once and a half as long as it is high.
PL flesus, L. The flounder (le Flet ou Picaud, Fr.;
der Plunder, Germ.) has nearly the same form as the
plaice, with paler spots; it has only small granular emi¬
nences at the salient line of the head, and at the base of
each ray of the dorsal and anal fins there is a small rough
projection ; the lateral line has also bristly scales. Many
of this species occur reversed.
The flounder is taken in spring near the shore, and at
the mouths of rivers, into which it sometimes ascends a
considerable way; it lives well in fresh water, and is kept
in ponds in Friesland. It inhabits the Baltic and North
Atlantic Seas. Its flesh is much inferior to that of the
plaice; the best are said to be taken near Memel.
PL pola, Cuv., is a fish described by Duhamel under
the name of La Vraie Limandelle. It is of an oblong
form, approaching to that of the sole, although broader.
It is distinguished from other Platessce. with sharp teeth,
by a smaller head and mouth. The body is smooth and
the lateral line straight. In France it is considered as
equal to the sole.
PL limanda, L. The dab or bret (la Limande, Fr.;
die Glahrke, Germ.) is of a rhomboidal form, like the
flounder; has large eyes, and a salient line between them.
Its lateral line is strongly curved above the pectoral fin.
Its scales are rougher than in the preceding species, and
to this character it owes its name (from lima, file). Its
teeth, though in a single row, as in other Platessce, are nar¬
rower, and almost linear. The side on which the eyes are
placed is of a clear brown, with some indistinct brown and
whitish spots. This is a small fish, its length being less
than a foot; but it is much esteemed. It is less common
than either the plaice or flounder. It spawns in May, and
is in season for the table during spring.
Genus Hippoglossus, Cuv. Has a form of body, and
fins, similar to the plaices ; the jaws and pharynx are
armed with sharper and stronger teeth. Their form is
generally more oblong.
H. vulgaris {PL hippoglossus, L.). The great holibut,
or halibut {le grand Fletan ou Helbut, Fr.; die Heiligbutte,
Germ.), is one of the largest of this genus inhabiting the
northern seas. It sometimes attains a very great size,
for example, to the length of six or seven feet, and weigh¬
ing three or four hundred pounds. The skin is smooth ;
it has the eyes to the right side ; the lateral line arched
above the pectoral fin; there is a long spine before the
anal fin.
This is the most voracious of all the Pleuronectidae,
preying on smaller fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, &c. It in- Malawi
habits the Mediterranean, as well as the northern seas, terygi!
The flesh of the young is esteemed, and is not seldom sold Sub-bn
to the uninitiated for turbot, to which, however, it ispieh'atL
much inferior in every way. Indeed, when old, it is ex- .U10n'
tremely coarse.* ^
In the Mediterranean there are several smaller species,
of which some have the eyes to the left side. Such is PL
macrolepidotus, Bl.— Citharus, Rond.; distinguished by
the large size of its scales, its oblong form, and straight la¬
teral line. (Plate CCCV. fig. 7.) P/. is describ¬
ed by Shaw as a smaller holibut, found in considerable
quantity in Greenland, and superior to the common kind
as an article of food.
Genus Rhombus, Cuv. The turbots, like the holibuts,
have teeth closely set, or en carde, both on the jaws and
pharynx; but their dorsal fin advances as far as the edge
of the upper jaw, and extends, in common with the anal,
to near the caudal fin. The greater number have the eyes
to the left.
In some the eyes are approximate, and in the interval
between them there is a slight projecting crest. The two
largest of our coasts are of this kind ; they are the most
esteemed as food of all the Pleuronectid^e.
Bh. maximus {PL maximus, L.). The turbot, le Tur¬
bot, Fr.; Steinbutte, Germ. This fish, so highly prized on
account of its delicate flavour, and the wholesomeness of
its flesh, is distinguished by the rhomboidal shape of its
body, which is nearly as high as it is long. It is bristled
on the brown side with small tubercles ; has the lateral line
curved ; and the eyes on the left side.
This species is usually much smaller than the holibut; it
is frequently two feet long, with a weight of twenty pounds;
but it is stated sometimes to attain the length of five or six
feet. Extensive turbot fisheries are established on different
parts of our coast. The turbot is taken with the hook; it
is very voracious, and may be lured by various baits, such
as portions of herring or haddock, mussels, limpets, and
other shell-fish; but all these must be very fresh. Indeed
the species very sensibly prefers live bait without hooks,
more especially the small river-lamprey. Mr Pennant has
particularly described the extensive turbot fishery at Scar¬
borough. There are three men in each of the fishing-
boats, each man having three lines, and each line 280
hooks. All the nine lines are fastened together, and then
extend to about three miles in length ; they are laid across
the current, and are allowed to remain for six hours before
they are hauled. This fish is called the water or sea-
pheasant, by the French common people, on account of its
fine flavour.
Rh. rhombus. The pearl or brill, la Barbue, Fr.
The body more oval than that of the turbot; without tu¬
bercles ; and distinguished besides by the first rays of its
dorsal fin being half free, with their extremities divided
into several strips. This fish is of a smaller size than the
turbot; it has a delicate flavour, and is in great request.
Bh. punctatus; PL Icevis, Shaw. The kitt (le Tar-
geur, Fr.) is much rarer than the preceding on our coasts.
Its shape is oval like the brill; it has no strips on the rays
of its fins ; its scales are rough ; its teeth very fine; its
cheek furnished with very close and even teeth; and it
has black points and spots on a brown ground. It is said
to be more frequent in Shetland than along the other Bri¬
tish coasts.
Bh. cardina. The whiff {la Cardine, or Calimande, Fr.)
is quite of an oblong form ; its first rays are free, but simple;
1 Itu, xxi. p. 868.
2 Nevertheless it is generally called turlot in the Edinburgh market, where the true turbot passes under the classical cognomen ot
raun-Jlsuk.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
COp. its teeth very close and even. It has spots partly white
t 'gii and partly blackish, scattered on a brown ground. This
Si bra- species is taken, though seldom, in the Channel,
c d- In the Mediterranean there is a small species, only a few
Di bo11- jnches long,—PL nudus, Risso ; Arnoglossum, Rond.; and
^ another still smaller, which is quite transparent,—PL can-
didissimus, Risso ; PL diaphanus, Schn.
In other turbots the eyes are distant, the upper one
far back; their interval is concave ; they have a small pro¬
jecting hook on the base of the maxillary bone at the side
on which the eyes are placed, and sometimes another on
the inferior eye. There are several of this nature in the
Mediterranean, such as the PI. podas of Laroche.1 We
have figured PL argus on Plate CCCV. fig. 8.
Genus Sole a, Cuv. The soles have, as a distinguish¬
ing character, the mouth twisted to the side opposite the
eyes ; that side only being furnished with teeth, which are
fine, like the pile of velvet, or, according to Cuvier’s fre¬
quent expression, en velours; the side on which the eyes
are placed is toothless. Their form is oblong ; the snout
round, and almost always projecting more than the mouth.
The dorsal fin commences at the mouth, and extends, as
well as the anal, to the caudal fin. The lateral line is
straight; the side of the head opposite to the eyes is fur¬
nished with a kind of villosity. The intestine is long; it
forms several folds, but has no caeca.
S. vulgaris (PL solea, L.). The sole (le Sole, Fr.) is a
species common on the European coasts, and universally
esteemed wherever known. Brown on the side which bears
the eyes; the pectoral fin spotted with black. It is one
of our most valued fishes for the table, the flesh being
firm, white, and of delicious flavour. The sole generally
measures from one to two feet in length, and its weight
varies from one to seven pounds. It is a gregarious fish,
and is generally taken with the trawl-net. It inhabits the
Baltic, North, Atlantic, and Mediterranean Seas. There
is a large sole fishery at Brixham in Torbay, and a very
extensive one on the coast of Sardinia. The best soles are
said to be found at the Cape of Good Hope; yet our
honoured friend Justice Menzies does not esteem them so
highly as he did those of his native Scotland.
There are many distinct species of this genus, besides
numerous varieties that have been too vaguely described to
admit of their being easily distinguished from each other.
We shall here merely name the Pallasian, Zebra (Plate
CCCV. fig. 9), Carolina, Ocellated, Rondeletian, Platessoid,
Silver, Smooth, Bearded, Marbled, Pavonian, and Variegat¬
ed Soles.
Genus Monochirus, Cuv. Contains such soles as have
only a very small pectoral fin on the side of the eyes, the
one on the opposite side being either very minute, or
wholly wanting. There is one Mediterranean species, the
PL microchirus of Laroche.2
Genus Achirus, Lacep. Contains the species which are
wholly destitute of pectoral fins ; and which may again be
divided according as their vertical fins are distinct, as in
Achiri properly so called, or united to the caudal fin, as in
the sub-genus Plagusia.
FAMILY III.—DISCOBOLI.
Forms the concluding division of the sub-brachian ma-
lacopterygian fishes. They receive their name from the
disk formed by their ventral fins. This family comprehends
two genera, neither of which is numerous.
Genus Lepadogaster, Gouan. The ample pectoral fins
221
descend to the inferior surface of the body, and become Malacop-
united together beneath the throat by a transverse mem- terygii
brane, directed forwards, which is formed by the union of Sub-bra-
the two ventral fins. The body is smooth and without scales ;
the head broad and depressed ; the muzzle projecting and ^sc0_1^*
extensile ; the branchial openings small; the gill-covering
furnished with four or five rays. There is only one soft
dorsal fin, opposite to an anal of a similar kind. The in¬
testine is short, straight, and without caeca. There is no
swimming bladder, but nevertheless the species swim ra¬
pidly along the shores. The genus is divisible as follows :
ls^, Lepadogaster properly so called. The membrane
already mentioned, which takes the place of the ventral
fins, extends circularly under the pelvis, and forms a con¬
cave disk; on the other hand, the bones of the shoulder
form a slight projection behind, which completes a second
disk with the membrane uniting the pectorals.
Several species inhabit the Mediterranean and neigh¬
bouring seas. In some the dorsal and anal fins are distinct
from the caudal, with which their membrane is however
sometimes continuous, though it at the same time becomes
narrower. Of this kind are the Lep. Gouani, balbis, and
Decandolii. In others, these three fins are united, as in
L. Wildenovii. The Cyclopterus cornubicus of Shaw (Ju¬
ra sucker of Pennant) belongs to the genus Lepadogaster.
2rf, Gobiesox, Lacep. Interval between the pectoral
and ventral fins not divided into a double disk, but form¬
ing only a large single disk, cleft on both sides, and pro¬
longed by the membranes. The dorsal and anal fins are
short, and distinct from the caudal. The branchial aper¬
tures are larger than in the preceding. A British species,
known under the name of bimaculated sucker ( Cyc.bimacu-
latus, Pennant), belongs to this genus. It is a very small
fish, not measuring more than an inch and a half. Mon¬
tagu found it adhering to stones and old shells, and ob¬
tained it in abundance, by dredging, near Forcross.3
Genus Cyclopterus, Linn. The circle-finned fishes,
commonly called suckers or lump-Jish, have a well-mark¬
ed character in their ventral fins, the rays of which, sus¬
pended all round the pelvis, and united by a single mem¬
brane, form an oval and concave disk, which the fish em¬
ploys as a sucker to fix itself to the rocks. Besides this,
their mouth is wide, and furnished on both jaws and pha¬
ryngeal bones with small pointed teeth. Their opercles
are small; their branchial openings closed towards the
bottom, and furnished with six rays. Their pectoral fins
are very large, and unite almost under the throat, embra¬
cing as it were the disk of the ventrals. Their skeleton
does not harden much ; and their skin, viscous and without
scales, has small hard grains scattered here and there upon
its surface. They have a stomach of considerable size,
many caeca, a long intestine, and a swimming bladder of
ordinary dimensions.
The Cyclopteri are divided by Cuvier into two sub-ge¬
nera, as follows:
ls£, Lumpus. Has a first dorsal fin, more or less per¬
ceptible, though very low, and with simple rays,—and a
second one with branched rays opposite to the anal. The
body is thick.
Cycl. lumpus, L. (Plate CCCY. fig. 11.) The lump¬
fish or sucker (le Lump, Gras Mollet, Fr.; See Base, Germ.)
has its first dorsal fin so much enveloped in a thick tuber¬
cular skin, that externally it might be taken for a mere
hump on the back. It is furnished with three rows of co¬
nical tubercles on each side.
This fish is about eighteen inches long. It lives, espe¬
cially in the north, on Medusae and other gelatinous ani¬
mals. Its flesh is soft, insipid, somewhat oily, and is sel-
1 Ann. du Mus. xiii. xxiv. 14.
2 Hid. xiii. 3oG.
Linn. Tram. vol. vii. p. 293.
222
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- dom used for food by those who can provide better. It is,
tervgii however, held in some estimation by the Greenlanders,
Sub-bra- themselves an oily people, whose lines do not always fall in
Discoboli pleasant P^ces. They also eat its roe (which is a very
large one), after having reduced it by boiling to a pulp. In
Ireland it is sometimes salted. This fish is very unwieldy,
and, possessing few means of defence, it generally remains
at the bottom of the sea, adhering to the rocks. It thus
becomes an easy prey both to seals and sharks. Large
placid oily spots upon the surface of the sea are often seen
above the places where the lump-fish have been seized and
slain. We also occasionally find their skins floating empty
along the shore, the flesh and blood having been previous¬
ly extracted by their insatiate foes. The male is said to
preserve with great care the eggs which he has fecundat¬
ed, and he has moreover been famed in fable for his affec¬
tionate behaviour to the female. There does not, however,
appear to be any real foundation for this trait in his cha¬
racter,—a very unfrequent one in that of any member of
the fishy tribes.
Cyclopt. spinosus inhabits the northern seas. Cycl. mi-
nutus is found in the Atlantic, and C. nudus in the Indian
Ocean.
2d, Liparis, Artedi. Has only one dorsal fin, which, as
well as the anal, is rather long. The body is smooth, elon¬
gated, and compressed behind.
Lip. vulgaris (Cyc. liparis, L.), the unctuous sucker
of Pennant, is a European species of variable size, not un¬
common about the mouths of rivers, especially those of
the northern seas. It is a well-known British species, re¬
markable not merely for dying, but for actually dissolving,
soon after it is taken out of the water. Liparis Montagui
measures only about two inches in length.1 It was disco¬
vered by the naturalist whose name it bears, among the
rocks at Milton, on the south coast of Devon, during
some extraox-dinary low tides. Lip. gelatinosns is another
northern species, the flesh of which is not eatable, as de¬
scribed by Pallas in his Spicilegia Zoologica. Its flesh is so
bad that not even dogs will eat it.
Genus Echeneis, Linn. This genus, so different fi-om
its neighbours, might, like the old Linnaean genus Pleuro-
nectes, almost form a separate family of the sub-brachian
malacopterygian fishes. The species called Remoras are
remarkable for the flattened disk they bear upon their
heads, and by means of which they can adhere to other
bodies with considerable firmness. These disks are com¬
posed of a certain number of transverse cartilaginous plates,
directed obliquely backwards ; dentated or spinous at their
posterior edge, and moveable in such a manner that the
fish can create a vacancy between them; and thus, aided
also by the toothed margin, it fixes itself securely either to
rocks or floating bodies.
This genus has the body elongated, and clothed with
small scales ; a single soft dorsal fin opposite to the anal;
the head quite flat above; the mouth cleft horizontally,
and rounded; the lower jaw placed more forwards, and
furnished, as well as the inter-maxillary bones, with small
pectiniform teeth. There is a row of regularly-set small
teeth, like cilia, along the edge of the maxillaries, which
form the external margin of the upper jaw ; the vomer is
furnished with cardiform teeth, as well as the tongue.
They have eight branchiostegous rays. Their stomach is
a wide cul-de-sac; the caeca six or eight in number; the
intestine wide, but short. They have no swimming bladder.
The species are few in number. Of these, Echeneis re¬
mora, Linn., the famous Remora, or sucking fish, of the Me¬
diterranean, is the best known. It has usually eighteen
plates in its cranial disk.
The extraordinary power possessed by this fish, of ad- Malac
hering tenaciously to any flattish surface, was known to teryg
ancient writers, as well as to the curious inquirers of mo-
dern times. Pliny luxuriates upon it with his usual dis- T.^iat
cursive verbosity. The reader may possibly be amused
by Philemon Holland’s translation of the passages in ques-
tion. “ Having so far proceeded in the discourse of na¬
ture’s historic, that I am now arrived at the very heigth Of
her forces, and come into a world of examples, I cannot
chuse but in the first place consider the power of her ope¬
rations, and the infinitnesse of her secrets, which offer
themselves before our eyes in the sea: for in no part else
of this universal frame is it possible to observe the like ma¬
jestic of nature : insomuch, as wre need not seeke any far-
ther, nay, we ought not to make more search into her di-
vinitie, considering there cannot be found any thing equall
or like unto this one element, wherein she hath surmount¬
ed and gone beyond her own selfe in a wonderfull number
of respects. For, first and foremost, is there any thing
more violent than the sea; and namely when it is troubled
with blustring winds, whirlepuffs, storms, and tempests ?
or wherein hath the wit of man been more employed
(seeke out all parts of the known world) than in seconding
the waves and billows of the sea, by saile and ore ? Fi¬
nally, is there ought more admirable than the inerrable
force of the reciprocal! tides of the sea, ebbing and flowing
as it doth, whereby it keepeth a current also, as it were
the stream of some great river 5
“ The current of the sea is great, the tide much, the winds
vehement and forcible; and more than that, ores and sailes
withall to help forward the rest, are mightie and powerfull:
and yet there is one little sillie fish, named echeneis, that
checketh, scorneth, and arresteth them all. Let the winds
blow as much as they will, rage the storms and tempests
what they can, yet this little fish commaundeth their furie,
restraineth their puissance, and, maugre all their force, as
great as it is, compelleth ships to stand still: a thing which
no cables, be they never so big and able as they will, can
perform. She bridleth the violence and tameth the great¬
est rage of this universall world, and that without any
paine that she putteth herselfe unto, without any holding
or putting backe, or any other meanes save only by cleav¬
ing and sticking fast to a vessell: in such a sort as this one
small and poore fish is sufficient to resist and withstand so
great a power both of sea and navie, yea and to stop the
passage of a ship, doe they all what they can possible to
the contrarie. What should our fleets and armadoes at
sea make such turrets in their decks and forecastles ?
what should they fortifie their ships in warlike manner, to
fight from them upon the sea, as it were from mure and
rampier on firme land ? See the vanitie of man! alas,
how foolish are we to make all this adoe ? When one
little fish, not above half a foot long, is able to arrest and
stay per force, yea, and hold as prisoners, our goodly tall
and proud ships, so well armed in the beakehead with yron
pikes and brazen tines; so offensive and dangerous to
bouge and pierce any enemie ship which they doe encountre.
Certes, reported it is, that in the naval battaile before Ac-
tium, wherein Antonins, and Cleopatra the queene, were
defeited by Augustus, one of these fishes staled the admi-
rall ship wherein M. Antonins was, at what time as he
made all the hast and meanes he could devise with help of
ores to encourage his people from ship to ship, and could
not prevaile, untill he was forced to abandon the said ad-
mirall, and go into another galley. Meanwhile the arma¬
da of Augustus Ccesar, seeing this disorder, charged with
greater violence, and soone invested the fleete of Antonie.
Of late daies also, and within our remembrance, the like
1 Donovan’s British Fishes, t. Ixviii.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
j] icop- happened to the roiall ship of the emperor Cains Cali-
t rgh gula, at what time as he rowed backe, and made saile from
S .bra- Astura to Antium; when and where this little fish de-
1 . tained his ship, and (as it fell out afterward) presaged an
^ unfortunate event thereby: for this was the last time that
r ever this emperour made his returne to Rome: and no
sooner was he arrived, but his own souldiours in a mutinie
fell upon him and stabbed him to death. And yet it was
not long ere the cause of this wonderfull stale of his ship
was knowne : for so soon as ever the vessel (and a galliace
it was, furnished with five bankes of ores to a side) was
perceived alone in the fleete to stand still, presentlie a
number of tall fellows leapt out of their ships into the sea,
to search what the reason might be that it stirred not;
and found one of these fishes sticking fast to the very
helme: which being reported unto Cains Caligula, he
fumed and fared as an emperour, taking great indignation
that so small a thing as it should hold him back perforce,
and check the strength of all his mariners, notwithstand¬
ing there were no fewer than foure hundred lustie men in
his galley that laboured at the ore all that ever they could
to the contrarie. But this prince (as it is for certain
knowne) was most astonied at this, namely, that the fish
sticking only to the ship, should hold it fast; and the same
being brought into the ship and there laid, not worke the
like effect. They wrho at that time and afterward saw
the fish, report that it resembled for all the world a snaile
of the greatest making : but as touching the form and sun-
drie kinds thereof, many have written diversly, whose
opinions I have set downe in my treatise of living crea¬
tures belonging to the waters, and namely in the particu¬
lar discourse of this fish : neither doe I doubt but all the
sorte of fishes are able to doe as much : for this we are
to believe, that Pourcellans also be of the same vertue,
since it was well knowne by a notorious example, that one
of them did the like by a ship sent from Periander to the
Cape of Gnidos : in regard whereof, the inhabitants of
Gnidos doe honour and consecrat the said Porcellane with¬
in their temples of Venus. Some of our Latin writers do
call the said fish that thus staieth a ship, by the name of
Remora.”
Another species, Echeneis Naucrates, Linn. (Plate CCC V.
fig. 10), commonly called the Indian Remora, has usually
twenty-two plates upon the head. In its habits it resem¬
bles the preceding ; but it seems to be more frequent in
the seas of India and America, than in those of Europe.
The manuscripts of Commerson, as quoted by Count La-
cepede, inform us that it is common along the coasts of
Mosambique, where it is made use of in a singular way for
the purpose of catching turtles. A ring is first fastened
round its tail, and then a long cord is attached to the ring.
When thus accoutred, the fish, placed in a vessel of sea¬
water. is carried out in a boat; and as soon as the fisher¬
men perceive a sleeping turtle, they row gently towards it,
and throw the remora into the water, with a sufficient
length of cord. It seldom fails speedily to attach itself to
the unconscious turtle, which by the tenacity of its ad¬
herence is immediately drawn towards the boat and cap¬
tured.
A third species of remora is described by Mr Archi¬
bald Menzies as an inhabitant of the Pacific Ocean.1 He
has named it Ech. lineata. It is distinguished by having
only ten transverse plates to its sucker. Mr Menzies
found it adhering to a turtle. A fourth species (and these
are all with which we are acquainted) has been more re¬
cently discovered by Baron Cuvier. The rays of its pec¬
toral fins are bony, compressed, and terminated by a slight-
y notched pallete. He names it Echeneis osteochir?
223
ORDER IV.—MALACOPTERYGII APODES Malacop-
terygii
which may be considered as constituting a single natural AnguilU-
family, the formes.
ANGUILLIFORMES,
or fishes with an elongated shape; a thick skin, on which
scales are in general but indistinctly visible; and without
cceca to their intestines. Almost all are provided with a
swimming bladder, which often assumes a remarkable form.
The. ancient unrestricted Genus Mur^na of Linnae¬
us is distinguished by the snake-like form of the body ;
the small opercles covering concentric branchiostegous
rays, buried in the skin, and only opening posteriorly by
a sort of tubular orifice. This structure, by giving a
more perfect command over the closure of the gills, ena¬
bles them to remain longer out of water without injury
than the generality of fishes. They have scarcely-per-
ceptible scales, which are concealed in a tough skin, co¬
vered with a slippery mucus. They all are destitute of
ventral fins and caeca, and have the anus placed very far
behind. Numerous subdivisions of the old genus Mureena
have taken place in modern times. We shall here note
the following:
Genus Anguilla, Thunbergand Shaw. Eels in gene¬
ral, as distinguished from Murcenoe, are characterised by
the possession of pectoral fins, under ■which the branchial
aperture opens; their swimming bladder has an elongated
shape, and near its middle a peculiar glandular body ;
their stomach has a long cul-de-sac; their intestine is al¬
most straight.
The more restricted genus Anguilla, or eel properly
so called, has the dorsal and caudal fins continued around
the tail, giving it a pointed form.
In the true eels, the dorsal begins a considerable dis¬
tance behind the pectorals. Some have the upper jaw
shorter than the lower ; such as the Anguilla vulgaris, or
common eel. (Plate CCCVI. fig. 1.) This fish is uni¬
versally distributed, and scarcely requires description.
The usual colour is an olive tint above, and a silvery co¬
lour below ; but in some instances the back is spotted with
brown. We have observed these fish in considerable num¬
bers leaving fresh-water lakes in the night time, and fre¬
quenting meadow's, seemingly for the purpose of preying
on slugs and snails. They easily move on the land, with a
motion resembling that of snakes. The eel grows to the
size of two or three feet, and is sometimes said to reach
five or six feet in length. It abounds in many European
rivers. Eels are caught in immense numbers in the rivers
emptying themselves into the Baltic; and they form a con¬
siderable article of trade. Two thousand are stated to
have been caught at one sweep in Jutland; and in the
Garonne 60,000 were taken in one day by a single net.
“ That eels migrate towards brackish water,” observes
Mr Jesse, “ in order to deposit their roe, I have but
little doubt, for the following reasons. From the month
of November until the end of January, provided the frost
is not very serious, eels migrate towards the sea. The
Thames fishermen are so aware of this fact, that they
invariably set their pots or baskets wdth their mouths
up stream during those months, while later in the spring
and summer they are set down stream. The best time,
however, for taking eels, is during their passage towards
the sea. The eel-traps, also, which are set in three dif¬
ferent streams near Hampton Court (the contents of
which, at different times, I have had opportunities of ex-
Linn. Trane, vol. i. p. 187, pf xvii.
2 Rlgne Animal, t. ii. p. 348.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
224
Malacop- amining), liave invariably been supplied with eels suffi-
terygii ciently large to be breeders, during the months I have
Apodes. raentjonec|. This migratory disposition is not shown by
formes1" sma^ ee^s 5 anc^ ^ may therefore be assumed that they
w-y-w remain nearly stationary till they are old enough to have
spawn. I have also ascertained that eels are taken in
greater or lesser numbers during the months of Novem¬
ber or December, all the way down the river to the brack¬
ish water. From thence the young eels migrate, as soon
as they are sufficiently large and strong to encounter the
several currents of the river, and make their way to the
different contributary streams. I have also been able to
trace the procession of young eels, or, as it is called here,
the eel-fair, from the neighbourhood of Blackfriar’s Bridge,
as far up the river as Chestrey, although they probably
make their way as far, or farther than Oxford. So strong,
indeed, is their migratory disposition, that it is well known
few things will prevent their progress, as, even at the
locks at Teddington and Hampton, the young eels have
been seen to ascend the large posts of the flood-gates, in
order to make their way, when the gates have been shut
longer than usual. Those which die stick to the posts;
others, which get a little higher, meet with the same fate,
until at last a sufficient layer of them is formed to enable
the rest to overcome the difficulty of the passage. A cu¬
rious instance of the means which young eels will have
recourse to, in order to perform their migrations, is an¬
nually proved in the neighbourhood of Bristol.. Near that
city there is a large pond, immediately adjoining which
is a stream. On the bank between these two waters a
large tree grows, the branches of which hang into the
pond. By means of these branches, the young eels as¬
cend into the tree, and from thence let themselves drop
into the stream below, thus migrating to far distant
waters, where they increase in size, and become useful
and beneficial to man. A friend of mine, who was a casual
witness of this circumstance, informed me that the tree
appeared to be quite alive with these little animals. The
rapid and unsteady motion of the boughs did not appear
to impede their progress.”1
“ All authors agree,” adds Mr Yarrell, “ that eels are
extremely averse to cold. There are no eels in the arc¬
tic regions, none in the rivers of Siberia, the Wolga, the
Danube, or any of its tributary streams. It is said there
are no eels in the Caspian or Black Seas, but they
abound in the Mediterranean ; and M. Itisso has de¬
scribed eight species in his work on the Natural History
of the Environs of Nice. There is no doubt, also, that
fishes in general, and eels more particularly, are able to
appreciate even minute alterations of temperature in the
water they inhabit. The brackish water they seek to re¬
main in during the colder months of the year, is of a
higher temperature than that of the pure fresh water of
the river, or that of the sea. It is a well-known law in
chemistry, that when two fluids of different densities
come in contact, the temperature of the mixture is ele¬
vated tor a time, in proportion to the difference in density
of the two fluids, from the mutual penetration and con¬
densation. Such a mixture is constantly taking place in
rivers that run into the sea, and the temperature of the
mixed water is accordingly elevated.”2 As eels are well
known to breed in ponds, it may be inferred that their de¬
scent to the brackish water, though customary, is not in¬
dispensable. They sometimes attain a great size. The
species (or variety) called the sharp-nosed silver eel has
been taken near Cambridge of the weight of twenty-seven
pounds.
Some authors make a separate division of the Congers
{Conger, Cuv.), which chiefly differ from the common Malaco
eels in having the upper jaw the longest, and the dorsal terygj
fin commencing almost over the pectorals. The chief
species are the following: Anguilla conger (Plate CCCVI. Af^Ul11
fig. 3) grows to the size of six feet or more, and is as ijrnie~
thick as a man’s leg. The conger is found around all our
coasts. The skin has a leaden hue above, and is white
below, with darker spots along the sides. The dorsal is
bordered with black. The teeth are sharp, and when cap¬
tured the fish is capable of giving very severe bites. The
fishermen are stated also to dread injury to their legs from
a large conger twining round them. It has been said to
attack swimmers by coiling round them, and preying on
their bodies. It is voracious, and has not unfrequently
been found within the carcasses of dead animals, on which
it was evidently feeding. The conger fishery was at one
time of some consequence on the Cornish coasts, for the
supply of Spain and Portugal. The fish were cured by
drying, during which they lost much fat. Anguilla myrus
(Rondelet) has a sharp snout, a thin roundish body of a
dark colour, without spots, except toward the head, where
a few yellowish dashes are seen; as also a whitish trans¬
verse band on the occiput, and two rows of small specks
on the back of the neck. This species occurs in the Me¬
diterranean, as do several other small congers, such as
A. halearica, mystax, and nigra. The last named lives
among the rocks near Nice, and attains to the weight of
forty pounds. Its flesh is more esteemed than that of the
common kind.
The Genus Ophisurus, or snake-tail, differs from the
eels properly so called, by the dorsal and ventral fins
terminating abruptly before reaching the extremity of the
tail, which is thus deprived of fin, and ends in a sharpen¬
ed point. The intestine resembles that of the eels; but
a portion of it extends into the tail, farther back than the
anus. The teeth are sharp and cutting. Ophisurus ser¬
pens is a Mediterranean species, marked by a triple chain
of large, dark-brown, oblong spots, on a silvery-white body.
It grows to the length of six feet, and is as thick as the
human arm. The snout is sharp ; the branchial membrane
has twenty rays. Ophisurus guttatus, a handsome spe¬
cies from Guyana, belongs to this subdivision; as does 0.
ophis, the Murcena ophis of Bloch. In some Ophisuri the
pectoral fins are small, and sometimes almost impercepti¬
ble; a circumstance which assimilates them to the Mum-
nee. Such are O. colubrinus, fasciatus, and maculosus.
Genus Mur-sna, Thunberg. The species were unit- *
ed by Linnaeus to the eels; but they are distinguished
sufficiently by the total want of pectoral fins. Their
branchial apertures are minute lateral holes; their oper-
cles are so small, and their branchiostegous rays so slender,
and so concealed within the skin, that some able natural¬
ists have denied their existence in this genus. Their
stomach is a short pouch ; and their swimming bladder is
small, oval, and placed towards the upper part of the ab¬
domen. Some of them have the dorsal and anal fins dis¬
tinctly visible; some have obtuse, others sharp cutting
teeth, and the latter can bite severely.
The best known is Murcena Helena, or Homan murcena
(Plate CCCVI. fig. 2), which abounds in the Mediterra¬
nean, and was introduced by the luxurious Romans ot
antiquity, in crystal vases, to the table before being cook¬
ed, that the guests might admire its variegated skin.
This fish is very voracious, and feeds on all sorts of ani¬
mal matter. The Romans fed them in ponds, and Pliny
has recorded the atrocities of Vedius Pollio, who used to
punish his offending slaves by throwing them alive to his
muraenae. We have seen this fish repeatedly taken at
1 Gleanings in Natural History, second series.
2 laid.
\
ICHTHYOLOGY.
M icop- Gibraltar, between’ three and four feet in length. The
t f?ii skin is beautifully marbled with yellow sub-angular mark-
A <les; ings on a rich brown ground. When captured in nets it
A lives long out of the water, and is capable of biting very
_ ^ severely, from the sharpness of its numerous teeth. A
very beautiful muraena with obtuse teeth, M. catenata, is
found in the rivers of Guyana ; its colours are brown and
white. In the same region is found M. zebra, a species
beautifully marked, on a dark-brown ground, with trans¬
verse, linear, distant bands, meeting irregularly beneath.
Other species are, M. reticularis, M. punctata, M. unico’-
lor, M. Haiiy, M. picta, M. meleagris, M. grisea, M. afra
M. stellata, M. undulata, M. sordida.
Genus Sphagebranchus, Bloch. This genus diifers
from Murana chiefly in having the branchial apertures
close together, and beneath the throat, instead of being on
each side of the neck. The snout is sharp, and projecting
far beyond the mouth; the dorsal and anal fins, when per¬
ceptible, do not commence until within one third of the
length of the fish from the extremity of the tail. Some of
them have no appearance of pectoral fins ; others have
slight vestiges of those parts. One of them, Sph. ccecus
(Genus Apterichtes, Dumeril), is absolutely without any
fins at all. . The stomach has a long cul-de-sac ; the intes¬
tine is straight; and all have a^long narrow swimming
bladdei placed towards the posterior extremity.
• bC^, known is Sphagebianchas rostratus, first no-
ticed by Bloch. It grows to a length of nine inches.
*Ph- wberbis was described by Laroche in Ann. du Mus.
xin. as well as Sphag. cacas, which he considered as a
muraena.
^iE1'iUr ^YNBRANCHUS> Bloch. This division is distin¬
guished from the last by having only a single branchial ori¬
fice, which is placed under the throat, and communicates
with the gills on each side. The fishes included in it are
totally without pectorals, and their vertical fibs are almost
entirely adipose. Their head is thicker than any part of
the body, and short; the mouth is wide, lips fleshy, teeth
sma 1, conical, and in several rows. Their opercles are
partly cartilaginous ; their branchial rays are very strong ;
their swimming bladder is long and narrow. They have no
casca to the intestine, which is straight, and can scarcely
be distinguished from the stomach except by a kind of
pyloric valve. The species inhabit the seas of the hotter
parts ot America, especially Surinam. Two only are known,
bynbranchus marmoretus (Plate CCCVI. fig. 4) and Sun.
immaculatus. They have much the habit of water-snakes.
In succession to the preceding generic subdivisions of the
Lmnaean Murance, Cuvier places a singular and recently
discovered species, the Saccopharynx flagellum of Dr
Mitchell. Its body is capable of great inflation. It is a
arge and voracious fish, measuring about six feet in length,
with a deep cleft mouth armed with sharp teeth. It has
fiitherto been found only in the Atlantic Ocean, where it
edto ^ the SUrfaCe by means of the inflation just allud-
ha^EthpScr^YMNOiTU u Linn' The gymnotes’ like eels,
nave the gills partly shut up by a membrane, which, how-
ZZ’l^T b,ef0r,e the Pectoral fins; the anus is placed
.. j ie ea^ ’ the anal fin runs along nearly the whole
r part of the fish, and generally reaches to the extre-
0 e is not continued along its upper por-
fac6p- SO calkd, the skin is
tinnc 1 Vlsib e scales; the intestine, in several convolu-
.e ’.°CcuiJie® but a moderate space, and has many caeca ;
omac is a short, blunt sac, with numerous rugae
within. Some of them have two swimming bladders ; the
anterior is ovate and bilobular, and lies on the oesophagus,
at the top of the abdomen; the posterior is cylindrical,
and occupies a sinus in the abdominal cavity. The true
gymnotes are confined to the rivers of America. The
best-known species is Gymnotus electricus, or electric eel
(Plate GCCVI. fig. 5). Phis animal has been well de¬
scribed by Dr Garden of Charlestown, by John Hunter,
and by Humboldt. It is remarkable for the violence of
its electric shocks, which are often so powerful as to stu-
pify a man or a horse. The researches of Hunter detect¬
ed an organ in the posterior part of this fish, resembling
the electric apparatus of the torpedo. See Plate CCCVI.
fig. 6. This organ consists of four longitudinal fasciculi,
which occupy one half the thickness of the part in which
they occur, and about one third of the whole animal. The
larger pair lie above, the smaller below. Each fasciculus is
composed of flat partitions or septa, with transverse divisions
between them. The outer edge of the septa appear in nearly
parallel lines in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the
body, and consist of thin membranes, which are easily torn ;
they serve the same purpose as the columns in the analo¬
gous organ of the torpedo, making the walls or abutments
for the perpendicular and transverse dissepiments, which
are exceedingly numerous, and so closely aggregated as to
seem almost in contact. The minute prismatic cells, inter¬
cepted between these two sorts of plates, contain a gela¬
tinous matter ; the septa are about one thirtieth of an inch
from each other, and one inch in length contains a series of
240 cells, giving an enormous surface to the electric or¬
gans. The whole apparatus is abundantly supplied with
nerves from the medula spinalis; and these nerves are
seen coming out in pairs from between the vertebra?. In
their course they give out branches to the muscles of the
back, and to the skin of the animal. In the gynmote, as
in the torpedo, the nerves supplying the electric organs are
much larger than those bestowed on any part for the pur¬
poses of sensation or movement. Hunter thinks, how¬
ever, that these nerves are more considerable in point of
size in the torpedo than in the gymnote. These organs
are attached loosely to the muscles of the back which lie
between the larger, and they are immediately connected
with the skin by a loose cellular texture. Humboldt has
given a very interesting and lively description of the mode
of capturing the electric gymnote, as practised in South
America, near the town of Calabozo.
These fish abound in the stagnant pools of that vicinity.
The Indians are well aware of the danger of encountering
the gymnote when its powers are unexhausted. They
therefore collect twenty or thirty wild horses, force them
into the pools, and when the fish have exhausted their
electric batteries on the poor horses, they are laid hold of
without difficulty. The horses at first exhibit much agi¬
tation and terror ; they are prevented leaving the pool by
an enclosing band of Indians, who goad them with bam¬
boos whenever they attempt to escape. “ The eels,” says
Humboldt, “ stunned and confused by the noise of the horses,
defended themselves by reiterated discharges of their elec¬
tric batteries. For some time they seemed likely to gain
the victory over the horses and mules; these were seen
in every direction, stunned by the frequency and force of
the shocks, to disappear under water. Some horses, how¬
ever, rose again, and, in spite of the active vigilance of the
Indians, gained the shore, exhausted with fatigue; and
their limbs being benumbed by the electric explosions,
they stretched themselves out upon the ground.” “ I re¬
member the superb picture of a horse entering a cavern,
225
Malacop-
terygii
Apodes.
Anguilli-
formes.
VOL. X„. ‘ ^f.Uaau, of Ur Hardwood. Phil. Tran,. 1827, seems to pertain to the same genus.
2 E
226 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Malacop- and terrified at the sight of a lion. The expression of ter-
terygii ror js not there stronger than what we witnessed in this
Apodes. uneqUa] conflict. In less than five minutes two horses
formes." were already drowned. The eel, more than five feet
long, glides under the belly of the horse or mule; it then
makes a discharge from the whole extent of its electric
organs, which at once attacks the heart, the viscera, and
especially the gastric plexus of nerves.” “ After this com¬
mencement, I was afraid that the sport might end very
tragically. But the Indians assured us that the fishing
would soon be finished, and that nothing is to be dread¬
ed but the first assault of the gymnotus. In fact, whether
the galvanic electricity is accumulated in repose, or the
electric organ ceases to perform its functions when fa¬
tigued by too long-continued use, the eels, after a time,
resemble discharged batteries. Their muscular motion is
still equally active, but they no longer have the power of
giving energetic shocks. W hen the combat had lasted a
quarter of an hour, the mules and horses appeal ed less af¬
frighted ; they no longer bristled up the mane, and the
eye was less expressive of suffering and of terror. -They
no longer were seen to fall backwards ; and the gymnotes,
swimming with the body half out of the water, and now
flying from the horses instead of attacking them, began
themselves, in their turn, to approach the shore.”
The electric gymnote is by no means fierce or voracious ;
but its electric organs are the instruments by which it pro¬
cures its prey, and defends itself against alligators and other
enemies.
It has been several times brought alive to Europe, and
some experiments have been made on its electricity,—
which is conducted and insulated by the same substances
as common galvanism.1
So common is the gymnotus in some parts of South
America, that, in the neighbourhood of Uritucu, a route
at one time much frequented has been entirely abandon¬
ed, in consequence of the necessity of fording a stream, in
which many mules were killed every year by these sub¬
aqueous electric shocks.
The only other known species of gymnotus is the G.
cequilabiatus of Humboldt, which appears to differ from
the other in wanting the posterior swimming bladder.
The Genus Carapus was separated by Cuvier from
the gymnotes, with which they were formerly confounded ;
and the species are distinguished by a scaly compressed
body and a slender tail. The appellation is derived from
their Brazilian name. All the species live in the rivers of
South America, or on the coasts of that country. Carapus
macrourus grows to the length of eighteen inches or two
feet, and is of a bi*own colour, with small eyes, and slen¬
der tail. C. brachiurus vel fasciatus is marked with
darker transverse bands. C. albus is of a whitish colour;
tail naked for about an inch; upper lip with a lobule on
each side ; several pores on the sides of the head. C. ros-
tratus has a body like that of C. macrourus, but the snout
is narrow, compressed, and tubular, with connate jaws ;
colour pale brown, variegated with darker spots ; the scales
not visible.
The Genus Sternarchus of Schneider was so deno¬
minated from the anus being near the sternum. The anal
fin ends before it reaches the extremity of the tail, which
has a fin of its own ; but the most singular character in the
structure of this fish consists of a soft fleshy filament, con¬
cealed in a furrow on the dorsum, beyond the middle of
the back, and retained in this groove by tendinous threads,
which admit of its having some motion ; a very singular
organ, of which we cannot conjecture the use. The head Maiac
is oblong, naked, and compressed; neither opercula nor ten-,
branchial rays are externally visible ; the rest of the body ^pod
is scaly; the teeth are soft, short filaments, like velvet, on ^
the middle of each jaw. The only species is Sternarchus ^ '
albifrons, which was considered by Pallas, its first describer,
as a Gymnotus.
Genus Gymnarchus, Cuv. Body scaly and elongated,
gills but slightly open in front of the pectorals, as in Gym¬
notus, but the back is furnished all along with a soft rayed
fin ; there is no fin behind the anus, nor beneath the tail,
which has a pointed termination. The head is conical,
naked,—the mouth small, and provided with a single row
of small cutting teeth.
Gymnarchus Niloticus of Cuvier, discovered by M. Rif-
fault, is, as its name implies, an Egyptian fish, and is, we
believe, the only known species.
Genus Leptocephalus, Pennant. This genus differs
from the eels by being greatly compressed laterally, by a
larger branchial aperture opening before the pectorals, by
a head extremely small, and a pointed snout. The pec¬
torals are almost invisible; the dorsal and anal are very
small, and unite at the point of the tail. The intestines
occupy a narrow line along the inferior margin of the
body.
Only one species is known, a native of our own seas,
first described by Pennant. It is the Leptocephalus Mor-
risii, a small fish of four inches long by one tenth of an
inch in thickness, and so transparent as almost to exhibit
the form of the vertebrae., which may also be felt through
the integuments. This singular creature was first seen near
Holyhead by Mr William Morris, who transmitted it to
Pennant. Though still a rare species, it has since been
observed by several other British naturalists.
Genus Ophidium, Linn. This genus has the anus far
behind; the dorsal and anal fins join in a point at the
tail; the body is long and compressed, and covered with
small irregular scales, scattered in the thickness of the
skin. But these fish differ from eels, in having open gills,
furnished with a large operculum, and a branchiostegous
membrane, with short rays. The dorsal rays are articulat¬
ed, but not branched.
The genus is subdivided into two sub-genera, viz. Ophi¬
dium proper, in which the throat is provided with two cirrhi
adhering to the point of the os hyoides. The best-known
species is Ophidium barbatum, which grows to eight inch¬
es ; general colour silvery, but the vertical fins banded
with black; the surface smooth, scales attached by their
centre to the skin ; two bifid cirrhi on the throat; skin
spotted with small red spots. The swimming bladder is
oval, large, and thick, for the size of the fish, and is sup¬
ported by three peculiar bones suspended under the first
vertebra, and moveable by particular muscles. This fish
abounds in the Mediterranean, where it is in request as an
article of diet. Ophidium Vassali is a small species, also
found in the Mediterranean ; but in the South Seas a large
species has been caught. It is named Oph. blacodes.
Enchelyopus (Fierasfer), Klein, differs in wanting the
beards of the true Ophidium. The dorsal fin is so slight
as only to seem a fold of the skin ; the swimming bladder
has but two supporting bones. Only one species is recog¬
nised, Ophidium imberbe of Linn., which is also Gymno¬
tus acus of several naturalists. As a British species, it was
first communicated to Pennant by the Duchess of Portland,
from Weymouth. It has since been found by Montagu on
the south coast of Devon.
1 Dr Traill informs us that he had two sent to him from Demerary, but they died the day before the ship made the coast
England, and were unluckily thrown overboard.
of
ICHTHYOLOGY.
227
>pho- Genus Ammodytes, Linn. Has a thin and elongated
} nchii. form. The dorsal fin is furnished with articulated rays,
v. yw' bot is simple for a considerable part of its extent. There
is a second fin behind the anus, and a third at the end of
the tail, which is forked. These three fins are quite dis¬
tinct, or separate from each other. The snout is point¬
ed ; the upper jaw susceptible of extension, but the lower
is longer than the upper when the latter is not extended.
The stomach is angular and fleshy; there is no swim-
mina; bladder nor caeca. Only one British species is as
yet distinctly known, the Ammodytes tobianus (our com¬
mon launce), a fish about eight or ten inches long, the
body somewhat of a square form, but the angles not
sharp, and the sides slightly convex. It is very frequent
on our sandy coasts. Its back is bluish, the rest rich sil¬
very. This fish lives on vermes and other marine animals,
which it is believed to pursue by burrowing in the sand,
from wdience it is often dug up at the depth of a foot. It is
prized as food, and is considered as an excellent bait for
turbot and mackerel. It is the favourite prey of the latter
fish ; and the porpoise ploughs up the sand at the bottom
of the sea with his nose, in the manner of a hog, in search
of this species, which has often been found in his stomach.
It is also sought for by salmon, which have been captured
in the sandy bays of Sutherland, by means of a hook
baited by a launce, commonly called the sand-eel.
It is extremely probable that two British species are
usually confounded by us under the name of launce.1
The various genera of fishes with which we have been
hitherto engaged, not only possess an osseous or fibrous
skeleton, and free and complete jaws, but their branchiae
are constantly pectiniform, that is, in the shape of laminae
or combs. We now proceed to others, in which the re¬
spiratory organs assume another form.
ORDER V.—LOPHOBRANCHII.
Jaws complete and free, as in the preceding orders, but
the branchiae, instead of being comb-shaped, are divided
into little rounded tufts, disposed in pairs along the bran¬
chial arches. The branchiae have this further peculiarity,
that they are entirely enclosed beneath a large operculum,
attached all round by a membrane, which permits the wa¬
ter to escape merely through a small hole, and exhibits
only vestiges of rays.
The genera of this order may be distinguished exter¬
nally by the cuirassed aspect of their bodies, which are
strongly plated, very angular, and frequently furnished
with spiny projections. The species are meagre creatures,
of small size, and very extraordinary aspect. They have
scarcely smy flesh upon their bones. The intestine is uni¬
form, and without caeca; the swimming bladder is thin,
but tolerably large in proportion to the other parts. The
order is almost entirely composed of the old genera Syng-
nathus and Pegasus of Linnaeus.
The genus Syngnathus of the great Swedish naturalist
consisted of a rather numerous assemblage of species, dis¬
tinguished by a tubular muzzle, formed, like that of the
Fistularidze, by a prolongation of the ethmoid, vomer,
and tympanic bones, of the pre-opercles, sub-opercles, &c.
and terminated by a mouth of the ordinary kind, but al¬
most vertically cleft. The respiratory opening is towards
the nape of the neck, and the ventral fins are wanting. The
generative system is characterised by this peculiarity,
that the eggs slip into, and are hatched in} a kind of sac or
pocket, formed by a pursing of the skin—in some beneath Lopho-
the belly, in others at the base of the tail. This pouch branchii.
opens in due time for the escape of the young. In this
respect, then, these fishes may be said to connect the osse¬
ous with the cartilaginous kinds, for the eggs are hatched
internally, and the young are produced alive. This fact
was observed by Aristotle, and has lately been confirmed
(so far, at least, as concerns S. acus) by Cavolini. The
genus is now subdivided into three minor groups, as fol¬
lows :—
Is#, Genus Syngnathus properly so called. Body
very long, thin, and differing but little in its diameter
throughout. Several species occur in all our seas. They
differ in the character and number of their fins.
2d, Genus LIippocampus, Cuv. Body laterally com¬
pressed, and obviously higher than at the tail. The sur¬
face is raised into ridges, its edges are angular and incis¬
ed, and the hinder parts of the body and tail have the ap¬
pearance of being divided into segments. The caudal fin
is wanting.
, Of this genus several species are found in the European
seas, and one or two occur along the British shores. The
greater number, however, are exotic. In the dried spe¬
cimens the head is usually bent at right angles with the
body, the thorax curved, and the tail bent inwards. From
the peculiar aspect which they exhibit in this condition,
they have received the name of sea-horses. The most re¬
markable species with which we are acquainted is the
Hippocampus foliatus of Shaw, or foliated pipe-fish. (See
Plate CCC VI. fig. 7.) This rare and very singularly con¬
structed fish is a native of the Southern Ocean. The
specimen described by Shaw was transmitted from New
Holland to Sir Joseph Banks. The one here figured
was sent to Professor Jameson from Van Diemen’s Land.
We should not have hesitated to consider this species
as synonymous with S. tceniolatus of Lacepede (and the
more readily as they seem to be regarded as identical
by Cuvier2) ; but on comparing it with the figure in the
Annales du Mus. we find that the Van Diemen’s Land
specimen possesses two large appendages on the dorsal
outline, not represented by the author of the earlier Hist.
Nat. des Poissons.
3</, Genus Solenostoma, Seb. and Lacep. Differs
from Syngnathus chiefly in possessing very large ventrals
placed behind the pectorals, and united together and with
the body so as to form a kind of apron, which, like the pouch
of the genus just named, serves to retain the ova. There
is also a dorsal, with few rays, but elevated, and placed
near the nape ; another very small fin on the origin of
the tail; and a large pointed caudal. In other respects
the genus bears a great resemblance to Hippocampus.
There is only a single species known, the Fistularia pa-
radoxa of Pallas.3
Genus Pegasus, Linn. Projecting muzzle formed
by the same pieces as in the preceding genera, but the
mouth, instead of being placed at the extremity, is found
at the base, and, in its protractile nature, so far resembles
that of the sturgeon, although it is composed of the same
bones as the mouth of ordinary fishes.
The body in this genus is cuirassed like that of Hippo¬
campus and Solenostoma, but the trunk is broad, depress¬
ed, the branchial opening lateral, and there are two dis¬
tinct ventral fins behind the pectorals, which are often
large and wing-like, and have given rise to the generic
name. The dorsal and anal are opposite to each other.
The species are chiefly from the Indian seas. See Plate
CCCVI. fig. 10.
1 See Rtgne Animal, t. ii. p. 360; and Bulletin des Sciences for September 1824.
2 Htgne Animal, t. ii. p. 363.
3 Spidlegia, viii. iv. 6.
228
PJectog-
nathi.
Gymno-
dontes.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
ORDER VI.—PLECTOGNATHI.
The fishes of this order approach the great chondrop-
terygian division in the imperfection of their jaws, and
the slowness with which their skeleton hardens; yet that
skeleton is fibrous, and its general structure resembles
that of the ordinary or osseous fishes. The principal dis¬
tinctive character, however, of the Plectognathi, consists
in the maxillary bone being soldered or firmly attached
on the side of the inter-maxillary, which alone forms the
jaw, and in the palatine arch being connected by suture
with the cranium, which consequently renders it immove¬
able. Moreover, the rays and opercles are concealed be¬
neath a thick skin, which permits only a small branchial
cleft to be visible externally. The vestiges of ribs are
very slight. The true ventrals are wanting. The intes¬
tinal canal is ample, but without caeca, and almost all the
species are provided with a rather large swimming blad¬
der.
The order comprises two very natural families, cha¬
racterised by the different armature of the jaws.
FAMILY I—GYMNODQNTES.
Instead of apparent teeth, the jaws are furnished with
a substance like ivory, divided internally into laminae or
plates, the totality of which resembles the beak of a par¬
rot, and is essentially composed of true teeth united to¬
gether, and succeeding each other as they become used
by trituration. The opercles are small, their rays five in
number on each side, and the whole greatly concealed.
The species live on Crustacea and Fuci. Their flesh is
in general mucous, and slightly esteemed. Some indeed
are even poisonous, at least during certain seasons.
Two of the genera ( Tetraodon and Diodori), commonly
called orbs or balloon-fish, possess a singular faculty of
inflating their bodies by swallowing great quantities of
air. When thus swollen, they roll over and float upon
the surface, belly uppermost, apparently unable to direct
their course. They are not, however, defenceless, for the
spines with which their skin is armed project in all di¬
rections. Their swimming bladder has two lobes, and
their kidneys, which are placed very high up, have been
sometimes mistaken for lungs. There are blit three bran¬
chiae on each side. Each nostril is furnished with a
double fleshy tentaculum.
Genus Diodon, Linn. The undivided jaws exhibit
but one piece above and another below,—from whence
the generic name, which signifies two teeth. Behind each
cutting edge is a rounded portion, transversely grooved,
and forming a powerful instrument of mastication.1 * The
skin is armed on all sides by strong, pointed spines, so
that, when inflated, these creatures bear a resemblance to
a gigantic burr of a chestnut tree.
The species are numerous in the warmer seas. One of
the most common is the Diodon atinga of Bloch, which
measures about a foot in diameter. It inhabits the seas
of India, America, and Southern Africa, and feeds on the
smaller fishes, Crustacea, and shell-fish, the calcareous
covering of which it breaks with great facility, by means
of its robust and bony jaws. It is a dangerous species
to meddle with, owing to the sudden and hedgehog-like
manner in which it bristles up its spines. It seems syno¬
nymous with D. hystrix of Linn., commonly called the
sea-porcupine, and was formerly a frequent and dusty ap¬
pendage in the shop of the apothecary. (See Plate CCCVI. piJ|
fig. 8.) Diodon holocanthus inhabits almost all the seas m ;
between the tropics. When taken by means of a hook, G.vn 1
it exhibits the most ungovernable movements,—alter- don I
nately inflates and compresses its body, ascends and de- ''
scends with rapidity and violence, and is extremely dan¬
gerous to lay bold of. It is fished for both in the Red
Sea and along the coast of Japan; and, according to Du-
tertre, the hooks are baited with Crustacea. The bait, it
appears, is first approached with caution, then tasted,
left, returned to, and finally swallowed. It no sooner,
however, finds itself fairjy hooked, than it swells itself
up like a balloon, utters a dull sound like that produced by
a turkey-cock while making its wheel, and then becomes
exceedingly furious. It next has recourse to an opposite
mode of action, by lowering its spines, disinflating its
body, and becoming as loose and flabby as a wet glove.*
It resumes its activity, however, as soon as it perceives
the fisherman drawing towards it, or feels itself being
drawn towards the fisherman. In short it has a particu¬
lar dislike to being killed.
Genus Tetraodon, Linn. Jaws divided in the centre
by a suture, so as to exhibit the appearance of four teeth
(from whence the name), two above and two below.
The skin is armed merely by small spines, which project :
but little. Several species are regarded as poisonous. ,
The most anciently known is an Egyptian species, T.
lineatus, Linn., which is thrown by the floods in vast num¬
bers over the prolific banks of the Nile, where it is after¬
wards gathered as a plaything by the children. According
to Hasselquist, however, the Egyptians hold it in abhor¬
rence, and believe that the use of its flesh as food is fol¬
lowed by death. The prickles of its skin produce a sen¬
sation like the stinging of nettles. In many Mahommedan i
countries another species, called T. hispidusby Lacepede,
is fully inflated, then carefully dried, and afterwards sus- j
pended from the pinnacle of the minarets, where it serves i
the purpose of a weathercock. The hare tetraodon, as it i
is called ( T. lagocephalus, Linn.), appears to have been
described by Pennant under the title of Globe Diodon.
Though a tropical species, it has occurred occasionally
along the British coasts, particularly near Penzance in
Cornwall. We here figure a curious Indian species, the
Tetraodon/>afocaof DrPIamilton Buchanan. Plate CCCVI.
fig. 9.
Baron Cuvier has separated from the preceding, under
the generic title of Orthagoriscus (imposed by Schnei¬
der, and synonymous with genus Cephalus of Shaw), the
peculiar species known to English readers under the
name of sun-Jish, the Poissons-lunes of our continental
neighbours.3 The jaws are undivided, as in Diodon, but
the body, compressed and without spines, is unsusceptible
of inflation, and the tail so short, and vertical in its poste¬
rior outline, as to convey the idea of an artificial trunca¬
tion. The form is inconsequence extraordinary and cha¬
racteristic. The dorsal and anal fin, each high and point¬
ed, seem to unite with the caudal. The swimming blad¬
der is wanting, the stomach small, and penetrated direct¬
ly by the ductus choledocus. Beneath the skin we find a
thick layer of a gelatinous nature. The European seas
produce a species which sometimes measures more than
four feet in length, and weighs, in consequence of its
bulky proportions, above three hundred pounds. It is of
a fine silvery hue, and is named Tetraodon mola by Lin-
nzeus, and the short sun-fish by British writers. (See Plate
CCCVI. fig. 11.) It often exhibits during the night a high
1 Baron Cuvier observes, that the jaws of these fishes are by no means unfrequent among petrifactions.
* Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. x. p. 581.
3 The title of Poiston-lune is however bestowed also on other species by French writers, for example on Lampris guttatus of Ret-
zius, which is the Zeus law of Gmelin, and the Opak of Pennant.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
tog- degree of phosphoric splendour. We once came along-
hi- side of one while swimming in the Mediterranean. It
to- o-0t out of our way by sinking very slowly downwards.
ni' The Diodon mola of Pallas (Spic. Zool.') is another species
of the same genus.
The only remaining genus of the first family of Plec-
tognathi is named Triodon by Cuvier, from a species
discovered in the Indian seas by M. Reinward.1
FAMILY II—SCLERODERMI.
Easily distinguished by the conical or pyramidal form
of the muzzle, prolonged from the region of the eyes, and
terminated by a little mouth armed with a small number
of distinct teeth on each jaw. The skin is generally
rough, or covered by hard scales. The swimming blad¬
der is large and robust, and of an oval form.
Genus Balistes, Linn. Body compressed; eight
teeth upon a single row on each jaw, and generally of a
cutting kind; skin scaly or engrained, but not absolutely
osseous; first dorsal composed of one or more spines, ar¬
ticulated on a special bone, which is attached to the cra¬
nium, and presents a groove into which the spines are re¬
ceived ; second dorsal soft and long, and corresponding in
its position to an anal fin of nearly similar form. Although
the ventral fins are wanting, we nevertheless perceive in
the skeleton a true pelvic bone suspended to those of the
shoulder.
The species occur in vast numbers in the torrid zone,
among rocks nearly on a level with the surface of the
water, where they shine with a brilliant lustre resembling
that of the beautiful cheetodons, formerly described.
Their flesh, at no time much esteemed, is said to become
dangerous as food while they themselves are nourished
by the polypi of the coral reefs. Cuvier however states,
that in such specimens as he had occasion to dissect, he
found nothing but the remains of marine vegetation. The
generic name is derived from balista, an ancient imple¬
ment of war, to which the inclined dorsal spine has been
regarded as bearing some resemblance. In modern times
the original genus has been divided into the four follow¬
ing groups.
In Balistes (properly so called) of Cuvier, the whole
body is clothed by large, hard, rhomboidal scales, which
not being imbricated, or encroaching on each other, pre¬
sent the appearance of compartments on the skin ; their
anterior dorsal has three spines, of which the first is much
the largest, the third being very small, and placed some¬
what apart behind. The extremity of the 'pelvis is al¬
ways prickly and projecting, and behind it are some spines
involved in the skin, which in the lengthened species have
been regarded as rays of the ventral fins. Some have no
particular armature on the sides of the tail; others have
the lateral portion of that part armed by a certain num¬
ber of ranges of spines curved forwards.
In Monocanthus, Cuv., the scales are very small, and
beset by close asperities; the extremity of the pelvis is
projecting and spiny, as in the preceding group, but there
is only one large dentated spine to the first dorsal, or, if
the second exists, it is almost imperceptible.
In Aluteres, Cuv., the body is elongated, and covered
by scarcely visible, small, close-set grains ; there is a single
spine to the first dorsal; and the pelvis is entirely sub¬
cutaneous, not forming that spiny projection visible in the
other Balistes. See Plate CCCVI. fig. 12.
In Tri acanthus, Cuv., the species are distinguished by
possessing a kind of ventral fins, each sustained by a large
229
single spiny ray, and adhering to an unprojecting pelvis. Chondrop-
The first dorsal, posterior to its principal spine, has three terygii.
or four smaller ones. The skin is covered by small, close-
set scales, and the tail is more elongated than in the other
groups. There is only one species known, a small fish
from the Indian seas, figured by Bloch (148, 2) under
the name of Balistes bi-aculeatus.
Genus Ostracion, Linn. Instead of scales, the species
of this genus have the head and body covered by regular
and bony compartments, soldered together so as to form
an inflexible cuirass, which leaves nothing moveable but
the tail, fins, mouth, and a small lip which borders the
gills. The majority even of the vertebral joints are also
as it were soldered. Each jaw is armed with from ten to
twelve conical teeth. The branchiae open only by a small
cleft, furnished with a cutaneous lobe ; but internally
they are provided with an opercle and six rays. Both the
pelvic bones and ventral fins are wanting, and there is
only a single dorsal and anal fin, each small of its kind.
These anomalous-looking fishes are sparingly supplied
with flesh ; but their liver is large, and yields an abundant
supply of oil. Some are suspected of being poisonous.
The species are called trunk-fish by our English writers.
We here figure the horned trunk-fish, Ostracion cornutus
of Linn, and Bloch, a native, like most of the genus, of the
Indian and American seas. Plate CCCVI. fig. 13.
SECOND GREAT SERIES OF THE CLASS OF FISHES.
THE CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGI¬
NOUS FISHES.
This division of fishes, by the peculiarities of the organs
of hearing and generation in some genera, approaches to
the class of reptiles; while others have a skeleton so de¬
fective, and such simplicity of organization, that we might
almost arrange them with Vermes. We may thus consider
them, says Cuvier, as bearing the same relation to the
first series as the marsupial animals do to the other mam-
mifera furnished w ith claws.
Their skeleton is distinctly cartilaginous, destitute of
true bony matter, as the calcareous portion is not dis¬
posed into a fibrous structure, but is deposited in grains
in a substance essentially gelatinous. The skull is com¬
posed of a single piece, and consequently is destitute of
sutures, but possesses foramina, prominences, and fossulae,
like the cranium of other fishes. The facial articulations
are also wanting; and it forms one of their characteris¬
tics to want the maxillary and inter-maxillary bones,
which ordinarily support the teeth of the upper jaw; or
they have only vestiges of these parts, while their functions
are performed by bones analogous to the palatines or the
vomer. In some the vertebral column, as in the lamprey,
forms but a single piece; in others, as in certain rays,
several vertebrae are joined together. The gelatinous in¬
ter-vertebral substance, which in other fishes communi¬
cates from one to another through a small foramen, is in
several of this series a cord of equal thickness, perforat¬
ing all the vertebrae. Yet their nervous system, connected
with the organs of digestion, is as complete as in other
fishes; and some of them have organs of copulation and
generation quite as perfect as in the class of reptiles.
This series is divided into two orders; one distinguish¬
ed by having the gills free, as in other fishes; the other
with fixed branchiae.
1 See Rlgne Animal, t. if p. 370 ; and Duperrey’s Voyage, Poissons, No. 4.
230 ICHTHYOLOGY.
unonarop-
terygiL ORDER I.—STURIONES, OR CHONDROPTERYGII
Sturiones. WITH FREE BRANCHIiE.
The few genera of this order approach to ordinary fishes,
by their gills being attached only at one extremity. They
have but one branchial aperture, which is very open ; they
have but one operculum, and are without rays to the mem¬
brane of the gills.
Genus Acipenser, Linn.; Sturgeon. The general
form of this genus resembles that of the sharks; but they
are distinguished by longitudinal rows of bony plates or
bosses implanted on the skin; the head is defended by
similar plates ; the mouth is small, and, as in sharks, placed
below the snout; the palatal bones are united to the max-
illaries, and vestiges of the inter-maxillaries may be traced
in the lips, while the mouth is capable of some degree of
projection, by its position on a style with three articulations.
Instead of teeth, the mouth is furnished with a sort of horny
process on the jaws. The nostrils and eyes are on the
sides of the head; the muzzle is furnished with vermiform
cirrhi. There is no vestige of an external ear, but the
labyrinth is perfect within the bones of the head. The
dorsal fin is behind the ventrals, and the anal immediately
below the dorsal. The caudal fin surrounds the extremity
of the spine, and its upper lobe is longer than the lower.
Internally there exists the spiral intestinal valve, and the pan¬
creas forming a single mass ; but we also find a very large
and strong swimming bladder, communicating by a wide
aperture with the gullet. They prey on the smaller fishes,
in pursuing which they can exert much speed; but in the
rivers they frequent they are said to search for Vermes in
the oozy bottom, which they explore with their snout, like
swine.
Sturgeons are marine fishes, but at certain seasons they
ascend in vast numbers particular rivers, where they are
the subject of extensive fisheries, particularly in the large
rivers that disembogue themselves into the Black Sea and
Caspian, and the rivers of France and Prussia ; they abound
also in the large rivers of North America, where the spe¬
cies appear to be peculiar to that continent.
The European species are—
Acipenser sturio, or common sturgeon. Its ordinary
length is seven or eight feet, but sometimes they are caught
exceeding sixteen feet. Snout pointed, and furnished with
cirrhi; body gradually tapering, pentagonal, from the dis¬
position of six longitudinal rows of hard, bony, radiated, and
mucronated tubercles. Its skin, except the flat belly, is
rough, from small plates of a similar form ; mouth a trans¬
verse oval orifice ; lips cartilaginous ; tongue thick ; gill-
covers consisting of an oval radiated plate ; pectorals oval;
dorsal near the tail. Its flesh is white and delicate, re¬
sembling veal. Its roe forms common caviar. This fish
was highly prized by the ancients, and is still an esteemed
food.
Acipenser rulhenus, or sterlet, is the smallest of Euro¬
pean sturgeons, rarely measuring more than three feet long.
It is very numerous in the Volga and Ural, and is uncommon
in the Baltic. The lateral tubercles are very numerous,
and strongly carinated ; those of the under part of the body
are more flattened. The flesh resembles delicate veal, and
the roe forms the most highly prized caviar. See Plate
CCCVII. fig. 1.
Acipenser huso, or isinglass sturgeon, is the largest of
the genus, sometimes attaining the length of from twenty
to thirty feet, and weighing from 1500 to between 2000 and
3000 lbs. Its skin is much less tuberculated than the com¬
mon sturgeon, and is covered with a viscid mucus; the Chondu
snout and cirrhi are shorter. This species is chiefly found terygi;
in the Caspian and Euxine, or the rivers that flow into Sturion
those seas; but the large sturgeons sometimes caught in
the northern seas appear also to belong to the same species.
The best isinglass is formed of its air-bladder.
The following species, which are found in the rivers of
North America, appear to be peculiar to that continent
(See Amer. Trans, vol. i.) : Acipenser hrevirostris, A.
oxyrhynchus, A. maculosus, and A. rubicundus. The last
of these appears to be the American representative of the
A. ruthenus, the preceding one of the A. sturio.1
Genus Polyodon, Lacep.; Spatularia, Shaw. This
genus, which consists but of a single species, is at once re¬
cognised by the enormous prolongation of its snout, which
has a dilated middle, something resembling the leaf of a
tree when viewed from above. The habit of the body re¬
sembles the sturgeon ; but the spinal column is formed of
one piece, as in the lamprey. The upper jaw is formed of
the maxillary and palate bones united together, and the
pedicle of the mouth has two articulations ; the mouth is
small, and furnished with numerous minute teeth. The
spiracle is wide, and covered by a very large, soft opercu¬
lum, extending to the middle of the body. The intestine
is provided with the spiral valve, so frequent among the
Chondropterygii; but the pancreas exhibits the commence¬
ment of a subdivision into lobules. The existence of an
air-bladder sufficiently distinguishes it from the Squall. It
has only been found in the Mississippi, and does not exceed
a foot in length.
Genus Chimjera, Linn. This genus has a strong affi¬
nity to the Squali in general shape, and in the position of
the fins, but the gills have only one aperture on each side;
yet, on inspecting more accurately, we see that the rays
are attached by most of the edges, and that there are really
five holes opening into the bottom of a general cavity. A
rudiment of an operculum is found in the skin ; the jaws
are still less complex than in the Squali, for the upper jaw
is represented only by the vomer, and the palate bones
and tympana are merely rudimentary, attached to the sides
of the muzzle. Instead of teeth, the mouth is furnished
with undivided hard plates, of which four are above and
two below. The snout resembles that of the shark, and
also has regular ranges of pores. The first dorsal fin is
armed with a strong spine, and is placed over the pectorals.
The males, as in the Squali, are distinguished by the carti¬
laginous appendages of the ventral fins, divided into three
branches, and have two spiny plates before the base of the
ventrals. These fish have also on their front a fleshy ca¬
runcle, garnished with a group of small prickles. The in¬
testine of this genus is short, and has a spiral valve. The
female lays eggs of a large size and coriaceous consistence,
flattened, and hairy. The only species is Chimcera borea¬
lis, or northern chimera. It is found in the Northern Ocean,
wLere it is believed to feed on the numerous Mollusca and
Crustacea of that sea. It is rarely taken, because it keeps
much in deep water; but it has been occasionally caught
among our northern islands, and is sometimes seen of
the length of three or four feet. Its head is the thickest
part of the body, whence it tapers uniformly to the tail.
It is most common on the coasts of Norway, where its eggs
are eaten, and the oil of its liver is used as a stimulant em¬
brocation. It also occurs in the Mediterranean.
Genus Callorhynchus, Gronovius. Cuvier separates
this from the last genus, to which it was united by Linnae¬
us. It is distinguished by its snout terminating in a fleshy,
1 In a quarto work published seme time ago at Berlin [Gettreue Darstellung, &c.), containing figures and description of the various
animals of use in Therapeutics, there is a Monograph of the Sturgeons by Messrs Brandt and Rutzeburgh. See Annales des Sciences
Nat. for Feb. 1831, p. 223.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
231
jSh irop- flattened process, something in the form of a hoe. The
u gii. mouth is small, and below the snout. The second dorsal
S< 'hii- fin commences over the ventrals, and terminates opposite
to the commencement of the lower part of the tail. The
only known species inhabits the Southern Ocean. See
Plate CCCVII. figs. 2 and 3.
ORDER II.—CHONDROPTERYGII WITH FIXED
BRANCH UE.
Instead of having the gills free at their external edge, in
this order we find them fixed all round ; and in respiration
w'ater is emitted through as many apertures as there are
intervals between the rays. Another peculiarity of this
order consists in the small cartilaginous arches suspended
from the soft parts at the outer edge of the branchiae.
The Linnaean genera Squalus and Raia are the principal
members of this order ; but Cuvier and the later Ichthyo¬
logists have subdivided these into several genera, accord¬
ing to marked peculiarities in their anatomical structure.
FAMILY I—SELACHII, OR PLAGIOSTOMI.
The palatal and post-mandibular bones support the teeth,
while the bones corresponding to the jaws in other fishes
are merely rudimentary. A single bone connects these
jaws with the cranium, and represents at the same time
tympana, jugal, and temporal bones. The os hyoides is at¬
tached to a single pedicle, and, as in ordinary fishes, sup¬
ports the rays of the gills. The labyrinth is membranous,
and included in the cartilaginous substance of the cranium ;
the sac attached to it does not contain, as in fishes, the
porcelanous concretions, but masses that are easily pulve¬
rized. The pancreas has the form of a conglomerate gland.
The intestinal canal is short; but one part of the tube is
furnished internally with a spiral lamina, that seems intend¬
ed to prevent the too rapid passage of the food.
The Selachii have pectoral and ventral fins ; the latter
placed behind the abdomen, and on the sides of the anus.
In some respects their sexual intercourse resembles that
of Mammifera. The females have well-developed oviducts,
which serve the purpose of a matrix in the species whose
young are perfected within the body ; while in others the
ova are covered by a tough and horny envelope, to the
formation of which a large gland surrounding each oviduct
is subservient. These eggs, especially in the Squali, have
the form of a parallelogram with long filamentous tendrils
at each corner, intended for attaching the egg to Fuci or
sub-marine rocks during the maturation of the young in¬
cluded animals. Many of these eggs are found in a female,
but only two appear to be perfected at once. In these the
fcetus is coiled up, and to its umbilical region is attached
a large pyriform bag, of a white colour, by a slender tube.
On opening this bag it is found filled with a yellowish, thin
liquid, like the yolk of a hen’s egg, intended for the nou¬
rishment of the fcetus. When the young animal becomes
able to collect its own food, the coriaceous egg opens at
one end, the creature escapes, and soon the bag, now-
empty and useless, drops off. The males are provided
with two peculiar organs, placed at the inner edge of the
ventral fins. Some have supposed that these are intimately
connected with the generative process ; others regard them
as mere holders, by means of which the female is more
closely embraced by the male.
Genus Squalus, Linn.; Shark. This forms the first
great genus of our present order. The general form is
elongated; the tail is thick, with the spinal column con¬
tinued into the upper lobe ; the pectoral fins are of con¬
siderable size; the spiracles are on the sides of the neck ;
and the eyes on each side of the head. The muzzle is Chondrop-
supported by three cartilaginous projections, proceeding terygii.
from the anterior part of the cranium ; and we can easily Selachii.
observe in the skeleton the rudimentary jaws. The sea-
pula is suspended in the flesh behind the gills. Some of
the sharks are oviparous, while others are viviparous. Dis¬
tinct but small branchial rays ; there are rudiments of ribs
along the spine ; and that column is divided into regular
vertebras.
The original genus is numerous, and may be divided as
follows.
Genus Scyllium, Cuv. This division is characterised
by a short, obtuse muzzle, by nostrils near the mouth, con¬
tinued in grooves which reach to the edge of the lip, and
more or less dosed by one or two cuticular lobules. Their
teeth have a central point and two lateral prongs. They
have spiracles, partly over the pectoral fins. Their dorsal
fins are placed far back, the anterior not being before the
ventrals. All have an anal fin ; and, in some species, its
position corresponds to the interval between the two dor¬
sals ; the tail is elongated, truncated, not forked.
The most common on our coasts are the following spe¬
cies.
Sq. canicula, L.; greater spotted dog-fish, P. This com¬
mon and prolific species is very numerous on the northern
and western coasts of Britain. The colour of the male is
dusky, with numerous distinct small, blackish, spots : the fe¬
male, of which some naturalists have made another species,
is larger than the male, of a more red hue, variegated with
deep-brown spots disposed in an ocellated pattern on the
sides. The ventral fins of this species have the edge cut
obliquely.
Sq. catvlus, et Sq. stellaris, are also the male and female
of another species not uncommon on our coasts. This
species differs from the last in size. The spots on its sur¬
face are fuller and broader; the ventral fins are more
square at the edge.
To this sub-genus belong several other Squall, natives
of foreign seas. They are distinguished by the position
of the anal fin, which is placed behind the second dorsal;
the spiracles are remarkably small ; the fifth branchial
aperture is often concealed in the fourth, and the lobes
of the nostrils are usually prolonged into cirrhi.
Among the species are Sq. pendulatus; Sq. Isabella,
Shaw ; Sq. cirrhatus, Linn.; Sq. lobatus; and Sq. tigrinus,
Lacep., or Squalus fasciatus of Bloch.
This last is one of the most beautiful of the order, and
has been observed of the length of fourteen or fifteen
feet, with a large and blunt head, and tapering body. (See
Plate CCCVII. fig. 4.) A few years ago one of them was
observed for several hours to follow a Liverpool East In-
diaman off Madagascar. It was elegantly transversely
banded with alternate whitish and dark brown or black¬
ish fasciae ; and was further variegated by ocellated spots
or rings on various parts of its body, which seemed to be
about fourteen feet long. Its head appeared to be four
and a half feet across ; but the thickest part of its body
did not seem more than two feet in diameter. It was
accompanied by several pilot-Jish, which often swam be¬
fore, and returned towards it. Several attempts were
made to catch it with large baits of fresh meat, but it
never ventured to seize one of them. The lower jaw
was distinctly visible whenever it opened its mouth, into
which the accompanying fishes seemed to the spectators
to enter and to leave at pleasure.
Genus Squalus properly so called, Cuv. This group
comprehends all those species wdth a pointed muzzle,
under which the nostrils are placed ; but the latter parts
are not terminated by a groove, nor are they furnished
with lobules. The tail has more or less of a forked shape.
We may farther subdivide this genus in accordance with
ICHTHYOLOGY.
232
Chondrop- the presence or absence of apertures behind the eyes, and
tcrygii. 0f an ana] fin.
Selachii.
's—Without Air-Holes, with Anal Fin.
Carcharias, Cuv. This well-known and numerous
group have extremely sharp-pointed teeth, often serrated
on their edges. Of these, their jaws are armed with se¬
veral rows, which they have the power of elevating or de¬
pressing, and can use with remarkable effect, from the
strength of the muscles moving the lower jaw. The first
dorsal fin is considerably before the ventrals, and the se¬
cond is almost opposite to the anal. The posterior bran¬
chial apertures are over the pectoral fins.
The best-known species is Sq. carcharias, orwhite shark,
the dread of seamen in hot climates, and not unfrequent-
ly seen on our own coasts. It is a very large fish, grow¬
ing, it is said, to more than thirty feet, and often observed
to measure from fifteen to twenty-five feet. The teeth
are, in full-grown animals, in six rows j those in the up¬
per jaw are nearly isosceles triangles, with sharp, dentated
edges; those in the lower jaw have a narrow lancet-
shaped point on a broader basis, with smooth-cutting
edges. From the position of the mouth in this species,
the animal turns on its side on seizing its prey. Its vo¬
racity is well known, and it has been seen to leap out of
the water in its eagerness to snatch a suspended morsel.
The jaws are so powerful as to bite at once through the
body of a man. The gullet is very large, and the intes¬
tine short. One killed near Marseilles is alleged to have
had the entire body of a man, and several fish, in its sto¬
mach ; and one captured off the island of St Margaretta
is even said to have contained the whole body of a horse.
This one had the enormous weight of 1500 pounds.
The sailors believe that the pilot-fish, which is so con¬
stant an attendant on this species, directs him to his
prey; and, by touching his head, warns him against a
baited hook. Certain it is, that the pilot-fish have been
repeatedly seen clinging to a shark while he was hoisting
on deck, and appeared as if distressed on separation from
their formidable comrade, who has never been known, in
his utmost voracity, to attack his friendly guides. What
the instinct is that produces this attachment is unknown ;
but probably it depends on the pilot (Naucrates ductor)
obtaining its subsistence from the remains of the shark’s
prey, as the jackal does from that of the lion.1
Little of the age or development of this species is as¬
certained. The female has been known to contain many
ova; but only three or four are perfected at a time, and
impregnation may take place long before the full growth
of the animal. A shark ten feet long has been found to
contain forty ova, three or four of which were near ma¬
turity.
Sq. vulpes, the thrasher, so called from the inordinate
length of his tail, which is almost half the length of the
animal. It is the upper lobe which is thus elongated ;Chondn
and as it has the fin along its under side, it gives the or- terygi
gan some resemblance to a fox’s tail. It grows, even in Selach:
our own seas, to a large size. Pennant measured one thir-
teen feet, of which the tail was more than six feet. The
body is round, the nose short but pointed; the teeth are
small, but sharp.
It is this species which is said to attack various Cetacea,
which it harasses by dealing them violent strokes with its
tail, when they rise to the surface for the purpose of
breathing.
Sq. glaucus, the blue shark, is a very bold and vora¬
cious fish, not unfrequent on our coasts during the her¬
ring season. It grows to ten, or even fourteen feet in
length ; is of a slaty blue above, and smoother than the
rest of the genus. Head large, muzzle very pointed;
mouth large ; teeth almost triangular, long, sharply point¬
ed ; the upper curvilinear, bent outwards; the lower
straighter, and all dentated.
The nostrils are long and transverse. Artedi and others
have noticed a triangular fossule, with its apex downward,
on the lower part of the back.
To this subdivision we must refer the following species:
Sq. ustus, Dum.; S. ocellatus ; Sq. ciliaris ; and several
Indian species, described by Russel.
Lamna, Cuv. This subdivision is distinguished from
the last by having all the spiracles before the pectoral
fins, and by having a projecting pyramidal snout.
Squalus cornubicus, portbeagle shark, is well known in
the Mediterranean and British seas, and is formidable on
account of its teeth and size. One caught in 1834, on
the coast of Caithness, now in the College Museum of
Edinburgh, measures eight and a half feet, and is in girth
four feet eight inches. Its teeth are upwards of an inch
in length, extremely sharp, but not serrated. There are
three rows of teeth, of an elongated form, slightly bent
outward, and extremely sharp. The nostrils are under
the snout, two and a half inches from the eye.2 The cir¬
cumference of the mouth round both jaws is about three
feet. This animal is confounded with the white shark,
both by seamen and naturalists; but it differs in the form
of its teeth, as well as in the other circumstances noticed
in the character.
The colour of this species is deep bluish-black, and the
skin is smoother than that of most of its congeners.
Sq. monensis, Beaumaris shark, first described by Pen¬
nant, was by some considered as a sexual difference only
of the last; but this is a mistake. Though similar in
many respects, they are quite distinct, as the following
characters, taken from a fine specimen caught in Orkney
in 1833, will show. The colour of the upper parts a pale
leaden gray, the lower parts yellowish white. Skin
above covered with very minute granular roughnesses,
but less prominent than in the Squalus catulus and Sq.
1 We have already discussed the point above alluded to, at greater length, in a preceding portion of the present treatise
185.
2 The following are the more detailed measurements of the specimen above mentioned:—
Feet. Inches.
See
Extreme length along curvature of back....8 ' 3
Girth at abdomen 4 8
 at spiracles 4 0
AVidth of mouth round upper lip 1 9
 round lower lip 1 4
Length of teeth in upper jaw 0 1-5
 in lower jaw 0 1 • 2
Length of muzzle from eye 0 7‘5
 from upper lip 0 4-5
Eye in diameter about 0 1
Nostrils from eye 0 2 5
Length of spiracles   0 9
From snout to first dorsal 3 5-5
From first to second dorsal 2 6
From second dorsal to caudal 0 0
Feet. Inches.
First dorsal, high, along its edge 1 1
 perpendicularly 0 10
 broad 0 9’5
Second dorsal, high   0 L8
 broad 0 L5
Pectorals along edge 1 5
 broad 0 9
Caudal, upper lobe   1 10 5
 lower lobe 1 3
 spread 2 0
Ventral at outer edge   0 4
From pectoral to ventral 2 4
Keel near tail 0 9-5
Anal fin, broad 0 ld»
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Cin Irop- canicula. Form of the head obtusely conical, muzzle
t( ?ii. blunt. The teeth were in three rows, two of which were
St iii- recumbent, rather than with sharp points and cutting
edges, and two small processes at the bases of those of
the lower jaw. Numerous nasal pores were perceived on
the snout, six of which on each side admitted a slender
probe to the depth of three inches; but there were no
temporal apertures. A deep sulcus, eight inches long,
extended from the ventrals to within two inches of the
anal fin. This specimen was a male, with two holders, each
one foot two inches long, by one and a half in diameter.
As this species is rare, we shall give its dimensions.
Feet. Inches.
Extreme length along curvature of back 7 8
Girth where thickest 4 8
Upper lip from muzzle 0 5
Mouth along curvature of upper lip..  1 1
Eye round, in diameter 0 F7
First dorsal, placed a little behind pectoral 1 1
Second dorsal, very small, over anal 0 2
Anal fin 0 2’5
Pectorals along their curyed edge 1 6
Tail lunated, extent across tips 3 0
Upper lobe of ditto 1 9
Lower ditto of ditto 1 3
Distance between ventral and anal 0 10
Both this and the last species have, just above the tail,
lateral projections, that in the centre rise into a blunt edge
one inch from the general surface in the middle, and de¬
cline gradually into the general surface at both ends.
These are about eight or nine inches long.
With Air-Holes and Anal Fin.
Galeus, or Tope. These chiefly differ from the true
&quali in having the temporal apertures. One species is
found on our coasts, and is not uncommon in the Firth of
Clyde. It seldom exceeds, with us, five or six feet; and
there is reason to suspect that the accounts sometimes
given of its enormous size arise from confounding it with
other sharks. Its skin has a very rank, offensive smell;
its colour above is light cinereous, below white; nose
long, flattened, and sharp at the point. The muzzle
seems translucent toward the end; the nostrils are near
the mouth ; the first dorsal is placed towards the middle
of the back, and is rather large ; the second is near the
tail; the tail is finned beneath, and ends in a sharp angle
above.
Mustelus, Hound. This subdivision combines the
characters of Carcharias and Galeus, but it has the tem¬
poral apertures and small rounded teeth. The species
are of moderate size : Cuvier thinks that Linnaeus has
confounded two distinct species in his Sq. mustelus.
Notidanus, Dry-back. This subdivision is distinguish¬
ed from Galeus, to which it has much resemblance, by the
want of the first dorsal fin.
Sq. cinereus has a pointed muzzle, seven large bran-
' ohial apertures, with a smooth skin compared to most of
the family of sharks : the teeth are compressed and sharp ;
the dorsal is in the middle of the back. Length about
three feet.
Sq. griseus. Colour, ash colour above, white below;
six wide branchial apertures; teeth large, triangular
above, serrated below; snout depressed and rounded;
anal fin half way between the ventral and the tail. These
two are natives of the Mediterranean. Another species
of this subdivision is found in the Indian seas.
Selache, Basking Shark. Contains as yet only a single
species, which unites to the general form of Carcharias,
and to the air-holes of Galeus, large branchial apertures
a most surrounding the neck. It is the gills of this spe¬
cies that have been erroneously described as a sort of
VOL. XII.
233
Selachii.
whalebone. The mouth is provided with small teeth ; theChondrop-
muzzle projects far beyond it. Nothing has ever been terygii.
found in its stomach except the remains of Fuci or Algm,
in the numerous instances in which it has been captured
in various parts of Scotland. They grow to thirty or thir-
ty-six feet or more, and are fishes of great strength, but
are harmless, indolent, and not very sensible to slight
wounds. They often lie on the surface of the water, with
their large dorsal fin exposed, and permit the approach of
boats until the harpoon can be securely fixed in their bo¬
dies. They sometimes appear in shoals, but more com¬
monly in pairs; and enter the bays on the western and
northern shores of Britain in the months of June and Ju¬
ly, but retire from the land on the approach of cold wea¬
ther. The liver of a full-grown fish has been known to af¬
ford eight barrels of fine oil; and on this account the bask¬
ing shark is considered as a profitable capture.
This is the species to which Sir E. Home erroneously
referred the supposed sea-snake, driven on shore in Ork¬
ney in 1808; but the enormous length of that animal,
the smallness of the vertebrae of the neck, and of its whole
head, still preserved in the Museum of the University of
Edinburgh, prove that idea to be inconsistent with the
fact, and show that singular animal to have been some
great species of cartilaginous fish as yet unknown to na¬
turalists,—a species in which we are to look for the proto¬
type of the famous sea-serpent of the Northern Skalds,
and the wild legends of the Sagas.
Cestracion, Cuv. This sub-genus has the temporal
apertures, the anal fin, and rounded teeth of S. mustelus;
but the mouth is terminal, or at the extremity of the point¬
ed muzzle; the middle teeth are small and pointed, those
at the angles of the jaw are very broad, and rhomboidal.
The only known species is a native of the Australian
seas, the Sq. Philippi, which has an elongated lobe on each
side of the head.
Species without Anal Fin, but with Air-Holes.
Spinax, Cuv. ; Dog-fish. The Sq. acanthias, one of our
most common sharks, is the type of this sub-genus. It
has all the usual general characters of the Squali, but is
without an anal fin ; it possesses the temporal apertures,
and is distinguished by a strong spine placed just before
each dorsal. The muzzle of our piked dog-Jish is long ;
the teeth in two rows, small, and cutting, bending from
about the middle of the jaw toward the corners of the
mouth. The tail is unequal; the upper lobe much the
longest, but the lower lobe is finned for a considerable
space beneath. The colour is of an ash-gray, dashed with
brown above and white below : when young, the sides are
mottled with whitish spots.
Several foreign species, especially those described by
Rafinesque, appear mere varieties of our Squalus spinax ;
indeed this author has multiplied species on very slender
authority.
Centrina, Cuv. So called from their strong dorsal
spines. I his subdivision has all the characters of Spinax,
as far as the spines, want of the anal fin, and possession
of temporal apertures; but the body is less elongated,
the last dorsal is placed over the ventral, and the tail is
short. The best known is the
Sq. centrina, Linn. A species uncommon in our seas,
but occurring on various coasts of Europe. (Plate CCC VII.
The mouth is far beneath the snout; the nose is
blunt; the head small; in the upper jaw are three rows
of teeth, and one only in the lower, all of which are slen¬
der and pointed. The dorsal fins are large; the spine in
the anterior pointing forward, that in the posterior is di¬
rected backwards; both project through the epidermis of
the fins.
The Squalus squamosus belongs to this division. It is
2 G
234
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chondrop- allied to Sq. centrum, but has conspicuous, ovate, hard, ca
terygii. rinated scales.
Selachii.
The skin, like that of most other sharks, is rough, with
numerous sharp granular eminences.
Scymnus, Cuv. This subdivision has all the charac¬
teristics of Centrum, except the dorsal spines.
The European species is the Sq. Americanus of Brous-
sonet and Shaw. It occurs on the coasts ot France, off
Cape Breton, which has been mistaken for the transatlan¬
tic Cape Breton. It appears to be identical with Risso s
Sq. Nicensis.
The formidable animal described by O. Fabricius, in his
Fauna Groenlandica, as Sq. carcharias, is now, from the
descriptions of Scoresby and others, to be referred to this
sub-genus. It is Scoresby’s Sq. borealis. It wants the
anal fin, but has the temporal orifices. It grows to the
length of twelve or fourteen feet, and is six or eight in
circumference. Scoresby mentions the singular appen¬
dages which he invariably found attached to the cornea of
this animal. Some have supposed them to be parasitic
animals. If so, it is singular that they should be so uni¬
formly in the same position, and of the same size, about
one or two inches long, and cleft at their fore extremity
into tw'o parts. This shark is peculiarly attracted by a
dead whale, out of which it scoops at once masses of
blubber as large as a man’s head. The sailors believe
this species to be blind, from its returning to feed on its fa¬
vourite morsel, even after having a flensing knife run through
its body ; but this only shows its fondness for whale
blubber,—to which circumstance we may also attribute the
comparative safety of Greenland sailors who have fallen
into the water when flensing the whale. But, if we may
credit Fabricius, when this delectable food is not present,
he will attack the slender bark of the Greenlanders.
To this division belong also the Sq. spinosus and La-
bordii.
Genus Zygjena, Cuv. This genus, which has the ge¬
neral form of body and fins of Carcharias, is distinguished
by the extraordinary form of its head, that has no analogy
in nature, except in some of the insect tribe. It is flat¬
tened horizontally, truncated in front, and extended late¬
rally into two arms, at the extremity of which are the
eyes, giving to the animal the form of a hammer. The
mouth is below the centre of this singular head, and the
nostrils at its anterior edges on each side. The most com¬
mon in Europe is the Sq. zygcena, or hammer-headed
shark, which often attains the length of sixteen or seven¬
teen feet, and is formidable on account of its voracity
and strength. It is found also around the West Indies,
and in the Indian Ocean, especially at Taheite, where the
natives are said, from their dexterity in swimming, to hold
it in little dread. It is a very prolific animal. Two kin¬
dred species are known : the Sq. Blochii, Cuv., which dif¬
fers in having the nostrils nearer the middle of the head,
and its two dorsals much nearer the tail; and Sq. tiburo,
or heart-headed shark, a much rarer species, which we
have received from the coast of Guyana. We here figure
Zygcena. Lewinii, a species captured off the south coast of
New Holland. Plate CCCVII. fig. 5.
Genus Squatina, Dinner.; Angel-fish. Has the tem¬
poral apertures without the anal fin ; but its mouth is ter¬
minal, and its eyes are both placed on its dorsal surface, in
which it differs from all the sharks. The head and body
are flattened; the pectoral fins are extremely broad, and
project forward to the sides of the head, but are separat¬
ed from it and the neck by a fissure, in which the bran¬
chial apertures are placed; the two dorsals are behind the
ventrals, and the tail is equally finned above and below the
spinal column.
The best-known species is the Sq. squatina, Linn., or
angel-shark, which grows to eight or ten feet. It is a bold
and voracious fish; when captured, it bites with greatCh
fury; it preys much on flat fish; it has tentacula on its t
upper lip ; its eyes, placed obliquely, give it a sinister look. ^
The English name has been given ironically to this hide¬
ous creature, which is by seamen generally termed devil¬
fish.
The teeth are slender, sharp, and dilated at their base;
the dorsal fins very small, the pectorals very broad, the
ventral large, and enclosing the male organs. The upper
lobe of the tail longer than the lower. It is very prolific,
fourteen young being sometimes found in its belly ; twelve
frequently.
To this genus we must also refer the Sq. aculeatus of
the Mediterranean.
Genus Prjstis, Lath.; Saw-fish. This last genus has
the general form of the Squali, but is more flattened in
front, and has the branchial apertures beneath, like the
Fays. The most peculiar character, however, consists in
the great depression and extension of the snout, which
has on each side a row of strong teeth or spines, which
are trenchant on the fore-side, and mucronated. These
spines are not, however, their true teeth. These are
lodged in the mouth, and are very small and rounded.
But, with their formidable beak, they are said successfully
to attack the larger Cetacea. In the foetal Pristis the ru¬
diments of these osseous spines are mere tubercles, and
the snout is folded up over the head of the embryon.
These spines are not, like the teeth of cartilaginous fishes,
attached by ligaments to the bones, but are firmly implant¬
ed in the bone of the snout.
The best-known species is the Sq. pristis of Linn, or
Pristis antiquorum. It grows to a great size. We have
measured snouts more than ten inches in diameter, and
four feet seven inches in length, with sixteen or eighteen
spines on each side, some of which projected three inches.
The animal attains the length of sixteen or eighteen feet.
There are other species chiefly distinguished by the num¬
ber and form of these spines : as Pristis cuspidatus,—Pr.
pectinatus, with numerous slender teeth,—Pr. microdon,
 P. cirratus, with alternate long and short teeth,—and
Pr. semi-sagittatus, a small Indian species, in which the
spines are deeply denticulated on the posterior edge.
Genus Raia (or Ray) of Linnaeus. This great genus of
the Selachii is very numerous, and the species often grow to
a vast size. They are readily recognised by their flattened
body, like the Pleuronect.es, forming a horizontal disk, very
broad in proportion to its thickness, in consequence of the
body graduating into the enormous pectorals of the ani¬
mal, which unite in front with the snout, and extend on
both sides of the abdomen to the base of the ventral
fins. See skeleton of the thorn-back (P. clavata), Plate
CCCVII. fig. 9. The scapula of these vast pectorals are
articulated with the spine just behind the branchial aper¬
tures. These apertures, the nostrils, and mouth, are on
the ventral surface of the fish ; the temporal orifices, and
the eyes, are on the dorsal surface. The dorsal fins are
usually placed on the tail. These animals are oviparous.
Their eggs are coriaceous, square, with long angles. The
subdivisions of Cuvier are the following.
Genus Rhinobatus, Sch. Distinguished by the length
of the snout; connects the sharks and rays. They have a
thick and fleshy tail, like Squali, with two dorsal and two
caudal fins. Their snout and pectorals form a sharp rhom¬
boid. Their teeth are placed in a quincunx arrangement.
In some the first dorsal is placed over the ventral fins, in
others it is placed farther back. The best known is the
Mediterranean Faia rhinobatus, which is found four feet
in length. The others are, F. T/muiniana (Plate CCCVII.
fig. 7), supposed by Cuvier a variety of that just named,
but it has such difference of form as to entitle it to be con¬
sidered a distinct species ; F. djiddensis, Forsk.; one de-
Eli
ICHTHYOLOGY. 235
Irop* scribed by Russel, /?. suttivara; and one from Brazil, R. three rows of large spines down the tail, the surface ofChondrop-
gii. Marc, which, as its specific name implies, has which is irregularly beset with small prickles. It is to this terygii.
:h“- been said to possess some of the properties of the Torpedo, species that we confine the name of R. rubus. It is less
^ Genus Rhina, Sch. This subdivision has a short, common than R. batis, and is a much smaller fish. Found :
rounded muzzle; in other respects it is like the last nam- among the Hebrides.
ed. The species is R. ancylostomus of Bloch. R. batis, the skate. One of the thinnest and broadest of
Genus Torpedo, Dum. This subdivision is short, and the tribe ; but sometimes growing to an immense size, and
rather fleshy. The body appears a nearly circular disk, weighing 200 pounds. The nose, though not very long,
the anterior edge being composed of two projections of is pointed. Sometimes the surface of the back is marbled
the muzzle, which stretch sidewise, and unite with the with dusky and white. Along the tail is one row of spines ;
pectorals. The space between these last and the head is a few are irregularly dispersed on the sides of the tail, and
entirely filled with the very extraordinary electric appara- the fins of the males have many small spines,
tus first accurately described by John Hunter. It consists The spring is their season of love ; and when coupling,
of irregular columns, varying from one and a half inch to both may be drawn into the boat, though one only has
one fourth of an inch in length by 0-2 broad. They are taken the bait. The male holders appear to be true organs
irregular hexagons or pentagons, reaching from surface to of penetration, as we have been assured by fishermen. The
surface of the fish, and forming (in that dissected by eggs have the form of coriaceous parallelograms, and are
Hunter) an electric organ five inches long, varying in . vulgarly with us termed which the females begin to
breadth from three to about one and a half inches. Their cast in May, and continue to perfect and cast till Septem-
number on both sides is about 940 in a small fish; but in ber. This species is often eaten, as well as the thornback,
a large one there were 2364. Their coats are thin and both in the greatest perfection in spring,
transparent; they are horizontally divided by thin parti- R. oxyrinchus, the sharp-nosed ray. We do not agree
tions, so numerous that one inch of these columns con- with Cuvier in confounding this with R. batis. The form
tained 150 dissepiments filled with fluid. This curious of the nose is much longer and narrower; the body much
apparatus is supplied with numerous nerves from the smoother than any species we have mentioned, though there
eighth pair. The columns are firmly united by cellular are triple rows of small spines along the tail. A single row
substance. When the skin covering this apparatus is of small spines runs down its back, and a few are scattered
touched, the person receives a violent shock at each con- about the eyes. The teeth too, in this species, differ from
tact; and it is probable that in this way the species stuns those of the skate, being bent inward, and less granular. It
its prey. The animal can give the shock at pleasure ; but is not inferior in size to the skate. Indeed specimens are
if often reiterated, the shocks are weakened, until the ner- said to have been seen of the weight of 500 pounds,
vous energy of the fish is recruited by rest. This animal Some species of this division have a sort of membra-
electricity is conducted and intercepted by the same sub- nous expansion, like a fin elevated in the middle of the
stances that conduct and intercept ordinary artificial elec- back. This has been seen also in rays in other respects
tricity. Wehere figure T.Bancroftii. .Plate CCCVII. fig. 8. resembling the skate ; but it is particularly conspicuous in
Several species occur in Europe, which Linnaeus con- R. Cuvieri. To this division likewise belong R. undulata,
founded together under the title of Raia torpedo. We Lacep., R. fullonica, R. marginata, R. miraletus, Ronde-
have Torpedo naske, distinguished by having no fleshy let, R. picta, R. alba, and others.
dentations at the edges of its temporal apertures ; its dor- Genus Trygon, Adans. Is characterised by having
sal spots vary from one to five : Torp. Galvanii has seven the tail armed with a spine, finely serrated on both sides;
dentations round its air-holes, and is of an uniform brown, and by the teeth, which are slender, and crowded in a quin-
sometimes marbled or spotted with darker tints: Torp. cunx. Form of the disk obtuse ; some have the tail fleshy,
marmorata is another Mediterranean species, described by but in many it is very slender, and almost destitute of the
Risso. We know several foreign species, such as Torp. rudiment of a fin. Most of them have smooth bodies ;
temeree and Torp. nalatemeree of Russel, Torp. timlei ? of their caudal spine long—a powerful weapon of offence and
Bloch. of defence, which inflicts sevei’e and dangerous wounds.
Genus Raia, properly so called. Has a rhomboidal R. pastinacea, Linn.; sting ray. Is found on the Euro¬
body united to a slender tail, which has near its extremi- pean coasts. Some have a few prickles on the back; it is
ty two small dorsals, with, in some instances, a vestige of tuberculated in others. In some species the lower part of
a caudal fin. The teeth are small, and disposed in a the tail has a broad membrane,—others have a short tail
quincunx arrangement on the jaws. Several species in- terminated by a fin. The principal species are, P. tuber-
habit the European seas, some of which are yet indiffer- culata; P. Wolga Tenhee, Russ.; P.sephen, Forsk.; P. Ges-
ently distinguished by naturalists. As articles of diet, neri, Cuv.; P. lymna, P. Jamaicensis, Cuv.; P. cruciata,
some of them are frequently used ; and though seldom Lacep.; P. kunsua, Russ.
seen at the tables of the rich, they are by no means des- Genus Anacanthus, Ehrenb. Has a general resem-
picable food, especially their pectorals. blance to Pastinaca, but is destitute of the spine and anal
Raia clavata, or thornback, is a common species, dis- fin. This sub-genus is formed from the description receiv-
tinguished by the roughness of its back, and the strong os- ed of the large shagreen ray of the Red Sea, in which
seous oval plates, each furnished with a curved prickle, that the grains are stellular.
are irregularly scattered on both its surfaces. These plates R. orbicularis, Bl. belongs to this division,
are variable in number, and therefore do not afford any Genus Myliobatis, Dumer. This sub-genus has the
diagnostic character. head projecting beyond the pectorals altogether ; and these
Raia rubus, rough ray. There is much confusion among fins have a greater proportional breadth than in the other
Ichthyologists respecting this and the next species. Cu- rays, which gives these animals no small resemblance to a
vier seems to think that the Batis of Pennant and Rubus bird with its wings extended ; but their name is derived
°f Lacepede are the same ; hut Rubus of Pennant and from the millstone-like form of their broad flat teeth,
Willughhy is certainly different from the skate, and dis- planted on their jaws like the stones of a pavement: their
tinguished from the last by its less pointed nose and the tail, long, slender, and tapering to a point, is armed, as
greater length of the tail, and is more thickly studded with in Pastinaca, with a strong spine, toothed on both sides,
small spines, not only on the back, but on the fins and and is furnished, just above the spine, with a small dorsal
belly, which are equally rough with the back. There are fin. In some instances there are two or more such spines.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
236
Chondrop- Raid aquila, or eagle ray, grows to an immense size:
terygii. it has a projecting parabolic snout: the plates or teeth in
^ie H^dle of the jaws are in a single row, much broader
t_ than long; but the lateral ones are hexagons in three
ranges. The eyes are prominent, the tail very long and
slender. It has been known to measure fifteen feet in
length, and to weigh 300 lbs. It is said to swim with a
slow sailing motion, and when captured vibrates its tail
with great activity. It yields much fine oil. Inhabits the
Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. To this
division also we must refer the following species:
R. guttata, Shaw, Plate CCCVII. fig. 10, synonymous
with the Eel- Tenkee of Russel; R. fasciata, Shaw; Myl.
bovina, and Myl. marginata, Geoff.; which last has the snout
cleft into two short lobes, and belongs to the sub-genus
Rhinoptera of Kuhl.
Genus Cephaloptera, Dum. The last division of the
rays is distinguished by the bifurcation of the appendages
to the head, derived from the pectorals, which give the
species the appearance of being horned. The head is trun¬
cated between these projections ; the teeth are less strong
than those of Pastinaca, and are finely crenulated on the
edges; the tail, spine, and small dorsal fin, resemble those
of Myliobatis.
The best known is the gigantic Chephal. giorna of the
Mediterranean, the back of which is blackish, bordered
with violet. (PlateCCCVII.fig.il.) The animals which
are mentioned by Shaw as Raia manatia, R. fabroniana,
and R. Banksiana, are considered by Cuvier as doubtful
species.1 It is probable that the R. diabolus of Willughby,
described by Duhamel, and said also to occur at the Azores,
may be a distinct species, or perhaps the same as the Ere-
goodoo-Tenkee of Russel, which Cuvier is disposed to con¬
sider as a species well established. Ch. massena of Risso
is a Mediterranean species, twelve feet long and twenty-
seven in circumference. The female weighs 1250 lbs., the
male about 800 lbs. Top of the horns black, the base blu¬
ish externally, and white on their inner sides. Of the pair
described by Risso, the female was first taken ; and the au¬
thor adds, that the male continued constantly about the
boat for three days, as if bewailing the fate of his compa¬
nion, and was then found floating dead.
the vertebrae to cartilaginous rings, scarcely distinct from Chord
one another, and not even cartilaginous through their tery2
whole circumference. The body is terminated abruptly Cych
in front by a fleshy circular or semicircular mouth, sup- to*
ported on a cartilaginous ring formed by the union of the
palatal and maxillary bones. No ribs are distinguishable:
there are no solid branchial arches ; but the small branchial
rays, scarcely recognisable in Squaltis and Raia, are in them
fully developed, and united together into a sort of lattice.
The gills, instead of the pectinated form they have in
almost all other fishes, exhibit the appearance of little
sacs, from the union of each gill with that adjacent. The
labyrinth is enclosed in the cranium, the nostrils have only
a single aperture, in front of which is a cul-de-sac, mistaken
by some authors for a temporal orifice. The intestine is
straight and narrow, with a spiral valve.
Genus Petromyzon, Linn. This genus is distinguish¬
ed by seven branchial apertures on each side; the skin
above and below the tail is elevated in a rayless fin. The
sub-genera are the following :
Genus Petromyzon, Dum. or Lamprey properly so
called. Maxillary ring armed with strong teeth, within which
are tubercles, with a hard enamel lining the lips. This ring is
suspended by a piece answering to an inter-maxillary bone.
The tongue is furnished with two longitudinal ranges of
small teeth, and is capable of vigorous motion. The tongue
acting like a piston in the circular mouth, is an essential part
of the mechanism by which the fish is enabled to attach it¬
self firmly to stones, or to fasten itself to the larger fishes,
which it is thus enabled to suck and devour at its leisure.
In respiration, the water is carried from the mouth to the
gills by a canal under the gullet, and pierced with lateral
apertures. The dorsal fin is farther forward than the anus,
and a second unites with the tail. The European species
are,
P. marinus, the greater lamprey, which grows to the
length of more than three feet. (Plate CCCVII. fig. 12.)
It is considered as a delicate food, and is caught as it as¬
cends rivers in the end of winter and spring.2 Colour yel¬
lowish, marbled with brown. First dorsal fin very distinct
from the second. This fish is common in the Severn, and
in the mouths of many European rivers. Its supposed
hermaphroditism is mentioned by Sir Everard Home.3
P.jluviatilis, the lampern, or nine-eyed eel.4 Length from
twelve to eighteen inches; olive back, silvery below; first
dorsal distinct from the second. Two thick teeth, separate,
in the top of the maxillary ring. Ascends rivers from the
sea; swarms in the Thames, Severn, and Dee. Vast quan¬
tities taken in England are sold to the Dutch for the turbot
fishery. It abounds in the rivers on the southern side of
FAMILY II—CYCLOSTOMI, OR SUCKERS.
The suckers, as far as their skeleton is concerned, are the
most imperfect of all vertebrate animals. The bodies of
all their vertebrae are traversed by a single tendinous cord,
uniformly tapering from head to tail, which almost reduces
1 There is no doubt, however, that one or other of those names refers to an existing though obscurely known species, of enor¬
mous size. A specimen of the Banksian ray is said to have been found on the coast of Barbadoes, of such a vast weight that seven
yoke of oxen were required to draw it. A figure of the Ceph. manatia was sent to Lacepede, the original of which was alleged to
be nearly twenty feet long. “ It seems that it is to this species we may refer what Barrere and other travellers have said of the
enormous rays of the American and equinoctial seas, which spring above the surface of the water, and splash it to an immense
distance on falling into it. Levaillant, in his second voyage to Africa, speaks of having seen one, the smallest of three, which
swam round about the vessel, about twenty-five feet long and more than thirty wide; and Sonnini speaks of one which appeared to
him larger and Avider than the ship in which he was sailing.” “ Colonel Hamilton Smith once witnessed the destruction of a soldier
by one of these Cephalopteri, off Trinidad. It was supposed that the soldier, being a good swimmer, was attempting to desert from
the ship, which lay at anchor in the entrance of the Bocca del Toro. The circumstance occurred soon after daylight; and the man,
being alarmed by the call of a sailor in the main cross-trees, endeavoured to return to the vessel; but the monster threw one of his
fins over him, and carried him down. The colonel is positive as to this fish being a Cephalopterus.” (Griffith’s Animal Kingdom,
vol. x. p. 653.)
2 The death of Henry I. was attributed to a too plentiful meal of lampreys. They seem, however, to have continued in high
esteem in spite of that “ untoward event—at least we find Henry IV. granting protection to such ships as brought over lampreys
for his royal consort's table ; and his successor issued a warrant to William of Nantes, for supplying himself and his army Avith these
fishes, wherever they might happen to march. (Rymer, ix. 544, as quoted by Pennant.)
s Phil. Trans. 1815, 266.
4 “Whether,” ^ys Sir Thomas Brown, “ Lampries have nine eyes, as is received, we durst refer it unto Polyphemus himself,
who had but one to judge it; an error concerning eyes, occasioned by the error of eyes, deduced from the appearance of divers cavi¬
ties or holes on either side, which some call eyes that carelessly behold them; and is not only refutable by experience, but also re¬
pugnant unto reason.” {JPseudodoxia Epidemical
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Con sion.the Baltic. Both these animals are very tenacious of life,
^ ^ and will live many days out of water.
P. planeri. About ten inches long ; greatly resembles
the preceding; but the two dorsal fins are united. It is
also an European river fish.
The other species described by Shaw appear to be but
mere varieties of the above.
Genus Myxine, Linn. This genus is properly separat¬
ed from the lampreys, to which, however, it has much
resemblance. It is distinguished by having only two spi¬
racles, and by wanting eyes. The species best known,
Myxine glutinosa, Linn., or glutinous hag, was classed by
Linnaeus with the Vermes ; but its real place is among
chondropterygian fishes. The mouth is a membranous
ring, with a single tooth on its superior part; while the
strong dentations of the tongue are arranged in two rows
on each side, so as to give to these animals the appearance
of having lateral jaws, like insects or nereides; but the
rest of their structure corresponds with Petromyzon, and
their tongue in particular performs the office of a piston in
exhausting the mouth, so as to enable them to adhere to
other bodies, like the lamprey. The lips are furnished with
eight cirrhi, and above is an aperture communicating with
the mouth ; the body is nearly cylindrical, and terminates
in a fin which surrounds the tail. The intestine is simple,
wide, and straight, as viewed externally; but it is plaited
within: the liver has two lobes: the eggs grow to a con¬
siderable size. When taken and confined in a large glass
jar, a single fish will pour so much mucus from its lateral
pores as to give the water the appearance of jelly.
Three species are known, which Cuvier makes the types
of a corresponding number of sub-genera, as follows :
ls£, Heptatremus, Burner. With seven branchial
apertures, as in the lamprey. This animal is the M. Dom-
beyi, found on the coast of South America by Dombey. It
has a rounded head ; the teeth are sharp, and arranged in
two rows, respectively of fourteen and twenty-two, and
with one longer than the rest in the upper part of the
mouth; tail rounded at the extremity, and terminated by
a very shallow fin.
2d, Gastrobranchus, Bloch. The intervals of the
branchial rays open into a common canal for each side,
and these two canals terminate in two apertures under the
heart of the animal, about one third of its length from
the head.
The only known species is the European Myxine gluti¬
nosa, Linn. On the Yorkshire coast the fishermen occa¬
sionally find that it has entered the mouths of fish on the
hooks of the long lines, and devoured the flesh, leaving
only the skin and bones. They often catch it in the fish
thus emptied, and term it the sea-hag. It grows to the
length of six or eight inches.
3d, Ammocvetes, Burner. Is destitute of a real skeleton ;
body cylindrical, with numerous annular lines around it,
that give it much the appearance of a worm. It lives in
the mud of rivers. Mouth cirrhated, toothless, lobated be¬
low, and incapable of adhering by suction to other bodies;
fins very shallow; tail sharp at the tip ; no tracheal tube,
as in the rest, but the gills receive water from the oesopha¬
gus. The only species is P. branchialis, Shaw, the Pride
of Pennant, which grows to six or eight inches long, and
is as thick as a goose-quill. It inhabits the rivers of Ox¬
fordshire, and occurs in various parts of the European con¬
tinent.
We have now brought our exposition ef the modern
system of Ichthyology to a close. The subjects of which
it treats are of deep and sustaining interest, in a philoso¬
phical point of view, and of the highest and most imme¬
diate importance when considered in relation to the eco¬
nomical advantages derivable by the human race. We
237
have endeavoured to combine with the precise and tech-Conclusion,
nical expression of the generic and other characters such
miscellaneous information as could be collected from au¬
thentic sources, with a view to render the subject more
palatable to the general reader;—and if any great defi¬
ciency in that department is observable, we hope it may
in some measure be attributed to the nature of this
branch of natural history, the objects of which inhabiting
another element from ourselves, have thus their on-goings
too often veiled from mortal sight by a “ world of waters,”
—which no eye can pierce but the eye of Him who call¬
ed the light out of darkness, and who created the “ hea¬
vens and the earth, the sea, and all that in them is.”
We shall conclude with a brief allusion to a subject of
the highest interest to the naturalist,—one to which we
believe no reference has been made in the introductory
portion of the present treatise, and which, we regret, our
now exhausted space must prevent us from exhibiting at
greater length,—'we mean the geographical distribution
of fishes. Our knowledge of the laws which regulate that
distribution is meagre in the extreme; in other words,
the facts concerning their true localities are few, and
have never been properly generalised. From the immea¬
surable extent and continuous nature of the fluid which
they inhabit, they are supplied by nature with greater faci¬
lities of dispersion than most other animals; and the greater
equality of the temperature of water, compared with that ot
earth or air, admits in several instances of the same spe¬
cies inhabiting almost every latitude from pole to pole.
Those races especially, which, travelling together in vast
shoals, speedily consume the natural food which each par¬
ticular spot affords, are obliged, like the pastoral tribes of
old, or the woodland hunters of America, to remove from
place to place in search of additional supplies; and thus
the species acquires a more widely extended distribution.
It is thus that the cod and herring are spread over the
whole extent of the Northern Ocean, and in undiminished
numbers, notwithstanding the war of extermination which
man and other voracious animals appear to wage against
them. Those species which lead a solitary, and, as it may
be called, a stationary life, are frequently confined within
very narrow limits. The Chaetodons, for example, which
delight in rocky coasts covered with madrepores, attach
themselves to the torrid zone, which produces so abun¬
dantly those magnificent ornaments of the sea. But
though thus confined to particular spots, from which the
individuals of the species seldom wander, the species itself
may be said to be repeated again in different regions, se¬
parated from each other by almost insurmountable obsta¬
cles. Thus many of what may be termed stationary spe¬
cies are found identically the same along the coasts of
Brazil, in the Arabian Gulf, and over the multiplied
shores of Polynesia. It has hence been concluded, that
such species, incapable of colonizing themselves by leaving
their accustomed shores, and hazarding a journey across
unknown oceans, have either been created in more places
than one, or have been enabled to transport themselves by
means different from any of those that are now available in
the ordinary course of nature.
If the natural means by which the more powerful species
inhabiting the saline waters of the ocean have spread them¬
selves from clime to clime, be to a certain extent within
the reach of our comprehension, it is otherwise with those
peculiar to rivers, and the waters of inland lakes. How
these have contrived to migrate from one region to ano¬
ther, and to people with identical species the depth of far-
removed and solitary waters, separated from each other by
chains of lofty mountains, or wide extended wastes of de¬
sert sand, is a problem which, in the present state of our
knowledge, we seek in vain to solve. It may indeed at
times happen that spawn or ova are carried by water-fowl
238 ICHTHYOLOGY.
Index, from one great central reservoir to another, and thus the fices to account for the general diffusion of certain species, in(}e]
rivers of half a continent may be put in possession of spe- and still less for the narrow restriction of others equally
cies unknown before ;—but this supposition scarcely suf- exposed to the chances of that aerial flight.1 (t.2)
INDEX.
Page.
Abramis 198
ACANTHOPTERY-
GII 166
Acanthurus 190
Acerina 169
Achirus 221
Acipenser 230
Ageneiosi 202
Agriopus 
Alepocephalus 200
Aleuteres 229
Alosa 215
Ambassis 168
Amia 216
Ammodytes 227
Ammocsetes 237
Amphiprion 176
Amphisile   197
Anabas 190
Anableps 199
Anacanthus  235
Anarrhichas 193
Anastomus 212
Anchovy 216
Ancylodon  176
Angel-fish 234
Anguilla 223
Anguilliformes 223
Anthius 168
Apistus  174
Apogon 168
Argentina 212
Argyreyosus 186
Aspidophorus 174?
Aspredo 203
Aspro 168
Astrodermus 187
Atherina   192
Aulopus 213
Aulostoma 197
Auxis 183
Auxinurus 190
«
Bagrus 202
Balistes 229
Saloon-fish 228
Barbel 198
Barbus 198
Batrachus 195
Becher 177
Belone 200
Benticles 175
Bergylt 174
Beryx 170
Bleak 199
Page.
Blennius 192
Blenny 192
viviparous   193
Blepharis 186
Bonito 198
Boops  178
Braize ’. 177
Brama 180
Bream 177
common 198
black 177
little 198
sea   177
Spanish 177
Brill 220
Brocket 168
Brosmius 219
Brotula 219
Bucc^: LORICATiE 172
Bull-head. 173
Buffalo-fish 179
Butirinus 216
Callionymus 194
Callorhynchus 230
Cantharis 177
Capros 189
Caranx 186
Carapus 226
Carcharias 232
Carp 197
common 197
golden   198
CARTILAGINOUS
FISHES 229
Cataphractus 203
Catastomus   198
Cat-fish 202
Centrarchus 169
Centrina 233
Centriscus 197
Centrolophus 187
Centropomus 168
Centropristis 169
Cephaloptera 236
Cepola 189
Cestracion 233
Chaetodon 178
Chalceus 212
Char 208
Characinus, 212
Chatessus 215
Chauliodus 200
Cheilinus 195
Cheilodactylus 176
Page.
Chelmon 178
Chimaera  230
Chirocentrus 216
Chironectes 195
Chironemus 169
Chirus 194
CHONDROPTERY-
GII 229-231
WITH FREE BRAN¬
CHIAE  230
WITH FIXED BRAN-
CHLE 231
Chorenemus 186
Chromis 196
Chrysophris 177
Cirrhibarbus 192
Cirrhites  169
Citharinus 213
Clepticus 196
Clinus 192
Clupea 214
Clupida: 214
Coal-fish ,....218
Cobitis 199
Cod 217
Colisa 190
Comephora 194
Coregonus 211
Coricus 196
Corvina 175
Coryphaena 186
Cottus 173
Crenilabrus 195
Curimata.... 212
Cybium .....183
Cychla 196
Cyclopterus 221
Cyclostomi 236
Cyprinid.® 197
Cyprinodon 199
Cyprinus 197
Bab 220
Dactylopterus 173
Dascyllus 176
Datnia   169
Beal-fish 189
Dentex 177
Bevilfish 234
Diagramma 176
Diodon 228
Diploprion 168
Dipterodon 180
Discoboli 221
Bog fish 233
Page.
Bolphin  187
Doras 202
Borse 218
Bory 188
Bragonet  194
gemmeous 194
sordid 194
Brums 176
Dules 169
Echeneis 222
Eel 223
common 223
conger 224
electric 225
sand 227
Egyptian herring 201
Elacate 186
Eleotris 194
Elops 196-216
Emperor of Japan 179
Enchelyopus 226
Engraulis 216
Enoplosus 168
Ephippus 179
Eques 176
Equula 189
Erythrinus 216
Esocid^e 199
Esox 199
Etelis'. 168
Exocetus 201
Fan-fish 184
Father lasher 174
Fishes.
Definition of. 151
Form and character of 153
Osteology of ;....154
Muscles and motions ofl56
Nervous system of....157
Senses of 157
Nutrition, manduca-
tion, and degluti¬
tion of. 159
Circulating system of. 160
Respiration of. 161
Swimming bladder of. 161
Rank in the animal
kingdom 162
Classification of. 163
Tabular view of the
Cuvierian system... 165
Fistularia 196
Fistularidje 196
1 Consult M. Gaimard’s Memoire sur la Distribution Geographique des Poissons; an Essay on Geography considered in relation to
natural history, in the seventh volume of the Diction. Classique d'Hist. Nat.; and our Illustrations of Zoology, letter-press preceding
plate xx.
2 The author of the preceding treatise has to acknowledge his obligations to Sir William Jardine, Bart., for the use of his notes
on the Salmonidae,—to Professor Traill, for assistance in relation to the Apodal Malacopterygian, and Chondropterygian tribes,—
and to Dr Allan Thomson, for his aid in drawing up the history of the Clupidse, and of the Sub-brachian Malacopterygians.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
In c.
Page.
Flat-fish 219
Flounder 220
Flying-fish 173
Mediterranean 173
Oceanic ....201
Fundulus 199
Gadim 217
Gadus 217
Galeus 233
Gallichtys 186
Galaxias 200
Gar-fish 200
Gasteropelecus 212
Gasterosteus 175
Gastrobranchus 237
Gempylus 183
Gherad-el-bahir 174
Gilt-head. 177
Glyphisodon 176
Gobies  193
Gobiesox 221
Gobio   198
Gobioidje 192
Gobioides 193
Gobius 193
Gonorhynchus 199
Grammistes 168
Grayling 210
Gristes 169
Gudgeon 198
Gunnel, common 193
Gunellus 192
Gurnards 173
Gyranarchus 226
Gymnetrus 189
Gymnodontes 228
Gymnotus 225
Haddock 208
Haemulon 176
Hake 218
Harvest-fish 188
Heliases 176
Helostoma 190
Helotes 169
Hemilepidotus 174
Hemiramphus 201
Hemitripterus 174
Henochius 178
Heptatremus 237
Herring   214
Heterobranchus 202
Hippocampus 227
Hippoglossus  220
Histiophorus 184
Holibut 220
Holocanthus 179
Holocentrum 170
Huro 168
Hydrocyon 213
Hynnis 186
Hyodon 216
Hypostoma 203
Ichthyology  151
Definition of. 151
Historical sketch of... 151
Ikan-sumpit 180
Johnius 176
Page.
King-fish   189
King of the herrings 189
Kitt 220
Kurtus 188
Labeo 198
Labrax 167
Labridae 195
Labrus 195
Labyrinthiform Pha-
ryngeals 190
Lamna 232
Lampern 236
Lamprey 236
Lampris 189
Lampugus 187
Launce, common 227
Dates 168
Latelus 176
Lebias 199
Lepadogaster 221
Lepidopus 183
Lepisosteus 216
Leptocephalus 226
Leuciscus 198
Lichia 186
Ling 218
Liparis 222
Loach 199
Lobotes 176
Lophotes 189
Lophius 194
LOPHOBRANCHII ...227
Loricaria 203
Lota 218
Lucio-perca 168
Lump-fish 221
Lumpus 221
Luvarus 188
Mackerel 180
Macrourus 219
Macropodus 190
Maigre 175
Malacanthus 196
Makaira 184
Malapterurus 203
MAD ACOPTERY GII
ABDOMIN ALES... 197
MALACOPTERYGII
APODES 223
MALACOPTERYGII
SUB-BRACHIATI..217
Malarmat 173
Mallotus 210
Malthe 195
Mango-fish 171
Mastacomblus 186
Megalops 216
Mene ...189
Menid^e 178
Merluccius 218
Merrus 169
Mesoprion 169
Microstoma 200
Miller s thumb 173
Minnow 199
Molinesia ,...199
Monocanthus 229
Monocentris   174
Page.
Monochirus 221
Mormyrus 201
Morrhua 217
Motella 219
Mountsbay angler 195
Mugilidae 191
Mullet. 172
red 172
striped 172
gray 191
Mullus 172
Muraena 224
Mustelus 233
Myletes ; 212
Myliobatis  235
Myripristis 170
Myxine 137
Myxodes 192
Naseus 190
Nauclerus 186
Naucrates 185
Niphon 168
Nomeus 186
Norway haddock 174
Notocanthus 186
Notidanus 233
Notopterus 215
Odontogngthus 215
Old wife 195
Olistus 186
Ophicephalus 190
Ophidium 226
Opistognathus 193
Ophisurus 224
Orthagoriscus 228
Osmerus 210
Osphronemus 190
OSSEOUS FISHES...166
Osteoglossum 216
Ostracion 229
Otolithus 176
Pagellus 177
Pagrus 177
Parr 208
Parrot-fish 196
Peche madame 170
Pectorales pedicu-
lati 194
Pegasus 227
Pelamys 183
Pelates 169
Pel or 174
Pentaceros 169
Perea 167
PerciDjE 166
jugular 170
abdominal 171
Perch 167
common 167
sea 167
black 187
Percis 171
Percophis 171
Periophthalmys 194
Peristedion 173
Petromyzon 236
Phycis 219
239
Page. Index.
Piabucus 212
Pike 200
Pilchard 215
Pilot-fish 185
Pimelodi 202
Pimelepterus 179
Pinguipes 171
Plagiostomi 231
Plaice 220
Platax 179
Platessa 219
Platycephalus 174
Platypteron 194
PLECTOGNATHI 228
Plectropoma 169
Plesiops 196
Pleuronectidae 219
Plotosus 203
Podley 218
Pcecilia 199
Pogonias 176
Pogge 174
Pollock 218
Polyacanthus 190
Polynemus 171
Polyodon 230
Polyprion 169
Polypterus 217
Pomatomus  168
Pomotis 169
Porthoneus 186
Pomfret, black 188
Pomocentrus 176
Premnas 176
Priacanthus 169
Prionites.: 173
Priodon 190
Pristigaster 215
Pristipoma 176
Pristis 234
Psenes 186
Psettus 179
Pteraclis 187
Pterois 174
Raia 234
Raniceps 219
Ray 235
Remora 222
Rhina 235
Rhinchobdella 186
Rhinobatus 234
Rhombus 188-220
Roach 199
Rypticus 169
Ruffe 169
Salanx 200
Salarias 192
Saimo 204
Salmon 204
Salmonid^e 203
Sand-smelt   192
Sand-eel 227
Sargus 176
Saurus 213
Sato-fish 234
Scad 186
Scampirro 182
Scar us 196
240
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Ichthyo-
phagi
II
Ickenild
Street.
Page.
Sciasna 175
ScuenidjE 175
Schelley 211
Schilbus 202
SCLERODERMI 229
Scolopsides 176
Scomber 180
Scomber-esox 200
ScomberidjE 180
Scopeles 213
Scorpaena 174
Scorpion 174
Scy Ilium -..231
Scymnus 234
Scyris 186
Sea-cat 193
Sea-devil 174
Sea-wolf. 193
Sea-horse 227
Sea-hag   237
Sebastes   174
Selache 233
Selachii 231
Seriola 186
Serranus 168
Serrasalmus 212
Seserinus 188
Shark 231
white 232
blue 232
portbeagle ,...232
Beaumaris 232
basking 233
hammer-headed 234
Sharmutii 203
Sheeps-head   177
Siganus 189
Page.
Sillago 170
Sillock 218
Silurid^: 202
Silurus 202
electric 203
Skate 235
Skankarbauw 179
Skip-jack 186
Smoults 208
Solenostoma   227
Solea 221
Sole 221
Sorcerer-fish 174
Sparid^; 176
Spirlin 210
Sphagebranchus 225
Sphyraena 171
Spinax 233
Spirobranchus 190
Sprat 215
Squalus 231
Squammipennes 178
Squatina 234
Sterlet   230
Sternarchus 226
Sternoptyx 213
Stickle-back 175
Stomias..., 200
Stromateus 188
Sturgeon 230
STURIONES 230
Sucking-fish 222
Sudis 216
Sun-fish 169-228
Suckers 236
Swordfish 184
Page.
Synanceia 174
Synbranchus 225
Syngnathus 227
Synodontis 202
T^nioid.® 189
Tafel-visch 170
Taurichthys 179
Temnodon 186
Tench 198
Tenioides 193
Tetraodon 228
Tetragonopterus 212
Tetragonurus 192
Tetrapterus 184
Therapon 169
TheutidjE 189
Thorn-back 235
Thresher 232
Thryssa 216
Thymallus 210
Thynnus   182
Thyrsites 183
Tinea 198
Tape 233
Torpedo 235
Torsk, Scotch 219
Toxotes 180
Trachicbtys .....170
Trachinotus 186
Trachinus 170
Triacanthus 229
Trichiurus 183
Trichodon 170
Trichonotus 194
Trichopus 190
Trigla 
Triodon 
Trout 
bull 
sea 
white 
salmon 
common....
Trumpet-fish
Trunk-fish...
Trigon  
Tunny  
Turbot 
Page,
..173 ||
..229 Iconc
..206 te:
..206
..206
,..206
..206
...207
...197
...229
...235
...182
...220
Umbrina 176
Upeneus 172
Uranoscopus 171
Vendace 211
Vlagman 179
Vomer 186
Weever.. 170
Whiff. 220
White-bait 215
Whiting 218
Whitling 206
Wrasse 195
Xiphias 183
Xirichthys... 196
Zanclus 179
Zeus   188
Zoarchus.... 193
Zygaena 234
ICHTHYOPHAGI, Fish-eaters, a name given to
those who lived wholly on fishes. The word is Greek, being
compounded of piscis, fish, and (paysiv. edere, to eat.
This name or term has been applied to different people.
The Ichthyophagi spoken of by Ptolemy are placed by
Sanson in the provinces of Nanking and Xantong. Aga-
tharcides calls all the inhabitants between Carmania and
Gedrosia by the name of Ichthyophagi. From the ac¬
counts given us of the Ichthyophagi by Herodotus, Strabo,
Solinus, Plutarch, and others, it appears indeed that they
had cattle, but that they made no use of them, excepting
to feed fish withal.
ICHTHYPERIA, a term in Natural History, applied
to the bony palates and mouths of fishes, usually met with
either fossil, in single pieces, or in fragments. They are
of the same substance with the bufonitae ; and are of va¬
rious figures, some being broad and short, others longer and
slender, some gibbose, and others plainly arched. They are
likewise of various sizes, from the tenth of an inch to two
inches in length, and an inch in breadth.
ICKENILD Street is that old Roman highway, so de¬
nominated from the Icenians, which extended from Yar¬
mouth in Norfolk, the eastern part of the kingdom of the
Iceni, to Barley in Hertfordshire, giving name in the way
to several villages, as Ickworth, Icklingham, and Ickleton,
in that kingdom. From Barley to Royston it divides the
counties of Cambridge and Hertford ; from Iqkleford it runs
by Tring, crosses Bucks and Oxfordshire, passes the Thames
at Goring, and extends to the west, part of England.
ICOLMKIL. See Iona.
ICONIUM, at present Cogni, formerly the capital of
Lycaonia in Asia Minor. St Paul, proceeding to Iconium
(Acts, xiii. 51, xiv. 1), in the year of Christ 45, there con¬
verted many Jews and Gentiles. It is believed, that in his
first journey to this city he converted St Thecla, so cele¬
brated in the writings of the ancient fathers. But some
incredulous Jews excited the Gentiles to rise against Paul
and Barnabas, and as the former were upon the point of
offering violence to them, the apostles were obliged to fly
for security to the neighbouring cities. St Paul undertook
a second journey to Iconium in the year 51, but we know
no particulars concerning his journey which relate espe¬
cially to Iconium.
ICONOCLASTES, or Iconoclasta:, breakers of
images; a name given to all those who reject the use of
images in religious matters. The word is Greek, formed
from si7.osv, imago, image, and xXaarsiv, rumpere, to break.
In this sense, not only the reformed, but some of the
eastern churches, are called Iconoclastes, and esteemed
heretics, as opposing the use of images in the worship of
God and the saints, and breaking their figures and repre¬
sentations in churches.
The opposition to images began in Greece under the
reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the Greeks
soon after the commencement of the eighth century, when
the worship of images became common. But the tumults
thus occasioned were quelled by a revolution, which, in
713, deprived Bardanes of the imperial throne. The dis¬
pute, however, broke out with redoubled fury under Leo
the Isaurian, in the year 726, who issued an edict abro-
I c o
jc, idas- gating, as some say, the worship of images, and ordering
s. all images, except that of Christ’s crucifixion, to be remov-
u ed from the churches ; but, according to others, this edict
only prohibited the paying to them any kind of adoration.
This edict occasioned a civil war, which ravaged part of
Asia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil commotions
and insurrections in Italy were chiefly promoted by the
Roman pontiffs, Gregory I. and II. Leo was excommu¬
nicated, and his subjects in the Italian provinces rising in
arms, either massacred or banished all the emperor’s depu¬
ties and officers. In consequence of these proceedings, Leo
assembled at Constantinople in 730 a council, which de¬
graded Germanus, the bishop of that city, who was a pa¬
tron of images ; he also ordered all the images to be pub¬
licly burned, and inflicted a variety of severe punishments
upon such as were attached to idolatrous worship. Hence
arose two factions; one of which adopted the adoration of
images, and on that account were called iconoduli or ico-
nolatroR; whilst the other maintained that such worship
was unlawful, and that nothing was more worthy the zeal
of Christians than to demolish and destroy those statues
and pictures which were the occasions of this gross idola¬
try ; and hence they were distinguished by the titles of
iconomachi (from s/jcwv, image, and I contend) and
icmoclastce. The zeal of Gregory II. was not only imitated,
but even surpassed, by his successor Gregory III. in con¬
sequence of which the Italian provinces were separated
from the Grecian empire.
Constantine, surnamed Copronymus (from xoftgog, stercus,
and m/ia, name, because he was said to have defiled the
sacred font at his baptism), succeeded his father Leo in
741, and in 754 he convened a council at Constantinople,
regarded by the Greeks as the seventh cecumenical coun¬
cil, which solemnly condemned the use of images in public
worship. Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775, pur¬
sued the same measures, and had recourse to the coercive
influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry.
Irene, the wife of Leo, poisoned her husband in 780; as¬
sumed the reins of empire during the minority of her son
Constantine; and in 786 summoned a council at Nice in
Bithynia, known by the name of the Second Nicene
Council, which abrogated the laws and decrees against
the new idolatry, restored the use of images and of the
cross, and denounced severe punishments against those
who maintained that God was the only object of religious
adoration. In this contest, the Britons, Germans, and
Gauls, were of opinion that images might be lawfully con¬
tinued in churches, but they considered the worship of
these as highly injurious and offensive to the Supreme
Being. Charlemagne distinguished himself as a mediator
in this controversy. He ordered four books concerning
images to be composed, refuting the reasons urged by the
Nicenebishops to justify the use of images ; and these books
he sent to Adrian the Roman pontiff in 790,. in order to
engage him to withdraw his approbation of the decrees of
the last council of Nice. Adrian wrote an answer ; and in
794, a council of three hundred bishops, assembled by
Charlemagne at Francfort-on-the-Mayn, confirmed the
opinion contained in the four books, and solemnly con¬
demned the use of images. In the Greek church, after
the banishment of Irene, the controversy about images
broke out anew, and was carried on by the contending
parties, with various and uncertain success, during the
half of the ninth century. But the scene changed on the
accession to the empire of Leo the Armenian, who in 814
assembled a council at Constantinople, which abolished the
decrees of the Nicene council. His successor Michael, sur¬
named Balbus, disapproved of the worship of images, and
his son Theophilus treated them with great severity; but
the Empress Theodora, after his death, and during the
minority of her son, assembled a council at Constantinople
VOL. xn.
IDA 241
in 842, which reinstated the decrees of the second Nicene Iconogra-
council. The council held at the same place under Pho- pHa
tius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks the eighth gene-
ral council, confirmed and renewed the Nicene decrees.
The Latins were generally of opinion, that images might
be suffered as the means of aiding the memory of the faith¬
ful, and of calling to their remembrance the pious exploits
and virtuous actions of the persons whom they represented ;
but they detested all thoughts of paying them the least
marks of religious homage or adoration. The council as¬
sembled at Paris in 824, by Louis the Meek, resolved to al¬
low the use of images in the churches, but severely prohi¬
bited rendering them religious homage. Nevertheless, to¬
wards the conclusion of this century, the Galilean clergy
began to pay a kind of religious homage to the images of
saints, and their example was followed by the Germans and
other nations. However, the Iconoclastes still had their ad¬
herents amongst the Latins. The most eminent of these
was Claudius, bishop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all
images, and even the cross, to be cast out of the churches,
and committed to the flames ; and he wrote a treatise, in
which he declared against the use as well as against the
worship of images. He condemned relics, pilgrimages to
the Holy Land, and all voyages to the tombs of saints ; and
to his writings and labours it was owing that the city of
Turin and the adjacent country was, for a long time after
his death, much less infected with superstition than the
other parts of Europe. The controversy concerning the
sanctity of images was again revived by Leo, bishop of
Chalcedon, in the eleventh century, on occasion of the Em¬
peror Alexius converting the figures of silver which adorn¬
ed the portals of the churches into money in order to sup¬
ply the exigencies of the state. The bishop maintained
that he had been guilty of sacrilege, and published a trea¬
tise in defence of his views. The emperor assembled at
Constantinople a council, which determined that the images
of Christ and of the saints were to be honoured only with
a relative worship ; and that invocation and worship were
to be addressed to the saints only as the servants of Christ,
and on account of their relation to him as their master.
Leo, being dissatisfied with these decisions, was sent into
banishment. In the western church, the worship of images
was disapproved and opposed by several considerable
parties, as the Petrobossians, Albigenses, Waldenses,
and others, until at length this practice was entirely abo¬
lished in many parts of the Christian world by the Refor¬
mation.
ICONOGRAPHIA (derived from i/xwv, image, and
yoatpu, I describe), the description of images or ancient
statues of marble and copper, also of busts and semi-busts,
penates, paintings in fresco, mosaic works, and ancient
pieces of miniature.
ICONOLATRiE, or Iconolaters, or Iconoduli. See
Iconoclastes.
ICOSAHEDRON, in Geometry, a regular solid, con¬
sisting of twenty triangular pyramids, the vertices of which
meet in the centre of a sphere supposed to circumscribe it,
and therefore have their height and bases equal; where¬
fore the solidity of one of these pyramids multiplied by
twenty, the number of bases, gives the solid contents of the
icosahedron.
ICOSANDRIA (from s/xoc/, twenty, and dv»jg, a man or
husband), the name of the twelfth class in Linnaeus’s sex¬
ual method, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flow¬
ers, which are furnished with twenty or more stamina, that
are inserted into the inner side of the calyx or petals. See
Botany.
ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architect, who lived about
430 b. c., built several magnificent temples, and amongst
others that of Minerva at Athens.
IDA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain situated in the
2 H
242 I D I I D 1
Idaliurn heart of Crete, being the highest in the island, round, and of unsound memory, execution shall be stayed ; for perad- idioc
li in compass about sixty stadia (Strabo); the nursing place venture, says the humanity of the English law, had the v-'V
fdiocy. of jUpitei.} an(i where his tomb was visited in Varro’s prisoner been of sound memory, he might have alleged
time. There was another Ida, a mountain of Mysia, or something in stay of judgment or execution. But if there be
rather a chain of mountains, extending from Zeleia, on the any doubt whether the party be compos or not, this shall be
south of the territory of Cyzicus, to Lectum, the utmost tried by a jury; and if he be found non compos, a total idiocy,
promontory of Troas. The abundance of its waters be- or absolute insanity, excuses from the guilt, and of course
came the source of many rivers, and particularly of the Si- from the punishment, of any criminal action committed
mois, Scamander, fEsopus, and Granicus. It was covered under such deprivation of the senses ; but if a lunatic has
with green wood, and the elevation of its top opened an lucid intervals of understanding, he shall answer for what
extensive view of the Hellespont, and the adjacent coun- he does in those intervals, as if he had no deficiency. It
tries; for which reason it was, according to Homer, fre- was the doctrine of the ancient English law, that persons
quented by the gods during the Trojan war. The top was deprived of their reason might be confined till they reco-
called Gar gar a, and celebrated by the poets for the judg- vered their senses, without waiting for the forms of a com¬
ment of Paris on the beauty of the three goddesses, Mi- mission or other special authority from the crown; but
nerva, Juno, and Venus. now a method is chalked out for imprisoning and sending
IDALIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on them to their proper homes,
the eastern side of Cyprus ; now Capo di Griego. It was The matrimonial contract, likewise, cannot take place in
sacred to Venus, and hence the epithet Idalia given her a state of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that the issue
by the poets. of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage valid. But
IDEA, defined by some to be the reflex perception of since consent is absolutely requisite to matrimony, and
objects, after the original impression has been made on neither idiots nor lunatics are capable of consenting to
the mind. In common language, it is used as synonymous any thing, therefore the civil law judged much more sen-
with notion or conception. sibly when it made such deprivations of reason a previous
IDENTITY denotes that by which a thing is itself, and impediment, though not a cause of divorce if they hap-
not any thing else ; in which sense identity differs from pened after marriage. Modern resolutions have adher-
similitude as well as diversity. ed to the sense of the civil law, by determining that the
IDES, in the ancient Roman calendar, were eight days marriage of a lunatic, not being in a lucid interval, was ab-
in each month, the first of which fell on the 15th of March, solutely void. But as it might be difficult to prove the
May, July, and October ; and the 13th day of the other exact state of the party’s mind at the actual celebration of
months of the year. The origin of the word is contested, the nuptials, the statute 15 Geo. II. c. 30, has provided,
Some suppose it to have been formed from iduv, to see, be- that the marriage of lunatics and persons under phrensies
cause the full moon was commonly seen on the days of the (if found lunatics under a commission, or committed to
ides ; others derive it from hdog, species, figure, on account the care of trustees under any act of parliament), before
of the image of the full moon then visible ; others from idu- they are declared of sound mind by the lord chancellor,
Hum or ovis idalis, a name given by the Etruscans to a vie- or the majority of such trustees, shall be totally void,
tim offered on that day to Jupiter ; and others again from Idiots and persons of unsound memory, as well as in-
the Etruscan word iduo, meaning to divide, because the fants and persons under duress, are not totally disabled
ides divided the month into two nearly equal parts. either to convey or purchase, but sub modo only; for their
The ides came between the kalends and the nones, and conveyances and purchases are voidable, but not actually
wrere reckoned backwards. Thus they called the 14th day void. The king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot, may avoid
of March, May, July, and October, and the 12th of the his grants or other acts. But it has been said, that a non
other months, the pridie idus, or the day before the ides ; compos himself, though he be afterwards brought to a right
the next preceding day they called the tertia idus ; and so mind, shall not be permitted to allege his own insanity in
on, reckoning always backwards till they came to the nones, order to avoid such grant; because no man shall be allow-
This method of reckoning time is still retained in the chan- ed to stultify himself, or plead his own disability. The
eery of Rome, and in the calendar of the Breviary. maxim that a man shall not stultify himself, has in fact
The ides of May were consecrated to Mercury ; and the been handed down as settled law ; though later opinions,
ides of March were ever esteemed unfortunate, after Caesar’s feeling the inconvenience of the rule, have in many points
murder on that day. The time after the ides of June was endeavoured to restrain it. The next heir, or other per-
reckoned fortunate for those who entered into matrimony; son interested, may clearly, after the death of the idiot or
the ides of August were consecrated to Diana, and were non compos, take advantage of his incapacity, and avoid
observed as a feast-day by the slaves. On the ides of Sep- the grant; and so, too, if he purchases under this disabi-
tember, auguries were taken for appointing the magistrates, lity, and does not afterwards upon recovering his senses
who formerly entered into their offices on the ides of May, agree to the purchase, his heir may either waive or accept
and afterwards on those of March. the estate at his option. In like manner, an infant may
IDIOCY, a defect of understanding. Both idiocy and waive such purchase or conveyance when he comes to full
lunacy excuse from the guilt of crimes. For the rule of age ; or, if he does not then actually agree to it, his heir
law as to lunatics, which may also be easily adapted to . may waive it after him. By the statute 11 Geo. III. c. 20,
idiots, is, that furiosus furore solum punitur., In criminal the guardians or committees of a lunatic are empowered
cases, therefore, idiots and lunatics are not chargeable for to renew in his right, under the directions of the Court
their own acts, if committed when under these incapacities; of Chancery, any lease for lives or years, and apply the
not even for treason itself. Also, if a man in his sound profits of such renewal for the benefit of such lunatic, his
memory commits a capital offence, and before arraignment heirs, or executors.
becomes mad, he ought not to be arraigned for it; because In the law of Scotland, an idiot, or fatuous person, is
he is not able to plead to the charge with that advice and one entirely deprived of the faculty of reason, having an
caution that he ought. And if, after he has pleaded, the uniform stupidity and inattention in his manner, and a
prisoner becomes mad, he shall not be tried ; for how can childishness in his speech, which distinguish him from other
he make his defence ? If, after he be tried and found men. This state is ascertained by the judgment of a
guilty, he loses his senses before judgment, judgment shall jury, on a brieve directed to the judge-ordinary of the
not be pronounced; and if, after judgment, he becomes bounds within which the person resides, and containing
I D L
I ra two heads of inquest; one relating to the state of the per¬
son, and the other having for its object to ascertain who is
P ^ the nearest male agnate of twenty-five years of age. The
^ brieves for cognoscing furious persons are nearly similar,
differing only in the description of the circumstances into
which the jury are to inquire. As a state of idiocy dis¬
qualifies the person for entering into transactions, a proof,
even after his death, that the granter of a deed was an idiot
at the time of granting it will be sufficient for reducing
that deed ; and, according to Bankton, restitution on the
ground of idiocy is competent to idiots against their cura¬
tors within four years after their convalescence, in the same
way as it is competent to minors.
IDIOM, amongst grammarians, properly signifies the
peculiar genius of each language, but is often used in a
sense synonymous with dialect. The word is Greek,
idiw/Ma, propriety, formed from /5/os, proper, own.
IDIOPATHY, in Physic, a disorder peculiar to a cer¬
tain part of the body, and not arising from any preceding
disease; in which sense it is opposed to sympathy. Thus,
an epilepsy is idiopathic when it happens merely through
some fault in the brain, and sympathetic when it is the
consequence of some other disorder.
IDIOSYNCRASY, amongst physicians, denotes a pe¬
culiar temperament of body, by which it is rendered more
liable to certain disorders than persons of a different con¬
stitution usually are.
IDIOT, or Ideot, in our laws, denotes a natural fool,
or a fool from his birth. See Idiocy.
The word is originally Greek, idiurr,;, which primarily
imports a private person, or one who leads a private life,
without any share or concern in the government of affairs.
Idiot is also used, by ancient writers, to signify a per¬
son ignorant or unlearned, and answers to illiteratus, or
imperitus. In this sense, Victor tells us, in his Chroni-
con, that in the consulship of Messala, the Holy Gospels,
by command of the Emperor Anastasius, were corrected
and amended, as having been written by idiot evangelists :
Tanquam ab idiotis evangelistis composita.
IDLENESS, a reluctance in people to be employed in
any kind of work.
Idleness in any person whatsoever is a high offence
against the public economy. In China it is a maxim,
that if there be a man who does not work, or a woman
that is idle, in the empire, somebody muv.> suffer cold or
hunger upon that account, the produce of the lands not
being more than sufficient, with culture, to maintain the
inhabitants; and therefore, though the idle person may
shift off the want from himself, yet it must in the end fall
somewhere. Thecourtof Areopagus at Athenslikewise pun¬
ished idleness, and exerted a right of examining every citi¬
zen as to the manner in which he spent his time ; the inten¬
tion of this being, that the Athenians, knowing they were
to give an account of their occupations, should follow only
such as were laudable, and that there might be no room
left for those who lived by unlawful arts. The civil law
expelled all sturdy vagrants from the city; and, in the
English law, all idle persons or vagabonds, whom our an¬
cient statutes describe to be “ such as wake on the night
and sleep on the day, and haunt customable taverns and
ale-houses, and routs about; and no man wot from whence
they come, ne whether they go or such as are more
particularly described by the statute 17 Geo. II. c. 5, and
divided into three classes, namely, idle and disorderly per¬
sons, rogues and vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues ; all
these are offenders against the good order, and blemishes
in the government, of any kingdom. They are therefore
all punishable by the statute last mentioned; idle and
disorderly persons with one month’s imprisonment in the
house of correction ; rogues and vagabonds wuth whipping,
and imprisonment not exceeding six months ; and incorri-
I D O 243
gible rogues with the like discipline, and confinement not Idol
exceeding two years. Persons harbouring vagrants are H
liable to a fine of forty shillings, and to pay all expenses ^omeneu8'
brought upon the parish thereby; in the same manner as, V—^
by our ancient laws, whoever harboured any stranger for
more than two nights, was answerable to the public for
any offence that might be committed by his inmate.
IDOL, in pagan mythology, an image or fancied re¬
presentation of any of the heathen gods. This image, of
whatsoever materials it might consist, was, by certain
ceremonies called consecration, converted into a god ; but
whilst under the artificer’s hand, it was only a mere
statue. Three things were necessary to turn it into a god ;
proper ornaments, consecration, and oration. The orna¬
ments were various, and wholly designed to blind the eyes
of the ignorant and stupid multitude. Then followed the
consecration and oration, which were performed with
great solemnity amongst the Romans. See Image.
IDOLATRY, or the worship of idols, may be distin¬
guished into two sorts. By the first, men adore the works
of God, the sun, the moon, the stars, angels, daemons,
men, and animals ; by the second, men worship the work
of their own hands, as statues, pictures, and the like : but
to these may be added a third, that by which men have
worshipped the true God under sensible figures and re¬
presentations. This indeed may have been the case with
respect to each of the above kinds of idolatry; thus the
Israelites adored God under the figure of a calf.
The host of heaven were the first objects of idolatrous
worship, on account of their beauty, their influence on
the productions of the earth, and the regularity of their
motions, particularly the sun and moon, which are con¬
sidered as the most glorious and resplendent images of
the Deity. But afterwards, when the sentiments of man¬
kind became more corrupt, they began to form images,
and to entertain the opinion, that by virtue of consecra¬
tion, the gods were called down to inhabit or dwell in
these statues. Hence Arnobius takes occasion to rally
the pagans for guarding so carefully the statues of their
gods, who, if they were really present in their images,
might save their worshippers the trouble of securing them
from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient pagans paid to
the statues of their gods, it is certain, that the wiser and
more sensible heathens considered them only as simple
representations or figures designed to recal to their minds
the memory of their gods. This was the opinion of Varro
and Seneca ; and the same sentiment is clearly expressed
in Plato, who maintains that images are inanimate, and
that all the honour paid to them has respect to the gods
whom they represent. But as to the vulgar, they were
stupid enough to believe the statues themselves to be gods,
and to pay divine worship to stocks and stones.
IDOMENEUS, in fabulous history, succeeded his fa¬
ther Deucalion on the throne of Crete. He accompanied
the Greeks to the Trojan war with a fleet of ninety ships.
During this celebrated war he rendered himself famous
by bis valour, and slaughtered many of the enemy. At
his return from the Trojan war, he made a vow to Nep¬
tune in a tempest, that if he escaped from the fury of the
seas and storms, he would offer to the god whatever liv¬
ing creature first presented itself to his eye on the Cretan
shore. This was no other than his own son, who came to
congratulate his father upon his safe return. Idomeneus
performed his promise to the god ; and the inhumanity
and rashness of this sacrifice rendered him so odious in
the eyes of his subjects, that he left Crete, and having
gone in quest of a settlement, landed in Italy, where he
founded a city on the coast of Calabria, which he called
Salentum. He died in extreme old age, after he had had
the satisfaction of seeing his new kingdom flourish, and
244 I D R 1 G N
Idria his subjects happy. According to the Greek scholiast of
I! . Lycophron (v. 1217), Idomeneus, during his absence in
Ignatius^ tjie rprojan waTj intrusted the management of his kingdom
to Leucos, to whom he promised his daughter Clisithere
in marriage at his return. Leucos at first governed with
moderation, but he was persuaded by Nauplius, king of
Euboea, to put to death Meda, the wife of his master, with
her daughter Clisithere, and to seize the kingdom. By
these violent measures he so strengthened himself on the
throne of Crete, that Idomeneus at his return found it im¬
possible to expel the usurper.
IDRIA, a city of the Austrian government of Laybach,
in the circle of Adelsburg. It is on the river Idrizza, in
a mountainous district, where are some of the richest
mines of quicksilver in Europe, which have received greater
activity from the neglected state of the similar mines at
Almaden in Spain. The city contains 320 houses, with
3650 inhabitants, who are chiefly dependent on the mines
for employment. Long. 15. 3. 45. E. Lat. 46. 0. 48. N.
IDSTE1N, a bailiwick of the principality of Nassau, in
Germany. It extends over about 82,000 acres, and con¬
tains 13,500 inhabitants, of whom about 7000 are Catho¬
lics and 6000 Lutherans, with a few Menonites, and some
Jews. It contains two cities and twenty-nine villages.
The capital is a small city of the same name. It stands
at the foot of a mountain, and is surrounded with walls.
The inhabitants amount to 1860, employed in curing lea¬
ther, and other trades. Near to it is the palace of Gassen-
bach, belonging to the sovereign; and around it his expe¬
rimental farm, on which are large flocks of Merino sheep.
IDUMiEA. See Edom.
IDYLLION, in ancient poetry, properly signifies any
poem of moderate extent, without considering the subject.
But as the collection of the poems of Theocritus was
called Idyllia, and the pastoral pieces being by far the
best in that collection, the term Idyllion seems to be now
appropriated to pastoral pieces.
IF, an island of France, in Provence, and the most eastern
of the three before the harbour of Marseilles. It is well for¬
tified, and its port is one of the best in the Mediterranean.
IFSHWAR, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta ter¬
ritories, in the province of Malwah, thirty miles south¬
west from Bopal. Long. 77. 8. E. Lat. 23. 24. N.
IGLAU, a circle of the Austrian province of Moravia,
extending over 1110 square miles, comprehending thirty-
five cities and towns, 469 villages and hamlets, 23,312
houses, and 146,189 inhabitants. The chief place is a
city of the same name, situated on the river Iglawa. It
is well built, and surrounded with walls; contains 1200
houses, with 10,986 inhabitants. It is a great manufactur¬
ing place, producing yearly from 40,000 to 50,000 pieces of
cloth, besides much paper, leather, and other goods. Its
situation, on the chief road through the province, furnishes
a very considerable transit trade. Long. 15. 30. 55. E.
Lat. 49. 23. 23. N.
IGLESIAS, a city in the island of Sardinia, in the pro¬
vince of Cagliari, the see of a bishop. It is finely situat¬
ed amongst limestone hills, and abundantly watered by va¬
rious springs; and the surrounding country is highly pro¬
ductive of corn, wine, and fruits. The population in 1826
amounted to 9545 persons.
IGNATIA, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria class. See Botany, Index.
IGNATIUS Loyola, the founder of the order of Je¬
suits, was boim at the castle of Loyola, in Biscay, in the year
1491. He became, first, page to Ferdinand V. king of
Spain, and then an officer in the army. In the latter capa¬
city he signalized himself by his valour, and was wound¬
ed in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna in 1521. To
this circumstance the Jesuits owe their origin; for whilst
he was under cure of his wound, a Life of the Saints, which
was put into his hands, determined him to exchange the Ignat
military for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout '•>*“. /
exercise was to dedicate himself to the blessed virgin as
her knight. He then went on a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land ; and upon his return to Europe he continued his
theological studies in the universities of Spain, though
he was then thirty-three years of age. After this he went
to Paris, and in France laid the foundation of that new
order, the institutes of which he presented to Pope Paul
III. who made many objections to them, but at last, in
1540, confirmed the institution. The founder died in
1555, and left his disciples two famous books; first, Spi¬
ritual Exercises; second, Constitutions or Rules of the Or¬
der. But it must be remembered, that though these
avowed institutes contain many privileges obnoxious to
the welfare of society, the most objectionable are contain¬
ed in the private rules, entitled Monita Secreta, which
were not discovered till long afterwards ; but most wri¬
ters attribute these, and even the Constitutions, to Lay-
nez, the second general of the order.
Ignatius, St, surnamed Theophrastus, one of the apos¬
tolical fathers of the church, was born in Syria, educated
under the apostle and evangelist St John, and intimately
acquainted with some other of the apostles, especially St
Peter and St Paul. Being fully instructed in the doc¬
trines of Christianity, he was ordained by St John, and
confirmed, about the year 67, bishop of Antioch, by these
two apostles, who first planted Christianity in that city,
where the disciples also were first called Christians. An¬
tioch was then not only the metropolis of Syria, but a city
the most renowned of any' in the East, and the ancient
seat of the Roman emperors, as well as that of the vice¬
roys and governors. In this important see he continued
somewhat above forty years, and was both an honour and
safeguard to the Christian religion, till the year 107, when
Trajan the emperor, flushed with a victory which he had
lately obtained over the Scythians and Dacians, about the
ninth year of his reign, came to Antioch to make prepara¬
tions for a war against the Parthians and Armenians. He
entered the city with the pomp of a triumph; and as his
first care usually was about the affairs of religion, he
began presently to inquire into the state of the new faith
Christianity had by this time made such progress, that the
Romans became jealous and uneasy on account of its ad¬
vancement. This prince, therefore, had already, in other
parts of the empire, commenced a persecution against the
Christians, which he now resolved to carry on here. How¬
ever, as he was naturally of a mild disposition, though he
ordered the laws to be put in force against them if con¬
victed, yet he forbade them to be sought after.
In this state of affairs, Ignatius, thinking it more pru¬
dent to go himself than wait to be sent for, presented him¬
self to the emperor ; and it is said that there passed a long
and particular discourse between them, in the course ot
which the emperor having expressed surprise how he
dared to transgress the laws, the bishop took the oppor¬
tunity to assert his own innocence, and to explain and
vindicate his faith and freedom. The issue was, that he
was imprisoned, and sentenced to be carried bound by
soldiers to Rome, and there thrown as a prey to the wild
beasts of the amphitheatre.
He was first conducted to Seleucia, a port of Syria, about
sixteen miles distant, where Paul and Barnabas set sail
for Cyprus. Having arrived at Smyrna, he paid a visit to
Polycarp, bishop of that place, and was himself visited by
the clergy of the surrounding country. He also wrote
letters to several churches, as the Ephesians, Magnesians,
Trallians, and even the Romans, for their instruction and
establishment in the faith. He then set sail for Troas,
a city of Phrygia, not far from the ruins of old Troy,
where, upon his arrival, he was much refreshed with the
I G N
is Fa- news he received of the discontinuance of the persecution
jus in Antioch. From Troas he sailed to Neapolis, a mari-
II tjme town in Macedonia ; thence to Philippi, a Roman co-
]ony, where the party were entertained with all imagina-
1 hie kindness, and conducted forwards on their journey
through Macedonia and Epirus, till they came to Epi-
damnium, a city of Dalmatia, where, having again taken
shipping, they sailed through the Adriatic, arrived at Rhe-
gium, a port-town in Italy, and directed their course
thence through the Tyrrhenian Sea to Puteoli, whence
Ignatius desired to proceed by land, ambitious to trace
the same way by which St Paul had travelled to Rome.
But this wish was not complied with; and, after a stay
of twenty-four hours, a prosperous wind quickly carried
them to the Roman port, the station of the navy, built
near Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, about sixteen miles
from Rome.
The Christians at Rome, daily expecting his arrival,
came out to meet him, and received him with a mixture
of joy and sorrow ; but when some of them intimated that
possibly the populace might be diverted from desiring his
death, he expressed a pious indignation, entreating them
to cast no obstacles in his way, nor do any thing that
might tend to deprive him of that crown of martyrdom to
which he ardently aspired. There are many such expres¬
sions as this in his epistle to the Romans, yet it does not
appear that he rashly sought or provoked danger. Being
conducted to Rome, he was presented to the prefect; and
the emperor’s letters concerning him were also delivered.
The interval before his martyrdom was spent in prayers
for the peace and prosperity of the church. That his
punishment might be the more public, one of their solemn
festivals, the time of the Saturnalia, and that part of it
when they celebrated the Sigillaria, was fixed for his exe¬
cution. Accordingly, on the 20th of December, he was
brought out into the amphitheatre, and the lions being let
loose, quickly despatched him, leaving nothing but a few
of the hardest of his bones. These remains were gathered
up by two deacons wl}o had been the companions of his
journey ; and being transported to Antioch, were interred
in the cemetery, without the gate which leads to Daphne.
St Ignatius stands at the head of those Anti-Nicene
fathers who occasionally delivered their opinions in de¬
fence of the divinity of Christ, whom he calls the Son
of God, and his eternal word. He is also reckoned the
great champion of the doctrine of the episcopal order, as
distinct from and superior to that of priest and deacon ;
and one, the most important, use of his writings respects
the authenticity of the Holy Scriptures, which he fre¬
quently alludes to in the very same expressions which we
find at this day. Archbishop Usher’s edition of his works,
printed in 1647- is thought the best; yet there is a more
recent edition published at Amsterdam, where, besides the
best notes, there are the dissertations of Usher and Pear¬
son.
St Ignatius’s Bean, the fruit of a plant. See Ignatia,
Botany.
IGNIS Fatuus, a kind of light, supposed to be of an
electrical nature, appearing frequently in mines, marshy
places, and near stagnant waters. It was formerly thought
to have something ominous in its nature, and to presage
death and other misfortunes. There have been instan¬
ces of people being decoyed by these lights into marshy
places, where they perished; and hence the names of
Ignis fatuus, Will-with-a-ioisp, and Jack-with-a-lanthom,
as if this appearance were an evil spirit which took de¬
light in doing mischief of that kind. The general opinion
is, that this light is produced by the decomposition of ani¬
mal or vegetable matters, or by the evolution of gases
which spontaneously inflame in the atmosphere.
IGNITION properly signifies setting fire to any sub-
I L A 245
stance; but the sense is sometimes limited to that kind of Ignobiles
burning which is not accompanied with flame, such as that II
of charcoal, cinders, metals, stones, and other solid sub- t y
stances. For the explanation of the phenomena of igni-
tion, see Chemistry.
IGNOBILES, amongst the Romans, was the designa¬
tion of those persons who had no right of using pictures
and statues. See Jus Imaginis.
IGNOMINIA, a species of punishment amongst the
Romans, by which the offender suffered public shame,
either by virtue of the praetor’s edict, or by order of the
censor. This punishment, besides the disgrace, deprived
the party of the privilege of bearing any offices, and of
almost all the other rights of a Roman citizen.
IGNORAMUS, in Law, is a word properly used by
the grand inquest impannelled in the inquisition of causes
criminal and public, and written upon the bill, by which
any crime is offered to their consideration, when they mis-
like the evidence, as defective, or too weak to make good
the presentment; the effect of which word so written is,
that all further inquiry for that fault is thereby stopped,
and the party delivered without further answer. It re¬
sembles that custom of the ancient Romans, where the
judges, when they absolved a person accused, wrote A.
upon a little table provided for that purpose, meaning
thereby absolvimus ; but if they judged him guilty, they
wrote C. for condemnamus ; and if they found the cause
difficult and doubtful, they wrote N. L. for non liquet.
IGNORANCE, the privation or absence of knowledge.
The causes of ignorance, according to Locke, are chiefly
these three; first, want of ideas ; secondly, want of a dis¬
coverable connection between those ideas we have ; and,
thirdly, want of tracing and examining our ideas.
Ignorance, in a more particular sense, is used to de¬
note want of learning.
Ignorance, or mistake, in Law, a defect of will, by
which a person is excused from the guilt of a crime, when,
intending to do a lawful act, he does that which is unlaw¬
ful. For here the deed and the will acting separately,
there is not that conjunction between them which is ne¬
cessary to constitute a criminal act. But this must be an
ignorance or mistake of fact, and not an error in point of
law. For a mistake in point of law, which every person
of discretion not only may, but is bound and presumed to
know, is, in criminal cases, no sort of defence. Ignoran-
tia juris, quod quisque tenetur scire, neminem excusat, is
as well the maxim of our own law as it was of the Roman.
IGUALADA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cata¬
lonia, with 12,000 inhabitants. It is situated near the ce¬
lebrated monastery of Montserrat, and has a strong castle,
which was long occupied by the French during the Pe¬
ninsular war. It has a very large manufactory of fire¬
arms. Lat. 41. 35. N.
IKERY, formerly a town of the south of India, and pro¬
vince of Mysore, of great note, and said by the natives,
with their usual exaggeration, to have contained 100,000
inhabitants. It was for a long period the residence and
capital of a dynasty of Hindu princes, whose coins are
still in existence. It is now in ruins, not, however, from
the devastation of war, or any other calamity, but merely
from the removal of the court to Bednore. Long. 76. 7.
E. Lat. 14. 6. N.
ILA, Ilay, or Islay, a large island belonging to Ar-
gyleshire, and the most southerly of those called the He¬
brides. It lies in a westerly direction from the peninsu¬
la of Kintyre, distant from it about twelve miles, and is
separated on the north from the island of Jura by a small
channel. It is twenty-eight miles in length, and at the
broadest measures eighteen miles across. Oats and bar¬
ley are the principal crops raised, and much of the grain
is used in the distillation of whisky, for which the island
246 ILF
Ilance }s celebrated. There are about fourteen distilleries upon
it, and the trade thus carried on has been the means of
greatly improving the condition of Islay. In 1821 the
population amounted to 11,008, and in 1831 to 19,780.
See Scotland.
ILANCE, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of the
Orisons. Though small, it is a kind of capital, being the
place where the authorities of the canton assemble. It is
in a most picturesque situation, at the foot of a mountain,
where the river Glenner falls into the Rhine. It has little
or no trade, and the population scarcely amounts to 1000.
It is, however, a city, being surrounded with walls.
ILBESS AN, a city of European Turkey, the capital of
the circle of that name, in the province of Rumelia. It is
situated on the river Uschkowobin, on a fruitful plain, is
the seat < f a Greek bishop, has a castle which repelled the
attacks of Scanderbeg, and 3000 inhabitants.
ILCHESTER, a small borough town of the county of
Somerset, in the hundred of Tintinhull, 122 miles from
London. It stands upon the river Ivel, one of the branch¬
es of the Parel, which is navigable within three miles
of the town. It was once a fortified city, and the re¬
mains of the Roman fortifications may still be traced. It
is the town where county elections are held, where the
jail stands, and where criminals are executed; but the
assizes are removed to the larger towns, Wells, Taun¬
ton, and Bridgewater. It formerly returned two members
to the House of Commons, chosen by the householders,
but was disfranchised in 1832. It is remarkable as the
birth-place of Roger Bacon. There is a small market
on Wednesday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
817, in 1811 to 610, in 1821 to 802, and in 1831 to 1095.
ILDEFONSO, a town of Spain, in the province of Se¬
govia. It is situated on the northern declivity of the Gua-
darama Mountains, 3000 feet above the level of the sea. It
contains about 5000 inhabitants, who are mostly employed
in making glass in a royal manufactory, which during the
Peninsular war was abandoned, but has since been re-esta¬
blished. It was long celebrated for the large size of the
mirrors fabricated in it, some of which were twelve feet
high and seven feet wide. Here is also a royal palace,
generally inhabited by the court in the few hottest months
of summer. This palace, called the Granja, from having
been originally a barn, has been highly decorated by a
valuable gallery of pictures, and many other curiosities.
It has also a fine garden laid out in the French taste, and
embellished with all kinds of water-works, resembling
those constructed at Versailles, but superior, from the
river Eresma, which supplies them, descending with great
rapidity from the mountain. This place is about forty
miles north-west from Madrid, and six miles from Segovia.
ILERDA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the Ili-
gertes, situated on an eminence between the rivers Sico-
ris and Cinga; a city often besieged and often taken, be¬
cause exposed to incursions from Gaul, and under Gal-
lienus destroyed by the Germans. Uerda, now Lerida,
on the river Segre.
ILEX, the holm or holly-tree, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the tetrandria class, and in the natural method
ranking under the forty-third order, Dumosce. See Bo¬
tany.
ILFORD, a hamlet properly, but really a town, of the
county of Essex, in the hundred of Beacontree. It is
within the parish of Barking, but is a chapelry, with its
own church. It stands on the great road from London to
Yarmouth and Ipswich, at the distance of seven miles from
Whitechapel church. The river Roding runs through
it in its way to the Thames, in several branches, over
which bridges are thrown. The population amounted in
1801 to 1724, in 1811 to 2462, in 1821 to 2972, and in
1831 to 3512.
I L I
ILFRACOMBE, a port and market-town of the coun-Ilfracom
ty of Devon, 202 miles from London, in the hundred of ||
Braunton. It is situated on the Bristol Channel, with a Tie*Vi
good harbour, but dry at low water. It is much visited laine'
for sea bathing, and is the principal passage from Devon-
shire to South Wales. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 1838, in 1811 to 1934, in 1821 to 2622, and in 1831 to
3201.
ILIAC Passion, a violent and dangerous kind of colic,
which takes its name from the intestine ilion, on account
of its being usually affected in this distemper; or perhaps
from the Greek verb iikici, to wind or twist; and hence
also it is by the Latins called volvulus. See Medicine.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem on the sub¬
ject of the taking of Troy, being the first and best of the
epics composed by Homer. The Iliad is divided into
twenty-four books or rhapsodies, which are marked with
the letters of the alphabet.
ILIMSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, situated on the Him,
which falls into the Anguri. In the environs are found
the most beautiful black sables. It contains 107 houses,
and 531 inhabitants. It is 152 miles north of Irkutsk.
ILISSUS, a river to the east of Athens, which, uniting
with the Eridanus on the west side, falls into the sea be¬
low the city. It was sacred to the muses, called Iliassi-
des; and on its bank stood their altar, where the lustra¬
tion in the lesser mysteries was usually performed.
ILIUM, or Ilion, in Ancient Geography, a name for the
city of Troy, but most commonly used by the poets, and
distinguished by the epithet Vetus, ancient. According to
Strabo, the ancient city was thirty stadia farther east than
New Ilium. The position of the latter is, according to
Dr Clarke, upon a low eminence, about three miles from
the promontory Sigeum, now called Jenitchere. New
or modern Ilium was a village which Alexander, after
the battle of Granicus, called a city, and ordered to be
enlarged. It was afterwards adorned by the Romans, who
granted it immunities as their mother city. The vari¬
ous disasters of the Greeks and Trojans, as described by
Homer, gave rise to the proverb tlias Malorum.
ILKESTON, a town of the county of Derby, in the
hundred of Morleston and Litchurch, 126 miles from
London. It is a place of manufacturing industry. The
population amounted in 1801 to 2422, in 1811 to 2970, in
1821 to 3681, and in 1831 to 4446.
ILLECEBRUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class, and in the natural method ranking under
the twelfth order, Holoracece. See Botany.
ILLE-Vilaine, a department of the north of France,
on the sea coast, formed out of a part of the ancient pro¬
vince of Normandy. It extends in north latitude from
47. 39. to 48. 42. and in west longitude from 1. 13. to 2.
16. It is bounded on the north by the English Channel,
on the east by the department of Mayenne, on the south
by the Lower Loire, and on the west by Morbihan and
the Lake du Nord. It is 2756 square miles in extent,
and is divided into six arrondissements, which are subdi¬
vided into forty-three cantons and 352 communes. The
population, according to the Annuaire for 1834, amounted
to 547,052 individuals. They almost exclusively adhere
to the Romish church, as the few Protestants are in no
place sufficiently numerous to form a congregation. Ihey
are for the most part of a Celtic race, and speak a lan¬
guage much like that of the Welsh ; and though some
French words have been introduced, they are scarcely in¬
telligible by the French people. Those on the sea coast
are employed in the fisheries, and in the numerous small
craft make excellent sailors. The inland inhabitants are
much attached to their ancient customs, are uninstruct-
ed, and most superstitious. They live much on food
composed of buck-wheat, made into a kind of pudding
I L L
ium called galettee; and chestnuts form a material part of
j| their sustenance. The country people are ill clad, gene-
I mis. ra]ly with domestic manufactures. The estates are much
- divided; a farm of sixty acres is deemed a large one, and
the far greater number do not exceed twelve acres.
Hence they are for the most part excessively poor, and,
particularly in winter, suffer much hardship. The face of
the country is generally level, but with a few slight un¬
dulations. The highest of these hills are in the arron-
dissement of Fougeres on the east, and in that of Mont-
fort to the west. The coast is surrounded with cliffs,
and with small rocky projections; and on the borders
there are artificial dams, constructed to prevent the en¬
croachments of the sea. The rivers which give their
name to the department neither rise within it, nor do
they discharge their waters into the sea till they enter
the adjoining province of Morbihan. The Vilaine is na¬
vigable for vessels of 200 tons by help of the tide, up to
Vitre, from whence is a communication by a canal with
the town of Ranee.
The soil is unfavourable to cultivation, scarcely exceed¬
ing an inch in depth, and resting on a bed of clay or slaty
stone. Much of the land is covered with morasses and
swamps, which, with the woods and heaths, leaves but
little for agriculture, though on the sides of the rivers
there is some tolerably good pasture land. The depart¬
ment scarcely grows sufficient corn for the inhabitants,
though they use most of the lowest description. Hemp
and flax are grown, and chiefly used at home. Fruit
trees are abundant and productive. Some horses are
bred for sale to other districts, and some cows are kept
for the dairy; but the breed of sheep is much neglected.
There is little trade, and few manufactures ; the latter
are limited to twine and sail-cloth. There is very little
wine made, but abundance of cedar. The cities and
towns are small. The only ones having more than 4000
persons are, the capital, Rennes, with 29,680; Fougeres,
with 7677 ; Saint Malo, with 9890; Vitre, with 8856 ; and
Redon, with 4504.
ILLICIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the dode-
candria class, and in the natural method ranking with those
of which the order is doubtful. See Botany.
ILLINOIS, one of the United States of North America,
is bounded on the north by the territory of Huron ; on the
east by Lake Michigan and the state of Indiana; on the
south by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky ;
and on the west by the Mississippi, which separates it from
the state and territory of Missouri. It lies between lat.
37° and 42° 30' north, and long. 87° 20' and 91° 20' west,
being about 380 miles in length from north to south, and
210 miles in width from e°st to west, and comprehending an
area of 58,900 square miles. Next to Louisiana and De-
laware, this is considered as the most level state in the Union.
There are a few hills, and some elevations that might be
designated mountains ; but by far the greater portion of the
state consists of beautiful and fertile prairies, finely diversi¬
fied with wood. 1 hese prairies or meadows, which are some¬
times of vast extent, are distinguished by the names of wet
and dry, alluvial and rolling. The wet prairies contain peat,
ogs of wood, and exhibit other indications of their having
once been morasse* in which wood grew. The origin of
many of the rivers is to be traced to these prairies. Those
° ]?n,a!^uv^ nature are high and dry, of a rich black loam,
tv ich is exceedingly fertile; and they are covered with a
coarse kind of grass, which grows to an enormous size.
e high and rolling prairies are sometimes chequered
with groves of sparse trees. Their soil is in general only
0 second rate quality, and they abound in springs. Grape
t ines are abundant; and they furnish an inexhaustible sum¬
mer range for cattle. From the exceeding flatness of some
0 t e plains, and their consequent want of inclination, the
ILL 247
rain that falls is not carried off, but allowed to remain and Illinois,
stagnate, so that such situations are very unhealthy. Grand
Prairie is the largest tract of land of this description. The
first stratum of soil is a black, friable, and sandy loam, from
two to five feet in thickness. The next is a red clay mixed
with fine sand, and from five to ten feet in thickness. The
third is a hard blue clay, of a beautiful appearance and greasy
feel, mixed with pebbles, and, when exposed to the air, ca¬
pable of emitting a fetid odour. This soil is of the first
quality, and here the springs are found. Strawberries are
raised in immense quantities, and of the very finest quality.
Timber, however, is scarce, and good water is likewise
deficient.
Between Carlisle and St Louis a tract of country fifty
miles in extent, woods, streams, hills, limestone ledges, and
a rolling country, present themselves. The hills here abound
in stone coal, and limestone is also plentiful. A range of
hills commences at the bluffs which bound the “ American
bottom,” near Kaskaskia, and stretches north-eastwardly
through the state towards Lake Michigan. Another li aie-
stone bluff breaks off almost at right angles to this chain,
and stretches along the margin of the American bottom to
the point nearly opposite the Missouri. This bluff has in
many places a regular front of perpendicular limestone, not
unfrequently 300 feet in height. There are other chains of
bluffs, which are marked by the same grand natural fea¬
tures. The American bottom commences not far below
Kaskaskia, and stretches eighty miles along the shores
of the Mississippi. It is from three to six miles in width,
and forms two belts, the one, which borders the Mississippi,
having a heavy timbered bottom, and the other, which
reaches the foot of the perpendicular bluffs, being prairie of
the richest quality. For above one hundred years crops
of maize have been raised on some parts of this tract, with¬
out the slightest exhaustion of soil having become appa¬
rent. Vegetation here flourishes most luxuriantly; but
there is a counterbalance in the unhealthiness of the cli¬
mate, particularly during autumn. On either bank of the
Illinois, almost from its mouth to its source, there is a si¬
milar bottom, with bluffs and chains of hills similar to the
preceding. The military bounty tract, which is distribut¬
ed amongst the soldiers of the late war, commences in the
neighbourhood of Lower Alton. It comprehends the north¬
west corner of the state, about 170 miles long and sixty
broad, and is situated between the rivers Mississippi and
Illinois. This district of country has great advantages;
the oOil is rich and extremely fertile, and much of the prai¬
rie ground is eminently beautiful; but the situation is un¬
healthy. Not only in this state, but over all the western
territory, the lands seem to be distributed in bodies, either
of rich or sterile, or of level or broken lands. On Rock
River, the Illinois, the Kaskaskia, Embarras, between the
Big and Little Wabash, on the Parassaw, the Macoupin, the
Sangamon, and on all the other considerable streams of this
state, there are very large tracts of first-rate land. The
Grand Prairie, the Mound Prairie, the prairie upon which
the marine settlement is fixed, and that occupied by a so¬
ciety of Christians from New England, are all exceeding¬
ly rich. The Sangamon district of country, in particular,
presents a happy proportion of timbered and prairie lands,
and a soil of great fertility, whilst accounts from various
quarters concur in representing it as more healthy than
any other part of the state. The prevailing trees are, the
locust, black walnut, and pecean ; and there is a vast sum¬
mer range for cattle. Iron and copper ore, salt springs,
gypsum, and stone coal, are,abundant; and the whole dis¬
trict is now divided into a number of populous counties, and
is thickly settled by thriving farmers. Along the course of
the Kaskaskia or Okau, tracts of land equally extensive and
fine are stretched. This river has a long course through
the central parts of the state, and a country beautifully di-
248 ILL
Illinois, versified with hill, vale, prairie, and forest. On its banks
is Kaskaskia, formerly the seat of government; and Van-
dalia, at present the metropolis. A late traveller (Stuart,
Three Years in North America, vol. ii. p. 379) thus speaks
of Illinois: “ The general description of the state of Illi¬
nois is, that it contains 58,900 square miles; is the fourth
state in point of extent in the union, oply inferior in this
respect to Virginia, Georgia, and Missouri, with a general
level, not varying above sixty feet; and that it consists,
with little interruption, of one vast prairie of admirable
soil, extending from the Mississippi to Lake Michigan.^ It
is the richest country in point of soil in the world. I he
French called it the terrestrial paradise.”
Count Marbois thus writes of this country generally :
“ At the junction of the Mississippi and Missouri, the lands
lying towards the north-west are of admirable fertility.
Emigration already inclines there; and these districts,
though very remote from the sea, will one day be as well
peopled as any other country in the world. The Missis¬
sippi, the Missouri, the Arkansas, and the Red River, and
their tributaries, water 200,000 square leagues within the
space of country called the basin of the Mississippi. This
internal navigation, prepared by nature, has already been
wonderfully extended and improved by canals, excavated
by the labour of man ; and steam-boats descend and as¬
cend against wind and tide, brave the most rapid currents
with more speed, and with more convenience, than the
finest x'oads in Europe can be travelled. Wood and coal,
indispensable agents in this navigation, abound on the
shores of the rivers ; and the steam-engine has put an end
to the difficulty of communication, heretofore one of the
greatest obstacles that were ever opposed to the improve¬
ment of colonies.”
Illinois is particularly fortunate, not only in the num¬
ber, but in the navigability, of its rivers. For a great dis¬
tance on its northern extent it has the waters of Lake
Michigan, and the boatable streams that are therein dis¬
charged ; and by this means a communication is opened
with the northern fronts of Indiana and Ohio, with New
York and Canada. On the north-west is Rock River, a
long, beautiful, and boatable tributary of the Mississippi.
Its whole western front is washed by the latter river, and
its northern by the Ohio. On the east is the Wabash,
which has a course of about 130 miles, the greater part
of it being navigable ; and through its centre winds in one
direction the Illinois, which connects the Mississippi with
Lake Michigan by the Plein and Kankakee, whilst in an¬
other direction the Kaskaskia traverses the state for a
distance of between 200 and 300 miles. At present the
state is supposed to include 4000 miles of boatable wa¬
ters within its limits. The Illinois, which gives name to
the state, may be considered as the most important river
in North America, having its whole course within one state.
It is formed by the junction of two other rivers in the
north-west part of Indiana, and, passing into Illinois, pur¬
sues generally a south-westerly direction, and flows into
the Mississippi twenty-one miles above the Missouri. It
is upwards of 400 yards wide at its mouth, is about 400
miles long, and is of easy navigation. Its current, which
is very gentle, is unbroken by falls or rapids, and it passes
through a fine country.
In this state there are prodigious lead mines, as well
as those of coal and lime. There is also building stone
in the bounty tract. Specimens of native malleable cop¬
per have been found, weighing from one to three pounds.
On the Saline River, a branch of the Ohio, are salt springs,
from which salt is manufactured at a cheap rate. About
300,000 bushels of this article are annually made. The
lead mines are situated at Galena, on Fever River, near
• the north-west corner of the state. The working of them
commenced in 1821, andjn 1824 there were made 175,220
ILL
lbs. of lead. In the year 1829 the produce had amount- niinoi,
ed to 13,343,150 lbs.
The prevailing forest tree in Illinois is oak, of which
thirteen or fourteen different species are enumerated.
Throughout the territory there are also found honey lo¬
cust, black walnut, mulberry, plum, sugar maple, black lo¬
cust, elm, bass-wood, beech, buck-eye, hack-berry, coffee-
nut, sycamore, spice-wood, sassafras, black and white haws,
crab-apple, wild cherry, cucumber, and pawpaw. White
pine is found on the head branches of the Illinois. The
chief produce of the state is Indian corn, wheat, and the
other agricultural productions of North America. From
the extent and fertility of the soil, those articles which
it is best adapted for are raised in far greater quantities
than are requisite for the home consumption of the state.
The immense prairies afford abundance of food for cattle,
and grazing is extensively carried on. Great numbers of
fine cattle and horses are regularly sent to New Orleans.
Most of the clothing of the people is of domestic manu¬
facture. The climate of Illinois does not materially dif¬
fer from that of the same latitudes in the Atlantic states.
The low and wet lands in the southern part are unhealthy,
and the cold of winter is in some parts exceedingly
severe. Amongst the diseases which afflict this state is
one called the milk sickness, with which cows are seized,
particularly in autumn, when the first severe frost be¬
gins. It is supposed to be occasioned by the eating of
a luxuriant poisonous vine, to which the animals are com¬
pelled at this season of the year to have recourse for sus¬
tenance. Milk taken in any quantity seems to produce
the same disease in other animals, and even in men, and it
very often proves fatal.
We shall now describe a few of the principal towns of
this state. Vandalia, the political metropolis, is pleasant¬
ly situated on a high bank of the Kaskaskia river, in the
centre of a rich and thriving country. Although only
founded a few years since, it contains many handsome brick
buildings; and respectable houses for the accommodation
of the government and the courts have also been erected.
Edwardsville, on Cahokia Creek, twenty miles north-east
from St Louis, is a county town of some consequence, and
was, until within a few years, the seat of government. Belle¬
ville is in the centre of Turkey Hill settlement, eighteen
miles south-east of St Louis, and a few miles east of the
American bottom. It is a flourishing village, in the midst
of a compact settlement, and most excellent lands. Alton
is a new village, a little above the mouth of the Missouri.
Its position is favourable, the situation is healthy, and it
promises to become a considerable town. Carlisle is si¬
tuated on the western bank of the Kaskaskia, on the great
road from Cincinnati to St Louis. Boats of burthen can
ascend the river to this place wfflen the water is favoura¬
ble. Cahokia is situated in the American, bottom, on a
creek of the same name, a few miles below St Louis. It
is one of the most ancient villages in the county, is of con¬
siderable extent, and chiefly inhabited by French. There
is another French village of about the same size, called
Prairie du Rocher. It is situated near a most beautiful
limestone bluff, twelve miles above Kaskaskia. Kaskas¬
kia is situated on an extensive plain, not far from the
commencement of the American bottom, eleven miles
from the mouth of the river on which it stands, and six
miles from the nearest point of the Mississippi. This
town was one of the first establishments made by the
French in the valley of the Mississippi, and is a place ot
higher antiquity than Philadelphia. It was once of great¬
er importance than it is at present, the inhabitants, which
were formerly 7000 in number, being now reduced to
1000. It is beautifully situated in the centre of a gently
sloping basin, on a fine navigable stream, and in the midst
of a country proverbial for its fertility. It is the seat of
r
ILL
I L
249
ran justice for the county to which it belongs, and has a bank,
f a printing-office, a Catholic church, and a land-office. At
inati. a50Ut three hundred miles west from Vandalia stands Ga-
lena, which owes its origin to the rich lead mines in the
vicinity. It contains forty-two stores and warehouses, be¬
tween 200 and 300 dwelling-houses, and 1000 inhabitants.
There is here a weekly journal, and the usual concomi¬
tants of a county seat. About 10,000,000 pounds of lead
are annually exported from this place. The population
in the vicinity is estimated at 10,000. Shawneetown is
situated on the Ohio, nine miles below the mouth of the
Wabash. The great United States Saline, situated twelve
miles from this town, contributes to give it consequence.
It is the seat of justice for its county, and has a bank with
a large capital, and a land-office. Besides these, there
are a number of towns or villages, which, however, do
not require particular notice.
The territory of Illinois was formed into a state and ad¬
mitted into the Union in 1818. By the constitution no
more slaves can be admitted into the state. The legisla¬
tive power is vested in a general assembly, consisting of
a senate and a house of representatives. The senators
are chosen for periods of four years, and the representa¬
tives biennially. The executive power is vested in a gover¬
nor, who is chosen for four years, and is ineligible for the
succeeding four years. There is a supreme court esta¬
blished by the constitution, and there are inferior courts
established by the general assembly. The judges who
are appointed by the assembly hold their places during
good behaviour, but can be removed by the governor on
an address of two thirds of each branch of the general as¬
sembly. Schools are supported by a grant of land amount¬
ing to a thirty-sixth part of each township ; and three per¬
cent. of the net proceeds of the United States’ lands sold
within the state is appropriated for the encouragement of
learning, of which a sixth part is required to be bestowed
on a college or university. A further provision has been
made for a university, by the grant of two townships of
land by the United States. Illinois college, situated at
Jacksonville, was founded in 1829, and has a fund of
13,000 dollars.
Though this state is in general favourable for the con¬
struction of roads, yet the low and clayey praines are ex¬
ceptions. Bivers furnish the most convenient means of
transport, and various canals, which will make up for any
deficiency, are in contemplation. It is also proposed to
extend the national road from Indianapolis to Vandalia,
and thence to St Louis. The history of this state forms
part of that of Louisiana, under which head it will be
given. With regard to the native Indians, they have by
different treaties ceded the greater part of their territo¬
rial claims to lands ; and those who still roam at large are
rarely seen, excepting on the skirts of the state, in the cha¬
racter of hunters, or of vagrants. This state is divided
into forty-eight counties, and the census of 1830 gives the
population as follows: Whites, 155,176 ; slaves, 746 ; mak¬
ing the total 157,575. The number of inhabitants has
been tripled in ten years. (r. r. r.)
ILLOGAN, a town of the hundred of Penwith, in the
county of Cornwall, 266 miles from London. It is in a
mining district, which affords employment to the people,
especially in one of the richest of the copper mines, called
Cook’s Kitchen, which is within the parish. The inhabi¬
tants amounted in 1801 to 2895, in 1811 to 4078, in 1821
to 5170, and in 1831 to 6072.
ILLUMINATI, the name of a secret society or order in
Germany and other countries of Europe, whose professed
object, it is said, was to propagate the purest principles
of virtue; but whose real views were to subvert every
established government and religion, and, by delivering
mankind from the necessary and salutary restraints of civil
VOL. XII.
society, to bring them to an imaginary state of freedom Illuminat-
and independence. Of this order much has been said and mg-
written ; but that any society existed, regularly organized
in the way which this is represented to have been, work¬
ing in secret, and at the same time possessing extensive
power and influence, has not been established by any kind
of proof.
ILLUMINATING, a kind of miniature painting, an¬
ciently much practised for illustrating and adorning books.
Besides the w-riters of books, there were artists whose
profession it was to ornament and paint manuscripts, and
who were called illuminators. The writers of books first
finished their part, and the illuminators embellished them
with ornamented letters and paintings. We frequently find
in manuscripts blanks left for the illuminators, which, how¬
ever, were never filled up. Some of the ancient manu¬
scripts were gilt and burnished in a style superior to those
of later times. The colours were excellent, and the skill
in preparing them must have been very great.
The practice of introducing ornaments, drawings, em¬
blematical figures, and even portraits, into manuscripts, is
of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of seven hundred
illustrious Romans, which he enriched with their portraits,
as Pliny attests (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxv. chap. 2). Pompo-
nius Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was the author of a work
on the actions of the great men amongst the Romans,
which he ornamented with their portraits, as we are inform¬
ed by Cornelius Nepos in his life of that illustrious Roman.
But these works have not been transmitted to posterity.
There are, however, many precious documents remaining,
which exhibit the advancement and decline of the arts in
different ages and countries. These inestimable paintings
and illuminations display the manners, customs, habits ec¬
clesiastical, civil, and military, weapons and instruments of
war, utensils and architecture, of the ancients; and they
are of the greatest use in illustrating many important facts
relative to the history of the times in which they were exe¬
cuted. In these treasures of antiquity are preserved a great
number of specimens of Grecian and Roman art, which
were executed before the arts and sciences fell into neglect
and contempt. The manuscripts containing these speci¬
mens form a valuable part of the riches preserved in the
principal libraries of Europe; the Royal, Cottonian, and
Harleian Libraries, as also those in the tw-o universities of
England, the Vatican at Rome, the Imperial at Vienna,
the Royal at Paris, St Mark’s at Venice, and many others.
A very ancient manuscript of Genesis, which was in the
Cottonian Library, and almost destroyed by a fire in 1731,
contained two hundred and fifty curious paintings in water¬
colours. Twenty-one fragments, which escaped the fire,
have been engraved by the Society of Antiquaries of Lon¬
don. Several specimens of curious paintings also appear
in Lambecius’s catalogue of the Imperial Library at Vien¬
na, particularly in volume third, where forty-eight draw¬
ings of nearly equal antiquity with those in the Cottonian
Library are engraven ; and several others may be found in
various catalogues of the Italian libraries. The drawings
in the Vatican Virgil, executed in the fourth century, be¬
fore the arts were entirely neglected, illustrate the different
subjects treated of by the Roman poet. A miniature draw¬
ing is prefixed to each of the gospels brought over to Eng¬
land by St Augustin in the sixth century, which is pre¬
served in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
In the compartments of those drawings are depicted repre¬
sentations of several transactions in each gospel. The cu¬
rious drawings and elaborate ornaments in St Cuthbert’s
gospels, made by St Ethelwald, and now in the Cottonian
Library, exhibit a striking specimen of the state of the arts
in England in the seventh century. The same observa¬
tion may be made respecting the drawings in the ancient
copy of the four gospels preserved in the cathedral church
250 ILL
Illuminat- °f Lichfield, and those in the Codex Rushworthianus in the
ing. Bodleian Library at Oxford. The life of St Paul the Her-
'‘■•'■v''*-' mit, now remaining in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
affords an example of the style of drawing and ornament'
ing letters in England in the eighth century ; and the copy
of Prudentius’s Psycomachia in the Cottonian Library exhi¬
bits the style of drawing in Italy in the ninth century. Of
the tenth century there are Roman drawings of a singular
kind in the Harleian Library, No. 2820 ; whilst Nos. 5280,
1802, and 432, in the same library, contain specimens of or¬
namented letters, which'are to be found in Irish manuscripts
from the twelfth to the fourteenth century. Caedmon’s
Poetical Paraphrase of the book of Genesis, written in the
eleventh century, which is preserved amongst Junius’s ma¬
nuscripts in the Bodleian Library, exhibits many specimens
of utensils, weapons, instruments of music, and implements
of husbandry, used by the Anglo-Saxons. The like may
be seen in extracts from the Pentateuch of the same age
in the Cottonian Library. The manuscript copy of Te¬
rence in the Bodleian Library displays the dresses, masks,
&c. worn by comedians in the twelfth century, if not ear¬
lier. The very elegant Psalter in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge, exhibits specimens of the art of draw¬
ing in England in the same century. The Virgil in the
Lambeth Library of the thirteenth century, and written in
Italy, shows, both by the drawings and writing, that the Ita¬
lians produced works much inferior to ours at that period.
The copy of the Apocalypse, in the same library, contains
a curious example of the manner of painting in the four¬
teenth century. The beautiful paintings in the history of
the latter part of the reign of King Richard II., in the Har¬
leian Library, afford curious specimens of manners and cus¬
toms, both civil and military, at the close of the fourteenth
and in the beginning of the fifteenth century. Many other
instances might be produced ; but those who desire further
information may consult Strutt’s Regal and Ecclesiastical
Antiquities, and his Horda Angelcynnan, published in
three volumes.
This art was much practised by the clergy, and even by
some in the highest stations in the church. “ The famous
Osmund,” says Bromton, “ who was consecrated Bishop of
Salisbury, a. d. 1076, did not disdain to spend some part of
his time in writing, binding, and illuminating books.” Mr
Strutt, as already noticed, has given the public an oppor¬
tunity of forming a judgment as to the degree of delicacy
and art with which these illuminations were executed, by
publishing prints of a prodigious number of them, in his
Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England, and his
View of the Customs of England. In the first of these
works we are presented with the genuine portraits, in mi¬
niature, of all the kings and several of the queens of Eng¬
land, from Edward the Confessor to Henry VII. mostly in
their crowns and royal robes, together with the portraits of
many other eminent persons of both sexes.
Ihe illuminators and painters of this period seem to
have been in possession of a considerable number of colour¬
ing materials, and to have known the arts of preparing and
mixing them, so as to form a great variety of colours; for,
in the specimens of their miniature-paintings which are still
extant, we perceive not only the five primary colours, but
also various combinations of these. Though Strutt’s prints
do not exhibit the bright and vivid colours of the originals,
they give us equally a view, not only of the persons and
dresses of our ancestors, but also of their customs, man¬
ners, arts, and employments, their arms, ships, houses, and
furniture, and enable us to judge of their skill in drawing.
The figures in these paintings are often stiff and formal;
but the ornaments are in general fine and delicate, and
the colours clear and bright, particularly the gold and azure.
In some of these illuminations the passions are strongly re¬
presented. Terror, for example, is strongly painted in the
ILL
faces of the Earl of Warwick’s sailors when they were Ilium
threatened with a shipwreck, and grief in the countenances |
of those who were present at the death of that hero. Af- %
ter the introduction of printing, this elegant art of illumi- '
nating gradually declined, and at length became quite ne¬
glected.
Before concluding, it may not be improper to observe,
that from the fifth till the tenth century, the miniature paint¬
ings which we meet with in Greek manuscripts, are gene¬
rally good, as are also some which we find amongst those of
Italy, England, and France. From the tenth till the middle
of the fourteenth century they are commonly very bad, and
may be considered as so many monuments of the barbarism
of those ages ; but towards the latter end of the fourteenth,
the paintings in manuscripts were much improved ; and in
the two succeeding centuries many excellent performances
were produced, especially after the restoration of the arts,
when great attention was paid to the works of the ancients,
and the study of antiquity became fashionable.
ILLUMINATORS. See Illuminating.
ILLUMINED, Illuminati, a term anciently applied
to such persons as had received baptism. This name was
occasioned by a ceremony in the baptism of adults, which
consisted in putting a lighted taper in the hand of the
person baptized, as a symbol of the faith and grace which
he had received in the sacrament.
Illumined, Illuminati, is also the name of a sect of
heretics who sprang up in Spain about the year 1575,
and were called by the Spaniards Alambrados. Their
principal doctrines were, that by means of a sublime man¬
ner of prayer, which they had attained to, they entered
into so perfect a state, that they had no occasion for or¬
dinances, sacraments, or good works ; and that they could
give way even to the vilest actions without sin. The sect
of Illumined was revived in France in the year 1634, and
was soon afterwards joined by the Guerinets, or disciples of
Peter Guerin, who together formed but one body, called
also Illumined; but being hotly pursued by Louis XIII.
they were soon destroyed. The brothers of the Rosy
Cross are sometimes also called Illumined. See Rosy-
chucian.
ILLUSTRIOUS, Illustris, in the Roman empire, a
title of honour peculiar to people of a certain rank. It
was first given to the most distinguished amongst the
knights, who had a right to bear the latus clavus ; but af¬
terwards those only were entitled illustrious who held the
first rank amongst the persons called honorati, that is, the
prafecti prcetorii, prcefecti urbis, treasurers, comites, and
others. The Novels of Valentinian distinguish as many
as five kinds of illustres, amongst whom the illustres ad-
ministratores bear the first rank.
ILLYRIA, or Illyricum, Ancient, a country situat¬
ed on the east coast of the Adriatic, the limits of which
were at no time distinctly marked. In its most restricted
sense it may be considered as extending from Dalmatia on
the north, to Epirus on the south, from which it wras sepa¬
rated by the Acroceraunian range of mountains. To the
east it was separated from Macedonia by a lofty chain of
mountains, which was known under the several names of
Bertiscus, Scardus, Tschar Dagh, and Bernus. When the
Romans conquered the country, they added to it the Dal¬
matians, Japydes, and other petty tribes; and, under the
emperors, so widely were the frontiers of Illyria extended,
that it comprehended the great districts of Pannonia, Rhae-
tia, Noricum, and Mcesia (Appian, Illyr. 6). In the third
century we find Duces totius Illyrici mentioned, under
whose command were placed not only the troops of the
above-mentioned countries, but also those of Thrace. When
the Roman empire was divided into two parts, they each
received a portion of Illyria. The western portion com¬
prehended Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Noricum, and belong-
I L L
I L L
251
ria ed to the Prcefectus prcetorio Italice. It is remarked by
Strabo (vii. 317), that the coast of Illyria presented every¬
where good harbours, whilst the opposite side of Italy was
entirely devoid of them. The climate was excellent, and
the soil in general such as to produce olive trees and vines.
In the interior, however, the country is mountainous, and
covered with snow during a great part of the year.
Illyria was inhabited by a great number of different
tribes, of whom we shall mention the principal. In the
north were the Japydes, the Liburni, celebrated as a mari¬
time people, and the Dalmatae, whose chief city was Salon,
now Salona. The Scordisci, it would appear, were an Illy¬
rian people, reaching as far as the river Danube. More to
the south were the Dardani, who occupied the upper val¬
leys of the river Drilo, and extended to the frontiers of
Pceonia and Macedonia. The most interesting part, how¬
ever, of Illyria was that which extended along the coast for
nearly ninety miles, from the Gulf of Drino and the vicinity
of Lissus, to the Acroceraunian Mountains and the confines
of Chaonia. There we find the important towns of Epi-
damnus, Apollonia, Oricum, and in the interior the Atin-
tanes, and the Dassaretii with their capital Lychnidus, si¬
tuated on a great lake of the same name. Its chief rivers
were the Drilo, formed by two branches, which rise nearly
two hundred miles apart, and the northern branch of which
is now called the White Drino, whilst the southern, rising
in the lake Lychnitis, is called the Black Drino ; the Ap-
sus, now Crevasta or Beratino ; the Aous, Voioussa, which
rises in the range of Pindus, on the confines of Thessaly
and Macedonia, and which separated Epirus from Illyria.
Respecting the origin of the Illyrian people we have
little information on which we can depend. Their vicinity
to the Thracians, and the peculiar practice of tatooing their
bodies, would lead us to connect them with that important
people; yet it is curious that ancient writers always dis¬
tinguish them, and when they both served as light troops
in the army of Alexander they formed separate bodies. Of
their early history we know nothing, nor are they mention¬
ed till the reign of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, b. c. 383,
when we find Bardylis, a leader of banditti, elected king by
his followers. His power increased daily, and he at last
included within his kingdom all that part of Illyria which
lies along the sea-coast. He attacked Macedonia, and de¬
feating its king Amyntas, took several of its cities (Diodor,
xv. 13, 19); and again, b. c. 359, we find him at war with
Perdiccas, who fell in an engagement with the Illyrians
(xvi. 2). The same year, however, he was defeated by
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who succeeded
on the death of Perdiccas, and was obliged to surrender
all the cities and districts which he had taken from Mace¬
donia (xvi. 4). Bardylis was succeeded by his son Clitus,
who made an unsuccessful attempt to recover from Alex¬
ander that portion of Macedonia which his father had been
compelled to give up (Arrian, i. 5). Clitus was succeeded
by his son Pleuratus, and he again by Agron, a powerful
prince, who ruled over the Dalmatians, the Greek colonies
in the islands Issa, Corcyra, and Melaena, and also some of
the Greek cities in Epirus. The Greeks, however, were
by no means willing to be subject to one whom they con¬
sidered as a barbarian, and they applied for assistance to
the Romans, who were at that time beginning to interfere
in the affairs of Greece. Besides, the Roman merchants
had suffered considerably from the piracy of the Illyrians.
The remonstrances of the Romans were little attended to,
and whilst preparations were making for an effective attack,
Agron died, and was succeeded in the government of Illy¬
ria by his queen Teuta. The year b. c. 229, the Romans
first landed on the coast of Illyria, and before the end of
the year they had so humbled the pride of the Illyrians
that they were glad to sue for peace, which was granted on
condition that they should give up the greater portion of
the coast, and agree that no armed vessel should sail south Illyria,
of the Gulf of Lissus. The islands were declared free, and
the country taken from the Illyrians was made over to De¬
metrius, whose treachery had proved the principal means
of the success of the Romans. The Illyrian princes seem
to have lived quietly within the bounds "which the Romans
had assigned them, nor do they appear to have made any
attempt to recover their dominions, till the reign of Gen-
tius, great-grandson of Agron, who was induced to join
Perseus, king of Macedonia, b. c. 168, in his attack on the
Romans. Thirty days were sufficient to finish the war with
the Illyrians; and Gentius, with his whole family, having
fallen into the hands of the conqueror, was sent to Rome
to grace the praetor’s triumph. From that time Illyria was
considered as a Roman province, and though some portion
of the country was at times rebellious, it generally sub¬
mitted to the power of the Romans. (Appian, Illyrica,
Liv. xliv.)
Illyria, Modern, a province of the empire of Austria,
which in the nomenclature of the government is classed
by the name of a kingdom. When the Romans had made
themselves masters of the Danube, the Save, and the
Drave, they united all the country to the south of Nori-
cum and Pannonia into a province, to which they gave the
name of Hlyricum. When the western Roman empire fell
to pieces, and, through the pressure of the northern invad¬
ers, Byzantium was deprived of its outworks, that province
lost its name, and was only distinguished by the Austrians
as the Hungarian provinces to the south of the Drave.
By the peace of Presburg in 1809, these portions of
country were ceded to Bonaparte, and with them also Vil-
lach, Friuli, Istria, and a part of Tyrol, to which afterwards
Dalmatia was added; and they were constituted a portion
of his vast empire, under the name of the Illyrian Pro¬
vinces. The campaigns of 1813 and 1814, with the treaty
of Vienna which followed as the consequence of these, gave
back these provinces to the ancient ruler. Dalmatia, the
military frontier, and the Tyrol, were detached from them ;
and in 1822 they were further diminished by the erection
of Croatia into a separate government.
This kingdom is, for political purposes, divided into two
parts, with separate chiefs; one in the north, denominated,
from its capital, Laybach ; and the other in the south, from
the same cause called Trieste, but sometimes distinguish¬
ed as the division of the sea-shore.
This kingdom extends in north latitude from 44° 59' to
47° 8', and in east longitude from 12° 36;to 16° 27'. It is
bounded on the north by the Austrian province of the
Upper Ens, by Steyermark, and Civil Croatia; on the east
by Military Croatia; on the south by the Adriatic Sea; and
on the west by Venetian Lombardy and the Tyrol. The
extent and population of the several districts are,—
In the North.
Klagenfurth.
Villach 
Laybach 
Neustadt 
Adelsburg...,
Trieste.
Gorz.,
Istria.
In the South.
Extent in
Square Miles.
1560
1760
1364
1276
1186
39
1910
2210
11,305
Population
in 1833.
174,600
131,200
166,400
193,90d
91,500
58,200
171,000
204,000
1,200,800
The surface of the land is penetrated throughout with
252 ILL
Illyria, chains of high mountains, having some of their points very
lofty, between which are valleys, some of greater, others of
less extent. The sea-coast is generally flat and sandy, parti¬
cularly to the westward, and abounds in morasses. The bay
of Trieste on the east, and that of Quarnaro on the west,
run far up into the land, and thus form the great peninsu¬
la of Istria. The valleys in the districts of Villach and
Klagenfurth are stony, but have a soil of moderate ferti¬
lity. In Karlstadt there is an excess of wood. The districts
of Laybach, Neustadt, and Adelsburg, are full of stone
quarries, marshes, and sand-hills, and are very unproduc¬
tive. In the districts on the coast, the want of water is
sometimes much felt. A range of mountains near Laybach
divides the course of the waters, which on the north of it
run to the Save and the Drave, and through them to the
Black Sea; whilst those rivers in the south of the range
discharge their water into the Adriatic.
The great ranges of mountains already noticed may be
divided into three classes, all of which take their direction
from east to west. 1st, The Noric Alps, which cover the
northern parts of the districts of Villach and Klagenfurth.
The names of the particular parts are various, but the lof¬
tiest portion is the Great Glockner, the highest points of
which are 11,980 feet above the level of the sea, and are
covered with snow during the whole year. From it a pro¬
jection extends to the south, and separates Klagenfurth
from the province of Steyermark. 2d, The Carinthian
Alps. This range is divided into two branches, one of which
extends to Steyermark, and the other terminates with the
massive Terklow, from which a lower branch is continued
to the river Save. 3d, The Julian Alps. These begin
with the Terklow, which is 6500 feet in height, and run quite
to the Adriatic Sea. It is a characteristic of these Julian
mountains, that they are all of calcareous formation, and
are filled with an incredible number of caverns and grottos.
From Isonzo to the frontier of Bosnia more than a thou¬
sand of these are remarked ; and it has been supposed that
the whole of the mountains in question are filled with such
natural excavations. Many small streams flow under as well
as upon the earth ; they are visible for a short space, and
then bury themselves in the bowels of the earth. The
washing of such streams causes a sinking of the land in
many parts in the form of a funnel, which has a very re¬
markable appearance. The whole district, but especially
the eastern part, from the peculiar formation, the nume¬
rous caverns, the subterranean rivers, the lakes, cascades,
and other curiosities, presents many natural phenomena,
such as are unknown in any other part of Europe.
The population consists of several original tribes, mostly
of the Sclavonian race. The original language is still retain¬
ed, but with a great variety of dialects, by which they may
still be traced up to the countries whence they emigrated
twelve or thirteen centuries ago. They adhere to their
ancient customs, dress, food, and amusements, and rarely
intermarry with any of the families of German origin.
They are mostly occupied in agriculture, though some are
employed in the mines, and a few in the towns and cities
in the several kinds of labour. Their number exceeds
800,000 persons. The next are the Germans, some culti¬
vators, others mechanics or traders, who are stated to be
rather more than 300,000. Besides, there are about 60,000
Italians, residing chiefly on the Adriatic shores. The far
greater proportion adhere to the Roman Catholic commu¬
nion, and are zealously, or rather bigotedly, attached to it.
They are under the ecclesiastical direction of thirteen bi¬
shops in the different cities. In the circles of Villach and
Klagenfurth there are about 18,000 Lutherans, who have
sixteen churches and eighteen chapels. Besides these,
there are 200 Protestants reformed, 1200 Jews, and 1000
of the Greek church, all of whom have the free exercise
of their several religious rites.
IMA
From the nature of the surface, agriculture can be but i]iV!
little productive, though it is well managed in the valleys j|
about Villach and Klagenfurth. The corn produced
is, according to Blumenbach, a million quarters of the four
principal kinds; and in one year, where actual returns
were made, the following products were harvested, viz.
wheat 94,300 quarters, rye 185,000, barley 142,500, and
oats 350,000 quarters. Though some maize, buck-wheat,
and millet are raised, and though potatoes have been
introduced and extended in every year, there is a defi¬
ciency to be supplied from other districts, which is paid for
by the timber and wood-ware which is floated down by the
rivers, and the preparation of which furnishes a great por¬
tion of the employment of labourers. Flax and hemp are
cultivated ; and there are in most parts abundance of fruit
trees, and in the southern part great plenty of almonds,
chestnuts, and walnuts. Some olives grow near Trieste;
and about forty eimers, of thirty gallons each, are annually
exported. The stock of cattle is small when compared
with either the extent of the land or the number of the
inhabitants. The northern districts yield no wine; in the
south there is abundance, but most of it is of bad quality,
and cannot be kept longer than a year.
The fishery gives considerable employment to the resi¬
dents on the sea-shore, especially the taking of the large
tunny and small sardinias, operations which are carried on
by joint-stock companies. Many oysters also are taken,
and the city of Vienna is supplied with them by a very
expensive land-carriage.
The mining operations are very numerous, if not very
extensive. The chief mines of lead are near Villach,
Adelsburg has the most productive mines of quicksilver,
and most of the other districts yield silver, iron, copper,
antimony, sal-ammoniac, alum, or vitriol. The iron
is chiefly converted into tools or utensils, particularly
nails, which are exported. There is abundance of fossil
coal in many parts, and some saline springs. The latter do
not yield sufficient culinary salt for the consumption, and
much is made by the sun on the sea-shore. Whatever
shipping trade exists is conducted through the ports of
Trieste or Fiume. As there are good roads in all directions,
the internal trade with the other dominions of Austria is
very extensive, and rapidly increasing.
The courts of law, both civil and criminal, are held at
Klagenfurth, which is also the chief seat of the police, and
of the treasury board for the whole kingdom.
ILLYRIUS, Mathias, Flaccus, or Francowitz, one
of the most learned divines of the Augsburg confession,
born in Istria, anciently called Illyria, in 1520. He is
said to have been a man of considerable genius, extensive
learning, and of great zeal against popery ; but he was of a
restless and passionate temper, which overbalanced all his
good qualities, and occasioned much disturbance in the
Protestant church. He published a great number of books,
and died in 1575.
ILMINSTER, a town of the county of Somerset, in the
hundred of Abdick, 135 miles from London. It stands in
a fertile district, and has a market, which is held on Satur¬
day. There was formerly a considerable manufacture of
woollens, but it has declined, and of late years has been in
some measure replaced by mills for making lace net. There
is a large church, formerly conventual, and an excellent¬
ly endowed grammar-school. The population amounted
in 1801 to 2045, in 1811 to 2160, in 1821 to 2156, and
in 1831 to 2957.
IMAGE, in a religious sense, is an artificial representa¬
tion or similitude of some person or thing, used either by
way of decoration and ornament, or as an object of reli¬
gious worship and adoration. In the last sense it is used
indifferently with the word idol.
The noble Romans preserved with great care the images
IMA I M B 253
of their ancestors, which were commonly made of wax or
L* wood, though sometimes of marble or brass, and had them
carried in procession at their funerals and triumphs. They
placed these images in the vestibules of their houses, where
they remained, even if the houses happened to be sold, it
being accounted impious to displace them. It was not,
however, permitted to all who had the images of their an¬
cestors in their houses, to have them carried at their fune¬
rals. This was a distinction granted to such alone as had
honourably discharged their offices ; for those who failed
in this respect forfeited their privilege, and in case they
had been guilty of any great crime, their images were
broken in pieces.
The Jews absolutely condemned all images, and did not
suffer any statues or figures to be placed in their houses,
much less in their synagogues or places of worship.
The use and adoration of images are subjects which
have long been controverted in the world. It appears,
from the practice of the primitive church, recorded by the
earlier fathers, that Christians, during the first three cen¬
turies after Christ, and the greater part of the fourth, nei¬
ther worshipped images nor used them in worship. How¬
ever, the greater part of the Roman Catholic divines main¬
tain that the use and worship of images are as ancient as
the Christian religion itself; and to prove this, they allege
a decree, said to have been made in a council held by the
apostles at Antioch, commanding the faithful, that they
might not err about the object of their worship, to make
images of Christ, and worship them. (Baron, ad Ann. 102.)
But no notice is taken of this decree till seven hundred
years after the apostolic times, when the dispute about images
had commenced. The first instance which occurs in any
credible author, of images amongst Christians, is that record¬
ed by Tertullian (Be Pudicitia, c. 10), of certain cups or
chalices, as Bellarmine pretends, on which was represented
the parable of the good shepherd carrying the lost sheep
on his shoulders. But this instance only proves that the
church at that time did not think emblematical figures un¬
lawful ornaments of cups or chalices. Another instance is
taken from Eusebius {Hist. Eccl. lib. vii. cap. 18), who
says, that in his time there were to be seen two brass sta¬
tues in the city of Paneas or Caesarea Philippi; the one ot
a woman on her knees, with her arms stretched out; the
other of a man over against her, with his hand extended
to receive her. These statues were said to be the images
of our Saviour and of the woman whom he cured of an issue
of blood. From the foot of the statue representing our
Saviour, says the historian, sprung up an exotic plant,
which, as soon as it grew to touch the border of his gar¬
ment, was said to cure all sorts of distempers. Eusebius,
however, vouches for none of these things; nay, he sup¬
poses that the woman who erected this statue of our Saviour
was a pagan, and ascribes it to a pagan custom. The primi¬
tive Christians abstained from the worship of images, not,
as the Romanists pretend, from tenderness to heathen ido¬
laters, but because they thought it unlawful in itself to
make any images of the Deity. (Justin Mart. Apol. ii. p.
44; Clem. Alex. Strom. 5, Strom. 1, and Protr. p. 46 ; Aug.
de Civit. Bei, lib. vii. c. 5, and lib. iv. c. 32; Id. de Fide
et Symb. c. 7 ; Lactant. lib. ii. c. 3 ; Tertull. Apol. c. 12 ;
Arnob. lib. vi. p. 202.) Some of the fathers, as Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, and Origen, were of opinion that,
by the second commandment, the arts of painting and en¬
graving were rendered unlawful to a Christian. Ihe
custom of admitting pictures of saints and martyrs into the
churches was rare in the latter end of the fourth century;
but it became common in the fifth, and in the following
century the custom of thus adorning churches became al¬
most universal, both in the east and the west.
The Lutherans censure the Calvinists for breaking the
images in the churches of the Catholics, looking on it as a
kind of sacrilege ; and yet they condemn the Romanists as Image
idolaters. |j
The Mahommedans have a perfect aversion to images, Imb^ihty.
which has led them to destroy most of the beautiful monu-
ments of antiquity, both sacred and profane, at Constanti¬
nople.
Image, in Rhetoric, signifies a lively representation of
any thing in discourse. Images, in discourse, are, accord¬
ing to Longinus, any thoughts proper to produce expres¬
sions, which present a kind of picture to the mind. But,
in the more limited sense, images are such expressions as
fall from us when, by a kind of enthusiasm, or an extra¬
ordinary emotion of the soul, we seem to see the things of
which we speak, and present them before the eyes of those
who hear us.
IMAGE, in Optics, a figure in the form of any object,
made by the rays of light issuing from the several points
of it, and meeting in so many other points, either at the
bottom of the eye, or on any other ground, or on any
transparent medium, where there is no surface to reflect
them. Thus we are said to see all objects by means of
their images formed in the eye.
IMAGINARY Quantities, or Impossible Quantities, m.
Algebra, are the even roots of negative quantities; which
expressions are imaginary, or impossible, or opposed to real
quantities; as — aa, or4^ — «4. For as every even
power of any quantity whatever, whether positive or ne¬
gative, is necessarily positive, or has the sign +, because
+ by +, or — by —, give equally + ; hence it follows
that every even power, as the square, for instance, which is
negative, or having the sign —, has no possible root; and
therefore the even roots of such powers or quantities are
said to be impossible or imaginary. The mixed expressions
arising from imaginary quantities joined to real ones, are
also imaginary; as a — ^ — aa, or 6 -}- ^/ — aa.
Imaginary Roots of an equation are those roots or va¬
lues of the unknown quantity which contain some imagi¬
nary quantity. Thus the roots of the equation xx + aa
— 0, are the two imaginary quantities + -v/ — aa and —
y' — aa, or + a\/ — 1 and — ay' — 1.
IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the mind, by
which it conceives and forms ideas of things communicated
to it by means of the organs of sense.
Force of Imagination. See Apparitions.
IMAGO, in Natural History, is a name given by Lin¬
naeus to the third state of insects, when they appear in
their proper shape and colours, and undergo no further
transformation.
IMAM, Imaum, or Iman, a minister in the Mahomme-
dan church, answering to a parish priest amongst us.
The word properly signifies what we call a prelate, an-
tistes, one who presides over others; but the Moslemins
frequently apply it to a person who has the care and in¬
tendency of a mosque, and reads prayers to the people,
which they repeat after him.
Imam is also applied, by way of excellence, to the four
chiefs or founders of the four principal sects in the Ma-
hommedan religion. Thus Ali is the imam of the Per¬
sians ; Abu-beker the imam of the Soonites, which is the
sect followed by the Turks ; and Saphii, or Safi-y, the
imam of another sect.
IMAUS, in Ancient Geography, the largest mountain of
Asia, and part of Taurus, from which the whole of India
runs off into a vast plain, resembling Egypt. It extends
through Scythia, as far as to the Mare Glaciale, dividing it
into Scythia intra Imaum, and Scythia extra Imaum ; and
also stretching out along the north of India to the Eastern
Ocean, separates it from Scythia.
IMBECILITY, a languid, infirm state of the body,
which being greatly impaired, is unable to perform its usual
exercises and functions.
254 I M M
Imbibing IMBIBING, the action of a dry porous body, which
II absorbs a moist or fluid one.
^m^r* IMBRICA TED, a term used by some botanists to ex-
press the flgure of the leaves of some plants, which are
hollowed like an imbrex, or gutter-tile, or are laid in close
series over one another like the tiles of a house.
IMBRO, or Imrus, an island in the Archipelago, to
the south-west of the Gulf of Saros, eighty-six square miles
in extent. It has 4000 Greek inhabitants, who produce
corn, wine, oil, and cotton wool, and occupy one town and
several villages. Long. 25. 40. E. Lat. 40. 10. N.
IMITATION, derived from the Latin imitare, to re¬
present or repeat a sound or action, either exactly or
nearly in the same manner as they were originally exhi¬
bited.
Imitation, in Music, admits of two different senses.
Sound and motion are either capable of imitating them¬
selves by a repetition of their own particular modes, or of
imitating other objects of a nobler and more abstracted
nature. Nothing perhaps is so purely mental, nothing so
remote from external sense, as not to be imitable by
music. Dramatic or theatrical music contributes to imi¬
tation no less than painting or poetry; it is on this com¬
mon principle that we must investigate both the origin
and the final cause of all the fine arts. But this imitation
is not equally extensive in all the imitative arts. What¬
ever the imagination can represent to itself is in the de¬
partment of poetry. Painting, which does not present its
pictures to the imagination immediately, but to external
sense, and to one sense alone, paints only such objects as
are discoverable by sight. Music might appear subjected
to the same limits with respect to the ear; yet it is capa¬
ble of painting every thing, even such images as are ob¬
jects of ocular perception alone. By a magic almost in¬
conceivable, it seems to transform the ears into eyes, and
endow them with the double function of perceiving visi¬
ble objects ; and it is the greatest miracle of an art, which
can only act by motion, that it can make that very motion
represent absolute quiescence. Imitation, in its technical
sense, is a reiteration of the same air, or of one which is
similar, in several parts where it is repeated by one after
the other, either in unison, or at the distance of a fourth,
a fifth, a third, or any other interval whatever.
Imitation, in Oratory, is an endeavour to resemble a
speaker or writer in those qualities regarding which we
propose them to ourselves as patterns. The first histo¬
rians amongst the Romans were, according to Cicero, very
dry and jejune, till they began to imitate the Greeks, and
then they became their rivals. It is well known how
closely Virgil has imitated Homer in his iEneid, Hesiod
in his Georgies, and Theocritus in his Eclogues. Terence
copied from Menander, and Plautus from Epicarmus, as
we learn from Horace (lib. ii. Ep. ad August.), who him¬
self owes many of his beauties to the Greek lyric poets.
Cicero appears, from many passages in his writings, to
have imitated the Greek orators. Thus Quintilian said
of him, that he expressed the strength and sublimity of
Demosthenes, the copiousness of Plato, and the delicacy
of Isocrates. J
IMMERSION, that act by which a thing is plunged
into water or any other fluid.
Immersion, in Astronomy, is when a star or planet is
so near the sun, with regard to our observations, that we
cannot see it; being, as it were, enveloped and hid in the
rays of that luminary. It also denotes the beginning of
an eclipse of the moon, or that moment when the moon
begins to be darkened, and to enter into the shadow of
the earth.
IMMERITIA, or Imiretta, or, as it is sometimes call¬
ed, Iberia, a country of Asia, to the north of Persia,
bounded on the east by Georgia, and on the south by the
IMP
Mossain Hills; on the north it extends as far as the prin- in
cipal chain of the Caucasus, and on the west the Euxine *
and the Hippus are the frontier lines. It lies between the
43d and 44th degrees of north latitude. It is in general Id! s-
of a rich soil, but is greatly depopulated and neglected • 1)1' j
the few inhabitants in the country being as little inclined ^ J
to industry as the other inhabitants of the Caucasus. In
1784 it acknowledged the supremacy of Russia, but it is
in a great measure independent in its internal govern-
ment. The manners of the natives are rude and simple.
They generally inhabit some secluded spot in woody hills
or in pleasant valleys; and here, in contented solitude, the
native of Immeritia avoids the incursions of his enemies in
his secret retreat. They have a method, however, of call¬
ing each other together on important occasions, by means
of deep-sounding tones; and on this signal being given,
hundreds of people issue from places where no one could
have supposed there had been a single creature. They
are chiefly of Georgian origin. The principal town is Co-
tatis, situated on the left bank of the Phasis river; an
inconsiderable place, inhabited by about eighty Jewish,
Armenian, and Turkish families. The Quirilia is the only
river of consequence in Immeritia. It takes its rise in
the Soani ridges, and being greatly increased by the
snow-streams which descend from the Georgian side of
the Caucasus, enters the Phasis in the neighbourhood of
Cotatis.
IMMOLATION, a ceremony used in the Roman sa¬
crifices. It consisted in throwing upon the head of the
victim some sort of corn and frankincense, together with
the mola or salt cake, and a little wine.
IMMORTAL, that which will last to all eternity, as
having in it no principle of alteration or corruption.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from some of¬
fice, duty, or imposition. Immunity is more particularly
understood of the liberties granted to cities and commu¬
nities.
IMMUTABILITY, the condition of a thing that can¬
not change. Immutability is one of the divine attributes.
IMOLA, a city of Italy, of the province of Ravenna, in
the papal dominions. It is situated on an island formed by
two branches of the river Santerno, in a fruitful valley,
surrounded by poplars, with vines entwined amongst the
branches. It is the see of a bishop, and has a cathedral,
fifteen churches, seventeen religious houses for the two
sexes, and 8350 inhabitants, chiefly employed in producing
wine. Long. 11. 30. 10. E. Lat. 44. 21. 32. N.
IMPANNELLING, in Law, signifies the writing down
or entering into a parchment, list, or schedule, the names
of a jury summoned by the sheriff to appear for such pub¬
lic services as juries are employed in.
IMPARLANCE, in English Law, a petition in court
for a day, to consider or advise what answer the defendant
shall make to the plaintiff’s action ; and hence it is the con¬
tinuance of the cause till another day, or a longer time given
by the court.
IMPEACHMENT, an accusation and prosecution for
treason and other high crimes and misdemeanours. Any
member of the lower house of parliament may impeach any
one belonging either to that body or to the House of Lords.
The method of proceeding is to exhibit articles on behalf
of the Commons, by whom managers are appointed to
make good their charge. These articles are carried to the
Lords, by whom every person impeached by the Commons
is always tried; and if they find him guilty, no pardon un¬
der the great seal can be pleaded to such an impeachment.
12 Will. III. cap. ii. F
IMPECCABILES, in Ecclesiastical History, a name
given to those heretics who boasted that they were impec*
cable, and that there was no need of repentance.
IMPECCABILITY, the state of a person who cannot
I M P
di- sin, or a grace, privilege, or principle, which puts him out
;s of the possibility of sinning.
The schoolmen distinguish several kinds and degrees of
impeccability; that of God belongs to him by nature ; that
of Jesus Christ, considered as man, belongs to him by the
hypostatical union ; that of the blessed is a consequence of
their condition; and that of men is the effect of a confirma¬
tion in grace, and is rather called impeccance than impec¬
cability. Accordingly, divines distinguish between these
two; and this distinction is found necessary in the disputes
against the Pelagians, in order to explain certain terms in
the Greek and Latin fathers, which without this distinction
would be easily confounded.
IMPEDIMENTS, in Law, are such hindrances as put
a stop or stay to a person’s seeking his right by due course
of law. Persons under impediments are those under age
or coverture, non compos mentis, in prison, beyond sea, and
the like, who, by a saving in our laws, have time to claim
and prosecute their rights, after the impediments are re¬
moved.
IMPENETRABILITY, in Philosophy, that property
of body by which it cannot be pierced by another. Thus
a body which so fills a space as to exclude all others, is
said to be impenetrable.
IMPERFECT, something that is defective, or which
wants some of the properties found in other beings of the
same kind.
Imperfect Number is that the aliquot parts of which,
taken all together, do not make a sum that is equal to the
number itself, but either exceed it or fall short of it; being
an abundant number in the former case, and a defective
number in the latter. Thus 12 is an abundant imperfect
number, because the sum of all its aliquot parts, 1, 2, 3, 4,
6, makes 16, which exceeds the number 12. And 10 is a
defective imperfect number, because its aliquot parts 1, 2,
5, taken all together, make only 8, which is less than the
number 10 itself.
IMPERIAL, something belonging to an emperor, or
empire. See Emperor, and Empire.
Imperial Cities, in Germany, were those which owned
no other head but the emperor. These were a kind of lit¬
tle commonwealths, the chief magistrates of which did ho¬
mage to the emperor; but in other respects, and in the ad¬
ministration of justice, they are sovereign. There were
formerly a great many such cities; but since 1815 there
are only four, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, and Frankfort.
Imperial Diet, is an assembly or convention of all the
states of the empire. See Germany, and Diet.
IMPETRATION, the act of obtaining any thing by re¬
quest or prayer. Imperation was more particularly used in
our statutes for the pre-obtaining from the court of Rome
of benefices and church-offices in England, which were at
the disposal of the king and other lay patrons of the realm;
the penalty of which is the same with that of provisors. 25
Edw. III.
IMPOSITION of Hands, an ecclesiastical action, by
which a bishop lays his hand on the head of a person, in
ordination, confirmation, or in benediction. This practice
is also observed by the dissenters at the ordination of their
ministers, when all the ministers present place their hands
on the head of him whom they are ordaining, whilst one
of them prays for a blessing on him and his future labours.
This they retain as an ancient practice, justified by the ex¬
ample of the apostles, when no extraordinary gifts are con¬
veyed. However, they are not all agreed as to the proprie¬
ty of this ceremony, nor do they consider it as an essential
part of ordination.
Imposition of hands was a Jewish ceremony, introduced
not by any divine authority, but by custom; it having been
the practice amongst that people, whenever they prayed to
God for any person, to lay their hands on his head. Our
IMP 255
Saviour observed the same custom, both when he conferred Impossible
his blessing on children, and when he cured the sick. The II
apostles likewise laid hands on those upon whom they be- ^pressing
stowed the Holy Ghost. The priests observed the same
custom when any one was received into their body; and
the apostles themselves underwent the imposition of hands
afresh every time they entered upon any new design.
IMPOSSIBLE, that which is not possible, or which can¬
not be done or effected. A proposition is said to be im¬
possible when it contains two ideas which mutually de¬
stroy each other, and which can neither be conceived nor
united together. Thus it is impossible that a circle should
be a square ; because we conceive clearly that squareness
and roundness destroy each other by the contrariety of
their figure.
There are two kinds of impossibilities, physical and
moral. Physical impossibility is that which is contrary to
the law of nature. A thing is morally impossible, when of
its own nature it is possible, but yet is attended with such
difficulties that, all things considered, it appears impossi¬
ble. Thus it is morally impossible that all men should be
virtuous; or that a man should throw the same number
with three dice a hundred times successively.
A thing which is impossible in law is the same with a
thing impossible in nature; and if any thing in a bond or
deed be impossible to be done, such deed or bond is void.
21 Car. I.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, denotes
want of strength, power, or means, to perform any thing.
Divines and philosophers distinguish two sorts of impo¬
tency, natural and moral. The first is a want of some phy¬
sical principle, necessary to an action, or where a being is
absolutely defective, or not free and at liberty to act; the
second only imports a great difficulty, as a strong habit to
the contrary, a violent passion, or the like.
ImFotency is a term more particularly used to signify a
natural inability for coition. Impotence with respect to
men is the same as sterility in women There are many
causes of impotence, as, a natural defect in the organs of
generation, which seldom admits of a cure, and accidents
or diseases; in which cases impotence may or may not
be remedied, according as these are curable or otherwise.
On this subject some curious and original observations
by Mr John Hunter may be found in his Treatise on the
Venereal Disease. He considers impotency as depending
upon two causes, one of which he refers to the mind, and
the other to the organs.
Impotency is a canonical disability, to avoid marriage
in the spiritual court. The marriage is not void ab initio,
but voidable only by sentence of separation during the life
of the parties.
IMPRECATION (derived from in, and precor, I pray),
a curse or wish that some evil may befall any one.
The ancients had their goddesses, called in Latin Dirce,
that is, Deorum irce, who were supposed to be the execu¬
tioners of evil consciences. They were called Dirce in
heaven, Furies on earth, and Eumenides in hell. The Ro¬
mans owned but three of these, and the Greeks only two.
They invoked them with prayers and pieces of verses to
destroy their enemies.
IMPRESSING Seamen. The power of impressing
seafaring men for the naval service, by the king’s commis¬
sion, has been a matter of much dispute, and submitted to
with great reluctance; though Sir Michael Forster strenu¬
ously contends that the practice of impressing, and grant¬
ing powers to the admiralty for that purpose, is of a very
ancient date, and has been uniformly continued by a regu¬
lar series of precedents to the present time, from which
he concludes that it is part of the common law. The dif¬
ficulty arises from this, that no statute has expressly de¬
clared this power to be in the crown, though many of them
256
IMP
INC
Impression very strongly imply it. But whatever may be said as to
II . the legality of this method of manning the navy, there can
Impurity, n0 (joubt that it is a gross invasion of natural liberty;
and hence it has in recent times been very generally re¬
probated, not only as forming a great anomaly in a free
country, where natural rights are in all other cases re¬
spected, but likewise as contrary to sound policy, and at
variance with the principles on which recruitment ought
to be conducted, excepting in those cases of imperious
necessity which imply the suspension of all ordinary rights
and laws.
IMPRESSION is applied to the species of objects
which are supposed to make some mark or impression on
the senses, the mind, and the memory. The peripatetics
assert, that bodies emit species resembling them, which
are conveyed to the common sensorium, and there ren¬
dered intelligible by the active intellect; and, when thus
spiritualized, they are called expressions, or express species,
as being expressed from the others.
Impression also denotes the edition of a book, meaning
thereby the mechanical part only; whereas edition, be¬
sides this, includes the care of the editor, who corrected
or augmented the copy, adding notes and illustrations to
render the work more useful.
IMPRISONMENT, the state of a person restrained
of his liberty, and detained under the custody of another.
No person is to be imprisoned but as the law directs,
either by the command or order of a court of record, or
by lawful warrant; or the king’s process, on which one
may be lawfully detained. Where the law gives power
to imprison, in such case it is justifiable, provided he who
does it in pursuance of a statute exactly pursues the sta¬
tute in the manner of doing it; for otherwise it will be
deemed false imprisonment, and consequently it is unjusti¬
fiable.
False Imprisonment. Every confinement of the person
is an imprisonment, whether it be in a common prison, or
in a private house, or in the stocks, or even by forcibly
detaining one in the public streets. Unlawful or false im¬
prisonment consists in such confinement or detention with¬
out sufficient authorit)^ False imprisonment also may
arise by executing a lawful warrant or process at an un¬
lawful time, as on a Sunday ; or in a place privileged from
arrests, as in the verge of the king’s court. This is the
injury. The remedy is of two sorts; the one removing
the injury, the other making satisfaction for it.
IMPROMPTU, or /nprompti/, a Latin word employed
to signify a piece made off-hand, or extempore, without any
previous meditation, by mere force and vivacity of imagi¬
nation.
IMPROBATION, in Scotch Law, the name of any ac¬
tion brought for setting aside any deed or writing upon the
head of forgery.
IMPULSION, in Mechanical Philosophy, a term em¬
ployed to express a supposed peculiar exertion of the pow¬
ers of body, by which a moving body changes the motion
of another body by hitting or striking it. The plainest
case of this action is when a body in motion strikes another
body at rest, and puts it in motion by the stroke. The
body thus put in motion is said to be impelled by the other;
and this method of producing motion is called impulsion,
to distinguish it from pression, thrusting, or protrusion.
IMPURITY, in the law of Moses, is any legal defile¬
ment. Of this there were several sorts. Some were volun¬
tary, as the touching a dead body, or any animal that had
died of itself, or any creature that was esteemed unclean ;
or the touching things holy by one who was not clean, or
was not a priest; the touching one who had a leprosy, or
who was polluted by a dead carcass, and so on. Some¬
times these impurities were involuntary, as when any one
inadvertently touched bones, or a sepulchre, or any thing
polluted ; or fell into diseases which pollute, as the lepro¬
sy. The beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touched
any thing unclean, contracted also a kind of impurity, and
in some cases communicated it to others.
These legal pollutions were generally removed by bath¬
ing, and lasted no longer than the evening. The person
polluted plunged over head in the water, and either had
his clothes on when he did so, or washed himself and his
clothes separately. Other pollutions continued seven days,
as that which was contracted by touching a dead body.
Some impurities lasted forty or fifty days, whilst others
again lasted till the person was cured.
Many of these pollutions were expiated by sacrifices,
and others by a certain water or ley made with the ashes
of a red heifer, sacrificed upon the great day of expiation.
When the leper was cured, he went to the temple and
offered a sacrifice of two birds, one of which was killed,
and the other set at liberty. He who had touched a dead
body, or had been present at a funeral, was to be purified
with the water of expiation, and this upon pain of death.
The woman who had been delivered offered a turtle and a
lamb for her expiation ; or, if she was poor, two turtles or
two young pigeons. These impurities, which the law of
Moses has expressed with the greatest care and accuracy,
were only figures of other more important impurities, such
as the sins and iniquities committed against God, or faults
committed against our neighbour. The saints and pro¬
phets of the Old Testament were sensible of this ; and our
Saviour, in the gospel, has strongly inculcated that they are
not outward and corporeal pollutions which render us un¬
acceptable to God, but such inward pollutions as infect the
soul, and are violations of justice, truth, and charity.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging something to
the account of one which belonged to another. Thus, the
assertors of original sin maintain that Adam’s sin is imput¬
ed to all his posterity; and, in the same sense, the right¬
eousness and merits of Christ are imputed to true believers.
INACCESSIBLE, something that cannot be approach¬
ed by reason of intervening obstacles.
INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally alienat¬
ed, or made over to another. Thus the dominions of the
king, the revenues of the church, the estates of a minor,
and the like, are inalienable, otherwise than with a reserve
of the right of redemption.
INANIMATE, a body that has either lost its vitality,
or that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, amongst physicians, denotes the state of
the stomach when empty, in opposition to repletion.
INANITY, the scholastic term for emptiness or abso¬
lute vacuity, and implying the absence of all body or
matter whatsoever, so that nothing remains but mere
space.
INAUGURATION, the coronation of an emperor or
king, or the consecration of a prelate; and so called from
the ceremonies used by the Romans when they were re¬
ceived into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given by the natives of Peru
to their kings and princes of the blood. Pedro de Cieca,
in his Chronicles of Peru, speaking of the origin of the
Incas, states that that country was, for a long time, the
theatre of all manner of crimes, of war, dissension, and
the most dreadful disorders, till at last two brothers ap¬
peared, one of whom, called Mangocapa, having built the
city of Cusco, made laws, and established order and har¬
mony by his wise regulations, took the name of Inca, which
signifies king or great lord; and this name descended to
his posterity.
INCAMERATION, a term used in the chancery of
Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other rights,
to the pope’s domains.
INCANTATION denotes certain ceremonies, accom-
lirp
tit.
T 11
Inca
tio
INC
- icity panied with a formula of words, supposed to be capable of
raising devils, spirits, &c.
Inc ;ive. INCAPACITY, in the canon law, is of two kinds ; first,
^ the want of a dispensation for age in a minor, and for le¬
gitimation in a bastard, &c., which renders the provision
of a benefice void in its original; and, secondly, crimes
and heinous offences, which annul provisions at first valid.
INCARNATION, in Theology, signifies the act by
which the Son of God assumed the human nature, or the
mystery by which Jesus Christ, the Eternal Word, was
made Man, in order to accomplish the work of our salva¬
tion.
Incarnation (formed from in, and coro, flesh), in Sur¬
gery, signifies the healing and filling up of ulcers and
wounds with new flesh. See Surgery.
INCARNATIVES, in Surgery, medicines which were
supposed to assist nature in filling up wmunds or ulcers
with new flesh.
INCENDIARY, in Law, is applied to one who is guil¬
ty of maliciously setting fire to another’s dwelling-house
or premises. A bare intent or attempt to do this, by ac¬
tually setting fire to a house, unless it absolutely burns,
does not fall within the description of incendit et com-
bussit. But the burning and consuming of any part is suf¬
ficient, though the fire be afterwards extinguished. It
must also be a malicious burning, otherwise it is only a
trespass. This offence is called arson in the English, and
wilful fire-raising in the Scotch law.
Amongst the ancients, criminals of this kind were ad¬
judged to be burned. Qui cedes, acervumque frumenti jux-
ta domum positum sciens, prudensque dolo malo combusserit,
vinctus igni necatur. The punishment of arson was death
by the ancient Saxon laws and by the Gothic constitutions ;,
and in the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burned
to death. The statute 8 Henry VI. c. 6, made the wil¬
ful burning of houses, under special circumstances, high
treason; but it was reduced to felony by the general acts
of Edward VI. and Queen Mary. This offence was de¬
nied the benefit of clergy by 21 Henry VIII. c. 1, which
statute was repealed by 1 Edward VI. c. 12; and arson
was held to be ousted of clergy with respect to the prin¬
cipal, by inference from the statute 4 and 5 Philip and
Mary, c. 4, which expressly denied it to the accessory;
though now it is expressly denied to the principal also by
9 Geo. I. c. 22.
INCENSE, or Frankincense, in the Materia Medi-
ca, a dry resinous substance, known amongst authors by
the names tus and olibanum.
Incense is a perfume with which the Pagans and the
Roman Catholics still perfume their temples and altars.
The word comes from the Latin incensum, that is, burned,
by taking the effect for the thing itself.
The burning of incense formed part of the daily service
of the ancient Jew ish church. The priests having drawn
lots to ascertain who should offer it, the person destined
took a large silver dish, in which was a censer full of in¬
cense ; and being accompanied by another priest carrying
some live coals from the altar, went into the temple, where,
in order to give notice to the people, they struck upon an
instrument of brass placed between the temple and the
altar; and being returned to the altar, he who brought the
fire left it there, and went away. Then the offerer of in¬
cense having said a prayer or two, waited the signal,
which was the burning of the holocaust; immediately
after which he set fire to the incense, the multitude con¬
tinuing all the time in prayer.
INCEPTIVE, a word used by Dr Wallis to express
such moments, or first principles, as, though of no mag¬
nitude themselves, are yet capable of producing results
which are. Thus a point has no magnitude itself, but is
inceptive of a line which it produces by its motion. So
VOL. XII.
INC 257
a line, though it have no breadth, is yet inceptive of Incest
breadth; that is, it is capable, by its motion, of produ- ||
cing a surface which has breadth. Inch-Colm.
INCEST, the crime of illicit commerce between per-
sons who are related in a degree in which marriage is pro¬
hibited by the laws of the country. Most nations look on
incest with horror.
Incest, Spiritual, a crime committed in like manner
between persons who have a spiritual alliance by means
of baptism or confirmation.
Spiritual incest is also understood of a vicar, or other
beneficiary, who holds two benefices, the one of which de¬
pends upon the collation of the other. Such a spiritual
incest renders both of these benefices vacant.
INCH, a well-known measure of length, being the
twelfth part of a foot, and equal to three barleycorns in
length.
Inch (contracted from the Gaelic innis, an island), a
wmrd prefixed to the names of different places in Scot¬
land and Ireland.
Inch- Colm, or Columba, the isle of Columba, an island
situated in the Frith of Forth in Scotland, and famous for
its monastery. See Forth.
This monastery was founded about 1123, by Alexan¬
der I. In passing the Frith of Forth he was overtaken
by a violent storm, which drove him to this island, where
he met with the most hospitable reception from a poor
hermit, then residing in the chapel of St Columba, and
who, for the three days during which the king remained
there tempest-bound, entertained him with the milk of
his cowand a few shell-fish. His majesty, from the sense
of the danger which he had escaped, and in gratitude to
the saint to whom he attributed his safety, vowed some
token of respect, and accordingly founded here a monas¬
tery of Augustines, and dedicated it to St Columba. Allan
de Mortimer, lord of Aberdour, who attended Edward
III. in his Scotch expedition, bestowed half of those lands
on the monks of this island, for the privilege of a family
burial-place in their church. The buildings erected in
consequence of the piety of Alexander were consider¬
able; and there is still to be seen a large square tower
belonging to the church, with the ruins of the church, and
of several other buildings. The wealth of this place in
the time of Edward III. proved so strong a temptation to
his fleet, then lying in the Forth, as to suppress all the
horror of sacrilege and respect to the sanctity of the in¬
habitants. The English landed, and spared not even the
furniture more immediately consecrated to divine worship.
But due vengeance overtook them; for, in a storm which
instantly followed, many of them perished ; and those who
escaped, struck wdth the justice of the judgment, vowed
to make ample recompense to the injured saint. The tem¬
pest ceased, and they performed the promised atonement.
INCH-Keith, a small island situated in the same frith,
about midway between the port of Leith and Kinghorn
on the opposite shore. See Forth.
This island is said to derive its name from the gallant
Keith, who so greatly signalized himself by his valour in
1010, in the battle of Barry, in Angus, against the Danes ;
after which he received in reward the barony of Keith,
in Lothian, and this little island. In 1549 the English
fleet, sent by Edward VI. to assist the lords of the con¬
gregation against the queen-dowager, landed, and began
to fortify this island, the importance of which they be¬
came sensible of, after their neglect of securing the port
of Leith, so lately in their power. They left here five
companies to cover the workmen, under the command of
Cotterel; but their operations were soon interrupted by
M. Desse, general of the French auxiliaries, who took the
place, after a gallant defence on the part of the English.
The Scotch kept possession of the island for some years;
258 INC
Inch Gar- but at last the fortifications were destroyed by act of par-
vie liament, to prevent it from being of any use to the former.
|| The French gave it the name of L Isle des Chevciux^ from
Incommen- ^ pr0perty of fattening horses. A light-house, which has
sura.ble- proved highly beneficial to the shipping frequenting the
Forth, was erected on the island in 1805.
INCH-Garvie, a small island, also lying in the Frith of
Forth, near Queensferry. See Forth.
INCHOATIVE, a term signifying the beginning of a
thing or action, and the same with what is otherwise call¬
ed inceptive. _ • • j
Inchoative Verbs denote, according to Pnscian and
other grammarians, verbs which are characterised by t e
termination sco or scor added to their primitives; as au-
gesco from augeo, calesco from caleo, irascor from ira, and
so of the rest. . . , ,
INCIDENCE denotes the direction m which one body
strikes on another. See Optics and Mechanics.
INCIDENT, in Laiv, is a thing appertaining to or fol¬
lowing another which is principal. A court baron is inse¬
parably incident to a manor, and a court of pie-powders to
3 ^Incident Diligence, in Scotch Law, a warrant granted
by a lord ordinary in the Court of Session, for citing wit¬
nesses for proving any point, or for production of any
writing necessary for preparing the cause for a final de¬
termination, or before it goes to a general proof.
INCINERATION (derived from in, and emu, ashes;,
in Chemistry, the reduction of any substance into ashes
by burning. . , ,
INCISIVE, an appellation applied to whatever cuts or
divides. Thus the fore teeth are called dentes incisivi, or
cutters ; and medicines of an attenuating nature, incidents,
or incisive medicines.
INGLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, a term used by mathematicians, and
signifying the mutual approach, tendency, or leaning of
two lines or two planes towards each other, so as to form
an angle. , .
INCLINED Plain, in Mechanics, one which forms an
oblique angle with the horizon.
INCOGNITO is applied to a person who is in any
place where he would not be known; but more particu¬
larly to princes or great men who enter towns or walk
the streets without their ordinary train, or the usual
marks of their distinction and quality.
INCOMBUSTIBLE Cloth. See Mineralogy. On
this Cronstedt observes, that the natural store of the asbesti
is in proportion to their economical use, both being very in¬
considerable. “ It is an old tradition,” says he, “ that m
former ages they made cloths of the fibrous asbesti, which
is said to be composed of the word byssus ; but it is not
probable, since, if one may conclude from some trifles now
made of it, as bags, ribbons, and other things, such a dress
could neither have an agreeable appearance, nor be of any
conveniency or advantage. It is more probable that the
Scythians dressed their dead bodies which were to be
burned, in a cloth manufactured of this stone; and this
perhaps has occasioned the above fable.” M. Magellan
confirms this opinion of Cronstedt’s, and informs us that
some of the Romans also enclosed dead bodies in cloth of
this kind.
Incombustible, something that cannot be burned or
consumed by fire. See Asbestos.
INCOMMENSURABLE, in Geometry, is a term ap¬
plied to homogeneous magnitudes which have no common
measure, or whereof one cannot be denoted as either mul¬
tiple, aliquot part, or aliquot parts, of the other, or whose
ratio cannot be represented by numbers.
The o-reat Sro/^wrjjs of the ancients has not expressly
called attention to" this negative relation of magnitudes ear-
I N C
lior than in the tenth book of his Elements; but he has Income
kept it steadily in view in the preceding parts of the work, surah]
Hence he has two distinct treatises of proportion; the one
of proportion in magnitudes, the other of proportion in
numbers.
In the second proposition of the tenth book it is shown,
that if from the greater of two magnitudes we take the less,
or the highest multiple of the less which it contains, then
take from the less the remainder, or the highest multiple
of the remainder which is contained in it, and so on conti¬
nually ; whenever this process becomes interminable, the
magnitudes have no common measure.
The simplest instance of this interminable process to
which we can refer, is in the case of a straight line and the
greater segment of the same divided in extreme and mean
ratio. For, by proposition 5, book xiii. it appears, that when
the greater segment is taken from the whole, the remain¬
der (that is, the less segment) has exactly the same rela¬
tion to this greater segment which the greater has to the
whole, and so on for ever.
If we begin a similar process with the diagonal and side
of a square, at the end of every two operations the two
lines with which we have to proceed have the same rela¬
tive magnitude as the two with which we began; and thus
we should never come to an end. If, therefore, the side
of a square be one foot, we cannot possibly express the
diagonal in feet or parts of a foot.
In fact, although, in ultimate practice, every quantity
with which the mathematician has to deal is represented
by numbers, whole or fractional, the cases where this re¬
presentation is not metaphysically accurate are far more
numerous than where it is perfect.
Take, for instance, the vulgar logarithms of the natural
numbers. Let - be the logarithm of the number N (where
q
p, q, and the other general characters which we shall use,
p
denote integer numbers). Then N = 10^, whence N8>
— 10p = 2P X 5P. And, since the q power of N con¬
tains no prime factors but 2 and 5, N itself can contain no
other. Let N = 2r X 5*. We have now 2(p' X 5?*~ = 2P
X 5P; so that qr and qs being each equal top, we have
£ = r, and N = lOG Thus^ is necessarily integer, con-
9 V . i
sequently not one logarithm of the series can be properly
a fraction; and those which are integer succeed only at
intervals, of which each is ten times as great as the pre-
ceding.
We have said that the impossibility of reducing the re¬
lation of concrete magnitudes to that of numbers, in an
infinity of cases, has caused Euclid to form two distmc
treatises of proportion. And it is easy to see by wlia
considerations he has passed from the simpler to the more
complex, though this last has priority in the order of tne
JEjIc 771611 tS*
Two numbers are called proportional to two other, or
“ the first is said to have to the second the same ratio
which the third has to the fourth, when the first is the
same multiple (aliquot) part or parts of the second which
the third is of the fourth.” But we have seen that there
may be magnitudes of the same kind, whereof one is nei¬
ther multiple, part, nor parts of another; in other words,
that have no common measure, no numerical ratio,
we may conceive two such magnitudes to be related
each other xara vrjfo/xonjra, exactly like othei two.
If D and S be the diagonal and side of a square ; an
A and 2 the diagonal and side of another square ; an i
S and 2 be divided into the same number of equal pan ,
however great the number and small the parts, we m y
INC
c nen-conceive and easily prove, that whenever D is greater
su le. than m of the parts of S, but less than m + 1, A is also
w greater than m of the parts of 2, but less than m + 1.
So that, amongst incommensurable magnitudes, the first
might be said to have the same ratio to the second which
the third has to the fourth, when, “ according as the first
is greater or less than any multiple, part, or parts whatso¬
ever of the second, the third is greater or less than the
same multiple, part, or parts of the fourth.” And both com¬
mensurable and incommensurable magnitudes might be
brought under the following definition: “ The first of
four magnitudes has the same ratio to the second which
the third has to the fourth, when, according as the first
is greater than any multiple, part, or parts whatsoever of
the second, equal to it, or less, the third is greater than
the same multiple, part, or parts of the fourth, equal to it,
or less.”
Thus, if signify n of the magnitudes, of which B
contains m, we might say, A has the same ratio to B
which C has to D, if, according as A is greater than —B,
rn
71
equal to it, or less, C is greater than — D, equal to it, or
less; m and n being not particular numbers, but any
fl
whatsoever. But if A = —B, we have wiA — nB; and
m
71
thence, according as A is greater than —B, equal to it, or
m
less, we have »iA greater than «B, equal to it, or less; and
similarly, mC greater than wD, equal to it, or less. Thus
we are brought to Euclid’s definition (book v. def. 5),
Ev ry aurcfj Xoyw /xtyiSr) "ksyiTat zivcci, ffguTOV tfgbg dzvrspot jccc/'
ryroy wgbg Teraoroy orav ra rou rfgujTov xai rgirov i<rdxig ttoXXm-
Ti'kdaia tuiv rou dsuregou xui nrdgrov /(iaxig Trokkavkacluv, xatf
imiovovv irok'karr'ka.ciiafffAov, extxreeou r\ eXkttor), r\ d[j.a ’ida y,
ji diia, u^iozyji kr^SiVTa, xaraXXjjXcc.
On the foundation of this definition he has constructed,
in his sixth book, what appears to us a far more elegant
treatise than any by which modern writers of elements
have endeavoured to supersede it. That he has been
able to accomplish it logically, without even mentioning
the existence of incommensurable magnitudes, is the best
possible evidence of its perfection.
His tenth book has often been called a treatise of in-
commensurables, or of surds. Not that Euclid has any
mode of expressing abstract surds; but he treats of lines
and areas whose relation could not be signified arithmeti¬
cally without surds. The extent of his doctrines on this
subject, in more than a hundred propositions, only em¬
braces relations expressed by square roots, and their
union with integral or fractional numbers, including re¬
peated extractions of square roots, so as to produce bi¬
quadratic roots, &e. in infinitum.
It is manifest that he knew what is expressed in the
algebraic formula VA -f B V {i(A + VA2—- B*)}
+ V{i(A—VA2 —B2)} ; or that, as the same may be
expressed implicitly, “ the square root of A + B is the
sum of the square roots of the numbers whose sum is A
and product ^B2which gives this geometrical proposi¬
tion : “ Ihe straight line equal in power to the rectangle
under a given line, and the sum of two unequal lines, is
composed of two straight lines, which are severally equal
m power to the rectangles under the given line and those
segments of the greater of the unequal lines whose rect¬
angle is a fourth of the square of the less.” He discusses
with equal fulness the propositions contained in the kin¬
dred formula VA — B — VU (A + VA2 — B2)} —
''{iCA _ VA' — 13s)}-
I N C 259
This affords a clew to the design of the greater part oflncommen-
the book, and some of the most elegant constructions. In surable
particular, we may discover, in an attentive consideration Numbers
of these formulae, the origin of those hexads of irrational .11
lines, of which he has been obliged to distinguish some by
long and rather uncouth names. " ‘ .
ihe tenth book of the Elements is amongst the very
finest performances of antiquity, for subtilty, clearness,
and elegance. (o. o. o.)
Incommensurable Numbers are such as have no com¬
mon divisor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMPATIBLE, that which cannot subsist with ano¬
ther without destroying it. Thus cold and heat are in¬
compatible in the same subject, the stronger overcoming
and expelling the weaker.
INCORPOREAL, spiritual, a thing or substance which
has no body. Thus the soul of man is incorporeal, and
may subsist independently of the body.
INCORRUPTIBLES, Incorruptibiles, the name of a
sect which sprung out of the Eutychians. Their distin¬
guishing tenet was, that the body of Jesus Christ was in¬
corruptible ; by which they meant, that after the time in
which he was formed in the womb of his mother, he was
not susceptible of any change or alteration, not even of
any natural and innocent passions or appetites, so that
he ate without any occasion, before his death, as well as
after his resurrection. And hence it was that they took
their name.
INCUBUS, Night-mare, a disease consisting in an
oppression of the chest, so very violent that the patient
cannot speak, or even breathe. The word is derived from
the Latin, incubare, to lie down on any thing and press it.
The Greeks call it £p/aXr?jg, saltator, leaper, or one that
rushes on a person.
In this disease the senses are not quite lost, but drowned
and astonished, as are the understanding and imagination;
so that the patient seems to think some huge weight
thrown on, and ready to strangle him. Children are very
liable to this distemper; and so are fat people, and men
of much study and application of mind. It is a result of
dyspepsia.
INCUMBENT, a clerk or minister who is resident on
his benefice, and who is called incumbent, because he does,
or at least ought to, bend his whole study to discharge the
cure of his church.
INCURVATION of the Rays of Light, their bending
out of a rectilinear course, occasioned by refraction. See
Optics.
INDEFEASIBLE, a term in law for what cannot be
defeated or made void; as an indefeasible estate of inherit¬
ance, an indefeasible right, and so on.
INDEMNITY, in Law, the saving one harmless ; or a
writing to secure one from all damage and danger that
may ensue from any act.
INDENTURE, in Law, a writing which comprehends
some contract between two at least, being indented at top,
answerable to another part which has the same contents.
See Deed.
INDEPENDENTS, a sect of Protestants, so called
from their maintaining that each congregation of Chris¬
tians, with its oftice-bearers, which meets in one house for
public worship, is a complete church ; has sufficient power
to act and perform every thing relating to religious go¬
vernment within itself; and is in no respect whatever
subject or accountable to other churches.
The Independents, like every other Christian sect, de¬
rive their origin from the practice of the apostles in plant¬
ing the first churches; but they were unknown in modern
times till they arose in England during the reign of Eliza¬
beth. The hierarchy established by that princess in the
churches of her dominions, the vestments worn by the
INDEPENDENTS.
260
Indepen- clergy in the celebration of divine worship, the book of
dents, common prayer, and, above all, the sign of the cross used
in the administration of baptism, were very offensive to
many of her subjects, who during the persecution of the
former reign had taken refuge amongst the Protestants of
Germany and of Geneva. Those men thought that the
church of England resembled, in too many particulars, the
church of Rome, which they believed to be antichristian ;
and they called perpetually for a more thorough reforma¬
tion and a purer worship. From this circumstance they
were stigmatised by their adversaries with the general
name of Puritans, as the followers of Novatian1 had been
in the ancient church. Elizabeth was not disposed to
comply with their demands; and it is difficult to say what
might have been the issue of the contest had the Puri¬
tans been united in sentiments, in views, and in measures.
But the case was quite otherwise. That large body, com¬
posed of persons of different ranks, characters, opinions,
and intentions, and unanimous in nothing but in their an¬
tipathy to the forms of doctrine and discipline which were
established by law, was all of a sudden divided into a va¬
riety of sects. Of these the most famous was that which
was formed about the year 1581, by Robert Brown ; a
man insinuating in his manners, but unsteady and incon¬
sistent in his views and notions of men and things.
This innovator differed not in point of doctrine either
from the church of England or from the rest of the Pu¬
ritans; but he had formed notions, then new and singular,
concerning the nature of the church, and the rules of ec¬
clesiastical government. He was for dividing the whole
body of the faithful into separate societies or congrega¬
tions ; and maintained, that such a number of persons as
could be contained in an ordinary place of worship ought
to be considered as a church, and enjoy all the rights and
privileges that are competent to an ecclesiastical commu¬
nity. These small societies he pronounced independent
jure divino, and entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of
the bishops, in whose hands the court had placed the
reins of spiritual government; and also from that of pres¬
byteries and synods, which the Puritans regarded as the
supreme visible sources of ecclesiastical authority. He
also maintained that the power of governing each con¬
gregation resided in the people, and that each member
had an equal share in this government, and an equal right
to order matters for the good of the whole society. Hence
all points both of doctrine and discipline were submitted
to the discussion of the congregation, and whatever was
supported by a majority of voices passed into a law. It
was the congregation also that elected certain of the breth¬
ren to the office of pastors, to perform the duty of pub¬
lic instruction, and the several branches of divine worship;
reserving, however, to themselves the power of dismissing
these ministers, and reducing them to the condition of
private members, whenever they should think such a
change conducive to the spiritual advantage of the com¬
munity. It is likewise to be observed, that the right of
the pastors to preach was by no means of an exclusive na¬
ture, or peculiar to them alone; since any member who
thought proper to exhort or to instruct the brethren was
abundantly indulged in the liberty of “prophesying” to
the whole assembly. Accordingly, when the ordinary
teacher or pastor had finished his discourse, all the other
brethren were permitted to communicate in public their
sentiments and illustrations upon any useful or edifying
subject.
The zeal with which Brown and his associates main- Indepi
tained and propagated these notions was ardent and ac- dent
tive. He affirmed that all communion was to be broken 'W‘Y
off with those religious societies which were founded upon
a different plan from his ; and treated the church of Eng.
land more especially as a spurious church, the ministers
of which were unlawfully ordained, whilst her discipline
was popish and antichristian, and her sacraments and in¬
stitutions destitute of all efficacy and virtue. The sect
of this innovator, not being able to endure the severe
treatment which their own zeal had brought upon them
from an administration which was not distinguished for
its mildness and indulgence, retired into the Netherlands,
and founded churches at Middleburg in Zealand, and at
Amsterdam and Leyden in the province of Holland. But
their establishments were neither solid nor lasting. Their
founder returned into England, and having renounced
his principles of separation, took orders in th§ established
church, and obtained a benefice. The Puritan exiles,
whom he thus abandoned, disagreed amongst themselves,
and having split into parties, their affairs gradually de¬
clined. This engaged the wiser part of them to mitigate
the severity of their founder’s plan, and to soften the ri¬
gour of his uncharitable decisions.
The person who had the chief merit of bringing about
this reformation was one of their pastors, called John Ro¬
binson, a man who possessed much of the solemn piety of
the times, and no inconsiderable portion of learning. This
well-meaning reformer, perceiving the defects which
reigned in the discipline of Brown, and in the spirit and
temper of his followers, employed the utmost zeal and
diligence in correcting them, and in new-modelling the
society in such a manner as to render it less odious to its
adversaries, and less liable to the censure of those Chris¬
tians who looked upon charity as the end of the com¬
mandments. Hitherto the sect had been called Brown-
ists; but Robinson having, in his Apology, affirmed, “ Cce-
tum quemlibet particularem, esse totam, integram, et per-
fectam ecclesiam ex suis partibus constantem immediate
et independenter (quoad alias ecclesias) sub ipso Christo,”
the sect was henceforth called Independents, and the apo¬
logist was considered as its founder.
The Independents were much more commendable than
the Brownists, whom they surpassed both in the mode¬
ration of their sentiments, and in the order of their disci¬
pline. They did not, like Brown, pour forth bitter and
uncharitable invectives against the churches which were
governed by rules entirely different from theirs, nor pro¬
nounce them on that account unworthy of the Christian
name. On the contrary, though they considered their
own form of ecclesiastical government as of divine institu¬
tion, and as originally introduced by the authority of the
apostles, nay, by the apostles themselves, they had yet
candour and charity enough, to acknowledge that true re¬
ligion and solid piety might flourish in those communities
which were under the jurisdiction of bishops or the go¬
vernment of synods and presbyteries. This is put beyond
all doubt by Robinson himself, who expresses his own pri¬
vate sentiments and those of his community in the follow¬
ing clear and precise words : “ Profitemur coram Deo et
hominibus, adeo nobis convenire cum ecclesiis reformatis
Belgicis in re religionis, ut omnibus et singulis earundem
ecclesiarum fidei articulis, prout habentur in harmonia
confessionum fidei, parati simus subscribere. Ecclesias
reformatas pro veris et genuinis habemus, cum iisdem in
1 The followers of Novatian were called Puritans, because they would not communicate with the Catholic church, under pre¬
tence that her communion was polluted by admitting those to the sacred mysteries who through infirmity had sacrificed to idols in
times of persecution. These unhappy men were not received by the church till after a long course of penance. But the Novatians
would not receive them at all, however long their penance, or however sincere their sorrow, for their sin. In other respects, the
ancient Puritans were, like the English, orthodox in the faith, and irreproachable in their morals.
INDEPENDENTS
I, pen- sacris Dei communionem profitemur, et, quantum in no-
( ts. bis est, colimus.” They were also much more attentive
«wi than the Brownists in keeping on foot a regular minis¬
try in their communities; for, whilst the latter allowed
promiscuously all ranks and orders of men to teach in pub¬
lic, the Independents had, and still have, a certain num¬
ber of ministers, chosen respectively by the congregations
where they are fixed; nor is any person amongst them
permitted to speak in public, before he has submitted to
a proper examination of his capacity and talents, and been
approved of by the heads of the congregation.
This religious society still subsists, and has produced
divines as eminent for learning, piety, and virtue, as any
church in Christendom. It is now distinguished from the
other Protestant communities chiefly by the two follow¬
ing circumstances: 1. The Independents reject the use
of all creeds and confessions drawn up by fallible men, re¬
quiring of their teachers no other test of orthodoxy than
a declaration of their belief in the gospel of Jesus, and
their adherence to the Scriptures as the sole standard of
faith and practice. 2. They attribute no virtue whatever
to the rite of ordination, upon which some other churches
lay so much stress; for the Independents declare, that
the qualifications which constitute a regular minister of
the New Testament, are a firm belief in the gospel, a
principle of sincere and unaffected piety, a competent
stock of knowledge, a capacity for leading devotion and
communicating instruction, a serious inclination to engage
in the important employment of promoting the everlast¬
ing salvation of mankind, and ordinarily an invitation to
the pastoral office from some particular society of Chris¬
tians. Where these things concur, they consider a per¬
son as fitted and authorized for the discharge of every
duty which belongs to the ministerial function; and they
believe that the imposition of the hands of bishops or
presbyters conveys to him no powers or prerogatives of
which he was not before possessed. At the same time it
is their custom to impose hands in ordaining pastors, as a
token of recognition in a new relation.
When the reformers separated from the church of Rome,
they drew up public confessions of faith, or articles of re¬
ligion, to which they demanded subscription from their
respective followers. Their purpose in this was to guard
against dangerous heresies, to ascertain the meaning of
scriptural language, and, we doubt not, to promote the
unity of the spirit in the bond of peace. These were
laudable ends ; but of the means chosen for attaining them,
the late Dr Taylor of Norwich, the glory of the Inde¬
pendent churches, and whose learning would have done
honour to any church, expresses his opinion in the follow'-
ing indignant language : “ How much soever the Chris¬
tian world valueth these creeds and confessions, I confess,
for my own part, that I have no opinion of them. But
we are told that they were generally drawn up by the ablest
divines. But what evidence is there of this ? are divines in
vogue and powercommonly the most knowing and upright?
But granting that the reformers were in those days the
ablest divines; the ablest divines educated in popish
schools, notwithstanding any pretended learning, might
comparatively be very weak and defective in Scripture
knowledge, which was a thing in a manner new to them.
In times of great ignorance they might be men of emi¬
nence, and yet far short of being qualified to draw up
and decide the true and precise rules of faith for all
Christians. Yea, their very attempting to draw up, de¬
cide, and establish, such rules of faith, is an incontest¬
able evidence of their surprising ignorance and weakness.
How could they be able divines, when they imposed upon
the consciences of Christians their own decisions concern-
ing gospel-faith and doctrine ? Was not this in fact to
teach and constrain Christians to depart from the most
261
fundamental principle of their religion, subjection and alle- Indepen-
giance to Christ, the only teacher and lawgiver ? But if dents,
they were able men, were they infallible ? No ; they pub-
licly affirmed their own fallibility; and yet they acted as
if they had been infallible, and could not be mistaken in
prescribing faith and doctrine.
“ But even if they were infallible, who gave them com¬
mission to do what the Spirit of God had done already ?
Could the first reformers hope to deliver the truths of re¬
ligion more fully and more clearly than the Spirit of God ?
Had they found out more apt expressions than had oc¬
curred to the Holy Spirit? The Son of God ‘ spake not
of himself; but as the Father said unto him, so he spake’
(John, xii. 50). ‘ The Spirit of truth spake not of him¬
self ; but whatsoever he heard, that he spake’ (John, xvi.
13). ‘ The things of God the apostles spake, not in the
words which man’s wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy
Ghost teacheth’ (1 Cor. ii. 13). If the Christian revela¬
tion was thus handed down to us from the Fountain of
Light with so much care and exactness, both as to matter
and words, by the Son of God, by the Spirit, and by the
apostles, who were the ancient doctors and bishops ? or
who were the first reformers ? or who were any synods
or assemblies of divines, that they dared to model Chris¬
tian faith into their own invented forms, and impose it
upon the minds of men in their own devised terms and
expressions ?
“ Has Christ given authority to all his ministers to the
end of the world, to new-mould his doctrines by the rules
of human learning whenever they think fit ? or hath he
delegated his power to any particular persons ? Neither
the one nor the other. His doctrines are not of such a
ductile nature; but stand fixed, both as to matter and
words, in the Scripture. And it is at any man’s peril, who
pretends to put them, as they are rules of faith, into any
new dress or shape. I conclude, therefore, that the first
reformers, and all councils, synods, and assemblies, who
have met together to collect, determine, and decide, to pre¬
scribe and impose matters pertaining to Christian faith,
have acted without any warrant from Christ, and therefore
have invaded the prerogative of him who is the sole Pro¬
phet and Lawgiver to the church. Peace and unity, I
know, is the pretended good design of those creeds and
confessions. But as God never sanctified them for these
ends, so all the world knows they have produced the con¬
trary effect; discord, division, and the spilling of whole
seas of Christian blood, for fourteen hundred years toge¬
ther.”
Such sentiments as these are now maintained by Chris¬
tians of various denominations ; but they were first avowed
by the Independents, to whom, therefore, the merit or de¬
merit of bringing them to light properly belongs. Our
readers will think differently of them according to their
preconceived opinions; but it is not our province either
to confirm or to refute them. They rise almost necessarily
out of the independent scheme of congregational churches ;
and we could not suppress them without deviating from
our fixed resolution of doing justice to all religious parties,
as well those from whom we differ as those with whom we
agree. It ought not, however, to be rashly concluded
that the Independents of the present age, merely because
they reject the use of all creeds of human composition,
doubt or disbelieve the doctrines deemed orthodox in other
churches. Their predecessors in the last century were
thought to be more rigid Calvinists than the Presbyte¬
rians themselves ; as many of those may likewise be who
in the present century admit not the confessions and for¬
mulas of the Calvinistic churches. They acknowledge as
divine truth every doctrine contained in the Scriptures,
but they think that scriptural doctrines are most proper¬
ly expressed in scriptural language; and the same spirit
262 INDEPENDENTS.
Indepen- of religious liberty which makes them reject the authori- a jurisdiction as that of a modern presbytery, it would imW
dents, ty of bishops and synods in matters of discipline, makes have been natural to say, “ Take heed to yourselves, dents
them reject the same authority in matters of faith. In and to the flocks over which the Holy Ghost hath made "•"'o
either case, to call any man or body of men their masters, you overseers but this is. a way of speaking of which
would, in their opinion, be a violation of the divine law, the Independent finds no instance in the whole of the
since “ one is their master, even Christ, and they are New Testament. The sacred writers, when speaking of
all brethren.” all the Christians in a nation or province, never call them
In support of their scheme of congregational churches, the church of such a nation or province, but the churches
they observe that the word innkriisiot,, which we translate of Galatia (Gal. i. 2), the churches of Macedonia (2 Cor.
church, is always used in Scripture to signify either a viii. 1), the churches of Asia (1 Cor. xvi. 19). On the
smg'/e or thep/ace where a single congregation other hand, when speaking of the disciples in a city or
meets. Thus that unlawful assembly at Ephesus brought town, who might ordinarily assemble in one place, they
together against Paul by the craftsmen is called exxXij- uniformly call them//, church; as, the church of Antioch,
<r/a, a church (Acts, xix. 32, 39, 41). The word, how- the church at Corinth, the church of Ephesus, and the like,
ever, is generally applied to a more sacred use; but In each of these churches or congregations there were
still it signifies either the body assembling, or the place bishops, sometimes called elders, and deacons; and in
in which it assembles. The whole body of the disciples every church there seems to have been more than one
at Corinth is called the church, and spoken of as coming elder, in some a great many, “ who all laboured in word
together into one place (1 Cor. xiv. 23). The place into and doctrine.” Thus we read (Acts, xiv. 23) of Paul and
which they came together we find likewise called a church; Barnabas ordaining elders (to be bishops and deacons) in
“ when ye come together in the church,—when ye come every church; and (Acts, xx. 17) of a company of elders
together into one place” (1 Cor. xi. 18, 20). Wherever in the church of Ephesus, who were exhorted to “ feed the
there were more congregations than one, there were like- flock, and to take heed to themselves and to all the flock
wise more churches than one. Thus, “ Let your women over which the Holy Ghost had made them overseers.”
keep silence in the churches? tv raig exxMsiaig (1 Cor. xiv. But of such elders as are to be found in modern presby-
34). The whole nation of Israel is indeed called a church, terian churches, who neither teach nor are fit to teach,
but it was no more than a single congregation, for it had the Independent finds no vestige in the Scriptures, nor
but one place of public worship, namely, first the taberna- in the earliest uninspired writers of the Christian church,
cle, and afterwards the temple. The catholic church of The rule or government of this presbytery or eldership
Christ, his holy nation and kingdom, is likewise a single in a church is not their own, but Christ’s. They are not
congregation, having one place of worship, that is, heaven, lords over Gods heritage, nor can they pretend to more
where all the members assemble by faith and hold com- power over the disciples than the apostles possessed. But
munion ; and in which, when they shall all be fully ga- when the administration of the apostles in the church of
thered together, they will in fact be one glorious assem- Jerusalem, and other churches where they acted as el-
bly. Accordingly we find it called “ the general assem- ders, is inquired into by an Independent, it does not ap-
bly and church of the first-born, whose names are written pear to him that they did any thing of common concern
in heaven.” to the church without the consent of the multitude; nay,
Besides these, the Independent can find no other de- it seems they thought it necessary to judge and determine
scription of a church in the New Testament; not a trace in discipline in presence of the whole church (Acts, vi.
of a diocese or presbytery consisting of several congre- 1—6, xv. 22; 1 Cor. v. 3, 4, 5). Excommunication and
gations all subject to one jurisdiction. The number of absolution were in the power of the church at Corinth,
disciples in Jerusalem was certainly great before they and not of the elders as distinguished from the congrega-
were dispersed by the persecution in which Paul bore so tion (1 Cor. v.; 2 Cor. ii.). Ihe apostle indeed speaks of
active a part. Yet they are never mentioned as forming his delivering some unto Satan (1 Pirn. i. 20). But it is
distinct assemblies, but as one assembly meeting with by no means clear that he did it by himself, and not alter
its elders in one place ; sometimes in the temple, some- the manner pointed at (1 Cor. v. 4, 5) ; even as it does not
times in Solomon s porch, and sometimes in an upper appear, from his saying, in one epistle, that the gift was
room. After the dispersion, the disciples who fled from given unto limothy by the putting on of his hands, that
Jerusalem, as they could no longer assemble in one place, this was not done in the presbytery of a church, as in the
are never called a church by themselves, or one church, other epistle we find it actually was. Ihe trying and
but the churches of Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts, ix. judging of false apostles was a matter of the first import-
31 ; Gal. i. 22). Hence the Independent concludes, that ance; but it was done by the elders with the flock at
in Jerusalem the words church and congregation were of Ephesus (Rev. ii. 2; Acts, xx. 28) ; and that whole flock
the same import; and if such was the case there, where did, in the days of Ignatius, all partake of the Lord’s Sup-
the gospel was first preached, he thinks we may reason- per, and pray together in one place.1 Even the power of
ably expect to find it so in other places. Thus, when binding and loosing, or the power of the keys as it has
Paul on his journey calls the elders of the church of Ephe- been called, was by our Saviour conferred, not upon a par¬
ses to Miletus, he speaks to them as the joint overseers ticular order of disciples, but upon the church. “ If thy
of a single congregation : “ Take heed to yourselves, and brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his
to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made fault between thee and him alone; if he shall hear thee,
you overseers” (Acts, xx. 28). Had the church at Ephe- thou hast gained thy brother. But if he will not hear thee,
sus consisted of different congregations united under such then take with thee one or two more, that in the mouth of
1 The evidence upon which this is stated by Mr Glass, for the whole of this reasoning is extracted from his works, is probably
the following passage in the epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians: ’E< yaj Ivoj xai v^anuxfi, “ For if the prayer of one or two
be of such force as we are told, how much more prevalent must that be which is made by the bishop and the whole church ? He,
then, that does not come together into the same place with it, is proud, and hath condemned himself; for it is written, God resisteth
the proud. Let us not therefore resist the bishop, that we may be the servants of God.” The sentence, as it thus stands by itself,
certainly countenances Mr Glass’s scheme ; but the reader who thinks any regard due to the testimony of Ignatius will do well to
peruse the whole epistle as published by Vossius.
INDEPENDENTS.
I epen- two or three witnesses every word may be established. And
ats- if he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church;
w but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee
as an heathen man and a publican. Verily I say unto you,
whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in hea¬
ven,” &c. (St Matth. xviii. 15, 16, 17, 18.) It is not
said, if he shall neglect to hear the one or two, tell it to
the elders of the church ; far less can it be meant that the
offended person should tell the cause of his offence to all
the disciples in a presbytery or diocese consisting of many
congregations. But he is required to tell it to that particu¬
lar church or congregation to which they both belong; and
the sentence of that assembly, pronounced by its elders,
is in a very solemn manner declared to be final, from which
there lies no appeal to any jurisdiction on earth.
With respect to the constituting of elders in any church
or congregation, the Independent reasons in the following
manner. The officers of Christ’s appointment are either
ordinary and permanent in the church, or they were ex¬
traordinary and peculiar to the planting of Christianity.
The extraordinary were those who were employed in lay¬
ing the plan of the gospel churches, and in publishing the
New Testament revelation. Such were the apostles, the
chosen witnesses of our Saviour’s resurrection; such were
the prophets inspired by the Holy Ghost for explaining
infallibly the Old Testament by the things written in the
New; and such were the evangelists, the apostles’ minis¬
ters. These can be succeeded by none in that which was
peculiar to them, because their work was completed by
themselves. But they are succeeded in all that was not
peculiar to them by bishops and deacons, the only two or¬
dinary and permanent orders of ministers in the church.
We have already seen that it belongs to the office of the
bishop to feed the flock of Christ. The only question to
be settled, then, is, How men are ordinarily called to that
office ? for about the office of the deacon there is little or
no dispute. No man now can pretend to be so called of
God to the ministry of the word as the apostles and other
inspired elders were, whom he chose to be the publishers
of his revealed truth, and to whose mission he bore wit¬
ness in an extraordinary manner. But what the apostles
were to those who had the divine oracles from their
mouths, that their writings are to us ; and therefore as no
man can lawfully pretend a call from God to make any
addition to those writings, so neither can any man pre¬
tend to be lawfully called to the ministry of the word al¬
ready written, but in the manner which that word directs.
Now there is nothing of which the New Testament speaks
more clearly than of the characters of those who should
exercise the office of bishop in the church, and of the ac¬
tual exercise of that office. The former are graphically
drawn in the epistles to Timothy and Titus ; and the latter
is minutely described in St Paul’s discourse to the Ephe¬
sian elders, in St Peter’s exhortation to elders, and our
Lord s commission to those ministers with whom he pro¬
mised to be always present even unto the end of the
world. It is not competent for any man or body of men
to add to or take from the description of a gospel mi¬
nister given in these places, so as to insist upon the ne¬
cessity of any qualification which is not there mention¬
ed, or to dispense with any qualification as needless which
is there required. Neither has Jesus Christ, the only le¬
gislator to the church, given to any ministers or people
any power or right whatsoever to call, send, elect, or or¬
dain, to that office, any person who is not qualified ac¬
cording to the description given in his law; nor has he
given any power or right to reject the least of them who
are so qualified, and who desire the office of a bishop or
G n* a 111311 ^iave hands laid upon him by such as
could prove an uninterrupted descent by imposition of
ands from the apostles; let him be set apart to that of¬
fice by a company of ministers themselves, the most con¬
formable to the Scripture character; and let him be cho¬
sen by the most holy people on earth; yet if he answer
not the New Testament description of a minister, he is
not called of God to that office, and is no minister of
Christ, but is indeed running unsent. No form of ordi-—
nation can pretend to such a clear foundation in the New
Testament as the description of the persons who should
be elders of the church ; and the laying on of hands is of
small importance in the mission of a minister of Christ;
for now, when the power of miracles has ceased, it is ob¬
vious that such a rite, by whomsoever performed, can
convey no powers, whether ordinary or extraordinary.
Indeed it appears to have been sometimes used, even in
the apostolic age, without any such intention. When St
Paul and St Barnabas were separated to the particular em¬
ployment of going out to the Gentiles, the prophets and
teachers at Antioch “ prayed and laid their hands on
them.” But did this ceremony confer upon the two
apostles any new power or authority to act as ministers
of Christ ? Did the imposition of hands make those shin-
ing lights of the gospel one whit better qualified than
they were before to convert and baptize the nations, to
feed the flock of God, to teach, rebuke, or exhort, with
all long-suffering and patience ? It cannot be pretended
that there was any special virtue in this ceremony. St
Paul and St Bdrnabas had undoubtedly received the Holy
Ghost before they came to Antioch ; and as they were
apostles, they were of course authorized to discharge all
the functions of the inferior and ordinary ministers of the
gospel. As in this instance, however, the imposition of
hands appears to have been a mark of recognition of the
parties as qualified for the work to which they were ap¬
pointed, so Independents usually lay on the hands of
the bishops with the same intent. In a word, whoever
in his life and conversation is conformable to the charac¬
ter which the inspired writers give of a bishop, and is
likewise qualified by his “ mightiness in the Scripture”
to discharge the duties of that office, is fully authorized
to administer the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s
Supper, to teach, exhort, and rebuke, with all long-suf¬
fering and doctrine, and has all the call and mission which
the Lord now gives to any man ; whilst he who wants the
qualifications mentioned has not God’s call, whatever he
may have, nor any authority to preach the gospel of
Christ, or to dispense the ordinances of his religion.
From this view of the Independent principles, which
is faithfully taken from their own writers, it appears that,
according to them, even the election of a congregation
confers upon the man whom they may choose for their
pastor no new powers, but only creates a new relation
between him and a particular flock, giving him an exclu¬
sive right, either by himself or in conjunction with other
pastors constituted in the same manner, to exercise among
them that authority which he derives immediately from
Christ, and which, in a greater or less degree, is possessed
by every sincere Christian according to his gifts and abi¬
lities. Were the ministers of the gospel constituted iu
any other way than this ; by imposition of hands, for in¬
stance, in succession from the apostles ; the case of Chris¬
tians would, in the opinion of the Independents, be extreme¬
ly hard, and the ways of God scarcely equal. We are
strictly commanded not to forsake the assembling of our¬
selves together, but to continue stedfast in the apostles’
doctrine and fellowship, and in the breaking of bread, and
in prayer. “ But can any man,” asks one of their advo¬
cates, “ bring hinjself to believe, that what he is com¬
manded to do in point of gratitude, what is made his own
personal act, an act expressive of certain dutiful and pious
affections, can possibly be restricted to the intermediate
offices or instrumentality of others, who act by powers which
263
Indepen¬
dents.
264
I N D
India.
I N D
very wide and rather indefinite application, both in ancient
and modern times. It has been generally used to desig¬
nate all those vast regions of the Asiatic continent which
lie to the eastward of the Indus, which were accordingly
distinguished by the ancients into two great divisions,
namely, India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem.
The meaning of the name, which has long been a source
of perplexity to the learned, has never been clearly ascer-
dependents maintain the divine right of congregational tained. It is supposed to be of Persian origin, from the
churches. For many years the numbers of this denomi- word Hind, or Heando, the term in the more ancient lan-
nation of Christians have been increasing, especially in guages of Persia, which has been employed by the Greeks
England • and it is calculated that they have now nearly and Romans, and from them made its way into the mo-
1600 congregations in England and Wales. They have dern languages of Europe. The progress of ancient dis-
only about eighty in Scotland, and thirty in Ireland; but covery in India has been already narrated in our account
it is reckoned5 that they have nearly a thousand congrega- both of Asia and Hindustan. Prior to the expedition of
Inderabia he can neither give nor take away ? To suppose a thing
necessary to my happiness, which is not in my own power,
or wholly depends upon the good pleasure of another, over
whom I have no authority, and concerning whose inten¬
tions and dispositions I can have no security, is to suppose
a constitution the most foolish and ill natured, utterly in¬
consistent with our ideas of a wise and good agent.” Such
are some of the principal arguments by which the In
India
Indian
Island.
tions in America.
Sir James Mackintosh, in his Historical Fragment, gives
a short notice of this body. “ They disclaimed the qua¬
lifications of ‘ national,’ as repugnant to the nature of
a church.’ The religion of the Independents could not,
Hindustan.
Alexander, all the knowledge which the Greeks possessed
of India was derived from the report of the Persians. The
geographical writers of ancient times, Eratosthenes, Strabo,
and Pliny, procured more correct information from Alex¬
ander’s officers ; and in later times the ancients extended
without destroying its nature, be established by law. They their knowledge of India by means of commerce. The ge-
never could aspire to more than religious liberty, and they neral notion of the boundaries of India within the Ganges
accordingly have the honour to be the first, and long the appears to have been correct. On the north they stated
only Christian community who collectively adopted that the boundary to be a range of mountains, the modern
sacred principle. It is true, that in the beginning they Himalaya, which they considered to be the extremity of
adopted the pernicious and inconsistent doctrine of limit- the range of Mount Taurus, and which were named Paro-
ed toleration, excluding Catholics as idolaters, and, in pamesus by the natives, or the mountains of Emodus and
New England, where the great majority were of their Imaus. The Indus was pointed out as the western boun
persuasion, punishing even capitally dissenters from opi¬
nions which they accounted fundamental. But as in¬
tolerance could promote no interest of theirs, real or
imaginary, their true principles finally worked out the
stain of these dishonourable exceptions. The govern¬
ment of Cromwell, more influenced by them than by any
other persuasion, made as near approaches to general to¬
leration as public prejudice would endure ; and Sir Harry
Vane, an Independent, was probably the first who laid
down, with perfect precision, the inviolable rights of con¬
science, and the exemption of religion from all civil au¬
thority.”1
INDERABIA, or Anderabia, a small island near the
mouth of the Persian Gulf. It is separated from the
mainland by a strait about three miles in length, three in
breadth, and free from danger. It is a low, level, and
narrow island, about three miles in length. Ships run¬
ning for shelter under this island must not come within
a mile of its south end, until a remarkable tree, which
will be distinguished by itself, bears west-north-west. Lat.
26. 40. N.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation given
to whatever is not certain, fixed, and limited; in which
sense it is the same with indefinite.
INDEX, in Anatomy, denotes the fore finger. It is so
called from indico, I point or direct, because that finger
is generally so used; and hence also the extensor indicis
is called indicator.
Index, in Arithmetic and Algebra, shows to what power
any quantity is involved, and is otherwise called its expo¬
nent. See Algebra.
Index of a Book, is that part annexed to a book, refer¬
ring to the particular matter or passages therein contained.
Index of a Globe, is a little style fitted on to the north
pole, and turning round with it, pointing to certain divi¬
sions in the hour-circle. It is sometimes also called gno¬
mon. See Globe.
Index Expurgatorius, a catalogue of prohibited books
at Rome.
INDIA. The general name of India has always had a
dary; and in later times, when the knowledge of Indian
geography was extended, the Ganges was considered the
boundary on the east, and the ocean on the south. Of
the form and limits of this extensive region, known under
the general appellation of India, the ancients entertained
very erroneous notions. Of the country that lay between
the Indus and the Ganges they had begun to acquire from
travellers more accurate information; but their accounts
respecting Southern India was still imperfect. The differ¬
ent geographical writers enumerate many distinct tribes
who were scattered over the country between the Indus and
the Ganges ; but they seem not to have had sufficient in¬
formation for such a classification of the inhabitants; and
little instruction is conveyed concerning India in such a
list of uncouth names. Of India beyond the Ganges the
ancients are still more imperfectly informed, nor do they
seem to have affixed any limits to its extension east¬
ward.
This term of India has been applied with great latitude
by modern geographers, not only to Hindustan, but to the
countries eastward as far as China, including Arracan, Ava,
Cassay, Cachar, Pegu, Tongho, Martaban, Junkseylon,
Tavay, Tenassarim, Lowashan, Yemshar, and all the other
districts really or nominally subordinate to the Burman
empire; also Siam, Malacca, Cambodia, Siampa, Laon,
Cochin China, and Tunquin. It includes, in short, all those
extensive countries that lie between the Indus on the
west and China on the east, and that are bounded on the
north by Bukharia and Thibet, on the south by the In¬
dian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, and on the north-east by
the Chinese Sea. A particular description of Hindustan,
and of all these other countries, will be found under their
respective titles, to which therefore the reader is referred.
India Company. See Company.
India Rubber. See Caoutchouc.
INDIAN, in a general sense, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to the Indies, East or West.
Indian Island lies on the coast of New Zealand, on
the south point of Dusky Bay, and is about four miles in
circumference.
1 View of the Reign of James II. p. 166.
INDIANA.
18. t INDIANA, one of the United States of North Ame-
rica, is bounded on the north by Lake Michigan, and the
territory of the same name ; on the south by Kentucky ;
on the east by Ohio ; and on the west by Illinois. It ex¬
tends from Lat. 37° 50' to Lat. 41° 45' north ; and from
Long. 84° 45' to Long. 88° west; being 270 miles in length,
220 in breadth, and containing a superficies of 36,000
square miles. Although this state is more hilly than Illinois,
it contains no mountains of any great height. The southern
front has the usual belt of river hills, bluffs, and knobs,
known by the name of Ohio Hills, which often rise im¬
mediately from the waters of the Ohio, in forms of pictu¬
resque grandeur and beauty, and sometimes retreat from
it to a considerable distance, leaving between the river and
their base, a bottom of two or three miles in extent. A
range of hills, called the Knobs, stretching from the Ohio to
White River of the Wabash, forms the limits of the table
lands which separate the waters of the Ohio from those of
White River. North of the Wabash, the hills which bear
the same name, are precipitous, and the country is to a con¬
siderable extent broken and rugged. Large portions of
the state may be pronounced hilly, but three-fifths of it at
least consist of vast tracts of level country. The wide ex¬
tent of land watered by the White River is for the most
part level. The prairies, so characteristic of the New
World, have the usual distinction of high and low, swampy
and alluvial. They differ in no respect from those of Illi¬
nois, being alike rich, level, and prolific of grass and flow¬
ering plants. Those which are situated along the course
of the Wabash have been particularly admired for their
beauty and fertility. Many of the prairies are long and
narrow, some of them, like those of Illinois, are larger than
can be taken in at once by the eye, and others are only
large enough for a few farms. They are usually bound¬
ed by dense forests, and are not unfrequently adorned with
copses of small trees. In spring and summer, the luxu¬
riant growth of grass and fragrant flowers, with which they
are covered, rises to from six to eight feet in height. For
a considerable extent on the northern frontier of the state,
between the Wabash and Lake Michigan, the country is for
the most part an extended plain, alternately prairie and
woodland, diversified by swamps, and by small lakes and
ponds. No part of the western world presents larger tracts
of rich land, than that portion of White River country, of
which Indianopolis, the capital of the state, is the centre.
The river or low prairies are levels destitute of timber,
and are said to exhibit vestiges of former cultivation. The
high or upland prairies are elevated from thirty to one hun¬
dred feet above the others, and are far more numerous and
extensive. The ordinary depth of the vegetable soil is
from two to five feet, but in some places it has been found
to extend twenty-two feet downwards. The forest trees,
shrubs, plants, and grasses, do not materially differ from
those of Illinois, but there is a much greater proportion of
beech timber. The principal productions of the state are
wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, and po¬
tatoes. There are some prairies and “ bottoms” too rich for
growing wheat, until the natural wild luxuriance of the soil
has been somewhat reduced by cropping. Upland rice has
been cultivated with success, and some of the more shel¬
tered and warm valleys have, in favourable years, yielded
considerable crops of cotton. This state is exceedingly
well adapted for rearing the finest fruits, and fruit-bearing
shrubs. There are in many places abundance of wild
berries; and on some of the prairies the strawberries are
large and fine. It is stated that in the low prairies in the
northern parts, whole tracts are covered with the beautiful
-owl meadow-grass, the Poa pratensis of the north. But
wherever the natural prairie grass has been destroyed by
eing pastured by domestic animals, it is succeeded by the
ue grass of the western country, which furnishes not only
vol. xn.
265
a beautiful sward, but covers the ground with a carpeting Indiana,
of rich fodder, not unlike the second crop, which is cut in s
the northern states as the most valuable kind of hay. For
all the objects of farming, and raising of grain, hemp, to¬
bacco, and other necessaries, and the rearing of cattle,
sheep, swine, horses, as well as other animals, the emigrant
could not find a more advantageous country than Indiana.
In the rich “ bottoms” of the southern parts, the reed cane,
and uncommonly large ginseng, are abundant.
This state possesses a great number of rivers and springs,
very happily distributed over the country. Their origin
is generally to be traced to swamps or lakes, and the sur¬
rounding districts are too low and wet for cultivation.
The southern extremity is well watered throughout its
whole length by the Ohio; and into this noble stream a
considerable number of tributaries flow. But the chief river
of Indiana is the Wabash, which, after Tennessee, is one of
the most considerable tributaries of the Ohio. It traverses
the central parts of the state, and, by its extensive branches,
irrigates a great portion thereof. White River enters the
Wabash from the eastern side, sixteen miles below Vin¬
cennes. It is the most considerable tributary of the Wa¬
bash, and one of the most important'rivers of the state. It
waters a vast tract of very fertile country, in a lateral di¬
rection to the main stream. It receives a great number of
considerable tributaries from the west, and several smaller
ones enter it from the eastern side. White Water, which
rises in Ohio, waters a large portion of fertile country.
The northern frontier of the state, bordering on the terri¬
tory of Michigan, and the lake of the same name, is watered
copiously by rivers which discharge their waters into that
lake and Lake Erie. The courses of these streams are
generally short, but they carry along large volumes of wa¬
ter. Most of them have their origin in lakes and ponds, of
which above one hundred exist along the northern frontier.
Many of them have the peculiar character of the waters in
this region; that is, they are situated on an elevated plateau,
from one extremity of which the waters are discharged into
the lakes, and from the other into the waters of the Missis¬
sippi. The amount of inland navigation of Indiana is great,
although it is not equal to that of Illinois. It possesses the
whole extent of the Wabash and White River, with its nu¬
merous branches navigable by fly-boats. A navigable ca¬
nal now connects the White Water with the Ohio, at Cin¬
cinnati; others are either completed, in progress, or in con¬
templation ; and, as the wealth and commerce of the state
increase, it will emulate the enterprise, the canals, and the
great public works of the sister state of Ohio. The whole
recent extent of inland navigation which it enjoys may be
fairly computed at 5000 miles. A great national road, pass¬
ing from east to west through the state, is in progress, and a
rail-road, from Ohio to Lake Michigan, has been projected.
The climate of Indiana resembles that of Illinois, and
the other neighbouring states. That part of it which is
contiguous to Lake Michigan is subject to copious rains,
and, being otherwise low and marshy, much of the land is
unfit for cultivation. For a considerable distance from the
lake, sand heaps covered with a few stunted junipers, and
swept by the gales of the lake, give little promise of a fine
country or propitious climate. But beyond the point to
which the breezes of the lake extend, the climate is mild
and temperate. The state in general is rather less exposed
than Illinois to the extremes of heat and cold. The cli¬
mate is in general healthy; indeed, the astonishing increase
of the population within a few years, affords a proof of this.
The higher regions are, of course, more so than those which
are low and are swampy. The winters are mild, compared
with those of New England or Pennsylvania. Winter com¬
mences in its severity about Christmas, but seldom lasts
longer than six weeks. During this period, the rivers
which have not very rapid currents are frozen; although
2 L
INDIANA.
266
Indiana, winters occur in which the Wabash cannot be crossed upon
s--—the ice. Snow does not fall to any great depth; in the middle
and southern parts rarely more than six inches. Peach trees
are generally in blossom early in March, and the foliage
of the forest assumes its green tint in the middle of April.
The interior and northern parts of this state are abun¬
dantly stocked with game. Bears, and especially deer, are
common. Wild turkeys abound, and prairie hens, par¬
tridges, and grouse are seen in countless numbers. The
streams, especially those which communicate with Lake
-Michigan, are stocked with fish of various kinds and the
best qualities. Venomous reptiles are sometimes met with,
most commonly in the vicinity of ledges of rocks. The
rattlesnake and the copper-head are the most numerous
and dangerous.
There are salt springs in different parts of the state, but
they do not appear to be wrought to any extent. Stone-
coal of the best quality is found in various places. Native
copper has been discovered in small masses, in the northern
parts of the state. Iron-ore is also found in some places. But
in general it is too level a country to afford many minerals.
Like Alabama and Tennessee, this state abounds with
subterranean wonders, such as caves. Many of these have
been explored, and some of them have been described.
One of them is generally known in the western country hy
the name of the Epsom Salts Cave. It is situated at a
short distance from Jeffersonville. When first discovered,
the salts were represented as being some inches deep on
the floor. The interior of this cave possesses the usual
domes and chambers of extensive caverns, through which
the visitant gropes his way inwards for a mile and a quar¬
ter, till he reaches the Pillar, which is a splendid column,
15 feet in diameter, and 25 feet in height, regularly reeded
from top to bottom. Near it are smaller pillars having the
same appearance. The salt in question is sometimes found
in lumps, varying from one to ten pounds. The floor and
walls are covered with it in the form of frost-work, which,
when removed, is speedily reproduced. The earth yields
from four to twenty pounds to the bushel, and the product
is said to be of the best quality. Nitre is also found in the
cave in great abundance; and likewise sulphate of lime, or
plaster of Paris.
With regard to the towns of this state, to enumerate all
that have attained some degree of importance, would only
be to present a barren catalogue of names. We shall short¬
ly describe the principal of these, beginning with Law-
renceburgh, on the south-eastern angle of the state. This
town, the seat of justice for the county of Dearborn, stands
on the northern bank of the Ohio, twenty-three miles below
Cincinnati, and two miles below the Big Miami, the east¬
ern limit of the state. It is situated in the centre of a rich
“ bottom,” and since its commencement has made very rapid
progress. Its position in relation to the river, the rich ad¬
jacent country, and the Big Miami, is highly eligible.
Many of the houses are handsome, and have a fine appear¬
ance from the river. There are a number of respectable
manufactories, and every thing promises a large and popu¬
lous town at no distant date. At present the inhabitants
are above 1000 in number. Yevay, the seat of justice for
Switzerland county, is situated forty-five miles below Cin¬
cinnati. It contains between two and three hundred
dwelling-houses, a court-house, jail, academy, a printing-
office, from which issues a weekly journal, and a branch of
the bank of Indiana, besides other public buildings. In
the neighbourhood of this town there is the largest vine¬
yard in the United States. Vines have been cultivated to a
great extent, and with a success unrivalled in the western
world. The inhabitants are chiefly emigrants from Swit¬
zerland, who brought with them, from the vine-clad moun¬
tains of their native country, those simple manners, and
those habits of industry and perseverance, for which that
people are distinguished. They are constantly making im- India]
provements in the cultivation of the p-ape, and the wi&e'^-v.
made from it is of a very superior quality. The Swiss have
created some manufactures peculiar to themselves, particu¬
larly that of straw-hats. Madison, a populous and thriving
towm, situated on the Ohio, and nearly equidistant from
Louisville and Cincinnati, was commenced in the year 1811.
Its position on the Ohio is peculiarly favourable, as it is the
point of the river nearest to Indianapolis, and the landing-
place for the imports from the Ohio to a number of the new¬
ly-settled and thriving counties. Besides churches and pub¬
lic buildings, it has nearly thirty stores of dry-goods, many of
which transact extensive business. Large exports of the
produce of the country are made here, and the town is par¬
ticularly noted for the quantity of pork which is barrelled
in it. It contains above 2000 inhabitants. Jeffersonville,
which is situated just above the Falls of Ohio, is a consi¬
derable and handsome village. Four miles and a half be¬
low it stands New Albany, the seat of justice for Floyd
county. It has a convenient yard for building steam-boats,
and is a thriving and busy village, containing about 2000
inhabitants. Passing over some places of minor note, we
come to Corydon, the seat of justice for the county of
Harrison, and once the political metropolis of the state. It
is situated in the forks of Indian Creek, about twenty-three
miles from Jeffersonville, and thirteen miles from Ohio. Sa¬
lem, w’hich is situated on a small branch of Blue River,
thirty-four miles north of Corydon, is a flourishing coun¬
try town, containing above one hundred houses. Vin¬
cennes, one of the oldest places in the western world, was
settled by French emigrants in the beginning of the last
century. It is situated 150 miles above the mouth of the
Wabash, and fifty-four from the nearest point of the Ohio.
It contains above 300 dwelling-houses, a number of public
buildings, and about 1500 inhabitants. Harmony lies fifty-
four miles below Vincennes, and sixteen miles from the
nearest point of the Ohio, on a rich and heavily-wooded
plateau, or second “ bottom.” It is situated on high ground,
is healthy, has a fertile soil, and is in the vicinity of small and
rich prairies. It was first settled in 1814 by a religious sect
of Germans, denominated Harmonites. They settled first in
Pennsylvania, whence they moved in a body, amounting to
800 persons, to this place. Like the primitive Christians,
they held their property in common, and their lands were
laid off with all the regularity 'which the compass and square
could give to them. For some time they laboured indus¬
triously and in perfect peace, but their eyes ultimately
began to revert to the temperate climate and the rich sa¬
vannahs where they had first settled. Whilst under the
influence of these yearnings, the leader of a new sect ap¬
peared amongst them. This was Robert Owen of New
Lanark, in Scotland, the expounder of a new social system.
He purchased a large portion of territory, together with a
village, and in a short period from seven to eight hundred
persons were admitted members of the new establishment.
For some time matters seemed to promise fair for the suc¬
cess of the experiment, but it finally shared the fate of the
former settlement, as well as that of every other by which
theorists would attempt to divert the stream of things from
its natural course. The social system is now abandoned.
Brookville, which is situated in the Forks of the White
River, contains about 100 houses. The surrounding country
is well timbered and watered. The soil is rich and produc¬
tive, and has acquired celebrity on account of the excel¬
lence of the tobacco which it produces. Harrison is situ¬
ated on the north bank of White River, eight miles from
its mouth, and eighteen north-east of Brookville, in
centre of an excellent tract of land. The village is divide
between the jurisdiction of Indiana and Ohio. In the nc
and extensive “bottoms” which surround this place are foun
great numbers of Indian mounds, containing human bones,
I N D
» j a axes, vases, and various other implements of war and do-
mestic utensils. Indianapolis, the seat of the government of
Indi< va the state, is situated on the western bank of White River,
nearly in the centre of the state, and at a point accessible
by steam-boats, in the ordinary state of the Wabash. It
is surrounded by one of the most extensive and fertile
tracts in North America, and it is being settled with un¬
exampled rapidity. A few years have been sufficient to
convert it from a deep and almost impenetrable forest into
a populous town and a cultivated country. There are seve¬
ral excellent public buildings, and many comfortable dwell¬
ing-houses. In course of time Indianapolis will no doubt
become one of the largest towns between Cincinnati and
the Mississippi.
This state was admitted into the Union in 1816, when its
present constitution was formed. It does not essentially
differ from those of the other western states. A governor and
lieutenant-governor are chosen by the people triennially.
There is a general assembly, consisting of a senate, the
members of which are chosen for periods of three years, a
third part being elected annually; and of a house of represen¬
tatives, the members of which are elected annually. The
number of representatives may be increased to one hundred,
and of senators to fifty ; but at present they do not amount
to much more than the half of these numbers. The judges
of the supreme court are appointed by the governor, w ith the
consent of the senate ; the presidents of the circuit courts
by the legislature ; and the associate judges are elected by
the people. A thirty-sixth part of the land in each township
is reserved, by a compact between the state and the rest
of the Union, for the support of education ; and reservations
of land have been made for the support of a college, which
is established at Bloomington. Very considerable interest
is taken in the cause of education throughout this state.
Schools are established in all the considerable towns and
villages, and many of them have a reading-room and lib¬
rary. An historical society has been formed, the object
of which is to collect and preserve the antiquities of the
state. •
This part of the country was first colonized by some
French soldiers of Louis XIV., who settled at Vincennes
as early as 1702. For nearly a century this solitary colony
remained isolated from the rest of mankind, and even retro¬
graded towards the state of the savages who surrounded it,
and with whom the colonists intermarried. During the re¬
volution, they manifested a disposition so favourable to the
republic, that the general government ceded a tract of
land to them at the termination of the war. The savages,
however, continued to harass them until the peace, which
was restored by the treaty of Greenville. The greater
part of the territory was still claimed by the natural heirs
of the soil; but in 1811, in consequence of their depreda¬
tions and murders, a military force was sent against them,
and they were defeated in the bloody battle of Tippecause.
Since the peace they have been quiet, and have ceded the
greater part of their lands to the United States. The
remnants of several tribes still remain, and possess either
lands or annuities from government. Their numbers may
amount to about 5000.
The increase of population in this state has been un¬
usually rapid. In 1820, the inhabitants amounted to
147,000, and the census of 1830 states them to be 344,000,
but this number include only persons resident in the state.
The revenue for 1831 was 103,000 dollars, and the expen¬
diture 37,765 dollars. (r. r. r.)
INDICATION, in Physic, whatever serves to direct
the physician how to act.
INDICATIVE, in Grammar, the first mood or mode
of the verb, by which we simply affirm, deny, or ask some-
thing, as, amant, they love ; non amant, they do not love;
amant ne ? do they love ? See Grammar.
i n d 267
' INDICTION, in Chronology, a cycle of fifteen years. Indiction
INDICTMENT, in Law, one of the modes of prosecut- !l
ing an offender. In English law, it is a written accusation Indig°-
of one or more persons of a crime or misdemeanor, prefer-
red to, and presented upon oath by, a grand jury. In
Scotch Law, it is the name of the summons, or libel, upon
which criminals are cited to take their trial before the
High Court of Justiciary, and is drawn in the form of a
syllogism.
INDIGENOUS, from indigena, denotes a native of a
country, or that which was originally born or produced in
the country where it is found. In this sense, particular
species of animals and plants are said to be indigenous to
the country where they are native; in opposition to Ex¬
otic.
INDIGESTION, a crudity or want of due coction of
the food in the stomach.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients applied to
some of their gods.
There are various opinions concerning the origin and
signification of this word. Some pretend that it was given
to the gods in general; others, that it was only applied to
the demigods, or great men deified. Some say that it was
given to such gods as were originally of the country, or
rather such as were the gods of the country which bore
this name ; whilst others hold that it was ascribed to such
gods as were patrons and protectors of particular cities;
and others again contend that indigetes was derived from
inde genitus or in loco degens, or from hide and ago, for
dego, I live, I inhabit; an opinion which seems to be the
most probable of all.
In effect it appears, that these indigetes were also called
local gods (dii locales), or topical gods, which is the same
thing; that the indigetes were ordinarily men deified, who
indeed were in effect local gods, being esteemed the pro¬
tectors of those places where they were deified ; that Virgil
ySm&patrii with indigetes, as being the same thing ( Georg, i.
ver. 498.), thus dii patrii, indigetes ; and that the gods to
whom the Romans gave the name of indigetes were, Faunus,
Vesta, Alneas, Romulus, all the gods of Italy, Minerva at
Athens, and Dido at Carthage. It is true, we meet with
Jupiter indiges ; but that Jupiter indiges is iEneas, not the
great Jupiter, we may see in Livy (lib. i. cap. 3.) ; and in
this last sense Servius assures us that indiges comes from
the Latin in diis ago, I am amongst the gods.
Amongst these indigetes gods, there was none more ce¬
lebrated, or more extensively worshipped, than Hercules.
INDIGO, a dye prepared from the leaves and small
branches of the Indigofera tinctoria.
This plant requires a smooth rich soil, well tilled, and
not too dry. The seed of it, which, in figure and colour,
resembles gunpowder, is sown in little furrows that are
about the breadth of the hoe, two or three inches deep, at
the distance of a foot from each other, and in as straight a
line as possible. Continual attention is required to pluck
up the weeds, which would soon choke the plant. Though
it may be sown in all seasons, the spring is commonly pre¬
ferred. Moisture causes this plant to shoot above the sur¬
face in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of two
months. When it begins to flower, it is cut with pruning-
knives ; and cut again at the end of every six weeks, if the
weather, happen to be a little rainy. It lasts about two
years, after which term it degenerates, and is then plucked
up, and planted afresh. As this plant soon exhausts the
soil, because it does not absorb a sufficient quantity of air
and dew to moisten the earth, it is of advantage to the plan¬
ter to have a vast space which may remain covered with
trees, till it become necessary to fell them in order to make
room for the indigo.
Indigo is distinguished into two kinds ; the true and the
bastard. Though the first is sold at a higher price on ac-
268 I N : D
Indigo count of its superiority, it is usually advantageous to culti-
InV ^ 'bi vate tIie other’ because it is heavier. The first will grow
-l-1 _ 1 in many different soils ; the second succeeds best in those
Y which are most exposed to the rain. Both are liable to
great accidents. Sometimes the plant becomes dry, and is
destroyed by an insect frequently found on it; at other
times, the leaves, which are the valuable part of the plant,
are devoured in the space of twenty-four hours by cater¬
pillars. This last misfortune, which is but too common,
has given occasion to the saying, that the planters of indigo
go to bed rich, and rise in the morning totally ruined.
This production ought to be gathered in with great pre-
caution, for fear of making the farina that lies on the leaves,
and is very valuable, fall off by shaking it. When gathered,
it is thrown into the steeping-vat, which is a large tub filled
with water. Here it undergoes a fermentation, which in
twenty-four hours at furthest is completed. A cock is
then turned to let the water run into the second tub, called
the mortar or pounding-tub. The steeping-vat is then
cleaned out, that fresh plants may be thrown in ; and thus
the work is continued without interruption.
The water which has run into the pounding-tub is found
impregnated with a very subtile earth, which alone consti¬
tutes the dregs or blue substance that is the object of this
process, and which must be separated from the useless salt
of the plant, because this makes the dregs swim on the
surface. To effect this, the water is forcibly agitated with
wooden buckets, which are full of holes and fixed to a long
handle. This part of the process requires the greatest pre¬
cautions. If the agitation be discontinued too soon, the
part that is used in dyeing, not being sufficiently separated
from the salt, would be lost. If, on the other hand, the
dye were to be agitated too long after the complete separa¬
tion, the parts would be brought together again, and form
a new combination ; and the salt reacting on the dregs
would excite a second fermentation, that would alter the
dye, spoil its colour, and make what is called burnt indigo.
These accidents are prevented by a close attention to the
least alterations which the dye undergoes, and by the pre¬
caution which the workmen take to draw out a little of it
from time to time in a clean vessel. When they perceive
that the coloured particles collect by separating from the
rest of the liquor, they leave off shaking the buckets, in
order to allow time to the blue dregs to precipitate to the
bottom of the tub, where they are left to settle till the
water is quite clear. Holes made in the tub, at different
heights, are then opened one after another, and the useless
water is let out.
The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having acquired
the consistence of a thick muddy liquid, cocks are then
opened, which draw it off into the settler. After it is still
more cleared of much superfluous water in this third and
last tub, it is drained into sacks, from which, when water
no longer filters through the cloth, this matter, now become
of a thicker consistence, is put into chests, where it entirely
loses its moisture. At the end of three months the indigo
is fit for sale.
It is used, in washing, to give a bluish colour to linen ;
painters also employ it in their water colours; and dyers
cannot make fine blue without indigo. The ancients pro¬
cured it from the East Indies; in modern times, it has
been transplanted into America.
INDIVIDUAL, a particular being of any species, or
that which cannot be divided into two or more beings equal
or alike. &
The usual division in logic is made into genera ; those
genera into species ; and those species into individuals.
INDIVISIBLE, amongst metaphysicians. A thing is
said to be absolutely indivisible, that is, a simple being,
when it consists of no parts into which it can be divided.
Thus, God is indivisible in all respects; as is also the hu-
I N D
man mind, not having extension, nor'other properties oflndivi
body. . p1
Indivisibles, in Geometry, the elements or principles
into which any body or figure may be ultimately resolved,
which elements are supposed to be infinitely small. Thus’
a line may be said to consist of points, a surface of parallel
lines, and a solid of parallel and similar surfaces.
INDORSEMENT, in Law, any thing written on the
back of a deed; as a receipt for money received.
I here is likewise an indorsement, by way of assignment,
on bills of exchange and notes of hand; which may be
done by merely writing a person’s name on the back of the
instrument.
INDRE, a department of France, formed out of a part
of the ancient Touraine, and a portion of the province of
La Marche. It is an inland division, surrounded on every
side by other departments of the kingdom. The extent is
2925 square miles, or, according to "the Royal Almanac,
702,240 hectares, of which 441,383 are under the plough’
14,025 are vineyards, 36,696 pastures, 10,409 commons!
104,568 waste heaths, 57,343 woods and forests, 5059
gardens, and the remainder consists of the sites of cities,
towns, and villages, and of roads, rivers, and canals. It is
divided into 4 arrondissements, and these are subdivided
into 23 cantons, and 275 communes, with a population of
207,721 individuals, all professing the Catholic religion, and
having 166 churches. It is a level district, with but few hills,
and only such valleys as receive the several streams which
run through them. On the southern boundary there is a
range of hills, not lofty, composed of granite and slate, but
they rather belong to the department of the Cher. The
department is watered by no less than 15 rivers, and 100
subsidiary brooks. The principal streams are the Creuse,
the Indre, the Fouson, and the Arnon. The climate is
temperate, neither the heat nor the cold being excessive,
but in the vicinity of the more sluggish streams there is a
moisture in the air, deemed unfavourable to health. The
department is very backward in its agriculture, and the
farms are mostly small, being let on the Metayer system, and
the rent being paid by a stipulated portion of the crops.
The common rotation is a fallow and two crops of corn. The
yearly produce, wheat and rye, is about equal, and of both,
as well of barley and oats, there is a surplus. The vine¬
yards, though extensive, are neglected, and the wine is
badly managed, and of little repute. The manufactures
are chiefly of the domestic kind, and supply the inhabitants
with clothing and household and rural implements. The
capital is Chateauroux, with 8500 inhabitants.
INDRE and LOIRE, a department of the north-west
of France, formed out of the ancient district of Touraine.
It extends over 2953 square miles, or, according to the
Royal Almanac, 612,679 hectares. It is divided into three
arrondissements, whose subdivisions are 24 cantons, and 311
communes, with 274,970 inhabitants. It is generally a level
country, consisting of valleys, in which the rivers run, and
of plains between, of moderate elevation, which, from their
good cultivation and fertility, have been denominated the
garden of h ranee. T here are, however, some parts of the
department which are sandy heaths, and others where the
chalk is so slightly covered with soil, as to render it un¬
fit for profitable cultivation. It is well watered by the
rivers Loire, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the Creuse, and
their respective tributary brooks, too numerous to be re¬
counted. The climate is temperate like all the middle of
France, with a pleasant spring and autumn, hot summer,
and short but not severe winter. The forests cover one-
ninth of the department, producing fuel and timber. The
corn of this division is unequal to the consumption, one-
fourth of which must be supplied from the neighbouring
provinces. It yields, however, a surplus of each kind of
domestic animals, and of their produce, and a most copious
I N D
jnij. i0n store of fruits of all kinds, some of which dried, as plums
and apples, and others as almonds, filberts, walnuts, and
In I- chestnuts, with no preparation, form a considerable branch
ge ^ cornrnerce. It yields also good flax and hemp, and much
' ‘ honey and wax. The wine is chiefly white, and some of it,
as well as of the red, is highly valued, but the greater part
is made into brandy for distant markets. The rearing silk
worms, which was once a considerable occupation, has been
nearly abandoned. There are some mines of iron, whose
ores are cleared and worked into the appropriate articles.
The manufactures are inconsiderable, consisting of linen
and woollen cloth, of some silk goods, paper, liquorice, and
liqueurs. The capital of the department is the city of Tours.
INDUCTION, in Logic and Rhetoric, a consequence
drawn from several propositions or principles first laid
down; or a general inference deduced from a number of
facts so arranged in the statement of them as to lead neces-
garily to the conclusion.
Induction, in Law, is putting a clerk or clergyman in
possession of a benefice or living to which he is collated or
presented.
Induction, in Philosophy. See Physics.
INDULGENCES, in the Roman Catholic church, are
a remission of the punishment due to sins, granted by the
church, and supposed to save the sinner from purgatory.
According to the doctrine which was once maintained by
this church, all the good works of the saints, over and above
those which were necessary towards their own justification,
are deposited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus
Christ, in one inexhaustible treasury, the keys of which
were committed to St Peter, and to his successors the
popes, who might open it at pleasure, and by transferring a
portion of this superabundant merit to any particular per¬
son, for a sum of money, convey to him either the par¬
don of his own sins, or a release for any one in whom he
felt interested, from the pains of purgatory. Such indul¬
gences were first invented in the eleventh century, by Ur¬
ban II., as a recompense for those who went in person
upon the glorious enterprize of conquering the Holy Land.
They were afterwards granted to those who hired a soldier
for that purpose; and in process of time were bestowed on
such as gave money for accomplishing any pious work en¬
joined by the pope.
The power of granting indulgences has been greatly
abused in the church of Rome. Leo X., in order to carry
on the magnificent structure of St Peter’s at Rome, pub¬
lished indulgences, and a plenary remission, to all such as
should contribute money towards it. Finding the project
take, he granted to Albert, elector of Mentz and archbi¬
shop of Magdeburg, the benefit of the indulgences of Sax¬
ony and the neighbouring parts, and farmed out those of
other countries to the highest bidders, who, in order to make
the most of their bargain, procured the ablest preachers to
cry up the value of the commodity. The form of these in-
didgences was as follows: “ May our Lord Jesus Christ
have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by the merits of
his most holy passion. And I, by his authority, that of his
blessed apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy Pope,
granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve
thee, first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever man¬
ner they have been incurred; then from all thy sins, trans¬
gressions, and excesses, how enormous soever these may be,
even from such as are reserved for the cognizance of the
holy see, and as far as the keys of the holy church extend:
I remit to you all punishment which you deserve in purga¬
tory on their account; and I restore you to the holy sacra¬
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that
innocence and purity which you possessed at baptism; so
that when you die, the gates of punishment shall be shut,
and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened: and
if you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full
I N D 269
force when you are at the point of death. In the name of Indult
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.” []
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences describ- Indus,
cd their benefits and the necessity of purchasing them, were v y
so extravagant, that they appear almost incredible. If any
man, said they, shall purchase letters of indulgence, his soul
may rest secure with respect to its salvation. The souls
confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indulgences
were purchased, as soon as the money tinkled in the chest,
instantly escaped from that place of torment, and ascended
into heaven. They maintained that the efficacy of indul¬
gences was so great, that the most heinous sins w ould be
remitted and expiated by them, and the person freed from
both guilt and punishment; that this was the unspeak¬
able gift of God, in order to reconcile man to himself; and
that the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences was
equally efficacious with the cross of Christ itself.
It was this great abuse of indulgences which mainly con¬
tributed to the reformation of religion in Germany, where
Martin Luther began to declaim first against the preachers
of indulgences, and afterwards against indulgences them¬
selves ; but since that time the popes have become much
more sparing in the exercise of this power.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of pre¬
senting to benefices granted to certain persons by the pope.
Of this kind is the indult of kings and sovereign princes in
the Roman Catholic communion, and that of the parlia¬
ment of Paris granted by several popes. By the concordat
for the abolition of the pragmatic sanction, made between
Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516, the French king had the
power of nominating to bishoprics, and other consistorial
benefices within his realm. At the same time, by a parti¬
cular bull, the pope granted to him the privilege of nomi¬
nating to the churches of Bretagne and Provence. In
1648 Pope Alexander VIII., and in 1668 Clement IX.,
granted the king an indult for the bishoprics of Metz, Toul,
and Verdun, which had been yielded to him by the treaty
of Munster; and in 1668 the same Pope Clement IX.
granted him an indult for the benefices in the counties of
Rousillon, Artois, and the Netherlands. The cardinals
likewise have an indult granted them by agreement be¬
tween Pope Paul IV. and the sacred college in 1555,
which is always confirmed by the popes at the time of their
election. By this treaty the cardinals have the free dispo¬
sal of all the benefices depending on them, and are em¬
powered likewise to bestow a benefice in commendam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, or custom, paid to the king of
Spain on all such commodities as are imported from the
West Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, also called theNiLAB andtheSiNDE. Thisgreat
river has its rise in the mountains of Tartary, lying between
the 38 and 39 degrees of N. Lat., and is formed by tw’o
great branches, which join at the town of Dras, about 100
miles N.E. from Cashmeer. The left of these branches is
seventy yards broad a little above the junction, and exces¬
sively rapid; it comes from the north of east, and runs west
after being joined by the branch which passes the city of
Lechdack in Thibet. According to information given to
Mr Elphinstone by a Cashmerian, these head branches of
the Indus joined about twenty-four miles above Dras, and at
or below that town, the river divided into two branches, the
lesser one running south to Cashmeer, but the greater one
he knew little about, excepting that it wras called the great
Sinde. After passing the city of Lechdack in Thibet, it
takes a south-wresterly course, and forcing its way through
the mountains called the Hindoo Coosh, it enters Hindos-
tan about Lat. 33° 15' N. Here, about sixty miles from
its source, it is joined by the Cabul or Attock from the
west; and it increases both in breadth and in depth,
being about three-quarters of a mile in breadth in the
month of July, and no longer fordable. Forty miles above
270 I N D
Indus, the fort of Attock east-north-east, it is confined between
~v'“'~^high mountains as far as Torbela, where it enters the val¬
ley of Chuch, spreading and forming innumerable islands
till it reaches the fort of Attock, where it again enters
between the hills. At the fort it is only 260 yards broad,
and both deep and rapid. It enters a plain five miles
south of Attock, and is again confined between hills at
Nilah, ten miles south of Attock, and continues to wind
amongst deep groups of mountains on to Harrabah, lati¬
tude 33° 7', where it enters the rich valley of the Esa
Khels in four great branches, and is not again interrupted
in its course by hills. From this point to where it is
joined by the fine rivers of the Punjab, and flows in one
stream, its course is south-east; and it enters the province
of Sinde between the 25th and 26th degrees of N. Lat.
Mr Elphinstone crossed the Indus in lat. 31° 28' in Janu¬
ary 1809, when the stream was at the lowest, and found its
breadth to be 1905 yards. The depth of the channel at
its deepest part was not above twelve feet; and an elephant
ten and a half feet in height, had not a hundred yards to
swim; the main channel being here reduced by several
large branches which separate from it, and run in a parallel
course, one 200 yards, another 500 yards, and a third 50
yards broad. Major Rennell estimates the delta of the Indus
to be about 150 miles in length along the sea-coast; and
about 115 in depth, from the place of separation of the
superior branches of the river, to the most prominent point
of the sea-coast. There is here water for vessels of nearly
200 tons burden, from the Gulf of Cutch to Lahore, a dis¬
tance of 760 geographical miles. About 170 miles from
the sea, by the course of the river, the Indus divides
into two branches, of which the westernmost is by much
the larger; and, after a course of about fifty miles to
the south-west, as it approaches the sea, it is again sub¬
divided into several other branches and creeks. The
lower part of the delta is intersected by rivers and creeks
in almost every direction, like the delta of the Ganges;
but it so far differs from the latter, that it has no trees
on its surface, the dry parts being covered with brush¬
wood, and the remainder, by much the largest part, being
noisome swamps or muddy lakes. It is remarkable that the
influence of the tides is not felt at a greater distance than
sixty or sixty-five miles from the sea. At the mouths of the
different branches, the rush or influx of the tide is high and
dangerous, running, as has been estimated, at the rate of four
miles an hour, though varying greatly at different places.
From the sea up to Hyderabad, the Indus is in general
about a mile in breadth, varying in depth from two to five
fathoms. The river begins to swell in the middle of July,
from the melting of the snows, and continues to increase
until the end of August. The length of the Indus is esti¬
mated by Mr Elphinstone, on the best data that he could
collect, to be from Lechdack to Rodack, a place where wool
is brought, or sheep, through a hilly country, to Cashmeer,
to be manufactured into shawls, 250 miles ; thence to the
fort of Attock, 400 miles; and 700 to the sea; in all 1350
miles.1 The Indus admits of an uninterrupted navigation
from Tatta, the capital of Sinde, to Moultan and Lahore,
for vessels of 200 tons, and a very extensive trade was
carried on between these places in the time of Aurungzebe ;
and it is mentioned by Mr Bumes, in his visit to the Court
of Sinde in 1828, that above Bunosa, which is thirty miles
below Hyderabad, the river is nearly a mile broad, studded
with boats, filling its channel from bank to bank, and moving
majestically forward, at the rate of about three miles an
hour.2 But the trade has been frequently interrupted by
the disorderly state of the country, owing to the bad go¬
vernment of Sinde, and the predatory incursions of the Sikhs
INF
and petty chiefs, who possess the countries of Moultan and Inebria
Lahore, or the banditti who live under their precarious I
authority. The upper part of the delta is well cultivated,
yielding abundance of rice,3 and Mr Burnes, in his jour-
ney across it from Cutch, describes the extensive cultiva- '*~v'
tion and richness of the soil from Buree to Toorta, as every
where remarkable. He had every where to cross a num¬
ber of canals dug for the purposes of agriculture, from the
branches of the Indus, and over many of which small brick
bridges were thrown, on which draw-wells were constantly
at work irrigating the fields ; and he observed a strong con¬
trast between the parched deserts of Cutch and the exu¬
berance of vegetable life exhibited in the delta of the Indus.
This great river is named the Sindhis or Sindhus in San¬
scrit, and Aub Sinde, or the water of Sinde, by the Per¬
sians. It is called by the natives Attock, from that place
downwards to Moultan, and farther down to Soor or Shoor,
until it separates in the Delta. The Asiatics generally dis¬
tinguish it by the name of Sinde. It forms a strong bar¬
rier on the west of Hindostan for nearly 900 miles, and, if
the country were resolutely defended, it would be a formi¬
dable obstacle to an invading army. The bed of the Indus
is sand, with a small quantity of mud, and the water is
wholesome, and quite fresh. Mr Burnes estimates that
the Indus pours into the sea about four times as much
water as the Ganges.
INEBRIANTS, are defined to be such things as affect
the nerves in a particular and agreeable manner, and
through them alter and disturb the functions of the mind.
They are properly divided into natural and artificial; the
former being chiefly in use amongst the oriental and other
nations, the latter principally amongst those of Europe.
Natural Incbriants, are, 1. Opium, which is in use all over
the East; 2. Peganum Jiarmala, or Syrian rue, the seeds of
which are sold in Turkey for this purpose; 3. Maslac of the
Turks, or bangue of the Persians, prepared from the dust
of the male-flower of hemp, or from the leaves; 4. Bangue
of the Indians, from the leaves of the Hibiscus sabdarissa;
5. Seeds of various species of the datura, or thorn-apple;
6. Pinang, or betel of the Indians; 7- Roots of black hen¬
bane ; 8. The Hyoscyamus physaloides ; 9. Berries of the
deadly nightshade; 10. Leaves of milfoil, used by the Da-
lekarlians to render their beer intoxicating; 11. Tobacco,
and several others less material, such as clary, saffron, and
darnel.
Artificial Inebriants, are fermented liquors from farina¬
ceous seeds; and wines and spirits drawn by distillation.
With these are ranked the nectar of the gods, and the ano¬
dyne medicine of Homer, commonly called nepenthe.
INERTIA q/" Matter is defined by Sir Isaac Newton
to be a passive principle by which bodies persist in a state
of motion or of rest, receive motion in proportion to the
force impressing it, and resist as much as they are resisted.
It is also defined by the same author to be a power im¬
planted in all matter, whereby it resists any change endea¬
voured to be made in its state. See Physics.
IN ESSE is applied to things which are actually existing.
Authors make a difference between a thing in esse, and
a thing in posse. A thing that is not, but may be, they
say is in posse, or potential but a thing apparent and
visible, they say is in esse, that is, it has a real being eo in-
stanti, whereas the other is casual, and at best but a possi¬
bility.
INFALISTACIO, an ancient punishment of felons, by
throwing them amongst the rocks and sands, and chiefly
used in port-towms. It is the opinion of some writers, that
infalistatus implied some capital punishment, by exposing
the malefactor upon the sand till the next tide carried him
1 Elphinstone’s Account of the Kingdom of Cabul. Appendix, p. 653.
* Itennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindostan, p. 161. 3 Burnes, Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde, p. 40.
INF
Inf£ ble away; and of this custom, it is said, there exists an old tradi¬
tion. However, the penalty seems to have taken its name
Inf: ry. fj.om the Norman/«/e?e, or falesia, which signified not the
sands, but the rocks and cliffs adjoining, or impending over
the sea-shore. Commisit feloniam ob quam fait suspensus,
utlegatus velalio modo morti damnatus, ... velapudDover
infalistatus, apud Southampton submersus.
INFALLIBLE, that which cannot err, or be deceived.
One of the great controversies between the Protestants and
Catholics, is the infallibility which the latter attribute to
the pope; though, in fact, they are not themselves agreed
on that head, some placing this pretended infallibility in
the pope and a general council, and others in his Holiness
alone.
INFAMY, in Law, is that consequence of conviction
for certain crimes, by which the person convicted incurs
the infamia juris, and is thus rendered incapable of being
a witness or juror, even though he be pardoned for his crime.
INFANCY, the first part of life. Hoffman says, that
the human species are infants until they begin to talk, and
children till the age of puberty. Anatomy discovers to us,
that during infancy there is much imperfection in the hu¬
man frame; its parts, for instance, are disproportioned, and
its organs incapable of those functions which in future life
they are designed to perform. The head is larger in pro¬
portion to the bulk of the body than that of an adult. The
liver and pancreas are much larger in proportion than in
advanced life; and their secretions are also more in quan¬
tity. The bile is very inert; the heart is stronger and larger
than in future life ; and the quantity of blood sent through
the heart of an infant, in a given time, is also more in pro¬
portion than in adults. Though these circumstances have
their usefulness, yet the imperfection attending them sub¬
jects this age to many injuries and dangers from which a
more perfect state is exempt. Dr Percival observes, in his
Essays, that of all the children who are born alive, two-
thirds do not live to be two years old.
Infants have a larger proportion of brain than adults,
and hence are most subject to nervous disorders; whilst
the diagnostics of disease are in many respects obscure or
uncertain, particularly those taken from the pulse, which,
from the irritability of the tender bodies of infants, is sud¬
denly affected by a variety of accidents too numerous, and
seemingly too trivial, to gain our attention. From this
cause, however, no very great embarrassment arises to the
practitioner; for the disorders in this state are generally
acute, less complicated than those in adults, and more easily
discovered than is generally apprehended.
Infants, amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, were
swaddled as soon as they were born, in a manner similar
to that practised by the moderns. The Jews circumcised
and named their infant children on the eighth day from the
birth. On the birth of a son, the Grecians crowned their
doors with olives, on that of a daughter with wool. The
infant was washed in warm water, and anointed with oil,
and by the Spartans with wine; it was then dressed, and
laid in a basket, or on a shield if the father was a warrior,
particularly amongst the Spartans. At five days old they
ran with it round the fire, and the mother’s relations sent
presents. The Greeks named their children on the tenth
day, the Romans on the ninth ; and this was attended with
sacrifices and other demonstrations of joy.
Infant, in Law, is a person under twenty-one years of
age, whose capacities, incapacities, and privileges are va-
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the sons and daughters of
the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the eldest; the
^ tati? ^e’n? ca^ed infantes, and the princesses infantas.
INFAN1RY, in military affairs, the whole body of foot
soldiers, whether consisting of independent companies or
regiments. This word takes its origin from one of the in-
INF 271
fantas of Spain, who, finding that tne army commanded by Infatuate
the king her father had been defeated by the Moors, as- »
sembled a body of foot-soldiers, and with them engaged Infidelity-
and totally routed the enemy. In memory of this event, v'—
and to distingush the foot-soldiers, who were not before held
in much consideration, they received the nurne of infantry.
Heavy-armed Infantry, amongst the ancients, were
such as wore a complete suit of armour, and engaged with
broad shields and long spears. They formed the flower
and strength of the Grecian armies. See Army.
Light-armed Infantry, amongst the ancients, were de¬
signed for skirmishing, and for fighting at a distance. Their
weapons were arrows, darts, or slings.
Light Infantry, amongst the moderns, have only been
in use since the year 1656. They have no camp equipage
to carry, and their arms and accoutrements are lighter than
those of the infantry. See Army.
INFATUATE, to prepossess anyone in favour of some
person or thing that does not deserve it, so that he cannot
easily be disabused. The word comes from the Latin
fatuus, fool; from fari, to speak out, which is borrowed
from the Greek <puu, whence <p<*r»is, which signifies the same
with vates in Latin, or prophet in English; and the reason
is, because their prophets or priests used to be seized with
a kind of madness, when they began to give out their pre¬
dictions, or deliver oracles.
The Romans called those persons infatuati, who fancied
that they had seen visions, or imagined that the god Faunus,
whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to them. This
word is more generally applied by the moderns to persons
who are what the vulgar call bewitched, or under some
peculiar destiny which it appears impossible for them to
evade or escape.
INFEFTMENT, in Scotch Law, the symbolical surren¬
der of an heritable subject to the purchaser, by delivering to
him, in presence of witnesses, a small quantity of earth and
stone of the property surrendered. It also denotes the
writings which give effect to that ceremony.
INFERLE, sacrifices offered by the Romans to the
Dii Manes, or the souls of deceased heroes or other illus¬
trious persons, or even any relation or person whose me¬
mory was held in veneration. These sacrifices consisted
of honey, water, wine, milk, the blood of victims, a variety
of balsamic unguents, chaplets, and loose flowers. The
victims upon these occasions were generally of the smaller
cattle, though in ancient times they sacrificed slaves or
captives. The sacrifices were usually black and barren.
The altars upon which they were offered were holes dug in
the ground.
The honey, water, wine, milk, and blood, were used as
libations, and were poured upon the tombs of children
by children, upon those of virgins by virgins, and upon those
of married men by women. The inferice were offered on
the ninth and thirtieth days after interment amongst the
Greeks, and repeated in the month Anthesterion. The
whole of this article applies equally to the Greeks and the
Romans.
INFIB ULATION, in antiquity. It was a custom
amongst the Romans to infibulate their singing boys, in or¬
der to preserve their voices; for this operation, which is
the very reverse of circumcision, kept them from injuring
their voices by premature venery.
INFIDEL, a term applied to such persons as are not
baptized, and do not believe in the truths of the Christian
religion.
INFTDELITY, in a general sense, denotes want of
faith or belief in regard to any subject or transaction. Re¬
ligious Infidelity signifies a disbelief of Christianity.
“ Of all the methods,” says Dr Knox, “ which the vanity
of man has devised with a view to acquire distinction, there is
none easier than that of professing a disbelief of the esta-
272 INF
Infidelity, blished religion. That which shocks the feelings of those
s—“v—'7 with whom we converse, cannot fail of attracting notice ;
and as the vain are usually confident, they utter their doubts
with an air so oracular and decisive, as induces the simple
to think them profoundly wise. Audacity, with little in¬
genuity, will attract the eyes of spectators, and this will
sufficiently answer the purpose of many amongst the pro¬
fessed unbelievers. One might be diverted, if one were
not hurt, at seeing a circle of silly admirers, gaping and
fixing their eyes on some half-learned and impudent prater,
who throws out oblique insinuations against the Bible, the
clergy, or the sacrament. These are fertile topics of wit
and ingenuity; but it might mortify the vanity of some
very vain writers and talkers, if they were to recollect, what
is undoubtedly true, that it is a species of wit and ingenuity
which not only the vilest, but the most stupid and illiterate
of mankind, have frequently displayed in all its possible
perfection.
“ There is indeed no doubt, but that vanity is one of the
principal causes of infidelity. It must be the sole cause of
communicating it to others, by writing or conversation.
For let us suppose the case of a very humane, judicious,
and learned man, entertaining doubts of the truth of
Christianity : If he cannot clear his doubts by examination,
he will yet recollect that doubts are no certainties; and,
before he endeavours to propagate his scepticism, he wall
ask himself these questions: ‘ Am I quite convinced that
what I doubt of cannot possibly be true ? If I am con¬
vinced of it, am I sure that the publication of my opinions
will not do more harm than good ? Is not the disturbing
of any long-established civil constitution attended with con¬
fusion, rebellion, bloodshed, and ruin? And are not the ma¬
jority of men more strongly attached to the religion than
the government of their forefathers? Will it serve my
country to introduce discontent of any species ? May not
those innovations in religion, which discontent may intro¬
duce, lead to all the evils which are caused by frenzy and
fanaticism ? 'Granting that I were able to make a party
formidable enough to crush opposition and to exterminate
Christianity, still am I certain that I act, in this instance,
like a good member of society? For is not this system,
whether well or ill founded, friendly to society ? I must
confess it; its greatest enemies have acknowledged it.
What motive, then, can induce me to divulge my doubts of
its authenticity ? Not the good of mankind; for it is al¬
ready allowed by unbelievers, that the good of mankind is
interested in the belief of its divine original. Is it for my
own good, and with a view to be convinced ? I will not
deceive myself: my motive, I suspect, is of another kind;
for do I read those books which have been already written
to satisfy similar doubts ? Nothing but the vanity of ap¬
pearing to be wiser than my credulous neighbours can in¬
duce me to interrupt the happiness of their belief. But
vanity of this sort, which tends to disturb society, to injure
the national morals, and to rob many thousand individuals
of a copious source of sweet and solid comfort, must be pro¬
nounced extreme wickedness, even according to the obvious
dictates of natural religion. I shall act the part of a good
citizen and a good man, by conforming to a system whose
beneficial influence I feel and confess, and by endeavour¬
ing to acquire a belief in that which has for so many cen¬
turies been established, and which promises to soothe me
in distress with the sweetest consolations, and to brighten
the dismal hour of death, by the hope of a more glorious
and happy state of existence. At all events, I shall have
the satisfaction of having commanded myself so far, as not
to have run the hazard of endangering the welfare of my
fellow-creatures, either here or hereafter, by indulging a
degree of vanity, which, in a creature so weak and so short¬
lived as myself, is a folly very inconsistent with the supe ¬
rior wisdom which I seem to arrogate.”
INF
“ I will venture to repeat,” continues our author, “ that Infidels 1
all writers against Christianity, however they may affect^—v-
even the extremes of benevolence, honour, philosophy, and
enlargement of mind, are actuated by vanity and wicked¬
ness of heart. Their motives are as mean, selfish, narrow,
and in every respect unjustifiable, as the tendency of their
writings is mischievous. Their malice is often impotent,
through the foolish sophistry of their arguments; but, if
ever it be successful, it is highly injurious: and, indeed,
considering their motives, and the probable consequences
of their endeavours, the infidel writer is a greater enemy to
society, and consequently guiltier, according to all the prin¬
ciples of social union, than the thief or the traitor. Perse¬
cution would, however, only promote his cause, and his
proper punishment is contempt.
“ It is certainly no derogation from the character of a
man of sense, to conform, even while he is so unfortunate
as to doubt their truth, to the opinions of his country. His
conformity will probably lead him to a train of actions and
of thought, which, in due time, will induce him to believe.
But, if that should not happen, yet he will act, as very wise
and very great men have acted, in paying a respectful de¬
ference to the avowed conviction of others. The most in¬
telligent and powerful men of ancient Rome, not only ap¬
peared to believe a very absurd and hurtful system, but as¬
sisted in all its ceremonies as priests. Even Socrates, who
evidently entertained some notions adequate to the dignity
of the one great and supreme Being, yet thought it was a
duty which he owed to his country, so far to conform to
the wretched establishment, as to order in his dying words
a sacrifice to Aesculapius. This external conformity to the
national religion ought not to be confounded with hypo¬
crisy. If, indeed, it is carried to extremes, or zealously af¬
fected, it certainly is very blameable and contemptible de¬
ceit ; but while it keeps within the bounds of reason and
moderation, it ought to be called a decent deference to the
opinions of the majority, arising from humility, and from a
desire to maintain the tranquillity of the state, and to con¬
tinue an innocent and useful system, which has, and will
always greatly contribute to lessen the quantity and degree
both of moral and of natural evil.
“ The easiest, after all, or at least the most effectual me¬
thod of appearing in any character, is really to be what we
wish to appear. But belief, you will say, is not in our
power, and how can we believe what appears to us incre¬
dible ? Certainly you cannot while it appears incredible.
But let me ask you, whether you have taken any pains to
believe, or have at once and at a glance persuaded your¬
self, that the Christian religion is totally false ? It is pro¬
bable that a great number of sceptical w riters never gave
themselves the trouble to read those Scriptures which they
warmly oppose. They hear objections, they read objec- i
tions, and they find, that from men of reputed wdt and in¬
genuity the objections often originate. They also wash to
be reputed men of wit and ingenuity, and therefore eagerly 1
adopt the language and sentiments of the order. Perhaps
the vanity and pride of this class of men will render all at- 1
tempts to convince them abortive ; but to modest doubters,
and to those whose good sense and good dispositions lead 1
them to wash to adopt the religion of their country, it may
not be useless to suggest advice, with a view to facilitate
their conviction.
“ The chief thing required is to free themselves from
the pride of human reason. Humility (and surely our
blindness and imperfections are sufficient to render us hum¬
ble, if we would be reasonable), humility will open our
hearts, and belief will find admission. Sincere endeavours,
seconded by prayers, will never fail to help our unbelief.
But, alas! a fine, gay, spirited, liberal, and enlarged mo¬
dern philosopher, would be ashamed to be found on his
knees, or with a Testament in his possession. There is
I N F
e. scarcely any vicious act, or any vicious book, which would
—-'put him so much to the blush.
« A modest well-meaning man might, however, one
should think, divest himself of those prejudices which pre¬
vent the possibility of belief, by the following soliloquy :—
I find myself placed in a world abounding with evil and
misery. Under the immediate pressure of it, I feel my
heart inclining, like the needle to the north, by its natural
tendency, to the Deity for support. Man, of all animals,
is the only one who has the sense of religion. Feeling this
distinctive propensity of my nature, I look around to disco¬
ver to what object, and in what manner, that part of my
fellow creatures, who live in the same society with myself,
pay their adoration. I find a system of religion already
established, and which has been established in the most
enlightened countries of the earth near two thousand years.
I resolve to examine it. It claims that respect from its an¬
tiquity and universality. Many difficulties appear on the
first inspection. My reason is often startled, and my be¬
lief wavers. But I w ill not yet give up a point of so serious
importance, without further and closer attention to it. I
reflect, that two thousand years is a vast space in the age
of the world. How many myriads of men like myself have
lived and died in the faith during that time. And were all
of them fools or hypocrites ? It could not have been. Can
the understanding of a poor individual, just come into the
world, and hardly knowing where he is, comprehend on in¬
tuition an object of such magnitude, and make the mighty
discovery which has escaped millions of the wisest and
most learned of mortals ? Or, supposing that they all per¬
ceived the deception, am I then at last the only honest
man who will confess it ? I am ashamed to avow such an
idea to myself. But yet, if I reject what they received,
surely I avow it in the more expressive language of my
conduct. Pride, I fear, is the foundation of my scepticism,
and humility must form the basis of my belief. I will
check my own presumption, and reject the cavils of vain
and foolish philosophy. Shall a poor weak creature, who
cometh up like a flower, and is cut down, who fleeth as a
shadow', and never continueth in one stay, presume to pro¬
nounce decisively in that little period, in which he has
scarcely time to look about him before he dies, against a
system which has strong internal and external evidence of
divine original, which is most useful and comfortable, and
which has been admitted among a great portion of man¬
kind during almost twenty centuries ? No, it is the first
wisdom to be humble. Humility will be follow ed by grace,
and grace by faith, and faith by salvation. It plainly ap¬
pears, that I can lose nothing by belief, but some of those
excessive and irregular enjoyments which would destroy
my health and life ; but I may possibly gain a glory and a
happiness which shall continue to all eternity.”
INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor end;
in which sense God alone is infinite.
Infinite is also used to signify that which has had a be¬
ginning, but will have no end, as angels and human souls.
This makes w hat the schoolmen call infinitum a parte post;
as, on the contrary, by infinitum a parte ante, they mean
that which has an end, but had no beginning.
Infinite Quantities. The very idea of magnitudes in¬
finitely great, or such as exceed any assignable quantities,
includes a negation of limits; yet if we examine this no¬
tion, we shall find that such magnitudes are not equal
amongst themselves, but that there are really, besides infi¬
nite length and infinite area, three several sorts of in-
mite solidity, all of which are quantitates sui generis, and
that those of each species are in given proportions.
^ength, or a line infinitely long, is to be con-
8! ered either as beginning at a point, and so infinitely ex-
ended one way, or else both ways from the same point;
m which case the one, which is a beginning infinity, is the
INF 273
one-half of the whole, which is the sum of the beginning Infinitesi-
and ceasing infinity ; or, as may be said, of infinity a parte mals
ante and a parte post, which is analogous to eternity in T „ ^
time and duration, in which there is always as much to fol- InfHrm^-/
low as is past, from any point or moment of time ; nor does
the addition or subtraction of finite length, or space of
time, alter the case either in infinity or eternity, since both
the one or the other cannot be any part of the whole.
INFINITESIMALS, amongst mathematicians, are de¬
fined to be infinitely small quantities.
In the method of infinitesimals, the element, by which
any quantity increases or decreases, is supposed to be infi¬
nitely small, and is generally expressed by two or more
terms, some of which are infinitely less than the rest;
and this being neglected as of no importance, the remaining
tei ms form what is called the dijfierence ofi the proposed
quantity. The terms which are neglected in this manner,
as infinitely less than the other terms of the element, are
the very same which arise in consequence of the accelera¬
tion or retardation of the generating motion, during the in¬
finitely small time in whibh the element is generated ; so
that the remaining terms express the elements which would
have been produced in that time, if the generating motion
had continued uniform ; and therefore those differences
are accurately in the same ratio to each other as the gene¬
rating motions or fluxions. Hence, though in this method
infinitesimal parts of the elements are neglected, the con¬
clusions are accurately true without even an infinitely small
error, and agree precisely with those which are deduced by
the method by fluxions. See Fluxions.
INFINITIVE, in Grammar, the name of one of the
moods, and so called in contradistinction to those that are
finite. See Grammar.
INFINITY, the quality which renders a thing infinite.
INFIRMARY, a kind of hospital, where the weak and
sick are properly taken care of.
INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies which
disposes them to kindle or catch fire. See Chemistry.
INFLATION (formed from in and fiatus fromfio, I
blow), blowing up, the act of stretching or filling any flac¬
cid or distensible body with a flatulent or windy substance.
INFLEC riON, called also diffraction, and defiection, in
Optics, is a property of light, by reason of which, when it
comes within a certain distance of any body, it is either
bent from it, or towards it; which is a kind of imperfect
reflection or refraction. See Optics.
Inflection, or Point of Inflection, in the higher geo¬
metry, is a point where a curve begins to bend in a con¬
trary way.
Inflection, in Grammar, the variation of nouns and
verbs, by declension and conjugation.
INFORMATION, in Law, is nearly the same in the
crown office as that which in other courts is called a decla¬
ration. Informations are of two sorts; first, those which
are partly at the suit of the king, and partly at that of a
subject; and, secondly, such as are only in the name of the
king.
INFORMER {informator) in Law, a person who in¬
forms against, or prosecutes in any of the king’s courts,
those that offend against any law or penal statute.
Informers were very common both in Greece and in
Rome. Every corner of the streets was infested with per¬
sons who made it their constant business to pick up stories,
and catch at every occasion to accuse persons of credit and
reputation. These persons were called by the Greeks
2vko<Pc6v]xi ; for a more particular account of whom see
Sycophant.
Amongst the Romans, informers were of two sorts, man-
datores and delatores. These played into each other’s
hands; the former marking down such persons as they
pretended to have found guilty of any misdemeanour, and
2 M
274 INF
Infraction the latter prosecuting them. What tended to increase the
it number of these pestilent wretches was, that the informers
Ingen- were entitie(i to a fourth part of the effects of the person
' " convicted. Wicked princes rewarded and countenanced
this mischievous tribe ; biit Titus set on foot a most dili¬
gent search after them, and punished such as he found with
death or banishment. Trajan also is praised by Pliny for
pursuing similar conduct.
INFRACTION (formed from in, an&frango,<£ I break”),
a rupture or violation of a treaty, law, ordinance, or the like.
INFRALAPSARII, the name of a sect of predesti-
narians, who maintain, that God has created a certain num¬
ber of men only to be damned, without allowing them the
means necessary to save themselves, if they would; and
drey are thus called, because they hold that God’s decrees
were formed infra lapsum, after his knowledge of the fall,
and in consequence thereof. 1 he Infralapsarians are con¬
tradistinguished from the Supralapsarians.
INFULA, in antiquity, was a mitre worn upon the head
by the Grecian and Roman priests, and from which on each
side hung a riband. The covering of the head with a mitre
was rather a Roman than a Grecian custom, introduced
into Italy by Afoeas, who covered his head and face at the
performance of sacrifice, lest any ill-boding omen should
disturb the rites. The inf alee were commonly made of
wool, and were not only worn by the priests, but were put
upon the horns of the victims, upon the altar and the temple.
The infulcc were also called vittcc.
INFUSION, in Pharmacy, an operation, by which the
virtues of plants are drawn out, by steeping them in some
convenient fluid without boiling.
INGATESTONE, a town of the county of Essex, on the
hundred of Chelmsford, twenty-three miles from London. In
the church are several fine monuments of the noble family
of Petre, whose residence is here. There is an endowed
classical school. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
645, in 1811 to 640, in 1821 to 747, and in 1831 to 789.
INGELMUNSTER, a large town of the Netherlands,
in the province of Courtray. It stands on the river Man-
delbeke, on the great road from Bruges to Courtray, and
contains 5350 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in making linen
goods and fine thread-lace.
INGENHOUSZ, John, an eminent physician and na¬
tural philosopher, was bora at Breda in 1730. Fie was
first established in medical practice there, but removed to
London in 1767, particularly with a view to study the im¬
proved methods of inoculation then recently introduced.
Having become acquainted with Sir John Pringle, at that
time President of the Royal Society, he was by him re¬
commended to the Austrian ambassador, for the purpose of
inoculating the Imperial family at Vienna, the Empress
Maria Theresa having lost two of her children by the na¬
tural small-pox. He accepted this engagement in 1768,
and having been perfectly successful in his operations, he
was remunerated by the grant of a pension of L. 600 a-year
for life, together with the titles of Aulic Counsellor and
Physician to the Imperial Family. He was also consulted,
in his medical capacity, by many others of the most dis¬
tinguished personages at Vienna, and he enjoyed the par¬
ticular esteem of the Emperor Joseph II., who was fond of
receiving him in his cabinet, and of witnessing the exhibi¬
tion of a variety of physical experiments, with which it was
always the delight of Ingenhousz to amuse and instruct his
acquaintance of both sexes. The following spring he went
to Italy, and inoculated the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He
was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1769 ; but
he appears to have remained some years in Italy, for he
was at Leghorn in January 1773 ; in March he dates from
Salzburg; and in November 1775 from Vienna. The
next year he was in London ; and, in the winter of 1779,
he went to Paris. The latter part of his life he spent prin-
I N G
cipally in England, which, notwithstanding his dislike to ln??n
the chillness of the climate, was always his favourite resi- housZ I;
dence, and “ where he enjoyed during many years,” to use v'~V'
his own words, “ that felicity which a free and independenc
man finds in the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, in the
society and friendly intercourse of those who have distin¬
guished themselves by their learning.”
Dr Ingenhousz was cheerful in his disposition, and often
playful in his conversation. Though his pursuits were
chiefly scientific, he was not destitute of taste for literature
and poetry. He had a particular predilection for Lucan,
and for the Cardinal de Polignac, and would frequently
recite passages from their poems with great energy, anil
with a strong German accent. Nor did he disdain the
comforts of commercial opulence, and be was often a visitor
at the magnificent villa of the late Mr Rucker of Rohamp-
ton. He had been introduced there by his friend Ur
Brocklesby, who was in many respects of a perfectly con¬
genial disposition, and who had great pleasure in prevail¬
ing on him to partake occasionally of his own hospitality,
when his table would otherwise have been solitary. He
died the 7th September 1799, at Bow Wood, in Wiltshire,
the house of the Marquis of Lansdown, who had long
known and esteemed him.
Dr Ingenhousz’s principal publications are, 1. Experi¬
ments on the Torpedo. Phil. Tram. 1775, p. 1. Mr
Walsh had lately gained considerable reputation by his ac¬
count of the effects of the torpedo. These experiments,
which were made off Leghorn, in company with Dr Drum¬
mond, are merely illustrative of the properties of that ani¬
mal, which are now better known ; and they afford no de¬
cided test of the electrical nature of the phenomena.
2. Methods of Measuring the Bulk of Mixtures of Com¬
mon Air, and Nitrous Air, with Experiments on Platina.
Phil. Trans. 1776, p. 257. The eudiometrical apparatus
is described as an improvement on Fontana’s. The experi¬
ments are intended to shew that platina is not an alloy of
iron and gold, since it may be deprived of all magnetic
properties by repeated cupellation. /
3. A Way of Lighting a Candle by an Electrical Spark.
Phil. Trans. 1778, p. 1022. A very small charged jar
setting fire to pulverised resin, strewed on cotton.
4. On the Electrophorus, p. 1027. This is a Bakerian
lecture, read by appointment of the President and Council
of the Royal Society, relating to the instrumei t then lately
invented by Professor Volta, and which had been made
known to the author by the Archduke Ferdinand. Its ac¬
tion is explained upon the elementary principles of the
Franklinian theory. The next article in the volume con¬
tains some experiments of Mr Henly in confirmation of the
doctrines here advanced.
5. On a New Inflammable Gas. Phil. Trans. 1779,
p. 576. A powerful explosion is produced by the detona¬
tion of the vapour of a single drop of ether with oxygen
gas. The author takes occasion to investigate the elasti¬
city of the gas evolved by the detonation of gunpowder;
and agrees with Bernoulli in estimating it as equivalent to
near 2500 atmospheres. It may here be remarked, that
notwithstanding Bernoulli’s general accuracy, and great
mathematical talents, he has fallen into a very singular
error, in comparing the force of gunpowder with the daily
labour of men ; and has accidentally made the force of one
pound equivalent to the daily work of 100 men, while, in
fact, the force of 40 pounds is only equivalent to the daily
labour of a single man.
6. On a Mode of Suspending Magnetical Needles, p. 53/•
Proposing that a hollow needle should be immersed in lin¬
seed oil, so as to press with a small portion of its weight
only on its axis, in order that the friction may be greatly
diminished.
7. Improvements in. Electricity, p. 661. On plate ma-
I N G
[igei )US chines of glass and pasteboard, and on a riband machine.
A Bakerian lecture.
Ingojidt. g# Experiments on Vegetables. London, 1779. This
^ volume1 is chiefly occupied by the detailed proofs of the
author’s principal discovery, that vegetables in general pour
out a portion of oxygen gas in the sunshine, while they
rather diminish its proportion at night and in the shade.
It is dedicated to Sir John Pringle, and was translated into
French by the author. Paris, 1786. Second edition,
2 vols. 8vo, 1787-9. Latin by Scherer. Vienna, 1786.
Dutch by Dr Van Breda, of Delft, with others of his works.
9. On the Salubrity of the Air at Sea, and at Places
far removed from the Sea. Phil. Trans. 1780, p. 554.
From the imperfection of the test employed, it was easy to
imagine that some differences were discovered, which sub¬
sequent observations have shewn to have no existence.
10. Nouvelles Experiences et Observations, 2 vols. 8vo.
Paris. On different subjects of natural philosophy. In
German by Molitor, Vermischte Schriften. Vienna, 1784.
11. On the Influence of the Vegetable Kingdom in the
Animal Creation. Phil. Trans. 1782, p. 426. Assert¬
ing the accuracy of his experiments, and denying some
statements of Dr Priestley; advancing, in particular, many
arguments to prove that the air obtained is really supplied
by the vegetables, and not by the water in which they are
usually immersed, in order to collect it. Dr Ingenhousz
was, on all occasions, anxious to support his claim to this
very interesting discovery; and he insisted that Priestley’s
earlier experiments, on the green matter contained in stag¬
nant water, had little or nothing in common with his own,
because that matter was, in fact, of an animal nature. He
was in the habit of collecting the gas from cabbage leaves,
find of keeping it bottled up in his pocket; and he was
[jrepared with some coils of iron wire fastened into the
corks, in order to exhibit the brilliant phenomenon of their
combustion to his friends; the public being at that time
less accustomed to this dazzling exhibition, than it has be¬
come in later years, when elementary lectures on chemistry
have been more commonly addressed to mixed audiences
tlian heretofore.
12. Essay on the Food of Plants, 8vo. London, 1798.
From the French.
13. Dr Ingenhousz also inserted some essays in different
volumes of the Journal de Physique ; but they possess less
originality and importance than his English publications.
{fhAmers’s Biographical Dictionary, xix. London, 1815,
8vo; Kesteloot in Biographic Universelle, xxi. Paris,
1818, 8vo.) (l. l.)
INGENUOUS, in a general sense, signifies open, fair,
and candid.
Ingenuous (ingenuus'), in Roman antiquity, an appella¬
tion given to persons born of free parents, wfyo had never
been slaves. The children of the liberti, or persons who
had obtained their liberty, were called libertini, not in-
genui; this appellation of ingenuus being reserved for their
children, or the third generation.
INGERAM, a town of the south of India, in the north¬
ern circars, district of Rajamundry, five miles south from
Corenga. Longitude 82° 25' east, latitude 16° 46/ north.
INGESTA, is used by some authors to express all sorts
of aliment taken into the body.
INGLIS Island, a long island on the north coast of
New Holland, near the entrance into the Gulf of Carpen¬
taria. It is on the west side of the gulf, and is twelve
TNr ^°n^’ arn(^ fr°m one to three miles in breadth.
INGLUVIES, the crop or craw of granivorous birds,
serving for the immediate reception of the food, where it
is macerated for some time before it is transmitted to the
true stomach.
INGOLSTADT, a city of the kingdom of Bavaria, in
le arc^e °f Regen, on the right bank of the Danube
I N G 275
is one of those places which has declined by the loss of its Ingot
woollen manufactures, which were formerly of great extent. I!
It is now merely the seat of the courts of justice and re- ^ngrati-
venue for the circle. It contains a royal palace, nine, tu< e~ y
churches, an hospital and public school, and 745 houses,
inhabited by 4820 persons. Latitude 48° 45' 55//, longi¬
tude 11° 20' 32" east.
INGOT, a mass of gold or silver melted down, and cast
in a mould, but not coined or wrought.
INGRAFTING. See Horticulture.
INGRATITUDE, the opposite of gratitude. Ingrati¬
tude is a crime so shameful, that there never was a man
found who would own himself guilty of it; and, though
too frequently practised, it is so abhorred by the general
voice, that to be ungrateful is to be liable to the imputa¬
tion of the guilt or the capability of committing all other
crimes.
In a little work entitled Friendly Cautions to Officers,
the following atrocious instance of ingratitude is related.
An opulent city in the west of England, little used to have
troops with them, had a regiment sent to be quartered
there; and the principal inhabitants and wealthiest mer¬
chants, glad to shew their hospitality and attachment to
their sovereign, took the first opportunity to get acquainted
with the officers, inviting them to their houses, and shewing
them every civility in their power. This was truly a de¬
sirable situation. A merchant, extremely easy in his cir¬
cumstances, took so prodigious a liking to one officer in
particular, that he gave him an apartment in his own house,
and made him in a manner absolute master of it, the offi¬
cer’s friends being always welcome to his table. The mer¬
chant was a widower, and had only two favourite daugh¬
ters ; the officer, in so comfortable a station, cast his wan¬
ton eyes upon them; and too fatally succeeding, ruined
both. The consequence of this ungenerous action was,
that all officers were ever afterwards shunned as a public
nuisance, and a pest to society; nor have the inhabitants
perhaps yet conquered their aversion to a red-coat.
W e are informed by Rapin, that during Monmouth’s re¬
bellion, in the reign of James II. a certain person know¬
ing the humane disposition of one Mrs Gaunt, whose life
had been one continued exercise of beneficence, fled to her
house, where he was concealed and maintained for some
time. Hearing, however, of the proclamation, which pro¬
mised an indemnity and reward to those who discovered
such as harboured the rebels, he betrayed his benefactress ;
and such was the spirit of justice and equity which prevailed
amongst the ministers, that he was pardoned and recom¬
pensed for his treachery, whilst she was burned alive for her
charity.
The following instance is also mentioned by the same
author. Humphry Bannister and his father were both
servants to and raised by the Duke of Buckingham, who
being driven to abscond, by an unfortunate accident be¬
falling the army he had raised against the usurper Richard
III., retired, without footman or page, to Bannister’s house
near Shrewsbury, as to a place where he had all the rea¬
son in the world to expect security. Bannister, however,
upon the king’s proclamation, promising L. 1000 reward
to him who should apprehend the duke, betrayed his
master to John Merton, high sheriff of Shropshire, who
sent him under a strong guard to Salisbury, where the king
then was, and there in the market-place the duke was be¬
headed. But divine vengeance pursued the traitor Ban¬
nister ; for demanding the L. 1000 which was the price of
his master’s blood, King Richard refused to pay it, saying,
that “ he who would be false to so good a master, ought not
to be encouraged.” He was afterwards hanged for man¬
slaughter, his eldest son run mad and died in a hog-sty,
his second became deformed and lame, and his third son
was drowned in a small puddle of water. His eldest daugh-
276
I N G
I N G
Ingress
I!
Ingulphus.
ter was seduced by one of bis own carters, and his second
was seized with a leprosy of which she died.
The following barbarous instances are from ancient His¬
tory. When Xerxes king of Persia was at Celene, a city of
Phrygia, Pythius, a Lydian, who had his residence in that
city, and next to Xerxes was the most opulent prince of
those times, entertained him and his whole army with an
incredible magnificence, and made him an offer of all his
wealth towards defraying the expenses of his expedition.
Xerxes, surprised and charmed at so generous an offer, had
the curiosity to inquire to what sum his riches amounted.
Pythius made answer, that having the design of offering
them to his service, he had taken an exact account of them,
and that the silver he had by him amounted to two thou¬
sand talents (about L. 255,000 Sterling), and the gold to
four millions of darics (about L. 1,700,000 Sterling). All
this money he offered him, telling him that his revenue
was sufficient for the support of his household. Xerxes
made him very hearty acknowledgments, and formed a
particular friendship for him, but declined accepting his
present. The same prince who had made such obliging
offers to Xerxes, having desired a favour of him some
time afterwards, that out of his five sons who served in his
army, he would be pleased to leave him the eldest, in
order to be a comfort to him in his old age, the king
was so enraged at the proposal, though so reasonable in
itself, that he caused the eldest son to be killed before
the eyes of his father, giving the latter to understand,
that it was a favour he spared him and the rest of his
children. Yet this is the same Xerxes who is so much ad¬
mired for his humane reflection at the head of his numerous
army, “ that of so many thousand men, in a hundred years
time there would not be one remaining ; on which account
he could not forbear weeping at the uncertainty and in¬
stability of human things.” He might have found another
subject of reflection, which would have more justly merited
his tears and affliction, had he turned his thoughts upon
himself, and considered the reproaches he deserved for
being the instrument of hastening the fatal term to millions
of people, whom his cruel ambition was going to sacrifice
in an unjust and unnecessary war.
Basilius Macedo the Emperor, exercising himself in
hunting, a sport he took great delight in, a great stag run¬
ning furiously against him, fastened one of the branches of
his horns in the emperor’s girdle, and pulling him from his
horse, dragged him a good distance, to the imminent dan¬
ger of his life ; which a gentleman of his retinue perceiving,
drew his sword and cut the emperor’s girdle asunder, which
disengaged him from the beast, with little or no hurt to his
person. But observe what reward he had for his pains.
“ He was sentenced to lose his head for putting his sword
so near the body of the emperorand suffered death ac¬
cordingly.
INGRESS, in Astronomy, signifies the sun’s entering
the first scruple of one of the four cardinal signs, especially
Aries.
INGROSSER, or Engrosser, in common law, is one
who buys up corn growing, or any provisions by wholesale,
before the market, to sell again. It also signifies a clerk
who writes records or instruments of law on skins of parch¬
ment.
INGULPHUS, abbot of Croyland, and author of the
history of that abbey, was born in London about the year
1030. He received the first part of his education at West¬
minster ; and when he visited his father, who belonged to
the court of Edward the Confessor, he was so fortunate as
to engage the attention of Queen Elgitha. That amiable
and learned princess took a pleasure in examining our
young scholar on his progress in grammar, and in disputing
with him in logic; nor did she ever dismiss him without
some present as a mark of her approbation. From West¬
minster he went to Oxford, where he applied to the study inberi
of rhetoric, and the Aristotelian philosophy, in which he tance
made greater proficiency than many of his contemporaries. (I
When he was about twenty-one years of age, he was intro-
duced to William Duke of Normandy, who visited the court
of England in the year 1051, and made himself so agree¬
able to that prince, that he appointed him his secretary,
and carried him with him into his own dominions. In a
little time he became the prime favourite of his prince, and
the dispenser of all preferments, humbling some, and ex¬
alting others, at his pleasure; a station in which he con¬
fessed he did not behave with a proper degree of modesty
and prudence. This excited the envy and hatred of many
of the courtiers ; to avoid the effects of which, he obtained
leave from the duke to undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land. With a company of thirty horsemen he joined
Sigfrid Duke of Mentz, who, with many German nobles,
bishops, clergy, and others, was preparing for a pilgrimage
to Jerusalem. When they were all united, they formed a
company of no fewer than seven thousand pilgrims. In
their way they spent some time at Constantinople, perform¬
ing their devotions in the several churches. In their pas¬
sage through Lycia, they were attacked by a tribe of Arabs,
who killed and wounded many of them, and plundered them
of a prodigious amount of money. Those who escaped
from this disaster at length reached Jerusalem, visited all
the holy places, and bedewed the ruins of many churches
with their tears, giving money for their reparation. They
intended to have bathed in Jordan; but being prevented
by the roving Arabs, they embarked on board a Genoese
fleet at Joppa, and landed at Brundusium, whence they
travelled through Apulia to Rome. Having gone through
a long course of devotions in this city, at the several places
distinguished for sanctity, they separated, and every one
made the best of his way to his owm country. When
Ingulph and his company reached Normandy, they were
reduced to twenty half-starved wretches, without money,
clothes, or horses; the ordinary result of the disastrous
journeys into the Holy Land, so common in those times.
Ingulph was now so much disgusted with the world, that
he resolved to forsake it, and became a monk in the abbey
of Fontenelle in Normandy ; in which, after some years, he
was advanced to the office of prior. When his old master
was preparing for his expedition into England in 1066, he
was sent by his abbot a hundred merks in money, and twelve
young men, nobly mounted and completely armed, as a pre¬
sent from the abbey. Ingulph having found a favourable
opportunity, presented his men and money to his prince, who
received him very graciously. In consequence of this, the
Conqueror raised him, in 1076, to the government of the
rich abbey of Croyland in Lincolnshire, where he spent the
last thirty-four years of his life, governing that society with
great prudence, and protecting their possessions from the
rapacity of the neighbouring barons by the favour of his
royal master. The lovers of English history and antiqui¬
ties are much indebted to this learned abbot, for his excel¬
lent history of the abbey of Croyland, from its foundation
in 664 till 1091, into which he has introduced much of the
general history of the kingdom, with a variety of curious
anecdotes which are nowhere else to be found. Ingulph
died of the gout, at his abbey, in 1109, in the seventy-ninth
year of his age. His history is printed in Gale’s Collection
of early English Historians. A separate edition was pub¬
lished at Oxford in the year 1684.
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or interest in lands,
invested in a person and his heirs.
INHIBITION, a writ to inhibit or forbid a judge from
further proceeding in a cause depending before him.
In Scotch Law, it is a writ obtained at the suit of a cre¬
ditor against his debtor, prohibiting him from selling or con¬
tracting debts upon his estate to the creditor’s prejudice.
I N H
I . i ,on INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid medi-
l j cines into the body by means of a syringe, tube, clyster-pipe,
* 3 • or the like.
w- —/ Injection, in Surgery, the throwing in some liquor or
medicine into a vein opened by incision. See Surgery.
INISTIOGE, a post town of Kilkenny, in the province
of Leinster. It is situated upon the Nore, at sixty-three
miles distance from Dublin.
INITIATED, a term properly used in speaking of the
religion of the ancient heathens, where it signifies being
admitted to the participation of the sacred mysteries. The
word comes from the Latin initiatus, from initiare, initiari,
which properly signifies to begin sacrificing, or to receive
or admit a person to the beginning of the mysteries, or of
ceremonies of less importance.
The ancients never discovered the deeper mysteries of
their religion, nor even permitted some of their temples to
be opened, to any but those who had been initiated. See
Mystery.
INJUNCTION, in Law, a writ generally grounded
upon an interlocutory order or decree out of the Court of
Chancery or Exchequer, sometimes to give possession to
the plaintiff, for want of the defendant’s appearance ; some •
times to the King’s Ordinary Court, and sometimes to the
Court-Christian, to stop proceedings in a cause, upon sug¬
gestion made, that the rigour of the law, if it take place, will
be against equity and conscience in that case, that the com¬
plainant is not able to make his defence in these courts, for
want of witnesses. &c., or that they act erroneously, deny¬
ing him some just advantage. The writ of injunction is
directed not only to the party himself, but to all and sin¬
gular his counsellors, attorneys, and solicitors ; and if any
attorney, after having been served with an injunction, pro¬
ceeds afterwards contrary to it, the Court of Chancery will
commit the attorney to the Fleet for contempt. But if an
injunction be granted by the Court of Chancery in a cri¬
minal matter, the Court of King’s Bench may break it, and
protect any who proceed in contempt of it.
INK, a black liquor, used in writing. The name is also
applied to liquids and pigments of various colours, used in
printing as well as in writing. We shall notice these corm
pounds in the following order, 1. Black Writing Ink, com¬
prehending under this head the ordinary methods of com¬
position recommended by chemists, the improvements
which a more extended manufacture have effected, the
methods suggested for rendering ink imperishable, and the
inquiries which have been instituted into the composition of
ancient inks, with the methods proposed for renewing fad¬
ed writing; 2. Indian Pigment or Ink ; 3. Red Ink; 4.
Blue Ink; 5. Printing Ink; 6. Ink for the Rolling Press;
7. Lithographic Ink ; 8. Sympathetic Ink.
Black Writing Ink. The properties which this liquor
ought to have, are, 1. To flow freely from the pen, and
sink a little into the paper, that the writing may not be easily
discharged; 2. a very deep black colour, which should be
as deep at first as at any time afterwards ; 3. durability, so
that the writing may not be subject to decay by age ; and
4. ink should be destitute of any corrosive quality, that it
may not destroy the paper, or go through it in such a man¬
ner as to render the writing illegible.
In Mr Delaval’s Treatise on Colours, (p. 37), he acquaints
us, that with an infusion of galls and iron filings, he had not
only made an exceedingly black and durable ink, but by its
means, without addition of any acid, dyed silk and woollen
cloth of a good and lasting black. This kind of ink, how¬
ever, though the colour is far superior to that of any other,
has the inconvenience of being very easily discharged,
either by the smallest quantity of any acid, or even by
simple water; because it does not penetrate the paper in
such a manner as is necessary to preserve it from the in¬
stantaneous action of the acid or of the water. During the
INK 27
action of the infusion of galls upon the iron in making this Ink.
kind of ink, a very considerable effervescence takes place,
and a quantity of air is discharged, the nature of which has
not yet been examined.
The materials usually employed for the making of ink
are, common green vitriol, or copperas, and galls; but al¬
most all of them are deficient in durability, which is a pro¬
perty of such importance, that Dr Lewis thought the sub¬
ject of ink-making not unworthy of his attention. From
experiments made by that author, he infers, that the decay
of inks is chiefly owing to a deficiency of galls; that the
galls are the most perishable ingredient, the quantity of
these, which gives the greatest blackness at first (that is,
about equal parts with the vitriol), being insufficient to main¬
tain the colour ; that, for a durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much less than three times that of the vitriol;
that it cannot be much greater without lessening the black¬
ness of the ink; that by diminishing the quantity of water,
the ink is rendered blacker and more durable ; that distill¬
ed water, rain-water, and hard spring-water, have the same
effects; that white wine produces a deeper black colour
than water ; that the colour produced by vinegar is deeper
than that by wine ; that proof-spirit extracts only a reddish
brown tinge ; that the last-mentioned tincture sinks into,
and spreads upon, the paper ; and hence the impropriety of
adding spirit of wine to ink, as is frequently directed, to
prevent mouldiness or freezing; that other astringents, as
oak-bark, bistort, sloe-bark, &c. are not so effectual as galls,
nor give so good a black, the colour produced by most of
these, excepting oak-bark, being greenish; that the juice
of sloes does not produce a black colour with martial vitriol;
but that, nevertheless, the writing made with it becomes
black, and is found to be more durable than common ink:
that inks made with saturated solutions of iron, in nitrous,
marine, or acetous acids, in tartar, or in lemon juice, were
much inferior to the ink made with martial vitriol; that the
colour of ink is depraved by adding quicklime, which is done
with an intention of destroying any superabundant acid
which may be supposed to be the cause of the loss of the
colour of ink; that the best method of preventing the
effects of this superabundant acid is probably by adding
pieces of iron to engage it; that this conjecture is con¬
firmed by an instance the author had heard, of the great
durability of the colour of an ink in which pieces of iron
had been long immersed; and lastly, that a decoction of
logwood used instead of water, sensibly improves both the
beauty and deepness of the black, without disposing it to
fade. The same author observes, that the addition of gum-
arabic is not only useful, by keeping the colouring matter
suspended in the fluid, but also by preventing the ink from
spreading, by which means a greater quantity of it is col¬
lected on each stroke of the pen. Sugar, which is some¬
times added to ink, is found to be much less effectual than
gums, and to have the inconvenience of preventing the
drying of the ink. The colour of ink is found to be great¬
ly injured by keeping the ink in vessels made of copper or
of lead, and probably of any other metal, which the vitriolic
acid can dissolve.
The foregoing experiments point out the best propor¬
tions of the ingredients for ink, one part of green vitriol,
one part of powdered logwood, and three parts of powder¬
ed galls. The best menstruum appears to be vinegar or
white wine, though for common use water is sufficient. If
the ink be required to be of a full colour, a quart, or at
most three pints, of liquor, may be allowed to three ounces
of galls, and to one ounce of each of the other two ingre¬
dients. Half an ounce of gum may be added to each pint of
the liquor. The ingredients may be all put together at once
in a convenient vessel, and well shaken four or five times
each day. In ten or twelve days the ink will be fit for
use, though it will improve by remaining longer on the in-
gredients. Or it may be made more expeditiously, by
adding the gum and vitriol to a decoction of galls and log¬
wood in the menstruum. To the ink, after it has been
separated from the feculencies, some coarse powder of galls,
from which the fine dust has been sifted, together with one
or two pieces of iron, may be added, by which its durabi¬
lity will be secured.
Such is the substance of the discoveries and inquiries
made by Dr Lewis and other chemists, relative to the com¬
position of black writing ink, and upon modifications of
them, most of the methods hitherto followed in making it
have been founded. It might be supposed that after the
determination, by such authority, of the relative propor¬
tions of the usual ingredients, it would only have been ne¬
cessary to attend to that proportion, and that the result
would be uniformly satisfactory. Experience, however,
has shewn the reverse of this ; and it is often found that the
same ingredients, and the same proportions of them, pro¬
duce inks of very different qualities. This arises from two
causes, which were not apparent to the experimenting che¬
mist. His attention was chiefly directed to the immediate
effect produced by the mixture he prepared, or the addi¬
tions made to it. Hence his experiments generally led
him to the formation of a good black dye, if applied to im¬
mediate use; whilst the ultimate effect of the action of the
atmosphere on the liquid itself, and the decomposition which
frequently resulted, from the quantity of vegetable matter
contained in it, were seldom brought under his notice. To
these two causes, as well as the various modes of extract
and of mixture, are to be attributed the very different re¬
sults which have arisen from the use of the same ingredients
and the same proportions of them ; and on the connexion
and regulation of these two agents, we believe the quality
of the ink to depend, as much as upon the nature and pro¬
portion of the materials employed. This opinion is strength¬
ened by the information we have received from Mr Mori-
son (the extent of whose ink manufactories is a remarkable
instance of the importance of the most minute branch of
the arts, at the present day, in Great Britain), who has as¬
sured us, that he never could depend on the quality of the
ink which was to be produced from any mixture of ingre¬
dients, however well manipulated, or however strong, until
he adopted a method of abstracting that part of the vege¬
table ingredients which induced decomposition ; a process
which required much time and attention, but in the ac¬
complishment of which so full opportunity was given for
the action of the atmosphere that the liquid was not liable
to be afterwards affected by either cause.
In some attempts made by Dr Lewis to endow writing
ink with the great durability of that of the ancients, as well
as the properties which it has at present, he first thought
of using animal glues, and then of oily matters. “ I mixed
both lamp-black,” says he, “ and ivory-black with solutions
of gum-arabic, made of such consistence as just to flow suf¬
ficiently from the pen. The liquors wrote of a fine black
colour ; but when dry, part of the colour could be rubbed
off, especially in moist weather, and a pencil dipped in
water washed it away entirely.
. “ I tried solutions of the animal-glues with the same event.
Isinglass or fish-glue being the most difficultly dissoluble of
these kinds of bodies, I made a decoction of it in water,
of such strength that the liquor concreted into a jelly
before it was quite cold. With this jelly, kept fluid by
sufficient heat, I mixed some ivory-black. Characters
drawn with this mixture on paper bore rubbing much bet¬
ter than the others, but were discharged without much
difficulty by a wet pencil.
“ It was now suspected, that the colour could not be suf¬
ficiently fixed on paper without an oily cement. As oils
themselves are made miscible with watery fluids by the in¬
tervention of gum, I fixed some of the softer painters’ var¬
nish, after mentioned, with about half its weight of a thick
mucilage of gum arable, working them well together in a'
mortar till they united into a smooth uniform mass. This
was beaten with lamp-black, and some water added by little
and little, the rubbing being continued till the mixture was
diluted to a due consistence for writing. It wrote freely,
and of a full brownish black colour ; the characters could
not be discharged by rubbing, but water washed them out,
though not near so readily as any of the foregoing. In¬
stead of the painters’ varnish or boiled oil, I "mixed raw
linseed oil in the same manner w ith mucilage and lamp¬
black ; and on diluting the mixture with water, obtained
an ink not greatly different from the other.
“ Though these oily mixtures answered better than those
with simple gums or glues, it was apprehended that their
being dischargeable by water would render them unfit for
the purposes intended. The only way of obviating this
imperfection appeared to be, by using a paper which should
admit the black liquid to sink a little into its substance.
Accordingly, I took some of the more sinking kinds of
paper, and common paper made damp as for printing, and
had the satisfaction to find, that neither the oily nor the
simple gummy mixtures spread upon them so much as
might have been expected, and that the characters were as
fixed as could be desired, for they could not be washed out
without rubbing off part of the substance of the paper itself.
“ But a further improvement may yet be made, namely,
that of uniting the ancient and modem inks together; or
using the common vitriolic ink instead of water, for tem¬
pering the ancient mixture of gum and lamp-black. By
this method it should seem that the writings would have all
the durability of those of former times, with all the advan¬
tage that results from the vitriolic ink fixing itself in the
paper. Even where the common vitriolic mixture is de¬
pended on for the ink, it may in many cases be improved
by a small addition of the ancient composition, or of the
common Indian ink, which answers the same purpose.
When the vitriolic ink is dilute, and flows so pale from the
pen, that the fine strokes, on first writing, are scarcely vi¬
sible, the addition of a little Indian ink is the readiest
means of giving it the due blackness. By this admixture
it may be presumed also that the vitriolic ink will be made
more durable, the Indian ink in some measure covering it,
and defending it from the action of the air. In all cases,
where Indian ink or other similar compositions are employed,
cotton should be used in the ink-stand, to prevent the set¬
tling of the black powder.”
There is little doubt that the monkish ink was a composi¬
tion of this nature, combining in some degree the ancient
and modern materials. The ancient ink must have been
very similar to the Indian or Chinese cakes. Pliny and Vi¬
truvius both mention it as a preparation of soot, or lamp¬
black, with glue or gum ; and Dioscorides gives the pro¬
portions of three parts of soot to one of gum. To this the
liquor extracted from the cuttle-fish had sometimes been
added. When this could not be had, there is indeed great
reason to believe that some of the modern vitriolic ingre¬
dients were added by the ancients; many of the manu¬
scripts of the Greek and Homan authors, erased by the
monks, having been found to retain as much of the vitriolic
principle as to become again legible on the application of
chemical tests.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1787, Dr Blagden
gives some account of a method of restoring decayed inks
so as to render them legible. His experiments originated
from a conversation with Mr Astle, on the question whe¬
ther the inks made eight or ten centuries ago, and which are
found to have preserved their colour very well, were made of
the same materials now employed or not ? In order to de¬
cide the question, Mr Astle furnished the doctor with se¬
veral manuscripts on parchment and vellum from the ninth
INK.
to the fifteentji centuries inclusively. Some of these were
—^ still very blaok; others of different shades, from a deep
yellowish brown to a very pale yellow, in some parts so
faint that it could scarcely be seen. This was tried with
simple and phlogisticated alkalies, the mineral acids, and
infusion of galls. From these experiments it appeared that
the ink anciently employed was of the same nature as at
present. The letters turned of a reddish or yellowish
brown, with alkalies became pale, and were at length ob¬
literated by the diluted mineral acids. The drop of acid
liquor, which had been put upon a letter, changed to a
deep blue or green on the addition of phlogisticated al¬
kalies ; with an infusion of galls, in some cases the letters
acquired a deep tinge, in others a slight one. “ Hence,”
says the doctor, “ it is evident that one of the ingredients
was iron, which there is no reason to doubt was joined with
the vitriolic acid ; and the colour of the more perfect manu¬
scripts, which in some was a deep black, and in others a
purplish black, together with the restitution of that colour
in those which had lost it by the infusion of galls, suffi¬
ciently proved that another of the ingredients was astringent
matter, which from history appears to have been that of
galls. No trace of a black pigment of any sort was dis¬
covered ; the drop of acid, which had completely extract¬
ed a letter, appearing of an uniform pale and ferruginous
colour, without an atom of black powder, or other extra¬
neous matter, floating in it.”
In considering the methods of restoring the legibility of
decayed wrritings, our author observes, that perhaps one of
the best may be to join phlogisticated alkali with the calx
of iron which remains ; because the precipitate formed by
these two substances greatly exceeds that of the iron alone.
On this subject Dr Blagden disagrees with Mr Bergmann ;
but to bring the matter to a test, the following experiments
were made.
1. The phlogisticated alkali was rubbed in different quan¬
tities upon the bare writing. This, in general, produced
little effect, though, in a few instances, it gave a bluish
tinge to the letters, and increased their intensity; “ pro¬
bably,” says the doctor, “ where something of an acid nature
had contributed to the diminution of their colour.” 2. By
adding, besides the alkali, a diluted mineral acid to the
writing, our author found his expectations fully answered ;
the letters then changing quickly to a very deep and beauti¬
ful blue. It is but of little consequence whether the acid
or phlogisticated alkali be first added ; though upon further
consideration the doctor inclined to begin with the alkali.
The reason is, that when the alkali is first put on, the co¬
lour seems to spread less, and thus not to hurt the legibi¬
lity of tlie writing so much as would otherwise be done.
His method is to spread the alkali thin over the writing
with a feather, then to touch it as gently as possible upon
or nearly over the letters with the diluted acid by means of
a feather or bit of stick cut to a blunt point. The mo¬
ment that the acid liquor is applied, the letters turn to a
fine blue, beyond comparison stronger than the original
trace of the letter; and by applying a bit of blotting-paper
to absorb the superfluous liquid, we may in a great mea¬
sure avoid the staining of the parchment; for it is this su¬
perfluous liquor which, absorbing part of the colouring
matter from the letters, becomes a dye to whatever it
touches. Care ought, however, to be taken not to allow the
blotting-paper to come in contact with the letters, because
the colouring matter may easily be rubbed off while soft and
wet. Any one of the three mineral acids wall answer the
purpose effectually. Dr Blagden commonly uses the ma¬
rine. But whichever of the three is used, it ought to be
diluted so far as not to be in danger of corroding the parch¬
ment ; after which the degree of strength seems not to be
a matter of great nicety.
Another method of restoring the legibility of old wrritings
is by wetting them with an infusion of galls in white wine;
but this is subject to the same inconvenience with the for-'
mer, and is besides less efficacious. The doctor is of opi¬
nion that the acid of the galls by itself w ould be better for
the purpose than the infusion of the whole substance of
them ; and he thinks also that a preferable kind of phlogis¬
ticated alkali might be prepared either by purifying the
common kind from iron as much as possible, or by making
use of the volatile alkali instead of the fixed. Mr Astle
mentions a method of restoring the legibility of decayed
writings; but says that it ought not to be hazarded, lest a
suspicion of deceit should arise.
The illegibility of modern manuscripts, compared wuth
those of an earlier date, is a matter of much interest, ami
has of late excited considerable inquiry. It appears to us,
that the greater durability of the colour of the ink in old
manuscripts is owing not only to the strength of the ink,
but to the quality of the paper and vellum. The strength
of the astringent or tannin principle is acknowledged on
all hands to be that on which the durability of a vitriolic
ink chiefly depends. Now that principle is strong not on¬
ly in old vellum, but it is retained to a considerable extent
in old paper made from linen rags. The vellum formerly
used was prepared by a tedious process, by which tannin
was largely imparted to it in the same manner as to leather ;
and to this cause old vellum owes its deep brown colour
more than to mere age. In like manner, the paper, in¬
stead of being bleached, as is now done, with oxymuriatic
acid, to bring up the colour, as it is called, but, in fact, to
destroy the natural colour of the paper, and to deprive it
of one of its most valuable qualities, was allowed to retain
somewhat of its original flax colour, and with its colour a
large proportion of the astringent quality on which the te¬
nuity of the paper, as well as its preservative property, de¬
pended. On that strong vellum, parchment, and paper,
our ancestors wrote with an ink, the component parts of
which seem to have been the same as of that now in use;
but as they wrote more seldom, and were not in so great
haste, as their descendants, they were content to use their
ink so thick, that the quantity of gum in it was sufficient to
hold a very strong mixture of the other ingredients in sus¬
pension. This superabundance of gum or glue was not
only serviceable in this respect, but it also acted as a var¬
nish, defending the ink from the corrosive action of the at¬
mosphere. Nor were these the only precautions taken.
It will be observed, that those writings on vellum which
are in the best preservation, are not only of a deep brown
shade, and the ink with an apparent body of colour, but
the grain side of the vellum, or that not written upon, is
smooth, almost as if it had been burnished. This seems
to have been done with animal glue, and afterwards well
rubbed. The ink was thus not only preserved from the
action of the air on the one side by the varnish incorpo¬
rated with it, but protected on the other by the polished
surface of the parchment.
Taking these circumstances into consideration, and giv¬
ing them their due weight, we feel convinced that any ef¬
fectual plan for giving durability to the public records of
the kingdom or other deeds of importance, must commence
with the improvement of the paper and vellum upon which
they are written. This is a matter deserving the attention
of government, and the correction of which is within its
reach. The books of records kept in the public offices are
or ought to be under its superintendence; and the only deeds
the preservation of which is of importance are written upon
stamped paper, the issue of which is also within the control
of the government. By offering premiums for the manu¬
facture of paper in which the tannin or astringent principle
is most effectually preserved or introduced, and using pro¬
per precautions respecting the ink with which the deeds
are written, we can see nothing in the nature or composition
r to
of either to prevent us securing at the very least as great
a degree of durability as pertains to the early records of
the kingdom.
Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours, brought
from China and other parts of the East Indies, sometimes
in large rolls, but more commonly in small quadrangular
cakes, and generally marked with Chinese characters. Dr
Lewis, from experiments made on this substance, has
shewn that it is composed of fine lamp-black and animal
glue ; and, accordingly, for the preparation of it, he desires
us to mix the lamp-black with as much melted glue as is
sufficient to give it a tenacity proper for being made into
cakes; and these when dry, he tells us, answered as well
as those imported from the East Indies, both with regard
to the colour and the freedom of working. Ivory-black,
and other charcoal blacks, levigated to a great degree of
fineness, answered as well as the lamp-black ; but in the
state in which ivory-black is commonly sold, it proved
much too gritty, and separated too hastily from the water.
Red Ink. The red ink in common use for writing or
ruling is a decoction of Brazil wood in vinegar, the colour
of which is raised by alum. It answers every ordinary
purpose of business, but the colour is evanescent, especial¬
ly on highly bleached paper, the oxymuriatic acid in which
turns the ink first of a purple colour and then gradually
whitens it. No red ink which will stand exposure to the
air has yet been discovered, save a thin pigment of vermi¬
lion, with which many old bibles were ruled; but it can
easily be washed off.
Blue Ink. The dye commonly called liquid blue is fre¬
quently used for writing, being, if well made, durable ; and
when diluted with water forms the ink with which the faint
lines in ruling are drawn. It is made of indigo dissolved
in sulphuric acid, the strength of the acid being afterwards
reduced by throwing into the liquid mass pieces of chalk
or of an alkali.
For other coloured inks see Colour Making.
Printing Ink, is totally different from Indian ink, or
that made use of in writing. It is an oily composition, of
the consistence of an ointment. The method of preparing it
was long kept a secret by those whose employment it was to
make it, and who were interested in concealing it; and even
yet it is but imperfectly known. The properties of good
printing ink are, to work clean and easily, without daubing
the types or tearing the paper; to have a fine black colour;
to wash easily off the types; to dry soon ; and to preserve
its colour, without turning brown. This last, which is a
most necessary property, is effectually obtained by setting
fire to the oil with which the printing ink is made for a few
moments, and then extinguishing it by covering the vessel.1
It is made to wash easily off the types, by using soap as an
ingredient; and its working clean depends on its having a
proper degree of strength, which is given by a certain ad¬
dition of rosin. A good deal, however, depends on the
proportion of the ingredients to each other; for if too much
soap is added, the ink will work very foul, and daub the
types to a greater degree. The same thing will happen
from using too much black, at the same time that both the
soap and black hinder the ink from drying; whilst too much
oil and rosin tear the paper, and hinder it from washing off.
The following receipt has been found to make printing ink
of a tolerable good quality: Take a Scotch pint of lin¬
seed oil, and set it over a pretty brisk fire in an iron or
copper vessel capable of holding three or four times as
much. When it boils strongly, and emits a thick smoke,
kindle it with a piece of paper, and immediately take the
vessel off the fire. Let the oil burn for about a minute ;
then extinguish it by covering the vessel; after it has
grown pretty cool, add two pounds of black rosin, and one
pound of hard soap cut into thin slices. If the oil is very
hot when the soap is added, almost the whole mixture will
run over the vessel. The mixture is then to be set again
over the fire; and when the ingredients are thoroughly
melted, a pound of lamp-black, previously put through a
lawn sieve, is to be stirred into it. The whole ought then
to be ground on a marble stone, or in a levigating mill
Though the above receipt is greatly superior to any that
has been hitherto published, all of which are capitally de¬
ficient in not mentioning the necessary ingredients of rosin
and soap ; yet it must be acknowledged that ink made in
this manner is inferior in point of colour, and is likewise
more apt to daub the types and make an indistinct impres¬
sion, than such as is prepared by some of those who make
the manufacture of this commodity their employment; so
that either a variation in the proportion of the ingredients,
a nicety in the mixture, or some additional ingredient,
seems necessary to bring it to the requisite perfection.
Ink for the rolling Press, is made of linseed oil burned in
the same manner as that for common printing ink, and
then mixed with Francfort-black, and finely ground. There
are no certain proportions which can be determined in this
kind of ink ; every workman adding oil or black to his ink
as he thinks proper, in order to make it suit his own taste.
Some, however, mix a portion of common boiled oil, which
has never been burned ; but this must necessarily be a bad
practice, as such oil is apt to go through the paper; a fault
very common in prints, especially if the paper is not very
thick. No soap is added; because the ink is not cleared
off from the copperplates with alkaline ley as in common
printing, but with a brush dipped in oil.
Lithographic Ink. The ink used for waiting or draw¬
ing in lithography is described under that article. For
printing ink to be used in lithography, prepare a varnish or
varnishes, of various degrees of tenuity, by boiling and
burning old linseed oil in an iron pot with a closely fitting
metal cover. When the varnish is of the thickness re¬
quired, throw in some pieces of stale bread to absorb the
fatty matter. Into this varnish, when cold, grind lamp¬
black or Francfort-black, adding a little indigo and rose-
pink, which give depth to the black. It must be ground
until so fine that no particles are observed on turning it
over with a palette knife. For blue, use indigo; for red,
vermilion.
Sympathetic Ink, a liquor with which a person may
write, and yet nothing appear on the paper after it is dry,
till some means are used, as holding the paper to the fire, or
rubbing it over with some other liquor, to make it visible.
These kinds of ink may be divided into seven classes,
with respect to the means used to make them visible, viz.
1. such as become visible by passing another liquor over
them, or by exposing them to the vapour of that liquor;
2. those that do not appear so long as they are kept close,
but soon become visible on being exposed to the air; 3.
such as appear by strewing or sifting some very fine powder
of any colour over them; 4. those which become visible
by being exposed to the fire; 5. such as become visible
by heat, but disappear again by cold or the moisture of the
air; 6. those which become visible by being wetted with
water; and, 7. such as appear of various colours.
The first class contains four kinds of ink, viz. solutions
of lead, bismuth, gold, and green vitriol, or sulphate of iron.
The two first become visible by the contact of sulphureous
liquids or fumes. For the first, a solution of common sugar
of lead in water answers very well. With this solution
write with a clean pen, and the writing when dry will be
totally invisible; but if it be wetted with a solution of
1 This is mentioned by Dr Lewis in his Philosophical Commerce of Arts ; but he seems not to have been acquainted with the me¬
thod of giving it the other necessary properties.
INK
fiepar sulphur is, or of or pi men t, dissolved by means of
-''quicklime, or exposed to the strong vapours of these solu¬
tions, the writing will appear of a brown colour, more or
less deep, according to the strength of the sulphureous
fume- By the same means the solution of nitrate of bis¬
muth will appear of a deep black.
The sympathetic ink prepared from gold depends on the
property by which that metal precipitates from its solvent
on the addition of a solution of tin. Write with a solution
of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and let the paper dry gently
in the shade; nothing will appear for the first seven or
eight hours. Dip a pencil in the solution of tin, and draw
it lightly over the invisible characters, they will imme¬
diately appear, of a purple colour.
Characters written with a solution of green vitriol will
likewise be invisible when the paper is dry ; but if wetted
with an infusion of galls, they will immediately appear as if
written with common ink. If, instead of this infusion, a
solution of an alkaline prussiate be used, the writing will
appear of a deep blue.
To the second class belong the solutions of all those
metals which are apt to attract oxygen from the air, such
as lead, bismuth, silver, &c. The sympathetic ink of gold
already mentioned belongs also to this class; for if the
characters written with it are long exposed to the air, they
become by degrees of a deep violet colour, nearly approach¬
ing to black. In like manner, characters written with a
solution of nitrate of silver are invisible when newly dried,
but being exposed to the sun, appear of a gray colour like
slate. To this class also belong solutions of sugar of lead,
nitrates of copper and of mercury, acetate of iron, and mu¬
riate of tin. Each of these has a particular colour when
exposed to the air ; but they corrode the paper.
The third class of sympathetic inks contains such liquids
as have some kind of glutinous viscosity, and at the same
time are long in drying ; by which means, though the eye
cannot discern the characters written with them upon
paper, the powders strewed upon them immediately adhere,
and thus make the writing become visible. Of this kind
are urine, milk, the juices of some vegetables, weak solu¬
tions of the deliquescent salts, and other liquids.
The fourth class, comprehending all those that become
visible by being exposed to the fire, is very extensive, as it
contains all those colourless liquids in which the matter dis¬
solved is capable of being reduced, and of reducing the
paper into a sort of charcoal by a small heat. Sulphuric
acid, diluted with as much water as will prevent it from
corroding the paper, makes a good ink of this kind. Let¬
ters written with this fluid are invisible when dry, but in¬
stantly on being held near the fire appear as black as if
written with the finest ink. Juice of lemons or onions, a
solution of sal ammoniac, green vitriol, &c. answer the
same purpose.
The fifth class comprehends only a solution of muriate
of cobalt.
The sixth class comprehends such inks as become visi¬
ble when characters written with them are wetted with
water. They are made of all such substances as deposit a
copious sediment when mixed with water, dissolving only
imperfectly in that fluid. Of this kind are dried alum, su¬
gar of lead, vitriol, and other substances. We have there¬
fore only to write with a strong solution of these salts upon
paper, and the characters will be invisible when dry ; but
when we apply water, the small portion of dried salt can¬
not again be dissolved in the water. Hence the insoluble
part becomes visible on the paper, and shews the characters
written in white, gray, brown, or any other colour which
the precipitate assumes.
Lastly, characters may be made to appear of a fine
crimson, purple, or yellow, by writing on paper with solu¬
tion of muriate of tin, and then passing over it a pencil dipt
VOL. XII.
INN 281
in a decoction of cochineal, Brazil-wood, log-wood, yellow- Ink.
wood, or the like. II
A treatise upon inks was published by Peter Caniparius, Inns of
professor of Medicine at Venice, of which an edition was Court-
printed at London in 1660. It is divided into six parts. V Y
The first treats of inks made from pyrites, stones, and me¬
tals; the second of such as are made from metals and
calces; the third of those which are prepared from soots
and vitriols; the fourth of the different kinds of inks used
by the librarii or book-writers, by printers, and engravers :
likewise of staining or writing upon marble, stucco, or sca-
gliolia, and of encaustic modes of writing; of liquids for
painting or colouring leather and linen or woollen cloth,
and of restoring inks that had been decayed by time; to¬
gether with many methods of effacing writing, restoring de¬
cayed paper, and different modes of secret writing. The
fifth treats of writing inks made in different countries from
gums, woods, the juices of plants, and the like, as well as of
different kinds of varnishes. The sixth treats of the different
methods of extracting vitriol, and the chemical uses of it.
Weckerus, in a treatise de Secretis, printed at Basil in
1612, contains a number of curious particulars concerning
ink. He also gives receipts for making gold and silver inks,
composed both with these metals and without them ; and
directions for making inks for secret writing, and for effa¬
cing them, though in this last part there are many particu¬
lars bordering too much on the marvellous.
Ink Stones, a kind of small round stones, of a white, red,
gray, yellow, or black colour, containing a quantity of na¬
tive martial vitriol, from which they derive the property of
making ink, and hence their name. They are almost en¬
tirely soluble in water, and besides their other ingredients,
contain also a portion of copper and zinc.
INLAND, a name for any part of a country at a distance
from the coast.
Inland Navigation. See Navigation, Inland.
INLEASED, in our old writers, signifies entangled or
ensnared. It is a term used in the champion’s oath.
INMATES, such persons as are admitted for their
money to live in the same house or cottage with another
person, in different rooms, but entering by the same door ;
being usually supposed to be poor, and not able to main¬
tain entire house themselves.
INN, or Innverte, a circle of the Austrian province of
the Upper Ens, extending over 1308 square miles, con¬
taining 5 cities, 26 market towns, and 3688 villages and
farms, with 31,236 houses, and 181,633 inhabitants.
INN, a place appointed for the relief and entertainment
of travellers.
Inns. Our colleges of municipal or common law pro¬
fessors and students, are called inns ; this being the old
English word for houses of noblemen, bishops, and others
of extraordinary note, and of the same signification with
the French word hotels.
Inns of Court are so called, according to some, because
the students there are to serve and attend the courts of
judicature; or because these colleges anciently received
none but the sons of noblemen, and the better sort of gen¬
tlemen, who, as Fortescue affirms, were to be there quali¬
fied to serve the king in his court. In the time of For¬
tescue, there were about two thousand students in the inns
of court and chancery, all of whom were filii nobilium, or
gentlemen born. But this custom gradually fell into dis¬
use ; so that in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Edward
Coke does not reckon above one thousand students, and
the number at present is very considerably less. For this
Judge Blackstone assigns the following reasons: 1. Be¬
cause the inns of chancery, being now almost totally filled
by the inferior branches of the profession, are neither com¬
modious nor proper for the resort of gentlemen of any rank
or figure ; so that there are very rarely any young students
282 INN
Inns of entered at the inns of chancery. 2. Because in the inns
Chancery Gf COurt all sorts of regimen and academical superinten-
Jl dence, either with regard to morals or studies, have been
11 non an" f°und impracticable, and therefore entirely neglected. 3. Be-
v _ ' „ ■ cause persons of birth and fortune, after having finished
their usual courses at the universities, have seldom leisure
or resolution sufficient to enter upon a new scheme of
study at a new place of instruction ; wherefore few gentle¬
men now resort to the inns of court, except those for whom
the knowledge of practice is absolutely necessary in such
as are intended for the profession.
Our inns of court, justly famed for the production of men
of learning in the law, are governed by masters, principals,
benchers, stewards, and other officers *, and they have pub¬
lic halls for exercises, readings, and the like, which the
students are obliged to attend for a certain number of years,
before they can be admitted to plead at the bar. These
societies have not, however, any judicial authority over
their members ; but instead of this there exist among them¬
selves certain orders or regulations, which have by consent
the force of laws. For lighter offences persons are only
excommoned, or put out of commons; for greater, they
lose their chambers, and are expelled the college; and
when once expelled out of one society, they are never re¬
ceived by any of the others. The gentlemen in these so¬
cieties may be divided into benchers, outer-barristers, inner-
barristers, and students.
The four principal inns of court are, the Inner Temple
and Middle Temple, formerly the dwelling of the Knights
Templars; and Lincoln’s Inn and Gray’s Inn, which an¬
ciently belonged to the Earls of Lincoln and Gray. The
other inns are the two Serjeants’ Inns.
Inns of Chancery were probably so called, because an¬
ciently inhabited by such clerks as chiefly studied the form¬
ing of writs, which regularly belonged to the cursitors, who
are of chancery.
The first of these is Thavies Inn, begun in the reign of
Edward III., and afterwards purchased by the society of
Lincoln’s Inn. Besides this, there are New Inn, Symond’s
Inn, Clement’s Inn, Clifford’s Inn, Staple Inn, belonging
to the merchants of the staple; Lion’s Inn, anciently a
common inn with the sign of the lion; Furnival’s Inn, and
Bernard’s Inn.
Heretofore these were preparatory colleges for younger
students ; and many were entered there, before they were
admitted into the inns of court. Now they are mostly oc¬
cupied by attorneys, solicitors, and others. They all belong
to one or other of the inns of court, who formerly used to
send yearly some of their barristers to read to them.
INNATE ideas, those ideas supposed to be stamped on
the mind from the first moment of its existence, and which
it brings into the world with it; a doctrine which Mr Locke
has taken great pains to refute. See Metaphysics.
INNISFAIL (formed from Innis Bheal, the island of
Bheal), one of the ancient names of Ireland, which is so de¬
nominated from Bheal or Baal, the principal object of ado¬
ration amongst the ancient inhabitants of the British isles.
Innisfail has been translated the Island of Destiny, be¬
cause Bheal was sometimes taken for Fate or Providence.
INNISFALLEN, an island in the lake of Killarney, in
the county of Kerry, and province of Munster, containing
the ruins of a very ancient religious house, founded by St
Finian, the patron saint of these parts, to whom the cathe¬
dral of Aghadoe is also dedicated. The remains of this
abbey are very extensive, and its situation is retired and
romantic.
INNISHANNON, a town in the county of Cork, and
province of Munster, 134 miles from Dublin, and situated
on the river Bandon, six miles from Kinsale. The river is
navigable to Collier’s Quay, about half a mile below the
place. This place was formerly walled, and of some note.
I N O
The town of Innishannon, together with its ferry, were Innishir.
granted to Philip de Barry by letters patent from Henry Ian
Y. in 1412. 11
INNISHIRKAN, an island situated between Cape nt^ula'
Clear Island and Baltimore Bay, in the county of Cork, v I™
and province of Munster. In this island stood the castle ^
of Dunelong, possessed by the O’Driscolls, which was sur¬
rendered to Captain Harvey on the 23d of February 1602,
after the defeat of the Spaniards. There was afterwards a
regular fortification erected on part of the island, which
was garrisoned in Queen Anne’s time, but it has long been
dismantled. About a mile to the south are the remains of
an ancient abbey, founded 1460, for Franciscans, by Flo¬
rence O’Driscoll.
INNISKILLING, Inniskillen, a borough town of
Ireland, in the county of Fermanagh, and province of
Ulster, situated between three lakes. It is about twenty-
four miles east of Ballyshannon, and seventy-nine north¬
west of Dublin, this place giving title of viscount to the
family of Cole. Its inhabitants distinguished themselves
in several considerable engagements in the wars of Ireland
at the Revolution, and of their number, a regiment of dra¬
goons, bearing the title of the Inniskillen Dragoons, was
mostly formed. This regiment is the sixth of dragoons in
the British army.
INNOCENTS’ day, a festival of the Christian church,
observed on the 28th of December, in memory of the
massacre of the innocent children by the command of
Herod king of Judaea.
INNUENDO (from innuo, I nod or beckon), is a word
frequently used in writs, declarations, and pleadings, to as¬
certain a person or thing which was named before, but left
doubtful, as, he {innuendo, the plaintiff) did so and so;
mention being before made of another person. In com¬
mon conversation or writing, an innuendo denotes an oblique
hint or distant reference, in contradistinction to a direct
and positive charge.
INNYCOTTA, a town of Hindostan, province of Be-
rar, in the province of Gundwana, situated upon the eastern
bank of the Warda river, 57 miles S. W. from Nagpoor.
Lat. 20° 35' N; Long. 79° 10' E.
INO, in fabulous history, a daughter of Cadmus and
Harmonia, who nursed Bacchus. She married Athamas,
king of Thebes, after he had divorced Nephele, by whom
he had two children, Phryxus and Helle. Ino became
mother of Melicerta and Learchus; and soon conceived an
implacable hatred against the children of Nephele, because
they were to ascend the throne in preference to her own.
Phryxus and Helle were informed of Ino’s machinations,
and escaped to Colchis on a golden ram. Juno, jealous of
Ino’s prosperity, resolved to disturb her peace; and more
particularly because she was a descendant of her greatest
enemy Venus. Tisiphone being sent by order of Juno to
the house of Athamas, she filled the whole palace with such
fury, that Athamas, taking Ino to be a lioness and her chil¬
dren whelps, pursued her and dashed her son Learchus
against a wall. Ino escaped the fury of her husband, and
from a high rock threw herself into the sea, with Melicerta
in her arms. The gods pitied her fate; and Neptune trans¬
formed her into a sea deity, afterwards denominated Leu-
cothoe. Melicerta also became a sea god, and was known
by the name of Palemon.
INO A, festivals in memory of Ino, celebrated yearly
with sports and sacrifices at Corinth. An anniversary sa¬
crifice was also offered to Ino at Megara, where she was
first worshipped under the name of Leucothoe. Another
festival of the same description was also celebrated in La¬
conia, in honour of the same goddess.
INOCULATION, or Budding, in Gardening. See
Horticulture.
Inoculation, in a physical sense, is used to indicate the
I N O
la. transplantation of distempers from one subject to another,
particularly for the engraftment of the small-pox; a prac-
—^tice which, though of ancient use in eastern countries, is
but of modern date amongst us, at least under the direction
of art. See Surgery and Vaccination.
The time and place in which the method of inoculating
for the small-pox -was first used, are equally unknown. Ac¬
cident probably gave rise to it. Pylarini says, that amongst
the Turks it was not attended to, excepting amongst the
meaner sort. Dr Russell informs us1 that no mention is
made of it by any of the ancient Arabian medical writers
who are known in Europe; and the native physicians of
Arabia assert, that nothing is to be found regarding it in any
of those of a more modern date. He further says, that he
engaged some of his learned Turkish friends to make inquiry
concerning this matter ; but they did not discover any thing
on the subject of inoculation in the writings of their physi¬
cians, historians, or poets. Until the beginning of the eigh¬
teenth century, all the accounts we have of inoculating the
small-pox are merely traditional. The silence on this subject
observed amongst writers in the countries where the prac¬
tice obtained, Dr Russell supposes, with great probability,
to be owing to the circumstance that the physicians there
never countenanced or engaged in it. It is also remarka¬
ble, that before Pylarini’s letter to the Royal Society in
1701, and for several years afterwards, this practice is not
noticed by any of the most inquisitive travellers. On this
Dr Russell very justly observes, that customs the most com¬
mon in distant countries are often the least apt to attract the
observation of travellers, who, engaged in other pursuits, are
indebted to accident for the knowledge of such things as
the natives seldom talk of, from a belief that they are known
to all the world.
The first accounts we have concerning inoculation, are
from two Italian physicians, Pylarini and Timoni, whose
letters on the subject may be consulted in the Philosophical
Transactions abridged (vol. v. p. 370). The first is dated in
1701, the second in 1713. But whether our inquiries extend
to countries abroad, or are confined to our own, inocula¬
tion, in one mode or other, has been practised from time
immemorial; in Great Britain and its adjacent isles we
have well authenticated accounts, extending farther back¬
wards than any we have received from the continent. Dr
Williams of Haverfordwest, who wrote upon inoculation
in 1725, proves that it had been practised in Wales, though
in a somewhat different form, time out of mind. Mr Wright,
a surgeon in that principality, says, that buying the small¬
pox is both a common practice, and of long standing, in
that neighbourhood. He mentions, that in Pembrokeshire
there are two large villages near the harbour of Milford,
more famous for this custom than any other, namely, St
Ishmael’s and Marloes. The old inhabitants of these vil¬
lages say, that it has been a common practice; and that
one William Allen of St Ishmael’s, who was ninety years of
age in 1722, declared to some persons of good sense and
integrity, that this practice was used all his time, and that
he well remembered his mother telling him that it was a
common practice all her time, and that she got the small¬
pox by inoculation.
Dr Alexander Monro senior informs us, that in the High¬
lands of Scotland and some of the adjacent isles, the cus¬
tom through ages had been, to put their children to bed
with those who laboured under a favourable small-pox, and
to tie worsted threads about their children’s wrists, after
having drawn them through variolous pustules.
According to the result of Dr Russell’s inquiries, the
Arabians asserted that the inoculation of the small-pox wyas
the common custom cf their ancestors, and that they had
no doubt of its being as ancient as the disease itself. It is
I N Q 283
remarkable, that buying the small-pox is the name univer- Inquisi-
sally applied in all countries to the method of procuring the tion.
disease. It is true that there are other terms ; but in Wales
and in Arabia, as well as in many other countries, this is
the usual appellation. From the identity of the name, and
the little diversity observable in the manner of performing
the operation, it is probable that the practice of inoculation
in these countries was originally derived from the same
source. It is also in all probability of great antiquity.
In the year 1717, Lady Mary Wortley Montague, wife
of the English ambassador at Constantinople, had her son
inoculated there at the age of six years; he had but few
pustules, and soon recovered. In April 1721, inoculation
was successfully tried upon seven condemned criminals in
London, by permission of his Majesty. In 1722, Lady
Mary Wortley Montague had a daughter six years old ino¬
culated in this island; soon after which, the children of the
royal family who had not had the small-pox were inocu¬
lated with success ; then followed some of the nobility, and
the practice soon became general. And here we date the
commencement of inoculation under the direction of art.
INQUISITION, in the Church of Rome, a criminal
tribunal, charged with the detection, prosecution, and pun¬
ishment of heresy, apostasy, and other crimes against reli¬
gion.
This formidable jurisdiction, created for the express pur¬
pose of repressing free inquiry in matters of religion, and
maintaining the unity of the faith, was first instituted about
the beginning of the thirteenth century, when Innocent
HI. appointed a commission to prosecute and punish the
heretics of Narbonne. In 1203, the Pope employed Pierre
de Castelnau and Raoul, monks of Citeaux, attached to the
monastery of Frontfroine in Narbonne, to preach against
the heresy of the Albigenses. The labours of these mis¬
sionaries were not altogether fruitless, as is proved by an
authentic act which William Castel has inserted in his His¬
tory of the Counts of Toulouse, and which was agreed
to in the year 1204. They appear to have made a con¬
siderable impression, and, in particular, to have induced
the inhabitants of Toulouse to bind themselves by an oath
to maintain the Catholic religion, and to combat heresy
by every means in their power. The success which Cas¬
telnau and Raoul had thus obtained in their mission, encou¬
raged the Pope to put in execution a project which he had
formed for introducing into the Catholic Church inquisi¬
tors independent of the bishops, who should, as delegates of
the Holy See, have the right of prosecuting heretics.
With this view he named as apostolic legates, the Abbot
of Citeaux, and the two monks Castelnau and Raoul, who re¬
ceived orders to take the necessary measures for bringing
back heretics to the Catholic faith, and also for delivering to
the secular power, after excommunication, those who re¬
fused submission ; a penalty which involved the seizure of
their goods, and the proscription of their persons. And, in
order to facilitate the execution of his design, he solicited
Philip II., king of France, his oldest son Louis, and the
counts, viscounts, and barons of the kingdom, to prosecute
heretics of whatsoever rank they might be, and to seize the
goods of all persons who might be convicted of favouring
heresy, or who had not laboured to destroy it; promising
them, as a recompense for their zeal, plenary indulgences,
similar to those granted to the Christians who had assumed
the cross, and repaired to the Holy Land to combat against
the Infidels. But the papal legates experienced great difficul¬
ties in the execution of their mission, which was distaste¬
ful to the bishops; the king of France took no part in the
affair; and the Counts of Toulouse, Foix, Beziers, Carcas¬
sonne, and other seigneurs or great lords of the provinces,
seeing that the Albigenses had singularly multiplied, and
Philosophical Transactions, vol. Iviii. p. 142.
INQUISITION.
284
Inquisi- persuaded that only a very small number of them would
tion. freely consent to abjure their opinions, refused to expel a
body of men, the loss of whom would weaken the popula¬
tion of their estates, and consequently prove injurious to
their interests. Nor was the force of this motive lessened
by the consideration that these heretics were generally
peaceable and obedient subjects. The legates were con¬
sequently discouraged, and one of their number applied to
the Pope for permission to retire to his monastery. But
the Holy Father, firm to his purpose, exhorted him to pro¬
secute the enterprise with new ardour, and at the same time
addressed new briefs to Philip II., reproaching him for
his indifference, and to the Archbishop of Narbonne and to
the Bishop of Beziers, censuring the mode in which they
had acted towards his legates.
In these circumstances, Castelnau and Raoul commenced
preaching to the heretics, and even held conferences with
some of their leaders; but, as might have been expected,
the number of persons converted by them was exceedingly
small. Arnauld, Abbot of Citeaux, the principal legate,
then summoned to his assistance twelve abbots of his order,
elected by a chapter held in 1206, and also admitted to a
participation of their labours two Spaniards, whose zeal
prompted them to preach against the heretics, and one of
whom became afterwards celebrated as the founder of a
new order in the Catholic Church. These were Diego Ace-
bes, Bishop of Osma, who was then on his return from
Rome to his diocese, and Dominic de Guzman, a regu¬
lar canon of St Augustin, and sub-prior of the cathedral of
the same diocese, who had accompanied the bishop in his
journey. With a staff thus reinforced, some conversions
were made, and when the Spanish bishop resolved to cross
the frontier, he permitted De Guzman to remain in France.
At this time the great feudatories of Provence and Nar¬
bonne were almost all engaged in war with each other;
and hence when the legates sent by the Pope summoned
them to prosecute obstinate heretics in their states, they
represented that they could not execute the orders of
his Holiness, by reason of the wars which they were obliged
to maintain against their neighbours. Innocent III., inform¬
ed of what was passing, issued a formal order to his legates,
commanding them to terminate, by their mediation, the dif¬
ferences which had armed the princes and great lords of this
country, and to make the latter promise upon oath, to ex¬
tirpate heresy, and to exterminate heretics in their domains.
Nor were the legates unfaithful to the instructions which
they had received. They threatened to excommunicate
those who should refuse obedience to the orders of the
Holy See; to lay their principalities under interdict; to
release their vassals from their oath of fidelity; and, in a
word, to punish them by all the means which the church
had or claimed a right to employ against rebels. The ef¬
fect of this measure was decisive; and the great lords,
dreading evils still greater than those of war, renounced
for the time their different pretensions, and consented to
sign a peace. Of these princes the most powerful was Ray¬
mond VI., Count of Toulouse. Having been several times
menaced by Pierre de Castelnau, because he hesitated to
execute what he had promised, and failed to reinforce the
predications of the legate by proscription and confiscation,
the proud noble let fall some expressions of resentment.
His words were treasured up by those who had deeper
wrongs to avenge, and falling in with the feeling of indig¬
nation excited by the insolent conduct of the churchman,
they induced the Albigenses to assassinate the legate. The
latter was beatified, and enrolled amongst the martyrs of
the church, sooner perhaps than he had anticipated; but
the perpetrators of the crime were destined ere long to
taste its bitter fruits. Meanwhile the Pope wrote to all
the counts, barons, seigneurs, and gentlemen of the pro¬
vinces of Narbonne, Arles, Embrun, Aix, and Vienne in
Dauphine, urging them to unite their forces and to march ln • •
against these heretics, and promising them the same indul- t?
gences as if they had been called to combat against the Sa-^“Y^
racens. In this expedition, Innocent named as his legate
the Bishop of Couserans, who was to be accompanied hv
the Abbot of Citeaux.
The commencement of the Inquisition in France dates
from the war undertaken against the Albigenses, and their
protector Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, in 1208. The
murder of Castelnau having excited the indignation of the
Catholics of Narbonne, Arnauld took advantage of this
feeling, to put in execution the orders which he had received
from the Pope. He charged the twelve monks of his order
who were associated with him, besides Dominic de Guzman
and certain other priests, to preach a crusade against the
heretics ; to grant indulgences to all who should take part
in the war; to take especial notice of those who might re¬
fuse to engage in it; to inform themselves particularly as
to the creed of such recusants ; and to cause the‘obstinate
to be placed at the disposal of Simon, Count de Montfort,
who had been entrusted with the command of the crusaders!
The authentic act by which these measures were ordained,
has not reached our time; but its existence is proved gene¬
rally by the events of that epoch, and, in particular, by a
certificate of reconciliation granted by Dominic de Guzman
to a heretic named Ponce Roger, in which the founder of
the Dominicans declared that he acted as the delegate of
the Abbe Arnauld.
It is not easy to determine the number of the unfortu¬
nate Albigenses who perished in the flames after 1208, the
year in which the Inquisition commenced in France. But
it is impossible not to be strongly moved with horror as
well as compassion, in reading the histories of the time,
which represent the destruction of several millions of per¬
sons, in the midst of the most cruel torments, as the triumph
of a religion on which its divine Founder had impressed the
characters of humanity and charity, benevolence and mercy.
The apostles, upon one occasion, entreated their divine Mas¬
ter to cause fire to descend from heaven and consume the
Samaritans, who were the heretics and schismatics of the
Hebrew communion ; but, so far from complying with their
impious request, he reproached them for entertaining the
very thought, and made them feel that he detested it, by
treating them with a degree of severity of which there is
no other example to be found in the Gospel. This lesson,
however, was lost upon the men of the thirteenth century.
They seem to have conceived that the history of Samaria
had nothing in common with the conduct which ought to
be pursued towards the heretics of that age. In 1215, In¬
nocent III. celebrated the tenth general council, being
the fourth of Lateran, in which a variety of new penalties
were decreed against the heretics of Languedoc. In par¬
ticular it was ordained, that those who were condemned by the
bishops as impenitent heretics should be delivered to secu¬
lar justice; that the goods of laymen condemned should be
confiscated, and those of priests applied to the use of their
churches; that the inhabitants suspected of heresy should
be summoned to purge themselves in the canonical form,
and, in case of refusal, excommunicated; that if they conti¬
nued more than a year under the anathema, without having
recourse to the pardon of the church, they should be ac¬
counted heretics, and treated as such; that all persons who
favoured or received into their houses heretics, should be
liable to excommunication as well as the heretics them¬
selves,—declared infamous, and as such excluded from all
public employments,—deprived of the right of electing their
own magistrates,—and rendered incapable of giving evi¬
dence in a court of justice, making testamentary disposi¬
tions, or taking up any succession, if at the expiration of a
year they had failed to perform their duties and satisfy the
church.
INQUISITION,
l. Pope Innocent III. died on the 12th of July 1216, and
two days thereafter was succeeded by Honorius III., who
resolved to continue the work which his predecessor had
commenced. The new pontiff approved of the institution
founded by Dominic de Guzman, according to the rule of
St Augustin, and having for its object to preach against
the heretics; an institution which gave rise to the order of
preaching friars, who were afterwards termed Dominicans.
He wrote to Guzman, praising his zeal, and encouraging
him to persevere in the enterprise in which he had engaged;
he sent into the provinces of Languedoc and Provence,
Cardinal Bertrand, with the title of legate, the principal ob¬
ject of whose mission was to prosecute with new vigour
the war against the Albigenses, to sustain the zeal of the
missionaries, and to ensure the reconciliation of converted,
as well as the punishment of obstinate heretics ; and, last¬
ly, he issued a brief addressed to all the bishops of Chris¬
tendom, strongly recommending to their favour and sup¬
port the order of preaching friars.
Meanwhile St Dominic, who happened to be at Rome,
had instituted an order for seculars who lived in the world,
the members of which were to be bound to assist, as far
as they could, those who preached against heresies, and to
prosecute heretics with unrelenting rigour. This order has
sometimes been designated the Third Order of Penitence,
but it was more commonly denominated the Militia of Christ,
because those who entered it were required to combat he¬
retics, and to aid the inquisitors in the exercise of their
ministry. They were in fact regarded as forming part of
the family of the inquisition, and, for this reason, they bore
the name of Familiars. Here, then, we have the two great
elements of the Holy Office ; first, the institution of St Do¬
minic, or the order of preaching friars, called Dominicans;
and, secondly, the Militia of Christ, an association which
afterwards gave rise to that which was known under the name
of the Congregation of St Peter Martyr; two orders which
were soon confounded, and the members of which were de¬
nominated Familiars of the Holy O ffice of the Inquisition.
Nor was it long ere the tribunal, thus organized, com¬
menced active operations against heretics. In 1224, the
Inquisition had been established in Italy, under the direc¬
tion of the religious Dominicans. This is proved by a con¬
stitution of Frederick II., published at Padua in February
1224, which provided that heretics condemned as such by
the church, and delivered over to the secular arm, should
be punished in a manner proportioned to their crime ; that
whosoever, through fear of punishment, might be brought
back to the unity of the faith, should be subjected to a
canonical penance and shut up in prison for life ; that the
inquisitors established by the pope, or Catholics zealous for
the purity of the faith, might require judges, in any part of
the empire, to cause heretics to be seized, and detained as
prisoners until, after being formally excommunicated by the
church, they were judged and punished with death ; that
all who supported or protected heretics should undergo the
same punishment; that heretics who had returned into the
bosom of the church should be obliged to pursue those per¬
sons charged with heresy, discover, and bring them before
the Inquisition; that he who, having made abjuration in
articulo mortis, should relapse into heresy after recovering
his health, should equally suffer a capital punishment; and
that treason against God was a much greater crime than
treason against man. This constitution contains other pro¬
visions equally severe, and concludes by declaring that all
those who should concur with the new religious order
in delivering the empire from the contagion of heresy, would
serve God and render themselves useful to the state. It
appears, however, that the efforts of the Inquisition in
mrbonne, were not attended with the success which the
■Pope had expected from them, probably because the events
of the war were not always favourable to the crusaders.
285
But it was reserved for Gregory IX., who ascended the Inquisi-
pontifical throne in 1227, to fix the establishment of the In- tion.
quisition in the form of a tribunal, and at the same time to s'-*—y'-"—'
give it constitutions. With this view he convened a council
at Toulouse, where new measures of severity were adopted
against the heretics ; he also issued a bull excommunicating
them, and further, enjoining that the impenitent should be
delivered over to the secular arm, and that all their sup¬
porters and adherents should be declared infamous. He
next transmitted a brief to Esparrago, archbishop of Toledo,
exhorting him to combat heresy; and at the same time
addressed to the prior of the Dominicans of Lombardy a
commission, confiding to that religious order the execution
of his bull against heretics. Councils were also held at Me-
lun, and at Beziers, where new regulations were adopted for
preserving the purity of the faith, by multiplying the seve¬
rities against those by whom it was denied.
But whilst this was passing in France, the heresy of the
Albigenses penetrated even into the capital of the Catholic
world. The extreme means of repression hitherto employ¬
ed against these schismatics had totally failed either in
lessening their ardour, or in abating their enthusiasm. Se¬
veral thousands of their number had perished at the stake
in France and Italy; yet, so far from being discouraged,
they had, in defiance of the power of the Pope, carried their
doctrines into his very capital, and, by this conduct, proved
how much they disregarded the anathemas of the church,
and even the horrible torments with which Gregory had
menaced them. Nor is it improbable that the pontiff would
have abandoned the system of repression which he had adopt¬
ed, if the opinions which originated in the fourth century,
when Constantine embraced Christianity, had not from age
to age acquired a new degree of force; namely, that suffi¬
cient reasons might be discovered in the Gospel for punish¬
ing heretics with death. Unhappily, however, men’s minds,
subjugated by prejudice, and inflamed by bigotry, were
rendered incapable of considering objects in their true
light. Hence, so far from changing his system, or taking
as his guide that spirit of meekness and benevolence which
had distinguished the first three centuries of Christianity,
Gregory fulminated against the heretics a bull in which he
excommunicated all those belonging to certain classes that
are therein named ; ordained that the persons condemned
should be delivered over to the secular power to receive
the punishment due to their crime ; regulated the mode of
procedure to be adopted against persons accused of heresy;
intercommuned, declared infamous, and deprived of their
civil rights, those inhabitants who should receive into their
houses, protect, or defend reputed heretics ; and provided
that if any one desired to recant and renounce his errors,
he should undergo such penance as might be prescribed,
and thereafter be imprisoned for life. This bull, which
contained many other penalties and disabilities, was en¬
forced with the utmost rigour ; whilst the senator Annibal,
and other members of the government of Rome, in order
to second the Pope in the execution of the measures which
he had ordained, passed different municipal laws, having
for their object the detection and punishment of heretics,
and being in spirit and character nearly the same with those
which had been promulgated by Frederick II.
Nor were these regulations confined in their operation
to Rome. They were transmitted, along with those which
Gregory himself had decreed, to the Archbishop of Milan,
in order that he might cause them to be rigorously executed
in his own diocese, in those of his suffragans, and in some
other parts of Cisalpine Gaul, where heresy had already
made alarming progress. Frederick II. also renewed the
constitutions which he had published against heretics in
1224, particularly the law against blasphemers, which con¬
demned all heretics indiscriminately to undergo the punish¬
ment of burning, or of having the tongue cut out, if the
INQUISITION.
286
Inquisi- bishops thought proper to shew them mercy, in order that
lion. jn future it might be impossible for them to blaspheme the
^ holy name of God.
Such is the general form which the Inquisition had as¬
sumed in France and Italy, when Gregory IX. introduced
it into Spain. This event took place about the middle of
the thirteenth century. Spain was then divided into four
Christian kingdoms, viz. Castille, Navarre, Aragon, and
Portugal, besides the Mahommedan States ; but, with re¬
lation to the Inquisition, that country was, in 1301, divided
into two provinces, viz. those of Castille and Aragon. To
the Dominicans, who had hitherto acquitted themselves
with success in the ministry of persecution, Gregory con¬
fided the execution of the bull by which the Inquisition
was established in Spain ; and, at a subsequent period, the
provincial of this order had conferred upon him the right
of nominating the local inquisitors, with the title and rank
of provincial of Spain. Nor was it long ere this formidable
institution, having for its object to extirpate heresy, and to
preserve the purity of the Catholic faith, came into active
operation. For the details of its proceedings, however, we
must refer the reader to the work of Llorente,1 which, with
all its faults of style and arrangement, contains a vast body of
interesting and authentic information on this subject. We
shall only remark here, that never did plant find a more
congenial soil. In France and in Italy it had required
strenuous and persevering efforts to organize and establish
this terrible tribunal; in Spain, however, it took root at
once, and in time attained a magnitude which, from a va¬
riety of causes, it never reached in any other country.
During the fourteenth century its progress was steady,
whilst its vigour and energy were continually on the in¬
crease. Its jurisdiction was enlarged, and its ramifications
multiplied ; autos-da-fe were celebrated in various places ;
and many perished in the flames, or were condemned to
suffer punishments of greater or less severity, for asserting
the unalienable rights of conscience.
But it was not until towards the close of the fifteenth
century, when Isabella, wife of Ferdinand of Aragon, had
ascended the throne of Castille, and when the different
kingdoms of Spain were united under these sovereigns,
that the Inquisition became general in that country, and
assumed that form which it retained until the period of its
dissolution in 1808. The execution of the bull of Sixtus
IV., which authorized Ferdinand and Isabella to establish
the Inquisition in their states, was indeed for a time sus¬
pended ; but this suspension must have been of short dura¬
tion, for in 1480 and 1481 we find it in full activity. Severe
measures were adopted against the Jews, who were accused
of the most absurd and ridiculous crimes, and in consequence
the new Christians, as they were called, emigrated in great
numbers. The flames of persecution raged at Seville, where,
in 1481, twenty-six persons perished at the stake; and al¬
ready no less than two hundred and ninety-eight victims
had shared a similar fate. From this period, indeed, may
be dated the establishment of the modern Inquisition, that
is, of the Inquisition such as it existed even until our own
time. This was effected by the creation of a grand inqui¬
sitor-general ; the appointment of a royal council of the
Inquisition, afterwards denominated the Council of the Su¬
preme ; the institution of subaltern tribunals in all parts
of the kingdom ; and, lastly, the enactment of organic laws,
having for their object to give stability to the tribunal,
as well as uniformity to its procedure, and efficacy to its
exertions in the repression of heresy. By this organization
there was created in Spain a jurisdiction in matters of re¬
ligion, which, under the able but merciless direction of
such men as Torquemada, Valdez, and their immediate r
successors, became the most effective and vigorous engine 'u*
of persecution which had ever before been known in any ^
age or country. Its character will be best understood by
stating the substance of the organic or fundamental laws of
the modern Inquisition, which, under the name of Instruc¬
tions, were published at Seville on the 29th of October 1484.
The first of these regulated the manner in which the in¬
stitution of the tribunal should be announced in those coun¬
tries or places where it might be judged necessary to esta¬
blish it. The second crdained the publication, in the church
of the place, of an edict accompanied with the censures pro¬
vided against those who, having committed the crime of
heresy or apostasy, should not voluntarily denounce them¬
selves before the expiration of the term of grace which had
been granted them, and also against those who should ob¬
struct or resist the execution of the measures ordained by
the Holy Office. By the third, a delay of thirty days was
allowed to heretics to declare themselves, and thereby to
prevent the confiscation of their goods, without prejudice,
however, to the pecuniary fines to which they might after¬
wards be condemned. By the fourth, it was provided that
the voluntary confessions of those who declared themselves
should be made in writing in the presence of the inquisitors
and a registrar, so that the self-accused might be required to
answer all the questions which might be addressed to them
by the inquisitors on the subject of their confession, and also
respecting their accomplices, and those whom they knew or
suspected to be guilty of apostasy. The fifth prohibited
giving secret absolution to any one who had made a volun¬
tary confession, excepting in the single case where no one
had had knowledge of his crime, and where there was no¬
thing to apprehend from its publicity. By the sixth article
it was provided that part of the penance enjoined on him
who had been reconciled should consist in his being de¬
prived of the exercise of every honourable employment, and
of the use of gold, silver, pearls, silk, and fine linen. The
seventh imposed pecuniary fines upon those who had made
a voluntary confession. The eighth provided that the vo¬
luntary penitent who might present himself with his con¬
fession, after the expiration of the term of grace, should not
be exempted from the penalty of confiscation of goods,
which he would otherwise have incurred. In the ninth
article, it was enacted, that if persons under the age of
twenty presented themselves to make confession, after the
expiration of the term of grace, and if it were proved that
they had been led into error by their parents, it would be
sufficient to impose on them a slight penance. The tenth
imposed on inquisitors the obligation of declaring, in the
act of reconciliation, the time in which the reconciled had
fallen into heresy, in order to ascertain what portion of
his goods belonged to the fisc. The eleventh article bore,
that if a heretic detained in the secret prisons of the Holy
Office, were touched with due repentance, and demanded
absolution, it might be granted him, by imposing as a
penance the pain of perpetual imprisonment. By the
twelfth, it was provided, that if the inquisitors considered
the confession of the penitent to have been simulated, in
the case indicated in the preceding article, they should re¬
fuse absolution, declare him a false penitent, and condemn
him as such to be relaxed, that is, delivered over to the se¬
cular arm. The thirteenth ordained that if a man, absolved
after free confession, boasted of having concealed several
crimes, or if it appeared, from information afterwards ob¬
tained, that he had committed more than he confessed,
he should be arrested, and judged as a false penitent.
The fourteenth provided, that if the accused, when convict-
Histoire Critiqiie de l Inquisition d'Espagne, Paris, 1818, 4 vols. 8vo. Llorente had been an inquisitor himself (at Calatayud) and
was probably on that account selected to prepare a digest of the materials for a history of the Inquisition, furnished by the archives
of the Holy Office, '
INQUISITION.
fnqu ■ ed, persisted in denying the charge, even after the pubii-
tfo cation of the evidence, he should be condemned as impeni-
^ tent. By the fifteenth, if there were only a semi-plena pro-
batio against the accused, who denied the crime charged
against him, he might be subjected to the question; in which
case, if he confessed himself guilty under the torture, and
thereafter confirmed his confession, he was punished as one
regularly convicted ; but if he retracted, he was to undergo,
a second time, the same probation, or to be condemned to
an extraordinary punishment. The sixteenth prohibited
communicating to the accused an entire copy of the de¬
clarations of the witnesses. They were only to be informed
generally what had been deposed, without being made
aware of any circumstances which might enable them to
discover who had given evidence against, them. The se¬
venteenth article enjoined inquisitors themselves to interro¬
gate the witnesses, in every case where it was possible for
them to do so. The eighteenth provided that two inqui¬
sitors should be present when the person arraigned was put
to the question ; but if otherwise occupied, they might ap¬
point a commissary to receive the declarations of the sufferer.
By the nineteenth article, if the accused did not appear,
after having been cited according to the prescribed forms,
he might be condemned as a convicted heretic. The twen¬
tieth bore, that if it were proved by the books, or by the
conduct whilst in life of a person deceased, that he had
been a heretic, he might be judged and condemned as such,
his corpse disinterred, and the whole of his property con¬
fiscated to the state, at the expense of his natural heirs.
By the twenty-first article, the inquisitors were ordered to
extend their jurisdiction over the vassals of the great lords;
and if the latter refused to recognise it, to apply to them
censures and other penalties. The twenty-second provided
that if the person condemned to be relaxed to the ordinary
tribunal left children minors, a small portion of the con¬
fiscated property of their father should be granted them by
the government, in name of alms, and the inquisitors should
be obliged to confide to proper persons the care of their
education and Christian instruction. By the twenty-third,
if a heretic reconciled during the term of grace, without
having incurred the penalty of confiscation, should have
acquired property from a person who would have been con¬
demned to that penalty, such property was not to be included
in or protected by the law of pardon. The twenty-fourth
rendered it obligatory to restore to liberty the Christian
slaves of the reconciled, when confiscation had not taken
place, provided the king had granted pardon only on that
condition. The twenty-fifth article prohibited the inqui¬
sitors, and other persons attached to the tribunal, from re¬
ceiving presents, under pain of incurring the greater ex-
communication, being deprived of all their employments,
condemned to make restitution, and amerced in twice the
value of the articles received. The twenty-sixth recom¬
mended to the officers of the Inquisition to live in peace
with one another, without affectation of superiority even
on the part of him who might be invested with the powers
of the ordinary of the diocese ; and, in case any difference
should arise, it was reserved for the inquisitor-general to
settle it quietly (sans eclat). By the twenty-seventh, in¬
quisitors were expressly enjoined to watch carefully over
their subordinates, in order that the latter might be exact
in discharging their duties. Lastly, the twenty-eighth ar¬
ticle committed to the prudence of the inquisitors the exa¬
mination and discussion of all points which might not have
been provided for in the foregoing constitutions.
287
Such is the substance of the Code of the Inquisition, as Inquisi-
originally promulgated, perhaps the most extraordinary tion.
digest ever formed for consolidating a system of religious vv /
tyranny. From this abstract, indeed, it must be evident,
whether we examine the twenty-eight articles in detail, or
consider them as a whole, that the judgments and sen¬
tences pronounced would depend upon the manner in which
the charge was prepared, and the particular views and feel¬
ings entertained by the judges, who were to decide as to
the heresy or orthodoxy of the accused, according to induc¬
tions, analogies, or consequences, deduced from facts or
isolated observations, reported with more or less of exag¬
geration and infidelity.1 The code in question was, how¬
ever, several times augmented, even in the early days of
the Inquisition. In particular, there were added to it the in¬
structions which had been prepared at Seville in the be¬
ginning of 1484, those of Valladolid in 1488, those of To¬
ledo and Avila in 1498, and, lastly, those of Valladolid in
1561. But with all these modifications the forms of pro¬
cedure underwent little or no change ; nor was the arbi¬
trary character which distinguished this cruel and odious
jurisprudence in any degree mitigated. It was scarcely
possible for the accused, however innocent, to establish an
effectual defence. Placed between the alternative of either
recognising his innocence, or suspecting him of guilt, the
judges constantly allowed themselves to adopt the latter
course, which at once superseded the necessity of proof, and
left the accused entirely at their mercy.
The additional acts of the inquisitor-general Torquema-
da also fall under the description which has already been
given. They were eleven in number, and principally in¬
tended to regulate details. They provided that in every
subaltern tribunal there should be two inquisitor-juris¬
consults, a fiscal, an alguazil, registrars, and other officers
if required ; that every functionary who received presents
either from the accused, or their families, should be im¬
mediately dismissed; that the Inquisition should main¬
tain at Rome an able jurisconsult, with the title of agent;
that contracts signed before the year 1479 by persons whose
goods happened to be seized after that period, should be
valid; that proprietors who might have afforded to fugi¬
tives an asylum on their estates, should be held as having
placed their whole property at the disposal of the govern¬
ment ; that the notaries of the Inquisition should keep ac¬
counts of the effects of persons condemned; that the re¬
ceivers of the Holy Office might sell that property, the ad¬
ministration of which they found troublesome, and collect the
rents of such as was immoveable ; that each receiver should
attend to the interests of the tribunal to which he was more
immediately attached; that the goods of a person con¬
demned could not be sequestrated without an order of the
Inquisition; that the inquisitor and other officers should
be paid their salaries quarterly by the receiver ; and that,
in regard to circumstances unprovided for in the new con¬
stitutions, the inquisitors should hp.ve a discretionary power
to act as they judged best, but that, in matters of great
importance, they should have recourse to the government
for instructions.
The crimes of which the Inquisition took cognisance
were heresy in all its different forms, apostasy, Judaism,
Mahommedanism, sorcery, offences against nature, and
polygamy ; and the punishments consequent on conviction
varied according to the presumed degree of delinquency,
from temporary confinement and severe penance to the san
benito 2 and the auto-da-fe. This tribunal was not esta-
pletternpnf devait:?n attendre de tels homines, devenus les arbitres de la vie et de la morl de leurs semblables, en les voyant com-
trinrrmi,en» Par leurs preventions centre des accuses sans defense ? L’homme simple devait succomber: I’hypocrite seul
tnompna. —(Llorente, Hist. Crit. de I'lnquisit. cTEspagne, i. 184.)
becamp n! 18 a corruption of saco bendito. Its true name in Spanish was zamarra ; but saco bendito, corrupted into san benitoy
e vulgar name, because, since the time of the Hebrews, a sack was the habit of penitence.
288
INQUISITION.
Inquisi¬
tion.
blished without great opposition. The first inquisitor of
Aragon was openly assassinated, and all the provinces of
that kingdom offered the most strenuous resistance to a ju¬
risdiction which trenched so much on their ancient rights and
privileges. But their opposition proved unavailing, as did
also an attempt made by the Cortes of Castille and Aragon
to reform the Holy Office after it had been established. The
Inquisition triumphed over all its adversaries, and soon be¬
came so formidable, that parents delivered up their children,
husbands their wives, and masters their servants, without
a murmur. Terror, in fact, constituted the great element
of its power; nor was this feeling diminished in force
by the suddenness with which it pounced on its victims,
and the impenetrable secrecy in which all its proceedings
were involved. Its stroke was like that of fate. No man
knew when it might descend on his own head; every one
felt that resistance was vain, and escape impossible. Ima¬
gination lent its aid to exaggerate the fearful reality ; ter¬
ror froze all hearts ; even kings and princes trembled before
it. Nor can it be denied that, in its high and palmy days,
its proceedings were marked by a bold and fearless impar¬
tiality. It scrupled not to arrest and proceed against Don
Carlos of Austria, prince of the Asturias, whom death alone
placed beyond the reach of its sentence. It instituted pro¬
cesses against Charles V., Philip II., the Duke of Alba,
and other illustrious personages, the first of whom was ac¬
cused of favouring Lutheranism, and the others were charg¬
ed with want of zeal in the prosecution and extermination
of heretics. Nor was it in any respect more lenient to the
clergy than to the laity. Bartolomeo Carranza, archbishop
of Toledo, a prelate of eminent learning, piety, and mo¬
deration, was accused of entertaining and countenancing
certain opinions declared to be heretical, imprisoned for
several years, and, after enduring the greatest sufferings,
died before his process was brought to a close, though it
ended in a sentence of absolution. With regard to the in¬
ferior clergy, a charge of heresy, or even the suspicion of
having shewn kindness to heretics, was almost equivalent
to a capital condemnation. Neither rank, nor age, nor sex,
afforded any defence against its watchful vigilance and its
pitiless severity. It was instituted to preserve the uniform¬
ity of the faith, and, in Spain at least, it completely suc¬
ceeded.1
Nor can it be doubted that the procedure of the Inquisi¬
tion was eminently calculated to accomplish the objects for
which it had been originally instituted. This consisted of
several parts; namely, the denunciation, the inquest, the
censure by qualificators, secret imprisonment, the primary
audiences, the charges, torture, the requisitory, the defence,
the proofs, the publication of the proofs, the definitive cen¬
sure by qualificators, and the sentence.
The procedure of the Holy Office commenced by de¬
nunciation, or something held equivalent thereto, such as a
discovery incidentally resulting from a deposition made be¬
fore the tribunal in another affair ; and this, when signed,
assumed the form of a declaration, in which the delator,
after having sworn to tell the truth, designated by their
names, or in some other manner, the persons whom he be¬
lieved or presumed to be able to give evidence against the
denounced. Then followed the inquest, or examination of lnquisi
the persons named and designed in the declaration as cog- tin.
nisant of the facts and circumstances therein set forth, andv*.
who were made to promise upon oath that they would
never reveal the interrogatories which they were to be called
upon to answer. Next came the censure by the qualifica¬
tors. When the tribunal had examined the preliminary
instruction, and discovered therein sufficient grounds for
further procedure ; and when the registers of the other tri¬
bunals of the province had been examined, to ascertain if
there existed in these any charges against the denounced;
the whole was submitted by the inquisitors to certain theo¬
logians, called qualificators of the Holy Office, who indi¬
cated or qualified in writing the propositions meriting theo¬
logical censure, as heretical, savouring of heresy, or calcu¬
lated to lead to heresy: And in case the denounced was only
suspected of this crime, they decided whether the suspicion
was light, grave, or violent. As soon as the qualification here
described had been made, the procurator-fiscal demanded
that the denounced should be transferred to the secret
prisons of the Holy Office. The tribunal had three sorts of
prisons ; public, intermediary, and secret. The first were
those in which the Holy Office caused to be confined per¬
sons who, without being guilty of any crime against the
faith, were accused of some delict, the punishment of which
belonged of right to the Inquisition. The second were des¬
tined for such servants or ministers of the Holy Office as
had committed some crime or some fault in the exercise of
their functions, without, however, incurring the suspicion
of heresy. The third or secret prisons were those in which
heretics, or persons suspected of being so, were confined,
and where the prisoners could only communicate with the
judges, in the cases provided and with the precautions en¬
joined by the constitutions.2
In the three days which followed the imprisonment of the
suspected, they gave him three audiences of monition or
advice, to engage him to speak the truth and the whole
truth, without concealing any thing which he had himself
done or said, or which he could impute to others contrary to
the faith. He wras also told, that if he conformed faithfully
to what had been prescribed to him in this particular, mercy
would be shewn him, but that, in the contrary case, he would
be treated with all the rigour of law. After the formality
of the three audiences of monition had been gone through,
the procurator-fiscal prepared the indictment against the
prisoner, in conformity with the heads of accusation indi¬
cated or qualified in the instruction ; and although there
existed only a semi-plena probatio, he charged the facts de¬
posed to as if they had been fully proved, and what was
worse, he did not limit the articles or counts of his indict¬
ment to the number of facts declared, and dispensed with
applying to each head of accusation the proper character
or notion which distinguished it. The next part of the
procedure was the most horrible, namely, the application of
the torture. Although the prisoner, in the three audiences of
monition, might have confessed as much as, or even more,
than the witnesses had deposed to, the fiscal terminated
his requisitory or accusation, by demanding that the accuseu
should be subjected to the question, on the alleged ground
1 See Llorente, Hist. Critiq. de VInq. d'Espagne, tom. iv., and M’Crie’s History of the Reformation in Spain. ^ t
2 “ II serait difficile de rien concevoir de plus affreux que ces reduits,” says Llorente ; “ non qu’ils soient a present tels qu on
les a decrits, c’est-a-dire profonds, humides, sales et mal-sains : a ces traits il est plus facile de reconnaitre les rapports inexacts e
exagdrds des victimes de [’Inquisition que le temoignage de la verite. Je ne parlerai de ce qu’ils ont ete autrefois, mais il est cer¬
tain qu’aujourd’hui ces lieux sonl de bonnes chambres voutees, bien eclairees, sans humiditd, et oil il est permis de faire un peu
d’exercice. Mais ce qui les rend un sejour vraiment redoutable c’est qu’on n’y entre sans etre a 1’instant fietri dans 1’opinion pub-
lique; infamie k laquelle aucune autre, soit civile, soit ecclesiastique, n’expose les prisonniers ; c’est qu’on y tombe dans une tristesse
inexprimable, compagne inevitable d’une solitude profonde et continuelle ; c’est qu’on n’y connait jamais I’dtat de la procedure don
on est 1’objet, et qu’on ne peut y jouir de la consolation de voir et entretenir son ddfenseur ; enfin, c’est parcequ’ on y est plonge
pendant 1’hiver dans des tenebres de quinze heures par jour, car il n’est point permis au prisonnier d’avoir de la lumiere apres quatre
heures du soir ni avant sept heures du matin ; intervalle assez long pour qu’une hypochondrie mortelle s’empare du prisonnier, au
piilieu du froid, dont il est saisi dans un sejour oil le feu n’a jamais penetre.” (Hist Crit. de Vlnquisit. d'Espagne, i. 300.)
INQUISITION.
Inqu. of culpable concealment and denial of the truth. It is cer-
tio tain that for a long period the torture had not been applied by
-'the inquisitors, either in Spain or in any other country, the
mitigating and humanizing influence of time and improve¬
ment having virtually abolished this barbarity; but the form
of procedure still remained unchanged. The requisitory or
accusation of the fiscal was never communicated in writing
to the accused, to enable him to prepare his defence. He
was conducted into the hall of audience, where, in presence
of the inquisitors and the fiscal, a secretary read over the
charges one after another, stopping at each article, and
calling upon the accused to answer at the instant, whether
it was conformable to the truth or otherwise ; thus laying a
snare for the unhappy person who was about to be put on his
trial. After the accusation had been read, the inquisitors
asked the accused if he wished to be defended. If he an¬
swered in the affirmative, they ordered a copy to be taken of
the accusation and answers, and, from the list of titularies of
the Holy Office, appointed him an advocate. No prisoner
was permitted to choose his own counsel, although there ex¬
isted no law of the Holy Office which denied him this just
and natural right. To the proof, and the publication of the
proof, as it was called, both gross mockeries of justice, suc¬
ceeded the definitive censure by the qualificators, or theo¬
logians of the Holy Office, to whom was remitted the ori¬
ginal of the judgment they had pronounced on the sum¬
mary instruction, together with an extract of the answers
made by the accused in his last examination, and who
were required to qualify for the second time the propo¬
sitions upon which the accusation was founded, to consider
the explanation given by the prisoner, and to decide whe¬
ther he had, by his answers, elided in whole or in part
the suspicion of heresy with which he was charged, or
whether, on the contrary, he had not fortified the suspi¬
cion of his guilt. The importance of this censure must
be evident, since on it depended the definitive sentence.
Yet, says Llorente, “ les qualijicateurs se donnent a peine
le temps d’ecouter une lecture rapide de ce qui s’est passe ;
ils se hatent d’etablir leur opinion, et c’est la le dernier
acte important de la procedure,” all the rest being a simple
formality. Lastly, came the sentence, which, as may easily
be anticipated from the nature of the procedure, was gene¬
rally condemnatory of the prisoner. In fact, before the
reign of Philip III., sentences of absolution were so rare in
the Holy Office, that in one or even two thousand judg¬
ments we scarcely find an instance where the prisoner
was fully acquitted, because the slightest doubt as to the
complete innocence of the accused led the qualificators to
declare him suspected de levi, and this was sufficient to
induce the inquisitors to condemn him to suffer pains more
or less grave, according to circumstances, and to make a
formal abjuration of all kinds of heresy, particularly of that
of which he had incurred the suspicion.
Levant ITnquisition, quand on vient k jube
Si Ton ne sort rdti, 1’on sort au moins flambd.
The reading of the judgment formed the finale of the pro¬
cedure which we have been endeavouring to describe ; and
the execution of it always commenced in the same auto-
da-fe where it was read and signified.
We shall not attempt to describe a public and general
nuto-da-fe, because all the circumstances attending that
ceremony may be found detailed in several works, and even
icpresented in engravings, which exhibit to the eye a pic¬
ture of the horrors of which no pen can convey any ade¬
quate conception. We shall only speak here of the san-be-
nito, to which reference has already been made in a pre¬
vious part of this article.
*SiVeS^men^ WaS mereIy a kind of scapulary which was
ec* close to the person, and descended only to the knees,
in order that it might not be confounded with any form of
vql. xn. J
289
the monastic habit. This last circumstance led the inqui- Inquisi.
sitors to perfer for the san-benito an ordinary woollen stuff tion.
dyed yellow, with crosses of a red colour, by which means
every trace of resemblance between the habit in which the
penitents of the Inquisition were clothed, and that worn by
any of the religious orders, was completely annihilated.
Such was the san-benito in 1514, when Cardinal Ximenes
de Cisneros caused the ordinary cross to be replaced by
that of St Andrew. Afterwards, however, the inquisitors
varied the forms of the san-benito, in order that one of
these might be applicable to each class or description of
penitents. But we shall only mention here those which
were in common use.
When a person had been declared slightly suspected of
heresy, and condemned to make abjuration, if he demand¬
ed to be relieved from the censures ad cautelam, he was
made to assume a san-benito, which the Spaniards of the
fifteenth century called zamairra, and which was merely
the scapulary we have already mentioned, without a cross
in saltier. But if the condemned abjured as one violently sus¬
pected, he bore one-half of this cross ; and if he made ab¬
juration as & formal heretic, he bore it entire. This, how¬
ever, applied only to those who, after having been recon¬
ciled, had their lives spared. But there were other kinds
of san-benito for those who were condemned to perish in
the flames. He who, after having been once absolved from
the crime of formal heresy, and reconciled to the church,
relapsed into his former errors, was denominated relapsed,
and incurred the pain of death. His fate was inevitable,
however lively might be his repentance, and even not¬
withstanding a second reconciliation. The only advantage
which this last act procured him, was that of not being
burned alive. He was merely strangled, or put to death
in some other manner less horrible than by fire, and then his
corpse was delivered to the flames. Thus, as there were
three kinds of san-benito for the three classes of condemn¬
ed who were delivered to the secular arm, so also the in¬
quisitors contrived an equal number for those who were
doomed to suffer death.
T\\q first was that of prisoners who had repented before
being condemned. It was formed of a simple yellow sca¬
pulary, with an entire red cross in saltier, and a round
pyramidal bonnet, called coroza, of the same stuff’ as the
san-benito, and garnished with similar crosses, but without
any representation of flames, because the repentance of
the accused having been manifested in time, had saved them
from the penalty of cremation. The second was destined
for those who had been definitively condemned to be de¬
livered to secular justice, in order to undergo the pains of
fire and who had repented, after their condemnation, and
before being conducted to the auto-da-fe. The san-benito
and the coroza were made of the same stuff. On the
lower part of the scapulary was represented a human bust
on a brazier, whilst the rest of it was covered with the re¬
semblance of flames pointing downwards, to indicate that the
criminal was not to be burned alive, because he had not
been adjudged to suffer that punishment, but only to be
thrown into the flames after being strangled. The same
representations were painted upon the coroza. The third
was for those who were treated as guilty of final impeni¬
tence. It was made of the same stuff (serge) as the others.
The lower part exhibited a human bust on a brasier, sur¬
rounded with flames; and the rest was covered with flames
in their natural direction, to shew that he who wore it was
doomed to actual burning. On the vestment were also de¬
lineated grotesque figures of devils, which were painted
thereon, to indicate that these lying spirits had entered and
taken up their abode in the soul of the guilty. The coroza
was charged with similar figures. Such were the principal
forms of the san-benito. The others were intended for
those adjudged to suffer milder penalties, as confinement
2 o
200 INS
Inscribed and penance, and generally had inscribed on them the
II name, country, species of heresy, punishment, and date of
Inscrip- condemnation of the delinquent, accompanied with a cross
x J]0n' ,in saltier or with flames, according to circumstances.
As the Inquisition was the creation of an intolerant age,
when religious zeal was envenomed by bigotry, and ex¬
asperated by schisms and divisions, so it has fallen before
the humanizing influence of modern civilization, and is
now, even in Catholic countries, only a matter of history.
In Spain and Portugal it has ceased to exist even in name;
in Italy and other countries, where it has not been formal¬
ly abolished, it is merely an obsolete institution, which
henceforward no one will ever succeed in reviving. But
the time was when it acted with fearful energy and efficacy,
and when, like the Vehmgericht of the middle ages, it struck
terror into all hearts. In Spain alone, according to Llo-
rente, upwards of three hundred and forty thousand per¬
sons were judged and punished, one way or other, by this
tribunal. The following is the general result of his state¬
ment in figures:—
Burned alive,   31,912
Burned in effigy, 17,659
Subjected to rigorous pains and penances, 291,450
Total, 341,021
And if to the number of victims immolated by the Inqui¬
sition in the Peninsula, be added all the unfortunates who
were condemned by the tribunals in Mexico, Lima, Car-
thagena, Sicily, Sardinia, Oran, Malta, together with Naples,
Milan, and Flanders, whilst these countries were under the
dominion of Spain, it would probably be found that more
than half a million of human beings had been condemned
by this inexorable tribunal to undergo various punishments,
a large proportion of which inferred infamy. (a.)
INSCRIBED, in Geometry. A figure is said to be in¬
scribed in another, when all its angles touch the sides or
planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, in Latin Inscriptio (a word formed
from the preposition in and scribere to write), and signifying
something written or engraved on any substance, whether
of wood, stone, metal, or other material, and having for its
object to transmit to posterity the record of some important
event or transaction.
It is well known that the ancients engraved on temples
and columns the principles of science, as well as the events
of history. In the early ages of the world this was the
only means by which valuable truths could be preserved,
and the memory of important transactions transmitted to
succeeding ages. Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician historian,
born at Berytus in Syria, and who flourished about the
time of the Trojan war, is said to have drawn most of the
materials of his history from inscriptions which he found
in temples and on columns, both in his own country and
in Palestine. But however this may have been, the cir¬
cumstances mentioned by Herodotus shew, that the first
method of instructing men, and of transmitting sciences as
well as history to posterity, was by inscriptions. And this
is confirmed by Plato, who, in his Hippias, informs us that
Pisistratus caused to be engraved on stone, for the benefit
of his countrymen, useful precepts in husbandry. Pliny
assures us that the earliest public monuments consisted of
plates of lead, on which were engraved the records of public
transactions; and, in corroboration of this, he mentions, by
way of exception, that the treaty of confederacy concluded
between the Romans and the Jews, was inscribed on plates
of brass, in order that the record of the compact might be
less liable to be effaced, and that the Jewish people might
always have something to remind them of the alliance which
they had formed with the Romans. Nor were inscriptions
discontinued in proportion as the art of writing was im-
I N S
proved and facilitated. On the contrary, amongst the inscrj.
Greeks and Romans especially, this method of preserving tior,
the memory of important events, in connexion with distin-
guished names, continued to be employed long after it had
ceased to be a matter of necessity ; and hence the multi¬
tude of inscriptions, or fragments of inscriptions, which has
outlasted the injuries of time, and the still more destructive
dilapidations of barbarism.
Inscriptions are of different kinds, and they have been va¬
riously classed. Spohn, for instance, has divided archaeo-
graphy into no less than eight parts, viz. numismatography,
epigrammatography, architectonography, iconography, glyp¬
tography, toreumatography, bibliography, and angiography.
But this classification, which Boeckh has denominated rude,
appears to be extremely unscientific and arbitrary, and not
being founded upon any clear or definite principle, it is cal¬
culated to involve the subject in inextricable perplexity.
A more natural and obvious division readily suggests itself.
Inscriptions, generally considered, may be arranged in two
classes, namely, numismatic and monumental; the former
including the legends preserved on ancient coins and medals;
the latter, the texts engraved on palaces, temples, and other
edifices, together with those on columns, obelisks, statues,
and such like monuments. The one of these branches is
entirely distinct from, and can never be confounded with the
other. In numismatics, our attention is exclusively confin¬
ed to simple legends, consisting merely of names, titles, and
dates. In monumental inscriptions we meet with texts, or
the remains of texts, which, besides names and titular or
official designations, contain, in a more or less perfect form,
records of particular transactions or events, the memory of
which it was intended thus to perpetuate. But the latter,
with reference to their subjects, may nevertheless be sub¬
divided into four different kinds. These are, first, the in¬
scriptions relating to public affairs and civil institutions,
which it is the principal object of the historian to investi¬
gate ; secondly, those which respect private affairs, or the
economy and intercourse of common life ; thirdly, those
which relate to the ceremonies of religion, and the arts or
observances therewith connected; and, lastly, those which
have reference to the history of science, whether as re¬
spects philosophy, mythology, or any other branch of know¬
ledge. Under one or other of these heads may be includ¬
ed every kind of monumental inscription.
The most remarkable inscriptions in the world are those
sculptured on the temples, palaces and obelisks, or painted
on the interior of the hypogceaox burial-vaults of the ancient
Egyptians; the texts, in cuneiform characters, observed on
the ruins of Persepolis, as well as on vitrified bricks found
amidst the ruins of Babylon ; and those preserved on the
pillars and ornamental parts of the rock-temples of Elephanta,
Ellora, Carli, and other ancient monuments in India. Of
the first of these, some account has already been given in
the article Hieroglyphics, to which the reader is accord¬
ingly referred. In this interesting field of inquiry, modern
sagacity has, in part, triumphed over the difficulties, so nu¬
merous and formidable, which seemed destined to oppose an
insuperable barrier to all investigation. But much, very
much, yet remains to be done ; indeed, the task may be said
to have only been commenced. Proper names have been
deciphered, legends have been interpreted and explained,
dates have also been determined; but the body of those
texts, to which the history of ancient Egypt has probably
been consigned, still remains as great a mystery as ever. To
a double or perhaps triple lock only one key has as yet been
found. With regard to the Persepolitan characters, again,
various attempts have been made to decipher them, though
hitherto without any certain or assignable success. By a
fortunate accident or rather conjecture, M. Saint-Martin has,
we understand, been enabled to detect the name of Xerxes
upon a vase in the cabinet of the King at Paris. But wbdst
INSCRIPTIONS.
In ip- little reliance can be placed on such divinations, it is plain
t . that the interpretation, even if well-founded, cannot afford
^ sufficient data for advancing a single step beyond it. No
parasite translations into any known language have been dis¬
covered, as in Egypt, where the pillar of Rosetta and the
monument of Philae afforded the means of instituting ten¬
tative comparisons, and furnished the elements of an alpha¬
bet ; nor is it at all probable that, without some such accessory
helps, any progress will ever be made in determining the
values of the nail-headed characters. The Indian inscrip¬
tions, also, still remain in a great measure undeciphered;
nor has there yet been found any certain or safe clew cal¬
culated to lead to the interpretation of the characters in
which they are written, much less of the texts which these
characters have been employed to express. The discovery
of such a key, indeed, is a question in the theory of proba¬
bilities, where the chance of failure is to that of success,
within a given time, as a number incalculably great to unity.
Some interpretations have, indeed, been published, as for
example of the Allahabad and Delhi inscriptions, and also
of those found in the caves of Carli; but none of the in¬
terpreters, so far as we know, has condescended to state
the data on which he proceeded, or to explain the process
by which he was enabled to construct an alphabet; and it
must be evident that, without the most distinct and precise
information on this point, no confidence can be placed in
the results alleged to have been obtained.1
Inscriptions in an unknown character have also been
found cut upon granite and sandstone rocks, between Mount
Sinai and the Red Sea. Several specimens of these now
lie before us, copied from the rocks at Wady Magara, Ge-
bel Mokat’teb, Mount Horeb, Wady Maggup, and Nasby.
With the exception of a mixed inscription, and also one in
Greek, and another Cufic, they are all in the same character.
In those found at Wady Magara and Gebel Mokat’teb, we
discover rude delineations of the camel, the horse, the goat,
and the antelope, with, in one instance, the figure of a man
holding a club or staff in his hand. The characters bear a
considerable analogy to the Cufic, though much more dis¬
tinct ; and, judging from the figures of loaded camels, with
their heads all turned in the same direction, it seems not
improbable, that the texts record the transits of different
caravans. In one of these inscriptions, a number of cha¬
racters are marked out in such a manner, by a line under-
neath, as to suggest the idea that they represent the name
of some distinguished person, upon a principle analogous
to that which was observed in the royal scrolls of the Egyp¬
tian writing; and this conjecture is somewhat countenan¬
ced by the circumstance that, amongst the characters thus
defined, there is one which occurs thrice. But there exist
no data upon which to found an attempt at interpretation ;
nor can any opinion be formed as to their relative antiquity.
291
In the countries of the west, where civilization is com- Inscrip-
paratively but of recent origin, few remains of extinct forms tion.
of writing have been discovered. This is easily accounted ^ y 
for, because, in Europe, the origin of letters is of much
more recent date than in those countries where such inter¬
esting relics are found. The language of the Eugubian
tables is, no doubt, an exception, inasmuch as all the learn¬
ing and ingenuity of scholars have as yet been insufficient
to analyze its structure, or to penetrate the meaning of the
texts in which it has been partially preserved. But, by a
singular anomaly, the characters on these tables have been
resolved into an alphabet; and it may not unreasonably be
hoped, that the power thus obtained of combining words,
will ultimately lead to the discovery of their respective
values. The Runic characters and the Runic language are
now pretty well understood.
But the category of inscriptions to which the most direct
interest and the greatest importance are naturally attached,
whether with reference to the subjects of history, antiqui¬
ties, or philology, is that which includes the monumental
remains of Greece and Rome, particularly of the former.
Not to mention the writers who, between the age of
Herodotus and that of Cosmas Indopleustes, or even la¬
ter, make frequent mention of inscriptions, Philochorus of
Athens, who flourished between the 118th and the 129th
Olympiad, and was deeply skilled in Attic antiquities, ap¬
pears to have been the first who applied himself to this
subject; and, on the authority of Suidas we learn that he
published or Attic inscriptions of dif¬
ferent kinds. He was succeeded by Polemo Graecanicus,
the son of Euegetus, and the contemporary of Aristopha¬
nes of Byzantium, who, on account of his indefatigable
study of inscriptions, was denominated His
principal works on this subject were, first, vm voteis
17Viygcif/.pci'Tay; secondly, srsgi Tm w AcocujattA.ovi uvcc&viftctTvv;
thirdly, four books thj A&nvvi<ri]i un^oTroMag; and, lastly,
ray uvx6n/^xTa)i b m Mention is also made of
a book ruv Qn/3cuKa)i imy^xfXfcxTaiy, by Aristodemus,
a writer on Theban affairs, whose works have utterly pe¬
rished. To these succeeded Alcetas rav b fehcpon; xvx-
iyi/xarav, Menetor uvxJ-uuxTray, Apellas Ponticus, and
Neoptolemus Parianus iviy^xfAftxTuv, who were after¬
wards followed by the authors of the Anthologies. Of the
collections of Philochorus, Polemo, and others, however,
nothing remains excepting some expressions, such as g-txQ-
fxix %xXkx and xt^x? htTrapix xgyvgovv, with a few others; but it
appears that, anciently, there existed a repository or collec¬
tion of confiscated goods, arranged according to a method
copied from the inscriptions, and that this fact was known
both to Athenseus and to Pollux. The book of Heliodorus,
rav b AO-mcrt must also have embraced inscrip¬
tions, as we find that the ancients early employed the denomi-
1 With regard to the Carli inscriptions, the Rev. Mr Stevenson of Poonah, having directed his attention to the subject, employed a
year and a half in searching for a key amongst the natives ; but as the latter were wholly unacquainted with the characters in which these
inscriptions were written, his researches proved fruitless. He then made a collection of alphabets used on the western side of India,
and attempted, by means of these, to decipher the inscriptions; but still with indifferent success. The publication of the Allahabad in¬
scription, however, gave a new impulse and direction to his studies, and at length he was enabled, though we are not informed how, to
read and translate the Carli inscriptions. It would certainly have been much more satisfactory, and, in appearance at least, far less
empirical, had Mr Stevenson condescended to state the data on which his method of interpretation is founded.
But be this as it may, the results alleged to have been obtained from the Carli inscriptions deciphered are curious. These are, first,
that the rock temple in question was excavated about sixteen centuries ago ; secondly, that the empire of Shalivahana, in the Deccan,
continued at least a hundred years after his time; thirdly, that Buddhism was the religion at that time favoured by the ruling party ;
fourthly, that the Shakas, so far from supplanting the language and literature of the Brahmins, adopted the Sanscrit as the vehicle for
transmitting the memory of their own deeds to posterity; fifthly, that a simpler character than the Devanagari was probably used at the
time when the Yedas and other ancient compositions were committed to writing; sixthly, that the Arabic numeral ciphers had been
introduced into India at the period above mentioned ; and, lastly, that great caution must be observed in admitting local traditions
as of authority in regard to the condition of society or the state of knowledge and manners in such remote times.
These results, however, though probable enough, require confirmation. We have already observed that Mr Stevenson’s scheme
of an alphabet is not satisfactorily developed ; and Mr Princep found that, when applied to the Allahabad inscription, it did not con¬
vert the text of that monument into intelligible Sanscrit. Besides, Mr Hodgson, resident in Nepaul, has expressed his conviction that
the characters of this incription, so far from having preceded, are in fact derived from the Devanagari, or literal symbols of the learned
Hindus. It appears, also, that the Allahabad and Delhi inscriptions are identical with one discovered at Mattia-lath, on the Nepaul
frontier.
INSCRIPTIONS.
292
Inscrip- nation of tripod. Lastly, Craterus Macedo, whom Niebuhr
tion. considers to have been the brother of Antigonus Gonatas,
^ v son of Craterus and Phila, published a-wccyayr.v,
or books ^(pio-^.ciTav, in which he sought to confirm
public transactions by extracts of decrees and other docu¬
ments, the greater part of which he, doubtless, derived
from inscriptions, whilst as to the remainder, it was in all
probability obtained from the Attic rolls or registers. From
this collection of Craterus, indeed, and from others of a
similar description, derived from the same sources, those
who have preserved to us the Attic decrees copied the do¬
cuments which we find embodied in their works; and to it
also may be referred the greater part of the decrees insert¬
ed by the orators, particularly those cited by Demosthenes
in Ills celebrated oration for the crown.
The first modern work on inscriptions was that of Cyria-
cus Anconitanus, who, in the early part of the fifteenth
century, applied himself to collect those remains which had
escaped the ravages of the barbarous ages, and who, what¬
ever some critics may allege to the contrary, displayed
equal diligence and fidelity in the execution of this labo¬
rious undertaking. He was succeeded, at intervals, by a
long series of learned men, extending downwards even to
our own time, who devoted their talents and industry to the
collecting, interpreting, and illustrating of the monumental
remains of antiquity. Amongst these a distinguished place
must be assigned to Gruter, whose Corpus Inscriptionum
(Heidelberg, 1601, in folio) is still a work of high import¬
ance. It is an immense collection of Greek and Latin in¬
scriptions, which having been commenced by Smetius,
was considerably augmented by Gruter, who subjoined
to it the Notes Romanorum veterum Tulii Tironis et
Annoei Senecce, a work which has since been much sur¬
passed. Gruter was followed by Reinesius, who compiled
another large volume of inscriptions; and Reinesius was
succeeded by Fabretti, who also published at Rome, in 1609,
a large volume, in which he corrected numerous errors that
had escaped preceding antiquarians, and added a number of
inscriptions which they had omitted. The next collection
which appeared was that of Graevius, in three volumes fo¬
lio ; a work of extensive erudition, and, in all respects, more
complete than any which had preceded it. In the course
of the last century, Scipio Maffei, a man of various learn¬
ing, and eminently skilled in this branch of archaeology,
undertook to make a more complete collection than had
yet appeared of Greek and Roman inscriptions, the former
of which he proposed to include in the first volume of his
work; but after the expenditure of much labour and re¬
search, he found that the enterprise exceeded in magnitude
his powers of execution, and at length, in his old age,
abandoned it in despair. The project of Carcanius, who
meditated an universal collection of inscriptions, proved
equally abortive; as did also that of Raponus, a man who, by
his knowledge of Greek, was not unequal to the task, though
he published only one commentation on Greek inscriptions,
written in indifferent Latin. The first volume of Boeckh’s
splendid work, entitled Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum,
in folio, was published at Berlin in 1828, and at once esta¬
blished the author’s claim to rank in the very first class of
scholars and critics. It is indeed a masterpiece of learn¬
ing, research, critical sagacity, and philosophical acuteness;
nor, in point of typographical elegance and accuracy, is it
equalled, or perhaps even approached, by any work which
has yet appeared on the subject. This volume is divided
into six parts, which treat respectively, of, 1. Tituli anti-
quissima Scriptures forma insigniores; 2. Inscriptiones
Atticcs ; 3. Inscriptiones Megaricce ; 4. Inscriptiones Pe-
loponnesiacce; 5. Inscriptiones Beeoticce ; and, 6. Inscrip¬
tiones Phocicce, Locrece, Thessalicce. Of the second volume
only a small portion has as yet been published. Boeckh
has drawn his materials not only from the larger collec¬
tions of Gruter,. Reinesius, Spohn, Fabretti, Muratori, inscri
Donius, Donatus, and others, but also from diaries, cata- tionf
logues and descriptions of museums, itineraries, in a word, 's—V'-
from books of every kind; and he acknowledges having
been aided in his inquiries at the commencement of his
undertaking by Bekker, Buttmann, Niebuhr, and Schleier-
macher, as well as by Gerhard, Kliitze, Muller, Bischoff,
Steinhart, and other young men who have since distinguish¬
ed themselves by their erudition. For full information as to
the nature and object of the work, the method of treating
the subject, the art of interpreting and emending inscrip¬
tions, examples of the most difficult and obscure fragments,
and how the genuine are to be distinguished from the
spurious, the entire from the corrupted or interpolated, the
reader is referred to the general preface, which is full of
curious and original learning.
Those persons who desire to study the Roman inscrip¬
tions, may consult any of the large collections already re¬
ferred to ; and they will also do well to bestow a careful
perusal on Funccius de Origine, Pueritia, et Adolescentia
Linguae Latince (Francfort, 1720, in small 4to), a work of
great learning, ingenuity, and research, in which the pro¬
gress of the Latin language from infancy to maturity is dis¬
tinctly traced, and appropriately illustrated. This magni¬
ficent idiom, which was gradually formed and perfected by
grafting on the rude original stock of an uncouth and bar¬
barous dialect successive improvements, suggested by con¬
verse with a refined people, who had made considerable
advances in civilization, whilst Rome remained in a state of
comparative barbarism, and which derived nearly all its pe¬
culiar excellences of form, structure, and expression, from
the transfusion, partly of the vocabulary, and partly of the
spirit of the ancient Greek, presents altogether one of the
most interesting subjects of inquiry in the annals of philo¬
logy ; and it is chiefly by the aid of inscriptions that such
an investigation can be successfully prosecuted. The his¬
tory of the language, in short, reflects, like a glass, that of
the progress of social and intellectual improvement. With
regard to ancient Roman numismatics, the best manual,
perhaps, which has yet appeared on the subject, is the work
of M. Hennin (Paris, 1830, in two vols. 8vo), containing
the elements of the science, and the nomenclatures, with
an indication of the degrees of rarity of the antique monies
and medals, and tables of their actual values. The first
volume treats of the origin of monies, an invention which
followed the introduction of commerce by exchange; of the
epochs distinguishable in the style of the art, the legend,
the form of the characters, and the metal employed in the
coins; of the titles and functions of the persons entrusted
with the direction of the fabrication of coins ; of the mate¬
rials employed in ancient coins and medals, their names,
values, weights, dimensions, inscriptions or legends, and
dies, with the method of detecting spurious medals; and,
lastly, of the history of numismatical science. The second
volume is occupied with four nomenclatures, which com¬
prehend the whole of numismatics. The first is that of
peoples, cities, and kings, arranged in the geographical
order adopted in the cabinets; the second is that of the
Roman as ; the third is that of the medals of Roman fami¬
lies ; and the fourth is that of the Roman emperors, of the
Caesars and the Tyrants, classed in chronological order. Each
nomenclature is accompanied with a table of the value of
the medals, which, however, is not remarkable for its ac¬
curacy. The works of Jobert, Patin, and Mangeart, though
they contain excellent things, are antiquated; the Intro¬
duction of Millin, the Summary of Champollion-Figeac in
the Portable Encyclopaedia, and the Essay on the science
of Medals by Dumersan, in the Numismatics of Anachar-
sis, are merely abridgments, which can scarcely satisfy those
who desire to make themselves thoroughly masters of the
subject.
INS
1 jns, t- As to the study of inscriptions, little need be said to
at shew its indispensable importance to the historian and phi¬
losopher, as well as to the antiquary and philologist. The
Ins s. recor(js thus preserved contain much information which is
^ not to be found in ancient authors ; and they afford the best
tests by which the accuracy of historians may be tried,
their fidelity proved or impeached, their errors corrected,
and their defects supplied. They determine dates, esta¬
blish facts, and throw light on the modes and habits of civil
life, as well as the observances of religion ; whilst in many
of them the most important historical documents have been
preserved. In fact, it is only necessary to consult the
Roman History of Niebuhr, to be satisfied as to the im¬
portance of inscriptions, considered as materials of histo¬
ry, and how greatly they may contribute, when skilfully in¬
terpreted and rightly understood, to elucidate obscurities,
dispel doubts, correct mistakes, and reduce to their true
value the fabulous legends of romancing chroniclers and
poetical historians. Again, it is in inscriptions that the va¬
rious phases, changes, and transitions of language are re¬
flected as in a glass; it is by means of them alone that we
are enabled to trace the progressive steps by which it ad¬
vanced from its primitive state, characterized by a rude
simplicity, to the more refined, perfect, and complicated
form which, by a course of gradual improvement, it after¬
wards attained. The text of the Duilian column, for ex¬
ample, is an invaluable monument to the historian of the
Latin language, which it exhibits in a state of transition
from the rugged and uncouth form of a barbarous and dis¬
sonant dialect, such as that of the Carmen Saliare and the
Fescennine verses, to the finished regularity of structure,
and philosophical precision and elegance of arrangement,
which we discover in the great writers of after times. As
to the learned antiquary, again, he lives, moves, and has
his being amidst these interesting monuments of the past;
and whilst pursuing his minute investigations, perchance
contributes in no unimportant degree to throw a new light
on facts of more pith and moment than any of those which
more immediately engage his attention. In a word, we
may say to the historian, the scholar, and the antiquary, in
regard to inscriptions, Nocturna versate manu, versate di-
wrna. „ (A-)
INSCRUTABLE, Unsearchable, in Theologij, is
usually understood of the secrets of Providence, and the
judgments of God, into which human reason is unable to
penetrate.
INSECTS, Insecta, in Natural History. See Ento¬
mology.
Noxious Insects; Means of destroying them, or prevent¬
ing their increase. Of those substances which have been
generally observed to be efficacious in driving away or in
destroying insects, mercury, and its various preparations,
may be reckoned the most generally effectual. Sulphur is
also useful. Oils of all kinds have often been deservedly
recommended; and tobacco is not less remarkable for its
utility.
Mercury is known to kill or drive away lice from the
human body ; and it may probably be of equal efficacy in
ridding other animals of insects. For instance, a small
quantity of mercurial ointment rubbed upon the skins of
sheep, on the sides, between the fore-legs and the body,
may kill or drive away the insect peculiar to these animals.
Sulphur is recommended to be added to the mercurial oint¬
ment. Thus not only the insect peculiar to them, but also
the scab, may be cured.1 Ail way2 directed that, in the
winter, the walls, frames, and other parts of his green and hot
houses should be well washed with corrosive sublimate mer¬
cury, dissolved in water. These houses had been greatly in-
I N S 293
fested with red spiders and ants. After having been washed Insects,
with this solution, neither of these were to be seen next-y——^
summer. This wash, if made weaker, may be used on old
garden-walls, and the roots of fruit-trees infested with in¬
sects. It may destroy the tender leaves of plants, though not
the roots. The same wash will effectually destroy that dis¬
agreeable insect the bug, and all other insects of a tender
cuticle ; and it wrill not in the least hurt the colour of bed-
furniture or hangings. Care must be taken that the wash
be applied into every crevice or folding of the furniture
with a painter’s brush. It will sometimes be necessary to
repeat the wash, as the ova of bugs may remain concealed,
notwithstanding the utmost care.
Some of the West India islands were much infested with
large ants, which greatly injured the sugar-canes. The
remedy was, to dissolve corrosive sublimate mercury in
rum, in the proportion of two drams to a pint of spirits.
This solution was poured upon dry powdered sugar; and
when the sugar was dried, it was laid in the paths of the
ants. They ate it, and were destroyed. Might not this
practice be imitated, by laying sugar thus prepared on pa¬
per or pieces of thin boards near the roots of fruit-trees in¬
fested by insects, especially when the fruit is ripening ?
The papers or boards might be taken in during the night,
or when it rained. The sugar should be coloured with
indigo, or other substance, thereby to mark it as a substance
to be avoided by curious idlers.
We are informed that a person in Philadelphia employed
brimstone in the following manner. Having cleared all
round the roots of trees infested with caterpillars or other
insects, he strewed some flowers of brimstone round the
roots, and covered it with a thin sprinkling of fine mould,
that it might not be blown away by the wind, yet so that
the sun might operate through the mould, and cause the
brimstone to fumigate. In this manner he destroyed the
caterpillars. One pound he found sufficient for two*hundred
trees. In that hot climate the sun may perhaps have that
effect; but it scarcely will in this. To drive insects from
small trees, he also employed sulphur in the following man¬
ner. He split the end of a pole, and put in the slit some
matches, set them on fire, and held them under the parts
of the trees chiefly affected. A pole thus armed, he found,
would answer for three or four trees. Brimstone mixed
with damp straw, and set on fire, in hop-ground infested
with the fly, for instance, might be of use in driving away
that insect.
The itch is supposed to originate from a very small in¬
sect which nestles under the skin, and proceeds no farther;
and it is, therefore, attended with no dangerous conse¬
quences. Brimstone made into an ointment with hogs-lard
is a sure remedy.
Sheep are liable to an eruption on the skin, known by the
name of the scab. Brimstone, when added to the mercu¬
rial ointment recommended for that disorder,3 might per¬
haps render the application more efficacious and less dan¬
gerous.
The natives of hot countries are taught by experience,
that an unctuous covering of their bodies prevents the bites
of musquitos and all gnats. The white inhabitants in such
countries are not sufficiently careful in preventing the least
stagnant water near their dwellings, in which the musqui¬
tos are bred; they are produced even in the waste water
thrown out. Dr Franklin, by a careful attention to this
circumstance, guarded his family in Philadelphia from such
insects. One day seeing a number of musquitos in his li¬
brary, he found on inquiry, that one of his servants had
taken off the cover of a tub placed near his window for re¬
ceiving rain-water. On such an occasion the remedy is
1 Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, London, vol. vil viii. p. 90.
2 Ibid. voL v. vi. p. 59. 3 hbid. vol. vii. p. 90.
294 INS
INS
Insects, easy, namely, shutting up the room for the day, so that the
——y—musquitos cannot come at any water, in which time they die.
Though this caution may seem trifling to us who live in a
mild climate, it is far otherwise in hot countries.
Oil being known to be most efficacious in destroying in-
sects, may not the use of it be extended to the destruction
of worms in the bowels of horses, where they probably occa¬
sion the violent pain which these animals seem sometimes
to suffer ? If the horse were for some time kept fasting, and
a large quantity of oil, say a pint, were given, supposing
worms were the cause, the oil might in that case destroy
them.
Flowers, leaves, and fruits, are known to be devoured by
caterpillars. But these are destroyed by oils, which close
the lateral pores by which they breathe. For this purpose
it is advised that, on the approach of spring, a cloth dipped
in train oil be laid on those parts of the tree in which there
is any appearance of them.
We are informed in the Memoirs of the Society of Agri¬
culture at Paris, that oil of turpentine, when applied to ani¬
mals covered with insects, destroyed the insects without
hurting the animal. The author tried it on several trees,
mixed with fine earth so as to incorporate therewith, adding
water, till the whole was brought to some degree of fluidi¬
ty. In this mixture he dipped branches of fruit-trees on
which there were insects, and thereby destroyed not only
the eggs but also the insects, without hurting the leaves.
This composition may be got off by washing, or the first
heavy shower. From these experiments the author thinks,
that oil of turpentine may with equal efficacy be employed
for killing various kinds of lice on domestic animals.
We are informed that Mr Winter, amongst other ex¬
periments on turnip-seed, steeped the seed twenty-four
hours in a sufficient quantity of train-oil. He then drained
the oil from the seed, which he mixed with a quantity of
fine sifted earth, and immediately sowed it in drills. When
the plants began to appear on the surface, the ground was
sown with soot. He found that seed steeped in linseed oil
answered equally well.1 The turnips least injured by the
fly, were those which grew from seed steeped in this way ;
they grew so luxuriantly as to produce rough leaves several
days prior to the most flourishing of any of his other ex¬
periments, and were the better enabled to withstand the
attack of the fly. The leaves of these turnips were of a
darker green, and appeared twice as thick in bulk and
luxuriancy as the other turnips, and were considerably
larger. The seed was drilled an inch and a half deep, and
a foot distant in the rows. Train oil is apt to kill the
leaves of plants which have been injured by insects, but lin¬
seed oil has not that effect, though equally destructive to the
insects. The train oil seems to act as an oil, and by its
disagreeable smell to prevent insects approaching it. In
this respect it may be successfully used to prevent field
mice or other vermin preying on acorns, chestnuts, or other
seeds steeped in it before they are sown.
When thus giving directions for preventing the fly on
turnips, an experiment may be mentioned, by the disclosure
of which a person gained a considerable reward. His se¬
cret was, running a roller over the ground early in the
morning, whilst the dew remained on the ground, on the
first appearance of the fly. The dew entangled the flies so
much, that they could not make their escape, and were
therefore crushed to death. But as the roller may leave the
surface of the earth too hard, it was recommended to fix
some boughs of elder in a gate or hurdle, to be drawn over
the field; and if the boughs had before been fumigated
with the smoke of tobacco, or tincture of assafoetida, the
success would be the surer. The most certain method of
preventing the injury done by the fly is to raise the plants
in a nursery, and at a proper age to transplant them, beine in
carried to the ground in a wheel-barrow filled with manure ^
softened with water so as to admit the plants. This me¬
thod will secure their more speedy growth. In the nur¬
sery the attack of the fly may be prevented by sprinkling
soot or quicklime on the ground. The utility of trans¬
planting turnips is evident by the practice of transplanting
the turnip-rooted cabbage. They who are discouraged
from having recourse to this practice by the expense at¬
tending it, do not reflect that the hoeing is prevented, and
the plants grow the better, being set in fresh earth.
Before proceeding to direct the use of the last means
mentioned, viz. tobacco, for destroying insects in turnips,
it may be proper to mention an experiment made by Mr
Green, of the flower-garden at Kew. He contrived a pair
of bellows similar to that employed in recovering people
apparently drowned. It had a cavity in the nozzle, in which
some tobacco was put, with a live coal over it. The bellows
being then ’worked, the tobacco was set on fire, and the smoke
directed to any particular spot. A lady was fond of ha¬
ving the mosk-rose in her dressing-room, but was prevented
having it on account of the green insects which constantly
adhere to that plant. To remedy this inconvenience, Mr
Green had a box made large enough to contain a pot in
which a plant of the mosk-rose grew. In one end of the
box was a hole, to admit the nozzle of the bellows; the
bellows was worked, and the smoke was received into the
box. When the tobacco was consumed, the nozzle was
withdrawn, and a cork being put into the hole, the box
thus remained till morning, when the insects were all laid
dead on the earth. Being swept off, the plant was in a state
fit for a dressing-room. Many plants thus infested with
insects may be too large, or otherwise so placed as not to
be put into a box. In this case it occurred to the writer of
these observations, that sprinkling the plants with an infusion
of tobacco in water might in some degree answer the same
purpose. On trial he found it answer, and he thus freed
other plants from their insects. He also used it on trees
of easy access with advantage. Train oil is so inimical to
tender plants or leaves, that it destroys them if insects have
in the least hurt them; whereas the infusion, instead of
killing the leaves, promoted a fresh vegetation.
Fruit-trees often become the prey of insects. Those
trained against a wall, or as espaliers, being easily come at,
much of the mischief may be prevented by cutting off the
leaves as soon as they are observed to be curled; for then
fresh eggs are laid on them, probably by butterflies. If
sprinkled with the infusion of tobacco, it will prevent their
coming to life. After the fruit is formed, the infusion
must not be used, lest the taste and smell should remain.
The scissors are then the proper remedies, which ladies
may employ as amusement, and may thereby present fruit
to their friends of their own preserving. A lye of the ash of
plants sprinkled on the leaves may have a good effect, as
also on other pot-herbs, which are often the prey of cater¬
pillars. As many insects, besides those bred on the leaves
or in the walls, may destroy the fruit, the sugar with the
corrosive sublimate, as already described, may be laid in
the way of other insects, to all which it will prove a speedy
death. Diligent inspection of their retreats is the most
certain means of preventing the loss sustained by snails.
Ants are prevented rising up the trees by laying round the
roots powdered chalk, or any other substance which, by
entangling their feet, prevents their crossing it. Care
should be taken to destroy their nests everywhere near the
garden.
Hops have now become an article of so great consequence,
that it deserves our particular attention. Early in its growth
when the vines begin to ascend the poles, a black fly prey8
1 Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, voL v. p. 45.
INS
ffosir • on its leaves, frequently in such numbers as, by destroying
tio the leaves, to interrupt the vegetation, much of the food of
It plants being absorbed by the leaves. The infusion of to-
jlnsp • bacco destroys them, or at least drives them away so effec-
j t10 ^ tually, that a plant almost totally stripped of its leaves has
put out fresh leaves after the use of the infusion. If care
be not taken, the insects will again fall on the fresh leaves.
As the flies lodge on the lower side of the leaves, they are
protected from storms of rain, and therefore the infusion
must be driven upwards by a forcing-pump. It is said that
the expense of tobacco is too great, but perhaps lime-wa¬
ter, or even water by itself, driven strongly against the
leaves, might drive them away. The labour attending
such experiments in a large plantation discourages persons,
who do not reflect, that, if such means are used early, the
flies may more easily be got rid of. Free ventilation is
undoubtedly beneficial to all plants; and hence perhaps the
particular advantages of drilling corns in rows a little dis¬
tant. If alleys somewhat larger than common were made
in the plantations of hops, there might be sufficient spaces
left, where the alleys cross one another, to admit of setting
damp straw or other materials mixed with brimstone, soot,
or the like, on fire. Smoke itself is said to prevent the fly;
and if so, it still will act more powerfully when mixed with
such materials. It has been observed in Sweden, that the
hops grow naturally amongst heaps of stones or fragments
of rocks. They therefore advise to cover the ground round
their roots with stones, which will prevent the insects lay¬
ing their eggs near the roots in the ground, where they
lay them to be protected during the winter. The stones
will also preserve moisture at the roots during the summer.
A rope cannot be drawn across a plantation of hops, as it
can across a field of corn, in case of mildew. Here water
to wash off the clammy juice, which entices and feeds in¬
sects, seems to be the only remedy. The plantation being
well ventilated, may at least prevent the frequency of it. The
forcing-pump will most effectually wash off this exudation.
INSINUATION, denotes a cunning and covert way of
creeping into any person’s favour ; or it means something
conveyed by implication or innuendo.
Insinuation of a Will, amongst civilians, is the first
production of it, or the leaving it with the registrar, in order
to its probate.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to such persons as have
not wherewithal to pay their just debts. See Bankruptcy.
INSPECTOR, a person to whom the care and conduct
of any work is committed.
Inspectors, in the Roman law, were such persons as
examined the quality and value of lands and effects, in or¬
der to the adjusting of taxes and impositions in proportion
to every man’s estate.
The Jews have also an officer in their synagogue, whom
they call ]tn, hhazen, or inspector. His business consists
principally in inspecting or overlooking the prayers and les¬
sons, in preparing and shewing them to the reader, and in
standing by him to see he reads correctly ; and, if the latter
make mistakes, he is to correct him.
INSPIRATION, amongst divines and others, implies
the conveying of certain extraordinary and supernatural
notices or intimations into the soul; or it denotes any su¬
pernatural influence exercised by God upon the mind of
a rational creature, by which he is formed to a degree of
intellectual improvement, to which he could not or would
not have attained, in his present circumstances, in a natural
yay. Thus the prophets are said to have spoken by divine
inspiration.
Some authors reduce the inspiration of the sacred writers
that particular care of Providence, which prevented any
nng they had said from failing or coming to nought;
maintaining, that these writers were not really inspired either
-vitn knowledge or expression.
INS
295
According to M. Simon, inspiration is no more than a Inspira-
direction of the Holy Spirit, which never permitted the tion
sacred writers to be mistaken. It is a common opinion, II
that the inspiration of the Holy Spirit regards only the InsPruck-
matter, not the style or words ; and this seems to fall in"" * '
with M. Simon’s doctrine of direction.
Theological writers have enumerated several kinds of
insph ation. Phese are, an inspiration of superintendence, in
which God so influences and directs the mind of any per¬
son, as to keep him more secure from error in a various
and complex discourse, than he would have been merely
by the use of his natural faculties; plenary superintendent
inspiration, which excludes any mixture of error at all from
the performance so superintended ; inspiration of elevation,
where the faculties act in a regular, and, as it seems, in a
common manner, yet are raised to an extraordinary degree,
so that the composition shall, upon the whole, have more
of the true sublime or pathetic, than natural genius could
have given; and inspiration of suggestion, when the use
of the faculties is superseded, and God does, as it were,
speak directly to the mind, making such discoveries to it
as it could not otherwise have obtained, and dictating the
very words in which such discoveries are to be commu¬
nicated, if they are designed as a message to others. It
is generally allowed that the New Testament was written
by a superintendent inspiration. Without this the dis¬
courses and doctrines of Christ could not have been faith¬
fully recorded by the evangelists and apostles; nor could
they have assumed the authority of speaking the words of
Christ, or evinced this authority by the actual exercise of
miraculous powers. Besides, the sacred writings bear many
obvious internal marks of their divine original, in the excel¬
lence of their doctrines, the spirituality and elevation of their
design, the majesty and simplicity of their style, the agree¬
ment of their various parts, and their efficacy on mankind;
to which may be added, that there has been in the Chris¬
tian Church, from its earliest ages, a constant tradition
that the sacred books were written by the extraordinary
assistance of the Spirit, which must at least amount to su¬
perintendent inspiration. But it has been controverted
whether this inspiration extended to every minute circum¬
stance in their writings, so as to be in the most absolute sense
plenary. Jerome, Grotius, Erasmus, Episcopius, and many
others, maintain that it was not; whilst others contend,
that the emphatical manner in which our Lord speaks of
the agency of the Spirit upon them, and in which they
themselves speak of their own writings, fully justify our be¬
lieving that their inspiration was plenary, unless there be
convincing evidence brought on the other side to prove that
it was not. If it be said we allow that there were some
errors in the New Testament, as it came from the hands
of the apostles, there may be great danger of subverting
the main purpose and design of that book; since there will
be endless room to debate the importance both of facts and
doctrines.
Inspiration, in Physic, is understood of that action of
the' breast, by which the air is admitted into the lungs ; in
which sense, inspiration is a branch of respiration, and
stands opposed to Exspiration.
INSPISSATING, in Pharmacy, an operation by which
a liquor is brought to a thicker consistence, by evaporating
the thinner parts.
INSPRUCK or INSBRUCK, a city, the capital of the
province of Tyrol, in the Austrian dominions. It is situated
on the river Inn, where the Sill falls into that stream.
Though not a strong it is a large city, containing twenty-
one churches, two hospitals, an orphan house, several mo¬
nasteries, and within the walls 1925 families, consisting of
10,237 individuals; the suburbs also are extensive and
populous. It contains a gymnasium, with a good library,
and fifteen professors in the several branches of theology,
296
INS
Instinct.
Installa- jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy. It has manufac-
. tion tures of muslins and cambrics, and also of cutlery and other
metallic wares. The house of the provincial government
/is a fine antique building, as is likewise the town-hall. It
is in Lat. 47° 16' 8", and Long. 11° 18' 22" E.
INSTALLATION, the act of giving visible possession
of an order, rank, or office, by placing the person collated
or appointed in the proper seat.
INSTALMENT, a settling or instating any person in
a dignity. The word is derived from the Latin in and
stallum, a term used for a seat in church, in the choir, or a
seat or bench in a court of justice, though Vossius is oi
opinion that the word is of German origin.
Instalment is likewise used for the ceremony by which
the Knights of the Garter are placed in their rank, in the
chapel of St George at Windsor.
INSTANT, a part of duration in which we perceive no
succession ; or it is that which takes up the time only of
one idea in our minds.
INSTAURATION, the re-establishment or restoration
of a religion, a church, or the like, to its former state. The
word is by some derived from the old Latin instaurum,
which signified the stock of things necessary for the tilling
and managing of grounds, as cattle, tools, harness, and the
like. But the word instaurum is only of the middle age ;
whilst instauratio is of much greater antiquity, and by some
derived from instar, like, as importing a thing’s being
brought to its former likeness or appearance.
INSTERBURG, a city of the circle of the same name
in the Gumbinen division of the province of East Prussia.
It stands near the junction of the river Angerap with the
Inster, by which the navigable river Pregel is formed. It
contains two churches, 465 houses, and 5870 inhabitants.
There are some manufacturers of cloth, linen, and hosiery.
It is the seat of the several courts of justice for the ancient
districts, which were a part of Lithuania. Lat. 54° 37'
16"; Long. 21° 34' 1" E.
INSTINCT, a certain power or disposition of mind, by
which, independently of all instruction or experience, with¬
out deliberation, and without having any end in view, ani¬
mals are unerringly directed to do spontaneously1 what¬
ever is necessary for the preservation of the individual, or
the continuation of the kind. Such in the human species
is the instinct of sucking exerted immediately after birth ;
and such in the inferior creation is the instinct by which
insects invariably deposit their eggs in situations most fa¬
vourable for hatching and affording nourishment to their
future progeny. These operations are necessary for the pre¬
servation of the individual and the continuation of the kind ;
but neither the infant nor the insect knows that they are
necessary; they both act without having any end in view, and
act uniformly without instruction and without experience.
The actions of the inferior animals are generally directed
by instinct; those of man by reason. This, at least, is the
case with respect to men in a state of civilization. In the
savage state, they are probably little less the slaves of in¬
stinct than the brutes themselves. Concerning human in¬
stincts, indeed, philosophers differ widely in opinion ; some
maintaining that man is endowed with a greater number of
instincts than any species of brutes, whilst others deny
that in human nature there is any power or propensity at
all which can properly be called instinctive.
INS
: This diversity of opinion may easily be traced to its Instil
source. There are not many original thinkers in the world. '~
The greater part even of those who are called philosophers
implicitly adopt the opinions of certain masters, whose
authority they deem sufficient to supply the place of argu¬
ment; and having chosen their respective guides, each
maintains with zeal what his master taught, or is supposed
to have taught. When Locke so successfully attacked the
doctrine of innate ideas and innate principles of speculative
truth, he was thought by many to have overturned at the
same time all innate principles whatever ; to have divested
the human mind of every passion, affection, and instinct;
and to have left in it nothing but the powers of sensation,
memory, and intellect. Such, we are persuaded, was not
his intention ; nor is there any thing in his immortal work
which, when interpreted with candour, appears to have such
a tendency.
In our opinion, great part of the Essay on Human Un¬
derstanding has been very generally misunderstood. Much
of its merit, however, was soon discovered; and mankind,
finding philosophy disencumbered of the barbarous jargon
of the schools, and built upon a few self-evident principles,
implicitly embraced every opinion advanced, or which they
supposed to be advanced, by the illustrious author ; espe¬
cially if that opinion was contrary to any part of the scho¬
lastic system which had so long been employed to perplex
the understanding, and to veil absurdity. Hence arose
many philosophers of eminence, both at home and abroad,
who maintained, as they imagined, upon the principles of
Locke, that in the human mind there are no instincts, but
that every thing which had been usually called by that
name is resolvable into association and habit. This doc¬
trine was attacked by Lord Shaftesbury, who introduced
into the theory of mind, as faculties derived from nature,
a sense of beauty, a sense of honour, and a sense of ridi¬
cule ; and these he considered as the tests of speculative
truth and moral rectitude. His Lordship’s principles were
in part adopted by Mr Hutcheson of Glasgow, who pub¬
lished a system of moral philosophy, founded upon a sense
or instinct, to which he gave the name of the moral sense;
and the undoubted merit of his work procured him many
followers.
Men generally run from one extreme to another. It be¬
ing now discovered, or at least supposed, that the human
mind is endowed with instinctive principles of action, a sect
of philosophers soon afterwards arose, who maintained with
much vehemence that it is likewise endowed with instinct
tive principles of belief; and who built a system of meta¬
physics, if such it may be called, upon a number of innate,
distinct, and independent senses. The rise of this sect is
well known. Berkeley and Hume had adopted Locke’s doc¬
trine respecting the origin of our ideas; and had thence de¬
duced consequences supposed to be dangerous in them¬
selves, but which, it was thought, could not be denied with¬
out refusing the principles from which they were inferred.
The foundation of the instinctive system being thus laid,
the system itself was rapidly carried to a height far beyon
what seems to have been the intention of its exce en
author; and reason was well nigh banished from trm re-
gions of philosophy. For such a proceeding it is not dim-
cult to assign the cause. The instinctive scheme requires
much less labour of investigation than the systems of Locke
1 As nothing is of greater importance in the philosophy of mind than accurate definitions, it ™a.vJ10* b®,1 £11(?wina. extracts from
throughout the whole of this article the word spontaneous is to he taken in the sense m which it is used in t taneous.
Hales’s Origin of Mankind: “ Many analogical motions in animals, though I cannot call them voluntary, yet 1 ® ^ 0f many
I have reason to conclude, that these are not simply mechanical” “The sagacities and mstmcts of brutes, the p spirits, of a
of their motions, are not explicable, without supposing some active determinate power connected to and inher P
higher extraction than the bare natural modification of matter.” If this be attended to,
fectly consonant to that which has been given by the author ot Ancient Metaphysics : Instinct, he says, ^ a intellmence, with-
Almighty Wisdom to the mind of the brute, to act in such or such a way, upon such or such an occasion, without intelligence,
out knowledge of good or ill, and without knowing tor what end or purpose he acts.
INSTINCT.
tinct anc[ t]ie ancients; for upon the principles of it, when car-
ried to its utmost extent, every phenomenon in human na¬
ture is thought to be sufficiently accounted for, by sup¬
posing it the effect of a particular instinct implanted in the
mind for that very purpose. Hence, in some popular works
of philosophy, we have a detail of so many distinct internal
senses, that it requires no small strength of memory to re¬
tain their very names. Besides the moral sense, we have
the sense of beauty, the sense of deformity, the sense of
honour, the hoarding sense, and a thousand others which
it is needless here to mention.
This new system, which converts the philosophy of mind
into mere history, or rather into a collection of facts and
anecdotes, though it has made a rapid progress, is not yet
universally received. It has been opposed by many spe¬
culative men, and by none with greater skill than Dr Priest¬
ley, who maintains, with the earliest admirers of Locke,
that we have from nature no innate sense of truth, nor
any instinctive principle of action ; that even the action of
sucking, in new-born infants, is to be accounted for upon
principles of mechanism; and that the desire of the sexes
is merely association.
Whilst men, eminent for candour as well as for science,
have thus been disputing the limits between instinct and
reason in the human mind, and endeavouring to ascertain
the actions which result from each, two writers of name,
treating of that subject, have advanced opinions, which, if
admitted as just, must render the dispute henceforth ridi¬
culous, and put an end for ever to all moral inquiries. Mr
Smellie, in a work which he calls the Philosophy of Natural
History, affirms that, between instinctive and rational mo¬
tives, no distinction exists, but that the reasoning faculty
itself is the necessary result of instinct; and Dr Reid, in
his Essays on the Active Powers of Man, by attributing to
instinct the action of breathing, seems to confound that
principle with mere mechanism.
That reason, instinct, and mechanism, are all essentially
different from one another, has hitherto been universally
allowed; and it appears not to be a task of much difficulty
to point out in what respect each of them differs from the
other two. Actions performed with a view to accomplish
a certain end are called rational actions, and the end in
view is the motive to their performance. Instinctive ac¬
tions have a cause, viz. the internal impulse by which they
are spontaneously performed; but they cannot be said to
have a motive, because they are not done with any view to
consequences. Actions automatic have likewise a cause ;
but that cause is not internal impulse, but mere mechanism,
by which they are performed without any spontaneity of
die agent. Thus, a man gives charity in order to relieve
a person from want; he performs a grateful action as a duty
incumbent on him ; and he fights for his country in order
to repel its enemies. Each of these actions is performed
from a motive, and therefore they are all rational actions.
An infant is impelled to suck the breast, but he knows not
that it is necessary for his preservation ; a couple of young
savages go together, for the first time, without any view to
offspring, or any determinate idea of enjoyment. These
actions have no motive, and therefore are not rational; but
297
as they are performed by a spontaneous exertion of the Instinct,
agents, they are not to be attributed to mere mechanism ; '''■“"'v'™'—^
they are therefore instinctive actions. A man breathes
without any motive, without any spontaneous exertion of
his own, and that as well when he is asleep as when he is
awake, d he action of breathing, therefore, is neither ra¬
tional nor instinctive, but merely automatic or mechanical.
AH this seems to be very plain. To talk of the motives of
actions performed by instinct, in an argument intended to
prove that between reason and instinct there is no differ¬
ence, is either to beg the question or to pervert language.
If the author of the Philosophy of Natural History chooses
to call the impulse which prompts the infant to suck by the
name of motive, he only uses an English word improperly;
if it be his intention to affirm that such a motive is not to¬
tally and essentially different from that which prompts a
man to give charity or to fight for his country, he affirms
what all mankind know to be false.1
Having thus ascertained what we mean by instinct, we
shall now proceed to inquire, Whether or not there be any
instinctive principles in man ? But in order to proceed
upon sure grounds, it will be proper to consider, in the first
place, such actions of the inferior animals as are generally
allowed to be instinctive: for an attempt has lately been
made to prove, that even these actions are the offspring of
reason influenced by motives; and that instinct, as we have
defined it, is a mere imaginary principle, which has no ex¬
istence either in man or brute.
It has been said that caterpillars, when shaken off a tree
in every direction, instantly turn round towards the trunk
and climb up, though they had never formerly been on the
surface of the ground. This is a striking instance of instinct.
On the tree, and not upon the ground, the caterpillar finds
its food. If, therefore, it did not turn and climb up the
trunk it would inevitably perish ; but surely the caterpillar
knows not that such an exertion is necessary to its preser¬
vation ; and therefore it acts not from motives, but from
blind impulse. The bee and the beaver are endowed with ~
an instinct which has the appearance of foresight. They
build magazines, and fill them with provisions; but the
foresight is not theirs. Neither bees nor beavers know any
thing of futurity. The solitary wasp digs holes in the sand,
in each of which she deposits an egg. Though she cer¬
tainly knows not that an animal is to proceed from that egg,
and still less, if possible, that this animal must be nourish¬
ed with other animals, she collects a few small green worms,
which she rolls up in a circular form, and fixes in the hole
in such a manner that they cannot move. When the wasp-
worm is hatched, it is amply stored with the food which
Nature has destined for its support. The green worms are
devoured in succession; and the number deposited is ex¬
actly proportioned to the time necessary for the growth
and transformation of the wasp-worm into a fly; when it
issues from the hole, and is capable of procuring its own
nourishment. This instinct of the parent-wasp is the more
remarkable, that she feeds not upon flesh herself. Birds of
the same species, unless when restrained by peculiar cir¬
cumstances, uniformly build their nests of the same mate¬
rials, and in the same form and situation, though they in-
Tha •aUlh°r of A™lent Metaphysics, whose learned work contains much good sense on this subject, thus distinguishes between
in' tinct: “ With respect to the mere animal, it is evident, that he pursues nothing but what is conducive either to the
snpf^ 7v!°nr0t the.ailimal llfe’ or t0 the continuation of the kind. On the other hand, the object which the intellectual mind pur-
snd 7 J/ 77 f an,‘ ™e.hand!i0™e> and its happiness consists in the contemplation of these. And though it pursue also what is useful
bcaJo£ahieJ°l thuC b cng a-nd 1well:being of the animal life, yet it is for the sake, not of the animal life it«eif, but of the to or
ocautijul; which, therefore, is the ultimate object of its pursuit in all things.
an onii; c1 ma]erial difference in practice betwixt the animal and intellectual mind is, that every action of intellect proceeds from
will whiph • i C0I?cerning what is good or ill, beautiful or the contrary, in the action. When we do so, we are said to act from
inclinati 18 a"a^s defei mined by some opinion formed of the kind I have mentioned : whereas, when we act from mere appetite or
natural ; "'lthout dellberation or opinion formed, we act as the brute does always; for he has no will, but is prompted to action by
udcurai impulse, or as the Greeks call it. i r J
erds • Ijf ' ei"r niate.iafd' difference is, that intellect, in all its operations, proposes ends, and devises means to accomplish these
‘ ’ nereas -he instinct of the brute proceeds without consideration either of ends or means.”
VOL. xii. „
2 p
298
INSTINCT.
Instinct, habit very different climates; and the form and situation
are always suited to their nature, and calculated to afford
them shelter and protection. When danger, or any other
circumstance peculiar to certain countries, renders a devia¬
tion from the common form and situation of nests neces¬
sary, that deviation is made in an equal degree, and in the
very same manner, by all the birds of one species; and it
is never found to extend beyond the limits of the country
where alone it can serve any good purpose. When re¬
moved by necessity from their eggs, birds return to them
with haste and anxiety, and shift them so as to heat them
equally; and it is worthy of observation, that their haste to
return is always in proportion to the cold of the climate.
But do birds reason, and all of the same species reason
equally well, upon the nature and extent of danger, and
upon the means by which it can best be avoided ? Have
birds any notion of equality, or do they know that heat is
necessary for incubation ? No. In all these operations men
recognise the intentions of nature ; but they are hid from
the animals themselves, and therefore cannot operate upon
them as motives.
Of the instinct of animals we shall give one instance
more in the elegant and perspicuous language of Dr Reid.
“ Every manufacturing art among men,” says that able
writer, “ was invented by some man, improved by others,
and brought to perfection by time and experience. Men
learn to work in it by long practice, which produces a habit.
The arts of men vary in every age and in every nation,
and are found only in those men who have been taught
them. The manufactures of animals differ from those of
men in many striking particulars. No animal of the species
can claim the invention ; no animal ever introduced any
new improvement, or any variation from the former prac¬
tice ; every one of the species has equal skill from the be¬
ginning, without teaching, without experience, and without
habit; every one has its art by a kind of inspiration. I do
not mean that it is inspired with the principles or rules of
the art, but with the ability of working in it to perfection,
without any knowledge of its principles, rules, or end. The
work of every animal is indeed like the works of nature,
perfect in its kind, and can bear the most critical exami¬
nation of the mechanic or the mathematician ; of which a
honeycomb is a striking instance.
“ Bees, it is well known, construct their combs with
small cells on both sides, fit both for holding their store of
honey and for rearing their young. There are only three
possible figures of the cells, which can make them all equal
and similar, without any useless interstices. These are the
equilateral triangle, the square, and the regular hexagon.
Of the three, the hexagon is the most proper, both for con¬
venience and strength. Bees, as if they knew this, make
their cells regular hexagons.. As the combs have cells
on both sides, the cells may either be exactly opposite,
having partition against partition, or the bottom of the cell
may rest upon the partitions between the cells on the other
side, which will serve as a buttress to strengthen it. The
last way is the best for strength ; accordingly the bottom
of each cell rests against the point where three partitions
meet on the other side, which gives it all the strength pos¬
sible. The bottom of a cell may either be one plane, per¬
pendicular to the side partitions ; or it may be composed of
several planes, meeting in a solid angle in the middle point.
It is only in one of these two ways that all the cells can be
similar without losing room. And, for the same intention,
the planes, of which the bottom is composed, if there be Insti
more than one, must be three in number, and neither more v~-\ L-
nor fewer. It has been demonstrated, that by making the
bottoms of the cells to consist of three planes meeting in a
point, there is a saving of material and labour no way in¬
considerable. The bees, as if acquainted with these prin¬
ciples of solid geometry, follow them most accurately: the
bottom of each cell being composed of three planes, which
make obtuse angles with the side partitions, and with one
another, and meet in a point in the middle of the bottom;
the three angles of this bottom being supported by three
partitions on the other side of the comb, and the point of
it by the common intersection of these three partitions.
One instance more of the mathematical skill displayed in
the structure of a honeycomb deserves to be mentioned.
It is a curious mathematical problem, at what precise angle
the three planes which compose the bottom of a cell ought
to meet, in order to make the greatest possible saving of
material and labour. This is one of those problems be¬
longing to the higher parts of mathematics, which are call¬
ed problems of maxima and minima. The celebrated
Maclaurin resolved it by a fluxionary calculation, which is
to be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, and determined precisely the angle required.
Upon the most exact mensuration which the subject could
admit, he afterwards found, that it is the very angle in
which the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey¬
comb do actually meet.
“ Shall we ask here, Who taught the bees the properties
of solids, and to resolve the problems of maxima and mi¬
nima ? If a honeycomb were a work of art, every man of
common sense would conclude, without hesitation, that he
who invented the construction must have understood the
principles on which it was constructed. We need not say
that bees know none of these things. They work most
geometrically without any knowledge of geometry; some¬
what like a child, who by turning the handle of an organ
makes good music without any knowledge of music. The
art is not in the child, but in him who made the organ.
In like manner, when a.bee makes its comb so geometri¬
cally, the geometry is not in the bee, but in that great
Geometrician who made the bee, and made all things in
number, weight, and measure.”
We have given a full detail of the structure of a honey¬
comb, because it is an effect of instinct which cannot be
confounded with the operations of reason. The author of
the Natural History of Animals, justly offended with that
theory which treats of instinctive motives, which represents
the human mind as a bundle of instincts, and of wdiich the
object seems to be to degrade mankind to the level of brutes,
has very laudably exerted his endeavours to detect its
weakness, and to expose it to contempt. But in avoiding
one extreme, he seems to have run into the other; and
whilst he maintains the rights of his own species, he almost
raises the brutes to the rank of men. “ It is better (he
says) to share our rights w ith others than to be entirely de¬
prived of them.” This is certainly true ; and no good man
will hesitate to prefer his theory to that of his antagonist;
but we see no necessity for adopting either; the pheno¬
mena may be accounted for without degrading reason to
the level of instinct, or elevating instinct to the dignity of
reason.
We shall readily allow to Locke,1 that some of the infe¬
rior animals seem to have perceptions of particular truths,
1 “ For if they have any ideas at all, and are not mere machines, as some would have them, we cannot deny them to have some
reason. It seems as evident to me, that some of them do, in certain instances, reason, as that they have sense ; but it is only in par¬
ticular ideas, just as they received them from the senses. They are the best of them tied up within those narrow bounds, and have
not, as I think, the faculty to enlarge them by any kind of abstraction.” {Essay on Human Understanding, book ii. chap, xi.)
This is in part a just observation, and serves to account for many phenomena which later writers have derived from instinct. The
author of The Philosophy of Natural History had “ a cat that frequented a closet, the door of which was fastened by a common iron
latch. A window was situated near the door. When the door was shut, the cat gave herself no uneasiness. As soon as she tired of
INSTINCT.
net and within very narrow limits the faculty of reason ; but
—we see no ground to suppose that their natural operations
are performed with a view to consequences; and therefore
cannot persuade ourselves with this historian of theirs, that
these operations are the result of a train of reasoning in
the mind of the animal.
He acknowledges, indeed, that their reasoning and think¬
ing powers are remarkably deficient when compared with
those of men ; that they cannot take so full a review of the
past, nor look forward with so penetrating an eye to the
future ; that they do not accumulate observation upon ob¬
servation, nor add the experience of one generation to that
of another; that their manners do not vary, nor their cus¬
toms fluctuate like ours ; and that their arts always remain
the same, without degeneracy and without improvement.
« The crow,” he observes, “ always builds its nest in the
same way ; every hen treats her young with the same mea¬
sure of affection ; even the dog, the horse, and the saga¬
cious elephant, seem to act rather mechanically than with
design. From such hasty observations as these, it has been
inferred,” he says, “ that the brutes are directed in their
actions by some mysterious influence, which impels them
to employ their powers unintentionally in performing ac¬
tions beneficial to themselves, and suitable to their nature
and circumstances.”
And are these observations indeed hasty ? and is this in¬
ference ill founded? To us the matter appears quite other¬
wise. If the arts of brutes and other animals have always
remained the same without degeneracy, and without im¬
provement ; and if they be at the same time the result of
reasoning, they must either be so perfect that they cannot
be improved, or so imperfect that they cannot degenerate.
That the structure of a honeycomb is imperfect no man
has ever imagined. We have seen, that as far as we are
capable of discerning the end which it is intended to serve,
it is the most perfect structure possible ; and, therefore, if
it be the result of the reasoning of the bee, the author must
retract his assertion respecting the extent of the reasoning
and thinking powers of inferior animals; and instead of
saying that they are remarkably deficient when compared
with those of men, affirm that they are infinitely more per¬
fect. No human art has yet arrived at such perfection as
that it might not be improved ; no architect has ever built
a town, or constructed a magazine, which he could mathe¬
matically demonstrate to be of the very best possible form
for the end intended, and so absolutely perfect as to be inca¬
pable of improvement.
But the same author proceeds to affirm, that “ the laws
of analogical reasoning do not justify the idea that the brutes
act, on any occasion, absolutely without design.” Nay, he
299
says, it seems more probable “ that the inferior animals, instinct,
even in those instances in which we cannot distinguish the's—
motives which actuate them, or the views with which they
proceed, yet act with design, and extend their views, if not
a great way, yet at least a certain length forward; than
that they can be upon any occasion, such as in rearing of
their young, building nests, &c., actuated merely by feel¬
ing, or overruled by some mysterious influence, under
which they are nothing but insensible instruments.” This
last phrase is ambiguous. If by insensible instruments it
be meant that the brutes are considered by the advocates
for instinct as mere machines without the faculties of sen¬
sation and spontaneity, the author is combating a phantom
of his own creation; for we believe an opinion so absurd is
not now maintained by any man (see Brute). But if by
insensible instruments be meant such instruments as act
spontaneously without being conscious of the end to which
their actions lead, he appears not only to be egregiously
mistaken in his conjecture respecting the design of brutes,
but also to have advanced an hypothesis contradictory and
inconsistent.
If it be true that the inferior animals act with design,
even in those instances in which we cannot distinguish
their motives, their views may indeed extend but a little
way when compared with infinity: but certainly they ex¬
tend farther than ours ; for there is no useful work of man
constructed with such skill, but that, after it is finished,
another man of equal education will be able to distinguish
the general design of the artist. But if the inferior animals,
on all occasions, act with design, we should be glad to
know the design of the bees in forming the cells of their
combs in the manner which we have so largely described.
Do these little animals indeed know that a comb, consist¬
ing on both sides of hexagonal cells, with the bottom of
each composed of several planes meeting in a certain solid
angle, and so formed as that the bottom of a cell on the
one side shall rest upon the partitions between the cells on
the other side, is in all respects the most proper both for
holding their stores of honey and for rearing their young ?
And do they likewise know, that its excellence arises from
the precise figure and position of the cells, by which there
is a very considerable saving of labour and materials, whilst
the comb at the same time has the greatest possible strength,
and the greatest possible capaciousness ? If they know all
this, and act with a view to these ends, it must indeed be
confessed that bees are rational creatures, and that their
thinking and reasoning powers far surpass those of men ;
for they have from the earliest ages made discoveries in
the higher mathematics, which there is reason to believe
were altogether unknown to the human race till the begin-
her confinement, she mounted on the sole of the window, and with her paw dexterously lifted the latch and came out.” This prae-
ice, w ich we are told continued for years, must have been the consequence of what Locke calls reasoning in particular ideas. It
coum not be the effect of instinct; for instinct is adapted only to a state of nature, in which cats have neither latches to lift nor
aoor> to open; and as it is not said that the animal attempted to lift the latches of other doors, we are not authorized to infer that
is particular action was the consequence of reasoning in ideas enlarged by abstraction : the cat had repeatedly seen one door opened
.7 a” ®*ei^10" whicfi she was capable of imitating. Yet that animals have no power of enlarging their ideas, is a position, of
kinrlVc 1? u c L , ough it is advanced by Locke, we are by no means confident. It is well known that crows feed upon several
it dr 01 shell'hsh when within their reach; and that they contrive to break the shell by raising the fish to a great height, and letting
insr f Pnn a^t"ne u r a.rock' This may perhaps be considered as pure instinct directing the animal to the proper means of acquif-
ouesiirmlri ^ut, what is to be thought of the following fact, which was communicated to us by a gentleman whose veracity is un-
In tho • an(1'ru’ beinff tota11^ ^acquainted with the theories of philosophers, has of course no favourite hypothesis to support ?
his moniin ^ °u u ^ a Pa^r crows made their nest in a tree, of which there were several planted round his garden; and in
more fipr I "Tu he , been amused by witnessing furious combats between them and a cat. One morning the battle raged
retreatimr t usua^ cat gave way, and took shelter under a hedge, as if to wait a more favourable opportunity of
could C 10use- ^"6 crows continued for a short time to make a threatening noise ; but perceiving that on the ground thev
in the her! 'h? rnorf ^ban threaten, one ot them lifted a stone from the middle of the garden, and perched with it on a tree planted
comnanied h Wv!eru Sbe ^ watching the motions of the enemy ot her young. As the cat crept along under the hedge, the crow ac-
crow leavin eif] fr°m branch to branch and from tree to tree; and when at last puss ventured to quit her hiding-place, the
reasoned i • ^ if6 ■r?e’ an< covering over her in the air, let the stone drop from on high on her back. That the crow on this occasion
which she b Sd ’ anb ^ seerns be frss evident, that the ideas employed in her reasoning were enlarged beyond those
could her “ received from her senses. By her se ses, she may have perceived, that the shell of a fish is broken bv a fall; but
one fall ^ eS1r)r!T1 her> that a cat would be wounded or driven off the field by the fall of a stone ? No. From the effect of the
preserved in her memory, she must have inferred the other by her power of reasoning.
300
INSTINCT.
Instinct, ning of the present century, and which at this moment are
—v—beyond the comprehension of nine-tenths of mankind in
the most enlightened nation on earth. If this be a conclu¬
sion too absurd to be admitted, there is no other alternative
but either to suppose that by this artificial structure of their
cells the bees have some other end in view, which we can¬
not distinguish ; or to acknowledge that they are overruled
by some mysterious influence, under which they are no¬
thing but spontaneous agents, unconscious of the end to
/which their operations tend. Which of these conclusions
is the most rational, we will not offer such an insult to the
understanding of our readers, as to suppose the meanest of
them capable of entertaining a doubt. That a honeycomb
is constructed with design, we must readily admit; but the
design is not in the bees, but in the Creator of the bees,
who directs their operations to their own good, by what the
author with great propriety terms a mysterious influence.1
But he thinks it an unanswerable argument in support of
his theory, that in the performance of those actions, in
which animals are said to be guided by unerring instinct,
different individuals display different modes of conduct;
and in his opinion, to talk of instinctive principles which
admit of improvement, and accommodate themselves to cir¬
cumstances, is merely to introduce new terms into the
language of philosophy; for he affirms, that no such im¬
provement or accommodation to circumstances can ever
take place without a comparison of ideas and a deduction of
inferences. It is probable that the author here alludes to
those animals which, in their most important operations, are
known to act differently in different countries. Thus the
ostrich in Senegal, where the heat is excessive, neglects
her eggs during the day, but sits upon them in the night.
At the Cape of Good Hope, however, where the degree of
heat is less, the ostrich, like other birds, sits upon her eggs
both day and night. In countries infested with monkeys,
many birds, which in other climates build in bushes and
clefts of trees, suspend their nests upon slender twigs, and
thus elude the rapacity of their enemies.
It may be thought, that a determination of the mind of
the brute to act so variously upon different occasions, can
hardly be conceived without judgment or intelligence.
But before our author had so confidently affirmed that
such accommodation to circumstances can never take place
without a comparison of ideas and a deduction of inferences,
he would have done well to consider how nature acts in
other organized bodies, such as the vegetable. We see
that a vegetable, reared in the corner of a dark cellar, will
bend itself towards the light which comes in at the window ;
and if it be made to grow in a flower-pot, with its head
downwards, it will turn itself into the natural position of a
plant. Can it be supposed, that the plant, in either case,
does what it does from any judgment or opinion that it is
best, and not from a necessary determination of its nature ?
But, further, to take the case of bodies unorganized, how
shall we account for the phenomena which chemistry ex¬
hibits to us ? When one body unites with another, and
then, upon a third being presented to it, quits the first,
and unites itself with it, shall we suppose that this prefer¬
ence proceeds from any predilection or opinion that it is
better to cleave to the one than to the other, from any
comparison of ideas or deduction of inferences ? Or shall
we not rather say, that it proceeds from an original law of
nature impressed upon it by that Being who mediately or
immediately directs every motion of every the minutest
atom in the universe ? And if so, why may not instinct be
an original determination of the mind of the animal, of
which it is part of the nature or essence to accommodate Inst
itself to certain circumstance, on which depends the pre-'
servation of the individual, or the continuation of the kind?
Indeed it cannot be otherwise, if we have defined instinct
properly; for no man ever supposed, that when animals
work instinctively, they act for no purpose. It is only af¬
firmed that the purpose is not known to them. It is known,
however, to the Author of instinct; who knows likewise
that the same purpose must in different climates be pro¬
moted by different means, and who accordingly determines
the operations of animals of the same species to be different
under different circumstances.
But though we cannot agree with this author when he
affirms that no accommodation to circumstances can ever
take place without a comparison of ideas, we readily admit
that no faculty which is capable of improvement by observa¬
tion and experience can in propriety of speech be termed
instinct. Instinct being a positive determination given to
the minds of animals by the Author of nature for certain
purposes, must necessarily be perfect when viewed in con¬
nection with those purposes ; and therefore to talk, as Mr
Smellie does, of the improvement of instinct, is to perplex
the understanding by a perversion of language. There is
not, however, a doubt, but that reason may copy the works
of instinct, and so far alter or improve them as to render
them subservient to other purposes than those for which
they were originally and instinctively performed. It was
thus in all probability that man at first learned many of the
most useful arts of life.
Thy arts of building from the bee receive;
Learn of the mole to plough, the worm to weave;
Learn of the little nautilus to sail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
But the arts thus adopted by men are no longer the works
of instinct, but the operations of reason influenced by mo¬
tives. This is so obviously and undeniably true, that it
has compelled the author last mentioned to confess, in that
very section which treats of instincts improvable by expe¬
rience, that “ what men or brutes learn by experience,
though this experience be founded on instinct, cannot with
propriety be called instinctive knowledge, but knowledge
derived from experience and observation. Instinct (he
says) should be limited to such actions as every individual
of a species exerts without the aid either of experience or
imitation.” This is a very just distinction between instinct
and experience; but how to reconcile it with the funda¬
mental principle of the author’s theory we know not. It
would certainly be a very arduous task; but it is a task
from which we are happily relieved, as his theory and our’s
have little resemblance.
Having thus proved, we hope to the satisfaction of our
readers, that there is such a principle as instinct in the in¬
ferior animals, and that it is essentially different from hu¬
man reason, let us return to our owm species, and inquire
whether there be any occasions upon which man acts in¬
stinctively, and what these occasions are. This is a ques¬
tion of some difficulty, to which a complete and satisfac¬
tory answer will perhaps never be given, and to which we
have not the vanity to think that such an answer will be
given by us. The principle of association operates so pow¬
erfully in man, and at so early a period of life, that in many
cases it seems to be impossible to distinguish the effects of
habit from the operations of nature. Yet there are a few
cases, immediately connected with the preservation of the
individual and the propagation of the kind, in which by a
little attention these things may be distinguished. We
1 Though this way of acting is undoubtedly mysterious, u yet it should not appear extraordinary even to a man who is not a phi¬
losopher. as we see examples of it daily in our own species; for a man under the direction of another of superior understanding,
w'ill use means to accomplish an end, without having an idea of either; and indeed, in my opinion, by far the greater part of mankind
are destined by God and nature to be governed in that way.” {Ancient Metaphysics, voh iii. p. 352.)
INCT. 301
either automatic or acquired. The greater part of those Instinct;
actions, as well as of the apparently instinctive principles of ''■—-v-'—^
belief, we have no doubt are acquired; but we are per¬
suaded that a child sucks its nurse as a bee builds its cell,
by instinct; for upon no other hypothesis can we account
for the spontaneous efforts exerted in both these opera¬
tions ; and we think it no disgrace to our species, that in
some few cases we should act from the same principle with
the inferior creation, as nothing seems more true than that,
INST
inct. have already given an instance in the sucking of a child,
which we believe to be an operation performed by instinct.
Dr Priestley, however, thinks differently. “ The action of
sucking,” says he, “ I am confident, from my own observa •
tion, is not natural, but acquired.” What observations they
were which led him to this conclusion he has not told us,
and we cannot imagine; but every observation which we
ourselves have made, compels us to believe that an attempt
to suck is natural to children. It has been observed by
the author of the Philosophy of Natural History, that the
instinct of sucking is not excited by any smell peculiar to
the mother, to milk, or to any other substance ; for that
infants suck indiscriminately every thing brought into con¬
tact with their mouths. He therefore infers, that the de¬
sire of sucking is innate, and coeval with the appetite for
air. The observation is certainly just; but a disciple of
Dr Priestley’s may object to the inference ; for “ in suck¬
ing and swallowing our food, and in many such instances, it
is exceedingly probable,” says the doctor, “ that the actions
of the muscles are originally automatic, having been so
placed by our Maker, that at first they are stimulated and
contract mechanically whenever their action is requisite.”
This is certainly the case with respect to the motion of the
muscles in the action of breathing ; and if that action be
of the same kind and proceed from the very same cause
with the action of sucking, and if a child never shew a de¬
sire to suck but when something is brought into contact
with its mouth, Dr Priestley’s account of this operation ap¬
pears to us much more satisfactory than that of the authors
who attribute it to instinct.
But the actions of breathing and sucking seem to differ
essentially in several particulars. They are indeed both
performed by means of air ; but in the former, a child for
many months exerts no spontaneous effort, whilst a spon¬
taneous effort seems to be absolutely necessary for the per¬
formance of the latter. Of this indeed we could not be
certain, were it true that infants never exhibit symptoms
of a wish to suck but when something is exactly in contact
with their mouths ; for the mere act of sucking then might
well be supposed to be automatic and the effect of irrita¬
tion. But this is not the case. A healthy and vigorous in¬
fant, within ten minutes of its birth, gives the plainest and
most unequivocal evidence of a desire to suck, before any
thing be brought into actual contact with its mouth. It
stretches out its neck, and turns its head from side to side
apparently in quest of something : and that the object of its
pursuit is something which it may suck, every man may
satisfy himself by a very convincing experiment. When
an infant is thus stretching out its neck and moving its
head, if any thing be made to touch any part of its face,
the little creature will instantly turn to the object, and en¬
deavour by quick alternate motions from side to side to
seize it with its mouth, in the very same manner in which
it always seizes the breast of its nurse, till taught by expe¬
rience to distinguish objects by the sense of sight, when
these alternate motions, being no longer useful, are no
longer employed. ~ If this be not an instance of pure in¬
stinct, we know not what it is. It cannot be the result of
association or mechanism ; for when the stretching of the
neck takes place, nothing is in contact with the child’s
mouth, and no association which includes the act of suck¬
ing can have been formed. Associations of ideas are the
consequences of simultaneous impressions frequently re¬
peated ; but when the child first declares, as plainly as it
could do were it possessed of language, its wish to suck, it
has not received a single impression with which that wish
can possibly be associated.
Were Dr Priestley to weigh these facts, of the truth of
which we are certain, we doubt not that his well-known
candour would make him retract the assertion, that all the
actions which Dr Reid and others refer to instinct, are
 Iteason raise o’er instinct as we can ;
In this ’tis God that works, in that ’tis man.
We have said that, in the savage state, the sexes go to¬
gether for the first time by instinct, without any view to
offspring, and perhaps with no determinate idea of enjoy¬
ment. This opinion, we believe, has been generally main¬
tained ; but it is controverted by Dr Hartley. “ Here,"
says he, “ we are to observe, first, that when a general plea¬
surable state is introduced, either by direct impressions or
by associated influences, the organs of generation must
sympathize with this general state, for the same reasons as
the other parts do. They must therefore be affected with
vibrations in their nerves, which rise above indifference,
into the limits of pleasure, from youth, health, grateful ali¬
ment, the pleasures of imagination, ambition, and sympathy,
or any other cause which diffuses grateful vibrations over
the whole system. Secondly, as these organs are endued
with a greater degree of sensibility than the other parts,
from their make, and the peculiar structure and disposition
of the nerves, whatever these be, we may expect that they
should be more affected by those general pleasurable states
of the nervous system than the other parts. Thirdly, the
distension of the cells of the vesiculce seminales and of the
sinuses of the uterus, which take place about the time of
puberty, must make these organs more particularly irrita¬
ble then.” His fourth observation respects a state widely
different from that of nature, and therefore is nothing to
the purpose: but his fifth is, that “ the particular shame
which regards the organs of generation, may, when con¬
sidered as an associated circumstance, like other pains, be
so far diminished as to fall within the limits of pleasure,
and add considerably to the sum-total.”
To this excellent and able writer we may allow the truth
of these observations, though some of them might certainly
be controverted ; and yet deny his conclusion, that “ they
are sufficient to account for the general desires which are
observable in young persons, and that those desires are of
a factitious nature.” For supposing every thing which he
mentions to take place by mere mechanism and associa¬
tion ; that the organs of generation are irritated, and cer¬
tain cells and sinuses distended ; the only inference which
can be fairly drawn from such premises is, that at the age
of puberty young men and women must, from these causes,
experience certain feelings and wants which they knew not
before ; but surely mechanism and association cannot teach
them the use of the organs of generation, or point out the
only means by which their new feelings can be gratified;
and therefore, as we see these means invariably pursued by
all animals, rational and irrational, without experience and
without instruction, we must refer the mutual desire of the
sexes to a higher principle than mere mechanism and asso¬
ciation ; and that principle can be nothing but instinct.
Besides these, we think the action of eating may be
attributed to instinct. It is certainly performed by a spon¬
taneous exertion of the proper organs; and that exertion
is first made at a time of life when we have no conception
of the end which it serves to accomplish, and therefore
cannot be influenced by motives. It must, indeed, be con¬
fessed, that the first act of chewing is performed by a child,
not for the purpose of masticating food, but to quicken the
operation of nature in the cutting of teeth ; and perhaps it
INSTINCT,
302
Instinct, may be said, that the pleasing sensation of taste, which is
then first experienced, and afterwards remembered, prompts
the child to continue at intervals the exertion of chewing
after all his teeth are cut; so that though the act of eating is
not performed with a view to the mastication of food or the
nourishment of the body, it may yet be performed, not
from any instinctive impulse, but merely from an early and
deep-rooted association. But in answer to this it is suffi¬
cient to ask, Who taught the infant that the act of chew¬
ing will quicken the operation of nature in the cutting of
teeth ? Not reason, surely, nor experience ; for an infant
knows nothing of teeth, or the manner in which they grow;
and if it be granted, that for this purpose it was originally
impelled by some internal and mysterious influence to per¬
form the action of chewing, we are not inclined to deny
that the operation may be continued for other purposes, by
means of association.
In human works, though laboured on with pain,
A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain ;
In God’s, one single can its end produce,
Yet serves to second too some other use.
This is sound philosophy, confirmed by observation and
daily experience; but though in the works of God one
principle produces many consequences, and though perhaps
there is not a principle which falls under our cognizance
more fruitful than that of association, yet if it be not suffi¬
cient to account for the first act of chewing, we cannot re¬
fer to it alone as to the source of that operation. Should
it be said, that the gums of an infant are at the period of
cutting teeth so irritable, that the moment any thing is ap¬
plied to them the jaws perform a motion merely automatic,
which we mistake for the spontaneous effect of instinct,
still we would ask, What prompts the child to apply every
thing to its mouth ? Does the irritation of the gums con¬
tract the muscles of the arm ? By a bigot for mechanism
this might be said, were it true that the arm of an infant,
like a piece of clock-work, is always so regularly moved as
to bring its hand directly into contact with its gums : but
this is far from being the case ; an infant makes many un¬
successful efforts to reach its mouth, and does not accom-
ILsh its purpose till after repeated trials. Perhaps it may
e alleged (for when men adopt a favourite hypothesis, they
will allege any thing in its support), that infants are taught
to carry things to their mouths by the pleasing sensation
received from the application of their nurses’ breasts, and
continue the practice from habit and association. But it is
certain that they do not begin this practice till teeth are
forming in their gums ; and then they use such things as
they themselves carry to their mouths very differently from
the breasts of their nurse : they constantly chew and bite
their rattles, though they very seldom bite their nurses.
As this practice cannot be begun from a principle of asso¬
ciation, so it appears to us that it cannot be continued upon
such a principle. Were the sensation experienced by an
infant when chewing a hard substance a pleasing sensation,
the remembrance of the pleasure might as a motive prompt
it to repeat the operation ; but it is obvious, that by press¬
ing a gum, through which a tooth is making its way, against
any thing hard, the infant must experience a painful sen¬
sation ; and therefore the influence which impels it to con¬
tinue this operation, must be something more powerful than
pleasure or pain.
These three actions, then, by which infants suck, by
which they chew their food, and by which mankind are
propagated, have undeniably their origin in instinct. There
may be many other human actions which derive their origin
from the same source ; but in a state of civil society it is
very difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish them from
the effects of early habit.
Such, however, is the present impatience of that labour,
without which effects cannot be traced to their causes, that
every phenomenon in human nature, which to former phi- insti,
losophers would have occasioned difficulty, is now thoughtv—
to be sufficiently accounted for by referring it to some in¬
stinct as its particular cause ; and he who can provide him¬
self with a sufficient number of these instincts, for the
reality of which he offers no proof, seats himself in the phi¬
losopher's chair, and dreams that he is dictating a system
of science, whilst he is only retailing a collection of anec¬
dotes. A philosopher of this school has lately carried the
doctrine of instinctive principles so far, as to attribute the
superiority of man over the other animals chiefly to the
great number of instincts with which his mind is endowed;
and amongst these he reckons not, we believe, as charac¬
teristic of our species in contradistinction to other animals,
but as part of the instinctive bundle in the largeness of
which our superiority consists, “ the voiding of urine and
excrement, sneezing, retraction of the muscles upon the
application of any painful stimulus, the moving of the eye¬
lids and other parts of the body.” These, he says, are
effects of original instincts, and essential to the existence
of young animals. With this writer instinct is sometimes
represented as looking into futurity, and acting upon mo¬
tives which have hitherto been considered as the province
of reason and the characteristic of man : here the same in¬
stinct is confounded with irritation and mechanism ; and if
this mode of philosophising continue in fashion, we shall
not be surprised to find men, beasts, birds, and vegetables,
considered by some other writer as nothing more than dif¬
ferent species of the same genus of beings, that are all ac¬
tuated by the great and universal principle of instinct. If
sneezing and the retraction of the muscles upon the appli¬
cation of any painful stimulus be actions of instinct, there
cannot be a doubt, upon the received principles of philoso¬
phy, but that the contraction of the leaves of the sensitive
plant upon the application of any stimulus proceeds like¬
wise from instinct. Nay, a piece of leather must be endowed
with instinct; for it too retracts upon the application of the
painful stimulus of fire. All these are evidently similar ef¬
fects produced by the same or similar causes; for in the
operations of sneezing and retracting the muscles upon any
painful application, there is not the least spontaneous exer¬
tion on our part, no co-operation of mind more than in the
contraction of the leather and the plant. With respect to
the voiding of urine and excrement, it is obvious that, at
first, these operations are performed without any effort of
spontaneity; and that a voluntary power over the muscles
which are subservient to them is very gradually acquired.
Urine and excrement irritate the bladder and guts, which
are supplied with branches of the same nerves that supply
the abdominal muscles. But it is well known that the irri¬
tation of one branch of a nerve brings on a contraction of
the muscles which are supplied by the other branches.
Urine and excrement therefore are evidently expelled by
the mechanical contractions of the organs of excretion; and
to attribute these evacuations to instinct, is equally absurd
as to say, that water or any other soft substance pent up in
a vessel, and pressed equally on all sides, makes its escape
by instinct through the easiest passage. It is difficult to
guess what the author means by the instinctive motion ot
the eyelids and other parts of the body. There is a motion
of the eyelids which is voluntary, and another which is in¬
voluntary. The former proceeds from some motive, to
exclude too great a glare of light, or to guard the eye
against a foreseen mischief, and is therefore the result of
reason as distinguished from instinct: the latter is obvious¬
ly the effect of association, which took place in early in¬
fancy, and produced a habit. Infants for several days after
birth do not wink with their eyes upon the approach of
one’s hand or any other substance ; but after having expe¬
rienced pain from too much light, or any other thing which
hurts the eye, and that pain having at first produced an
INSTINCT.
303
net.
automatic motion of the eyelids, the motion comes in time
/ to be so closely associated with its cause, that the very ap¬
pearance of the latter produces the former. In all this
there is no instinct, nor any thing which resembles instinct:
in the one case, the motion of the eyelids is in the strictest
sense voluntary and rational; and in the other, it is either
automatic or the effect of habit.
« The love of light,” says the same writer, “ is exhibited
by infants at a very early period. I have remarked evident
symptoms of this attachment on the third day after birth.
When children are farther advanced, marks of the various
passions generally appear. The passion of fear is discover¬
able at the age of two months. It is called forth by ap¬
proaching the hand to the child’s eye, and by any sudden
motion or unusual noise.” It has likewise been said, that
“ an infant may be put into a fright by an angry counte¬
nance, and soothed again by smiles and blandishments
and “ that all these are cases of pure instinct.” In reply
to which, we scruple not to assert with Dr Priestley, that
an infant (unless by an infant be meant a child who has a
good deal of experience, and of course has made many ob¬
servations on the connections of things) “ is absolutely in¬
capable of terror. I am positive (says he), that no child
ever shewed the least symptom of fear or apprehension till
he had actually received hurts and had felt pain ; and that
children have no fear of any particular person or thing, but
in consequence of some connection between that person
or thing and the pain they have felt. If any instinct of
this kind were more necessary than another, it would be
the dread of fire. But every body must have observed,
that infants shew no sign of any such thing ; for they will
as readily put their finger to the flame of a candle as to any
thing else, till they have been burned. But after some
painful experience of this kind, their dread of fire, though
undeniably the effect of association, becomes as quick and
as effectual in its operations as if it were an original in¬
stinctive principle.” We moreover do not hesitate to say,
with the same great philosopher, that if it were possible al¬
ways to beat and terrify a child with a placid countenance,
so as never to assume that appearance but in those circum¬
stances, and always to soothe him with what we call an
angry countenance, this connection of ideas would be re¬
versed, and we should see the child frightened with a
smile, and delighted with a frown. In fact, there is no
more reason to believe that a child is naturally afraid of a
frown, than that he is afraid of being in the dark ; and of
this children certainly discover no sign, till they have either
found something disagreeable to them in the dark, or have
been told there is something dreadful in it.
The truth of these observations is so obvious, that we
doubt not but they will carry conviction to the mind of
every reader. For though it should be granted, that so
early as on the third day after birth children exhibit symp¬
toms of uneasiness upon the sudden exclusion of light, it
would by no means follow that the love of light is in them
instinctive. Light operates upon the eye by contact, and
communicates to the infant a sensation of touch. If that
sensation be pleasant, the child must necessarily feel some
degree of uneasiness upon its removal, just as a full-grown
man must feel uneasy upon being deprived of any positive
pleasure. But is sensation, or pleasure, or the removal of
pleasure, pure instinct ? No, surely.
Thus difficult is it to say, in many cases, what actions
have their origin in instinct, and what are merely the effects
of early association. But we think it may be safely affirmed,
that no action, whether of man or brute, which is deliber¬
ately performed with a view to consequences, can with any
propriety be said to proceed from instinct; for such actions
are the effect of reason influenced by motives. Delibera¬
tion and instinct are obviously incompatible. To say with
the author of the Philosophy of Natural History, “ that,
when we are stimulated by a particular instinct, instead of Instinct-
instantly obeying the impulse, another instinct arises in op- v-—-
position, creates hesitation, and often totally extinguishes
the original motive to action,” is either to affirm what is
apparently not true, or it is a gross perversion of language.
Motives opposed to each other may create hesitation, and
a powerful motive may counterbalance a feeble instinct;
but of two or more instincts operating at the same time,
and opposing each other, we have no conception. Instinct,
if we choose to speak a language that is intelligible, means
a certain impulse under the direction of Supreme Wisdom;
and it is very little probable that such wisdom should give
opposite impulses at the same instant. In the natural
works of animals, which are confessedly under the influence
of instinct, we perceive no symptoms of deliberation; but
every one, when not interrupted by external violence, pro¬
ceeds without hesitation in the direct road, to an end of
which the animal itself knows nothing. The same would
be the case with man were he under the guidance of in¬
stinct ; and it is vain to say that the instinct of fear is
daily counteracted by ambition and resentment, till it be
proved that fear, ambition, and resentment, are really in¬
stincts. Of this, however, the author seems to have no
doubt. Indeed, his work is so liberally stored with those
principles, so useful to every man who wishes to acquire
the name of a philosopher without the labour of investi¬
gation, that not only fear, ambition, and resentment, but
even superstition, devotion, respect for eminent charac¬
ters, avarice, hope, envy, benevolence, and sympathy, are
all, in his opinion, instincts simple or modified. The ori¬
gin of fear w'e have already seen when examining the in¬
stincts said to exhibit themselves in early infancy : let us
try if we cannot trace some other individuals of this nu¬
merous family to the same source of early associations.
The case then seems to be as follows. We first perceive
or suppose some real good, that is, some fitness to promote
our happiness, in those things which we love or desire.
Hence we annex to those things the idea of pleasure ; with
which they come, in time, to be so closely associated in our
minds, that they cannot ever after present themselves with¬
out bringing that idea along with them. This association
likewise often remains even after that which first gave rise
to it is quite forgotten, or perhaps does not exist. An in¬
stance or two will make this very clear. No man can be
born a lover of money ; for in a state of nature money ex¬
ists not: no man, therefore, can be born with our author’s
instinct of avarice, directed in the manner which the most
common acceptation of that word denotes. Yet how many
men are there in the world, who have as strong a desire for
money as if that desire were innate and instinctive ; who
account so much money so much happiness ; and who make
the mere possession of gold and silver, without any thought
or design of using them, the ultimate end of all their
actions ? This is not because the love of money is bom
with them, for that is impossible; but because they first
perceive a great many advantages from the possession
of money, whence they conceive a pleasure in having it.
Hence they desire it, endeavour to obtain it, and feel an
actual pleasure in obtaining and possessing it. Then, by
dropping the intermediate steps between money and happi¬
ness, they join money and happiness immediately together,
and content themselves with the fantastic pleasure of hav¬
ing it ; making that which was at first pursued only as a
means, be to them an ultimate end, in which consists their
happiness or misery. The same might be observed con¬
cerning the thirst after knowledge, fame, ambition, and
most of the various pursuits of life. These are at first en¬
tered upon with a view to some further end, but at length
become habitual exercises; with which the idea of plea¬
sure is so closely associated, that we continue the pursuit
after the reason from which it was at first begun, has en-
304
INSTINCT.
Instinct-
tirely vanished from our minds. Hence also we may ac¬
count for another of our author’s modified instincts, the al¬
most diabolical feeling of envy. Mr Locke observes, that
there are some men entirely unacquainted with this passion.
His observations we believe to be a just one ; for most men
that are used to reflection, remember the time when they
were first under its influence ; and though they did not, it
is a thing very little likely that the beneficent Author of
nature should have implanted in the human mind even the
seeds of an instinct, which, in the emphatic language of
The Rambler, “ is mere unmixed and genuine evil.” Envy
is that pain, which arises in the mind upon observing the
success or prosperity of others ; not however of all others
indefinitely, but only of those with whom, upon some ac¬
count or other, the envious person has once had a rival-
ship. But of such a feeling the origin is obvious ; for when
two or more persons are competitors for the same thing,
the success of the one necessarily tends to the detriment
of the other: hence the success of the one rival is in the
mind of the other closely associated with pain or misery;
and this association remaining after the rivalship which oc¬
casioned it has ceased, the person in whose mind envy is
thus generated, always feels pain at the success of his rival
even in affairs which have no relation to the original com¬
petition. Thus it is, that we are apt to envy those per¬
sons who refuse to be guided by our judgments, or per¬
suaded by our arguments: for this is nothing else than a
rivalship about the superiority of judgment; and we take
a secret pride, both to let the world see, and in imagining
ourselves, that in perspicuity and strength of judgment we
have no superior.
Though the principle of association will be more fully
explained in another place, there is one observation which
must not be omitted here ; it is, that we do not always, nor
perhaps for the most part, make these associations ourselves,
but learn them from others in very early life. We annex
happiness or misery to certain things or actions, because
we see it done by our parents or companions; and acquire
principles of action by imitating those whom we esteem, or
by being told^ by those in whom we have been taught to
place confidence, that such conduct will promote our happi¬
ness, and that the reverse will involve us in misery. Hence
the son too often inherits both the vices and the virtues of
his father as well as his estate ; hence national virtues and
vices, dispositions and opinions; and hence too it is, that
habits formed before the period of distinct remembrance
are so generally mistaken for natural instincts.
From the whole, then, of this investigation, we think
ourselves warranted to conclude, that there is an essential
difference between mechanism and instinct, and between
both and reason ; that mankind perform actions by each of
these principles, and that those actions ought to be care¬
fully distinguished, and though the human mind is unques¬
tionably endowed with a few instincts necessary to the pre¬
servation of the individual and the propagation of the race,
that by far the greater part of those actions which are com¬
monly said to proceed from instinct are merely the effects
of early habits. We are likewise of opinion, that the pre¬
sent fashionable mode of referring almost every phenome¬
non in human nature to a particular instinct as its ultimate
cause, is hurtful to science, as tending to check all further
inquiry; and dangerous in morals, as making people im¬
plicitly follow, as the dictates of nature and nature’s God,
the absurd superstitious or impious customs of their re¬
spective countries.
Having reprinted the foregoing article, written for a ln5tin(
former edition, as containing a preUy full view of opinions
(which is one of the most useful purposes of a work of this
kind) on a subject of great curiosity and interest in philo¬
sophical speculation ; we cannot do better than enlarge
that view, by subjoining the following admirable observa¬
tions, conceived in the spirit of genuine philosophy, from
Mr Stewart’s comparison between the faculties of man and
those of the lower animals, in the third volume of his Phi¬
losophy of the Mind.
“ That the brutes are under the more immediate guidance
of Nature, while man is left, in a great degree, to regulate
his own destiny by the exercise of his reason, is a fact too
obvious to stand in need of illustration. In what manner,
indeed, Nature operates in this instance, we are wholly
ignorant; but nothing can be more certain than this, that
it is not by a deliberate choice, analogous to what we ex¬
perience in ourselves, that the lower animals are deter¬
mined to the pursuit of particular ends ; nor by any pro¬
cess analogous to our reason that they combine means in
order to attain them.
“ To that unknown, but obviously intelligent, cause
which guides the operations of the brutes, we give the
name of Instinct, without presuming to decide the question
where this intelligence resides ;—much in the same man¬
ner in which we give the name of the letters x and y to the
unknown quantities in an algebraical problem. The cir¬
cumstances by which it is distinguished from reason are so
remarkable, and so manifest to the most careless observer,
as to preclude, among candid inquirers, the possibility of
dispute. Of these circumstances, the two following seem
to be the most important: 1. The uniformity with which
it proceeds in all individuals of the same species ; and, 2.
The unerring certainty with which it performs its office
prior to all experience. In both these respects the opera¬
tions of reason or art, properly so called, seem to be essen¬
tially different from any thing else that is known among
animated natures ; inasmuch as no two individuals of our
species were ever observed to employ exactly the same
combinations of means (at least where the means were at
all complicated) for the attainment of the same ends; and
as the capacity of reason, destitute of the aid of experience,
is altogether a barren and unavailing principle.
“ The disposition which some late authors have shewn
to explain away the operations of instinct in man, can be
accounted for only by their wish to weaken the foundations
of natural religion. To speak of instincts and of original
propensities, we have been told, is the language of mysti¬
cism. It is, in truth, the language of genuine science,
which contents itself with a statement and generalization of
facts, and stops short as soon as it arrived at the limits pre¬
scribed to human curiosity. The charge of Mysticism pro¬
perly falls on those who, in attempting to conceal their ig¬
norance from themselves or from others by means of theo¬
retical expressions, darken the study of nature by words
without knowledge.1
“ In offering these remarks, I would not be understood
to disapprove of the attempts of some late authors to ana¬
lyse the various operations which are commonly referred to
the general principle of instinct. But I must beg leave to
remind them, that how far soever we may push the analy¬
sis, we must at last arrive at some fact, no less wonderful
than those we mean to explain. Thus, although it should
be made to appear, that the actions which a child performs
at birth are learned by the foetus in utero, we must still ad-
1 “ What Sir Isaac Newton has said in justification of the word gravity, as employed in his philosophy, against the objections o
those who accused him of reviving the occult qualities of the Aristotelians, may be applied equally to the word instinct, as it is used in
our present argument. ‘ These are manifest qualities, and their causes only are occult. And the Aristotelians give the name o
occult qualities not to manifest qualities, but to such qualities only as they supposed to lie hid in bodies, and to be the unknown
causes of manifest effects.’ (Newton’s Optics.)
INST
jn3 ct. mit, as an ultimate fact, the existence of an original deter-
—^mination to a particular mode of action salutary or neces¬
sary to the animal; and all that we have accomplished is
to refer the origin of this instinct to an earlier period in the
history of the human mind.
“ In a very curious and original work, published about
thirty years ago, under the title of Zoonomia, much inge¬
nuity has been employed, and in several instances with
great success, in analyzing those phenomena which are
commonly referred to instinct; more particularly in at¬
tempting to account for the wonderful efforts which the
human infant is enabled to make for its own preservation
the moment after its introduction to the light.1 Thus, it
is observed, that the foetus, while still in the uterus, learns
to perform the operation of swallowing, and to relieve it¬
self, by change of posture, from the irksomeness of conti¬
nued rest; and, therefore (if we admit these propositions),
we must conclude, that some of the actions which infants
are vulgarly supposed to perform in consequence of in¬
stincts coeval with birth, are only a continuation of actions
to which they are determined at an earlier period of their
being. The remark is ingenious, and probably just, but it
does not prove that instinct is an unphilosophical term; nor
does it render the operations of the infant less mysterious
than they seem to be on the common supposition. It only
places these operations in a new light, and, I might perhaps
venture to add, in a light more striking than they were
viewed in before.
“ The same author has attempted to account, in a man¬
ner somewhat similar, for the different degrees in which
the young of the different animals are able, at the moment
of birth, to exert their bodily powers. Thus calves and
chickens are able to walk almost immediately, while the
human infant, even in the most favourable situations, is
six or even twelve months old before he can stand alone.
For this Dr Darwin assigns two causes; 1 st. That the
young of some animals come into the world in a more
complete state than those of others ; the colt and lamb, for
example, enjoying, in this respect, a striking advantage
over the puppy and the rabbit. 2d, That the mode of
walking of some animals coincides more perfectly than
that of others with the previous motions of the foetus in
utero. The struggles of all animals, he observes, in the
womb must resemble their manner of swimming, as by this
kind of motion they can best change their attitude in wa¬
ter. But the swimming of the calf and of the chicken re¬
sembles their ordinary movements on the ground, which
they have thus learned in part to execute while concealed
from our observation ; whereas the swimming of the hu¬
man infant, differing totally from his manner of walking, he
has no opportunity of acquiring the last of these arts till
be is exposed to our view. The theory is plausible, and
does honour to the author’s sagacity; but, as I observed
in a former instance, it only places in a new light that pro¬
vident care which Nature has taken of all her offspring in
the infancy of their existence.
“ Another instance may contribute towards a more am-
P e “lustration of the same subject. A lamb, not many
INCT. 305
minutes after it is dropped, proceeds to search for its Instinct,
nourishment in that spot where alone it is to be found, ap- ^
plying both its limbs and its eyes to their respective offices.
The peasant observes the fact, and gives the name of in¬
stinct, or some corresponding term, to the unknown prin¬
ciple by which the animal is guided. On a more accurate
examination of circumstances, the philosopher finds reason
to conclude, that it is by the sense of smelling it is thus
directed to its object. In proof of this, among other cu¬
rious facts, the following has been quoted: ‘ On dissect¬
ing,’ says Galen, ‘ a goat with young, I found a brisk em-
bryon, and having detached it from the matrix, and
snatched it away before it saw its dam, I brought it into
a room, where there were many vessels, some filled with
wine, others with oil, some with honey, others with milk,
or some other liquor, and in others there were grains and
fruits. We first observed the young animal get upon its
feet and walk; then it shook itself, and afterwards scratch¬
ed its side with one of its feet; then we saw it smelling to
every one of those things that were set in the room, and
when it had smelt to them all, it drank up the milk.’2
Admitting this very beautiful story to be true, (and, for
my own part, I am far from being disposed to question its
probability), it only enables us to state the fact with a lit¬
tle more precision, in consequence of our having ascer¬
tained that it is to the sense of smelling the instinctive de¬
termination is attached. The conclusion of the peasant is
not here at variance with that of the philosopher. It dif¬
fers only in this, that he expresses himself in those general
terms which are suited to his ignorance of the particular
process by which nature in this case accomplishes her end ;
and if he did otherwise, he would be censurable for pre¬
judging a question of which he is incompetent to form an
accurate opinion. A person who is totally unacquainted
with anatomy, may nevertheless admire (and may admire
on as good grounds as Cuvier himself) the mechanism of
the human hand, or of the elephant’s proboscis.
“ The foregoing observations on the instincts of the
new-born kid are strictly applicable to the attempts which
have been made to account for the instincts of migratory
birds and fishes, by changes in their sensations produced
by the vicissitudes of the seasons. Of these attempts I
have met with none which seem to me at all satisfactory;
at the same time I have no doubt that it is by some physi¬
cal means that the effect is accomplished, and I think it
highly probable that new lights will be thrown on the sub¬
ject by the researches of future naturalists.3 But what¬
ever success may attend their inquiries, the provident ar¬
rangements thus made for the preservation of animals must
still be referred, not to their own foresight and sagacity,
but to the wisdom and beneficence of Nature; and the
questions so nobly and philosophically expressed by the
poet will still remain, and, we may venture to predict, will
for ever remain (as to their essential import) in all their
force.
£ Who bade the stork Columbus-like explore
Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before ?
are trlnscribJd Meni°{rS ^ Smltlh Rohertsm> and Reld-> P- 475* Fr°m the last of these Memoirs several of the following paragraphs
’ Darwin, vol. i. pp. 195, 196.
it seems rinw f°T obseryati?ns mad,e V -Dr Jenner, in prosecution of a suggestion thrown out by the celebrated John Hunter,
chanses in f comPletei-y.estab|lshed’ that’ in tbe case of migrating birds, the inciting causes of migration are certain periodical
manges m the testes and ovaria of the male and female. b 1
lessness nnHu is.ex^reniel3r curious, but offers no explanation whatever of the grand problem: it may account for the bird’s rest-
plain flip in L-S1irf o c iai]ge its abode; but the same difficult}7 still recurs, and only meets us in a new form. How are we to ex-
has at nnpp c lg ltS ot the bir. towards a particular unknown region ? For it must not be forgotten that its migrating instinct
this I bavp re^reKCe a per!°d °f the season in the countlT which it leaves, and to that in the country for which it is bound. Of
Jenner m T? Vue tba.t bolh these ingenious authors were fully aware. {Observations on the Migration of Birds, by Edward
H,1 ‘PMosophtcal Transactions of the Royal Society of London for the year 1821, Part I. See also the late Mr John
ter s Observations on certain parts of the Animal Economy.)"
' ,'l‘’ 2 Q
306 INS
INS
Instinct.
Who calls the council, states the certain day,
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ?,x
The sophistry which runs through Darwin’s reasonings con¬
cerning instinct, is partly owing to the unauthorized and
arbitrary meaning which lie has annexed to that word.
“ ‘ By a due attention to these circumstances, he ob¬
serves, ‘ many of the actions of young animals which, at
first sight, seemed only referable to an inexplicable instinct,
will appear to have been acquired, like all other animal ac¬
tions that are attended with consciousness, by the repeated
efforts of our muscles, under the conduct of our sensations
or desires’1 2 *
“ Our sensations and desires (it is to be observed) are
admitted by Darwin ‘ to constitute a part of our system, as
our muscles and bones constitute another part; and hence,
says he, 4 they may alike be termed natural or connate,
but neither of them can properly be termed instinctive, as
the word instinct, in its usual acceptation, refers only to
the actions of animals. The reader,’ continues Darwin,
‘ is intreated carefully to attend to this definition of in¬
stinctive action, lest by using the word instinct without
adjoining any accurate idea to it, he may include the natu¬
ral desires of love and nunger, and the natural sensations
of pain and pleasure under this general term.
44 According to this explanation, the difference of opi¬
nion between Dr Darwin and his opponents is chiefly ver¬
bal ; for whether we consider the actions of animals com¬
monly referred to instinct, as the immediate result of im¬
planted determinations, or as the result of sensations and
desires which are natural or connate, they afford equally
manifestations of design and wisdom in the Author of their
being, inasmuch as, on both suppositions, they depend on
causes either mediately or immediately subservient to the
preservation of the creatures to which they belong. On
both suppositions, there is an infallible provision and pre¬
paration made by the hand of Nature for the effect which
she has in view.
44 I was glad to find that the same remark on this part
. of Darwin’s theory had been previously made by Dr Paley.
4 I am not ignorant,’ says he, 4 of the theory which resolves
instinct into sensation. . . . Thus the incubation of eggs
is accounted for by the pleasure which the bird is supposed
to receive from the pressure of the smooth convex surface
of the shells against the abdomen, or by the relief which
the mild temperature of the egg may afford to the heat of
the lower part of the body, which is observed at this time
to be increased beyond its usual state. ... In this way of
considering the subject, sensation supplies the place of
foresight; but this is the effect of foresight on the part of
the Creator. Let it be allowed, for example, that the hen
is induced to brood on her eggs by the enjoyment or relief
which, in the heated state of her abdomen, she experiences
from the pressure of smooth round surfaces, or from the
application of a temperate warmth. How comes this ex¬
traordinary heat or itching, or call it what you will, which
you suppose to be the cause of the bird’s inclination, to be
felt just at the time when the inclination itself is wanted,
when it tallies so exactly with the internal constitution of
the egg, and with the help which that constitution requires
in order to bring it to maturity ? In my opinion this solu¬
tion, if it be accepted as to the fact, ought to increase, ra- Instin
ther than otherwise, our admiration of the contrivance.’” |j
INSTITUTES, a book containing the elements of the *nstl
Roman law. See Civil Law. “en
National Institute of France, was founded by a decree
of the new constitution, and opened on the 7th of Decem¬
ber 1795. The abolition of royalty naturally suggested to
the democratic rulers of France, that it would likewise be
proper to abolish every thing which had the remotest con¬
nexion with it. Condorcet therefore proposed that the seven
old academies, which had the term royal prefixed to them,
should give way to the establishment of one new academy
of arts and sciences, under the title of the National Insti-.
tute.
The Academy, or Institute, was to consist of two hun¬
dred and eighty-eight members, the half of whom were to
have their residence in Paris, and the rest in the different
departments, with twenty-four foreign members.
This academy was divided into three classes ; these were
subdivided into sections, and each of these again con¬
sisted of twelve members. The first class, consisting of
ten sections, were to preside over mathematics, mechani¬
cal arts, astronomy, experimental philosophy, chemistry-
natural history, botany, anatomy and animal history, medi¬
cine and surgery, animal economy, and the veterinary
science. The second class, having for its department mo¬
rality and politics, consisted of six sections, viz. analysis of
sensations and ideas, morals, legislature, political economy,
history, and geography. The third class, consisting of
eight sections, presided over literature and the fine arts,
viz. universal grammar, ancient languages, poetry, anti¬
quities, painting, sculpture, architecture, and music. Se¬
veral volumes of memoirs have been published by each of
the classes.
The Institute was new-modelled by Napoleon in 1806,
and again on the return of the Bourbons. By a decree of
the 21st of March 1816, it was ordered that the Institute
should be composed of four academies; viz. the French Aca¬
demy, the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres,
the Royal Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Academy of
Fine Arts. Some alterations were at the same time made in
the number of members, and in other particulars.
INSTITUTION, in general, signifies the establishing
or founding of something. In the canon and common law,
it signifies the investing a clerk with the spiritualities of a
rectory or other preferment, which is done by the bishop,
who uses the following formula : 441 institute you rector of
such a church with the cure of souls, and receive your care
and mine.”
Institutions, in literary matters, denote a system ot
elements or rules of any art or science. Thus physical or
medical institutions are such as teach the prcccognita ne
cessary to the practice of medicine, or to the cure of dis¬
eases.
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is subservient to
a cause in producing any effect.
Instrument is also used in law to signify some public
act, or authentic deed, by means of which any truth is made
apparent, or any right or title established, in a court of
justice.
1 Essay on Man. 2 Zoonomia, vol. i. p. 189, third edition corrected, 1801.
3 Zoonomia, vol. i. p. 188, third edition corrected, 1801. . . . f
m Were this very arbitrary limitation of the word Instinct adopted, we should be forced to reject as improper, the empioyme
that term in the passage formerly quoted from Mr Smith, in which he speaks of the instinctive perception ot distance from the eJe x
certain classes of animals. The same use of the word occurs in various other parts of his works. 4 There seems,’ he observes on 0
occasion, 4 to be in young children an instinctive disposition to believe whatever they are told.’ And a few pages afterwards, 1 he
sire of bein" believed, the desire of persuading, leading, and directing other people, seems to be the strongest of all our natural
It is perhaps the instinct upon which is founded the faculty of speech, the characteristical faculty of human nature.’ (Theory oj
Sentiments, vol. ii. pp. 382, 384, sixth edition.) As an authority for the usual acceptation of a philosophical term, Mr Smith wi
allowed to rank somewhat higher than Dr Darwin.”
307
INSURANCE.
ice. Insurance is a contract of indemnity, by which one
party engages, for a stipulated sum, to insure another
against a risk to which he is exposed. It is of three kinds,
viz. Fire, Life, and Marine; all of them producing simi¬
lar results by very different means. The party who under¬
takes the risk is called the insurer, assurer, or underwri¬
ter, and the party protected by the insurance is called the in¬
sured or assured; the sum paid is called the premium, and
the instrument containing the contract is termed the policy.
I.—FIRE INSURANCE.
isu- This species of insurance has been practised in Great
Britain for nearly a century and a half, and is now, not¬
withstanding the heavy duty imposed upon it, of almost
universal use, particularly in our cities and large country
towns. Though practised in France, Holland, Austria,
and other countries on the Continent, it is not general any¬
where except in Great Britain; and in this country fire
insurance is not confined to subjects within the realm, or
even to our colonies, but is extended to risks of all descrip¬
tions, and in every quarter of the world. Indeed, of late years
foreign fire insurance has become a most important addi¬
tion to the extensive transactions of some of the principal
London establishments, a very considerable portion of their
premiums being derived from insurances effected in other
countries.
Insurance against fire is that contract by which the in¬
surer, in consideration of a certain premium received by
him, undertakes to indemnify the insured against all losses
o’- damage which he may sustain by fire, within a limited
period, in his houses, warehouses, merchandise, or other pro¬
perty. Insurances of this description are generally made
by joint-stock companies, of w’hich the principal are in
London, though there are now several in almost all the
large towns throughout the kingdom ; and there is scarcely a
village in which there are not some of their branches and
agents. Most of these insure at their own risk, and for
their own profit; in a few of them, however, called contri¬
bution societies, every person insured becomes a proprie¬
tor, and participates in the profit or loss of the concern.
The only society of this description in Scotland is the
Friendly Insurance Incorporation, which was also the first
established company in this part of the island for insurance
against loss by fire. In 1720 there had been some disas¬
trous fires in Edinburgh, by which many individuals sus¬
tained great loss of property; and in the same year a
meeting of inhabitants took place, for the purpose of
founding a society for their mutual protection from loss in
cases of fire. A certain per-centage of premium upon the
sum insured by each proprietor or contributor was paid
for a perpetual insurance on their properties, and these
premiums formed the capital stock of the concern. The
corporation, however, much more than answered the pur¬
pose which those interested in its formation had in view;
for, after the payment of all claims for loss, the capital,
by judicious management, had accumulated to such an
extent, that in 1760 it was resolved no longer to limit the
business to Edinburgh and Leith, but to extend it over
Scotland, and upon every description of property, on the
principles now followed by other insurance companies.
The rules by which these establishments are governed,
and the conditions on which they insure, are made by their
own directors ; and as a copy of these conditions is printed
upon the policy, and forms a part of the contract therein
contained, the insured is understood, by his acquiescence,
to submit to their proposals, and is fully apprized of those Fire
rules, upon the compliance or non-compliance with wdiich, Insurance*
he will or will not be entitled to an indemnity.
The construction to be put upon the regulations of the Laws,
various offices has but seldom become the subject of judi¬
cial inquiry; and the law of the case, in as far as it has
been ascertained by precedent, is of course embraced by
all of them.
1. The insurers must be made fully acquainted with
the nature of the risk they are required to cover. Any
misrepresentation in describing the building or goods, or
the process of manufacture carried on, whereby the same
may be charged at a lower rate of premium than they
would otherwise be, invalidates the policy ; and if any al¬
teration be made in the state of the building or process of
manufacture after the insu-rance is effected, the insured
is required to give due notice thereof to the insurers, as,
in default, he will be unable to recover under his policy.
Concealment, too, is not less fatal to the contract than
positive misrepresentation. A policy was effected at the
Phoenix Fire Office on the 25th of July 1814, “on a ware¬
house in the lower town of Heligoland, for three months,
as by letter of 11th July 1814.” It appeared that the per¬
son applying for insurance had two warehouses in Heligo¬
land, one of them separated by another building from a
boat-builder’s workshop, in which a fire broke out at seven
in the evening of the 11th July, but apparently was almost
immediately extinguished. The same evening after this
had occurred, the insured wrote to London for a three
months’ insurance of L.400 on the warehouse near the
boat-builder’s, and L.3500 on coffee therein. The mail
was shut ; but the master of the packet took the letter to
Cuxhaven, and there put it into the post-office. The in¬
surance was effected without any disclosure of what had
happened. Early in the morning of the 13th a fire again
broke out in the boat-builder’s, and destroyed the adjoin¬
ing warehouse, with its contents. The jury, though they
acquitted the plaintiff of any fraudulent intention, thought
that the fire of the 11th ought to have been communicat¬
ed, and therefore found for the defendant. Bute v. Turner,
1814.
2. Nothing can be lecovered from the insurers in the
event of loss, unless the party insuring had an interest or
property in the thing insured at the time when the insu¬
rance was effected, and when the loss happened. Any
trustee, mortgagee, reversioner, factor, or agent, however,
has sufficient interest in the goods under his custody to
effect a policy of insurance, provided the nature of such
interest be distinctly specified at the time of executing
such policy. In the same manner, it is customary for
hotel and inn-keepers to insure the property of their
lodgers; of the masters of boarding-houses to insure that
of their scholars; of salesmen and auctioneers to insure
merchandise, furniture, &c. wliilst about to be disposed of
in their premises; and so forth.
There is reason to believe that frequent frauds are per¬
petrated by individuals insuring to a large amount pro¬
perty of trifling value; and it is an undoubted fact that
fraudulent and excessive claims are of constant occurrence.
These have been very much increased by the competition
and keenness for business which have existed amongst the
offices for some years past. But parties are not always
aware, that in tendering such a claim, they are running
the risk offorfeiting all right under their policy. This was
decided in 1832 in the case of Friedlander v. the London
Assurance Company, where, although it was not denied that
INSURANCE.
308
Fire loss and damage had been occasioned by fire, and that not
Insurance, arising from improper means, still, from the extravagance
of the claim made by the pursuer, it was held to be a fraudu¬
lent valuation, and a verdict was consequently given against
him. No reliance can be placed on the oath of a suspect¬
ed claimant; if a man make out a fraudulent claim, he will
not be very scrupulous in swearing to its correctness.
On the other hand, where a loss has occurred, and there
is no suspicion of any unfair practice on the part of the in¬
sured, it is the duty of the insurers to be generous and li¬
beral. The insured is always put to much inconvenience,
and frequently to serious loss beyond what he can claim
for under his policy ; and therefore a fair sufferer ought to
be promptly and cheerfully settled with.
3. In general there is an exception in favour of the in¬
surers in cases of fire occasioned by “ invasion, foreign
enemy, civil commotion, riot, or any military or usurped
power whatever.” The terms “ civil commotion and riot”
were introduced in consequence of its having been found
that the term “ usurped power” means an invasion from
abroad, or an internal rebellion, not the power of a common
mob. The offices likewise, with propriety, decline paying
losses on hay or corn occasioned by spontaneous combus¬
tion, though they make good the loss of any other property
in consequence of such fire ; it being the interest of the
community at large to put down all such occasions of loss
as are contained in the former, and negligence generally
being the cause that damage is sustained in the latter.
The offices, however, pay all loss by fire occasioned by
lightning, as well as, primo loco, all losses caused by in¬
cendiarism, though in this last case they have a claim on
the county for indemnification.
4. “ Books of accounts, written securities, bills, bonds,
tallies, and ready money,” are naturally not the proper
subjects of insurance, and are therefore excepted by all the
offices ; many adding to this list “ gunpowder.”
5. China, glass, crockery, and mirrors, are usually made
the subject of a distinct item in a policy of insurance ; and,
from their fragile nature, are always charged as doubly ha¬
zardous. The rate for “ curiosities” is the same. Pictures
and prints are generally taken at single hazardous; but when
a very valuable collection is insured, the offices usually re¬
quire a catalogue, with a distinct value attached to each.
Jewels, trinkets, mathematical and musical instruments, are
by some offices also required to be valued separately, and in
that case are charged single hazardous. Generally, how¬
ever, these are considered as common risks, and are includ¬
ed along with printed books, linen, and liquors, in one item
with “ household furniture.”
G. It often occurs that no one office will insure to the full
amount required by an individual who has large property;
and in such cases the party, to cover his whole interest, is
obliged to insure at different offices. But in order to pre¬
vent the frauds that might be practised by insuring the
full value in various offices, there is, in the proposals issued
by all the companies, an article which declares that per¬
sons insuring must give notice of any other insurance made
on their behalf elsewhere upon the same houses or goods,
that the same may be specified and allowed by indorsement
on the policy, in order that each office may bear its rate¬
able proportion of any loss that may happen ; and unless
such notice be given of each insurance to the office where
another insurance is made on the same effects, the insur¬
ance made without such notice will be void. Different
people, however, may have different interests in the same
property, and each may insure his own interest without
communication with the others.
7. An important condition in the proposals is that refer¬
ring to the proof of loss. Most offices make it a condition
that the individual claiming shall procure a certificate un¬
der the hands of some reputable householders, and minister
of the parish, to the satisfaction of the company, importing p;r
that they are acquainted with the character and circumstan- Insure
ces of the person insured, and do know, or verily believe -
that he really, and by misfortune, without any kind of fraud
or evil practice, has sustained, by such fire, loss and damage
to the amount therein mentioned. This condition has given
rise to a great deal of discussion in the courts ; but it has
been finally settled, that the procuring of the certificate is a
condition precedent to the payment of any loss, and that its
being wrongfully refused will not excuse the want of it.
8. On bespeaking policies, the insured are required either
to pay the premium, or make a deposit for the same; the
Phoenix and most other offices conditioning, that unless
an interim-receipt for such payment has been issued, either
by the office or one of its agents, no order for insurance
shall be held as in force. Fifteen days are allowed at
the expiration of each year for the payment of the pre¬
mium for the next year in succession, upon all annual po¬
licies, and others for a longer period; and, provided the
premium be paid within that time, the insured is consi¬
dered as under the protection of the office. But the Phcenix
and other offices always expressly declare, in all policies for
a shorter period than a year, that the insurance ceases at
six o’clock in the evening of the day mentioned therein. If,
however, either the insurers or the insured intimate, during
the continuance of a policy, their intention of dropping the
contract at the expiration of the year, it has been decided,
that a loss happening within the fifteen days after the end
of the year does not in such a case fall under the contract.
9. A policy of insurance is not in its nature assignable,
nor can it in England be transferred without the express
consent of the office. In Scotland every pecuniary obliga¬
tion is assignable; but there being something of the na¬
ture of a delectus personae in this contract, the power of as¬
signment is, by the terms of the policy, put under particu¬
lar restraints. When, however, any person dies, his inte¬
rest remains in his executors or administrators respective¬
ly, who succeed or become entitled to the property, pro¬
vided such representatives procure their right to be indor¬
sed on the policy. In the same way, no one who sustains
a loss on stock or merchandise in preniises to which he has
removed since his policy was extended, has a valid claim,
if such change be not indorsed on the policy in question.
On bankruptcy the creditors are entitled to the full benefit
of the policy, provided the premium has been duly paid up.
10. The insurers are liable, not only for loss by burning,
but for all damage or injury caused by the accident, as
well as for all reasonable charges attending the removal of
articles which may never have been touched by the fire;
as, for instance, in the case of the gable of a house falling
across a street, and damaging the property on the opposite
side, or in the case of destruction done to fine goods by
the smoke of a conflagration in the vicinity, or from the
water which may have been thrown about in endeavouring
to extinguish it. In such cases the insurers are distinctly
liable ; but as their contract is one of indemnification only
“ for loss or damage by fire,” there must have been actual
ignition to entitle the insured to recover, it not being suffi¬
cient that there has been a great and injurious increase of
heat, whilst nothing has taken fire which ought not to be
on fire. For example, in one case of a sugar-house, in
which, for the purposes of the manufacture, heat was com¬
municated to each of the separate stories by a chimney,
forming nearly one side of the house, at the top of which
there was a register; the neglect to open this register on
one occasion caused an excessive heat, which blackened
the walls, and injured the sugar in different states of pre¬
paration ; but the damage thus sustained was held not to
come under the spirit of the contract.
11. The loss by fire is scarcely ever a total loss, and the
valuation in the policy is only the fixing of a maximum, be-
Fi
nsur
INSURANCE.
309
vond which the underwriters are not to be liable, and not
e. the conclusive ascertainment of the value to be replaced.
J There is no such thing in this contract as the “ average”
in marine insurance ; the amount insured is payable to its
full extent, without (unless otherwise stipulated) any re¬
ference to the value of the subject insured, either in itself,
or in comparison with such parts of it as have been saved ;
at least such is the practice in Great Britain, but on the
Continent all policies are subject to average. The loss
is o-enerady settled by arbitration, and a clause of refer¬
ence is consequently inserted in most policies. The com¬
pany, however, generally retain the right of either rein¬
stating the subject lost or damaged, or of paying its value.
IUte Insurances are generally divided into common, hazar¬
dous, double hazardous, and special. The charge for in¬
suring property of the first description is now usually Is. 6d.
per cent., the second 2s. 6d., the third 4s. 6d., whilst the
fourth, as its name denotes, comprehends those extra risks
which are made the subject of special agreement between
the parties.
It is almost impossible to form a correct classification of
the risks comprehended under these heads, as the higher
risks not only vary most materially in themselves, but in one
large town it is well known that losses are constantly oc¬
curring upon a species of risk which in another is rarely or
never the cause of a fire. But as the law of average is a
fundamental principle in insurance, and can only be de¬
rived from observations made on a very large scale, the ta¬
bles published by most offices are formed principally from
experience.
The table of minimum premiums agreed to by several
of the Scotch offices in 1830 is as follows :
Premium per cent.
Apothecaries  4 6
Bookbinders  5 0
Booksellers  2 0
Cart or wheel-wrights, without stove  5 0
Ditto with stove 10 6
Calenderers  3 0
Ditto with steam-engine  4 6
Cotton-mills 14 0
Cotton wool  2 6
Corn-mills without kiln  7 6
Ditto with kiln 10 6
Distilleries with or without kiln, and all communi¬
cating therewith 10 6
Farm-stocking.
Farm dwelling-house, slated or tiled, and detach¬
ed from offices  2 0
Premium per cent. Fire
Farm dwelling-house thatched   5
Slated or tiled offices  2
Thatched ditto    5
Stock in barn-yard, for the year  2
Ditto in ditto for shorter period  2
Ditto within risk of steam-engine   4
Flax-mills, warranted no carding of tow or heck¬
ling therein 16
Ditto with carding of tow   18
Ditto with the addition of heckling 20
Hotels and taverns  2
Hecklers, without artificial light  5
Ditto lighted from without  7
Ditto lighted from within   10
Jewellers, stock generally  3
Or, if divided, thus :—
Plate and plated goods and cutlery  2
Stock of jewellery  4
Mansion-houses  2
Muslin goods in warehouse  2
Printers    5
Paper-mills heated by steam, no stove  5
Ditto with stoves having flues 21
Public libraries  2
Pawnbrokers    3
Power-loom factories  5
Retail spirit-dealers  2
Soap manufacturers  3
Ditto with steam-engine  4
Sugar-refiners.
Old refinery, building 31
Stock and utensils 42
If any cockle, not covered with a brick arch,
but only protected by a tile or metal co¬
vering, 5s. per cent, extra, for building and
stock.
Steam process only, building 16
Stock and utensils 21
Mixed process, building .’ 25
Stock and utensils 31
Theatres, Edinburgh and Glasgow 31
Woollen-mills without stove  7
Ditto having one or two stoves 10
three or four stoves 12
five or more stoves 15
Wrights, house-carpenters, or cabinet-makers,
without stove 10
With stove 15
Table showing the Premiums for Periods short of a Year, applicable to every species of risk, Farm Stocking excepted.
Yearly. Six Months.
0 1
0 2
s. d.
6
0 4
0 5
0 6
£ s. d.
0 1 3
1
1
2
3
3
4
Three Months.
Y early.
£ s. d.
0 7 6
0 9 0
0 10 6
0 12 6
0 15 0
1 1 0
Six Months.
s. d.
5 0
£
0
0 6 0
0 7 0
0 9 0
0 12 6
0 15 0
Three Months.
£
0
0 4
s. d.
3 6
6
0
6'
0 5
0 7
0 10 0
0 10 6
The statute 55 Geo. III. c. 184, imposes on every po¬
licy a duty of one shilling, and also the annual sum of
three shillings for every L.100 insured for a year, and ac¬
cording to that rate for any fractional partof L.100 insur¬
ed, and for any fractional part of a year.
. -AT property excepting farm stock and public hospitals
is liable to this duty. It is collected by the offices along
with their premiums, and they are allowed a drawback of
five per cent, upon it for their trouble and expense in so
doing. From the last returns, it appears that this duty
amounts to nearly L.900,000 per annum, which shows
that British property to the extent of at least six hun¬
dred millions sterling must be covered by our insurance
offices.
310
INSURANCE.
Table of Duties paid to Government by the principal London Fire Offices.
Lil
Assur
Offices.
Alliance 
Atlas 
British 
County 
Globe 
Guardian 
Hand-in-Hand 
Imperial 
London 
Palladium 
Phcenix 
Protector 
Royal Exchange...
Sun 
Union 
Westminster 
Albion 
1827.
L.17,746
20,898
15,464
43,522
26,169
29,063
11.704
28,334
7,077
4,721
60,482
35,273
38,034
111,521
15.705
14,359
12,869
L.492,948
1828.
L.19.095
19,522
16,293
47,413
25,367
29,684
11,975
28,647
7,262
5,028
62,839
46,446
49,416
114,205
16,412
14,264
Discontin.
L.513,868
1829.
L.19,466
20,199
15,812
44,822
25,566
30,595
11,254
28,510
7,485
5,378
65,649
54,287
49,786
118,856
16,285
15,461
L.529,411
1830.
L.20,175
20,700
15,819
44,172
26,462
31,077
11,589
27,081
8,019
1,377
68,875
56,081
51,891
120,619
15,714
14,777
1831.
L.20,715
20,783
15,572
48,519
26,597
31,885
11,564
28,230
7,953
Discontin.
69,390
59,789
54,586
124,030
15,833
15,116
L.534,428 L.550,562
1832.
L.20,147
21,010
15,644
48,507
27,198
31,528
10,960
28,234
8,125
75,076
59,182
54,824
124,127
15,315
15,111
L.554,988
1833.
L.20,428
21,288
15,395
44,232
27,321
31,916
10,793
27,154
8,477
73,368
57,858
55,716
124,681
16,133
15,126
L.549,886
1834.
L.21,034
21,398
16,428
40,471
27,355
32,114
10,950
27,020
9,490
72,821
56,676
55,266
127,470
16,370
15,531
L.550,394
Duties paid to Government by the English Country Fire
Offices.
1833. 1834.
Bath Sun L.1,567 L.1,568
Birmingham  7,004 7,042
Birmingham District  147
Bristol  3,722 3,653
Bristol (Crown)    1,772 1,853
Bristol (Union)  2,566 2,552
Essex Economic  2,821 2,595
Essex and Suffolk  5,753 5,356
Hants, Sussex, and Dorset  2,598 2,598
Kent  9,978 10,290
Leeds and Yorkshire  8,458 8,966
Leicestershire  262
Manchester  17,726 18,318
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 2qrs.2,093 5,108
New Norwich Equitable  1,293 1,294
Norwich Equitable  2,647 2qrs. 1,090
Norwich Union  61,345 59,826
Reading  196 202
Salamander  5,105 5,021
Salop  2,737 2,612
Sheffield  1,952 2,056
Shields (North and South)  764 758
Suffolk (East)  5,445 5,117
Suffolk (West)  6,199 5,781
West of England  27,445 27,128
Yorkshire  5,558 5,992
L.186,744 L.187,185
Duties paid to Government by the Scotch Insurance Com¬
panies for the year ending 1st February 1835.
Aberdeen Town and County L.1,510
Caledonian  4 716
County and City of Perth  ’705
Friendly Insurance  3 44,9
Forfar and Perthshire    1790
Hercules  5575
Insurance Company of Scotland  5,650
North British  6 876
Scottish Union  17 542
West of Scotland,.  3,799
L.51,612
This, however, affords no criterion of the actual amount
of risk undertaken by these offices. In the first place, be¬
cause the duty on farm-stock having been repealed in
1833, that very extensive description of risk is not includ¬
ed in this calculation ; and, secondly, because some of the
offices underwrite foreign risks to a very large amount,
and these are equally, by act of parliament, exempt from
duty. Perhaps, therefore, the enormous sum of one thou¬
sand millions sterling does not greatly exceed the amount
of property insured by our British fire establishments.
The advantages of fire insurance are too prominent to
require any description here. It affords great comfort to
individuals, and often preserves whole families from po¬
verty and ruin. The destruction of a mansion-house, or
the conflagration of a cotton-mill, is a calamity that would
press heavily on even the richest. But when distributed
amongst several individuals, each feels it proportionally
less ; and provided the number of those amongst whom it is
distributed be very considerable, it occasions no sensible in¬
convenience to any one in particular. Hence the advan¬
tage of combining to lessen the injury arising from the
accidental destruction of property ; and it is the diffusion
of the risk of loss over a wide surface, and its valuation,
that forms the employment of those engaged in the busi¬
ness.
II. LIFE ASSURANCE.
The insurance, or assurance on lives, as it is now most
generally termed, is the insurance of a certain sum of
money to be paid in the event of a person named being
alive at a certain time, or dying within a certain time, or
to be paid within a certain time after the death of a per¬
son named, whenever that may happen.
Life assurance is comparatively of recent date in this
country ; for, although the Amicable Society was incorpo¬
rated by charter as early as the reign of Queen Anne, it
was not till the commencement of the present century
that its beneficial effects came to be felt, and that as a
business it was carried to so great an extent. The pre¬
carious dependence of a numerous family upon the life of
a single person naturally induces the desire of seeking
some protection against a calamity which, sooner or later,
must befall them ; and this, probably, suggested the first
idea of insurances upon lives, as an expedient by which
INSURANCE.
311
a necuniary indemnity, at least, might be secured to the
I','} :e. 'fferers, sufficient to rescue them from the poverty and
*V ^stress which otherwise awaited them. All professional
persons, or those living on salaries or wages, such as law¬
yers, physicians, military and naval officers, clerks in pub¬
lic or private offices, &c., whose incomes must of course ter¬
minate with their lives, and many others who are either
not possessed of capital, or cannot dispose of their capital
at pleasure, must naturally be desirous of providing, as far
as they may be able, for the comfortable subsistence of
their families in the event of their death. Take, for ex¬
ample, a physician or lawyer, without fortune, but making
perhaps L.IOOO or L.SOOO a year by his business, and
suppose that he marries and has a family. If this indivi¬
dual attain to the average duration of human life, he may
accumulate such a fortune as will provide for the adequate
support of his family at his death. But who can presume
to say that such will be the case; that he will not form
one of the many exceptions to the general rule ? And
suppose that he were hurried into an untimely grave, his
family would necessarily be destitute. Now it is against
such calamitous contingencies that life assurance is intend¬
ed to provide. An individual possessed of an income
terminating at his death, agrees to pay a certain sum an¬
nually to an insurance office ; and this office binds itself
to pay to his family, at his death, a sum equivalent (under
deduction of the expenses of management and the profits
of the insurers) to what these annual contributions, accu¬
mulated at compound interest, would amount to, suppos¬
ing the insured to reach the common and average term
of human life. Though he were to die the day after the
insurance was effected, his family would be as amply provid¬
ed for, as it is likely they would be by his accumulations,
were his life of the ordinary duration. In all cases, in¬
deed, in which those insured die before attaining an aver¬
age age, their gain is obvious. But even in those cases
in which their lives are prolonged beyond the ordinary
term, they are not losers ; they then merely pay for se¬
curity which they could not otherwise have possessed.
During the whole period from the time when they effect
their insurances, down to the time when they arrive at
the mean duration of human life, they are protected
against the risk of dying without leaving their families
sufficiently provided for; and the sum which they pay
after having passed this mean term, is nothing more than
a fair compensation for the security they previously en¬
joyed.1 To heirs of entail, clergymen, professional men,
men in trade and business, and generally to all liferenters,
life insurance is therefore peculiarly suited. By the same
means also facilities are afforded for raising money on
loan, creditors may in many cases obtain ultimate pay¬
ment of their debts, and provisions in marriage settle¬
ments are secured
Policies of this kind are most frequently granted by com¬
panies, on account of the greater security there is in large
bodies of men, than it is easily possible to be attained by
an individual when the policy may be of long continuance.
The premium of assurance is either a gross sum paid
at once, or a sum paid down on the day that the con¬
tract is made, with an obligation to pay the same sum an¬
nually during the existence of the policy. Ihe latter is
the more general mode of assurance.
When a party is desirous of effecting an assurance, he
receives from the office of the company a printed paper
called a declaration, which he fills up with the name of
the party to be assured, his age, the place and time of his
birth, and place of his present residence, with certain par¬
ticulars as to his health. To corroborate the statement,
references are given to two or more persons well acquaint¬
ed with the party, one of whom must be a medical man. Life
The reasons for these precautions are obvious. Assurance.
When the declaration has been thus completed, the '-T'W'
person by whom the assurance is made makes his appear¬
ance at the office of the company, where he is interrogated
as to the general state of his health, and a minute is enter¬
ed in their books accordingly. The letter of the refe¬
rees, with the declaration, are subsequently laid before the
directors, who, from these documents, and information fre¬
quently derived from other sources, form their decision.
On the payment of the premium a receipt is given, con¬
taining the number of the policy, which is then made out
according to the declaration, signed by a certain number
of directors, and delivered to the other party interested
in it. If the person on whose life the assurance is made
cannot appear before the directors, or any one appointed
by them for that purpose, an additional sum is frequently
charged for non-appearance. There is also a duty to be
paid to government on each policy, in addition to the first
year’s premium ; but the premium only is named in the
policy, as on the future payment of this sum its exist¬
ence depends.
A policy is assignable, and frequently forms a security
for sums advanced, and not unfrequently becomes an ob¬
ject of sale. In these cases the holder of the policy pays
the future premiums, and the advantage of a purchaser
consists in holding a policy at a less premium than he
must have paid at the present age of the party on whose
life the assurance was made. Thus, supposing a policy to
have been granted for the payment of L.IOOO at the death
of a party aged between thirty and thirty-one when the
policy was made ; if sold when the party is between fifty
and fifty-one, the purchaser will have to pay L.26. 2s. 6d.
annually during the existence of the policy; whereas, if
he had taken out a policy at the present age of the party,
his premium would be L.45.11s. 8d.; and for the difference
between these two sums, namely, L.19. 9s. 2d., a price is
fixed on. The public sale of a policy, however, possesses
this disadvantage, that the bidders are frequently unac¬
quainted with the person on whose life the assurance is
made; and, being liable to trouble and expense, toascertain
that he is alive at each payment of the premium, must re¬
quire a deduction on this account, from what they might
otherwise presume to be a compensation for the difference
between the two premiums. Policies are in consequence
sold at very disproportionate prices ; and it is evident, that
a policy must be most valuable to the party insured, and
less so to others, according to their convenience of paying
the premiums, and receiving proper information respect¬
ing the party in wdiose life and death they are interested.
"bn the death of the party on whom the claim depends,
certain documents are required, such as the register of
the burial of the deceased, and references to the medical
persons or others who attended him in his last illness ;
and, if he effected the policy himself, the probate of his
will, or, if it has been assigned to another, a copy of the
assignment. The nature of his death must also be ascer¬
tained ; as, in case of any contravention of the conditions
of assurance, the policy is vitiated. In the interval be¬
tween the notice of the party’s death, and the time assign¬
ed for the payment of the claim, which by most of the
offices is fixed at three months, due investigation is made,
and, every thing being found satisfactory, the claimant
brings with him the policy, and a receipt for the sum
claimed, which is immediately paid.
When a claim is payable in the event of a person being
alive at a certain time, his appearance before the direc¬
tors is requisite, or sufficient proof must be given that he
was alive at the time defined by the policy. Policies de-
1 See M‘CuUocii’s Commercial Dictionary, art. Insurance.
INSURANCE.
312
Life pending on a person being alive at a certain time are very
Assurance. rare5 an(J chiefly confined to endowments for children, in
^ which case the payment of a gross sum down, or of an annual
payment till the child attains the age of 14 or 21, secures
to that child, at that age, the sum named in the policy.
For adjusting the premium to be paid according to the
age of the party on whom the assurance is made, tables
of rates have been formed, and those derived from the
registers of mortality at Northampton and Carlisle are in
general adopted. Tables of the duration of human life
have also been made from observations in various other
places; amongst which the most distinguished are those
of De Parcieux, Kerseboom, Aikin, the registers of Swe¬
den, Finland, and London ; and one published within
these few years by the Equitable Society, founded on the
experience of that well-known establishment.
In the formation of these tables, a vulgar error is enter¬
tained, that they are dependent on chance ; for life being
uncertain, every attempt to regulate premiums is of no
avail. It is true that life cannot be reduced to a certain
scale, that is, if a thousand persons are named, it is impossi¬
ble to state how many will die in each year, till the whole
cease to exist. But if the observations are extended over
a very large surface, and very numerous data are collect¬
ed, the most accurate calculations may be made of the
probable duration of any one life.
After a scale of life has been adopted, a table of pre¬
miums is derived from it by strict mathematical calcula¬
tion, and in a very ingenious manner. Suppose the pre¬
mium for a person of a certain age to be known, then the
premium for a person of one year younger, being com¬
pounded of the premium for one year and the present value
of the above premium, is easily calculated from the table of
lives. The rule is this: Multiply the premium on the old¬
est life into the number of persons alive in the tables of that
age, and divide by the number of persons of the younger
age alive in the tables. This sum discounted for a year
gives the premium for assuring the desired sum at the
end of the year. Then multiply the sum to be assured
into the number of persons of the younger age that die
according to the tables in a year, and divide by the num¬
ber of persons alive at that age, and this sum discounted
for a year is the assurance of the sum for the first year,
and, consequently, the two sums added together give the
desired premium. Now, as the oldest person in the
scale of life dies in the ensuing year, the premium on him
is evidently the sum to be paid discounted for one year,
and thence the premium for the age below is ascertained
by the above rule ; and so of every age in succession. No
errors can be committed without detection, as every step
is checked by a similar table drawn out for the value of
an annuity at each age.
In a similar manner, tables are formed for the assur¬
ance of a sum payable at the death of one out of two per¬
sons, or at the death of the survivor of two persons, or at
the death of one on the contingency of his surviving ano¬
ther, and so on.
The above rules give tables of rates for the payment of
a gioss premium ; but as it is generally more convenient
to pay an annual sum equivalent to it, a table of rates is
made for this case, and it is formed by dividing the gross
premium by the value of an annuity upon each age added
to unity. If the annual premium were paid at the end of
the year, the addition of unity would be unnecessary;
but a policy is not granted till one premium is paid, and
hence the necessity of the addition is obvious.
As premiums are settled from a fixed table of observa¬
tions on life, it is evident that, as deaths never happen
exactly in the order prescribed in the tables, there must
arise either a surplus or deficiency of capital for the pay¬
ment of the sums assured. From the care which has hi¬
therto been taken in the choice of lives, and the high pre- j
mium which the offices have been enabled to demand allAss ^
the old establishments have accumulated very large cani. v» J f
tals ; consequently, we believe it has never occurred that ^
the proprietors have been called upon to make up a defi¬
ciency. It is in the management of this capital, or surplus,
that life assurance companies differ. One of them, termed
Proprietary Companies, undertake to pay Jixed sums upon
the death of the individual assuring with them; the profits
made by such companies being wholly divided amongst the
proprietors, their premiums are generally, or at least ought
to be, lower than those of others. Of this class are the
Pelican, Sun, and others, principally of old standing. The
second class of life assurance companies are the Partici¬
pating, which, instead of undertaking, like the former, to
pay certain specified sums upon the death of the assured,
allow the latter to participate, to a certain degree, alon<*
with the proprietors, in the profits made by the business'!
The mode in which this class allot their profits is not the
same in all, as we shall immediately see; but in general their
premiums are somewhat higher than those of the preced¬
ing, and are made to depend in a considerable degree on
the amount of the profits set apart for the insurers. The
Alliance, Guardian, and Rock, as well as a large portion of
the new companies, are of this description ; and latterly a
considerable number of them have united their participat¬
ing with their proprietary business, by publishing different
scales of premiums to suit the wishes and intentions of
individuals assuring. The third class are Mutual Assur¬
ance Companies, of which the Equitable of London is the
groundwork and model. In this sort of company there is
no proprietary body distinct from the assured. The lat¬
ter, after deducting the expense of management, share
amongst themselves the whole profits of the concern; and
therefore, as all the surplus returns to themselves, their
scales of premiums are naturally higher than that of either
of the foregoing.
In the two last classes, where the surplus is made ad¬
vantageous to the assured, either a sum is at certain pe¬
riods added to each policy, or the premium is diminish¬
ed. In both cases, a valuation is made of all the annual
premiums, with the past and future expected accumula¬
tions, and also of the claims upon every policy. It is re¬
quisite, however, that the utmost care should be taken to
secure to each policy the sum named in it, with every ad¬
dition made to it; and hence a certain portion, generally
a third or a fifth, of the surplus is constantly retained to
guard against possible contingencies. This reservation
occasions a singular anomaly in mutual assurance compa¬
nies. In these all are partners, being guarantees to one
another for the payment of their respective claims. The
surplus arising from the excess of premiums, with their
accumulations above the claims, evidently belongs to the
whole of the company, and consequently each partner is
entitled to a portion of it. But of this surplus, a third
or fifth being constantly reserved, and each person at his
death ceasing to be a partner, every person leaves behind
him a portion for his successors. The third or fifth is
therefore, we may say, without an owner; for a partner
has not a right to it during his life, and his heirs or as¬
signees have not a claim to it after his death.
Policies of life assurance must be on stamped paper,
the duty being as follows :
Where the sum in the policy does not exceed
L.50 L.O 2 6
L.50, but not exceeding L.100 0 5 0
WThere it does not amount to L.500 1 0 0
Where it amounts to L.500 and not to L.1000....2 0 0
 1000   3000....3 0 0
   3000   5000....4 0 0
 5000 and upwards ..5 0 0
INSURANCE.
The premiums required by the principal offices are exhibited in the following tables.
'e QO CD CO CD l>
CD 05 O ^ CM CO
r—( i—h
p—i i—i CM CM (M (M
CO CO ^ ^ ^ CO
^>OCOI>C0050i—<(MCO
(■■H p-H r-H
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2>CT5—<‘JO©'^©CO<M'—<
i-H i-H (—(
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p*H pH pH r-H
CMCMCMCMIMCOCOCOCOCO
©COCO©'-i(M!>i—(OCO
r-H r-H
r-H pH pH pH pH
cococococorPH*^'!?'*?
©*Oi>©'^i—i©(MQ0'P
i-H
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1^ © © © CD © ©
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i—|
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pH pH pH pH pH pH pH pH
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pH pp pH pH pH pH
<M<MCM<M<M<MC0C0C0C0
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pH pH
X©C0©Xi-HC0©©(M
p-H p-H r-H i-H i-H
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r-H
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pH pH pH pH pH
^ ^ XO *0 *0 *0 O CD O CO
fltcS 3
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S .-S
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s»DCDCDt^3>CD lOCO^-HrHOOO^HOrH COCOaii-HCDOCDCOOCD ^OCOCO^CDC^COG^CDCO CviGvJrJiGDG^i-H'—
pH pH r-H pH r-H pH pH
.©t>X©©i-H <MXHjtPHj(io©!>X©-H <MCOp^i©t>©©<>}50uO t>©HH<rtif5l>©<Mxf5X i-Hrji{>©H}<j>i-H<®©i^
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© © i> X © ©
pH pH pH pH pH ^
^HOiCO^i-OCDt^GOCiO rHG^oo^^CDl>GDCiO pHC^cO^^OCDt^COO^O pHOiCO^iT5CDI>GOC50
(NC^CNO*f>*CMCv*OiO*CO COCOCOCOCOCOGOCOCO^
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re i> © © © t> X ©©©©©©©©I—1|—I ^©©^©©'^r-HOOJ I—I©XXX©|—<©©l> Xi—(OJxfJi-H©©'—<©©
r-H —H i-H i-H i—1 i-H i-H i-H—H i—< i—I '—I
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VOL. XII,
Participating Offices.
314
INSURANCE.
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INSURANCE.
•e Many of the offices have tables calculated for special
nee. purposes; so that, in one or other of them, any individual
wishing to effect an assurance is certain of having it done
in the way he desires. For instance, the Pelican, amongst
others, has a table of “ Limited Payments,” by which per¬
sons desirous of paying an annual premium for a limited
number of years, instead of one to continue annually du¬
ring life, may do so on the following terms.
315
Age-
Payable for
Five Years.
£6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
19 4
2 2
4 10
7 6
10 3
13 2
15 0
17 0
19
1
3
7
11
15
18 11
2 2
5 6
8 11
12 6
16 5
0 6
13 10
18 8
3 6
9 9
15 11
2 2
8 6
15 1
0 0
5 2
10 8
16 11
3 10
Payable for
Seven Years.
£5
5
5
0
1
1
1
2
4
8
5 17 3
5 18 10
6 0 7
6 2
6 5
6 8
5 10
5 12
5 14
5 15
5
2
2
6 112
6 13 11
6 16 5
6 18 10
1 5
4
7
10
7 13
7 17
8 0
8 4
8 7
8 12
8 17
9 2
9 6 10
9 118
9 15
9 19
10 3
10 8
10 13
Payable for
Ten Years.
£3 17
3 19
8
3
9
3
9
5
6
8
0
3
8
4 13 10
4 16 1
4 18
0
2
4
6
8
4 10
4 11
5 10
5 13
4
6
4
2
2
4
7
1
8
4
0
11
8
3
9
3
0 10
4 6
4
5
9
6
6 10
6 13
6 17
7
7
7 7
7 10
7 13
7 17
8 1 10
Payable for
Fifteen Years,
£2 17
2 18
2 19
3 11
3 13
6
8
9
0
2
5
3
2
2
2
3
11
8
4
0
5
15
16
17 11
19 6
1 1
2 11
4 10
6 9
8 10
4 10 11
4 13 1
4 15 2
4 17 10
0 6
3 2
6 0
8 11
11 3
13 10
16 9
0 1
3 10
The following are the premiums required by the Peli- Life
can for assurances on joint lives and survivorships. Assurance.
Assurances on Joint Lives. '***~y**/
Ages of the
Parties not
exceeding
10
15
20
25
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Annual
Premium.
£2
2
2 13
6 5
9 11
4
2 18 0
3 3 10
3 10 4
3 19 4
9 5
4 10
9 6
3 4
2 13
2 16
3 1
3 6
3 13
4 2
4 12 0
5 7 3
6 12 0
8 5 10
2 19 7
3 3 11
3 9 5
3 15 7
4 4 1
4 14 0
5 9
6 13
8 7
8
13
19
7
17
12
16
8 10
Ages of the
Parties not
exceeding
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
35
40
45
50
55
60
40
45
50
55
60
45
50
55
60
50
55
60
55
60
60
Annual
Premium.
£3 18 1
4 3 8
4 11 9
5 1 0
5 15 8
7 0 0
8 13 8
4 8 9
4 16 4
5 5 1
5 19 8
7 3 3
8 16 8
5 3 4
5 11 4
6 5 0
7 8 0
9 1 5
5 18 5
6 110
7 13 6
9 5 6
7 2 5
8 3 9
9 14 8
9 4 1
10 0 2
12 3 6
Survivorship Assurance.
Age of A, the
Life to be as¬
sured.
10
20
Age of B, the
Life against which
the Assurance is
to be made.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Annual Premium.
£1 3
1 4
1 2
1 1
0 19
0 18 0
0 16 7
0 15 3
1 9 3
1 9 10
1 8 3
1 6 1
1 4 2
1 2 4
3
2
1 0
0 19
Age of A, the
Life to be As¬
sured.
30
40
Age of B, the
Life against which
the Assurance is
to be made.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Annual Premium.
£2 1 6
2 1 2
1 19 2
1 17 7
1 14 6
1 11 6
1 9 1
1 6 9
18
18
14
11
5
1 19
Age of A, the
Life to be as¬
sured.
50
60
Age of B, the
Life against which
the Assurance is
to be made.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Annual Premium.
£4 5 4
4 5 8
4 1 5
3 19 11
3 11 2
3 0 0
2 10 1
2 2 9
7 5 4
7 5 2
7 2 1
7 1 10
6 14 8
6 1 9
5 6 2
4 12 1
316
INSURANCE.
Life Endowments for children attaining the age of fourteen
Assurance, or twenty-one, may also be made by the payment of a spe-
cific sum, or by an annual rate, as follows.
(14.)
Age.
1 Year
2 Years
One Payment.
£57 16 11
60 14 4
Annual Payment.
£5 14
6 7
(21.)
Age.
1 Year
2 Years
3  
4  
5  
6  
7  
8 ......
9  
10  
One Payment.
£43
45
47
11
9
11
1
4
7
49 11 11
51 17 7
54 3
56 10
58 18
61 6
63 15
10
9
2
5
6
Annual Payment.
£3
3
3
3
4
4 14
5 3
13
5
0
11
11
5
6
6
4
4
9
11
4
The advantage to a person assuring in any one office as
compared with another, must plainly depend on a compa¬
rison between the premiums demanded, the conditions ox
the policy, and, above all, the security which it holds out.
Where it is wished to assure on a certain life for a limit¬
ed period, the party having no interest in procuring a
larger sum, in case of death, than the amount assured,
makes his application to that office where he can get it
effected at the lowest premium. Such an office will be a
Proprietary one. The principal advantage of such com¬
panies is, that individuals dealing with them know exactly
what they are about. They know the precise premium they
will have to pay, and the exact amount of the sums that will
accrue to their assignees at their decease. The subscribed
capital of such associations as the Pelican, Sun, Royal Ex¬
change, &c. and the wealth of their partners, afford unques¬
tionable security ; and, unless some very unprecedented and
unlooked-for change in the' condition of the counti y take
place, they may reckon with certainty on the teims of the
policy being fulfilled to the letter. If, on the other hand,
the individual be desirous of leaving as large an amount
as he can afford to assure to his family, and more espe¬
cially if he happen to be a young and a healthy life, he
will generally prefer the conditions of a Participating or a
Mutual Assurance society. The subscribed capital and
fortunes of the former of these afford a guarantee on which
the public may depend, in dealing with any respectable so¬
ciety of this sort; whilst, by receiving a share of the profits,
the assured gain by the flourishing condition of the asso¬
ciation, and it is of less consequence to them though the
premium should be too high.
The whole profits of Mutual Assurance societies being
divided amongst the assured, render such establishments
of very great value, particularly to young lives ; instances
having frequently occurred of more than double the
amount assured on one life being paid at the termination
of a long standing policy in one of these societies. It has^
been objected to them, that every one being a partner of
the concern, has not only his own life assured, but is part
assurer of the lives of all the other members, and may,
in this capacity, incur some serious responsibilities; but
in this there is a material mistake, since it is a stipulation
in the contract of copartnery of every such society, that Li{
the funds of the society alone shall be liable for their loss-Assura
es ; and thus, though there may be a distant possibility of wv
the sums assured not being paid in full, it is directly un¬
dertaken by every individual entering the society, that
no claim shall be made on his account upon any of the
other members. Moreover, when it is considered that the
premiums required by all the assurance companies are very
much higher than the risk demands, and that those of Mu¬
tual Assurance societies are among the highest, there is
little danger, when due precaution is taken in accepting
lives, of any loss being incurred by partaking of the benefits
of this description of society. This will be placed in a still
clearer view by the perusal of the following table from Mr
Babbage’s work on life assurance, exhibiting the profit
per cent, on the premiums of several English offices, on
an assurance on a life aged forty-six, which is about one
year less than the average age of persons assuring.
Alliance... 30‘2
Amicable i 25‘5
British Commercial IS'fi
Crown SS'S
Economic I6‘2
Equitable 29'8
European 21*5
Guardian 25’1
London Assurance 26'7
Medico-Clerical 29‘7
Norwich Union 19'3
Sun 30*9
United Empire 21*9
University 23-2
West of England 16*9
The most important points to be attended to in this de¬
scription of insurance are the following.
1. No life assurance can be effected without an interest
in the life. This was enacted to prevent gambling trans¬
actions, by stat. 14 Geo. III. c. 48, sect. 1, which declares
that “ no insurance shall be made by any person or per¬
sons, bodies politic or corporate, on the life or lives of any
person or persons, or any other event or events whatsoever,
where the person or persons for whose use or benefit, or
on whose account, such policy or policies shall be made,
shall have no interest, or by way of gaining or wagering;
and that every insurance made contrary to the true intent
and meaning of this act shall be null and void to all intents
and purposes whatsoever.” Under this act it has been
found, that though a bonajide creditor has a sufficient in¬
terest in the life of his debtor to enable him to effect a valid
assurance on such life ; still, that in the case of money won
at play, the creditor has not an assurable interest in the life
of the individual who lost the money to him.
2. Life assurances are always assignable; indeed were
they otherwise, assurance on lives would lose much of its
utility. It is an every-day occurrence for a debtor to open
a policy on his own life, and to assign it in security; and
there can be no ground for pleading the extinction of the
policy on his payment of the debt; for the benefit o e
assurance still belongs to him, and he may make it the
means of credit on another occasion, or dispose of it oy
settlement or otherwise. Assignment in sequestration car-
rics a. policy of life assurance; and it the debtor as
cretly disposed of it after his bankruptcy, the person to
whom it has been assigned will be bound to return any
money drawn under it as For the use of the creditors,
the case of Schondler v. Wace, the bankrupt held a po¬
licy upon his own life, which, after bankruptcy, he sola w
Wace for a lottery ticket. He died, and Wace received
the sum assured. The assignees under the commissio
brought an action for recovery, and it was found that tm
INSURANCE.
317
e was a possibility of benefit to which they were entitled, as
Insu ce- part of the bankrupt’s effects; the defendant having a right,
^ however, to deduct his outlay.
3. As the conditions in fire insurance form part of the
contract; so, in life assurance, the declaration made pre¬
viously to the policy being extended, is considered as part
and parcel thereof. In this declaration it is stated that he
whose life is to be assured “has no disorder tending to the
shortening of lifebut this does not imply that he is free
from all complaints, provided he be in a reasonably good
state of health. Nor does it appear to be sufficient evi¬
dence of the tendency of the disorder to shorten life, that
the person had it at a former period, and afterwards died
of it, if free from disease at the time of assuring.
4. The death must happen within a limited time, other¬
wise the assurers are not liable ; and there is no doubt, if
an individual whose life is assured for one year be fatally
wounded during the existence of that policy, but linger
till after the term limited in the contract, that his exe¬
cutors have no claim. When, however, an assurance of this
description exists on a man’s life who goes to sea, and the
vessel in which he sailed is never afterwards heard of, a
question arises for a jury to decide from the circumstances
• produced in evidence.
5. In almost every life policy there are several excep¬
tions in limitation of the risk. These generally are, death
abroad or at sea; entering into naval or military service
\ ' without the previous consent of the company ; death by sui¬
cide ; death by the hand of justice ; and, in some offices,
also death by duelling. The three last, however, do not
apply where the assurance is effected on the life of another.
6. The premium on life assurance is not returnable. If a
► person whose life was assured should commit suicide or
be put to death by the hand of the executioner the next
day after the risk commenced, there would be no return of
premium.
7. Life assurances, when a loss happens upon them,
must be paid according to the tenor of the agreement, in
the full sum assured, as this sort of policy, from its nature,
being on the life or death of man, does not admit of the
distinction between total and partial losses.
III. MARINE INSURANCE.
Most persons are in some degree acquainted with fire
and life insurances; the security which they afford to in¬
dividuals and families is a comfort which no one is willing
to dispense withal. Hence the great increase in modern
times of companies professing to afford this security; and
hence the knowledge on the part of the public generally,
of the nature and principles of the engagements into
which these companies enter. But marine insurance is a
subject of immediate interest only to merchants and ship¬
owners ; and in times of peace it is, even to them, of a
much less engrossing nature than during the bustle and
excitement of a Continental or an American war.
It is used as a means of indemnification for loss or da¬
mage to ships or goods whilst at sea, and that arising ei¬
ther from the elements or the enemy. From its nature
there is no doubt of its being of a much more ancient date
than either of the preceding, its introduction having ge¬
nerally been attributed to the Lombards and Venetians,
the great carrying traders of Europe during the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. On the Continent it
has consequently been longer practised, and is there much
better understood than either hre or life insurance. The fa¬
mous Ordonnance de la Marine of Louis XIV. was publish¬
ed in 1681, and has ever since been a standard work on
this subject. In England there are few positive enact¬
ments to regulate marine insurance, its practice having
been conformed to general principles and the usage of Marine
trade. The endless variety of circumstances connected Insurance,
with it naturally render it a much more abstruse and dif-
ficult subject than any other kind of insurance; and the
numerous points, as sea-worthiness, deviation, capture,
and others, which must be attended to, have from time to
time created a vast variety of most complex and difficult
cases in our law courts. Upon these the laws of British
marine insurance are founded.
The nature of this contract is similar to those of the
other descriptions of insurance. Suppose it has been re¬
marked, that of fifty ships of the ordinary degree of sea¬
worthiness, employed in a given trade, one is on an ave¬
rage annually cast away ; the probability of loss will plain¬
ly be equal to one fiftieth: and if an individual wish to
insure a ship, or the cargo on board a ship, engaged in
this trade, he ought to pay a premium equal to the one
fiftieth part of the sum he insures, exclusively of such an
additional sum as may be required to indemnify the in¬
surer for his trouble, and to leave him a fair profit. If
the premium exceed this sum, the insurer is overpaid ; if
it fall below it, he is underpaid. In this country marine
insurance has always been for the most part effected with
individuals ; and of these the subscribers to Lloyd’s have,
from the extent of their transactions, been long the most
distinguished. When a merchant or ship-owner desires to
effect an insurance, he fills up a blank policy, so as to meet
the particular object in view ; he then hands it to one of
the members of the room, who either rejects it, or under¬
writes for a certain limited sum ; from him it goes to ano¬
ther ; and thus it is handed about until the amount requir¬
ed is complete. Agents are appointed in all the principal
parts of the world, who forward regularlyno Lloyd’s, ac¬
counts of all the arrivals at, and departures from, their ports,
as well as of losses and other casualties, and, in general, all
such information as may be supposed of importance towards
guiding the judgments of the underwriters. In addition
to this, there are annually published certain register
books for shipping, which give an account of the tonnage,
build, age, repairs, and quality of almost all the vessels
that frequent our ports; and which, though in many re¬
spects defective, are material assistants to the insurers.
Besides the subscribers to Lloyd’s, there are many weal¬
thy individuals, both in London and in all the consider¬
able sea-ports of the kingdom, who underwrite policies of
marine insurance. As these cannot be personally known
to many of the ship-owners, a set of middle-men, or brok¬
ers, have arisen, whose business it is to receive orders for
insurance, who apply to the persons they suppose most
likely to cover the risks; and also become responsible for
them being effected with accuracy and celerity.
Many of the inconveniences attending this mode of
effecting insurance, particularly in the saving of time,
are obviated when the business is transacted with a com¬
pany. In such a case, the party having property to insure
goes directly to the manager of the company, and states
the particulars of the risk to be insured; when the premium
is agreed on, the manager writes out a memorandum of the
policy, which the party signs, and he is thus effectually
insured before he leaves the office. The security afforded
by such companies is also of infinite importance to the in¬
sured ; severe and heavy losses having frequently occur¬
red, from the bankruptcy or inability of individual under¬
writers. The Royal Exchange, Alliance Marine, Indem¬
nity Mutual Marine, and London Assurance, are the prin¬
cipal companies for marine insurance in the metropolis;
and, as well as the private underwriters mentioned above,
there are similar establishments, though on a smaller scale,
in most of the large sea-ports of the empire.
With respect to the rates of premium charged for ma¬
rine insurance, it is self-evident that these will vary ac-
318
INSURANCE.
Marine cording to the seasons, the quality of the vessel, the
Insurance, known character of the captain, the nature of the com-
modity, and the state of our political relations. Of these
no comprehensive table could be constructed, and there¬
fore they come naturally to be regulated very much by ]\jar
general experience and particular information. All poli-Insur
cies of marine insurance must be on stamped paper, the ^
duties on which are as follows, viz.
On coasting voyages, when the premium does not exceed twenty shillings per cent. L.O 1 3
Ditto, when the premium is above twenty shillings per cent 0 2 6
On foreign voyages, when the premium does not exceed fifteen shillings per cent 0 1 3
Ditto, when the premium does not exceed thirty shillings per cent 0 2 6
Ditto, when the premium is above thirty shillings per cent 0 5 0
When reckoned by time, two shillings and sixpence per cent, is charged when under three months, and five shil¬
lings when the voyage exceeds that period.
It would be quite foreign to the purpose of the present
work were we to enter upon the legal details of marine
insurance. On this point the standard English authors,
Park and Marshall, and the work of the learned professor
of Scotch Law, Mr Bell, afford every possible information.
We shall merely take notice of the following circumstan¬
ces to be attended to in the contract.
1. The name of the insured or his agent is required by
statute. By 28 Geo. III. c. 65, it is enacted, that it shall
not be lawful for any person or persons to make or effect,
or cause to be made or effected, any policy of insurance
upon any ship, without first inserting, or causing to be
inserted, in such policy or policies of insurance, the name
or names, or the usual style and firm of dealing, of one
or more of the persons interested in each insurance. This
was required to remedy the evil of policies being issued
in which the name of the insured was purposely left
blank.
2. The names of the ship and master are necessary to
identify the subject-matter of the policy ; for whether it
be ship, or freight, or goods, the risk attaches itself to a
particular bottom. The place and time at which the risk
is to commence and terminate are obviously requisite par¬
ticulars ; but the subject of the insurance is the essential
part or sine qua non of the contract, for there must be no
room to question what property is really put in risk.
3. The policy must be subscribed or underwritten with
the names of the several insurers, each adding to his name
the sum for which he is liable ; and this may be done by
a procurator acting under either express or tacit delegation.
No witnesses are required.
4. The insured are under certain obligations in respect
to representation and warranty of the facts whereon the
undertaking of indemnity is grounded. Insurance being a
contract of faith, in which the insurer is to rely for the
most part on the statement of the insured, his represen¬
tation of the facts must be fair and open; there must be
no misrepresentation, no false insinuation, no conceal¬
ment of circumstances material to the risk. Warranty,
again, is an absolute condition expressed or implied, re¬
lative to the state or circumstances of the subject insured,
which, if not true, or not complied with, defeats the in¬
surance, whether material to the risk or not. A warranty
may be affirmative, as that a ship was safe on a particular
day; or promissory, that the ship will proceed with the
convoy, or sail on a day certain; express, as that the ship
is to sail on a day certain, or that she was on a certain
day safe in harbour; or implied, including all those con¬
ditions relative to the risk which necessarily enter into
the conception of the contract, as that the ship is sea¬
worthy, that the voyage is lawful, that there shall be no
deviation, and so on.
5. Policies are of two kinds, valued and open. By the
former, the value of the subject insured is fixed by agree¬
ment of the parties, so that when a loss occurs, the value
stated in the policy regulates the settlement, without re¬
gard to the original cost or invoice of the subject insured.
By the latter the value is left open, and in case of loss
the assured must adduce evidence of his interest, and he
recovers indemnification only to the actual extent of his
loss. In the settlement of a loss under an open policy,
the ship is valued at what she was worth at the time of
sailing, including her stores; the freight, at the amount
which she would have earned according to the charter-
party ; and the cargo, at the invoice price, including the
premium of insurance, and all charges.
6. Losses may be said to be of three kinds ; total, ge¬
neral average, and partial loss. The former consists not
solely in the entire destruction of the subject insured, but
in such damage as to render it of little or no value to the
owner, or at least to frustrate the adventure the securing
of which was the object of the insurance.
When the total loss is manifest and undoubted, as where
a ship is lost and is never heard of again, it falls directly
upon the underwriter; but where any thing remains, the
claim for loss must be accompanied by abandonment,
which is a renunciation to the underwriter of all right,
title, and claim to what may be saved, leaving it to him
to make the most of it for his own benefit. In abandoning,
the insured must make up his mind tempestive ; but he is
not bound to do so till he has an opportunity of receiving
correct information. The common custom now-a-days, in
paying such losses, is for the underwriter to settle for a
certain per-centage, retaining a sum equivalent to the
probable proceeds, leaving the insured to recover the sav¬
ings, and settling the balance of the loss when these are
ascertained.
General average is constituted by the voluntary sacri¬
fice of the ship’s materials, or part of the cargo, or when
charges are incurred for the general benefit, such as the
cutting from anchors and cables to avoid a lee shore, jet-
son of part of the cargo to lighten the vessel, expen¬
ses of taking the ship off the strand, &c.; in which, and
all similar cases, the loss and expenses are borne by ship,
cargo, and freight, in proportion to their respective values
saved.
Partial loss, or, as it is in general termed, particular
average, means a loss or damage by unavoidable accidents,
not amounting to a total loss. Under it is included da¬
mage to the ship by stranding, by unavoidable collision
with another vessel, damage to the hull, boats, masts, or
other parts, by a stroke of the sea, by lightning, acciden¬
tal fire, &c. These, and such like, are of the nature of
particular average on the ship ; but the springing of a
leak at sea, or the splitting of sails, or the parting of a
cable, and similar damages, are held to be the ordinary
wear and tear of the ship, and which the owner cannot re¬
cover from the underwriter.
Particular average on the cargo means damage by sea¬
water, fire, or any accident which the care of the master
and crew could not prevent. (See article Average.)
7. The mode of settlement after the damage is ascer¬
tained is likewise an important subject.
In adjusting a partial loss on a ship, it is usual to deduct one
third from the new materials and labour, except on certain ar¬
ticles, unless the ship or the materials injured were perfectly
I N T
lios new. When the loss is on cargo, it is settled either by tak-
n ing the invoice price and deducting the nett proceeds of
Ir est- sale of the damaged goods, or by comparing the amount
^ 0f sales of the damaged goods with a pro forma account
of sales of the same articles if they had arrived in a sound
state. The former of these, termed a salvage loss, is the
mode of adjustment where the goods required to be sold
INTAGLIOS, precious stones, on which are engraved
the heads of great men, inscriptions, and the like ; such
as we frequently see set on rings, seals, and other orna¬
mental articles.
INTEGER, in Arithmetic, a whole number, in contra¬
distinction to a fraction.
INTEGRAL, or Integrant, in Philosophy, appella¬
tions given to parts of bodies which are of a similar nature
with the whole. Thus filings of iron have the same na¬
ture and properties as bars of iron.
Bodies may be reduced into their integrant parts by
triture or grinding, limation or filing, solution, amalgama¬
tion, and other processes.
Integral Calculus, in the new analysis, is the reverse
of the differential calculus, and is the finding of the in¬
tegral from a given differential, being similar to the in¬
verse method of fluxions. See Fluxions.
INTELLECT, a term used amongst philosophers to
signify that faculty of the soul usually called the under¬
standing. See Logic and Metaphysics.
INTEND ANT, one who has the conduct, inspection,
and management of any thing.
INTENDMENT, in Law, is the intention, design, or
true meaning, of a person or thing, which frequently sup¬
plies what is not fully expressed ; but though the intention
of parties in deeds and contracts is much regarded by the
law, yet it cannot take place against the rules of law.
Intendment of Crimes. This, in case of treason, where
the intention is proved by circumstances, is punishable in
the same manner as if it had actually been put in execution.
INTENT, in the civil law, signifies to begin or com¬
mence an action or process.
INTEN riON, in Physics, the increase of the power or
energy of any quality, as heat or cold, by which it stands
opposed to remission, which signifies its decrease or di¬
minution.
Intention, in Metaphysics, denotes an exertion of the
intellectual faculties with more than ordinary vigour,
when the mind earnestly fixes its view on any idea, con¬
siders it on all sides, and cannot be called off by any so¬
licitation.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the odd day
inserted in leap-year; which was so called from calo, ca-
lare, to proclaim, it being proclaimed with a loud voice by
the priests.
INTERCESSION {intercessid) was used in ancient
I N T 319
short of the port of destination, and where it was conse- Interces-
quently impossible to refer to the market price of that port, sor
as in the second instance. The latter method avoids in- H
volving the underwriters in a falling or rising market; the
market price of the sound and of the damaged commo-
dities being said to be the scales in which to weigh the
depreciation.
Rome for the act of a tribune of the people, or other ma¬
gistrate, by which he inhibited the acts of other magis¬
trates ; and even, in the case of the tribunes, the decrees of
the senate. Veto was the solemn word used by the tribunes
when they inhibited any decree of the senate, or law pro¬
posed to the people. The general principle of these in¬
tercessions was, that any magistrate might inhibit the acts
of his equal or inferior ; but the tribunes had the sole pre¬
rogative of controlling the acts of every other magistrate,
yet could not themselves be controlled by any.
INTERCESSOR (from inter and cedo, I go between),
a person who prays, expostulates, or intercedes, in behalf
of another. In the Roman law, intercessor was the name
of an officer, whom the governors of provinces appointed
principally to raise taxes and other duties.
Intercessor is also a term which was heretofore ap¬
plied to such bishops as, during the vacancy of a see, ad¬
ministered the bishopric till a successor to the deceased
prelate had been elected. The third council of Carthage
calls these interventors.
INTERCOLUMN IATION, in Architecture, denotes
the space between two columns, which is always propor¬
tioned to the height and bulk of the columns.
INTERCOSTAL, in Anatomy, an appellation given to
such muscles, nerves, arteries, and veins, as lie between
the ribs.
INTERDICT, an ecclesiastical censure, by which the
church of Rome forbids the performance of divine service
in a kingdom, province, or town. This censure has fre¬
quently been enforced in France, Italy, and Germany; and,
in the year 1170, Pope Alexander III. put all England
under an interdict, forbidding the clergy to perform any
part of divine service, except baptizing infants, taking
confessions, and giving absolution to dying penitents. But
this censure being liable to the evil consequences of pro¬
moting libertinism and a neglect of religion, the succeed¬
ing popes have very seldom had recourse to it.
There was also an interdict of persons, who were de¬
prived of the benefit of attending at divine service. Par¬
ticular persons were also anciently interdicted the use of
fire and water, which signified a banishment for some par¬
ticular offence. By this censure no person was permitted
to receive them, or allow them the use of fire or water;
and being thus wholly deprived of the two necessary ele¬
ments of life, they were doubtless under a sentence of
proscription.
R
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INTEREST
rfm-ls the sum which the borrower of a capital obliges him- became scarce, and fall as it became more plentiful. Mr
ated se^t0 pay t? the lender for its used Hume was the first to point out the fallacy of this opinion,*
e re- Formerly it was universally believed that, in the event of and to show that the rate of interest is not determined by
i be- all legislative enactments fixing and regulating the rate of the amount of the currency, but by the average rate of
a the interest being repealed, its increase or diminution would profit derived from the employment of capital. No doubt
il and p en^ wk°% on the comparative scarcity or abundance it most frequently happens that, when a loan is made, it
ower ° money 5 or, in other words, that it would rise as money is made in the currency of the country. This, however,
iploy. -  
. a(^ " — _____  —
l^e" ^'Un caPlia^ Prete; ou bien, en termes plus exacts, achat des services productifs que peut rendre un capital. (Say,
p. 480, ed. 4me.
See his Essay on Interest.
320
INTEREST.
Interest, is really of no consequence. There is obviously no dif-
’w-y'-w ference between one individual furnishing another with 100
bushels of corn, to be repaid at the expiration of a twelve-
month by the delivery of 104 or 105 bushels, or with as
much money at four or five per cent, as would have pur¬
chased the corn. Besides, it is easy to perceive that the
same identical sum of money might serve to negotiate
an infinity of loans. Suppose A lends to X L.1000,
which X immediately pays away to B for commodities
of equal value; but B has no use for the money, and he
therefore lends it to Y, who pays it away for commo¬
dities to C, who again lends it to Z, and so on ; it is
plain the borrowers X, Y, Z, have really received a loan of
commodities, or capital, from the lenders A, B, C, worth
three times (and it might have been worth three hundred
or three thousand times) as much as the money employed
in settling the transactions. According as the supply of
currency, compared with the business it has to perform, is
greater or less, we are obliged to give a greater or less
number of guineas or livres, pound notes or assignats, for
the commodities we wish to obtain. It is plainly, how¬
ever, by the advantage or profit we expect to derive from
the acquisition of the commodities which constitute capi¬
tal, and not from the accidental, and, in this respect, un¬
important, circumstance of a larger or smaller number of
pieces of gold or silver, or of bits of engraved paper, being
given for them, that the rate of interest, or the compensa¬
tion given to the lender for the use of his stock, must be
determined. It may perhaps be supposed, that when the
quantity of metallic money is increased, goldsmiths, jewel¬
lers, &c. obtain the raw material for carrying on their busi¬
ness with greater facility ; but this is not always the case,
and, though it were, it would not affect the rate of interest.
No coins are ever sent to the melting pot unless when the
currency is either degraded or depreciated; that is, unless
it be deficient in weight, or relatively redundant in quanti¬
ty. And it is clear that the inducement to promise a high
or low rate of interest for loans of metallic money, which
it was intended to work up into some species of manufac¬
tured goods, would depend, not on the supply of such mo¬
ney, but on the profit to be derived from the operation, a
circumstance totally unconnected with the scarcity or abun¬
dance of coin.
It appears, therefore, that the rate of interest, at any
given period, depends exclusively on the supply of real dis¬
posable capital, such as land, machinery, raw and manufac¬
tured products, &c. compared with the power of profitably
employing it. An increase of metallic money adds only
very inconsiderably, and an increase of paper money adds
nothing whatever, to the real capital of the country, or to
the material of which all loans are really composed. If an
increase of paper money was equivalent to an increase of
capital, bank notes could not be too much multiplied, and
France would have been about twenty times as rich at the
era of the assignats as at this moment. It is not denied
that considerable mischief and derangement must always
be experienced in a highly manufacturing and commercial
country like Great Britain, when any sudden check is given
to the facility with which discounts are generally obtained,
or when the currency is suddenly contracted. But the
frottement and inconvenience occasioned by a contraction
of the currency could only be temporary. It is impossi¬
ble it could have any lasting effect on the industry of the
country. We should still possess the same amount of real
capital; and as neither its productive power, nor the liber¬
ty to transfer it from one individual to another, would be
at all impaired, the real revenue of the state would continue
as great as ever, and the same or a greater amount of stock
might be disposed of by way of loan. Money prices would ln ^
certainly fall proportionally to the reduction of the cur- ^
rency; or, which is the same thing, tiie value of commodi¬
ties would henceforth have to be ascertained by comparing
them with a smaller number of bits of gold or paper. But,
in every other respect, the business of society would con¬
tinue exactly on its former footing; and, without some
change in the rate of profit, on which fluctuations in the
value of money have almost no effect, the rate of interest
would continue invariable.
Mr Ricardo has set this principle in a clear and strik¬
ing point of view. “ The rate of interest,” he observes, in
answer to those who had contended that it would be in¬
creased by a diminution of the discounts of the Bank of
England, “ is not regulated by the rate at which the bank
will lend, whether it be five, four, or three per cent., but
by the rate of profit which can be made by the employ¬
ment of capital, and which is totally independent of the
quantity and of the value of money. Whether a bank
lend one million, ten millions, or a hundred millions, they
would not permanently alter the market rate of interest;
they would alter only the value of the money which they
thus issued. In one case ten or twenty times more mo¬
ney might be required to carry on the same business, than
what might be required on the other. The applications
to the bank for money, then, depend on the comparison
between the rate of profits that may be made by the em¬
ployment of it, and the rate at which they are willing to
lend it. If they charge less than the market rate of inte¬
rest, there is no amount of money which they might not
lend ; if they charge more than that rate, none but spend¬
thrifts and prodigals would be found to borrow of them.
We accordingly find, that when the market rate of interest
exceeds the rate of five per cent, at which the bank uni¬
formly lend, the discount office is besieged with applicants
for money ; and, on the contrary, when the market rate is
even temporarily under five per cent., the clerks of that
office have no employment.”1
It is foreign to the object of this article to enter into
any detailed examination of the causes which tend to ele¬
vate or depress the rate of profit. Whatever diversity of
opinion may be entertained respecting them, it is abun¬
dantly evident that the fate of interest afforded for the use
of borrowed capital must be proportional to the profits
which might be derived from its employment. In the
United States, the market rarte of interest varies from ten
to fourteen per cent.; and in Holland, previously to the
invasion of the French in 1794, it did not exceed two or
three per cent. The immense extent of fertile and uncul¬
tivated land in America, the lowness of taxation, and the
absence of all restrictive regulations, naturally occasion
high profits, and consequently high interest; whilst the
sterility and limited extent of the soil of Holland, the ex¬
cessive load of taxes, laid equally on necessaries and luxu¬
ries, and the injudicious restraints imposed upon various
brandies of commerce, by rendering it impossible to de¬
rive large returns from capital, proportionally sink the
rate of interest. Had the soil of Holland been as fertile,
and taxation as light, as in the United States, profits and
interest would, notwithstanding the abundant supply of ca¬
pital, have been equally high in the one republic as in the
other. It is not by the absolute amount of the stock of a
country, but by the comparative facilities for its advanta¬
geous employment, that the compensation or interest which
a borrower can afford for its use must always be regulated.
Previously to the termination of the late war, the market
rate of interest in this country, for sums which could not
be immediately demanded, fluctuated from five to twelve
1 Ricardo’s Principles of Political Economy, 1st edit. p. 511.
INTEREST.
321
jSt. per cent. It has since fallen to four or five per cent.;
a decline which has not certainly been occasioned by any
sudden increase of capital, but by the extraordinary de¬
pression of commerce, and the consequent impossibility of
investing stock so as to yield as large a profit as it did du¬
ring the period when we engrossed almost the whole trade
of the world.
fin. Besides such variations as are proportional to varia-
ra- tions in the general and average rate of profit, and which
^•equally alfect all loans, the rate of interest must vary ac-
^ie cording to the degree of security afforded for the repayment
01 of the principal, and the duration of the loan. No capita-
pthe list would lend on the personal security of a gunpowder
al manufacturer, and on mortgage over a valuable estate, at
:<iu-the same rate of interest. The extraordinary hazard of
the gunpowder trade exposes the stock invested in it to an
n‘ extreme degree of risk. It may be dissipated in an in¬
stant, and the power of the borrower to refund the capi¬
tal he had borrowed annihilated for ever. A lender of
money on mortgage is almost entirely relieved from such
contingencies. The owner of an estate on which a loan
is secured may become bankrupt; but the estate itself
will remain, and may either be sold or taken possession of
by the lender. It is plain, therefore, that there must be a
very great difference in the rate of interest paid by those
whose security for the repayment of the principal is so
exceedingly different. The gunpowder manufacturer, be¬
sides paying a rate or per-centage equivalent to the com¬
mon and average rate of interest derived from the most
secure investments, would have to pay an additional rate,
which, although it might not be designated by that name,
would really constitute a premium of insurance proportion¬
ed to the greater risk to which the lender was exposed of
losing his principal. The preferable security offered by
the landholder would relieve him from the necessity of
paying any considerable premium, or excess of interest, on
account of risk ; and of course he would be able to borrow
at so much less than the manufacturer. We should mis¬
take, however, if we supposed that the latter was thus
placed in a comparatively disadvantageous situation. He
would be completely indemnified for the greater risk to
which his stock was exposed, and for the higher rate of in¬
terest which he was in consequence obliged to pay, by the
greater gross profits he would derive from his business.
The constantly operating principle of competition will not
permit, taking every thing into account, a greater nett pro¬
fit to be permanently derived from one department of in¬
dustry than from another. But those who invest their
stock in employments of more than ordinary hazard, must
be able to dispose of their produce at such a price as will
yield them the common and average rate of profit, besides
affording a surplus adequate to insure their stock against
the extra risk to which it is exposed. If this were not the
case, no capitalist would place his property in a state of
comparative danger, and no undertakings of a hazardous
nature would be entered into. Wherever there is risk,
that risk must be compensated. And it may, and very
frequently does, happen, that the manager of a hazardous
branch of industry, paying from ten to twenty per cent,
for borrowed capital, is realizing a larger nett profit than
the landlord who has purchased an estate with money for
which he only pays three or four per cent.1
But supposing the securities to be equal, capital lent for Interest.
short periods, or in such a way that the lender may obtain
possession of it at pleasure., will always bring a lower rate
of interest than capital lent for a considerable or definite
period. No borrower could afford to pay so high a rate of
interest for a capital whose productive services he might be
deprived of in an instant, and which he could not there*
fore venture to invest in any employment from which it
might not be easily withdrawn, as for a capital lent for a
fixed period, especially if that period was of considerable
length. But here, as in every other case, the real interests
of the borrower and lender coincide. The same circum¬
stances which prevent a borrower from giving as high a
rate of interest for a loan payable on demand as if it were
payable at a fixed and distant term, induces the lender to
rest satisfied with a smaller compensation in the one case
than in the other. We wish to be able to exercise a com¬
plete command over our capital. No merchant would ever
consent to lend his stock on mortgage. If he did, he would
no longer be able to carry on his business with advantage.
He would be deprived of all power of speculating; and al¬
though this might in many instances be for his advantage,
yet the flattering opinion which every one entertains of his
own abilities and good fortune would but seldom allow him
to doubt of its being a very material disadvantage. It is by
this principle that we are able to account for the compa¬
ratively low rate of interest at which banking companies
who pay the sums deposited with them on demand, and
governments whose circumstances are perfectly desperate,
are able to borrow. A stockholder’s mortgage (his claim
on the revenue of the country) can be immediately con¬
verted into cash at the current prices. And, however
much the majority of the public creditors may be impress¬
ed with a conviction of the inability of the state to dis¬
charge all the claims upon it, every particular individual,
confident in his own good fortune, foresight, and acute¬
ness, flatters himself with the idea that he, at least, will be
able to predict the coming tempest, and that he mil be
able to sell out before a national bankruptcy.
Instead, however, of leaving the rate of interest to be Interfe-
adjusted by the unfettered competition of the borrowers rence of
and lenders, on the principles we have thus briefly ex-Sover^"
plained, the governments of most countries have inter- ^nt
fered, either to prohibit the taking interest altogether, or th'erate^of
to fix certain rates which it was declared legal to exact, at interest,
the same time that any excess over these rates was de¬
clared to be usury, and prohibited under the severest
penalties. In the rude and unenlightened ages in which
these enactments had their origin, the precious metals,
then the only species of money, were considered as unin¬
fluenced by the same principles which regulate the value
of other products. Being used both as standards where¬
by to ascertain the comparative value of different commo¬
dities, and as the equivalents lor which they were most
frequently exchanged, they acquired a factitious import¬
ance, not merely in the estimation of the vulgar, but in
that of persons of the greatest discernment. The simple
consideration that all buying and selling is really nothing
more than the bartering of one commodity for another,
of a certain quantity of corn or beef, for example, for
a certain quantity of gold or silver, and vice versa, was
entirely overlooked. The attention was gradually trans-
distinrHv 6 l0St °f in barSaininS for loans-. In Athens, the rate of interest was not regulated by law ; and it is
With the rmfntri°ned-?'V f111}?18’.that rate of lfterest Paid by those who employed their stock in the shipping trade
thirty ner ^r l ,°n the Lux,me.and Mediterranean Seas amounted, on account of the hazard of the voyage, to about
noticing i VV U f bankers’ agriculturists, and others, whose security was preferable, paid only about twelve per cent. Say, in
Sicilv fact’ s”PPoses that the thlrty Per cent- was charged by the voyage; and that, as two voyages to the Crimea or
be the lenff ac an!1Ually’ marlUme interest really amounted at Athens to sixty per cent. There does not, however, appear to
iv. n ,thl8 ass®rtlon- lt 15 the average annual rate of interest that is always spoken of. (Travels of Anacharsis, vol.
P- «, bng. Transl.; Be Pauw, Recherches sur les Grecs, tom. i. p. 287 ; Say, tom. ii. p, 132.)
VOi,. Xil. r y
2 S
322
INTEREST.
Interest, ferred from the money’s worth to the money itself; and
the wealth of states and of individuals came to be mea¬
sured, not by the abundance of their disposable produce,
by the quantity or value of the commodities with which
they could afford to purchase the precious metals, but
by the quantity of these metals actually in their possession.
Because it sometimes happened that the holders of ordi¬
nary commodities were unable easily to dispose of them
at any price, whilst money was always sure to find a ready
and advantageous market, it was considered as something
mysterious, as a real marchandise par excellence. We can¬
not, therefore, be surprised at the measures to which the
erroneous opinions entertained respecting it necessarily
led; or that efforts should have been made to protect the
interests of those who were unprovided with so power¬
ful an instrument, from becoming a prey to the encroach¬
ments of their more fortunate neighbours. Every indi¬
vidual was allowed freely to dispose of his corn, cattle,
land, &c.; but it was imagined there was something pe¬
culiar in money, and that the desire to obtain it was so
great, that, unless the lenders were restrained in their de¬
mands, they would, by taking advantage of the necessi¬
ties of the borrowers, infallibly ruin them, and engross
the whole property of the country.
Another source of the prejudice against stipulating for
interest must be sought for in the dislike so universally
entertained in remote ages to accumulation. There can
be no accumulation without economy, without a saving
of income; and this was then not only considered as in¬
dicative of a sordid and avaricious disposition, but as
being positively hurtful. Before the nature and functions
of capital were properly understood, it was believed that
it could not be increased otherwise than by injuriously ab¬
stracting a portion of the national revenue, and that any
advantage it might give to the proprietor must have been
obtained at the public expense. It did not occur to our
ancestors, that an individual who, by his economy, has
accumulated stock, has really added to the wealth of the
state, without diminishing that of others ; nor were they
aware that this stock, when afterwards expended, as is
almost always the case, in the support of productive in¬
dustry, would afford the means of producing an increased
income. But reckoning, as they did, the savings of indi¬
viduals as so much withdrawn from the public income, it
was natural enough that they should endeavour to limit
the advantage to be derived from their employment.
Much, also, of the prejudice against bargaining for in¬
terest, so prevalent in the middle ages, may be traced to
the authority of some texts of Scripture, which were un¬
derstood entirely to prohibit its exaction. It has, how¬
ever, been shown, that these texts will not really bear
this interpretation; but, supposing that they did, nothing,
it is plain, could be more absurd than to consider the mu¬
nicipal regulations of a people placed in such peculiar cir¬
cumstances as the Jews, as general and fixed principles,
applicable in all ages and countries.
The at- But, whatever may have been the causes of the efforts
tempts to so generally made to regulate and limit the rate of interest,
limit the jt js certain that, so far from succeeding in their object,
teiest in- ^ave a Prec^ely opposite effect. Should a bor-
stead of re-rower ^ ^or his advantage to offer six, seven, or
ducing, eight per cent, for a loan (and unless it were for his ad-
have con- vantage, nothing could possibly induce him to make such
trihuted to an offer), what right has the legislator to interfere, and to
raise it. prohibit the lender from receiving, and the borrower from
paying, more than four or five per cent. ? Such an inter¬
ference is not only uncalled for and unnecessary, but it
is, in the highest degree, prejudicial. Restrictive laws,
instead of reducing, have uniformly contributed to raise
the rate of interest. Nor is this any thing more than
might have been foreseen and expected. It is plain that
no law can be so framed as to prevent a borrower from of- Inter
fering a higher rate of interest than what is fixed by sta- 1
tute; and if the lender had implicit confidence in the
secrecy and solvency of the borrower, he might accom-
modate him with the sum wanted, without requiring any
additional interest or premium of insurance because of the
danger of entering into what the law declares to be an
illegal transaction. But this must be a very rare case.
Gratitude, and a sense of benefits received, are, unfortu¬
nately, when they come into contact with self-interest,
but slender securities for honourable conduct. Number¬
less unforeseen events occur to weaken and dissolve the
best cemented friendships; and a transaction of this kind
would undoubtedly afford an additional source of jealou¬
sies and divisions. In such matters, indeed, men are
more than usually sharp-sighted, and are very little dis¬
posed to trust to moral guarantees for the security of their
property. But neither the threatenings of the law, nor
the powerful inducements which it holds out to dishonest
debtors to break their engagements, and treacherously to
recede from the stipulations to which they had agreed,
have been able to prevent, or even greatly to lessen, what
are termed usurious bargains. Their only effect has been,
to oblige the lender to demand, and the borrower to bind
himself to pay, a higher rate of interest than would other¬
wise have been required. A bargain for more than the
statute rate of interest being declared illegal, the lender
is thus exposed to an additional risk. But no person will
gratuitously place his fortune in a situation of compara¬
tive hazard; and, therefore, the sum necessary to cover
this risk must be proportioned to the greater or less
anxiety on the part of government to prevent and punish
such bargains; or, in other words, the rate of interest is
invariably increased according as the laws intended to re¬
duce it become more severe, and diminished according as
they are relaxed.
Thus a capitalist might be inclined to lend a sum at six or
seven per cent.; but as the law declares that any individual
who shall stipulate for more than five per cent, shall, if de¬
tected, forfeit three times the principal, it is clear, provided
there was no method of defeating this statute, that there
must be an end of all borrowing, except when the market
rate of interest was below the statutory rate. Whenever
it was above that rate, no person would be able to obtain
a single farthing in the way of loan. There could, then, be
no transference of capital. It would continue locked up
in the same hands; and the national property and welfare
would, in consequence, suffer severely. Luckily, however,
the mutual interest and ingenuity of borrowers and lenders
have always proved an overmatch for the enactments of
the law. These have done nothing but fetter the trans¬
ference of stock, and force the borrowers to pay a higher
rate of interest for it. What might have been borrowed
at six per cent., had there been no hazard from anti-usu¬
rious statutes, is, on account of that hazard, raised to per¬
haps eight or even ten per cent.; and, what is still worse, a
contempt for the institutions of society, and a habit of car¬
rying on business in a secret and underhand manner, are
generated. The odium which attaches to a positively per¬
nicious regulation, weakens the respect which would other¬
wise be felt for those which are acknowledged to be ad¬
vantageous ; and that spirit of frankness, openness, and
sincerity, which, wherever it predominates, is so highly va¬
luable, is cramped in its development, or altogether sup¬
planted, by duplicity, extortion, and cunning. ,
These conclusions do not rest on theory only, but are Mb ^
supported by a constant and uniform experience.
Rome, during the period of the republic, the ordinary ^
rate of interest was excessively high. The debtors, or
plebeians, were every now and then threatening to de¬
prive their creditors, who were generally of the patrician
INTEREST. 323
>st. order, not only of the interest of their capital, but of the
principal itself. Repeated instances occurred to show
that these were not mere empty threats; and the patri¬
cians were therefore obliged to indemnify themselves,
by means of a corresponding premium, for the risks to
which they were exposed. “ Des continuels change-
ments,” says Montesquieu, “ soit par des loix, soit par
des plebiscites, naturaliserent a Rome I’usure; car les
creanciers, voyant le peuple leur debiteur, leur legisla-
teur, et leur juge, n’eurent plus de confiance dans les
contrats. Le peuple, comme un debiteur decredite, ne
tentoit a lui preter que par desgrosprofits; d’autant plus
que, si les loix ne venoient que de temps en temps, les
plaintes du peuple etoient continuelles, et intimidoient
toujours les creanciers. Cela fit que tous les moyens
honnetes de preter et d’emprunter furent abolis a Rome,
et qu’une usure affreuse, toujours foudroyee, et toujours re-
naissa7ite, s'y etablit. Le mal venoient de ce que les choses
n’avoient pas ete menages. Les loix extremes dans le
bien font naitre le mal extreme : il fallut payer pour le
pret de Vargent, et pour le danger des peines de la loi.”
(Esprit des Loix, livre xxii. chap. 21.)
In Mahommedan countries, notwithstanding the posi¬
tive prohibition in the Koran, the ordinary rate of interest
is at least ten or twenty times as high as its ordinary rate
in Europe. “ L’usure augmente dans les pays Maho¬
metans d proportion de la severite de la defense: le preteur
s’indemnise du peril de la contravention.” (Esprit des Loix,
liv. xxi. ch. 19.)
> During the middle ages, the average rate of profit
s could not be much higher than at present: “But the
clamour and persecution raised against those who took
interest for the use of money was so violent, that they were
obliged to charge it much higher than the natural price,
which, if it had been let alone, would have found its level,
in order to compensate for the opprobrium, and frequently
the plunder, which they suffered ; and hence the usual
rate of interest was what we should now call most exorbi¬
tant and scandalous usury.”1 The extraordinary risks to
which lenders were exposed rendered the premium of insu¬
rance on all sorts of capital excessively high ; for, of the
fifty and even a hundred per cent, which borrowers then
frequently engaged to pay as interest, not more than eight
or ten per cent, can properly be said to have been given
for the productive services of capital. The rest must be
considered as a bonus, to compensate the lender for the
hazard he encountered of losing the principal itself.2
ance: In France the rate of interest was fixed at five per
cent, so early as 1665; and this, a few short intervals
only excepted, continued to be the legal rate until the
Revolution. Laverdy, in 1766, reduced it from five to
four per cent. Instead, however, of the market rate be-
ing proportionably reduced, it was raised from five to six
per cent. Previously to the promulgation of the edict,
loans might have been obtained on good security at five
per cent.; but an additional per cent, was now required to
cover the risk of illegality. This caused the speedy aban¬
donment of the measure.3
vo' Ike same thing happened in Livonia in 1786, when the
Empress Catherine reduced the legal rate of interest from Interest,
six to five per cent. Hitherto, says Storch (in loco supra
citato), those who had good security to offer were able to
borrow at six per cent.; but henceforth they had to pay
seven per cent, or upwards. And such will be found to
have been invariably the case, wherever governments have
interfered to reduce the statutory below the market rate of
interest.
From the earliest period of the history of England down History of
to the reign of Henry VIII., the taking of interest was ab- the laws
solutely forbidden to all persons within the realm except'jJS11^^^
Jews and foreigners, who, nevertheless, were frequenRy ;n\erest In
plundered for the sake of enriching the crown, under the England,
miserable pretext of punishing them for what were then
called their “ hellish extortions.” The disorders occa¬
sioned by this ruinous interference on the part of govern¬
ment at length became so obvious, that, notwithstanding
the powerful prejudices to the contrary, a statute was pass¬
ed in 1546 (37 Hen. VIII. cap. 7), legalizing the taking
of interest to the extent of ten per cent, per annum ; and
this because, as is recited in the words of the act, the sta¬
tutes “ prohibiting interest altogether have so little force,
that little or no punishment hath ensued to the offenders.”
In the reign of Edward VI. the horror against taking in¬
terest seems to have revived in full force; for, in 1552,
the taking of any interest was again prohibited, “ as a vice
most odious and detestable,” and “ contrary to the word
of God.” But, in spite of this tremendous denunciation,
the ordinary rate of interest, instead of being reduced,
immediately rose to fourteen per cent., and continued at
this rate until, in 1571, an act was passed (13 Eliz. cap.
8) repealing the act of Edward VI., and reviving the act
of Henry VIII., allowing ten per cent, interest. In the
preamble to this act it is stated, “ that the prohibiting act
of King Edward VI. had not done so much good as was
hoped for ; but that rather the vice of usury hath much more
exceedingly abounded, to the utter undoing of many gen¬
tlemen, merchants, occupiers, and others, and to the im¬
portable hurt of the commonwealth.” This salutary sta¬
tute was opposed, even by those who, it might have been
expected, would have been among the first to emancipate
themselves from the prejudices of the age, with all the vio¬
lence of ignorant superstition. Dr John Wilson, a man
famous in his day, and celebrated for the extent and soli¬
dity of his learning, stated, in his place in the House of
Commons, that “ it was not the amount of the interest
taken that constituted the crime; but that all lending for
any gain, be it ever so little, was wickedness before God
and man, and a damnable deed in itself, and that there was
no mean in this vice any more than in murder or theft.”
In order to quiet the consciences of the bench of bishops,
a clause was actually inserted, declaring all usury to have
been forbidden by the law of God, and to be in its nature
sin, and detestable. When first enacted, this statute was
limited to a period of five years; but, “ forasmuch as it
was by proof and experience found to be very necessary
and profitable for the commonwealth of this realm,” it was,
in the same reign, made perpetual. (39 Eliz. cap. 18.)
In the 21st of James I. the legal rate of interest was re-
Macpherson’s History of Commerce, vol. i. p. 400.
It is impossible to form any very accurate estimate of the rate of profit in the middle ages ; yet several striking facts may be adduced
in support of the opinion advanced in the text. At Verona, in 1228, the interest of money was fixed by law at twelve and a half per
cent. 1 owards the end of the fourteenth century, the republic of Genoa paid only from seven to ten per cent, to her creditors; and
the average discount on good bills at Barcelona, in 1435, is stated to have been about ten per cent. But whilst the rate of interest
in Italy and Catalonia, where a considerable degree of freedom was allowed to the parties concerned in bargaining for a loan, was
bus comparatively moderate, it was, in despite of its total prohibition, incomparably higher in France and England. Matthew Paris
mentions that, in the reign of Henry III., the debtor paid ten per cent, every two months ; and this, though absolutely impossible
-a,fneral practice, may not have been very far from the average interest charged on the few loans that were then contracted for.
(Hallarn’s History of the Middle Ages, vol. iff. p. 402.)
Storch, Traxti d'Economic Politique, tome iii. p. 187-
324
INTEREST.
Interest, duced to eight per cent., by an act to continue for seven
years only, but which was made perpetual in the succeed¬
ing reign. (3 Car. I. cap. 4.) During the common¬
wealth, the legal rate of interest was reduced to six per
cent., a reduction which was afterwards confirmed by the
act 12 Car. II. And, finally, in the reign of Queen
Anne, a statute (12 Anne, cap. 16) was framed, redu¬
cing the rate of interest to five per cent., at which it now
stands.
In the preamble to this statute, it is stated, that,
“ whereas the reducing interest to ten, and from thence
to eight, and thence to six, in the hundred, hath from time
to time, by experience, been found very beneficial to the
advancement of trade and the improvement of lands, it
is become absolutely necessary to reduce the high rate of
interest of six per cent, to a nearer proportion to the in¬
terest allowed for money in foreign states.” It was for
these reasons enacted, that all bargains or contracts sti¬
pulating for a higher rate of interest than five per cent,
should lie utterly void. And “ that all persons who should
after that time receive, by means of any corrupt bargain,
loan, exchange, chevizance, or interest, of any wares, mer¬
chandise, or other thing whatever, or by any deceitful
way or means, or by any covin, engine, or deceitful con¬
veyance for the forbearing or giving day of payment, for
one whole year, for their money or other thing, above the
sum of L.5 for L.100 for a year, should forfeit, for every
such offence, the fr/jofe value of the monies or other things
so lent, bargained,” &c.
Laws re- In Scotland, previously to the Reformation, no interest
gulating could be legally exacted for money. But this great event,
the rate of weakening the force of those religious prejudices, which
V^irKl n dictated the laws prohibiting interest, occa¬
sioned the adoption of sounder opinions on the subject,
and led to the enactment of the statute of 1587 (11
Parlt. Jac. VI. cap. 52), which legalized the taking of in¬
terest to the extent of ten per cent. In 1633 the legal
rate was reduced to eight per cent., and in 1661 to six
per cent. The statute of Queen Anne, reducing the rate
of interest to five per cent., extended to both kingdoms.
In Ireland. The statutes prohibiting the taking of interest in Ire¬
land were not repealed until 1635, when, by the statute
10 Car. I. cap. 22, liberty was given to stipulate for in¬
terest to the extent of ten per cent. In 1704 this rate
was reduced to eight per cent.; in 1722 it was reduced
to seven per cent, j and in 1732 it was further reduced
to six per cent., at which it has since continued fixed.
It has been observed by Dr Smith, that the different
statutory regulations, reducing the rate of interest in Eng-
tween the ]and, were made with great propriety. Instead of pre-
rite and ce(hng, they followed the fall which was gradually taking
the statu- place in the market rate of interest; and, therefore, did
tory rate not contribute, as they otherwise must have done, to raise
of interest, the rate which they were intended to reduce. Sir Josiah
from 1714 Child, whose celebrated Treatise, recommending a reduc-
to 1793. tjon 0f interest to four per cent, was published about 1670,
states positively, that the goldsmiths in London, who then
acted as bankers, could obtain as much money as they
pleased, upon their servants’ notes only, at four and a half
per cent. The supposed insecurity of the revolutionary
establishment, and the novelty of the practice of funding,
occasioned the payment of a high rate of interest for a
Compari¬
son be-
considerable portion of the sums borrowed by the public Intere i
in the reigns of William III. and Anne; but private per- Wv-
sons, of undoubted credit, could then borrow at less
than five per cent. During the reign of George II. the
market rate of interest fluctuated from three to four and
four and a half per cent.1
Dr Smith mentions, that the increased means of pro¬
fitably investing capital acquired during the war which
terminated in 1763, raised the market rate of interest,
subsequently to the peace of Paris, to a level with the
statutory rate, or perhaps higher. But this rise was only
temporary, and it was not until the late war that any very
materia] or general inconvenience was found to result from
the limitation of the rate of interest to five per cent.
It is necessary, however, to observe, that this remark Expedil I
applies exclusively to the loans negotiated by individuals for defj J
who could offer unexceptionable security; for, ever sincein£M l
the passing of the act 1714, persons engaged in employ-. llrll
ments of more than ordinary hazard, whose character forr^eJ
prudence and punctuality did not stand high, or who could terest. ! |
only offer inferior security, were unable to borrow at
five per cent., and have in consequence been compelled
to resort to a variety of schemes for defeating and evad¬
ing the enactments in the statute. The most common
device was the sale of an annuity. Thus, supposing an
individual whose personal credit was not good, and who
had only the liferent of an estate to give in security, want¬
ed to borrow any given sum, he sold an annuity to the
lender sufficient to pay the interest stipulated for, which,
because of the risks and odium attending such transac¬
tions, was always higher than the market rate, and also
to pay the premium necessary to insure payment of the
principal on the death of the borrower. It is curious to
observe, that although the sale of an irredeemable life an¬
nuity, at a rate exceeding legal interest, was not reckon¬
ed fraudulent or usurious; yet, so late as 1743, Lord
Hardwicke held, that in their less exceptionable form, or
when they were redeemable, annuities could only be look¬
ed upon as an evasion of the statute of usury, and a loan
of money.2 But the extreme inexpediency of this dis¬
tinction soon became obvious, and the law on this subject
is now entirely changed. The greater extension of the
traffic in annuities, and the advantage of giving as much
publicity as possible to such transactions, led to various
parliamentary inquiries and regulations respecting them
in the early part of the reign of his late majesty. The
consequence has been, that irredeemable annuities are
now nearly unknown, and that the sale of a redeemable
annuity cannot be impeached, although it should appear
cn the face of the deeds that the lender had secured the
principal by effecting an assurance of the borrower’s life.3
During the greater part of the late war, however, the
usury laws operated, not to the prejudice of one, but of all
classes of borrowers. The extent of the loans, the high
rate of interest given by the state, the facility ol selling
out of the funds, the regularity with which the dividends
were paid, and the temptations arising from the fluctua¬
tions in the price of funded property, diverted so large a
proportion of the floating capital of the country into the
coffers of the treasury, as to render it next to impossible
for a private individual to borrow at the legal rate of in¬
terest, except from the trustees of public companies, or
On the 18th of December 1752, the three percents, brought the highest price they have hitherto reached, namely, 106| per cent.
ly on which the failure of Lord Malmesbury’s attempt to negotiate with the French republic
the the
transpired, consols fell to 47§, being the lowest price at which they have ever been sold.
2 Considerations on the Rate of Interest, by L. B. Sugden, Esq. Famphleteer, vol. viii. p. 278.
3 By the act 53 Geo. III. cap. 141, it is enacted, “ That a memorial, setting forth the date of every deed, bond, instrument, or
other assurance, whereby an annuity or rent-charge shall be granted for one or more life or lives, or for a certain number of years,
the names of all the witnesses, and of all the parties thereto, the sum given for the security, and the amount of the annuity itseli,
shall be registered in the Court of Chancery.” This act only applies to England and Wales.
INTEREST.
325
Inb 5t.
Hou of
Cum ns’
Rep. on
the 1 iry
Law
through the influence of circumstances of a very peculiar
nature. The proprietors of unencumbered freehold estates,
of which they had the absolute disposal, were almost uni¬
versally obliged to resort to those destructive expedients
which had formerly been the resource only of spendthrifts,
and persons in the most desperate circumstances. An¬
nuities were not unfrequently granted for the term of se¬
veral lives, at the rate of twelve, fourteen, fifteen, and
even twenty per cent., exclusive of the premium of insu¬
rance on the lives of the persons named in the grant of
the annuities. Mr Onslow, in his speech on the usury
laws, 23d of May 1816, mentions that he knew the case
of a gentleman possessed of a very large estate in fee-
simple, who had been compelled to grant an annuity for
yowrlives (and the survivor of them), named by the grantee,
for eight years’ purchase.
The Report of the Committee on the Usury Laws, laid
before the House of Commons in 1818, contains much valu¬
able evidence, establishing the impolicy and the pernicious
effects of these laws in the clearest manner. Mr Sugden,
a gentleman very extensively concerned in the manage¬
ment of landed property, stated, that when the market rate
of interest rose above the legal rate, the landed proprietor
was compelled to resort to some shift to evade the usury
laws. For this purpose, Mr Sugden informed the com¬
mittee he had “ known annuities granted for three lives, at
ten per cent, upon fee-simple estates, unencumbered, and
of great annual value, in a register county. He had also
known annuities granted for four lives, and more would
have been added, but for the danger of equity setting aside
the transaction on account of the inadequacy of the con¬
sideration. Latterly many annuities were granted for a
term of years certain, not depending upon lives.” On
being asked whether, if there were no laws limiting the
rate of interest, better terms coidd or could not have been
obtained, Mr Sugden answered, “ I am decidedly of opi¬
nion that better terms could have been obtained ; for there is
a stigma which attaches to men who lend money upon an¬
nuities, that drives all respectable men out of the market.
Some leading men did latterly embark in such transactions,
but I never knew a man of reputation in my own profes¬
sion lend money in such a manner, although we have the
best means of ascertaining the safest securities, and of ob¬
taining the best terms. In all loans, two solicitors are in¬
variably concerned, one for the borrower and one for the
lender; and although the borrower always pays the ex¬
pense of the securities, yet a regular professional bill is in¬
variably made out; whereas, in the case of an annuity, al¬
though it is in strictness a loan, only one solicitor is em¬
ployed, and he never makes out a regular bill, but charges
what is termed a lumping sum, for all his expense and
trouble in the transaction.” And, in another place, Mr Sug¬
den observes, “ the temptation on the part of a solicitor to
lend money upon annuities is very strong, because, without
any check upon his charges, he demands whatever sum he
pleases, arid he takes care that it is instantly paid; for in
no instance is the borrower allowed to have the room until
he has paid the solicitor’s charge? “ Nothing,” Mr Sug¬
den justly adds, “ short of a repeal of the usury laws can
put a stop to the abuses which attend grants of annuities:
they strongly encourage a spirit of gambling; for, as the
repayment of the money lent cannot be enforced, and the
annuity is granted upon a contingency, the borrower too
hequently neglects to provide for the payment of the loan,
and trusts to chance for the determination of the annuity.”
“ 1 he laws against usury,” says Mr Holland, partner of
h ^0US? •^aring. Brothers, and Company, and one of
the best informed merchants in the country, “ drive men
ln ^stress, or in want of money, to much more disastrous
diodes of raising it than they would adopt if no usury laws
existed. The landowner requires capital to increase his
live stock, or improve his land, or for any other purpose, Interest,
at a period when the government is borrowing money at v*—
above five per cent., or when the funds give a greater inte¬
rest than five per cent.; no one will then lend to the land-
owner, because his money is worth more to him than the
law allows him to take; the landowner must, therefore,
either give up his improvements, or borrow money on an¬
nuity interests, on much more disadvantageous terms than
he could have done if no law existed against usury. The
man in trade, in want of money for an unexpected demand,
or .disappointed in his returns, must fulfil his engagements,
or forfeit his credit. He might have borrowed money at
six per cent., but the law allows no one to lend it to him,
and he must sell some of the commodity he holds, at a re¬
duced price, in order to meet his engagements. For ex¬
ample, he holds sugar which is worth 80s.; but he is com¬
pelled to sell it immediately for 70s. to the man who will give
him cash for it, and thus actually borrows money at twelve
and a half per cent., which, had the law allowed him, he
might have borrowed from a money dealer at six per cent. It
is known to every merchant, that cases of this kind are com¬
mon occurrences in every commercial town, and more espe¬
cially in the metropolis. A man in distress for money pays
more interest, owing to the usury laws, than he would if
no such laws existed ; because now he is obliged to go to
some of the disreputable money lenders to borrow, as he
knows the respectable money lender will not break the
laws of his country. The disreputable money lender knows
that he has the ordinary risk of his debtor to incur in lend¬
ing his money, and he has further to encounter the penalty
of the law, for both of which risks the borrower must pay.
If no usury laws existed, in common cases, and where a
person is respectable, he might obtain a loan from the re¬
spectable money lender, who would then only have to cal¬
culate his ordinary risk, and the compensation for the use
of his money.”
In every part of the appendix to the Report, we meet Resolu-
with equally conclusive evidence of the pernicious effectstlons tne
of the laws restraining the rate of interest. And the com- comnnttee'
mittee admitted the full force of this evidence, by agree¬
ing to the following resolutions: ls£, “ That it is the opi¬
nion of this committee, that the laws regulating or restrain¬
ing the rate of interest have been extensively evaded, and
have failed of the effect of imposing a maximum on such
rate; and that, of late years, from the constant excess of
the market rate of interest above the rate limited by law,
they have added to the expense incurred by borrowers on
real security, and that such borrowers have been compelled
to resort to the mode of granting annuities on lives; a
mode which has been made a cover for obtaining a higher
rate of interest than the rate limited by law, and has far¬
ther subjected the borrowers to enormous charges, or forced
them to make very disadvantageous sales of their estates.
2d, That it is the opinion of this committee, that the con¬
struction of such laws, as applicable to the transactions of
commerce as at present carried on, have been attended
with much uncertainty as to the legality of many transac¬
tions of frequent occurrence, and consequently been pro¬
ductive of much embarrassment and litigation. 3d, That
it is the opinion of this committee, that the present period,
when the market rate of interest is below the legal rate,
affords an opportunity peculiarly favourable for the repeal
of the said laws.”
In spite, however, of the recommendation of the commit¬
tee, and of the clear and satisfactory nature of the evidence
on which it is founded, the popular prejudice on this sub¬
ject continues so strong, that there does not seem much
reason to expect that this desirable measure will be speed¬
ily effected.
It is most absurdly supposed, that, were the laws limit- Pernicious
ing the rate of interest repealed, every individual who has effects of
326
INTEREST.
Interest, capital to lend would henceforth indulge in all those mean
and disgraceful practices which at present characterise the
lowest class of money brokers. But it might just as rea¬
sonably be supposed, that were country gentlemen allowed
to sell game, they would immediately become addicted to
all the vices of the poacher. The truth is, that if the rate
of interest was left to be adjusted by the unrestricted com¬
petition of the parties, there would be almost no employ¬
ment for the inferior class of money dealers; Except when
the market rate of interest is below the legal rate, the usury
laws prevent all persons, whose credit is not extremely good,
from obtaining loans from capitalists of the highest cha¬
racter, and force them to have recourse to those who are
less scrupulous. Supposing the market rate of interest
to be six or seven per cent., an individual in ordinarily
good credit might, were the usury laws abolished, easily
obtain a loan at that rate. But the law having declared
that no more than five per cent, shall be taken, and con¬
sequently having affixed a species of stigma to those lend¬
ers who bargain for a higher rate, necessarily excludes
the rich and more respectable capitalists from the mar¬
ket, and obliges borrowers to resort to those of an inferior
character, who, in addition to the premium for the risk
incurred by entering into an illegal transaction, must re¬
ceive an indemnification for the odium which, in such
cases, always attaches to the lender. It is idle and ridi¬
culous to attempt to secure individuals against the risk
of imposition in pecuniary, more than in any other spe¬
cies of transactions. But although the object were really
desirable, it could not possibly be obtained by such inade¬
quate means. The usury laws generate the very mischief
they are intended to suppress. Far from diminishing,
they most unquestionably multiply usurious transactions
in a tenfold proportion, and powerfully aggravate all the
evils they were designed either to mitigate or remove.
Nothing can be more unreasonable, or more entirely
unfounded, than the clamour that has been set up against
usurers, as money-lenders are sometimes termed, because
of their exacting a higher rate of interest than ordinary
from prodigals and spendthrifts. This, surely, is the most
proper and efficient check that can be put upon the
thoughtless or unprincipled extravagance of such persons.
Supposing the security of a prodigal and of an industrious
man to be nearly equal, and this can scarcely ever be the
case, does not the capitalist who would lend to the latter
at a lower rate of interest than he would lend to the for¬
mer, confer a real service on his country? Does he not
prevent those funds which ought to be employed in sup¬
porting useful labour, and in adding to the real wealth of
the nation, from being wasted in ridiculous extravagances
or boisterous dissipation?
They do ®ut’ perhaps, we shall be told, that this is mistaking
uot protect the object of the usury laws ; that they were not intend-
the prodi- ed to force capitalists to lend to spendthrifts at the same
gal and un- rate of interest as to industrious persons, but to protect
the prodigal and unwary from the extortion of usurers, by
declaring any stipulation between them for more than a
given rate of interest to be null and void. But why all this
solicitude about the least valuable class of society ? Why
fetter and restrict the free circulation of capital amongst
those who would turn it to the best account, lest any por¬
tion of it might chance to fall into the hands of those who
would squander it away ? If the prevention of prodiga¬
lity be an object of sufficient importance to justify the
interference of the legislature, why not at once put the
prodigal under an interdict? This is the only way in
wary.
which it is possible to restrict him. It is not so much Inter
by borrowing money at high interest, as by contracting W ,
debts to merchants, on whose charge there is no check
that spendthrifts generally run through their fortunes. Mr
Bentham has justly observed, that so long as a man is look¬
ed upon as one who will pay, he can much easier get the
goods he wants than he could the money to buy them with
though he were content to give for it twice or thrice the
ordinary rate of interest. How ridiculous is it, then, to
stimulate this natural facility of purchasing, to permit
prodigals to borrow (for it is really borrowing) the larg.
est supplies of food, clothes, &c. at twenty, thirty, or even
a hundred per cent, interest, at the same time that we
inflict a real injury on every other class of society, rather
than permit them to borrow the smallest supply of money
at more than five per cent. Instead of being of any ser¬
vice, this restriction is evidently injurious to the prodigal.
It narrows his choice, and drives him from a market
which might have proved much less disadvantageous, to
one in which no disgrace attaches to the exaction of the
most exorbitant interest, and where he can scarcely es¬
cape being ruined.
Neither is the outcry raised against capitalists for taking
advantage of the necessities of industrious individuals, in
any degree better founded than that which is raised against
them for taking advantage of the extravagant and thought¬
less disposition of the prodigal or the simple. According
as a person has a character for sobriety, and for punctu¬
ality in making his engagements, and according to the
presumed state of his affairs at the time, so will he be
able to borrow. To say that a capitalist took advantage
of the necessities of any individual, is only saying that he
refused to lend to a person in suspicious or necessitous
circumstances, at the same rate of interest he would have
done had he been in high credit, or, which is the same
thing, had there been no risk of losing the principal; and
had he not acted in this manner, should we not have
justly considered him as a fool or a madman ?
But, as has already been shown, whatever may be the
extortion of lenders, the usury laws afford no means of
checking it; on the contrary, they compel the borrowers
to pay, over and above the common rate of interest, a
premium sufficient to indemnify the lender for the risk
and odium incurred in breaking them. They attempt to
remedy what is not an evil, and what, consequently, ought
not to be interfered with ; and in doing this they neces¬
sarily create a real grievance. What should we have
thought of an act of parliament to compel the underwri¬
ters to insure a gunpowder magazine and a salt warehouse
on the same terms ? Yet this would not have been in
any respect more absurd than to enact that the same rate
of interest should be charged on capital lent to those
whose security is widely different.
Luckily we are not left to infer from general principles, Then j
however well established, the many advantages that would were ^ I
result from a repeal of the laws limiting the rate of inte-^f I
rest. The case of Holland furnishes a practical and strik-j"n(j |
ing proof of the correctness of the theory we have been
endeavouring to establish. It is an undoubted fact, that
the x'ate of interest has been, for a very long period, low¬
er in Holland than in any other country in Europe; and yet
Holland is the only country in which usury laws are altoge¬
ther unknown, where capitalists are allowed to demand,
and borrowers to pay, any rate of interest.1 * * Notwithstand¬
ing all the violent changes of the government, and the
extraordinary derangement of her financial concerns in
1 Strictly speaking, this applies only to the state of Holland previously to the Revolution in 1795. The enactments of the Code
ISapoleon were subsequently introduced ; but it appears, from the Report of the Parliamentary7 Committee on the Usury Laws, that
they have not, in any instance, been acted upon.
INTEREST.
Lt> course of the last twenty years, the rate of interest
in Holland has continued comparatively steady. During
the whole of that period, persons who could offer unex¬
ceptionable security have been able to borrow at from
three to five and a half per cent.; nor has the average
rate of interest charged on capital, advanced on the worst
species of security, ever exceeded six or seven per cent.,
except when the government wras negotiating a forced
loan.1 But, in this country, where the law declares that
no more than five per cent, shall be taken, the rate of
interest for capital advanced on the best landed security
has, in the same period, varied from five to sixteen or
seventeen per cent., or Jive times as much as in Holland.
Surely this ought to put to rest all doubts as to the im¬
policy and the inefficiency of the usury laws,
jo,' rate In France the usury laws were abolished at the Revo-
ot ki est lution; and it is distinctly stated, that their abolition was
in ij ice; noi attended by any rise of interest? According to the Code
Napoleon, only six per cent, interest is allowed to be taken
in commercial affairs, and five per cent, when money is ad¬
vanced on the security of real property. There is not,
however, any difficulty in evading this law. The method
resorted to for this purpose, is to give a bonus before com¬
pleting the transaction, or, which is the same thing, to
frame the obligation for the debt for a larger sum than was
really advanced by the lender. None of the parties par¬
ticularly interested can be called to swear to the fact of
such a bonus being given ; so that the transaction is unim¬
peachable, unless a third party, who was privy to the set¬
tling of the affair, can be produced as a witness. The
Bank of France never discounts at a higher rate of interest
than five per cent., but sometimes at a lower rate.
In m- In Hamburg the rate of interest is quite unrestricted ;
but or, if there be a written law restraining it, it has become
altogether obsolete. The rate, therefore, varies according
to circumstances. Occasionally it has been at seven, eight,
and even ten per cent.; and, in 1799, a period of great
mercantile embarrassment and insecurity, it was as high
as fourteen per cent. Generally, however, the rate of dis¬
count on good bills does not exceed four or five per cent.3
In ;sia; In Russia the legal rate of interest is six per cent. But
as Russia is a country capable of much improvement, and
where there are very great facilities for the advantageous
employment of capital, the market rate of interest is inva¬
riably higher than the statute rate, and the law is as con¬
stantly as it is easily evaded.4
jlnjtria; At Trieste, and throughout the Austrian empire in ge¬
neral, the usual rate of interest is fixed by law at six per
cent.; but capital can seldom be obtained for less than
eight or ten per cent.5
327
At Leghorn the ordinary rate of interest is a half per Interest,
cent, per month, or six per cent, per annum; but there is
no law to prevent the taking of a higher rate. In LeS'
In Spain the ordinary rate of interest is six per cent.; i1 or” ; .
but no law exists against taking a higher rate, and it sel- In sPain;
dom falls below five or rises above seven per cent.
In the United States legal interest is fixed at six per in the
cent.; but the market rate fluctuates from ten to twelve United
per cent. Efforts, Mr Birkbeck informs us, are now mak- States,
ing in various parts of the Union, particularly in Virginia
and North Carolina, to do away the restraints on usury,
which, as he justly observes, “ operate merely as a tax on
the needy borrower?**
If usury laws are to have any existence, they ought cer- Usury
tainly to be made to operate on the greatest of all borrow- laws do not
ers ; on those who do not borrow on their own credit, butreac^ b*1®
on that of others. Is it not the extreme of folly, that, n~
whilst an industrious manufacturer, or agriculturist, is pre¬
vented from giving more than five per cent, for capital,
which he might be able to invest so as to yield ten or
twelve per cent., government should be allowed to borrow
at six, eight, ten, or twenty per cent.? What is this but
holding out a bait to loan-mongers, and causing the capi¬
tal of the country to flow with an accelerated and unna¬
tural velocity into the treasury ? Nothing surely can be
more impolitic than this. If we are to have usury laws,
they ought to operate alike on every class of borrowers;
and, considering the superior attractions which the facili¬
ty of repossessing the principal gives to the investment of
capital in the funds, the rate of interest at which govern¬
ment should be allowed to borrow should be less than the
rate at which private individuals might borrow.
We trust, however, that we have said enough to show
the inexpediency and the pernicious tendency of all such
regulations. If a landlord is to be allowed to take the
highest rent he can get offered for his land, a farmer the
highest price for his raw produce, a manufacturer for his
goods, why should a capitalist be restricted and fettered
in the employment of his stock ? Every principle of na¬
tural justice, and of sound political expediency, is out¬
raged by such a distinction.
So long as the market rate of interest continued higher
than the statutory rate, it cannot be doubted that consi¬
derable inconvenience would have resulted from any sud¬
den abolition of the usury laws. It is certain, indeed, that
this inconvenience would have been very speedily com¬
pensated by the check which the abolition would have
given to the traffic in annuities, and by the easier circula¬
tion and more advantageous distribution of capital. Now,
however, when the market is fallen below the statutory
1 The general rate of discount in Holland is from four to five per cent., and occasionally from three to three and a half per cent.,
but very seldom lower. During the Revolution it had been at six and seven per cent., and even at eight; but this was gene¬
rally owing to some forced financial operation on account of the government, and was never of long duration. The following is
the average rate of discount at Amsterdam and Rotterdam from 1795 to 1817 :
1795—4,
179G—4,
1797— 4,
1798— 4,
1799— 3,
1800— 4,
1801— 4,
1802— 4^,
1803— 4,
1804— 4,
1805— 4,"
1806— 4,
44,
44,
44,
44,
4,
44,
44,
5,
5,
44?
5,
44,
5,
5,
5,
5,
44,
5,
5,
54,
54,
5,
54,
5,
6.
6.
54,
5.
5.
6.
6.
6.
6.
54,
6,
54i
6, 9,
6.
9-
6,
12.
1807— 4,
1808— 4,
1809— 4,
1810— 4,
1811— 3,
1812— 3,
1813— 3,
1814— 4,
1815— 54,
1816— 5,
1817— 5,
44,
34,
44,
44,
34,
34,
34,
5,
6,
54,
4
5,
44,
5,
5,
4,
4,
4,
54,
64,
6,
6.
6.
5,
6.
6.
5.
5.
5,
5,
7-
64,
64.
“ The bank of Amsterdam never discounts at a higher rate than five per cent.; but they discount at a lower rate, and vary their
discounts according to the abundance of capital, never exceeding five per cent., and occasionally as low as two and a half and three.”
(Mr Holland’s evidence, Report of the Committee on the Usury Laws, p. 45.)
“ Storch, Economic Politique, tome iii. p. 187- s See Report, uli supra.
Report on Usury Laws, p. 46. * Letters from Illinois, p. 36,
lord, and Storch, tome iii. p. 207>
328
I N T
I N T
Inteijec- rate of interest, no inconvenience could attend their re* be a proportionably increased facility of gratifying the Inte,
ticm peal. It could not lead to any demand for payment of prevalent passion for accumulation. 1 he case oi Holland, t *"
II. borrowed money, for no individual would require payment far from contradicting, furnishes a striking exarpple of the || |
'_nenm. 0f jie (.quU not re]en(^ greater advantage. But, truth of this principle. Sir 'William lemple mentions ^ntei i-
while their repeal would be in no respect disadvantageous, that her trade was rather on the decline in 1670; and the ^ ^
it would enable those who are engaged in employments of large capital of which she was then in possession had been
more than ordinary hazard, to procure adequate supplies accumulated previously to her wars with Cromwell, and
of stock on more favourable terms ; and it would also se- when the rate of profit was much higher than at any sub¬
cure us against the risk of future mischief should the mar- sequent period. Low profits are a certain proof that so-
ket again rise above the legal rate of interest. It is un- ciety has become clogged in its progress. They show
necessary, however, to urge the immediate repeal of the that it is approaching, if it has not already reached, the
usury laws. We think it quite visionary to apprehend stationary state, and that, unless measures can be devised
any danger from the instant application of a sponge to for relieving the pressure on the resources of the state, it
the whole of the anti-usurious statutes, but it is enough if will be thrown back in the career of improvement, and
they are repealed gradually. To avoid exciting any alarm outstripped by its neighbours. The rate of profit and
in the minds of the most timid, the rate at which capital the rate of interest are ordinarily twice as high in the
may be legally lent at interest might be annually raised United States as in Great Britain or France, and it is to
one or one halfger cent., until the rate had been extended this that the more rapid advancement of the former in
to eight or ten per cent., when it is clear every restrictive wealth and population is entirely to be ascribed. High
regulation might be abolished, without the possibility of profits, it is true, may not in every instance be accompa-
the smallest derangement happening in consequence. nied by a great degree of prosperity ; for a despotic go-
Were the usury laws abolished, it would be proper to vernment, or the want of sufficient protection, may para-
frame a statute which should fix the interest to be paid lyze all the efforts of those who are otherwise placed in
in those cases in which no previous agreement had been the most favourable circumstances for the accumulation
made respecting it. But as, in cases of this description, of wealth. But, if the government he equally liberal, and
there is very frequently considerable doubt whether it was if property he equally well secured, the degree of national
the intention of the parties at the time the transaction took prosperity will be correspondent to ' the rate of profit.
place, that any interest should be charged, it would be The demand for labour, or, which is in effect the same
proper to give the borrower the full benefit of this doubt, thing, the funds for supporting the largest and most valu-
by fixing the rate payable in such cases at the lowest mar- able portion of society, increase or diminish in exact pro-
ket rate. portion to the increase or diminution of profits. Wherever
Error of Before concluding, we may remark, that, until the laws they are high, the labourer is well paid, and the society
some wri- regulating the rate of profit and the increase of capital rapidly augments both its population and its riches; on
ters on the jja(j keen accurately investigated, the great wealth and the other hand, wherever they are low, the demand for
subject of commercjai prosperity of Holland was invariably appealed labour is proportionably reduced, and the progress of so-
of interest to as a practical proof of the advantages of a low rate of ciety rendered so much the slower.
interest. But Sir Josiah Child, and those who have in- Instead, therefore, of a low rate of profit, and a low rate
sisted so much on this example, forget that the lowness of interest, for the one must be always directly as the
of interest in Holland was the necessary effect of the cir- other, being any proof of the flourishing situation of a
cumstances in which that country was placed ; of the low- country, it is distinctly and completely the reverse. High
ness of profits, caused by the oppressiveness of taxation, profits show that capital may be readily and beneficially
and the deficient supply of fertile soil, and not of any in- invested in the different branches of industry, and wher-
terference on the part of the government. . Neither was ever this is the case, it will be better for the borrower to
this lowness of interest any advantage, but a positive dis- pay a high rate of interest than it would be for him to pay
advantage. A country, whose average rate of profit, and a lower rate, in countries where there is less facility of em-
consequently of interest, has been reduced considerably ploying his stock with advantage. The borrower who pays
below the level of surrounding nations, may, notwithstand- ten or twelve per cent, for capital in the United States
ing, abound in wealth, and be possessed of an immense generally makes a more profitable bargain than the Eng-
capital ; but it would be the height of error to suppose lish borrower who pays only four or five per cent. It is
that this reduction of profits and interest could have faci- obviously not by the circumstance of the rate of interest
litated their accumulation. Capital cannot be accumu- payable on loans being absolutely high or low, but by the
lated otherwise than by a saving of income ; and wher- proportion between that rate and the average rate of pro-
ever incomes are large, and this wdll always be the case fit, that we must determine whether they have been ob-
where the rate of profit is comparatively high, there must tained on favourable or unfavourable terms. (c. c.)
INTERJECTION, in Grammar, an indeclinable part
of speech, expressive of some passion or emotion of the
mind. See Grammar.
INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind of
confession, of the articles of faith, obtruded upon the Pro¬
testants after Luther’s death by the Emperor Charles V.
when he had defeated their forces ; and so called because
it was only to take place in the interim (mean time), till a
general council should have decided all points in dispute
between the Protestants and Catholics. It retained most
of the doctrines and ceremonies of the Catholics, except¬
ing: that of marriage, which was allowed to the clergy,
and communion to the laity under both kinds. Most of
the Protestants rejected it. There were two interims
besides this ; the one of Leipsic, and the other of Fran¬
conia.
INTERLOCUTOR, in Scotch Law, is the decision or
judgment of a court before the final decree is passed and
extracted.
INTERLOCUTORY Decree, in English Law. In a
suit in equity, if *my matter of fact be strongly contro¬
verted, the fact is usually directed to be tried at the bar
of the Court of King’s Bench, or at the assizes, upon a
feigned issue. If a question of mere law arises in the
course of a cause, it is the practice of the Court of Chan¬
cery to refer it to the opinion of the judges of the Court
of King’s Bench, upon a case stated for that purpose. In
such cases, interlocutory decrees or orders are made.
I N T I N T 329
. .eij Interlocutory Judgments are such as are given in the
ton' ilg-middle of a cause, upon some plea, proceeding on default,
^aie vvhicli is not intermediate, and does not finally determine
or complete the suit. But the interlocutory judgments
jntei nt-m0S(. usually spoken of are those incomplete judgments
^ by which the right of the plaintiff is established, but the
quantum of damages sustained by him is not ascertained,
which is the province of a jury. In such a case a writ of
inquiry issues to the sheriff, who summons a jury, inquires
of the damages, and returns to the court the inquisition
so taken, whereupon the plaintiff’s attorney taxes costs,
and signs final judgment.
Interlocutory Order, that which decides not the
cause, but only settles some intervening matter relating
to the cause; as where an order is made in chancery,
for the plaintiff to have an injunction to quit possession
till the hearing of the cause. This order, not being final,
is called interlocutoi-y.
INTERLOPERS are properly those who, without due
authority, hinder the trade of a company or corporation
lawfully established, by dealing in the same way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the
theatre between the acts of a play, to amuse the specta¬
tors, or to give time for changing the scenes and decora¬
tions. In the ancient tragedy, the chorus sung the inter¬
ludes, to show the intervals between the acts. Inter¬
ludes, amongst us, usually consist of songs, dances, feats
of activity, concerts of music, and the like. Aristotle and
Horace lay it down as a rule, that the interludes should
consist of songs founded on the principal parts of the
drama; but since the chorus has been discontinued, dan¬
cers, buffoons, and such like performers, ordinarily fur¬
nish the interludes.
INTERMENT, the act of interring, that is, burying
or laying a deceased person in the ground.
Aristotle asserted that it was more just to assist the
dead than the living. Plato, in his Republic, does not
forget, amongst other acts of justice, that which concerns
the dead. Cicero establishes three kinds of justice ; the
first respects the gods, the second the manes or dead, and
the third men. These principles seem to be derived from
nature ; and they appear at least to be necessary for the
support of society, since civilized nations have at all times
taken care to bury their dead, and to pay the last respects
to their remains.
We find in history several traces of the respect which
the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Syrians entertained
for the dead. The Syrians embalmed their bodies with
myrrh, aloes, honey, salt, wax, bitumen, and resinous
gums; and they also dried them with the smoke of the
fir and of the pine tree. The Egyptians preserved theirs
with the resin of the cedar, with aromatic spices, and
with asphaltum. These people often kept such mum¬
mies, or at least their effigies, in their houses; and at
grand entertainments they were introduced, that by re¬
citing the great actions of their ancestors they might be
the more excited to virtue.
The Greeks, at first, had probably not the same vene¬
ration for the dead as the Egyptians. Empedocles, there¬
fore, in the eighty-fourth Olympiad, restored to life Pon-
thia, a woman of Agrigentum, who was about to be inter¬
red. But this people, in proportion as they became more
enlightened, perceived the necessity of establishing laws
for the protection of the dead. «
At Athens the law required that no person should be
interred before the third day; and in the greater part of
the cities of Greece a funeral did not take place till the
sixth or even the seventh day. When a man appeared to
have breathed his last, his body was generally washed by
ms nearest relations, with warm water mixed with wine.
They afterwards anointed it with oil; and covered it with
VOL. XII.
a dress commonly made of fine linen, according to the Interment,
custom of the Egyptians. This dress was white at Mes-
sina, Athens, and in the greater part of the cities of
Greece, where the dead body was crowned with flowers.
At Sparta it was of a purple colour, and the body was sur¬
rounded with olive leaves. The corpse was afterwards
laid upon a couch in the entry of the house, where it re¬
mained till the time of the funeral. At the magnificent
obsequies with which Alexander honoured Hephrestion,
the body was not burned until the tenth day.
The Romans, in the infancy of their empire, paid as
little attention to their dead as the Greeks had done. Aci-
lius Aviola having fallen into a lethargic fit, was supposed
to be dead; he was therefore carried to the funeral pile;
the fire was lighted up ; and though he cried out he was
still alive, he perished for want of speedy assistance. The
praetor Lamia met with the same fate. Tubero, who had
been praetor, was saved from the funeral pile. Ascle-
piades, a physician, who lived in the time of Pompey the
Great, about one hundred and twenty years before the
Christian era, returning from his country-house, observed
near the walls of Rome a grand convoy and a crowd of
people, who were in mourning, assisting at a funeral, and
showing every exterior sign of the deepest grief. Having
asked what was the occasion of this concourse, no one
made any reply. He therefore approached the pretend¬
ed dead body ; and imagining that he perceived signs
of life in it, he ordered the bystanders to take away
the flambeaux, to extinguish the fire, and to pull down
the funeral pile. On this a kind of murmur arose through¬
out the whole company. Some said that they ought to
believe the physician, whilst others turned both him and
his profession into ridicule. The relations, however,
yielded at length to the remonstrances of Asclepiades ;
they consented to defer the obsequies for a little; and
the consequence was that the pretended dead person was
restored to life. It appears that these examples, and seve¬
ral others of a similar kind, induced the Romans to delay
funerals longer, and to enact laws to prevent precipitate
interments.
At Rome, after allowing a sufficient time for mourning,
the nearest relation generally closed the eyes of the de¬
ceased ; and the body was bathed with warm water,
either to render it fitter for being anointed with oil, or to
re-animate the principle of life, which might remain sus¬
pended without* manifesting itself. Proofs were after¬
wards made to discover whether the person was really dead,
and these were often repeated during the time that the
body remained exposed ; for there were persons appointed
to visit the dead, and to prove their situation. On the
second day, after the body had been washed a second
time, it was anointed with oil and balm. Luxury in¬
creased to such a pitch in the choice of foreign perfumes
for this purpose, that under the consulship of Licinius
Crassus and Julius Ccesar, the senate forbade any per¬
fumes to be used except such as were the production of
Italy. On the third day the body was clothed according
to its dignity and condition. The robe called the prce-
texta was put upon magistrates, and a purple robe upon
consuls. For conquerors who had merited triumphal ho¬
nours, this robe was of gold tissue; for other Romans it
was white, and for the lower classes of the people black.
These dresses were often prepared at a distance, by the
mothers and wives of persons still in life. On the fourth
day the body was placed on a couch, and exposed in the
vestibule of the house, with the visage turned towards the
entrance, and the feet near the door; and in this situa¬
tion it remained till the end of the week. Near the couch
were lighted wax-tapers, a small box in which perfumes
were burned, and a vessel full of water for purification,
with which those who approached the body besprinkled
330
I N T
Interment, themselves. An old man belonging to those who furnish-
ed every thing necessary for funerals sat near the deceased,
with some domestics clothed in black. On the eighth day
the funeral rites were performed; but, to prevent the body
from corrupting before that time, salt, wax, the resinous
gum of the cedar, myrrh, honey, balm, gypsum, lime, as-
phaltum or bitumen of Judaea, and several other substances,
were employed. The body was carried to the pile with
the face uncovered, unless wounds, or the nature of the
disease, had rendered it loathsome and disgusting. In such
a case a mask was used, made of a kind of plaster, which
has given rise to the expression of funera larvata, used in
some of the ancient authors. This was the last method of
concealment which Nero made use of, after having caused
Germanicus to be poisoned; for the effect of the poison
had become very sensible, by livid spots, and the blackness
of the body; but a shower of rain happening to fall, it
washed the plaster entirely away, and thus the horrid
crime of fratricide was discovered.
In the primitive church the dead were washed and then
anointed; the body was wrapped up in linen, or clothed
in a dress of more or less value according to circumstances,
and it was not interred until after being exposed and kept
some days in the house. The custom of clothing the dead
is in France observed only in the case of princes and ec¬
clesiastics.
Notwithstanding the customs above recited, still, in many
places, and on numerous occasions in all places, too much
precipitation attends this last office ; or, if not precipitation,
a neglect of due precautions in regard to the body.
A man may fall into a syncope, and remain in that con¬
dition for a very considerable period of time. People in
this situation have been known to come to life when de¬
posited amongst the dead. A boy belonging to the hos¬
pital at Cassel appeared to have breathed his last; he was
carried into the hall where the dead were exposed, and was
wrapped up in a piece of canvass. Some time afterwards,
recovering from his lethargy, he recollected the place in
which he had been deposited, and crawling towards the
door, knocked against it with his foot. This noise was
luckily heard by the sentinel, who soon perceiving the
motion of the canvass, called for assistance. The youth
was immediately conveyed to a warm bed, and soon per¬
fectly recovered. Had his body been confined by close
bandages or ligatures, he would not have been able, in all
probability, to make himself be heard ; his unavailing ef¬
forts would have made him again fall into a syncope, and
he would have thus been buried alive.
We must not be astonished that the servants of an hos¬
pital should take a syncope for a real death, since even
the most enlightened persons have sometimes fallen into
errors of the same kind. Dr John Schmid relates, that a
young girl, seven years of age, after being afflicted for
some weeks with a violent cough, was all of a sudden freed
from this troublesome malady, and appeared to be in per¬
fect health. But some days afterwards, whilst playing
with her companions, the child fell down in an instant, as
if struck by lightning. A death-like paleness was diffused
over her face and arms; she had no apparent pulse, her
temples were sunk, and she showed no signs of sensation
when shaken or pinched. A physician, who was called,
and who believed her to be dead, in compliance with the
repeated and pressing request of her parents, attempted,
though without any hopes, to recall her to life ; and at
length, after several vain efforts, he made the soles of her
feet be smartly rubbed with a brush dipped in very strong
pickle. At the end of three quarters of an hour she was
observed to sigh ; she was then made to swallow some spi¬
rituous liquor; and she was soon afterwards restored to
life, much to the joy of her disconsolate parents. A cer¬
tain man having undertaken a journey in order to see his
brother, on his arrival at his house found him dead. Thislnt, J;
news affected him so much that it brought on syncope, ^ ^
and he himself was supposed to be in the like situation.
After the usual means had been employed to recall him to
life, it was agreed that his body should be dissected, to
discover the cause of so sudden a death; but the suppos¬
ed dead person overhearing this proposal, opened hisej'es,
started up, and immediately betook himself to his heels.
Cardinal Espinola, prime minister to Philip II. was not so
fortunate ; for, in the memoirs of Amelot de la Houssai,
we are informed that he put his hand to the knife with
which he was opened in order to be embalmed. In
short, almost every one knows that Vesalius, the father
of anatomy, having been sent for to open the body of
a woman subject to hysterics, who was supposed to be
dead, he perceived, on making the first incision, that she
was still alive; that this circumstance rendered him so
odious, that he wras obliged to fly; and that he was so
much affected by it, that he died soon afterwards. On
this occasion wre cannot forbear adding an event more re¬
cent, but not less melancholy. The Abbe Prevost, so
well known by his writings and the singularities of his
life, was seized with a fit of apoplexy, in the forest of
Chantilly, on the 23d of October 1763. His body was
carried to the nearest village, and the officers of justice
were proceeding to open it, when a "bry which he sent
forth terrified all the assistants, and convinced the sur¬
geon that the abbe was not dead ; but it was too late to
save him, as he had already received a mortal wound.
We shall conclude this article by subjoining, from Dr
Hawes’s Address to the Public, a few of the cases in which
this fallacious appearance of death is most likely to hap¬
pen, together with the respective modes of treatment
which he recommends.
In apoplectic and fainting fits, and in those arising from
any violent agitation of mind, and also when opium or
spirituous liquors have been taken in too great quantity,
there is reason to believe that the appearance of death
has been frequently mistaken for the reality. In these
cases, the means recommended by the Humane Society
for the Recovery of Drowned Persons should be persevered
in for several hours; and bleeding, which in similar cir¬
cumstances has sometimes proved pernicious, should be
used with great caution. In the two latter instances it
will be highly expedient, with the view of counteracting
the soporific effects of opium and spirits, to convey into
the stomach, by a proper tube, a solution of tartar emetic,
and by various other means to excite vomiting.
From the number of children carried off by convulsions,
and the certainty arising from undoubted facts that some
who have in appearance died from that cause have been
recovered, there is the greatest reason for concluding,
that many, in consequence of this disease, have been pre¬
maturely numbered amongst the dead; and that the fond
parent, by neglecting the means of recalling life, has of¬
ten been the guiltless executioner of her own offspring.
To prevent the commission of such dreadful mistakes, no
child whose life has been apparently extinguished by
convulsions should be consigned to the grave till the
means of recovery above recommended have been tried,
and, if possible, under the direction of some skilful prac¬
titioner of medicine, who may vary them as circumstances
seem to require.
When fevers arise in weak habits, or when the cure ol
these has been principally attempted by means of deple¬
tion, the consequent debility is often very great, and the
patient sometimes sinks into a state which bears so close
an affinity to that of death, that there is reason to suspect
it has too often deceived the bystanders, and induced them
to send for the undertaker when they should have had re¬
course to the succours of medicine. In such cases, volatiles,
I N T
I N T
331
t- eau de luce, for example, should be applied to the nose,
rubbed on the temples, and sprinkled about the bed ; hot
flannels, moistened with a strong solution of camphorated
x‘ spirit, may likewise be applied over the breast, and re¬
newed every quarter of an hour; and* as soon as the pa¬
tient is able to swallow, a teaspoonful of the strongest
cordial should be given every five minutes.
The same methods may also be used with propriety in
the small-pox, when the pustules sink, and death apparent¬
ly ensues ; and likewise in any other acute diseases, when
the vital functions are suspended from a similar case.
INTERMITTENT or Intermitting Fever, such fe¬
vers as go off and soon return again, in opposition to those
which are continual.
INTERPOLATION, amongst critics, denotes a spuri¬
ous passage inserted into the writings of some ancient au¬
thor.
Interpolation, in the modern algebra, signifies to find
an intermediate term of a series, its place in the series
being given. This method was first invented by Mr
Briggs, and applied by him to the calculation of loga¬
rithms.
INTERPOSITION, the situation of a body between
two others, so as to hide them, or prevent their action.
The eclipse of the sun is occasioned by an interposition
of the moon between the sun and the earth ; and that of
the moon by the interposition of the earth between the
sun and moon.
INTERPRETER, a person who explains the thoughts,
words, or writings, of some other. The word interpres,
according to Isidore, is composed of the preposition inter,
zuhpartes, as signifying a person in the middle between
two parties, to make them mutually understand each other’s
thoughts; whilst others derive it from inter, and prces,
fidejussor, that is, a person who serves as security between
two others who do not understand each other.
There have been many and keen debates about inter¬
preting Scripture. The Catholics contend that it belongs
absolutely to the church ; adding, that where she is silent,
reason may be consulted, but where she speaks, reason
is to be disregarded. The Protestants generally allow
reason to be the sovereign judge or interpreter, though
some amongst them have a strong regard to synods, and
others to the authority of the primitive fathers. Lastly,
there are those who have recourse to the spirit within
every person to interpret for them, which is what Bochart
calls avooupg rou
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the throne
is vacant in elective kingdoms ; seeing that, in such as
are hereditary, like ours, there is no such thing as an in¬
terregnum.
INTERREX, the magistrate who governs during an
interregnum. This magistrate was established in ancient
Rome, and was almost as old as the city itself. After the
death of Romulus there was an interregnum of a year, du¬
ring which the senators were interreges in their turn, five
days each.
After the establishment of consuls and of a common¬
wealth, though there were no kings, yet the name and
function of interrex was still preserved ; for, when the ma¬
gistrates were absent, or there was any irregularity in their
election, or they had abdicated, so that the comitia could
not be held, provided they were unwilling to create a dic¬
tator, they made an interrex, whose office and authority
lasted five days, and after this they appointed another.
To the interrex was delegated all the regal and consular
authority, and he performed all their functions. He as¬
sembled the senate, held comitia or courts, and took care
that the election of magistrates was made according to
rules. Indeed at first it was not the custom of the interrex
to hold comitia, at least we meet with no instance of it in
the Roman history. The patricians alone had the right Interroga-
of electing an interrex ; but this office fell with the repub- Lon'
lie, when the emperors made themselves masters of every- II
thing. J Interval.
INTERROGATION, Erotesis, a figure of rhetoric,
in which the passion of the speaker introduces a thing by
way of interrogation, to make its truth more conspicuous.
The interrogation is a kind of apostrophe which the
speaker makes to himself; and it must be owned that
this figure is suited to express most passions and emotions
of the mind, and that it serves also to press and bear down
an adversary, and generally adds an uncommon briskness,
action, force, and variety, to discourse.
Interrogation, in Grammar, is a point which serves
to distinguish those parts of a discourse, where the au¬
thor speaks as if he were asking questions. Its form is
this (?).
INTERSCENDENT, in Algebra, is applied to quan¬
tities, when the exponents of their powers are radical
quantities. Thus, x^y1, xya, &c. are interscendent quan¬
tities.
INTERSECTION, in Mathematics, the cutting of one
line or plane by another; or the point or line in which two
lines or two planes cut each other.
The mutual intersection of two planes is a right line.
The centre of a circle is in the intersection of two dia¬
meters. The central point of a regular or irregular figure
of four sides, is the point of intersection of the two diago¬
nals.
The equinoxes happen when the sun is in the intersec¬
tions of the equator and ecliptic.
INTERVAL, the distance or space between two ex¬
tremes, either in time or in place. The word comes from
the Latin intervallum, which, according to Isidore, signi¬
fies the space inter fossam et murum, between the ditch
and the wall; whilst others observe that the stakes or
piles driven into the ground in the ancient Roman bul¬
warks were called valla, and the interstices or vacant
spaces between them intervalla.
Interval, in Music. The distance between any given
sound and another, strictly speaking, is not measured by
any common standard of extension or duration, but ei¬
ther by immediate sensation, or by computing the differ¬
ence between the numbers of vibrations produced by two
or more sonorous bodies, in the act of sounding, during
the same given time. As the vibrations are slower and
fewer during the same instant, the sound is proportionally
lower or graver ; and, on the contrary, as during the same
period the vibrations increase in number and velocity,
the sounds are proportionally higher or more acute. An
interval in music, therefore, is properly the difference be¬
tween the number of vibrations produced by one sono¬
rous body of a certain magnitude and texture, and of
those produced by another of a different magnitude and
texture, in the same time.
Intervals are divided into consonant and dissonant. A
consonant interval is that whose extremes, or whose high¬
est and lowest sounds, when simultaneously heard, coa¬
lesce in the ear, and produce an agreeable sensation call¬
ed by Lord Kames a tertium quid. A dissonant interval,
on the contrary, is that whose extremes, simultaneously
heard, far from coalescing in the ear, and producing one
agreeable sensation, are each of them plainly distinguish¬
able from the other, produce a grating effect upon the
sense, and repel each other with an irreconcileable hosti¬
lity. In proportion as the vibrations of different sonorous
bodies, or of the same sonorous body in different modes,
more or less frequently coincide during the same given
time, the chords are more or less consonant. When
these vibrations never coincide at all in the same given
time, the discord is consummate, and consequently the
332
I N U
Inunda¬
tion.
Intestate interval absolutely dissonant. For a full account of these,
see Music.
INTESTATE, in Law, a person who dies without mak¬
ing a will.
INTONATION, in Music, the action of sounding the
notes in the scale with the voice, or any other given order
of musical tones. Intonation may either be true or false,
too high or too low, too sharp or too flat; and then this'
word intonation, attended with an epithet, must be under¬
stood concerning the manner of performing the notes.
In executing an air, to form the sounds, and preserve
the intervals as they are marked, with justness and accu¬
racy, is no inconsiderable difficulty, and scarcely practi¬
cable, but by the assistance of one common idea, to which,
as to their ultimate test, these sounds and intervals must
be referred. These common ideas are those of the key,
and the mode in which the performer is engaged; and
from the word tone, which is sometimes used in a sense al¬
most identical with that of the key, the word intonation may
perhaps be derived. It may also be deduced from the word
diatonic, as in that scale it is most frequently conversant;
a scale which appears most convenient and natural to the
voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of such
intervals as are greater or less than those of the diatonic
order; because, in the first case, the glottis and vocal or¬
gans are modified by gradations too large; or too com¬
plex, in the second.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, is any work
which fortifies a post against the attack of an enemy. It
is generally taken for a ditch or trench with a parapet.
Intrenchments are sometimes made of fascines with earth
thrown over them, or of gabions, hogsheads, or bags filled
with earth, to cover the men from the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an assemblage of events or circumstan¬
ces occurring in an affair, and perplexing the persons con¬
cerned in it. In this sense it is used to signify the nodus
or plot of a play or romance ; or that point in which the
principal characters are most embarrassed, through the
artifice and opposition of certain persons, or the unfortu¬
nate falling out of certain accidents and circumstances.
INTRASCA, a city of the kingdom of Sardinia, in the
province Pallanza, on Lake Maggiore, containing a nun¬
nery, two churches, 320 houses, and 4570 inhabitants.
Here are considerable manufactures of linen goods, hats,
glass, and other wares.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the real and genuine
values and properties of any thing, in opposition to their
extrinsic or apparent qualities.
INTRODUCTION, in general, signifies any thing
which tends to make another in some measure known, be¬
fore we have leisure or proceed to examine it thorough¬
ly ; and hence it is used on a great variety of occasions.
The term is also used to signify the actual motion of any
body out of one place into another, when that motion has
been occasioned by some other body.
INTUITION, amongst logicians, the act by which the
mind perceives the agreement or disagreement of two
ideas, immediately by themselves, without the interven¬
tion of any other ; in which case the mind perceives the
truth as the eye does the light, only by being directed to¬
wards it. See Metaphysics.
INTUITIVE Evidence is that which results from in¬
tuition. Dr Campbell distinguishes different sorts of
intuitive evidence; one resulting purely from intellection,
another kind arising from consciousness, and a third sort
from that faculty called common sense, which this inge¬
nious writer contends to be a distinct original source of
knowledge; but others refer its supposed office to be in¬
tuitive power of the understanding.
INUNDATION, a sudden overflowing of the dry land
by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, springs, or rains.
I N V
INVALID, a person wounded, maimed, or disabled for Invai
action by age. !1 j
1NVECTED, in Heraldry, denotes a thing fluted or Inver
furrowed. See Heraldry.
INVECTIVE, in Rhetoric, differs from reproof, as the
latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for the good
of the person reproved ; whereas invective is the work of
an enemy, and entirely designed to vex and give uneasi¬
ness to the person against whom it is directed.
INVENTION denotes the art of finding any thing
new, or even the thing thus found. Thus we say, the in¬
vention of gunpowder, the invention of printing, and so on.
Invention is also used for the finding of a thing hid¬
den. The Roman Catholic church celebrates a feast on
the 4th of May, under the title of the invention of the holy
cross.
Invention is also used for subtilty of mind, or some¬
thing peculiar to a man’s genius, which leads him to dis¬
cover things new ; in which sense we say, a man of inven¬
tion.
Invention, in Painting, is the choice which the pain¬
ter makes of the objects that are to enter into the com¬
position of his piece.
Invention, in Poetry, is applied to whatever the poet
adds to the history of the subject he has chosen, as well
as to the new turn he gives it.
Invention, in Rhetoric, signifies the finding out and
choosing of certain arguments which the orator is to use
for proving or illustrating his point, moving the passions
or conciliating the minds of his hearers. Invention, ac¬
cording to Cicero, is the principal part of oratory; and be
wrote four books De Inventions, of which we have but two
remaining.
INVERARY, a royal burgh of Scotland, and capital of
the county of Argyle. It is delightfully situated on the
west bank of Loch Fine, near its upper extremity, at the
distance of 102 miles west by north of Edinburgh, 60
north-west from Glasgow, and thirty to the south-east of
Oban. In front of the town is the small bay of Loch
Fine, environed by romantic and woody hills; whilst, on its
north side, with extensive and beautiful pleasure-grounds,
stands the castle of Inverary, the seat of the ducal house
of Argyle. Behind this spacious mansion the river Ary
joins the loch, and from its margin rises the pyramidal
hill of Duinicoich, to an elevation of seven hundred feet,
embellished and wooded to the summit. The town of
Inverary is small, consisting principally of a line of houses
facing the lake. The town originally stood on the north
side of the bay, but was removed by the proprietor to its
present site. Within these few years several elegant re¬
sidences have been erected, and the houses are generally
well built. The town possesses a very comfortable modern
church, a jail and court-house, with a parish, grammar, and
charity school; the two latter being supported by the
Argyle family. The herring fishery is the chief trade
carried on here; and for the convenience of maritime
traffic there is a well-built quay, which projects so far in¬
to the bay as to admit of vessels of considerable burden
loading and unloading at low water. Inverary was an
early seat of the Argyle family, under whose influence
it was created a royal burgh by Charles I. in 1648, du¬
ring his residence at Caresbrook Castle. By this arrange¬
ment its civic government consists of a provost, two bailies,
a dean of guild, a treasurer, and a council appointed by the
duke. The revenue arises from the petty customs, the rent
of a common, and an annuity of L.20 conferred upon it
by Duke Archibald. The castle is the principal object oi
attraction in this part of the county. It is a square edifice,
built to replace one of more ancient date, and is construct¬
ed with a tower at each corner. The scenery around this
elegant mansion attracts universal admiration, and the de-
I
N
V
I N V
>.?•
orations of the interior of the building are of correspond- courts. Besides the established church, which is an ele- Inver-
i splendour. The collection of old Highland armour gant modern building, there is an United Associate Synod lochy
which is to be found within the saloon, is particularly meeting-house. There is a public grammar-school, with InvJ|u„s
worthy of attention. No less than L.30,000 are said to other private seminaries of education. No manufactures
have been expended in building, planting, improving, are carried on in the town, but in the neighbourhood there is
making roads, and in other works or utility and decoration an extensive distillery, a magnesia work, and some salt-
in and°around the castle. During summer Inverary is re- pans. The chief trade of the place consists in the ship-
sorted to by an immense number of travellers. It can be ment of coal, of which article large quantities are here em-
proached from Glasgow by three routes, all of which barked. Railways have been laid between the coal-pits
are more or less calculated to delight the lover of the and the harbour. The port of Inverkeithing is, by autho-
sublime or beautiful in nature. First, there are steam- rity, a place where vessels ride quarantine; and here go-
boats which sail down the Clyde, touching at Greenock vernment has stationed a body of officers, with a lazaretto,
and Rothesay, then through the tortuous and beautiful on shore. In 1821 the population amounted to about
strait called the Kyles of Bute, and finally up the long arm 1400, and in 1831 to 3189.
of the sea called Loch Fine, near the head of which Inve- INVERLOCHY, or Innerlochy, a place in the West
rary is situated. The second route is more direct, andoc- Highlands of Scotland, in the county of Inverness. It is
cupies only about one half the time of the former. After situated on the east shore of Loch Eil, near the spot
passino- down the Clyde, a small arm of the sea called where that arm of the sea is joined by the Caledonian
Holy Loch is entered ; and the traveller, after disembark- Canal. The town of Fort William lies contiguous to it on
inn- at the small village of Kilmun, crosses a wild vale of a the south. According to legendary lore, this place is de-
few miles in length, and then enters upon the beautiful dared to be the site of a city once the greatest in Scot-
inland lake called Loch Eck, at the top of which he is land, and that here King Achaius signed a treaty with
transferred over land to the shores of Loch Fine. The Charlemagne. The remains of the ancient pavement of
third route involves the famous scenery of Loch Lomond streets are ostentatiously pointed to as corroborating these
and Glencoe, and is somewhat more circuitous than that fanciful conjectures; but if ever a town existed here,
just mentioned. By all these routes, scenery combining many ages have elapsed since the last vestige of it disap-
the grand with the beautiful is opened up to the eye of peared, and nothing now remains but a huge quadrangu-
the tourist. The population of the town and parish amount- lar edifice, styled Inverlochy Castle, which towers in soli-
ed in 1821 to 1137, and in 1831 to 2133. ‘ tary magnificence, and has survived all tradition respect-
INVERBERVIE, or Bervie, a town of Scotland, in ing its origin. The building forms a court, and is pro-
Kincardineshire, and a royal burgh in virtue of a charter vided at the angles with round towers, of the most massive
of David II. dated 1362, and renewed by James YI. in proportions, the whole fabric covering a space of 1600
1595. It is situated on the sea-coast, at the mouth of a yards. Inverlochy gives its name to one ot the most
stream called Bervie, between two small hills, which ter- brilliant victories of the Marquis of Montrose, which he
minatein high cliffs towards the sea, at thirteen miles dis- gained in February 1645.
tance north-east from Montrose. The first machine for INVERNESS, the only large town in the county, and
spinning flax in Scotland was erected at Bervie, which usually styled the capital ol the Highlands, is finely situat-
still carries on this manufacture to £n inconsiderable extent, ed on the banks of the river Ness, where it falls into the
It unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, and Forfar, Moray Frith. The ancient and principal part of the town
in returning a member to parliament. In 1831 the popu- is on the east side of the river ; but, since the construction
lation amounted to 1137. of the Caledonian Canal, houses and streets are extending
INVERKEITHING, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the towards the west. Some writers have invested Inverness
county of Fife, is agreeably situated in a bay called St with a fabulous antiquity. It is certain that it was one of
Margaret’s Hope, on the north shores of the Frith of Forth, the Pictish capitals, was early incorporated as a free town,
at the distance of thirteen miles from Kirkaldy, twenty- and received four charters from William the Lion. In
eight from Stirling, four from Dunfermline, and about four- 1412, Inverness was burned by Donald, Lord of the Isles,
teen from Edinburgh. It stands on the brow of an acclivi- on his march to the battle of Harlaw. A castle stood to
ty which rises from the margin of the bay, and consists of the east of the town, in which Macbeth is said to have
one main street of considerable length, with diverging lines murdered King Duncan. This fortress was razed to the
and thoroughfares, and a number of houses erected in the ground by Malcolm Ceanmore, and another built on an
neighbourhood of the harbour. Inverkeithing is a town of eminence by the river side, which continued as a royal
very considerable antiquity. The first existing grant which fortress till blown up by the troops of the Pretender in
it possesses is one from William the Lion, confirming one 1746. I his hill is now the site of a beautiful castellated
of an earlier but unknown date, by which grant the burgh structure, containing the court-house, county-rooms, and
was endowed with a jurisdiction over the adjacent county record office, built in 1835. In the centre of the burgh
to an extent of at least twenty miles each way. Within is the town-hall, erected in 1708, in front of which is
these limits the civic authorities possessed considerable placed the ancient cross of the burgh, and a large circular
powers and privileges, some of which remain to this day. stone, or collection of stones, bound round w ith iron hoops,
James VI. confirmed the writ of the burgh in 1598. The called Clach-na-cuden, or Stone ot the lubs, on which the
civic government is exercised by a provost and high sheriff, servants used to rest their pails in carrying water from the
two bailies, a dean of guild, and treasurer, annually elect- river. At the northern extremity of the town are the remains
ed by the councillors and deacons of the trades. This of a fort built by Oliver Cromwell, capable of accommo-
town, in times of remote antiquity, is said to have been the dating 1000 men. I he site of this erection, part of the
residence of many noble families ; and David I. is known ramparts of which still remain, has been converted into a
to have had a minor palace here. An old antique tene- manufactory for thread and sacks. I here are two biidges
ment is also pointed out as having been the abode of Queen over the river Nessj one a handsome stone bridge of seven
Annabella Drummond, the consort of Robert III. and mo- arches, buiit by public subscription in 1685, and the other
ther of the first James. Before Edinburgh obtained the a strong wooden bridge, erected about twenty years ago.
honour, Inverkeithing was the place where the convention In 1826, gas was introduced for lighting the town; and in
of royal burghs was regularly held. The burgh possesses 1830, the supplying it with water, conveyed in pipes from
a neat town-house, containing a jail with apartments for the river, was carried into effect. In 1831 the streets oi
334 I N V I N V
Inverness- Inverness were paved anew with granite, and common
shire, sewers made, the whole costing about L.6000. The jail,
which is small and inconvenient, was built in 1791, at an
expense of L. 1800, and is ornamented with a fine spire,
which cost L.1600 more. There are two churches be¬
longing to the establishment, one for English and the
other for Gaelic, which is still spoken by the lower class
of the inhabitants, especially in the country. It is in con¬
templation to erect a new church, for which large subscrip¬
tions have been received. A handsome Catholic chapel
was erected in 1835. There is a neat Episcopalian chapel,
and places of worship for the Seceders, the Independents,
and Methodists. Inverness has also a royal academy, at
which about 250 pupils attend. Races were formerly held
here, but they have been discontinued for several years.
There are assembly rooms, elegantly fitted up. There are
four banking establishments in Inverness, two weekly news¬
papers, and two public reading-rooms. No town has im¬
proved so rapidly in the arts and embellishments of social
life ; but its admirable situation for trade has not been
% sufficiently improved. The steam-boats between Inverness
and Glasgow have increased the traffic in this direction ;
and were a woollen manufactory, or other undertaking of
a similar nature, established, the Caledonian Canal and the
Moray Frith, affording an unlimited command of water¬
power in every direction, might be turned to great advan¬
tage. The population of the town and parish in 1831
amounted to 14,324, that of the town alone being 9663.
OP the present population, 529 families are chiefly engaged
in agriculture, 1015 families employed in trade, and 1766
not included in either of these classes.
INVERNESS-SHIRE, the most extensive county in
Scotland, situated between 56° 40' and 57° 36' north lati¬
tude, and between 3° 50' and 5° 50' west longitude from
Greenwich, is bounded on the north by the shires of Ross
and Cromarty ; on the east by those of Aberdeen, Banff,
Moray, and Nairn, and by the Moray Frith ; on the south
by the counties of Perth and Argyle ; and on the west by
the Atlantic Ocean. It is from fifty to seventy-five miles
in length ; in breadth from thirty to fifty miles ; and its
area is computed at 3036 square miles, of which the space
occupied by lakes has been estimated at 132 miles, and the
land at 2904, or 1,858,560 English acres.
The exterior outline of this county is exceedingly irre¬
gular. On the north-east, where the county town is situ¬
ated, a narrow tract runs out between Nairnshire and the
Moray Frith. Farther to the east, a portion of it is de¬
tached and enclosed by the counties of Moray and Banff;
Argyleshire penetrates into it from the south-west; and
on the west it is indented by Lochs Moidart, Aylort, Ne¬
vis, Hourn, and other arms of the sea.
The surface is still more varied, consisting of ranges of
lofty mountains, alternating with deep narrow valleys, the
beds of a great many lakes and rivers. The most promi¬
nent feature is Glenmore, or the Great Glen, for the most
part a mile in breadth, and bounded on either side by pre¬
cipitous high grounds, which traverses the county from
south-west to north-east, dividing it into two nearly equal
parts. In this glen, from north to south, are Loch Ness,
Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy, which, being united by the
Caledonian Canal, form a line of inland navigation be¬
tween the east and west seas, or from the Moray Frith
on the north-east, to Linnhe Loch, an arm of the Atlan¬
tic, on the south-west, a distance of about sixty miles, for
frigates of thirty-two guns, and vessels of 600 tons. Loch
Ness is remarkable for never freezing, a circumstance
ascribed to its great depth ; and for its waters having been
violently agitated during the great earthquake at Lisbon
in November 1755. On each side of this valley there is
a number of glens and straths, separated by mountain¬
ous ridges, with lakes which receive the waters from the
high grounds, and discharge them by outlets, partly intoInvcr
the lakes in the central valley, and partly, by a more di- shi>
rect course, into the arms of the Atlantic on the west, or
by rivers wdiich flow from this county into the counties on
the east, and thence into the German Ocean.
The western side, or the country between the great
valley and the Atlantic, from Argyleshire on the south
to Ross-shire on the north, a distance of about seventy
miles, is the most wild and mountainous tract of Inver¬
ness-shire, and is therefore known by the name of the
Rough Bounds ; yet, before reaching the sea-coast, the
general elevation is somewhat diminished. In this tract,
beginning at the south, the principal divisions are, Moi¬
dart, Arasaig, Morar, Knoidart, and Glenelg, which
contain a variety of glens or valleys, among which are,
Glengarry, Glen Moriston, Glen Urquhart, and Strath-
glass. The most considerable lakes in this quarter are,
Loch Eil, Loch Shiel, Loch Arkaig, Loch Garry, and Loch
Maddy. Lochan Lain, in the parish of Kilmorack, about
forty miles west from Beauly, is said to have been known
to remain frozen all the year through. On the east side
of the valley lies the extensive district of Badenoch; at
its southern termination is Lochaber; and at its northern
the Aird, the most fertile part of the county. These di¬
visions also include a great many glens, lakes, and rivers,
extensive woodlands, and not a little productive land.
The principal valleys here are Glenroy, noted for its pa¬
rallel roads, which, it is now agreed, must have been form¬
ed by the gradual subsidence of the waters, and not by
the hand of man; Strathspey, Stratherrick, Strathearn,
and Strathnairn. Treig, Ericht partly in Perthshire,
Laggan, Insch, and Moy, are the names of the most con¬
siderable of the lochs in this quarter; and here the Spey,
the Findhorn, and the Nairn, and a number of smaller
streams, have their source.
The general aspect of Inverness-shire may be further
conceived, when it is stated that two thirds of the surface
are covered with heath; that only a fortieth part is corn
land ; and that the corn land, woodlands, and green pas¬
tures, together, do not exceed eight acres in an hundred.
In many large tracts heath prevails to such a degree that,
for twelve or fourteen miles, scarcely any verdure is to be
seen, except where a solitary rivulet has occasionally
overflowed its banks. On the south of Badenoch there
is a flat of deep moss, supposed to be the most extensive
in Britain, in which a great number of small lakes are in¬
terspersed, some of them containing wooded isles, where
the deer, from the inaccessible nature of the ground, find
shelter from their pursuers. But the far greater part of
the county is occupied with mountains. Ben Nevis, 4380
feet high, stands on the south-west, a little to the east
of the Caledonian Canal ; Meal Fourvounie, on the west
of Loch Ness, is more than 3000 feet high ; and Cairn¬
gorm, partly in Banffshire, upwards of 4000. It has been
remarked, as a singular circumstance, that several of the
hills, which are covered with heath on the sides, are green
on the summit, and produce valuable pasturage. The pro¬
ductive land lies chiefly on the sea-coast, and along the
banks of the lakes and rivers ; much of it in the latter si¬
tuation is alluvial and fertile. There is also clay in a few
places; but the prevailing soil is sand, or a sandy loam,
well adapted to the growth of barley, potatoes, turnips,
and other green crops.
The principal rivers of Inverness-shire are, the Spey,
which rises from a loch of that name, a little to the east
of the Great Valley, and, flowing in a course from south¬
west to north-east for about ninety-six miles, falls into the
sea about eight miles east of Elgin, in Morayshire, carry¬
ing with it the waters of 1300 square miles; the Ness,
which issues from Loch Ness, and, flowing through the
town of Inverness, falls into the Moray Frith, after a
INVERNESS-SHIRE.
335
„ ?ss- course of six miles ; the Lochy issues from Loch Lochy,
sH - and has a course of teii miles westward, till it falls into
^ ^ Loch Eil near Fort William ; soon after it leaves its pa¬
rent lake, it is joined, from the east, by the Spean, which
is remarkable for being crossed by a bridge, two of the
arches of which are ninety-five feet high ; and the Beauly,
which has its source in the north-west, and carries the
united waters of the Glass and other two rivulets into
the frith of the same name. The Findhorn and Nairn
on the east, and the Garry and the Morriston on the
west, are smaller streams. The Foyers, which flows into
Loch Ness from the south, is remarkable for its celebrat¬
ed falls, one of which, according to Dr Garnet, is seventy
feet, and the other, half a mile lower, 212 feet. There are
cascades not inferior to these in the parish of Kilmorack,
on the waters which unite to form the Beauly, and at
Loch Leven head in the southern quarter; near which
last place there are also some remarkable caverns.
Granite, limestone, slate, marble, brick-clay, abound in
many parts of Inverness-shire. Lead has been discovered
in Ben Nevis, and at three other places in that neighbour¬
hood, and also at Glengarry, but none of it is wrought.
A vein of plumbago has also been found at Glengarry. A
great part of the mountain of Ben Nevis is composed of
beautiful porphyry. There is no coal, and for want of it
much of the limestone is of little value.
From the trees found in great numbers, and some of
them of a remarkable size, in all the mosses, there is rea¬
son to believe that this country was, at an early period, al¬
most covered with wood ; and at present there is a greater
space covered with natural pines here than in all the rest
of Britain. In Strathspey it is said that three tiers of
stocks have been found, directly above one another, in a
moss; from which it is inferred that the deepest must have
come to maturity, and been destroyed, before the one next
above it was formed. In the same district there are about
15,000 acres of natural firs, besides 7000 of planted firs
and larches; and the natural woods on Loch Arkaig, in
Glengarry, Glenmoriston, Strathglass, Strathfarrer, and at
the head of Loch Shiel, are also very extensive. Full-
grown trees of ash, lime, beech, oak, plane, and moun¬
tain-ash, are found at Castle Grant, Culloden, and Bella-
drum, in the northern quarter of the county; but in most
other places the woods are in the state of coppice. The
birch is in great abundance on the sides of Loch Ness, Loch
Laggan, about Rothiemurchus, and in the vale of Urquhart.
Part of the great Caledonian Forest extends for several
miles near the boundary of this county with Perthshire.
Considerable tracts have been planted, chiefly with firs and
larches, particularly in the north-east, where the county
town is situated, in Badenoch, and on Loch Eil.
There are several fishing villages on the east coast, yet
the sea-fishery is not prosecuted to a great extent. But
the arms of the sea, and the numerous lakes and rivers, af¬
ford an abundant supply of fish. The herring occasionally
visits Loch Eil; salmon yield a considerable rent on the
rivers Lochy, Beauly, and Ness, and are found also in the
Morrer, in Loch Insch in Badenoch, and at Invermoriston.
Char is caught in several of the lochs, and flounders and
sprats in the Beauly. The moors and woodlands are plen¬
tifully stocked with game, viz. red and roe deer, the Alpine
and common hare, black game and ptarmigan, grouse, part¬
ridges, &c.; and pheasants have lately been introduced.
Foxes and wild cats are still numerous, and, in the lakes
and rivers, otters. There are also eagles, hawks, and owls ;
and a multitude of water fowls, particularly swans, resort
to Loch Insch, and the other lakes of Badenoch.
The territory of Inverness-shire is divided into estates
of great extent, and, in proportion to the rental of the
county, of great value. In 1804i more than the half, if we
may judge from the old valuation, belonged to seven pro- Inverness-
prietors, and as much more was held by other six, as made shire,
the possessions of these thirteen individuals equal to
more than two thirds of the whole ; each of them, at a me¬
dium, must, therefore, have contained about 100,000 acres.
There are thirty-nine estates valued at above L.500, and
thirty-five estates below L.500 and above L.100. The
greatest landed proprietors are Lord Macdonald, the Earl
of Seafield, Mr Fraser of Lovat, Mackintosh of Mackintosh,
Macleod of Macleod, Macdonell of Glengarry, Colonel Ca¬
meron of Lochiel, Lord Glenelg, the Earl of Moray, Chis¬
holm of Chisholm, Colonel Macniel of Barra, Lord Dun-
more, Mr Grant of Ballindalloch, Mr Stewart of Belladrum,
Mr Baillie of Lochaber, Mr Grant of Glenmoriston, &c.
The valuation taken in 1601 was L.73,188. 9s. Scots, and
in 1811 the real rent of the lands was L.195,843. 15s.
sterling, and of the houses, L.9235. 2s. sterling. The
valuation taken in 1814 was L.152,078. 12s. 2^d.; but this
sum is nothing like the real rent, being made, merely for
collecting the property tax. There are several estates of
very considerable income, though not of great extent, such
as Muirtown, Insches, Culduthell, and others. The old
valuation of the whole of Scotland, as fixed about the
middle of last century, and which is still the rule by which
county assessments are imposed, is to the actual rent of
the lands alone in 1811, as L.l Scots is to L.1.263 ster¬
ling ; whereas in this county, rents have risen in so much
greater a proportion than in the rest of Scotland, chiefly
perhaps owing to the introduction of sheep-farming, that
its valuation is to its actual rent only as L.l Scots is to
L.2.675 sterling; and it is worthy of remark, that this rise
cannot be ascribed in any considerable degree to the out¬
lay of capital by proprietors, in building or otherwise, as
in most other parts of Scotland.
Of the occupiers of the land, tacksmen, small tenants,
and cottars, 'of the size of the farms, and the rural econo¬
my of the county generally, we have little to say in ad¬
dition to what we have already offered under the Highland
counties of Scotland in the preceding part of this work.
Small spots of corn-land contiguous to the hamlets, of
which the alternate ridges or lands belong to different cul¬
tivators, who used to interchange their allotments once a
year, and more recently only once in three years; a larger
space of outfield beyond this, part of which is constantly
cropped till it is exhausted, and then left to nature, when
another part, which had been treated in the same manner,
but which has been somewhat restored in the mean while
by the folding of cattle, takes its place; and beyond this
outfield, separated from the higher grounds by a head dike,
large tracts of common pasture ; these, with their miserable
huts, their irregular and always inefficient labour, their in¬
dolence, and their poverty, present a striking picture of
what must have been the condition of the great body of
the people of Scotland during the feudal ages; but it is
not now, as it was then, somewhat relieved by hospitality
and protection on the one side, and respect, gratitude, and
attachment, on the other.
This system, indeed, has been gradually approaching to
its termination during the last thirty years, and in some
parts of Inverness-shire it exists no longer in its original
form. The change has been chiefly effected by the intro¬
duction of sheep, which has occasioned many complaints,
and probably much real suffering for a time to many indivi¬
duals, but which is likely in the end to be most advanta¬
geous to the public at large. With respect to its effect on
population, one main topic of declamation, it has not been
such as its opponents allege; for the population of Inver¬
ness-shire, any more than of the Highlands in general, has
not diminished. On the contrary, its increase in this
county, from 1755 to 1811, has been much greater than in
336
INVERNESS-SHIRE.
Inverness- Haddingtonshire and the other merely agricultural dis- and a variety of castles, of which Inverlochy Castle a I
shire, tricts of Scotland. Within that period, it has increased building of great extent and unknown antiquity, on the "sH
'~'w/ from 64,656 to 78,336, or upwards of twenty-one per cent., banks of the Lochy, near Fort William, is, perhaps, the
whilst that of all Scotland has not been more than forty- most remarkable. On a hill near Inverness, called the
four per cent.; and it is well known that the far greater Castle Hill, stood the castle of the Thane of Cawdor
part of this apparently general increase has been occasion- where Macbeth is said to have murdered Duncan. It was
ed by the extension of manufactures and commerce, and razed by Malcolm Ceanmore, who removed the town to
is chiefly confined to a few districts. the northward, where it now stands, granted its first char-
The principal exports are cattle, sheep, wool, timber, ter, and built a fortress on the site of the old town, which
and slates. The corn grown in the county, chiefly bear or was repaired in 1715, and finally demolished in 1765.
big, and oats, and only on the east coast wheat, is all con- Cromwell erected a citadel at the mouth of the river
sumed within itself, much of the bear in illicit distillation ; Ness, which was demolished by Charles II.
as well as all the potatoes, the most important article of There is a chain of forts stretching across the island
food for the greater part of the year; and the products of along the line of the Caledonian Canal. Fort George is a
the dairy. It imports coals, lime, flour, oatmeal, groceries, regular fortress, mounting eighty guns, with barracks for
and other articles of domestic consumption. The manu- 3000 men ; it was begun in 1747, and completed in twenty
factures are, bagging from hemp, thread, kelp to a consi- years, at an expense of about L. 160,000. It is situated
derable extent on the west coast, with some tiles and eleven miles eastward from Inverness, upon a neck of
bricks. There are also tan-works, breweries, bleachfields, land on the Moray Frith, opposite to Fortrose in Ross-
and an iron-foundery ; and some attempts have been made shire. Fort Augustus, also a regular fortification, though
at different periods to carry on branches of the woollen a place of no great strength, with four bastions, and bar-
manufacture. racks for 400 men, is situated at the west end of Loch
From the west sea a few vessels come up to Fort Wil- Ness, nearly midway between the east and west seas. It
liam, from which the exports are wool, skins, herrings, was first built in 1730, at some distance from Loch Ness;
kelp, and slates. The most considerable village is Mary- but having been demolished by the rebels in 1745, it was
burgh, or Gordonsburgh, near Fort William. Grantown afterwards rebuilt nearer the lake. Fort William, built
is a neatly built village on the great road along the Spey, in the reign of William III., is situated on a navigable arm
and, under the auspices of Sir James Grant, the proprietor, of the sea, called Loch Eil, at the south-western termi-
it has made considerable progress. It contains a town- nation of the great valley* These forts are now useless
house and prison, with a well-endowed school; and a few in a military point of view, though kept in a state of good
years ago a factory was begun for carding and spinning repair, and answering as barracks for a few soldiers. On
wool, and for making blankets and woollen cloths. Fairs Culloden Moor, a level heath to the eastward of Inver-
are held for the sale of cattle, sheep, and wool, at Fort ness, on the 16th April 1746, was fought the battle which
W illiam, Beauly, Grantown, and Kingussie, and four in put an end to the rebellion of 1745; the greater part of
the year in Inverness, where there is also a well-supplied this heath is now covered with plantations,
market every Tuesday and Friday. Some years back an Inverness-shire contains twenty-eight entire parishes,
easy communication was formed throughout the greater and shares several others with the counties of Argjle,
part of the county, by means of the roads made under the Nairn, and Moray. Of these, twenty are on the mainland,
direction of theParliamentary Commissioners for Highland and the remainder in its islands. Some of the parishes on
Roads and Bridges, half the expense of which is borne by the mainland, as well as in the islands, would form a square
the county, and the other half is granted by paidiament. of twenty miles each. Kilmalie and Kilmorack are still
Amongst the antiquities of Inverness-shire, which we larger, extending in length about sixty miles, and in
can only notice generally, are the circles of stones ascrib- breadth almost thirty. Many of the inhabitants are Ro-
ed to the Druids, which are found in many parts of the man Catholics, particularly in the districts of Moidart,
county, particularly at Corrimony in its northern quarter ; Arasaig, Morar, and Knoidart, on the west side. The
two artificial mounts in the parish of Petty, supposed to county sends one member to parliament, and the town of
have been places for administering justice; round build- Inverness, along with Forres, Nairn, and Fortrose, choose
ings, called Piets’ Houses, in Glenelg, and other parts; one for the burghs. The sheriff holds courts at four
forts, built without mortar, one of which, called Castle places, two of which, Inverness and Fort William, are for
Spynie, two miles east from the church of Beauly, en- the mainland, and two more for the isles in Skye and Long
closes a circle of fifty-four yards, and another, in the pa- Island. The population of the whole shire in 1811, 1821,
rish of Laggan, stands on a rock, a hundred yards in per- and 1831, is given in the annexed table. (See the Statis-
pendicular height; vitrified forts on the hill of Craig tical Account of Scotland; Playfair’s Description of Scot-
Phadric, about two miles from Inverness, Dundhairdghall land; Robertson’s Survey of Inverness-shire; The Beauties
in Glen Nevis, and Dun Thion near the river Beauly; of Scotland, vol. v.; and the General Report of Scotland.)
YEAR.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
14,646
17,055
17,312
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
16,014
18,324
19,046
215
413
440
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
9,594
10,215
9,892
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
3294
2447
2753
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
3126
5662
6401
Males.
35,722
42,304
44,510
PERSONS.
Females.
42,614
47,853
50,287
Total of
Persons.
78,336
90,157
94,797
I N V
jnT e INVERSE, the opposite of direct, is applied to a par-
I ticular form of proportion. See Arithmetic.
inv - INVERSION, the act by which any thing is inverted
ti' or turned backwards. Problems in geometry and arith-
Vl^' ^ metic are often proved by inversion; that is, by a con¬
trary rule or operation.
Inversion, in Grammar, is where the words of a phrase
are ranged in a manner not so natural as they might be.
For instance, “ Of all vices, the most abominable, and
that which least becomes a man, is impurity.” Here is an
inversion, the natural order being, “ Impurity is the most
abominable of all vices, and that which least becomes a
man.” An inversion is not always disagreeable, but
sometimes has a good effect.
INVERTED, in Music, signifies a change in the order
of the notes which form a chord, or in the parts that
compose harmony, which happens by substituting in the
bass, those sounds which ought to have been in the upper
part; an operation not only rendered practicable, but great¬
ly facilitated, by the resemblance which one note has to
another in different octaves. Hence we derive the power
of exchanging one octave for another, or substituting in
the extremes those which ought to have occupied the
middle station, and vice versa.
INVERURY, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the county
of Aberdeen, and capital of a parish of the same name.
It is pleasantly situated in the angle of land near the
confluence of the Urie and Don, at the distance of six¬
teen miles north-west of Aberdeen. The oldest charter
is a novodamus by Queen Mary, narrating that Inverury
had been a royal burgh from time immemorial, but that
the charter had been lost during the civil wars. Tra¬
dition relates that it was granted by Robert Bruce, after
he had gained a battle over the English at this place, the
first of that series of victories by which that monarch
achieved the independence of his country. The town is
small, and its trade is only in manufactures for local use.
Besides the parish church, there are two dissenting meet¬
ing-houses. The population of the burgh and parish
amounted in 1821 to 1129, and in 1831 to 1419.
INVESTIGATION properly denotes the searching
or finding out any thing by the tracts or prints of the
feet; and hence mathematicians, schoolmen, and gram¬
marians, have employed the term in their respective re¬
searches.
INVESTITURE, in Law, a giving livery of seisin or
possession. There was anciently a great variety of cere¬
monies used upon investitures, which at first were made by
a certain form of words, and afterwards by such things as
had the greatest resemblance to the thing to be transferred.
Thus, where lands were intended to pass, a turf was de¬
livered by the granter to the grantee. In the church, it
was customary for princes to make investiture of ecclesias¬
tical benefices, by delivering to the person they had chosen
a pastoral staff and a ring.
INVOCATION, in Theology, the act of adoring God,
and especially of addressing him in prayer for his assist¬
ance and protection.
The difference between the invocation of God and of the
saints, as practised by the Roman Catholics, is thus explain¬
ed in the catechism of the council of Trent. “ We beg of
God,” says the catechism, “ to give us good things, and to
deliver us from evil; but we pray to the saints to intercede
with God and obtain those things which we stand in need
of. Hence we use different forms in praying to God and
to the saints ; to the former we say, hear us, have mercy on
m ’ to the latter we only say, pray for us.” The council
of Trent expressly teaches that the saints who reign with
Jesus Christ offer up their prayers to God for men, and
condemns those who maintain the contrary doctrine. The
rotestants reject and censure this practice as contrary to
VOL. XU.
INV 337
Scripture, deny the truth of the fact, and think it highly Invocation
unreasonable to suppose that a limited finite being should ||
be in a manner omnipresent, and at one and the same lolas.
time hear and attend to the prayers which are offered to
him in England, China, and Peru; and hence they infer,
that if the saints cannot hear their requests, it is incon¬
sistent with common sense to address any kind of prayer
to them.
Invocation, in Poetry, an address at the beginning of a
poem, in which the poet calls for the assistance of some
divinity, particularly of his muse, or the deity of poetry.
INVOICE, an account, in writing, of the particulars of
merchandise, with the value, customs, charges, &c. thereof,
transmitted by one merchant to another in a distant coun¬
try.
INVOLUCRUM, amongst botanists, expresses that sort
of cup which surrounds a number of flowers, every one of
which has, besides this general cup, its own particular peri-
anthium. The involucrum consists of a multitude of little
leaves disposed in a radiated manner.
INVOLUTION, in Algebra, the raising any quantity
from its root to any height or power assigned. See Alge¬
bra.
10, in fabulous history, daughter of Inachu^, or, accord¬
ing to others, of Jasus or Pirene, was priestess of Juno at
Argos. Jupiter became enamoured of her; but Juno,
jealous of his intrigues, discovered the object of his affec¬
tion, and surprised him in the company of lo. Jupiter
changed his mistress into a beautiful heifer ; and the god¬
dess, who well knew the fraud, obtained from her husband
the animal whose beauty she had condescended to com¬
mend. Juno commanded the hundred-eyed Argus to watch
the heifer; but Jupiter, anxious for the situation of lo,
sent Mercury to destroy Argus, and to restore her to liber¬
ty. lo, freed from the vigilance of Argus, was now per¬
secuted by Juno, who sent one of the Furies to torment
her. She wandered over the greater part of the earth,
and crossed the sea, till at last she stopped on the banks
of the Nile, still exposed to the unceasing torments of the
Fury. Here she entreated Jupiter to restore her to her
natural form ; and when the god had changed her from a
heifer into a woman, she brought forth Epaphus. After¬
wards she married Telegonus, king of Egypt, or Osiris ac¬
cording to others ; and she treated her subjects with such
mildness and humanity, that after death she received divine
honours, and was worshipped under the name of Isis. Ac¬
cording to Herodotus, lo was carried away by Phoenician
merchants, who wished to make reprisals for Europa, who
had been stolen from them by the Greeks.
IOLAIA, a festival at Thebes, the same as that called
Heracleia. It was instituted in honour of Hercules and
his friend Idas, who assisted him in conquering the hydra.
It continued during several days, on the first of which
wrere offered solemn sacrifices; the next day horse-races
and athletic exercises were exhibited; the following day
was set apart for wrestling ; and the victors were crowned
with garlands of myrtle generally used at funeral solemni¬
ties. But they were sometimes rewarded with tripods of
brass. The place where the exercises were exhibited was
called lolaion, where were to be seen the monument of
Amphitryon and the cenotaph of lolas, who was buried in
Sardinia. These monuments were covered with garlands
and flowers on the day of the festival.
Iolas, or Iolaus, in Fabulous History, a son of Iphi-
clus, king of Thessaly, who assisted Hercules in conquer¬
ing the hydra, and burned with a hot iron the place where
the heads had been cut off, to prevent the growth of others.
He was restored to youth and vigour by Hebe, at the re¬
quest of his friend Hercules. Some time afterwards lolas
assisted the Heracleidae against Eurystheus, and killed the
tyrant with his own hand. According to Plutarch, lolas
2 u
338
ION
ION
Ion had a monument in Bceotia and Phocis, where lovers used
M to go and bind themselves by the most solemn oaths of
fidelity, considering the place as sacred to love and friend¬
ship. According to Diodorus and Pausanias, Idas died
and was buried in Sardinia, where he had gone to make a
settlement at the head of the sons of Hercules by the fifty
daughters of Thespius.
ION, in fabulous history, a son of Xuthus, and Creiisa,
daughter of Drechtheus, who married Helice, the daughter
of Selinus king of iEgiale. He succeeded to the throne of
his father-in-law, and built a city, which he called Helice,
on account of his wife. His subjects received from him
the name of lonians, and the country that of Ionia. See
Ionia.
Ion, a tragic poet of Chios, who flourished about the
eighty-second Olympiad. His tragedies were represented
at Athens, where" they met with universal applause. He
is mentioned and greatly commended by Aristophanes,
Athemeus, and others.
IONA, or Icolmkill, one of the Hebrides, a small but
celebrated island, “ once,” as Dr Johnson expresses it,
“ the luminary of the Caledonian regions, whence savage
clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of know¬
ledge and the blessings of religion.” The name Iona is
derived from the Hebrew word signifying a dove, in allusion
to Columba, who landed here in 565. It is said to have been
a seat of the Druids before his arrival, when its name in
Irish was Inis Drunish, or the Druid Island. The Druids
being expelled or converted, Columba founded here a cell
of canons regular, who, till 716, differed from the church
of Rome in the observance of Easter and in the tonsure.
After his death the island retained his name, and was
called Ycolumb cill or Columb’s cell, now Icolmkill. The
Danes dislodged the monks in the seventh century, and the
Cluniacs were the next order who settled here.
This island, which belongs to the parish of Ross, in
Mull, is three miles long and one broad. The east side
is mostly flat, the middle rises into small hills, the west
side is very rude and rocky, and the whole forms a sin¬
gular mixture of rock and fertility. There is in the whole
island only one village, or rather collection of huts, inha¬
bited by a population of about 450 individuals, for whose
education and religious improvement a church and school-
house have been erected by the Society for the Diffusion
of Christian Knowledge. Near the town is the bay of the
martyrs who were put to death by the Danes. An ob¬
long enclosure, bounded by a stone dyke, and called
Clach-nan-Drainach, in which bones have been found, is
supposed to have been a burial-place of the Druids, or
rather the common cemetery of the town’s people. Be¬
yond the town are the ruins of the nunnery of Austin ca-
nonesses, dedicated to St Oran, and said to have been
founded by Columba. The church was fifty-eight feet by
twenty, and the eastern roof is entire. On the floor, co¬
vered deep with cow-dung, is the tomb of the last prior¬
ess, with her figure praying to the Virgin Mary, and this
inscription on the ledge : Ilicjacet domina Anna Donaldi
Ferleti Jilia, quondam prioressa de Jona, quce obiit an o ni°
d° xim0 ejus animam Altissimo commendamus ; and another
inscribed, Hie Jfacet Mariota Jdia Johan. Lauchlain do-
mini de.... A broad paved way leads hence to the cathe¬
dral ; and on this way there is a large handsome cross
called Macleane’s, the only one that remains of three hun¬
dred and sixty which were demolished here at the Re¬
formation. Reilig Ouran, or the burying-place of Oran,
is the large enclosure where the kings of Scotland, Ire¬
land, and of the isles, with their descendants, were buried,
in three several chapels. The dean of the isles, who tra¬
velled in 1549, and whose ageount has been copied by
Buchanan, says, that in his time, on one of these cha¬
pels, or “ tombes of stain fornfit like little chapels, with
ane braid gray marble or quhin stain on the gavil of ilk Iona
ane of the tombes,” containing, as the chronicle says, the
remains of forty-eight Scotch monarchs, from Fergus II.
to Macbeth, sixteen of whom were pretended to be of
the race of Alpin, was inscribed Tumulus regum Scotia;
the next was inscribed Tumulus regum Hibernias, and
contained four Irish monarchs ; and the third, inscribed
Tumulus regum Norwegice, contained eight Norwegian
princes, or viceroys of the Hebrides, whilst these islands
were subject to the crown of Norway. Boecius says, that
Fergus founded this abbey to serve as a burial-place for
his successors, and caused an office to be composed for
the funeral ceremony. All that Mr Pennant discovered
here, consisted in certain slight remains, built in a rigid
form, and arched within, but the inscriptions were lost.
These were called Jornaire nan righ, or “ the ridge of the
kings.” Amongst those stones are to be seen only two in¬
scriptions, in the Gaelic or Erse language, but written in
the ancient Irish characters : Cros Domhail fat'asich,
“ the cross of Donald Longshanks,” and that of Urchvine
o Guin ; and another inscribed Hie jacet priores de Hy,
Johannes, Hugenius, Patricius, in decretisolim baccalaureus,
qui obiit an. Horn. millesmo quingentesimo. About three
hundred inscriptions were collected here by Mr Sache-
verel in 1688, and given to the Earl of Argyll, but after¬
wards lost in the troubles of the family. The place is in
a manner filled with grave-stones, but so overgrown with
weeds that few or none are at present to be seen, far less
can any inscriptions be read. Here also stands the chapel
of St Oran, the first building commenced by Columba,
which the evil spirits would not suffer to stand till some
human victim had been buried alive ; a service for which
Oran offered himself, and his red grave-stone is still to be
seen near the door. In this chapel are tombs of seve¬
ral chiefs, and others. A little north-west of the door
is the pedestal of a cross, on which are certain stones
that seem to have been the supporters of a tomb. Num¬
bers who visit this island think it incumbent on them to
turn each of these thrice round, according to the course
of the sun. They are denominated Clachabrath ; for it is
thought that the brath, or end of the world, will not arrive
till the pedestal on which they stand is worn through.
Mr Sacheverel informs us, that originally there were here
three noble globes of white marble, placed on three stone
basons, and that these were turned round ; but the synod
ordered them and sixty crosses to be thrown into the
sea. The present stones are probably substituted in¬
stead of these globes. The precinct of these tombs was
held sacred, and enjoyed the privileges of a girth or sanc-
tuary. These places of retreat were, by the ancient Scotch
law7, not designed to shelter indiscriminately every of¬
fender, as was the case in more bigoted times in Catho¬
lic countries ; for here all atrocious criminals were exclud¬
ed, and none but the unfortunate delinquent or the pe¬
nitent sinner was shielded from the instant stroke of
rigorous justice. A little to the northward of this enclo¬
sure stands the cathedral, built in the form of a cross,
115 feet long by twenty-three broad, and the transept
seventy feet; the pillars of the choir have their capitals
charged with scriptural and other histories; and near to
the altar are the tombs of two abbots and a knight. A
fragment remains of the altar stone, of white marble vein¬
ed with gray. This church is ascribed to Maldwin, in
the seventh century ; but the present structure is far too
magnificent for that age. Most of the walls are built of
red granite, from the Nun’s Island in the Sound. Two pa¬
rallel walls of a covered way, about twelve feet high and
ten wide, reach from the south-east corner to the sea-
in the church-yard is a fine cross of a single piece of red
granite, fourteen feet high, twenty-two inches broad, and
ten inches thick. Near to the south-east end is Marys
*
I O N
ION . 339
To ■
chapel. The monastery is behind the chapel, of which
^ only a piece of the cloister remains, and some sacred
black stones in a corner, on which contracts and alliances
were made and oaths sworn. To the east of it were the
abbot’s gardens and offices ; and to the north was the pa¬
lace of the bishop of the isles after the separation from
them of Man. This see was endowed with thirteen islands,
several of which were frequently taken away by the chief¬
tains. The title of Soder, which some explained as Zwrrjg,
Soter, the name of Christ, or Soder an imaginary town, is
really derived from the distinction of the diocese into the
northern islands or Nordereys, that is, all to the north of
Ardnamurchan Point, and the Southern or Sudereys;
which last being the most important, the Isle of Man re¬
tained both titles.
Other ruins of monastic buildings and offices may be
traced, as well as some druidical sepulchral remains. Se¬
veral abbeys were derived from this, which, with the island,
was governed by an abbot-presbyter, who had rule even
over bishops. The place where St Columba landed is a
pebbly beach, where a heap of earth represents the form
of his ship. Near it is a hill with a circle of stones called
Cnoc-nan aimgeal, or “ the hill of angels,” with whom the
saint held conference ; and on Michaelmas day the inhabi¬
tants coursed their horses round it, a relic of the custom
of bringing them there to be blessed. In former times
this island was the place where the archives of Scotland
and many valuable old manuscripts were kept. Of these
most are supposed to have been destroyed at the Reforma¬
tion ; but many, it is said, were carried to the Scotch col¬
lege at Douay in France, and it is hoped some of them
may still be recovered. In 1830 an intelligent antiquary
cleared away the rubbish from the ruins of the religious
edifices, for the purpose of bringing to light every relic that
might remain. In this search, besides the advantages re¬
sulting from disentombing these interesting ruins, and ex¬
posing them to the eye of the visitor, a great many statues
and monuments were discovered.
IONIA, a district of Asia Minor, extending along the
coasts of the Aegean Sea about 3430 stadia (428f miles),
according to Strabo, if we include the sinuosities of the
coast, though by land the distance was much shorter. To
the north its boundary was the cape near which stood the
city Phocsea, close to the river Hermus; and to the south
the promontoi-y Posidium, in the Milesian territory, on the
left bank of the Mseander. It was separated in the inte¬
rior from the plain of Lydia by a chain of mountains ex¬
tending from the river Hermus, now Sarabat, to the
Caysfer, a ridge which was known to the ancients by the
celebrated names of Tmolus and Sipylus. A continuation
of this ridge, under the name of Messogis, ranged along
the rest of the Ionian coast, till it terminated in the pro¬
montory of Mycale. The fertility of this small district was
only equalled by the excellence of its climate, and every
creek furnished excellent harbours for shipping. Its inha¬
bitants rivalled Greece in all the arts and sciences, and in
elegance and purity of taste excelled even the mother
country. The Ionian temples were remarkable for their
grandeur of design and beauty of proportions, and the
schools of painting and sculpture were the admiration of
the world. Ionia was watered by the river Hermus, now
Sarabat, whose waters were said to bring down golden
sands; the Cayster, now the Little Mendere; and the
Maeander, now the Great Mendere.
W e find the lonians first occupying Attica and that part
of th,e Peloponnesus called ASgialos, but afterwards better Ionia,
known as Achaia. From this district they were driven out v——v-'.
by the Achaei, and took refuge in Attica, where they found
a dispute respecting the succession to the throne of Athens,
between Medon and Neleus, the descendants of Codrus.
When the oracle of Delphi decided in favour of the former,
Neleus determined to abandon this country and seek a
settlement elsewhere. He invited the lonians to join him,
and having set sail with a large body of Greeks collected
from every part of the country, he, along with several of
his brothers, proceeded to the coast of Asia, where they
founded cities on that part of the coast which was from
them called Ionia. The cities were twelve in number, and,
not long after their foundation, united themselves into one
political body, called the Ionian confederacy. Their names
were Miletus, Myus, and Priene, in the district of Caria;
Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae,
and Phocaea in Lydia ; Samos and Chios on the islands ad¬
jacent to Lydia. Smyrna was in later times admitted to
the privileges of this confederacy. They held their solemn
meetings and festivals in a temple called Panionium, de¬
dicated to the Heliconian Neptune, and erected on the
promontory of Mycale, opposite to Samos. The govern¬
ment of each state seems to have been monarchical, but
they do not appear to have made any vigorous efforts to
maintain their independence. We find them first subject
to the effeminate Lydians, and afterwards to the more
powerful but equally mild sway of the Persians. There
were, indeed, some instances of patriotic resistance ; but as
a nation they showed themselves weak and contemptible.
They indeed made one bold effort to throw off the Persian
yoke, about 500 b. c., led on by Aristagoras and Histise-
us; but they proved unequal to the task. Though they
showed much zeal and ardour in the commencement of
the undertaking, they had not perseverance sufficient to
insure success in a protracted contest with the power of
Persia. The taking and burning of Sardis served only to
exasperate the Persians, and they found themselves soon
afterwards obliged to give up all resistance by land.
(Herodot. v. 98-123.) The contest was still carried on
by sea; but here also they were unsuccessful, and they
found themselves compelled to acknowledge the superior
power of the Persian monarch, (vi. 7-23.) The victories
of the Greeks over Darius and Xerxes, b. c. 490 and 480,
enabled Ionia for a short time to regain her freedom ; but
the battle of Mycale transferred her once more to a fo¬
reign power. She now became subject to the Athenians,
and during the Peloponnesian war, b. c. 431-405, we find
them drawing considerable resources from the tribute im¬
posed on the lonians. When the Athenians were defeat¬
ed in Sicily, b. c. 413, they made great efforts to preserve
Ionia from the united attacks of Sparta and the Persian
satrap Tissaphernes. It does not appear that the lonians
themselves felt much interested in the result of the con¬
test, as no city except Miletus took part in the dispute.
But the peace of Antalcidas, b. c. 387, replaced the lo¬
nians in their wonted condition of slaves to the Persian
monarch ; and neither the passage of Alexander through
their country, b. c. 333, nor the subsequent disputes of his
captains, seem to have made any material change in
their condition. From the weak government of Antio-
chus they passed under the sway of the Romans, and then
became merged in the mighty empire of the latter.
From this time they can no longer be considered as a
distinct people.
340
IONIAN ISLANDS.
Ionian The Ionian Islands formerly constituted a small part of
Islands, the Venetian dominions ; and, by a fate somewhat singular,
they were raised to the rank of an independent power with¬
out any efforts of their own, at the very period which wit¬
nessed the extinction of Venice itself, with Genoa, Ragusa,
and many other small states which had existed for ages.
These islands, which are seven in number, exclusively of
some small dependent islets, are situated on the western
and southern shores of Greece, between 36° and 40° of
north latitude, and between 19° 40' and 23° KKof east ion;
longitude. Four of them lie in a group opposite the en- Island
trance of the Gulf of Corinth ; two others, Corfu and Paxo, W'
are situated about eighty miles north-west of this central
group, from which Cerigo, the remaining island, is distant
about 150 miles south-east. The subjoined table gives a
view of their extent and population ; but the measurements
can only be considered as approximations, as, we believe,
no accurate map of all the islands has ever been published.
Modern Names.
Cephalonia1...
Corfu 
Zante 
Santa Maura..
Cerigo 
Theaki 
Paxo 
Ancient Names.
Cephalenia 
Corcyra, Phaeacia..
Zacynthus 
Leucadia 
Cythera 
Ithaca 
Paxus 
English
Square
Miles.
500
270
180
150
130
60
20
1310
Population.
60,000
60,000
33,352
18,000
9,000
9,400
3,968
193,720
Authorities.
Holland, 1812.
Vaudoncourt, 1807.
Williams, 1815.
Holland, 1812.
Do. 1811.
Williams, 1815.
Do.
According to this table, these islands contain about 150
persons to each square mile, a density of population nearly
equal to that of the most populous countries of Europe,
and very remarkable, considering how a great proportion
of their surface is too rugged to admit of any species of
cultivation.
Climate The climate of the Ionian Islands resembles that of the
and dis- continent of Greece, except that the surrounding seas tem¬
per in a greater degree the extremes of heat and cold, and
render the atmosphere more humid. Snow often falls
during the winter, and lies on the high grounds, but very
rarely in the plains. The winter rains sometimes bring
with them great quantities of a reddish sand, which the
people think has been transported from Africa by the south
wind. Sudden and furious squalls are frequent, and the
Sirocco, or hot wind, which occurs at certain periods, pro¬
duces the usual effects, a dull headach, lassitude, and a
sense of oppression. The harvest, which is generally in
May on the continent, is here in June. Earthquakes are
very frequent, though not often very destructive. In Zante,
two or three sometimes occur in a month ; it is observed
that they are preceded by a peculiar state of the atmosphere,
producing a feeling of heaviness, or a sulphurous smell,
and that they are generally followed by rain. Malaria pre¬
vails in low situations in the autumnal months ; and the
itch, which is common in some parts, instead of being era¬
dicated by medical means, is rather cherished by the people,
from a strange notion that it is a preservative against mala¬
ria. In other respects the climate is agreeable and healthy,
and instances of remarkable longevity are known.2
Geology. The rocks of all these islands belong to the same great
calcareous formation which occupies the continent of Greece.
They contain some, though very few, organic remains, and
are disposed in highly inclined strata. The limestone,
which is accompanied occasionally with beds of gray foli¬
ated gypsum, and with beds or masses of sandstone, is con¬
jectured by Dr Holland to belong to the first floetz lime¬
stone of Werner. At one spot, ten miles south of the
town of Zante, are found a number of pitch wells, agreeing
in their situation and appearance with the description given
by Herodotus two thousand four hundred years ago. They
consist of small pools of water, fed by springs, in a marshy
tract near the shore, having their sides and bottoms lined
with petroleum in a viscid state, which, by agitation, is
raised to the surface in flakes. It is collected once a yea",
and the produce is about a hundred barrels.3
The surface of all these islands is so remarkably moun- Topogi
tainous, that they do not contain a quantity of arable land pty
nearly sufficient to afford corn to the population ; and were
it not that the vine, the olive, and the currant, enable
them to extract a valuable produce from their rocks and
declivities, they could support but a very small number of
inhabitants. There is a considerable diversity, however,
in the aspect and qualities of the surface of the different
islands, which renders it necessary to speak of their topo¬
graphy separately. To begin with Corfu, the most north-Corfu,
ern, and the seat of the general government. This island,
which is about forty English miles long, and fifteen in
extreme breadth, lies opposite the coast of Albania, from
which it is separated at one .point by a strait two miles
broad. A range of mountains occupies the centre of this
island, the highest summits of which, Mount Kassopo, must
be nearly 4000 feet high, since the coast of Italy, at eighty
miles distance, is visible from it. The island is rather bare
of wood, and not abundant in good pasturage. Wheat is
raised in some low situations near the coast; but though
called “ fruitful Corcyra” by Dionysius, and celebrated
for its riches by other ancient authors, its inhabitants de-
1 The ancient geographers had a very imperfect idea of the extent of these islands. Strabo (lib. x.) estimates the circumference
of Cephalonia at thirty miles (300 stadia), instead of 100; that of .Zante at sixteen miles, instead of sixty; and that of Ithaca at eight
miles, instead of forty. Pliny (lib. iv.) gives forty-four Roman miles as the circumference of Cephalonia, and thirty-six as that of
Zante. r » ^
5 Holland’s Travels in Greece, p. 20,37, 47; Williams’s Travels in Greece, letters xlix. 1.; Turner’s Tour in the Levant, i. 202,204.
a Holland, chap. i. and ii.
IONIAN ISLANDS.
341
H pend chiefly on importation for corn, which they procure
§. in exchange for their wine, oil, and salt. The capital, also
J named Corfu, which lies on the east side of the island, con¬
tains about 15,000 inhabitants, and is a pretty strong place.
This island is the Phaeacia of Homer. A small bay, five
or six miles south of the capital, is conceived to be the
Alcinus Portus, where Ulysses, after his shipwreck, met
with the daughter of Alcinous ; and Fano, a small rocky islet
seven or eight miles in circumference, lying twelve miles off
the north-west coast of Corfu, is the island of Calypso.1
Paxo, the next in order, which is about seven miles
long and three broad, lies eight miles south-east of Corfu,
and twelve miles west of the coast of Albania. Its surface
is highly beautiful, much enclosed, and nearly covered with
olive trees. Its capital, St Gago, contains a great propor¬
tion of the population, amounting to 3948 persons, who
depend very much on trade for their subsistence. Anti-
paxo, an islet five or six miles in circumference, and inha¬
bited by a few fishermen, lies near it.2
a. Santa Maura, about twenty miles long and eight or nine
broad, lies so close to the coast of Greece that it was for¬
merly joined to it by an isthmus. It is sixty miles south¬
east from Corfu, three miles from Ithaca, and five from the
nearest point of Cephalonia. The surface consists of a
range of limestone mountains, which rise to the height of
nearly 3000 feet, and terminate on the south-west in the
celebrated Leucadian promontory, where unhappy lovers,
following the example of Sappho, came to cure themselves
of an unrequited passion. The cliff is not very lofty, though
sufficiently so for the purposes of despairing lovers. It is
still the custom of the neighbouring mariners, when pass¬
ing, to throw in a small piece of money as an expiatory
offering. The island contains very little level surface. Its
principal products are olives and vines ; and salt is made
on the coast. The capital, also named Santa Maura, con¬
taining 5000 inhabitants, is situated at the northern point
of the island, where it is separated by a narrow channel
from the continent. The ancient name, Leucadia, or, as it
is now pronounced, Lefcadia, is still known among the in¬
habitants, and ought to be used to distinguish the island
from its capital.3
Theaki, the ancient Ithaca, the regal seat of Ulysses,
consists merely of a narrow ridge of limestone, seventeen
miles long and four in extreme breadth, rising into rug¬
ged eminences, with scarcely a hundred yards of continu¬
ous level surface in its whole extent. Near the middle it
is intersected by a deep bay, which penetrates four miles
inwards. Upon this bay the town of Vathi, the capital, is
situated, containing 2000 inhabitants. The chief produce
of the island is currants ; but it yields also a small quan¬
tity of oil and wine, the latter much esteemed. The grain
raised suffices only for three months’ consumption. On a
hill near Vathi are some massive ruins of ancient walls,
with a number of sepulchres, which are supposed to mark
the site of the capital of Ulysses. Near the south-east end
of the island is a cliff called Koraka at present, and sup¬
posed to be the rock Korax, mentioned in the Odyssey;
and under it, in a secluded and picturesque spot, is a foun¬
tain, conceived to be that of Arethusa, where Ulysses met
the faithful Eumaeus. The island is still named Ithaca by
the more intelligent natives, which is corrupted into The¬
aki by some of the lower classes. Between Ithaca, Santa
Maura, and the continent, are situated four small rocky
ides, named Meganisi, Calamo, Atako, and Carto, besides
several minute islets, of little or no importance.4
Cephalonia, three miles from the nearest point of Ithaca, Ionian
is the largest of all the Ionian Islands. Its greatest length Islands,
is forty English miles, and its greatest breadth twenty-four, *».
A lofty chain of mountains, the Mount Amos of antiquity, c.ePhal°-
nearly 4000 feet high, occupies the centre of the island, nia‘
and sends off branches to all the principal promontories.
The wood which covered a part of these hills was wanton¬
ly burnt, about twenty years ago, during some internal dis¬
turbances. A deep gulf penetrates far inland from the
south side of the island ; and, upon the east side of this
gulf stands Argostoli, the capital, containing 4000 inhabi¬
tants. Lixuri, the only other town, contains 5000 inhabi¬
tants ; and there are in the island 175 villages.5 The sur¬
face of Cephalonia is generally rocky; the soil thin, and
less fertile than that of Zante. Its chief productions are
currants, oil, and wine. Some ruins of Cyclopian walls
mark the site of the city of Samus, mentioned by Homer;
and there are some remains of Krani, Pronos, and other
ancient cities. Vestiges of the altar of Jupiter ASnesius
are said still to exist on the top of Mount Alnos.6
Zante, which lies ten miles south from the nearest point Zante.
of Cephalonia, is about sixty miles in circumference. Un¬
like the neighbouring islands, its surface consists chiefly
of a large plain, reaching from the southern to the north¬
ern coast, but bounded on the east and west sides by calca¬
reous ridges about 1200 or 1300 feet high. This plain, co¬
vered with vineyards and olive groves, with only a few spots
in tillage, presents the appearance of luxuriant fertility,
and has procured for the island the title of the “ Garden
ot the Levant.’’ The capital, Zante, situated on the east¬
ern side of the island, contains 18,000 inhabitants. Zante
contains very few antiquities; and, though smaller and
inferior in population to some of the other islands, is the
richest of them all.7
Cerigo, the ancient Cythera, the last of the seven islands, Cerigo.
is about fifty miles in circumference, and is situated near
the south coast of the ancient Laconia, 150 miles from
the nearest of its Ionian confederates. The face of the
island is mountainous, and, though reported to be the
birth-place of Venus, it is rugged, barren, and destitute of
beauty. Its productions are similar to those of the other
islands, but it is less commercial; and, abounding more in
pasturage, it raises a considerable number of sheep and
cattle.8
Landed property, in all the islands, is in the hands of a Agricul-
comparatively small number of persons, who form aproud, ture.
oppressive, and rapacious aristocracy. The Venetian se¬
nate, whilst it possessed these islands, kept all the more
solid advantages to its own citizens, but bestowed titles,
which cost nothing, profusely upon the petty insular chief¬
tains ; and nobles, destitute of education, honour, or pro¬
perty, are as common here as in Italy. The lands are
generally let by the year, the tenant paying half the pro¬
duce to the landlord ; a species of tenure almost univer¬
sal in rude countries. In Cephalonia, where property is
pretty much divided, the largest proprietor has not above
L.800 or L. 900 a year; but in Zante there are estates of
more than double this value.9 In the rural economy of
the Ionian Islands, corn is an object of secondary import¬
ance, and farming is conducted on the rudest principles.
Barley, wheat, maize, and oats, are cultivated, but the
quantity of grain of all kinds raised does not exceed one
half, and in some of the islands is not one third, of the
annual amount of consumption. Of the corn raised in
Ithaca, one tenth is wheat and nine tenths barley. The
Memoirs of the Ionian Islands, by General Guilliaume de Vaudoncourt, translated by Mr Walton, chap. xi.
2 Vaudoncourt, chap. xi. ; Williams, let. xlviii. e Holland, chap. ii.
3 Holland, chap. iii.; Vaudoncourt, chap. xi. ' Hid. chap. i.
* Ibid. chap. iii. B Galt’s Voyages and Travels, 1812, p. 137; Holland, chap. iii.
5 Turner, 192. » Holland, 36.
342 IONIAN I
Ionian returns of the former are estimated at six or seven, and
Islands. 0f the latter at eight or nine, for one.1 Flax and cotton
''"■'■’V'*-'' are cultivated to a small extent in several of the islands.
Cephalonia is computed to yield of the latter 100,000
pounds annually, of an excellent quality.2 The number
of oxen, sheep, and goats, is considerable in the islands less
adapted to the cultivation of the currant, vine, or corn;
but others, such as Zante, have very few, and all are part¬
ly supplied with cattle and poultry from the Morea. Milk
cows are rare, the milk of goats being preferred for or¬
dinary use, as well as for the manufacture of cheese. I he
produce of wax and honey in some of the islands is very
great. Cerigo is stated to have had 1280 hives in 1811,
and 60,000 or 80,000 pounds of honey of an excellent qua¬
lity are collected annually in Cephalonia.3
Olives. The cultivation of vines and olives is an object of great¬
er attention to the inhabitants than that of corn, and is
more skilfully conducted. Nine sorts of olives grow in
Zante, differing considerably in their qualities. The fruit
begins to ripen in November, but does not fall off till to¬
wards the end of December or the beginning of January.
This is the time when they are gathered, but in some
places they are plucked with the hand, and not allowed
to fall. They are carried to the mill in April, but the
harvest is not entirely at an end till the month of May.
The oil is carried to the sea-ports in sheep-skins. Olives
are cultivated to the greatest extent in Corfu, where the
produce collected every two years amounts, in middling
seasons, to 700,000 jars or 90,000 barrels4 annually. Zante
produces about 30,000 barrels; Cephalonia, 30,000; Leu-
cadia, 3000; Paxo, 8500; and Ithaca, 1500. Including
Cerigo, the annual produce of olive oil will not be much
less than 200,000 barrels. While the Venetians were
masters of the island, and retained a monopoly of the oil
trade, the price averaged from forty to forty-three livres
of Corfu (6s. 8d. to 7s. 2d.) per jar; but in 1802 it rose
to sixty livres (10s.) ; and in 1807 (a dear year) was
seventeen and a half dollars per barrel, or about 19s. per
jar. The oil is of four different qualities, the finest of
which is fit for the table, and the other three species are
used in various manufactures.5
Grapes. Wine is made in all the islands to a small extent. In
Zante, forty species of grape are distinguished, but the
small black species, known under the name of currants, is
the only kind extensively cultivated. Ithaca produces
about 12,000 barrels of wine annually, of a quality supe¬
rior to that of the other islands, and which sells at about
twenty dollars per barrel. Cephalonia produces from
30,000 to 35,000 barrels of good wine. Zante yields only
about 4000 barrels ; Leucadia 1000. The produce of the
other islands is not known.6 Oranges, lemons, and citrons,
are raised in several of the islands, both for domestic use
and exportation; and salt is supplied for exportation in
large quantities from Corfu and Leucadia.
Currants. The currant is the staple produce of Zante, where it
occupies nearly two thirds of the cultivated land. It is
raised also in Cephalonia and Ithaca, but does not succeed
in Corfu or Leucadia. Its culture is conducted with
great neatness, and when the flower is out, the aspect of
the great vineyards is singularly rich and beautiful. It
thrives best in a deep rich soil, at the foot of mountains.
The currants are gathered about the beginning of Sep¬
tember, somewhat sooner than other grapes; are spread
S L A N D S.
abroad for eight or ten days, and are usually ready for ion'ia
packing by the end of September. The annual pro- lslan<
duce of Zante is from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 pounds, the ''"'v
price of which in the island varies from 14s. to 18s. per
hundredweight. Cephalonia yields from 5,000,000 to
6,000,000 pounds, and Ithaca 500,000. The whole pro¬
duce of the Ionian Islands in this article may therefore be
estimated at 13,000,000 or 14,000,000 pounds.7
Mr Williams gives the estimated value of the annual Annua
produce of the three islands, Zante, Paxo, and Ithaca, inproduci
corn, wine, oil, currants, honey, and flax, the chief produc¬
tions, but excluding minor articles, such as cheese, fruit, &c.
The estimates appear to be official, and as they are pro¬
bably deduced from surveys made for the purpose of tax¬
ation, they are entitled to some degree of confidence; but
it would have been more satisfactory had he stated upon
what basis they were formed. The annual produce of
Zante, in 1815, is stated at 1,066,145 dollars, or L.234,000;
that of Ithaca, 98,896 dollars, or L.22,000; that of Paxo,
104,018 dollars, or L.23,000. These three statements
give, on an average, L.6 sterling of produce for each in¬
habitant ; but as some of the other islands are less favour¬
ably situated, L.5 is probably high enough as a mean;
and if we compute the annual value of the produce of the
whole on this principle, it will be L.970,000,8 or, in round
numbers, L.1,000,000 sterling ; and this is exclusive of
what is derived from commerce and the mechanic arts.
The situation of the Ionian Islands gives them naturally, Commt
and in some measure necessarily, a commercial character.
Their position near the coast of Greece, where the ty¬
ranny of the Turks renders property so insecure, tends to
make them a medium of communication with that country,
and an entrepot for its commodities. The narrowness of
their territories, which obliges them to import provisions,
and the peculiar nature of the soil and climate, which are
better adapted to raise other productions than corn ; their
insular situation, and long connection with the Venetians;
all dispose them to engage largely in commercial transac¬
tions. The trade of the islands, considering their extent
and circumstances, is, in truth, considerable, and has in¬
creased greatly since it was freed from the shackles impos¬
ed upon it by the monopolizing spirit of the Venetians.
The exports consist of olive oil, currants, wine, honey,
wax, salt, soap, oranges, lemons, tobacco, cheese, &c. The
imports are corn, woollen, cotton, and linen goods, velvets,
cured fish of various kinds, sugar, coffee, iron, lead, dye¬
stuffs, paper, drugs, spices, &c. Zante, in 1815, exported
goods to the value of 591,000 dollars. Cephalonia has 250
vessels of various sizes. The little island of Paxo has 56
vessels, and exported goods to the value of 96,000 dollars
in 1815. Ithaca, in 1815 or 1816, had 3598 tons of ship¬
ping, which, with boats belonging to the island, employed
823 men, and 74,360 dollars of capital. The little island
of Cerigo, the least commercial of the whole, had, in 1809,
only about twenty-five vessels, nearly all boats, employing
230 men. The number of Ionian vessels that trade with
Turkey wTas estimated, in 1816, at 250, of which 200
were under their own flag, and fifty under the Russians.
We should probably not err much if we estimated the ex¬
ports of the whole islands at something more than double
those of Zante, or about one third of the computed gross
produce of the land, namely, L.300,000 sterling. A great
number of their vessels trade with the Russian ports in the
1 Williams, Appendix, No. iii. 2 Vaudoncourt, 438. 3 Vaudoncourt, 437 ? Holland, 43.
4 The barrel rather exceeds the millerole of Marseilles, or 59-7 litres (Yaudoncourt); and, according to Williams, is equal to 123
English pints. These accounts agree, and the barrel may therefore be considered as one fourth of a hogshead.
4 Vaudoncourt, chap. xii.; Holland, chap. ii. and iii.; Williams, p. 173, and Appendix, No. iii.; Walpole’s Memoirs relating to Tur-
kay, p. 288.
4 Holland, p. 22 ; Vaudoncourt, chap. xii.; Williams, Appendix, No. iii.
7 Holland, chap. ii. and iii.; Vaudoncourt, chap. xii.
Williams, 72-183, and Appendix, No. iii.
IONIAN ISLANDS. 343
Black Sea, for corn ; others with Malta, Greece, Italy,
l,a,France, and Spain. In the intercourse between the islands
\^, ^ which lie near one another, a species of long, slender boat
is used, named Monoxylon, made of a single piece of wood,
preserving both the form and the name of the vessels
used in the earliest and rudest stage of Greek navigation.1
The interest of money, in common cases, is ten per cent.
The merchants are generally poor and unenterprising, but
a few individuals have accumulated considerable fortunes.2
One individual, a nobleman, is mentioned, who is said to
possess a million of dollars. If these islands continue to
enjoy tranquillity, and if their internal economy is improv¬
ed, it is probable they will attract a considerable part of
the trade which now centres in Salonica, Hydra, Specchia,
and other Turkish ports, where the merchants are exposed
to loss and vexation from the rapacity and violence of the
Turkish government.3
, yj e. The public revenue arises from a tithe or impost on the
various species of produce raised within the country, grain,
wine, oil, flax, and cattle; from a tax on hearths or inha¬
bited houses, a tax on oil presses, and from duties of cus¬
toms on articles exported and imported. The produce of
these various duties, in 1815, was as follows:
REVENUE.
Zante 
Cephalonia..
Leucadia....
Ithaca 
Paxo 
Cerisfo 
Parga.
Eventual
Revenues.
Fixed
Revenues.
Dollars.
71,779
79,807
2,011
1,976
240
130
* 35
Dollars.
83,015
8,387
36,271
6,693
6,717
5,570
1,623
155,978 I 148,285
Totals.
Dollars.
154,795
88,194
38,283
8,669
6,957
5,700
1,667
304,265
EXPENDITURE.
Zante 
Cephalonia
Leucadia...
Ithaca 
Paxo 
Cerigo 
Parga 
Dollars.
102,688
64,174
34,973
5,403
6,107
1,956
4,267
219,568, equal to L.48,500.
Revenue 304,265
Surplus  84,6984
This small expenditure appears to include only the
charges of the civil government, and perhaps not the whole
of these. The body of 3000 troops, chiefly British, kept
in the islands, would alone evidently absorb a larger re¬
venue. And although it was fixed by the constitution
t at the islands should defray the expense of their own
military establishment, it appears, in point of fact, from a
parliamentary paper (dated 25th of February 1820, No.
0, that the British government incurred an expense of
L.14o,203 in the Ionian Islands in 1817, and L.120,045
in 1818, for purposes chiefly military, but partly civil. Ionian
It is difficult to conceive that there can be any British Islands,
objects in that quarter requiring such an expenditure, or
that the money has been advanced provisionally, to be
afterwards repaid, since the revenues of the islands must
now be on a permanent footing. There remains but one
admissible supposition, that these islands are to form a
permanent burden on the people of Britain ; and yet, at a
period when our own expenditure presses so heavily, it
seems little less than infatuation to increase our difficulties
gratuitously, by relieving a distant country, less heavily
taxed, of the expense of defending itself.
The existing constitution of the Ionian Islands, which Constitu-
was sanctioned by its own legislative assembly in 1817, tion.
vests the supreme power in the high commissioner, the
senate, and the legislative assembly, which have joint¬
ly the title of the Parliament of the Ionian Islands. The
legislative assembly consists of forty members, of whom
tw'enty-nine are elective and eleven integral, and all must
belong to the class of synclitce, or nobles, the common
people having nothing to do with the laws but to obey
them. The eleven integral members consist of the presi¬
dent and members of the old senate, with the regents or
governors of the five largest islands, all of whom are sub¬
stantially, though not directly, nominated by the high com¬
missioner. The twenty-nine elective members are chosen
by the nobles of the different islands, from prepared lists
sent down by the primary council, in the following pro¬
portions :
Corfu 7
Cephalonia 7
Zante 7
Leucadia   4
Ithaca 1
Cerigo 1
Paxo 1
28
And each of the last three in rotation elects a second
member, which makes twenty-nine. The legislative as¬
sembly elects its own officers, fixes the amount of the
supplies, and all its members have the power of propos¬
ing new laws or regulations.
The primary council, mentioned above, which acts only
during a dissolution of parliament, consists of the presi¬
dent and members of the last senate, with five members
of the last legislative assembly, nominated by the high
commissioner.
The senate consists of five members and a president, the
latter appointed directly by the high commissioner. The
five members are elected by the legislative body out of its
own number, and confirmed by the high commissioner.
If he negative the election of an individual, another is
elected; and if he negative the second also, the vacancy
is filled up by his nominating two individuals, of whom it
then falls to the legislative body to choose one. This
senate is an executive council as well as a deliberative
body. It nominates most of the officers under the gene¬
ral government, such as judges, regents, archivists, &c.;
but its nominations must be confirmed by the high com¬
missioner. It makes regulations during the recess of the
legislative assembly, which have, pro tempore, the force
of laws ; and it deliberates and decides upon all proposi¬
tions submitted to it by the high commissioner, or sent
up from the lower house, but its members have not a
pow'er to initiate legislative proceedings.
Potter’s Antiquities, book iii. chap. xiv.
Holland, chap. i. ii. ill.; Vaudoncourt, chap. xii.;
4 Williams’s Travels, Appendix, Nos. ii. and iii.
2 Williams, vol. ii. 183.
Turner, vol. iii. Appendix,
344 IONIAN
Ionian The legislative assembly and the senate are elected for
Islands. fjve years, but may be dissolved at the lapse of a shorter
period by the high commissioner. The appointments of
judges, regents, and other officers, are also for five years.
The high commissioner is nominated by the protecting
sovereign. He appoints the president of the senate, who
has the initiative of all proceedings in that body. He ap¬
points a resident for each of the islands, who has the
power of suspending any proceeding of the local govern¬
ment. He nominates a number of officers, and has a ne¬
gative, direct or indirect, upon the appointment of most
of those whom he does not nominate. He has a veto on
all propositions which have passed the two houses; but
though he give his sanction to any specific measure, there
is still another veto behind, lodged in the king of Britain,
who may annul the proceeding at any period within one
year of its enactment.
Each island has a local government, consisting of a mu¬
nicipal council of five members, selected by the regent
(with the approbation of the high commissioner), out of
a list of ten, chosen by the synclitce. And besides these,
there are five active functionaries, a regent, secretary,
fiscal, archivist, and treasurer, all, except the last, nomi¬
nated by the senate, and confirmed by the high commis¬
sioner.
The judicial power is lodged in a supreme court at the
seat of government, consisting of four ordinary and two
extraordinary members. Of the former, two are native
lonians, named by the senate, and approved of by the
commissioner; and two, directly named by the commis¬
sioner, may either be British subjects or lonians. When
these four are equally divided on any question, reference
is made to the two extraordinary members, who are the
high commissioner and president of the senate. Subor¬
dinate to this supreme court are twenty-one inferior tri¬
bunals, that is, a civil, a criminal, and a commercial tri¬
bunal in each island. And under these, again, are justice
of peace courts, for minor offences, and small civil suits.
Besides the general appellant jurisdiction which the su¬
preme court has over the local tribunals, it is empowered
to send a delegation of its members on circuit on special
occasions, when thought necessary by the senate and high
commissioner. The number of judges in the local courts
is not fixed by the constitution.
The sanita, or health establishment, is under the sole
direction of the high commissioner. The army, consist¬
ing entirely of the troops of the protecting sovereign, is
also under the orders of his representative. The expense
of the army is to be defrayed by the islands if the num¬
ber does not exceed three thousand men. There is, be¬
sides, a national militia, commanded by native officers.
Individuals, or bodies of men, have the right of repre¬
sentation or petition to the protecting sovereign or his
ministers.
We have described this constitution more in detail than
its importance merits; for, without exaggeration, it may
certainly be pronounced to be the very worst among the
numerous plans of representative government framed
within th.e last thirty years. It is, in fact, little else than
a compact between the British government and the petty
despots of the islands, settling in what proportions the
power, patronage, and taxes of the country are to be
shared between them. The rights and interests of the
mass of the people, for which even the German princes
in their new constitutions profess a decent respect, are
not the object of one single stipulation in this long and
1 detailed instrument.
The style of building in the Ionian Islands is chiefly
ISLANDS.
Italian, and the interior of some of the cities shows great ion'
neatness. The streets are generally narrow; the houses, Island
some of wood, some of stone, are three, four, or even five ''•'V
stories high, with open latticed windows. The shops are^1161
tolerably well supplied with manufactured and colonialcus
articles; and the persons employed in them display more 0ms‘
alertness and civility than the indolent shop-keepers of
Spain, Portugal, and Sicily. The churches, as in Greece,
are disproportionately numerous. Some of them have
steeples, others have merely an elevated facade. The po¬
pulation, in consequence of the long dominion of the Ve¬
netians, is, in manners and habits, as well as in costume
and language, intermediate between the Greek and Ita¬
lian character. Though enjoying more liberty, they are,
in some respects, inferior to the continental Greeks.
Their exterior is less dignified, their manners more cor¬
rupt, and they show less capability of again becoming a
people. This degradation of character may be attribut¬
ed chiefly to the vicious nature of the Venetian govern¬
ment. The governors and judges whom it sent out to the
islands were very often nobles of decayed fortune, who
undertook the duties as a speculation to retrieve their af¬
fairs. Bribery was practised openly ; toleration for a
crime might easily be purchased ; and the laws, imperfect
in themselves, were rendered wholly null by the corrup¬
tion of the judges. The petty insular aristocracy sepa¬
rated into factions, which trampled on the laws and op¬
pressed the people. The Venetian government, by a de¬
testable policy, encouraged their feuds to prevent their
combination, and exposed the country to all the evils of
a continued civil war. As happens in all countries where
justice is denied by the laws, private revenge and assas¬
sination prevailed to a frightful extent. In the island of
Zante alone, with 33,000 inhabitants, the number of as¬
sassinations sometimes exceeded one for each day of the
year. Many of the nobles, indeed, kept assassins in their
pay ; and others of them fitted out privateers for the trade
of general piracy, in which the vessels of their own
countrymen were not spared. These nobles are general¬
ly educated in Italy, and speak the Italian language; but
in knowledge and refinement they, are scarcely on a level
with the middle ranks in England. The lower classes,
like the continental Greeks, use the Romaic language,
but with a larger mixture of Italian words; and, like
them, too, they are active, ingenious, adroit, loquacious,
subtle, and intriguilfjg. Physic and law are favourite pro¬
fessions, and the better order of lawyers and physicians,
who have been educated in Italy, form the most intelli¬
gent part of society. The clergy are extremely numer¬
ous, but less informed, and inferior in respectability to the
two former classes. They were very active in resisting
some of the reforms attempted by the British. When
Major du Bosset introduced the culture of the potato in
Cephalonia, they laboured to persuade the peasants that
this was the very apple with which the serpent tempted
Adam and Eve in paradise.1 The women, as in Greece,
are almost entirely secluded from society, and are, of
course, ignorant, superstitious, and feeble in their charac¬
ter.2 In all that regards the intercourse of the sexes
much laxity of morals prevails, but the poor are less cor¬
rupted than the rich. Most of the nobility have mis¬
tresses, and the laws allow them to legitimate the issue
of these connections by a subsequent marriage. A sort
of agreement is not unfrequent, by which a young woman
is made over by her parents, with her own consent, to her
admirer, at a stipulated sum. This species of concubi¬
nage, which frequently terminates in marriage when the
girl is respectable and has children, is, on other occasions,
1 Holland, 41.
* Holland, chap. i. ii.
Ion
Islai
✓v
ieligi
[istc ,
IONIAN ISLANDS.
345
the cause of much infidelity and unhappiness.1 In the
country the Greek dress is generally used, though with
some modifications; but in the towns the Italian dress
prevails, as well as the Italian fashions in the style of fur¬
niture and in the modes of social intercourse. It was a
leading object in the policy of the Venetians, indeed, to
extinguish the national spirit of the lonians, to deprive
them of the means of education, and to brutalize their
character by every method in their power, that they might
convert them into passive instruments of their sovereign
will. But, after three centuries of such policy, there can
be no doubt that the Venetians lost more by the odious
nature of the innovations attempted than they gained in
security by the result.2
The attachment of the lonians to the Greek religion,
however, has effectually resisted the innovating spirit of
their masters. The Catholic worship is tolerated, but the
national faith has lost little of its influence upon the minds
of the people. Each island has its patron saint, in the ef¬
ficacy of whose intercession the people are taught to be¬
lieve. The British authorities humour the popular super¬
stition in this particular ; and, in Corfu, the patents from
the health office bear to be “ in the name of God, and by
the intercession of Saint Spiridion.” Ceremonies and pro¬
cessions, with fasts, frequent and severe, take the place
of piety and good works. A ruffian engaged in a project
of assassination has refused to taste animal food during the
season of the fast. As in many other countries, the lower
orders are comparatively strict in their religious obser¬
vances, while indifference and infidelity are common
among the higher classes. But, if religion is in a low
state, it is not from the want of priests and churches, the
number of which is out of all proportion to the number
of inhabitants. The little island of Paxo, with 4000 in¬
habitants, has thirty-six churches ; and Cerigo, with 9000
inhabitants, is said to have the incredible number of 260
churches or chapels, and 165 priests. These swarms of
priests are a sort of privileged mendicants. They are, in
general, too illiterate to understand religion themselves,
and, of course, they are incapable of teaching it to others.
But as they derive their subsistence chiefly from fees for
absolution, and from gifts and offerings, they find it ne¬
cessary to support their influence by filling the minds of
those under their care with a thousand idle or pernicious
superstitions. Besides the secular clergy, there are a
number of regular religious in convents scattered over the
islands, but of their number or condition we have seen no
satisfactory account.3
The Ionian Islands make no considerable figure in an¬
cient history. Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, and Santa Mau¬
ra (then joined to the continent), formed part of the
kingdom of Ulysses ; and, if we may judge of their condi¬
tion from the armament which their prince carried with
him to the Trojan war, we should conclude that they were
less populous and less improved than the continental parts
of Greece. These islands, along with a part of the oppo¬
site continent, furnished only twelve ships, whilst the
little island of Salamis, not one twentieth part of the ex¬
tent, sent as many.4 They were then, as at this day, un¬
der the power of a number of petty chieftains ; and it is a
proof of the accuracy of Homer’s geographical knowledge,
that their relative numbers, as stated by Telemachus,5
correspond tolerably well with the actual extent and im¬
portance of the islands, Cephalonia having twenty-four, Ionian
Zante twenty, and Ithaca twelve. At a later period, the Islands.
Corinthians planted colonies in Leucadia and Corcyra,
and probably in some of the other islands over which they
maintained some degree of authority. The Leucadians
sent 800 men to fight the Persians at Plataea, and the Ce-
phalenians of Pale 200.6 The Corcyreans, from their fa¬
vourable situation, rapidly became strong by sea, and not
only shook oft" their dependence on the parent state, but
committed depredations on the commerce of the other
Grecian cities, till the Athenians, shortly after the battle
of Marathon, attacked them and broke their naval strength.
The jealousy between the Corcyreans and Corinthians,
about forty-five years later, led to hostilities between the
parties, in which the Athenians were drawn in to take the
part of the former ; and the extension of this petty quarrel
at length produced the celebrated Peleponnesian war.
The Corcyreans had 120 triremes when the contest be¬
gan, and were the second naval power in Greece.7 The
Zacynthians also, who were a colony of Achaeans, and the
Cephalenians, were generally leagued with the Athenians,
and afforded them assistance in the expedition against
Syracuse. The Leucadians we find adhering to the Co¬
rinthians.8 When the Spartans invaded Corcyra, about
thirty years after this, the country is represented as rich¬
ly cultivated, finely planted, and abounding in wealth and
luxury.9 Cerigo, from its situation, was almost always an
appendage to Laconia. These islands, with the rest of
Greece, at length fell under the dominion of the Macedo¬
nians. In the wars between Philip and the iEtolians,
however, we find the latter occasionally making use of
the naval forces of the Cephalenians.10 When the Romans
established themselves in Greece, these isles, from the
position between that country and Italy, were early oc¬
cupied ; and Corcyra is often mentioned as a station of
their fleet in their subsequent wars.11 They continued to
follow the fortunes of the Roman empire nearly to the
latest period of its decline ; and they suffered from the
ravages of the Goths, Wallachians, and other barbarous
tribes, till they fell into the hands of the Venetians, some
of them in the twelfth, and others in the thirteenth cen¬
tury. This nation also conquered various maritime towns
on the continent of Greece, of which, as well as of some
of the islands, the Turks occasionally dispossessed them.
The Venetians first acquired the Morea in 1417, and lost
it finally in 1715. The Turks, at this latter period, took
Cerigo, and besieged the city of Corfu; but the Vene¬
tians becoming masters at sea, regained Cerigo, repulsed
the Turks from Corfu, and took several continental towns.12
The treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797), which an¬
nihilated the state of Venice, transferred to France the
Ionian Islands, with their continental dependencies, con¬
sisting, at that time, of five sea-port towns, Butrinto, Go-
menitza, Parga, Prevesa, and Vonitza. When the inva¬
sion of Egypt led to hostilities between France and Tur¬
key in 1798, Ali, pasha of Albania, besieged and took
Prevesa and the other continental towns, except Parga;
and the islands, having been reduced by the fleets of Rus¬
sia and Turkey, were erected into an independent state,
by a treaty between these powers, dated 21st March 1800.
They were placed under the protection of the Porte, as
its vassals, and were to pay it an annual sum of 75,000
piastres.13 The towns on the continent were ceded to the
1 Williams, letters xlvii. xlviii.
2 Vaudoncourt, chap. ii. xii.
3 Holland, chap. i. ii.; 'Williams, letters xlvii. xlviii.
4 Iliad, lib. ii. 631.
5 Odyss. lib. xvi. 249.
8 Herodotus, lib. ix.
1 * Abrtge Chronologique de VHittoire Oltomanc, par M. de Lacroix, i
VOL. XII.
5 Thucydides, lib. i. ; Xenophon, Hist. lib. vi.
8 Ibid. lib. ii. iii. vii.
9 Xenophon, Hist. lib. vi.
10 Polybius, lib. iv. 6.
11 Livy, lib. xxiv. xxxii. xxxvi. xxxviii.
. 172, ii. 700. 13 Annual Register, 1000 ; State Papers, p. 278.
2 x
IONIAN ISLANDS.
346
Ionian Porte, of four of which it obtained possession. But the
Islam?s. inhabitants of Parga, dreading the merciless disposition of
the Albanian pasha, took up arms in their own defence,
and, favoured by the strength of their position, repelled
his assaults. A constitution was given to the republic in
1803, which it is unnecessary to describe, as it has since
been superseded. It is sufficient to say, that it was drawn
up by Russian ministers of state, ignorant of the circum¬
stances of the islands, and contained such a specimen of
republican principles as might be expected from Mus¬
covy. The war between Russia and the Porte in 1806
led to the occupation of the Ionian Islands by the former ;
but by a secret article of the treaty of Tilsit (June 1807),
they were made over to France. The French, during
their first occupation of the islands, had abolished the use
of the Italian language in public acts, and re-established
the Romaic. Connecting these possessions with his projects
against Turkey, Napoleon was anxious to revive the na¬
tional spirit of the Greeks. A Romaic newspaper was set
on foot, and has been continued by the British ; esta¬
blishments for promoting scientific education were pro¬
jected ; and, to crown these schemes by a piece of French
extravagance, the reckoning by olympiads was introduced.
These projects held out only a distant prospect of good,
but the expense of the large military force stationed by
the French in the islands was a real and immediate griev¬
ance. In 1810, a British force, under General Oswald,
took possession of Zante, Cephalonia, Ithaca, and Cerigo,
almost without opposition ; and also of Santa Maura after
some resistance. Corfu and Paxo having garrisons too
strong to be attacked, were merely subjected to a mari¬
time blockade, which, however, could not be so rigorously
enforced as to reduce them. They were surrendered to
the British after the general peace in 1814. The Turk¬
ish government now renewed its claim to Parga, under
the treaty of 1800, though that claim had been virtually
set aside by subsequent circumstances. That government
had entirely failed in affording the Ionian Islands the sti¬
pulated protection, since it had suffered first the Rus¬
sians, and afterwards the French, to occupy them with a
military force. It had been a party to subsequent trea¬
ties, by which this had been in substance annulled. The
original treaty bound the Turks to protect the Pargui-
notes; and it was now obvious, from the fate of the other
towns, and from the feelings of the inhabitants, that its
surrender would be equivalent to a warrant for its de¬
struction. Lastly, the British had no right to make over
Parga to the Turks, for it was not reduced by our arms,
but its inhabitants put themselves under our protection
by a voluntary act, and upon the express condition that
their town was to remain attached to the Ionian republic.
From ignorance or inattention to these circumstances,
however, the Congress of Vienna had resolved that Parga
should be given up. And, in obedience to the mandate
of this conclave of sovereigns, the soldiers of Ali took
possession of the bare walls in June 1819; the inhabit¬
ants, amounting to 5000, having, to a man, emigrated to
Paxo and the other islands, after receiving a very inade¬
quate indemnity for the loss of their property.1
General The Ionian Islands, either as a separate state or as a
remarks, dependency of Great Britain, are of little importance.
The interest felt in their fate w^as founded partly on clas¬
sical associations, and partly on the means they were sup¬
posed to afford for restoring the Greeks to their exist¬
ence as a nation. But, under the political system esta¬
blished in the islands, the hopes raised on the latter ground
proved almost entirely chimerical. The Ionian Greeks
must be enlightened and improved themselves before they
can become useful auxiliaries in the work of enlighten- Icni
ing and improving the rest of their countrymen. To effect Islan
this change in their character, and to create and nourish
a national spirit, three things are indispensable, with which
their new constitution leaves them entirely unprovided;
a system of national education, a free press, and a free
government. The British ministry, in patronizing a plan
for erecting a university in the islands, began its opera¬
tions at the wrong end. The first and most indispensable
step is to increase the small number of schools at present
in existence, till they become sufficiently numerous to af¬
ford common education to the whole population. A uni¬
versity may then be useful; but the Greeks can never be
enlightened by giving a learned education to a few indi¬
viduals, whilst the mass remains sunk in ignorance and
superstition. On the other hand, when a moderate de¬
gree of knowledge is generally diffused, ardent spirits will
emerge from the multitude, and rise to eminence by their
native force, while their countrymen will then be better
prepared to reap advantage from their exertions. At
present a well-informed Greek finds his acquisitions use¬
less. Again, without a free press in their native language,
the Greeks cannot receive that political instruction which
is necessary to fit them for becoming once more a nation;
knowledge cannot be rendered popular, nor of course use¬
ful ; and a university will become a mere establishment of
sinecures, or an engine for propagating corrupt and ser¬
vile doctrines, worse than ignorance itself. It is no solid
objection that the Ionian Greeks are mere children in li¬
terature, and could not make a discreet use of the press.
Feeble as their powers may be, they will continue children
still, if they do not use them. Their own blunders will of¬
ten be better instructors than the mature wisdom of others.
With general education and a free press, should be con¬
joined the invigorating spirit of a popular government;
not a government bottomed on close corporations and pri¬
vileged classes, but one broadly republican in its forms
and spirit. Whatever may be the defects of such a go¬
vernment, it is calculated, beyond all other human inven¬
tions, to call forth the energies of man. It was this in¬
spiring power that carried forward the ancient Athenians
in their brilliant career of improvement and glory; that
raised the Italian and Dutch republics to sudden wealth
and power ; and that is already giving a new aspect to the
vast continent of North America. The people are igno¬
rant and disorderly, but probably not more so than the
Athenians in the time of Solon, or the Italians in the
thirteenth century, who were, nevertheless, found capable
of supporting republican institutions. The errors into
which their ignorance might have led them would most
probably have soon cured themselves. And, at any rate,
the lonians are in that precise situation which would have
divested such institutions of the dangers usually suppos¬
ed to attend them. The natural influence of the British
government, as the protecting power, would have mode¬
rated the violence of factions, and preserved the govern¬
ment stable amidst their struggles. Had a free, active,
and enlightened community been raised up in these
islands, speaking the language of Greece, and almost in
contact with the country, the emancipation of the conti¬
nental Greeks would not only have been secured by the
joint operation of moral and political causes, but so much
light would have been diffused among them, and such a
good model set before them, that they would have been in
a condition to make a wise and safe use of their indepen¬
dence, and step at once into the enjoyment of a free con¬
stitution. As matters have been managed, however, it
would be foolish to expect that these islands will contribute
1 Edinburgh Review, No. Ixiv. art. i.; Holland’s Travels, chap. ii.; Treaty between Britain and Russia, 5th November 1815.
I P H
IPS
347
r n in any material degree to the improvement of the Greeks.
Dial' Exclusively of the prerogatives of the high commissioner,
H all power is vested in the nobles, who are universally de-
Pfcr!s‘scribed as the most worthless part of the population.
**T ' Votes alone will command office; and the mass of the
people, who have no votes to give, though not expressly,
will yet be substantially excluded from every place of
trust and honour, and kept in the same state of vassalage
as under the Venetians. Public burdens will naturally
accumulate, because those who impose taxes have a sepa¬
rate interest from those who pay them ; and abuses will
multiply, because the nobles, hanging on the government
for support, are gainers by a system of waste and profu¬
sion. A free press, which would have corrected some of
these evils, has been jealously guarded against by the con¬
stitution ; and as for the right of petition, in a government
so constructed, it must be an empty name. In all proba¬
bility, then, the lonians will consider the Turkish practice
of insurrection as the only effectual method of making Iphigenia
known their grievances. Accordingly, since the new con- II
stitution was promulgated in 1817, several attempts at in- ^IP^wlch-
surrection have been made. But whether these have ori-
ginated in the factious spirit of the nobles, or the discon¬
tents of the body of the people, has not been clearly ex¬
plained. Yet though but little comparatively has been
done for the people, the change has certainly been for their
advantage. The administration of justice has improved ;
the private wars and open rapine of the nobles have been
restrained; and the powers taken from these persons, and
conferred on the commissioner, have been more beneficial¬
ly exercised for the inhabitants at large. But a much
more stable foundation would have been laid for good go¬
vernment, had the people been furnished with constitu¬
tional rights to protect themselves, even although they
had not made a very wise use of those rights in the first
instance.
IONIC Order. See Architecture.
Ionic Dialect, in Grammar, a manner of speaking pe¬
culiar to the people of Ionia.
Ionic Sect was the first of the ancient sects of philoso¬
phers ; the others were the Italic and the Eleatic. The
founder of the Ionic sect was Thales, a native of Miletus,
in Ionia, whence his followers assumed the appellation of
Ionic. Thales was succeeded by Anaximander, and the
latter by Anaximenes, both of Miletus. Anaxagoras Cla-
zomenius succeeded them, and removed his school from
Asia to Athens, where Socrates was his scholar. It was
the distinguishing tenet of this sect that water was the
principle of all natural things.
IONIUM Mare, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, at
the bottom of the Adriatic. It lies between Sicily and
Greece. That part of the iEgean Sea which lies on the
coasts of Ionia in Asia is called the Sea of Ionia, and not
the Ionian Sea. According to some authors, the Ionian
Sea receives its name from lo, who swam across after she
had been metamorphosed into a heifer.
IPHICRATES, one of the most celebrated generals
of the Athenians, was a man of low origin, who raised
himself to the highest rank by his prudence and military
talents. The exact date of his birth and death is unknown ;
but he began to take an active part in the affairs of his
country in 392, b. c. when he proceeded with Conon to op¬
pose Agesilaus, who began to threaten the independence
of Athens. At this time he defeated a mora of the Lace¬
demonians, a body of men then the most active and vigo¬
rous in Greece. (Xen. Hell. iv. 5, 11-18.) On the death of
Thrasybulus, b. c. 389, Iphicrates was appointed to suc¬
ceed him in the command of the troops on the Hellespont,
and there laid siege to Abydos, which was commanded
by Nicolochus, the Spartan general; but the result of the
siege is not known, (v. 1, 6-7.) For many years we lose
sight of Iphicrates ; nor does he again appear on the stage
till b. c. 374, when we find him commanding the merce¬
nary troops of Persia in Egypt. Next year, when Cor-
cyra was threatened by the united fleets of Sparta and
Syracuse, Athens sent to the assistance of this island a
fleet of sixty vessels, commanded, first by Timotheus,
and afterwards by Iphicrates. The latter, assisted by the
orator Callistratus, and Chabrias, attacked and defeated
the Syracusans, (vi. 2.) History again fails us, and we
hear nothing more of Iphicrates till b. c. 355, when he
was sent, along with Timotheus and Chares, to recover
Byzantium and some other cities which had revolted,
fhe fleet commanded by these three generals was soon
in presence of the enemy; and they were preparing to
ofrer battle when a tempest dispersed part of their ves¬
sels. Chares wished, nevertheless, that they should en¬
gage in battle, but Iphicrates and Timotheus opposed
the proposal. On this account they were recalled, and, being
accused by Chares and Aristophon of treachery, Timo¬
theus was most unjustly condemned, whilst Iphicrates,
who defended himself, not only by his eloquence, but by
arming a number of his friends, was acquitted (Nepos,
Timoth. et Iphicr.') From that time he quitted the mili¬
tary service of his country. He was married to the
daughter of Cotys, king of Thrace, and had by her a son
named Menestheus.
IPHIGENIA, a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytem-
nestra. When the Greeks, going to the Trojan war, were
detained by contrary winds at Aulis, they were informed by
one of the soothsayers, that to appease the gods they must
sacrifice to Diana, Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon.
The father, who had provoked the goddess by killing her
favourite stag, heard this with the greatest horror and in¬
dignation ; and, rather than shed the blood of his daugh¬
ter, he commanded one of his heralds, as chief of the
Grecian forces, to order all the assembly to depart each
to his respective home. Ulysses and the other generals
interfered, and Agamemnon consented to immolate his
daughter for the common cause of Greece. As Iphige¬
nia was tenderly loved by her mother, the Greeks sent
for her on pretence of giving her in marriage to Achilles.
Clytemnestra gladly permitted her departure, and Iphi¬
genia came to Aulis, where she saw the bloody prepara¬
tions for the sacrifice. She implored the forgiveness and
protection of her father, but tears and entreaties were un¬
availing. Calchas took the knife in his hand, and, as he
was going to strike the fatal blow, Iphigenia suddenly dis¬
appeared, and a goat of uncommon size and beauty was
found in her place for the sacrifice. This supernatural
change animated the Greeks, the wind suddenly became
favourable, and the combined fleet set sail from Aulis.
IPSWICH, a market and borough town, the capital of
the county of Suffolk, sixty-nine miles from London. It
stands on the side of a gentle elevation rising from the
'banks of the river Orwell, which is navigable for vessels
of the smaller size to the bottom of the town. The coun¬
try around it is fertile, and the banks of the river present
most pleasing prospects. It is a place of great antiquity,
and many of the houses still bear marks of their ancient
erection. The streets are well paved ; and there is a
good market-place, well frequented four days in each week.
It formerly contained nineteen parish churches, and still
retains twelve, besides several places of worship for dis¬
senters from the establishment. There is a town and a
shire hall, and an extensive county jail. A college was
348 IRA
Irak, established hereby Cardinal Wolsey, a native of this place;
but it fell with the founder. There is, however, an en¬
dowed classical school. Ipswich was formerly celebrated
for its woollen manufactures, but that branch of industry has
been removed to the northern counties. The chief trade
at present is in building ships, and in exporting ship tim¬
ber, corn, and malt; but it has a considerable import
trade for wines, spirits, timber, ship-stores, and other
commodities, the duty on which, in 1833, amounted to
L.32,323. It is a corporate town, governed by two bai¬
liffs chosen annually, a recorder, two chamberlains, two
coroners, and twenty-four common councilmen. It re¬
turns two members to parliament, chosen by the freemen;
and has an admiralty jurisdiction on the Essex coast be¬
yond Harwich, and on the Suffolk coast to the boundary
of the county. The population amounted in 1801 to
11,297, in 1811 to 13,670, in 1821 to 17,186, and in 1831
to 20,454.
IRAK, a province of Persia, being the greatest part of
the ancient Media, is bounded on the south by Pars and
Kuzistan ; on the east by Khorassan and the great salt
desert; on the west by Kurdistan ; and on the north by
Azerbijan, Ghilan, and Mazunderan. This great province
has everywhere a most mountainous appearance. The
mountains are barren and devoid of timber, and run ge¬
nerally from west to east, enclosing valleys from ten to fif¬
teen miles in breadth. They either gradually sink into
the desert, or throw out branches into the provinces of
Kerman and Khorassan. The valleys are for the most
part uncultivated, excepting in the vicinity of the villages.
The land, however, is good, and is capable of yielding
abundance of corn. But the country languishes under
oppression, by which the valleys that were once produc¬
tive are now rendered desolate ; and the cities and aque¬
ducts, which were formerly in a different condition, are
now ruined. This province is divided into five great
districts, and each of these into lesser districts. There
are, ls£, Ispahan ; 2d, Teheran ; 3d, Naen ; 4th, Mullager ;
5th, Kermanshaw. A lofty range of mountains divides
the northern frontier of Irak from the provinces border¬
ing on the Caspian Sea. This range passes about six
miles to the north of Teheran, and, about fifty to the east,
suddenly advances to the south as far as latitude 36°
north, and again as suddenly retiring, forms a point, at the
extremity of which is the Pass of Khawar, designated in
ancient geography by the appellation of the Caspian Gate.
Some of the plains in this province afford excellent pas¬
turage, and are populous and well cultivated, while others
are almost in a state of nature. Towards the south-west,
near the mountains of Louristan, the high country is di¬
versified with rich valleys, inhabited by the tribes of Pity
and Bucktiari; and the southern division of the district of
Ispahan, lying between that capital and the towns of Yez-
dikhaust and Isferjan, is more populous than the neigh¬
bouring district of Pars, and is just recovering from the de¬
plorable state to which it had been reduced by the ravages
of the Afghans. The valleys are all connected with each
other, either by openings in the mountains, or narrow de¬
files. The villages have a picturesque and flourishing ap-
I R E
pearance ; and the produce of the district is not inferior to Irascil
that of the most fertile spots in Persia. It is about seven- II
ty miles in length and forty in breadth, and is irrigated by
canals cut from the Zeinderood, which are surrounded
with gardens and a prodigious number of pigeon-houses.
These animals are kept principally for the sake of their
dung, which is a rich manure, and is supposed to give to
the melons of Ispahan their acknowledged superiority in
flavour to all others. The largest of these pigeon-towers
sells for about L.3000. The nlost arid part of Irak is that
situated between this city and Yezd. The soil is poor, and
light, and sandy. A general scarcity of wood and water
prevails; and the climate is hot, though not unhealthy.
The climate of Irak towards the north is delightful in the
spring, though rather cold towards its commencement, as
the snow is scarcely off the ground, and a keen north wind
blows from the mountains. The heat sets in towards the
middle of June, and continues to increase till the middle
of August, when the harvest is collected. Snow begins to
fall in the end of September, and continues to fall in great
quantities during the months of December, January, and
February. In the province of Irak is the high land which
divides the streams that flow northward into the Cas¬
pian Sea from those which flow southward; namely, the
tributary waters of the Tigris, or the Shut-ul-Arab, and
their head branches, one of which, the Zeinderood, passes
through the city of Ispahan. Within the limits of this pro¬
vince are comprehended many great and celebrated cities,
the largest of which is Ispahan, for many ages the capital
of the Persian monarchy; Yezd, which is large and popu¬
lous; Natunz; Cashan, a flourishing city; Koom ; Teheran,
the present capital of Persia; Casween, a commercial and
populous city ; Sultanea, now in ruins; Zinjan, a prosperous
town ; Hamadan, supposed to be the ancient Ecbatana;
Kermanshaw, and others.
IRASCIBLE, in the old philosophy, a term applied to
an appetite or a part of the soul, where anger and the
other passions which animate us against things difficult
or odious were supposed to reside.
Of the eleven kinds of passions attributed to the soul,
philosophers ascribe five to the irascible appetite, viz.
wrath, boldness, fear, hope, and despair; the other six
being charged on the concupiscible appetite, viz. pleasure,
pain, desire, aversion, love, and hatred.
IRBIT, or Irbitskaia, a town of Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Perm, on the river Irbit, and the frontiers of
Siberia. It is noted for a yearly market held in January,
the season for travelling on the ice, and is an entrepot for
Siberian furs, and other arctic merchandise passing into
Europe. The annual fair is frequented by Russians and
Siberians, Tartars, Armenians, and Greeks. Near it is a
large iron work, which yields nearly 2000 tons of iron a
year. It is 142 miles north-east of Ekaterinenburg. Long.
62. 50. E. Lat. 57. 35. N.
IREG, a market-towm of the circle of Sezerem, in the
Austrian Sclavonian province of Siebenbirgen. It stands
at the foot of the Karlovitz Mountains, in a fruitful dis¬
trict yielding good wine. It contains 1020 houses, with
4863 inhabitants. Long. 19. 47. 59. E. Lat. 45. 6. 47. N.
349
IRELAND.
story. Ireland, one of the largest of the European islands,
is situated to the west of Great Britain, from which it is
separated by a narrow channel called the Irish Sea and St
George’s Channel on the east, and is bounded on its other
sides by the Atlantic Ocean, through which it can maintain
a direct communication with the continents of Europe, Af¬
rica, and America. The advantageous position, the fertility
of the soil, and the salubrity of the climate, have conferred
upon Ireland commercial facilities, which are capable of
being greatly increased. How far these natural advantages
have been made available towards the internal improve¬
ment of the island itself, and the general benefit of the
empire of which it forms an important part, may be best
ascertained from the following details of its history and
statistics.
HISTORY.
The Irish nation is undoubtedly of Celtic origin. This
truth is stamped in indelible characters in the names of
the rivers, towns, mountains, and other objects of histori¬
cal notoriety throughout the island; it is proclaimed by
marks equally indelible in the relics of antiquity, the tu¬
muli, the cairns, the cromleachs, and the druidical circles,
the remains of which, after having triumphed over the ra¬
vages of time and repeated revolutions, are now perpetu¬
ated in the pages of the antiquary’s researches. The name
of the island itself confirms the assertion. Eri or Erin, its
most ancient appellation, and that to which the natives still
cling with the attachment of veneration, is derived from the
Celtic lar or Eir, which signifies western. Most of its more
modern names may be easily traced to this source. By the
Grecians, to whom, though unacquainted with its localities,
its general geographical position and bearings were not un¬
known, it was called lerna, being honoured by them with
the rank of the third of the islands of the ocean, and yield¬
ing precedence in this respect only to Taprobane and Bri¬
tain. Ptolemy names it louerna; Juvenal and Mela, luver-
na. Diodorus Siculus, approaching more nearly to the ab¬
original word, calls it Iris. Marcianus Heracleota and Eu¬
stathius adopt the term used by Ptolemy, but corrupted by
the latter into Bernia. By the Britons it was called Iver-
don ; and the Saxons, attaching to the native name an epi¬
thet from their own language, called it lerland or Ireland.
Its later name, Hibernia, may be traced somewhat more
circuitously to the same source, although much etymolo¬
gical and antiquarian ingenuity has been employed to de¬
duce it from other circumstances. Some choose to de¬
rive it from its climate, calling it Hibernus, on account of
its wintry temperature, as unjustly in fact as erroneously
in etymology ; others from Iberus, a Spaniard, or a river
ot Spain. One writer ventures still further. Postellus, in
his strictures on Mela, deduces it from the Hebrew, “ Irin
quasi lurin,” the land of the Hebrews, “ who, knowing that
the empire of the world would be established in a very
strong corner to the north-west, made themselves masters
as soon as possible of those parts, and of Ireland.” Bochart
traces it to the Phoenician; Hibernia, according to him, or
lerne, being nothing more than Ibernae, or the furthest ha¬
bitation, because, beyond Ireland westward, all was ocean,
according to the ancients. This derivation may be easily
made to harmonize with that deduced from the Celtic,
serving also to corroborate the opinion now very generally
entertained, that the Celtic Irish and the Phoenician were
kindred branches from the same eastern stem. Another
name from another source has been fixed upon Ireland, one History,
of different derivation, and of later acceptation, as not being
known until the fourth century after Christ, when the coun¬
try was generally designated throughout the learned world
of that day by the name of Scotia. Some writers take the
word to be a corruption of Scythia, from which region they
suppose the nation to have emigrated; others, amongst whom
are Whitaker and Chalmers, assert that the people acquired
this name from their habits of roving and spirit of enterprise;
the term “ sceite,” according to them, signifying dispersed
or scattered. The name of Ogygia has also been applied to
it, and adopted by O’Flaherty in his Chronological Annals.
Certainly, if the Ogygia, which Plutarch places west of
Britain, be any thing more than an imaginary formation,
it must signify Ireland. Yet if so, it should more proper¬
ly be considered as an epithet given to it on account of its
antiquity than as a proper name ; the Greeks applying that
word exclusively to what was of an origin beyond existing
records.
A recurrence to the Greek and Roman writers will
show that the country thus designated was not consider¬
ed by them as the habitation of a single nation. On the
contrary, its coasts are described by Ptolemy as being
possessed by a number of tribes of various names ; whilst
with the interior he seems to have had no acquaintance.
His nomenclature has been followed by succeeding geo¬
graphers, with little variation. According to these authori¬
ties, the northern regions were possessed by the Venicnii
and the Robogdii; the eastern by the Darnii or Darini,
the Voluntii, the Blanii or Eblanii, the Cauci, the Me-
napii, and the Coriondi; the southern shores were pos¬
sessed by the Brigantes, the Yodii, the Uterni or Ivernii,
and the Vellebori; the western coast was the residence
of the Gangani or Cancani, the Auteri, the Nagnatae, and
the Herdini or Herpeditani. Whitaker supposes the in¬
terior, comprehending all the inland counties, to have
been peopled by a tribe which he calls the Scoti.
The native annalists present a very different picture
of the ancient state of the country, which, although much
disfigured by the fables of romance with which the bards,
the only historians of the time, chose, for very obvious
reasons, to embellish their narratives, must be supposed
to rest upon a groundwork of reality. Rejecting, there¬
fore, from their accounts what is evidently fabulous, and
suspending the judgment as to circumstances of doubt¬
ful or obscure character, the temperate investigator of
truth will be able to trace a series of historical connec¬
tions, to which assent may be conceded, at least to the
same extent as to those parts of the recognised histories
of other countries, in which it is acknowledged that truth
verges upon fiction. With this clue to the investigation
of a train of occurrences which affect to penetrate fur¬
ther into the darkness of antiquity than those of any other
nation, except the Jewish, the investigation of the history
of Ireland may be ventured on from the earliest period at
which the most enthusiastic advocate of its primeval ori¬
gin thinks himself justified in fixing his first footsteps, until
we arrive, through the periods of doubt, at those of un¬
disputed historical certainty in our own times.
According to the native historians, Partholan, the sixth
in descent from Magog, Noah’s second son, settled in Ire¬
land at the head of a thousand men, and took possession
of a country in which no one appeared to dispute his right
of occupancy. But he did not long enjoy his possession of
it in tranquillity; for at the same time, or shortly afterwards,
there arrived a band of lawless adventurers, of the stock
350
IRELAND.
History. 0f Nimrod, the descendant of Ham, who were distinguished
by the name of Fomorians, or Fawmorries, a name still ap¬
plied to strangers by the native Irish. With these took
place a series of deadly hostilities, which terminated in a
battle so bloody and so decisive, that not a single stranger
was left alive; and the ground was so infected with the
putrefying corpses, which the residue of the followers of
Partholan were now too fewr and weak to inter, that a plague
broke out, which destroyed all the survivors, and left the
country totally uninhabited for thirty years.
At the termination of this period, Nemedius, another
descendant of Japhet, made a settlement on the island
with a thousand men, from the borders of the Euxine. The
tranquillity of his settlement was also disturbed by the in¬
cursions of tribes of Fomorians, here said to be African
pirates, with whom his followers carried on an incessant
warfare, but with different ultimate success ; for the stran¬
gers, being reinforced with fresh supplies from their own
countrymen, at length defeated the Nemedians with such
slaughter, as to force the scanty remains of this second co¬
lony to return to the country whence they had originally
emigrated. They took their departure in three companies.
The first, under Breac, proceeded to Thrace, where they
took the name of Belgse ; the second, under Jobath, pro¬
ceeded no farther than Boeotia ; and the third, under Brid-
tan, repaired to the neighbouring island of Britain, where
they formed the tribe of the Brigantes. From this Bridtan,
the Psalter of Cashel, a record of great authority in the
first and second ages of the Irish, traces the origin of the
Welsh.
The Fomorians, when sole masters of the country, went
to war amongst themselves, and carried their dissensions to
such a height of animosity, that the island was a second
time utterly depopulated, and continued so until some of the
descendants of the Thracian Nemedians, to the number of
about five thousand men, returned thither, under the com¬
mand of the five sons of Dela. The Irish annalists distin¬
guish this colony by the name of Fir-bolgs; a name said to be
applied to tribes living in caves, whither the natives used to
have recourse for shelter in cases of extremity. To this co¬
lony is attributed the division of the country into five princi¬
palities, which continued, though not without interruption,
till the English invasion. The names of the states of the
pentarchy were, Leinster, Munster, Ulster, Connaught, and
Meath. The principal chieftain of each division was honour¬
ed with the title of king, a name applied very liberally at all
times to the petty dynasts who arrogated supreme authority
over their own territories, however limited; but the ruler
over Leinster was recognised as sovereign, to whom sub¬
mission was tendered, and from whom protection was claim¬
ed, by the other members of the pentarchy in cases of danger.
This system of government continued undisturbedfor eighty
years, through a succession of nine sovereign rulers, when
it was broken in upon by the intrusion of another colony of
the same stock, called by the Irish writers Tuatha-na-Da-
nans; a name said by some to have been given them as being
the descendants of the three sons of Danan, a profound adept
in the art of magic, and by others, as being divided into
the three tribes of Tuatha or commanders, Dee, druids or
priests, and Danan or bards. The chronicles of the time
state, that having been driven out of Boeotia by their in¬
veterate enemies the Fomorians, after wandering through
various countries, they settled in Norway, where they were
hospitably received; whence they removed to Scotland,
and, after a residence there of seven years, proceeded to
Ireland, carrying with them several necromantic curiosi¬
ties, the most remarkable of which was the fatal stone, or
stone of destiny, to which tradition attached the belief that
the sovereignty would remain with that nation whose king
was crowmed upon it. The tale would be unworthy of his¬
torical notice, were not an observance of the present day
connected with the superstitious credence to which it owes
its birth. The stone, after having been preserved for many
generations in the line of the Irish Milesian monarchs, was
taken to Scotland by a king of that family, by whom it was
fraudulently detained, and used as the inauguration stone
of the Scottish kings until the time of Edward I. of Eng¬
land, who, on his conquest of the country, transferred it,
together with all the other appendages of royalty, to Lon¬
don, where it is still kept, under the name of Jacob’s stone,
and is used in the ceremonial of the coronation of the kings
of Great Britain. The Belgae defended themselves for
some time with great spirit, but they were at length total¬
ly defeated. Numbers of them withdrew to the neigh¬
bouring islands and coasts of Scotland ; and those who re¬
mained were reduced to a state of abject slavery, under
which they remained during the whole time their enemies
held the dominion, which the latter were enabled to do,
without molestation from a foreign enemy, for an hundred
and ninety-seven years, under a succession of nine sove¬
reigns.
The dynasty of the Tuatha-na-Danans was terminated
by an event similar to those which had extinguished the
two previous colonies. An expedition from Spain, under
the eight sons of Milesius, landed in the south-west of Ire¬
land, and after encountering many perils, partly by the vio¬
lence of a storm, by which five of the leaders were lost,
partly by the resistance of the old settlers, they obtained
possession of the entire country, which was divided be¬
tween Heremon and Heber, two of the surviving sons of
Milesius; Amergin, the third, having no share in the go¬
vernment, but acting rather as a councillor to both, a func¬
tion which his literary acquirements entitled him to assume.
The southern part fell to Heber ; Leinster and Connaught
to Heremon, who fixed his residence at Teamor, now called
Tarah, in Meath. A war soon broke out between the bro¬
thers, which was terminated by the total defeat of Heber,
the aggressor, who was killed in a battle fought at Geisiol,
or Geashil, in the King’s County. But his death did not put
an end to the domestic dissensions of the family. A few
years after, Heremon put his remaining brother to death, and
thus obtained the sole dominion, which he held for thirteen
years, till his death. His time was chiefly employed in re¬
pelling invasions of the Britons and of the Piets. The go¬
vernment then continued through a race of twenty kings
of the same family, of whom nothing worthy of mention is
recorded ; the annals of the period containing merely the
intestine dissensions of the chiefs of the several branches,
and their wars with the Britons and Piets, until the crown
descended to Ollav Fola, of the family of Ir, one of
the sons of Milesius who had perished on the first landing
in Ireland. During his reign, which commenced about
900 years before Christ, the Fez, or triennial meeting of the
subordinate chieftains, priests, historiographers, and bards,
was instituted at Teamor, or Tarah, in which, besides the
regulation of all matters affecting the government and the
enacting of laws, a minute investigation was entered into
of the national monuments and records. Whatever was
then deemed genuine and authentic, was inserted in a vo¬
lume called the Psalter of Tarah. This legislator closed
a reign of forty years, spent with benefit to his subjects and
honour to himself, by a natural death, a circumstance very
unusual in the annals of those times, and left the undisput¬
ed succession to his son, who enjoyed it for seventeen
years, and also had the unusual good fortune to die in the
same manner. The annals of the succeeding monarchs,
for the space of 260 years, present nothing but a reitera¬
tion of war and mutual destruction, to such an extent,
that out of thirty-one kings, who held the reins of govern¬
ment during that period, all but three are recorded to have
fallen in battle, or by a violent death. The only occur¬
rences worthy of notice that can be gleaned from the his-
Histon
IRELAND.
listory. tory of this barren period, are, the erection of a mint, the
formation of a standing army by the allowance of a fixed
pay to the soldiery, and the invention of the small boats,
formed of wicker-work and covered with hides, now called
corraghs.
Kimbath, who ascended the throne 460 years before
Christ, has obtained an honourable celebrity by his efforts
to revive and improve the institutions of Ollav Fola. He
formed a national police, and regulated the artificers and
tradesmen, whom he placed under the jurisdiction of a
council of sixty of the nobles and learned men, without
whose license no person was permitted to practise any
mechanic art. The foundation of the royal palace of
Eamania, near Armagh, is attributed by some writers to
him; whilst others give the credit of it to his widow, who
succeeded him, and reigned seven years, when she was cut
off by her successor, who in his turn fell by the hand of
Hugony the Great, in revenge for the death of his foster
mother. This last-named monarch, with whom the line
of Heremon would have terminated had he died without
issue, was married to the daughter of a king of France,
and kept possession of the crown during a vigorous and
active reign of thirty years. He obliged the Piets to pay
tribute, and extended his dominion over the Western
Isles. He also abolished the pentarchical form of govern¬
ment, dividing the country into twenty-five provinces,
over each of which he placed one of his twenty-five sons,
and causing the public revenues to be collected according
to this arrangement. But neither his virtues nor his abi¬
lities were sufficient to save him from the usual fate of Irish
monarchs, nor to prevent the recurrence of acts of slaugh¬
ter amongst his posterity. He was slain, after a reign of
thirty years, by his own brother, who fell by the hand of
one of Hugony’s sons, who in his turn perished by the
treachery of his only brother. Amongst the successors of
Hugony, Eochy, surnamed Feileagh, or the Melancholy,
has made his reign memorable by founding the royal seat
ofCroghan, in Connaught. It is also celebrated as being
the era of the red-branch knights of Ulster, who were
said to have had a residence at the palace of Eamania.
His successor Eochy introduced the custom of burying in
graves instead of burning. Conary More, who reigned for
thirty years according to some writers, and sixty accord¬
ing to others, is famous for having enjoyed the longest,
happiest, and most tranquil reign in Irish history. Such
periods are not those which furnish most materials for the
annalist. Of the particulars of his life, though so highly
celebrated, little is recorded. He was killed in battle by
the king of W ales, though other accounts state that he
was treacherously burned in his own palace of Teamor,
which also became a prey to the flames. In the reign of
Crimthan, one of his successors, who had married the
daughter of a Pictish chieftain, the Irish were the auxi¬
liaries of the Piets against the Romans. The information
of the leader of a rival faction to this prince is said to
have induced Agricola to entertain the idea of conquer¬
ing the island with a single legion and some auxiliaries.
Whatever might have been the result of such an invasion
under a general of acknowledged military talents, it is
certain that the Roman power in Britain declined so ra¬
pidly from this time, that the Irish made frequent irrup¬
tions into the Roman province, and returned to their own
country loaded with spoil. Feredach, one of the succes¬
sors of Crimthan, owes his title of the Just to his chief
councillor Moran, whose rigid impartiality in the dispen-
sahon of justice is recorded, in the figurative language of
b ea j S> un^er th® allegory of a collar, invented and
an ed down by him to his successors in office, which had
supernatural effect of pressing upon the neck of the
wearer in case his decision deviated from the strict rule of
e(luity> so as to strangle him if he persevered in his ini-
351
quity. Feredach was killed after an unsettled reign of History,
seven years, by an insurrection of the peasantry, to whom
the name of Attacots was given ; a name which afterwards
was cairied into North Britain, where, though at first ap-
plied to disturbers of the public peace, it ultimately be-
came the distinguishing title of a tribe inhabiting the
country adjoining the Roman wall. After a period of
civil commotion, Tuathal, upon attaining the sovereign
pow ei, exerted himself to restore the ancient constitution
of Ollay Fola, and the pentarchical division of the coun¬
try. To him is attributed the appropriation of the central
province of Meath, as a demesne or mensal land for the
supreme monarch. Here he restored the royal residence,
and founded an edifice for the sacred fire/to which the
Druids and priests were to have recourse on the last day
of October, to perform a solemn sacrifice, and to supply
fire to all the people, who were bound to extinguish their
usual fires at that time, and to relight them from this hal¬
lowed source. He built similar palaces and temples at Uis-
neacht in Connaught, at Fiaodha in Munster, and at Tail-
tean in Ulster, where there was a fair, to which parents
brought their grown-up children and contracted them in
marriage. He also was the originator of the fine after¬
wards known by the name of the Borome, or Leinster tri¬
bute, imposed upon the king of that province for having
caused the death of two daughters of Tuathal, whom he
inveigled away under a treacherous promise of marriage.
This monarch died in battle. The reign of Conn Keadca-
hagh, or Conn of the Hundred Battles, is best known by the
division of Ireland which he was compelled to make with
Mogha Jv uod, king of Munster. The line of demarcation
was fixed by a rampart and fosse, extending across Ireland
from Dublin to Galway, the country to the south of which
was called Leagh Mogha, or Mogha’s share, that to the
north Leagh Cuin, or Conn’s share; names still familiar
amongst the Irish. Cormac, the grandson of Conn of the
Hundred Battles, signalized himself by his efforts to re¬
store the ancient regulations of the monarchy; but having
lost an eye in suppressing a rebellion excited by one of
his own family, and being thus excluded from the throne
through the prevalence of a prejudice which forbade a
mutilated person to continue monarch, he closed his life
in retirement, during which he drew up a treatise, yet
extant, called the Book of Advice to Kings; a work ex¬
tolled by the native writers as worthy to be written in
letters of gold, a perfect standard of policy to all ages. In
his reign flourished the celebrated Irish militia, known by
the name of Fiana Erion, and commanded by Fein M'Cooil,
commonly called l ingal. It was a military association,
into which admission was attainable only by convincing
testimonies of great strength, activity, and intelligence;
besides which, an engagement was required on the part of
the newly-admitted member to choose a wife solely for
her merits, never to ill-treat a woman, and not to turn his
back upon an enemy, even though nine times as nume¬
rous as the body to which he belonged. The regular
number of this force was said to be nine thousand men,
divided into three battalions. After a variety of exploits,
which have furnished materials to much of the legendary
romance of the time, the body was annihilated during the
succeeding reign, at the battle of Gabra or Gawra, in
Meath, where Oscar, the son of Ossian the poet, fell.
Passing over a series of several kings known only by
name, Nial of the Nine Hostages signalized himself by
his military expeditions in Scotland, England, and France.
His career of conquest was cut short in the last-named
country, where he died of the wound of an arrow treach¬
erously discharged against him on the banks of the Loire,
ilis immediate successor, Dahy, met with an untimely
fate in the same country by lightning. He was the last
pagan king of Ireland. In the third year of Logary, or
352 I R E L
History. Lae-ra, who succeeded Dahy, Palladius arrived in Ire-
land, being sent on a mission thither by Pope Celestine
for the conversion of the natives. He was not, however,
the first who had been thus employed. The names of St
Albe, Declan, Iber, and Kirian, are quoted as his prede¬
cessors in the pious work. But their labours were con¬
fined to particular districts, nor does it appear that they
acted under the authority of the see of Rome. Either
through ignorance of the language, or want of spirit to
withstand the ferocious opposition of his pagan adversa¬
ries, Palladius was compelled, after having founded three
churches, to relinquish the design, and to quit the coun¬
try, in order to save his own life and those of his followers;
but he was prevented by death from returning to Rome
to give an account of his mission. The completion of the
work so inauspiciously commenced was reserved for St
Patrick, whose success has acquired him the title of the
apostle of Ireland. He was a native of North Britain.
When sixteen years old he was brought prisoner to Ire¬
land by Nial of the Nine Hostages, during one of his fo¬
reign expeditions, and spent seven years in slavery in the
country, where his employment was the herding of swine.
The law of bondage at that time extended no longer than
the seventh year, at the expiration of which time he re¬
turned to his native country; and, after having studied
under his uncle, the Bishop of Tours, he found his wav to
Rome, where he was selected by the pope to renew the
attempt which had already failed; an undertaking for
which his knowledge of the language, acquired during his
captivity, peculiarly qualified him. To Ireland, therefore,
he proceeded with twenty disciples or assistants, which
number was increased to thirty-four in England, where
he touched during his voyage. His first reception on
his landing at Wicklow was very discouraging. The re¬
port of his arrival had already reached the Pagan prince
who had expelled his predecessor. The same spirit of
hostility was directed against the new comer, and Patrick
and his company were assailed and forced to take refuge
on board their ships. But, though discouraged, he was not
disheartened. Instead of relinquishing his purpose, he pro¬
ceeded to the island afterwards named Holm-patrick, where,
having refreshed himself by a short leisure, he proceeded
to Ulster, and preached before the chieftain of the dis¬
trict so forcibly as to convert him and his family, and to
obtain license to found a church there. In the second
year of his mission he presented himself before the Fez,
or council at Tarah, where he proved equally successful;
Logary the king declaring himself a convert, and many
of his subjects following his example. Nor does it appear
that the subsequent progress of the apostle was checked
by any untoward circumstance. The remainder of his
life, which was protracted to an unusual length, was spent
in traversing the country, spreading around a knowledge of
the Christian doctrine, gaining over converts, and found¬
ing churches and monasteries. The chief of his religious
foundations was at Armagh, which soon became a school
of theology, so famous that students flocked to it from all
quarters in such numbers, that at one time it was said to
have communicated instruction to seven thousand stu¬
dents. The exertions of Patrick were not wholly confin¬
ed to the preaching of the gospel. He gave his advice and
assistance in the reformation of the government. At his
suggestion, Logary summoned an assembly of the princes,
historians, and antiquaries, to revise the records and chro¬
nicles of the country ; and their amendments were deposit¬
ed in the public archives, under the name of “ The Great
Antiquity.” Fragments of copies taken from this workwere
to be met with for many centuries afterwards, under the
names of the Book of Armagh, the Psalter of Cashel, the
Book of Glandaloch, the Leabhar Gabala, and others, from
which subsequent writers have derived much of their in-
A N D.
formation respecting the ancient history of the country. Histm
Patrick did not retain the government of the bishopric
erected by himself in Armagh; but having appointed Binen
or Benignus his successor in the see, and having made a
visit to Rome, he spent the remainder of his life chiefly
at Saul, near Downpatrick, where he had founded a monas¬
tery, in which he closed a career of active and successful
labours, in the hundred and twentieth year of his age, and
was buried in the neighbouring abbey of Downpatrick.
Although the exertions of St Patrick produced an effect
so great upon the public mind, that, for many years after,
the founding of religious institutions, and the lives and
deaths of the ecclesiastics engaged in maintaining and ex¬
tending the new faith, formed the chief subjects of history,
it does not appear that the change of religion produced the
beneficial alterations that might have been hoped for from
it on the political aspect of affairs. The brief notices of
the civil occurrences continue to exhibit little more than
a reiteration of the turbulence, crime, and desolation, that
had marked the era of paganism. The only event of im¬
portance that diversifies the tissue of domestic and foreign
warfare which forms the subject of the annals of those
days, occurred during the reign of Hugh, the son of Ain-
mireagh, in which an assemblage was convened at Drum-
keath, in Derry, for the express purpose of curbing the li¬
cense of the bards, now become intolerable. The privi¬
leges annexed of old to this order, whose properties as well
as persons were inviolable in all civil commotions, whose
lands were freed from tribute, and whose houses were re¬
spected as sanctuaries, had rendered the numbers of the
profession so great, and entailed such a burden on the
state for their support, that they were several times before
about to be banished from the country. At the assembly
now held, they found a zealous and useful friend in the ce¬
lebrated Columbkill, who left his monastery of Iona to be
present here, and prevailed so far as to procure a mitiga¬
tion of their treatment, by changing the decree for their
banishment into one for the diminution of their numbers.
It was therefore resolved, that in future the king of Ire¬
land, each provincial sovereign, and the lord of every sub¬
ordinate territory, was to maintain a bard to preserve the
genealogies and record the acts of the respective families;
and that a suitable salary was to be allowed him, in return
for which he was also to instruct the youth in history, poe¬
try, and antiquities. The whole body was placed under the
control of an arch-poet, in whom was vested the power of
admitting qualified persons. Thus restrained as to num ¬
bers and means of acquiring wealth, their properties were
as hitherto exempted from taxation, and their persons pri¬
vileged. Yet, during this gloomy period, in which the in¬
ternal state of the country exhibits so little to cheer the
inquirer, it became celebrated throughout Christendom, on
account of the piety and learning of the inmates of its reli¬
gious establishments. In the fifth century Sedulius made
himself known as a poet, an orator, and a divine, and
spread a knowledge of his acquirements, and the fame of
the country in which he had imbibed them, through France,
Italy, and the western regions of Asia. Columbkill, al¬
ready transiently noticed as the founder of the monastery
of Iona or Hy, the burial-place of the Scottish kings,
adorned the sixth century. So also did Congall, the founder
of the monastery of Bangor, famed for the multitude of re¬
ligious men whom its learning and the strictness of its
rules led to it. In the seventh century flourished Columba,
the founder of several monastic institutions in France and
Italy; Aidan, to whom the conversion of the Northum¬
brians is attributed; Finan, who followed him in the same
field of missionary labour ; Argobast, who preached in
Alsace, and was thence raised to the see of Strasburg;
Adamnanus, who visited the court of Alfred, king of North¬
umberland; and Cuthbert, the son of one of the petty kings
IRELAND.
Lstory. of Ireland, who, after having been prevailed on with much
difficulty to take charge of the bishopric of Holy Island, in
the same part of England, resigned it for a life of studious
retirement in the Isle of Earn, where he closed his life.
In the eighth century lived Sedulius the younger, who as¬
sisted at a council held at Rome by Gregory II., and was
afterwards a bishop in Spain ; also Vergilius, a philosopher
as well as a divine, as appears by a treatise of his on the
Antipodes, written against the then received opinion of the
shape of the earth, which he proved to be a globe, and not
a plain surrounded by the heavens at its verge. He spent
some time in France at the court of King Pepin, by whom
he was highly esteemed.
The state of Ireland was now destined to suffer from ano¬
ther element of convulsion. About the commencement of
the ninth century, the Danes began to extend to it their pre¬
datory ravages. Their first attacks were trifling and occa¬
sional, more of the nature of piratical incursions than pre¬
concerted invasion. But in proportion as the success of
their first assaults rendered them more daring, and their
more extended knowledge of the country made them bet-
, ter acquainted with its fertility, their bands became more
numerous, and better prepared for continued hostilities ;
whilst at the same time the unsettled state of the country,
caused by the intestine wars of the native princes, carried
on either for the purpose of attaining the supremacy, or
for exacting tribute from their inferiors, prevented that
combination of defence which alone could ensure success
against the foreign enemy. In the middle of the same
century, Turgesius, king of Norway, had virtually rendered
himself monarch over the greater part of the island. He
maintained himself in it with all the cruelty and arrogance
of an usurper. Danes were placed in all the subordinate
kingdoms. Every district had a Danish officer placed over
it, and even every house was required to maintain a Da¬
nish soldier. The use of arms was prohibited to the Irish.
A tribute of an ounce of gold was exacted from every
householder, the non-payment of which was punished by
the mutilation of the nose, whence the tribute was known
by the name of the nose-tax; and, to complete the climax
of degrading submission, the bridal favours of new-married
virgins were exacted by the Danish chief of the territory,
and were sometimes commuted, at his caprice, for a sum of
money. The country had groaned for thirteen years under
this complication of insult and injury, until it Avas at length
roused to shake off the degrading yoke. Turgesius had
erected a rath for his residence in the neighbourhood of
farah, where lived Malachy, who still retained the title of
king among the Irish. Turgesius claimed his daughter.
Malachy, conscious of his inability to resist the demand
openly, yet unwilling to sacrifice his only child without an
effort, sent along with her a number of young men dis¬
guised as her female attendants, who fell upon the Danes
in the rath, slaughtered them, seized Turgesius, and hand¬
ed him over bound to Malachy, who had advanced with
a band of armed men to their aid. The captivity of the
tyrant was the signal for a general insurrection of the Irish,
by which the Danes were forced either to fly aboard their
shipping, or to take refuge in the maritime towns that ac¬
knowledged their authority. Turgesius, after being kept
some time in prison, was drowned in Lough Innel. On the
expulsion of the Danes, the country reverted to its former
state of internal dissension. Cormac M‘Cuillenan, king of
Munster and bishop of Cashel, an union of civil and spiri¬
tual jurisdiction then not uncommon, claimed a tribute
from the king of Leinster, which, on refusal of payment,
he proceeded to enforce by the power of his arms. But on
entering his adversary’s territory, he found him strength¬
ened by the support of the king of Ireland. The unex¬
pected intelligence threw such a damp upon the spirits of
his troops, that many deserted him before the battle :
vol. xu.
those who stood firm were soon routed, and Cormac him¬
self was killed by a fall from his horse, whilst endeavouring
to escape amongst the fugitives. This king is best known
in history as the compiler of a book of annals, called the
Psalter of Cashel, from which succeeding writers derived
much information. It has been many years lost.
I he internal dissensions of the country encouraged the
Danes to make another effort for subjugating the island. A
large force landed in Leinster, under the command of Se-
trick, said by some writers to have been a son of Turge¬
sius, by whom Dublin was taken, and the possession of it
secured by a signal victory obtained over the combined
forces of the Irish, in which Nial, king of Ireland, and many
of his generals, fell. The distractions of the country, thus
augmented by the presence of a foreign enemy, obtained
a temporary intermission by the accession of Brian Boree
to the sovereignty. This prince, the great hero of the
Irish, was brother to the king of Munster, on whose death
he succeeded to the throne of that province, from which
he not only expelled the Danes, who had made a settle¬
ment in Limerick, but extended his dominion over the
whole southern division of Ireland. The brilliancy of his
achievements against the common enemy induced the
rest of the subordinate chieftains to unite in a confederacy
for deposing Malachy, the reigning monarch, and raising
Brian into his place. The object was effected with little
difficulty, and, what was more unusual in the revolutions
of the country, with no bloodshed. Malachy was of a
mild and undecided character. After a feeble effort to
revive the spirit of loyalty among the subordinate princes
of the northern division, to the chief of whom, O’Neill, he
offered a large portion of his dominions, he resigned the
crown without a struggle. The new monarch was pub¬
licly proclaimed ‘and inaugurated at Tarah. After re¬
ceiving the submissions of the kings of Ulster and Con¬
naught, and reducing some refractory chieftains who dis¬
puted his authority, he directed the combined energies of
all the states against the Danes, whom he expelled from
the island, with the exception of such as consented to em¬
brace Christianity. These he located in the great sea¬
ports of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Limerick, and Cork.
Having thus removed the obstacles arising from a foreign
enemy, he directed his attention to the general civilization
of the kingdom, by founding or restoring the places of
worship and seminaries of education, building bridges,
opening passes, erecting fortresses, and fitting out a fleet
to oppose the Danes on their own element, before they
could effect a landing. In the accomplishing of these ob¬
jects, he spent the latter part of a long and glorious reign.
But its termination was marked by a circumstance that un¬
did all his labours. The subordinate king of Leinster, ir¬
ritated at an insult offered to him in the court of Brian,
made overtures to the king of Denmark for a union to ex¬
pel him from the throne. These were gladly accepted.
A large fleet was sent from Denmark, which landed a body
of troops near Dublin, where they were joined by those of
the king of Leinster. Brian was not negligent in discover¬
ing, or tardy in adopting measures to resist, this new com¬
bination. At the head of a numerous and well-appointed
army, collected from all the other provinces, he marched
to me'et the enemy. The battle was fought on the plains
of Clontarf. It was bloody and desperate, but decisive ;
the Danes were utterly defeated, and forced to fly to,their
ships. The Leinster men, abandoned by their foreign
friends, were cut to pieces without mercy. The exulta¬
tion of triumph would have been as unmixed as the vic¬
tory was glorious, had it not been clouded by the death
of the monarch, who, though too far advanced in years to
take part in the engagement, led the army to the field,
and was killed in his tent, whither he had remained du¬
ring the conflict, bv a party of straggling Danes, as they
2 x
353
History.
IRELAND.
were flying. His eldest son Mortogh fell in the battle.
Malachy, the deposed monarch, seized the opportunity
of reviving his claim to the vacant throne. His conduct
during the late crisis had been more than dubious. He
had made a show of assisting the Irish with the forces of
Meath, which province he had been allowed to retain,
but, on the commencement of the battle, withdrew his
men to a neighbouring eminence, where he continued an
inactive spectator of the struggle. His claim was ac¬
quiesced in. But his resumption of the reins of authority
proved only the signal for the renewal of those scenes of
turbulence and anarchy which the commanding talents of
his predecessor had kept under control. The apprehen¬
sions of subjugation to a foreign power were indeed re-
movedi The victory of Clontarf discouraged any further
effort of the Danes, whom alone the native rulers dreaded.
These were left to carry on undisturbed their schemes of
self-aggrandizement and mutual contention. The only
event to diversify the gloomy monotony of incessant civil
discord, was a synod of the clergy at Kells, held in 1152,
under Cardinal Papiron, the pope’s legate. Heretofore
the connection of the Irish church with the see of Rome
had been very slight, and altogether voluntary. It was
governed by the two Archbishops of Armagh and Cashel,
and a number of bishops, whose system of control was re¬
gulated by domestic synods. At the assemblage now
spoken of, the supremacy of the see of Rome was ac¬
knowledged, and four palls were given to the Archbishops
of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam.
Things continued in this state till the time of Roderic
Connor, whose reign forms the commencement of a new
era, which overthrew all the ancient forms and constitu¬
tions of government, and gave to the tide of political
events a new turn, by which they have been influenced to
the present time. Notwithstanding the proximity of
England to Ireland, there had hitherto been but little in¬
tercourse between the two countries. Wales, then an in¬
dependent state, interposed between them. The Saxons
were not a people of commercial or adventuring enter¬
prise ; and, even after the final consolidation of England
into an established monarchy under the Normans, the
views of the monarchs of this line, whether for extension
of territory or for commerce, were directed towards the
states of the Continent, whence they had derived their
parentage. We read indeed of an invasion, and even a
subjugation of part of Ireland, by Edgar, king of the
Northumbrians. If such occurred, it has left behind it
few or no historical traces. The episcopal see of Dublin
acknowledged the supremacy of that of Canterbury, from
which it received its canons and rights of ordination. The
Danish character of the city, which, until after the Eng¬
lish invasion, was always considered as a subordinate sea¬
port, accounts sufficiently for this peculiarity ; and that
the connection between the two kingdoms had nothing
in it savouring of subjection on the part of Ireland at the
time now about to be entered upon, appears from the fact,
that at the synod of Armagh, assembled in 1170, to in¬
quire into the cause of the arrival of strangers from Eng¬
land for the purpose of conquest, the impending calamity
was imputed to the sins of the people, and more espe¬
cially to the practice of buying English children, and
making them slaves. Giraldus Cambrensis, in stating
the fact, adds, “ that the English, by a common vice of
their country, had a custom to sell their children and
kinsfolk into Ireland, although not driven to it by extreme
poverty.”
Dermot M‘Murrough, king of Leinster, had incurred
the hatred of his own subjects, and of the other princes,
by his tyranny. His breach of the laws of hospitality in
carrying off the wife of O’Ruark, king of Breffney, gave
particular offence to Roderic, by whom he was conse¬
quently driven from his dominions. In his distress he Histoi
had recourse to Henry II. of England, under whom he
offered to hold his crown as a tributary, if restored by
that monarch’s exertions. The offer was very grateful to
Henry. He had long before turned his thoughts to the
acquisition of Ireland. As early as the year 1154, he had
procured a bull from Adrian, who owed his elevation to
the papacy to Henry’s influence, conferring on him the
sovereignty of the island, in order to its civilization, upon
payment of the tribute of Peter’s pence to the court of
Rome. But his domestic difficulties and continental en¬
gagements had hitherto obliged him to postpone any ac¬
tive measures to accomplish his object. He was now in
Guienne, embarrassed by rebellion amongst his French
subjects, and by his disputes with the papal see, and
therefore was forced to confine himself to general expres¬
sions of assent, confirmed by a permission to all his English
subjects to assist in the restoration of his new ally. Sup¬
ported by this authority, Dermot turned homewards, and,
after vainly attempting to engage adventurers in Bristol,
he at last formed a treaty with Richard, earl of Pem¬
broke, and Strigul, better known by the name of Strong- ,
bow, a Welsh baron, who, having impaired his patrimony,
was easily engaged to take part in a desperate enterprise,
on the uncertain expectation of inheriting the kingdom
of Leinster after Dermot’s death, by a marriage with his
only daughter, which was to be the reward of his exer¬
tions if successful. Through Strongbow’s influence, he
also engaged the assistance of Robert Fitzstephens, con¬
stable of Abertivi, and of Maurice Fitzgerald, a Welsh
chieftain. Having secured these auxiliaries, Dermot re¬
turned to Ireland, where he lived concealed in the mo¬
nastery of Ferns, the confidence of whose inmates he had
gained by liberal donations to their house, until the arri¬
val of his new friends warranted him in asserting his for¬
mer station.
Fitzstephens was the first to fulfil his engagement.
He landed at the headland of Bag-and-Bon, in the estu¬
ary of the Bannow, with a following of but thirty knights,
fifty gentlemen, and three hundred archers. Small as
the number was, their discipline and superiority in mili¬
tary equipment justified Dermot in throwing off the veil
on their appearance. The first movement of the com¬
bined force was upon the town of Wexford, a Danish de¬
pendency of the crown of Leinster, which surrendered
on the first appearance of the enemy, and was, with the
two adjoining cantrids of Forth and Bargie, given to Fitz¬
stephens by Dermot, as a foretaste of what was to be
hoped for in his service. The next movement was against
the king of Ossory, in the Queen’s County, who, after a
gallant struggle, was also forced to acknowledge the su¬
periority of the Norman mode of warfare. After a hard-
fought contest of three days, the passes of his borders
were forced, and himself compelled to fly. The news of
these successes soon compelled Roderic to take the most
decisive measures. At the head of an army collected
from all the subordinate provinces, he advanced to drive
the rebel king and his foreign auxiliaries into the sea;
but the interference of the clergy prevented the appeal
to arms. A treaty was concluded, by which Dermot was
restored to his former rank, on condition of dismissing his
foreign forces, and paying a fine for his outrage against
O’Ruark. His son was delivered to Roderic as a hostage,
along with others, for the fulfilment of the terms.
The arrival of Maurice Fitzgerald, who landed at Wex¬
ford with ten knights, thirty gentlemen, and an hundred
archers, gave a new turn to affairs. Fitzstephens, who
was then engaged in erecting a fortified post at Carrig,
which commanded a pass on the Slaney, near Wexford,
resolved to maintain his position. Little influence was
necessary to induce Dermot to aid an effort as profitable
IRELAND.
listory. in expectation as perfidious in act. Encouraged by the
hope that this new supply would be the prelude to the
influx of fresh bands of well-trained warriors, he indulged
in the prospect of gratifying his revenge on the causes of
his degradation, and even of seating himself on the throne
of supreme sovereignty, through the powerful aid of his
English allies. For this purpose, after having reduced
the city of Dublin to submission by the devastation of the
neighbouring district of Fingal, thus establishing his rule
over the whole of his former dominions, he sent to urge
Strongbow to hasten his arrival.
This nobleman, not satisfied with the general permis¬
sion already given by Henry, went to that prince, then in
Normandy, and having obtained a vague and equivocal
assent, prepared for the vigorous prosecution of his en¬
terprise. He first sent over Raymond le Gros, with a
detachment of ten knights and seventy archers ; who,
landing near Waterford, defeated a body of three thou¬
sand Irish, collected from the neighbouring country on
the spur of the moment, and maintained his position in
an intrenched camp until supported by Strongbow him¬
self, who brought to his relief a body of two hundred
horse and upwards of a thousand archers. He then, aid¬
ed by the junction with Dermot, who had hastened to
the place, made himself master of Waterford, and thence
proceeded to Dublin, which was taken by assault. Rode-
ric, alarmed at the successes of the English, after having
called in vain on Dermot to abide by the late treaty, and
having, according to some accounts, beheaded that king’s
son, in consequence of his father’s refusal to fulfil the
terms of it, collected another army to oppose the inva¬
ders. Dermot’s death at this juncture gave a new cha¬
racter to the contest. Strongbow, by his marriage with
that prince’s only daughter, had succeeded to his royal
rights; but being unsupported by any of the Irish chief¬
tains, who viewed with apprehension and envy this intru¬
sion of a stranger, he found himself cooped up in the city
of Dublin, with his small band of Englishmen, to stand
the brunt of the entire Irish army, with which Roderic
had invested the city. But he was delivered from this
critical situation by one of those exertions by which a vigo¬
rous mind surmounts difficulties. He had been reduced
to the necessity of proposing a capitulation. The only
terms offered him were the immediate evacuation of the
country. Such a surrender of all their brilliant prospects
was to these daring adventurers a prospect worse than
death. Mito de Cogan, by whose valour in leading the
assault the city had been taken, now proposed a sally.
His advice was followed. Strongbow, at the head of a
select body of ninety knights, attacked the Irish camp.
The assault was so sudden and unexpected, that Roderic
had scarcely time to escape from the bath, where he was
then refreshing himself. The panic spread through all
parts ; and this great army was dissipated almost without
a blow. The English followed up their good fortune by
marching to Wexford to relieve Fitzstephens, who was
blocked up by the Irish in his castle of Carrig. In the pas¬
sage thither, the army had to force its way through the
passes of Idrone, where O’Ryan, the dynast of the terri¬
tory, disputed the ground with it successfully, until his
death turned the fate of the day. It is said that the
English were so severely pressed in the engagement, that
Strongbow’s son, a lad rising into manhood, fled from the
fight, for which he was hewn in two by his indignant fa¬
ther. A mutilated figure on a small monument placed by
the side of Strongbow’s tomb in Christ Church, Dublin,
is still adduced as evidence of the truth of this extraor¬
dinary event.
The successes of Strongbow excited the jealousy of
Henry, who began to apprehend in them, not the enrich¬
ing of a subject, whence the monarch might derive ho-
355
nour, but the aggrandizement of a rival in power. He Histon1-.
forbade any of his subjects going to the assistance of the
English in Ireland, and commanded the immediate return
of all those already there. He was, however, appeased
by the appearance of Strongbow himself, who surrendered
all his possessions in Ireland to the king, to be holden at
his good pleasure. He was restored to favour, and ap¬
pointed seneschal of this new lordship, with the excep¬
tion of Dublin and the other fortified cities, which the
king retained in his own hands. Henry soon afterwards
wentover to Ireland with a train of 500 knights,and a large
body of soldiers. Landing at Waterford, he proceeded
without molestation to Dublin, where he received the ho¬
mage of a numerous assemblage of the native chieftains,
whom he entertained in a pavilion hastily constructed of
wicker-work without the walls, as the city then contained
no building suitable for their accommodation. He also
held a great council or parliament at Lismore, in which
the English laws were received and sworn to. At the
same time a synod of the clergy at Cashel adopted the
rules of doctrine and discipline of the English church for
their future regulation. After spending the Christmas in
Dublin, and dividing the districts that acknowledged his
authority among the chief leaders of the adventurers by
whose valour they had been acquired, he returned to
England early in spring, to allay the commotions which
threatened to break out there.
His absence gave rise to dissensions amongst the Eng¬
lish leaders, which led to revolt amongst the natives, who
had so lately submitted. To aid the efforts of the Irish,
Roderic made another attempt to regain his lost domi¬
nions, and to expel the strangers. He invaded Meath,
which had been given by Henry to an English baron of
the name of De Lacy, with such fury, that Raymond le
Gros, the favourite general of the English, who was then
celebrating his marriage with the sister of Strongbow,
was forced to quit Wexford the morning after his nup¬
tials, in order to make head against the Irish. But they,
content with the devastation committed in Meath, had
already retired across the Shannon, and Raymond turned
his arms against Limerick, which city he took by storm
with little difficulty. Roderic, convinced of his inability
to cope with success against the superior power of Eng¬
land, sent deputies to the king, proposing to do homage,
and pay a stipulated tribute, in return for which he was
to hold the kingdom of Connaught, and all his other lands
and sovereignties, as fully, in other respects, as before the
arrival of the English.
On the death of Strongbow, who died and was buried in
Dublin, leaving behind him an only daughter, the heiress
of his princely domains, the government of Ireland was com¬
mitted to William Fitz-Andelm, a nobleman allied to Henry
by blood ; but the complaints arising from his indolent and
corrupt administration became at length too loud to remain
unnoticed. He was therefore removed, and John, the king’s
favourite son, was appointed lord of Ireland, at the early
age of twelve years. On his arrival at Waterford, at the
head of a train of young and arrogant noblemen, the native
chieftains hastened to pay their respects and do him hom¬
age ; but wdien they approached to testify their allegiance
according to the custom of the country, by saluting him
with the lip, the prince’s English attendants repelled them
with insolence, plucked them by their beards, and treated
them with every mark of studied indignity. The high-
minded natives quitted the court, and their cause was es¬
poused by all who beard their tale. The alarm of war
was spread throughout every part of the country. The cas¬
tles already built by the English on their newlyracquired
territories in Meath were stormed and razed, some of their
owners killed, and others driven from their settlements.
John was recalled, and the government intrusted to De
356 I R E L
History. Lacy, who was soon afterwards assassinated by one of the na-
lives whilst superintending the erection of a fortress which
he was building, sacrilegiously, according to the opinion of
the times, on the ruins of an abbey dedicated to Columb-
kill at Burrow. He was succeeded in the government by
Be Courcy, a nobleman celebrated for his gigantic size
and prowess. He had been given such parts of Ulster as
he could conquer; and having established his head-quarters
at Bown, he maintained himself there for some time in a
kind of subordinate sovereignty, against all the efforts of
the neighbouring princes, and even made an attempt to
extend his conquests into Connaught, in doing which,
though he failed in the main object of his ambition, he es¬
tablished his power in the neighbourhood of Armagh.
The death of Henry II. made no change in the govern¬
ment of Ireland. Richard, intent on his schemes of foreign
conquest, permitted John to retain the title and authority
conferred on him by his father. The only event which
varied the scene of intestine commotion in Ireland during
this reign, was the death of Roderic, the last sovereign of
all Ireland. The latter years of his life were embittered,
in addition to the loss of his independence, by the rebel¬
lious conduct of his own sons, which at last compelled him
to seek, in the retirement of monastic seclusion, the tran¬
quillity he had vainly sought for on a throne. He died in
the monastery of Cong, in 1198, in extreme old age.
John, in the early part of his reign, paid little attention
to the affairs of Ireland, which was now much distracted by
the feuds carried on between Be Lacy, son of him who had
been killed at Burrow, and Be Courcy. In this struggle
the artful management of the former gained him the ad¬
vantage over Be Courcy’s blunt and boisterous ferocity.
He accused him of having imputed to John the murder of
his nephew Arthur, in consequence of which, Be Courcy
was summoned to the court in London ; and when he treat¬
ed the mandate with contempt, he was treacherously seized
by his enemy Be Lacy, while performing a religious pen¬
ance unarmed in the church of Bown, and sent prisoner to
England, where he was long kept in confinement. A pro¬
ceeding as unworthy as this which exposed Be Courcy
to the royal indignation, brought John a second time to
Ireland. The lady of William de Braosa, who had receiv¬
ed a large grant of land in Thomond, or North Munster, on
being required to send her children to the English court as
hostages for her husband’s allegiance, refused to obey ; al¬
leging as a reason, that she would not intrust her children
to the care of the murderer of his own nephew. The in¬
sult was unpardonable, and John went over in person to
avenge it. Upon his arrival in Bublin, upwards of twenty
chieftains attended to do homage; but he performed no
military act worthy of notice. The unfortunate Be Braosa
was forced to fly to France, leaving his wife and family be¬
hind, who were seized by the tyrant and sent to England,
where they died of the severity of their treatment in pri¬
son. Buring his short stay, John paid much attention to
the internal management of the country. He ordained
that the laws of England should be introduced, with all their
judicial forms, a copy of them being left under his great
seal, in the exchequer of Bublin. He also divided the
districts which acknowledged his authority, and which were
afterwards distinguished by the name of the Pale, into
the twelve counties of Bublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth,
Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry,
Tipperary, and Limerick. In the remainder, which com¬
prehended two thirds of the island, the king’s supremacy
was merely nominal. Connaught, which Roderic in his
treaty with Henry had specially reserved to himself, after
suffering dreadfully by the contentions of that monarch’s
sons, and by the irruptions of the English leaders, who
endeavoured, by their interference in these family quarrels,
to obtain some footing in it for themselves, fell ultimately
AND.
into the hands of Cathal, surnamed Croove-derg, or the Histo
Bloody-handed. But the influence of the Be Burghos, a ''•’y
branch of the family of Fitz-Andelm, proved too powerful
for him. After many a desperate struggle with the intrud¬
ers, in which his undisciplined valour enabled him to cope
at times successfully with the well-marshalled followers of
the English chieftain, he was compelled to surrender two
parts of the country to the king of England, in order to
secure to himself the peaceable possession of the remain¬
der ; at the same time acknowledging himself a vassal, and
binding himself to a yearly tribute of an hundred merks.
On the departure of John, who continued but a short time
in the country, the government was intrusted to John de
Grey, bishop of Norwich, who conducted it with prudence
and vigour; and afterwards by Henry de Loundres, arch¬
bishop of Bublin, the most remarkable act of whose admi¬
nistration was the erection of a castle in Bublin, now the
acknowledged capital of the English territory.
Immediately after the accession of Henry III. the Irish
transmitted to England a list of the encroachments made
on their rights in the preceding reign, with a petition to
be taken under the royal protection. Henry sent them
in answer a copy of the Magna Charta, whereby they were
to be placed on the same footing as English subjects. This
charter was confirmed by others ot a similar tendency,
transmitted by the same monarch. He also gave O’Brien,
king of Thomond, a grant of that territory, to be held by
English law, in lieu of the Irish tenure by which he had
hitherto possessed it. The change was considered of such
value as to be worth the payment of a thousand merks, and
an annual sum of an hundred and thirty. But the king’s
promise of impartial protection to the Irish was grossly vio¬
lated in the instance of Cathal Croove-derg, who was now
deprived of the third part of his kingdom that had been al¬
lowed to remain with him by John, this portion being grant¬
ed, together with all the rest of Connaught, to Richard de
Burgho. Cathal died soon after this unjust deprivation of
his property. His subjects, assisted by O’Neill, prince of
Tyrowen, placed his brother Tirlogh on the throne; but he
was removed by the lord-deputy, and Aedh, a son of Ca¬
thal, substituted in his place. Aedh being shortly after¬
wards killed in a skirmish, the lord-deputy again removed
Tirlogh, whom the people of Connaught had reinstated,
and placed Feidlim, another son of Cathal, upon the throne.
But a title held under a tenure so precarious and degrad¬
ing could not be satisfactory. Feidlim, therefore, cross¬
ed over to England, and threw himself on the protec¬
tion of the king, by whom he received a special assurance
of security in the possession of his territories, which ena¬
bled him to retain them unmolested till his death.
Towards the conclusion of his reign Henry made a grant
of Ireland to his eldest son Edward; with a proviso, how¬
ever, that it was to be always connected with and depen¬
dent upon the crown of England. The country derived
no benefit from the arrangement. Edward was drawn
away to pursue schemes of more brilliant promise in the
Holy Land, and Ireland was suffered to continue under
the management of subordinate officers. Its state was at
this time truly miserable. In addition to the struggles of
the Irish chieftains to regain their patrimonial rights of
property and independence, the districts which acknow¬
ledged the English rule were torn to pieces by the hosti¬
lities of rival barons. To such a pitch did this state of
anarchy increase, that in a contest between the Be Burghos
and the Fitzgeralds, the latter faction seized upon Richard
de Rupella, the lord-justice of Ireland, and threw him,
with several of his adherents, into prison, from which it
required the authority of a parliament to liberate him.
The neglected state of the country during the reign of
Edward I., whose attention was absorbed by the nearer
and more pressing affairs of Scotland and Wales, increas-
IRELAND. 357
istory. ed the turbulence and audacity of the English barons. A penetrated into Meath, where he defeated, at Kenlis or History,
dispute between Sir William de Vesci, the lord-justice, Kells, a second army sent to oppose him ; advanced still '—’v-w'
who had married an heiress of the Pembroke family, and further to Skerries, where he encountered and routed Sir
John Fitzthomas, one of the heads of the Fitzgeralds, was Edmund Butler, the lord-justice ; and returning to Dun-
carried to such a pitch, that each accused the other of dalk, through want of provisions, was there crowned king
high treason; and the affair was brought before the king of Ireland. His affairs wTere now singularly prosperous,
in person, to be decided by the law of duel. On the day His brother came to his assistance from Scotland, but
appointed for the combat, Vesci was not forthcoming. He was forced, through the scarcity of provisions, to return,
had fled to France. The king transferred his lands in leaving with him a part of his troops. Feidlim joined his
Ireland to his accuser, which contributed considerably to party, and was followed by O’Brien of Thomond, and se-
the future aggrandizement of the Fitzgerald family. So veral lesser chieftains. The English barons now began to
grievously was the great body of the Irish pressed down be sensible that the tenure of their possessions was at
by the arrogant tyranny of these feudal lords, that they stake. They collected a numerous body of troops, which
offered the king six thousand merks for a charter from were sent, in the first instance, into Connaught, to put
him to be governed by the laws of England. This rea- down Feidlim. A sanguinary battle ensued at Athenree,
sonable request, which implied nothing more than the en- in which the Irish prince was slain, and with him ter-
forcing of the previous charters of John and Henry to the minated the last hope of the restoration of the monar-
same effect, was neutralized by the opposition of the ba- chy of Ireland. Bruce, after refreshing his troops, march-
rons, whose oppressions it was meant to curb. A second ed to Dublin. To guard against his assaults, the citizens
application of a similar nature during this reign met*with set fire to their suburbs, with such precipitation, that
a similar fate. The conduct of Edward to one of the lords- one of the churches was involved in the conflagration ;
justices, De Ufford, whom he called over to explain why and intrenching themselves within their walls, they pre-
such quarrels were permitted during his administration, sented such a face as deterred the besiegers from con-
proves that the king was not over anxious to probe this tinuing the siege. Bruce therefore proceeded to Kil-
malady to the bottom. De Ufford’s defence of himself dare, which he ravaged, and thence penetrated through
was, that “ he deemed it expedient to suffer one knave to the passes of Ossory into Munster, spreading havoc and
destroy another, to save expense to the king.” Edward desolation on all sides. Want of provisions, and the in-
was satisfied with this evasive answer, and sent him back telligence, on one hand, of another army having been col-
to his government. The wars of the barons were still to- lected against him, under the command of Roger Morti-
lerated; and the Irish, who wished for the protection of mer, sent from England as lord-justice, and on the other,
English law against their tyranny, were still forced to pur- of new supplies from home, led by his brother in person,
chase it by special charters of denization, by the fees of induced him to retrace his steps towards Ulster. By
which the officers of the court were enriched. These forced marches he retreated unmolested into Meath. He
charters were mostly the consequence of intermarriages was followed by the English, now under the command of
with some of the great English families. Sir John Bermingham. Both armies met at Faugher, near
The accession of Edward II. afforded a prospect of the Dundalk. The Scotch army was the more numerous,
restoration of the royal authority, and the suppression of but it was much exhausted by fatigue and famine; the
the exorbitant power of the English barons. The king, English were well equipped and armed, and in a high
compelled to part with his favourite Gaveston, sent him state of organization. It is said that Edward Bruce, on
into Ireland as lord-lieutenant, as into a kind of honour- hearing that his brother was advancing, pressed on the
able exile. On his arrival, Gaveston obtained some advan- engagement, in the hope of securing to himself the undi-
tages over the Irish septs in the neighbourhood of Dublin ; vided honour of victory. The result was deserving of
but, however flattering the appearances arising from this the arrogance which led to an act so ill advised and pre¬
change of administration, they proved delusive. Edward, cipitate. After a sanguinary struggle, the Scottish army
unable to endure longer his favourite’s absence, recalled was totally defeated. The body of Bruce was found, after
him, and the country fell back into the anarchical sway of the engagement, in the midst of heaps of slain, lying under
the barons. The royal mandates were set at nought, and that of an English knight of the name of Maupas, who
private wars carried on without restraint or control. Fright- had pressed forward to the honour of being captor of the
ful as were the state and prospects of the country, a fresh Scottish general. Robert Bruce, on hearing of the result,
ingredient of misery was now thrown in. Robert Bruce, immediately returned home, and made no further attempt
king of Scotland, elated with the victory of Bannockburn, upon the country.
resolved on a measure which, if successful, would have The expulsion of the Scotch gave little relief to the
added considerably to the security of his own kingdom, people, who still continued to groan under the feudal op-
and to the weakening of his most formidable enemy. He pressions and interminable quarrels of their rulers. On
proposed to detach Ireland from England, and to connect the accession of Edward III. they addressed themselves
it with Scotland, either as an ally or a dependency, again to the throne, in order to procure a general charter
With this view, and also to give employment abroad to an of admission to the rights of British subjects. The peti-
ambitious and ardent relative, he proposed to his brother tion was favourably received; but being referred, like
Edward the conquest of the country. The offer was ac- former applications of the same kind, to the Irish parlia-
cepted. The first attempt on the northern province fail- ment, through the lord-justice, it was, like these, rejected,
ed, because the means were insufficient for the magnitude The Irish, disappointed in their hopes of good govern-
of the object. But Bruce was not to be discouraged by a ment, broke out into acts of insurrection. The king, un-
single check. The attempt was soon afterwards renewed able to restore tranquillity by energetic measures, had re-
with enlarged resources. In the summer of 1315, Edward course to others, the evil effects of which were long felt.
Bruce landed in the north of Ireland, at the head of six The greater part of Leinster had been parcelled out into
thousand men, where he was joined by numbers of the five palatinates, in favour of the five grand-daughters of
discontented Irish. De Burgho, earl of Ulster, aroused Strongbow, on whom this princely inheritance had de-
by the danger which threatened his possessions, aided by volved in failure of male issue. Meath and Ulster had
eidlim, king of Connaught, marched to oppose the in- also been granted in like manner. The number of these
Vain' ^e*r combined force was defeated at Coleraine, exempt jurisdictions, in which the superior lord exercised
and Bruce, following up his victory, reduced Carrickfergus; most of the prerogatives of royalty, was now increased,
358 I R E L
History, by erecting the county of Desmond, or South Munster,
into a palatinate in favour of Maurice Fitzthomas, a
branch of the Fitzgerald family ; and another was shortly
after erected in Tipperary, for James Butler, created Earl
of Ormond. In consequence of the great privileges be¬
stowed on these noblemen, the king’s authority was pro¬
portionally contracted, and a few powerful chieftains were
enabled, under colour of asserting their rights, to over¬
awe or control, by their combination, the wholesome exer¬
cise of the powers of the constitution, or to convulse the
country to its centre, by their mutual contests for supe¬
riority. This ruinous system was carried still further.
The chief governor, unable to collect men in numbers
sufficient to cope with the insurgent Irish, applied for
military aid to the Earl of Desmond. Ihe request was
readily acceded to, and ten thousand men were sent him ;
but as the deputy was deficient in the means of paying
or feeding such a body, the troops were allowed to live
on the country at free quarters, or, as it was then called,
on coygne and livery, which consisted in the taking of
man’s meat, horse’s meat, and money, of all the inhabi¬
tants, at the will and pleasure of the soldier, who had no
other means of subsistence. This extortion was original¬
ly Irish, for they used to lay Bonaught, as they called it,
upon the people, and never gave their soldiers any other
pay. But under the English it was still more intolerable,
as with them the oppression was not temporary or limit¬
ed either in time or place, but, because there was every¬
where a continual war, either offensive or defensive, and
every lord of a country, and every marcher, made war
and peace at his good pleasure, it became universal and
perpetual, and was, indeed, the heaviest oppression that
ever was inflicted on any kingdom, Christian or heathen.
The effects of this feeble policy proved the reverse of
what its devisers may be supposed to have expected.
Internal turbulence and discord increased. To heighten
the confusion, William de Burgho, who united in his own
person the government of the two palatinates of Meath
and Ulster, and had also the greater part of Connaught,
was assassinated at Carrickfergus by his own domestics.
His only daughter was carried to England for protection.
O’Neill of Tyrowen, to whose family the northern pala¬
tinate of De Burgho had formerly belonged, seized on
the opportunity to recover by force a considerable portion
of the inheritance of his forefathers. The estate in Con¬
naught was also seized on by two of the younger branches
of the De Burgho family, who, conscious of the illegality
of their claim according to the rules of English law, re¬
nounced their allegiance, assumed the Irish name of
M‘Wfilliam, distinguishing themselves from each other
by the surnames of Eighter and Oughter, or the Hither
and Further M‘William ; the former holding the lands in
Galway, the latter those in Mayo, and both, conforming
to the laws and tenures of the Irish, set the authority of
the king’s justice at defiance. But the act which tended
most to destroy the English power, by unhinging the con¬
nection between the parent country and the colony that
had sprung from it, was an order that all public officers
whose property existed wholly in Ireland should be dis¬
placed, and their places supplied by persons born in Eng¬
land, and having lands in that country. This act gave
rise to the distinction between the English by blood and
the English by birth, causing those of the former class,
through irritation at the insulting degradation by which
they were deprived of their fair share of the honours and
emoluments earned by the blood of their ancestors, not
only to attach themselves to the native Irish by the ties
of marriage and community of interests, but to exceed
them in the intensity of hatred to the new intruders ;
and hence they were said to be more Irish than the Irish
themselves. The effects of this unjust and impolitic or-
A N D.
dinance were not long in showing themselves. A common Histi
interest united the descendants of the old settlers into a W-yj!/
general combination. Alarmed at the spirit which they
indicated, the lord-justice, Sir John Morris, deemed it
expedient to assemble a parliament at Dublin, whereby
a less dangerous vent might be afforded to the expression
of the grievances of the discontented. But the injured
party adopted another and a more spirited course. Not
content with absenting themselves from parliament, they
held another assembly, totally independent of it, at Kil¬
kenny, under the auspicesof the Earl of Desmond, in which
they drew up a remonstrance, to be presented to the king,
which exhibited a striking view of the aggressions of the
government, and the grievances which had excited gene¬
ral discontent. The king’s answer was gracious and con¬
descending. Assurance was given them of immediate re¬
lief from the more gross grievances, and of inquiry into all.
His anxiety to procure aid for his continental expeditions
appears to have been one cause of the readiness with
which these concessions were granted; for we are inform¬
ed that the Earls of Desmond and Kildare attended him
with numerous followers into France, and the latter dis¬
tinguished himself greatly at the siege of Calais. But
the spirit of self-interested monopoly which gave birth to
this distinction, though repressed, was not extinguished;
and fresh occasion was soon given it to blaze forth from
a quarter whence it might least have been apprehended.
Lionel, afterwards Duke of Clarence, Edward’s second
son, had married the heiress of the late Earl of Ulster,
and thus became entitled to the lordships of Ulster and
Connaught. To add weight to the enforcement of his
claim, which he was about to assert in person, the king
invested him with the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland. But,
born and educated in England, he carried over with him
all his English prejudices and prepossessions. Surround¬
ed by men of English birth, and taught by them to look
on the ancient settlers, not only as unworthy of his confi¬
dence, but as disaffected to his government, he forbade, by
proclamation, any of the old English, or of the king’s sub¬
jects of Irish birth, to approach his camp. This imprudent
measure deprived him of the only aid which could render his
operations against the common enemy of the English go¬
vernment effectual. Left, amongst strangers to the country,
to traverse unknown district's, and to contend against an
enemy of whose movements and mode of action he was
wholly ignorant, he found himself enclosed in a position in
which advance was impossible and retreat perilous, and from
which he was extricated solely by an appeal to those whose
services he had at his first landing so haughtily and un¬
wisely rejected. After a short stay he was recalled, but
returned in a few years, improved in the knowledge of
the science of governing a country of habits dissimilar to
those of his own. On his second visit he directed his at¬
tention to the general reformation of the parts of the island
that yielded a willing obedience to the royal authority. A
parliament was summoned at Kilkenny, the result of whose
deliberations was an ordinance, since known by the name
of the Statute of Kilkenny, which forms one of the great
political epochs in the history of the country.
By this statute it was enacted, that marriage, fostering,
or gossipred with the Irish, should be deemed treasonable;
and conformity to the rules of Irish law was subjected to a
similar penalty. The use of Irish names, language, or ap¬
parel, by any person of English birth or descent, was punish¬
able by forfeiture of lands or imprisonment. Penalties were
also imposed on those who permitted their Irish neighbours
to graze on their lands, who presented them to ecclesiasti¬
cal benefices, who admitted them into religious houses as
members, or who gave encouragement to the Irish bards,
musicians, or story-tellers. The execution of this statute
was enforced by the anathemas of the church against its
IRELAND.
story, violators. Whatever might have been the effects of an
enactment so rigorous towards uniting the English settlers
more closely among themselves, it is evident that it severed
completely any links of the bond of mutual charity and
community of interests that existed between them and the
Irish. The presence of an English nobleman of royal birth,
connected by marriage with the descendant and represen¬
tative of a family now nearly Irish through length of resi¬
dence, might have led to the introduction of a system of ge¬
nerous equity towards the natives of the country, the former
rightful possessors of the soil. But the wording of this sta¬
tute pronounced the Irish to be irreclaimable. The oppor¬
tunity for the amalgamation of conflicting interests was lost;
and ages passed over without another such presenting itself
for a renewal of the experiment. The Duke of Clarence
was again recalled, and the administration of the govern¬
ment left, as before, to deputies. The low condition to
which the country wras now reduced may be inferred from
the fact related as to Sir Richard Pembridge, warden of
the Cinque Ports, who, on being appointed to the lieuten¬
ancy, refused to undertake the office, in consequence of the
distracted state of the country ; and it was adjudged that
his refusal was strictly legal, inasmuch as residence in
Ireland, even in the elevated station assigned to him, was
looked upon as but an honourable exile, to which no free¬
man was to be subjected, except in case of abjuration for
felony, or by act of parliament. So far was the English
power reduced towards the close of this reign, that, as the
authority of the English law had extended during the
time of John over the twelve counties already named, and
over the greater part of Connaught, it was confined, in
the thirtieth year of the present reign, to the four coun¬
ties of Meath, Louth, Dublin, and Carlow ; and of these
the greater part was border-land, governed by march law,
which was little more than another word for the arbitrary
will of the lord of the marches. The last effort made by
Edward to restore the English government, was a man¬
date directing a stated number of bishops, knights, and
burgesses to attend the king in his parliament in England,
to assist in enacting laws for Ireland. The proceedings
of this parliament are lost, but the existence of writs to
the several counties, cities, and boroughs, directing them
to defray the expenses of the persons sent over, proves
that it had assembled. About the same time the trade
with Portugal was thrown open to the Irish, but the dis¬
orders of the country were too deeply rooted to admit of
the people availing themselves of the privilege.
In the beginning of the reign of Richard II., Robert de
Vere, earl of Oxford, was appointed lord-lieutenant of
Ireland by the joint consent of the king and the English
nobility; the latter party wishing thus to break the con¬
nection of favouritism that bound him to the former. But
after an equipment, fitted out on a princely scale, the pro¬
ject failed. He had proceeded as far as Wales, when
Richard, who accompanied him to the water’s edge, found
his attachment too violent to bear the separation, and
brought him back to London. Commissioners were after¬
wards deputed to inquire into the state of the country,
but with no beneficial result. At length Richard resolv¬
ed to visit this part of his dominions in person. He land¬
ed at Waterford with an army of four thousand men-at-
arms and thirty thousand archers; but after nine months
spent in an empty display of regal pageantry, during
which he received the submission of seventy-five native
Irish or degenerate English chieftains, and granted par¬
dons to others, whom an apprehension of ill treatment
kept at a distance, he returned to England. The only
stipulation for restoring tranquillity made during his visit
was, that the province of Leinster should be evacuated
by ^e Irish ; but when the condition was to be enforced,
after the removal of the terrors of a royal army, the re¬
quisitions of the government were followed only by ex- History,
cuses and uelays, and ultimately by insurrection, in the
course of which Roger Mortimer, earl of Marche, whom
Richard had left behind him as his lieutenant, was killed
at Kenlis, in a skirmish against the O’Byrnes, whom he had
driven from their mountain fastnesses in Wicklow.
Mortified and irritated by a result so contrary to the
anticipations entertained from his expensive armament
and pompous reception in Ireland, Richard undertook a
second military expedition thither. He landed again in
Waterford, and after spending some time there and-at
Kilkenny, in an idle display of royalty, he proceeded to
Dublin, in the full confidence that now, as previously, his
journey thither would be but a progress of pacific parade.
In this expectation he was buoyed up by the appearance
of several of the Irish lords, who, presenting themselves
with halters round their necks, fell at his feet and implor¬
ed forgiveness with the most abject humility. But on en¬
tering into the woods and defiles of the marches of Lein¬
ster, his reception was very different. MflMurchad, the
principal chieftain of the province, who, notwithstanding
the pensions he had received, and the submissions he had
entered into, was still the inveterate enemy of the Eng¬
lish, rushed out unexpectedly from the cover of his woods,
at the head of three thousand chosen men, so well ap¬
pointed, and with such a display of valour, as to stop the
advance of the royal army for some time; and though it
ultimately forced its way to the capital, such were the
losses sustained by famine, hardship, and battle, that
Richard had to wait for a reinforcement from England be¬
fore he could resume hostilities. In the mean time the
news of the successes of the Duke of Lancaster compel¬
led him to hasten his departure, in order to oppose this
new enemy. The unfortunate and disgraceful termina¬
tion of his reign belongs to English history.
The intestine commotions in Ireland were aggravated
in the reign of Henry IV. by invasions of the Scotch, who
assisted the Irish of Ulster in driving the English from this
province, and acquired some settlements there, whence they
were never afterwards wholly removed. Henry’s second
son, Thomas, duke of Lancaster, was sent over as lord-lieu¬
tenant. His government was vigorous, and in some degree
effective. The native Irish of Wicklow were checked ; the
degenerate English in Meath and Uriel were compelled
to submit; and M‘Murchad, who still maintained himself
in the western parts of Leinster, in defiance of the govern¬
ment, was defeated in a severe and well-contested battle.
The citizens of Dublin fitted out several naval expedi¬
tions against the Scotch and Welsh ; and though, in their
first engagement with the former enemy, they suffered a
total defeat on the coast of Ulster, they afterwards re¬
venged the insult by carrying the war into the islands
and coasts of Scotland, and by their depredations in Wales,
whence they brought back in triumph a shrine of St Gu¬
bin, and lodged it with much ceremony in Christ Church,
as a proud monument of their victory. But this favour¬
able change was merely temporary. The lord-lieutenant
was wounded, and his forces beaten back, under the very
walls of Dublin ; and he soon afterwards quitted the coun¬
try altogether. The residents in the border counties were
now reduced to the degrading necessity of purchasing
peace and protection from the neighbouring Irish chief¬
tains, by the payment of a stipulated tribute called black
rent.
The arrival of Sir John Talbot, Lord Furnival, in the
succeeding reign, a man distinguished for his military ta¬
lents, gave hope of a change for the better. By his acti¬
vity and valour he compelled several of the neighbouring
Irish chieftains, not only to desist from their incursions, but
also to do homage and give hostages. Yet though bound
to keep the peace, they still retained their independence,
360
History.
v Y^-'
I R E L A N D.
and the English pale was not enlarged. The lord-lieuten- engaging the heads of both families to be sponsors af the Histoj
ant, likewise, having brought with him no supplies either infant’s baptism, he bound each to himself and to the other W-Y'
of men or money, had no means of maintaining his posi- by the tie of gossipred, a relationship respected to a degree
tion, except the oppressive and ruinous system of coygne of veneration amongst the Irish. Being called away to
and livery. The English settlers were thus reduced to England to clear himself from some imputations on his
a state of extreme degradation and distress. Looked upon loyalty, he intrusted the administration to the Earl of Or-
by the Irish as aliens and intruders, they were treated by mond, who was succeeded by Sir Edward Fitz-Eustace, a
the new comers from England as slaves, and considered knight of great military fame, by whom the O Connors of
by the English in general as in nowise better than the Offaly were defeated, and the sept of the O Neills, who had
natives. In the beginning of this reign, the parliament at presumed to insult the city of Dublin by plundering some
London, in consequence of the swarms of needy adven- of the ships in the bay, and carrying off the archbishop,
turers from Ireland, whom the devastations of their own were so roughly treated at Ardglass, as to check for a
country had driven to seek an asylum abroad, passed an long period any efforts of the northern toparch against the
act to oblige all Irish to quit the kingdom. Even the pale. In the mean time the Duke of York, though suc-
students who resorted to London for education, though cessful in his first effort to seize the English crown, was
expressly excepted from the severe provisions of the sta- totally defeated at Bloreheath, and forced to fly into Ire-
tute, were contemptuously excluded from the Inns of land, where he was received more like a sovereign prince
Court, from a prejudice as impolitic as it was unjust, since than a discomfited traitor. The parliament passed an act
it not only precluded them from an intercourse tending to for his protection, and decreed that whosoever should at-
conciliate their affections to England, but debarred them tempt to disturb him, under pretence of writs from Eng-
from the means of acquiring a knowledge of the laws, land, should be deemed guilty of high treason. An agent
which were the only effective means of preserving the con- of Ormond, who ventured to violate the law, was execut-
nection between the countries. Indeed the continuance ed. On the duke’s subsequent change of fortune, num-
of such connection was preserved at the present period, bers of his Irish adherents followed him to England. The
more by the ignorant prejudices of the native princes them- palatinate of Meath, in particular, was almost deserted by
selves, than by the exertions of the government. Content- the English settlers, who hastened to enrol themselves
ed to rule over their petty septs, their aversion to the under the banner of the white rose. He appeared in
English was scarcely more violent than that entertained London with this gallant train; but the war being unex-
by them against the neighbouring tribes of their own race, pectedly renewed, he was encountered at Wakefield by
They united in the most cordial attachment with the old an army four times more numerous than his own, which
English in their revolts; and their insurrections, far from consisted but of five thousand men, mostly Irish, and fell
being excited by a general desire of exterminating the in the unequal contest, together with the greater part of
whole body of their invaders, were usually occasioned by his devoted followers. The exhaustion thus produced was
some local dispute or act of private oppression. nearly fatal to the English interests in Ireland. Towards
In the beginning of the reign of Henry VI. the two the close of Henry’s reign, the Irish or rebellious English
Anglo-Irish families of Desmond and Butler began to as- had conquered or subjected to tribute the greater part of
sume the high political position which they retained long the counties of Limerick and Tipperary, together with
after. James, the first Earl of Desmond, obtained the those of Kilkenny and Wexford, and almost the whole of
leadership of the family and the title, to the prejudice of Carlow, Kildare, Meath, and Uriel, so that little was left,
his nephew, who had degraded himself in the eyes of his of which the English could claim the undisputed posses-
followers by marrying a peasant’s daughter. The uncle sion, excepting the county of Dublin. The only method
was secured in the estate by authority of parliament, to secure peace was by the purchase of the protection of
and also constituted governor of the counties of Water- the heads of the Irish septs, who, gratified with such ac-
ford, Cork, Limerick, and Kerry, over which he exert- knowledgment of their superiority, looked with contemp-
ed an almost royal jurisdiction. The Earl of Ormond, tuous disregard on the movements of the Saxons, as the
the head of the Butler family, after having been removed English were called by them.
from the chief government of Ireland by the machinations The attachment of the Geraldines to the house of \ork
of his enemies, was protected against their further efforts was rewarded by Edward IV. on his attainment of the
by the personal kindness of Henry VL, which laid the royal dignity, by appointing the Earl of Kildare to the
foundation of a lasting attachment to this monarch on the lord-lieutenancy. He was shortly afterwards superseded
part of the earl and his descendants. A change now took by the Duke of Clarence, the king’s brother, who appoint-
place in the government, more important in its effects ed the Earl of Desmond his deputy, in return for having
than any hitherto recorded. Richard duke of York, de- crushed an effort made by the Butlers in favour of the
scended from an elder brother of the prince through whom house of Lancaster. But his continuance in power was
the reigning family derived its claim to the throne, was short-lived. On the king’s marriage with Elizabeth Grey,
universally beloved. The contrast between him and his he had incautiously thrown out some reflections upon the
inglorious sovereign was too glaring to remain unnoticed, meanness of her birth. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, was
It was therefore resolved to remove him out of England ; soon afterwards sent over as lord-deputy, and, in a parlia-
and he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, with ex- ment summoned at Drogheda, he caused an act to be pass-
traordinary powers. His administration presents one of ed against the Earls of Kildare and Desmond, for allying
the few bright gleams of Irish history. It was long quot- themselves by marriage, and fostering with the Irish ene-
ed as the time when peace and prosperity flourished, my. Kildare, though arrested, was fortunate enough to ef-
when faction was repressed by even-handed justice, and feet his escape. Desmond, relying either on his innocence
when the natives, the English by blood, and the English or his influence, came forward to justify his conduct, and
by birth, coalesced in an honest exertion to improve the was immediately seized and executed without even the for-
country. Aware, on his arrival, of the bitter jealousy mality of a trial. This monstrous outrage did not long go
which existed between the rival families of the Butlers unpunished. Kildare justified himself so eftectually before
and Geraldines, and although he knew that the former was the king, that he was not only restored to his titles and es-
attached by gratitude to his rival, he scorned to be sway- tate, but appointed chief governor ; and Tiptoft, being re¬
ed by any suspicions on that account; but, on the birth of called into England, suifered, in a new revolution, the same
his son, afterwards the unfortunate Duke of Clarence, by fate which he had inflicted upon Desmond. The defence
I R E L
story, of the confined limits of the pale was now intrusted to a
military order established by authority of parliament, un¬
der the name of the Fraternity of St George. It consisted
of thirteen leaders of the first consequence in the four
counties of Dublin, Meath, Kildare, and Uriel, who had
under them forty knights, as many squires, and an hun¬
dred and twenty mounted archers. The appointment of a
force so inadequate to preserve the peace even of the con¬
tracted limits it was intended to protect, evinces in the
strongest manner the reduced state of the English power
after the termination of the desolating conflict between
the rival roses.
The short and distracted reign of Richard III. allowed
no time to attend to the state of Ireland. His successor,
for what reason it is not known, suffered the government
to continue in the hands of the Fitzgeralds, the avowed
friends of the house of York. The evil consequences of
this policy, or negligence, were not long in showing them¬
selves. Lambert Simnel, who had been set up by the
king’s enemies on the Continent to personate the Earl of
Warwick, son of the late Duke of Clarence, was sent bv
them to Ireland, as the place most favourable for the de¬
sign. He was received by the Earl of Kildare, then lord-
lieutenant, as the lawful sovereign ; proclaimed king; pub¬
licly crowned in Christ Church, with a crown taken for
the purpose from a statue of the Virgin Mary ; and borne
thence to Dublin Castle on the shoulders of Darcy of
Flatten, according to a form used in the inauguration of
the native Irish kings. A parliament convened by his
writ, under the title of Edward VI. granted subsidies, and
enacted severe laws against those who refused to recog¬
nise his right, amongst whom the chief were the families
of Butler and Bermingham, and the citizens of Waterford.
Fortunately for the peace of the country, the arrival of a
body of German auxiliaries from Flanders, under the com¬
mand of Martin Swart, inspired the partisans of Simnel
with such an overweening confidence in their own strength,
that they determined to transfer the seat of war to Eng¬
land. Thither Simnel went, attended by the flower of the
Irish nobility, and a numerous following of the natives.
He was met at Stoke, in Nottingham, and defeated by
Henryk with immense loss, as the Irish, whose light arms
could make no impression on the compact and iron-bound
ranks of their adversaries, refused quarter, defending them¬
selves singly, even when routed, until they fell overwhelm¬
ed by numbers. Simnel, when taken prisoner, was punish¬
ed, not by severity, but degradation. He ended his life as
a scullion in the royal household. The actors in this hasty
and ill-digested movement were not treated harshly. Even
the city of Dublin was pardoned, on its humble submis¬
sion. But, in the hope of securing the future allegiance
of the great residents, Sir Richard Edgecombe was sent
over as a special commissioner, with a train of five hun¬
dred men, to receive their submission, and administer the
oath of allegiance. On his arrival at Kinsale, his appre¬
hensions at first prevented him from landing; and he re¬
ceived the homage and oaths of Lord Thomas Barry, a
principal nobleman of the district, on board his ship; but
afterwards landed, and was received in Cork, Waterford,
and Dublin, in a manner befitting his mission. The Earl
of Kildare hesitated for a time, but at length joined with
the others in tendering this proof of submission to the
ruling power.
Another claimant of the throne now appeared in the
person of Perkin Warbeck, who was, or pretended to be,
the Duke of York, second son of Edward IV. He landed
at Cork, where his identity wras acknowdedged. On his
arrival there he wrote to the Earls of Desmond and Kil¬
dare. The former recognised him at once; but before the
latter could decide on the part he ought to take, the ad¬
venturer had removed to the French court, whither he had
VOL. XII.
A N D.
been invited for the purpose of.more effectually annoying
the English king. Henry nowr sent over into Ireland Sir
Edward Poynings, a knight of distinguished ability, ac¬
companied by several English lawyers to fill the offices
of judges ; those then on the bench, who owed their eleva¬
tion to party influence, being notorious for their incapacity.
I he administration of this governor forms a new era in
the history of the country. A parliament assembled by
him enacted several useful laws, two of which vvere pe¬
culiarly influential in breaking down the exorbitant power
of the nobility. By one of these, all the statutes hither¬
to passed in England were made law' in Ireland ; by the
other, it was enacted that no parliament should be held
until the reasons for holding it, and the statutes to be
proposed in it, should be approved by the privy council
of England. Warbeck made a second attempt upon Ire¬
land, in which he w'as openly assisted by the Earl of Des¬
mond; but after an unsuccessful attempt on Waterford,
he wras forced to quit the country, and take refuge with
the king of Scotland. The enemies of Kildare w ere not
remiss in seizing this opportunity to crush him ; and the
Butlers importuned the lord-deputy to imitate the exam¬
ple of Tiptoft, and consign him at once to the execution¬
er. But Poynings rejected the cruel and impolitic sugges¬
tion, contenting himself with sending theearl to England to
answer in person the allegations brought against him. This
proceeding, as just as it was merciful, led to a conclusion
wholly opposite to the anticipations of his enemies. When
warned by the king to choose able counsel to defend him¬
self against the heavy charges advanced against him :
“ Yes,” said Kildare, “ I choose the ablest in the realm;
1 take your highness as my counsel against these false
knaves.” Charge after charge was alleged against him,
and answered ; amongst others, that of having burned the
church of Cashel. On hearing this brought forward, Kil¬
dare interrupted the speaker : “ Spare your evidence,” said
he; “ I did burn the church, but I thought the bishop had
been in it.” This extraordinary plea raised a laugh amongst
all present. His accusers in a rage exclaimed, “ All Ire¬
land cannot rule this earl.” “ Is it so?” replied Henry;
“ then this earl shall rule all Ireland;” and he sent him
back as lord-deputy. The event justified Henry’s sagacity.
Kildare repaid his sovereign’s confidence by a government
of unremitting zeal, energy, and fidelity. The boundaries
of the pale were gradually extended; several septs, to
whom tribute had hitherto been paid, were forced to sub¬
mit. He marched a gallant army into Connaught, against
Ulick de Burgho, the head of the degenerate English in
that province; more, it must be acknowledged, to gratify
private resentment than to promote the interests of his
royal master. The armies met at Knocktow, near Galway.
The victory of the deputy was sullied by the ferocity of
his troops, who refused to give quarter, and continued the
massacre until night forced them to desist. This victory
reduced the whole of Connaught to obedience. The
O’Neills and the O’Briens were the only septs ot any con¬
sequence who still refused to tender their allegiance.
The Earl of Kildare was continued in the government
by Henry VIII., who testified his approbation of his ser¬
vices by appointing his son Gerald his successor. The
young earl, with the characteristic valour of the family,
inherited a more than ordinary share of their pride and
imprudence. Too haughty to court the favour of Wolsey,
then in the zenith of his greatness, by meanness and sub¬
serviency, he incurred that proud prelate’s hatred, which
was heightened by the artful suggestions of his rival the
Earl of Ormond. Through the machinations of this noble¬
man he was removed, and summoned to England to ac¬
count for his conduct. Here, strengthened by a marriage
with the daughter of the Marquis of Dorset, he was en¬
abled to baffle the efforts of the cabal formed against him.
2 /.
361
History.
362 I R E L
History. He attended Henry at his celebrated interview with
Francis L, and, by the splendour of his suite, and the bril¬
liancy of his equipage, contributed largely to the splen¬
dour of “ the Field of the Cloth of Gold.” On his return
home, the struggle between the rival families attained to
such a height, that commissioners were sent from Eng¬
land to investigate the case. Their report, when laid be¬
fore Henry, induced him to remove from the head of af¬
fairs Pierce earl of Ormond, better known in the chro¬
nicles of the times by the name of Red Peter, the deputy
to the Earl of Surrey, then lord-lieutenant, and to substi¬
tute his rival in his place. The decision proved eventual¬
ly fatal to this nobleman. Inflated with an opinion of his
own greatness, he acted so as to excite a suspicion of aim¬
ing at the assumption of independent power in Ireland.
His enemies pressed the charge against him, and a pe¬
remptory order was issued for his immediate attendance
at court. Unwilling to quit the seat of power, conscious
most probably that his conduct would not bear a strict
investigation, he endeavoured, through his wife s relations,
to evade obedience; but finding all his efforts ineffectual,
he ultimately repaired to London, after having supplied
all his castles with arms and ammunition from the royal
stores, a measure tending most powerfully to confirm the
prejudice raised against him. On his arrival there he was
forthwith thrown into the Tower.
That the royal anger against the earl had not been very
violent, is evident, notwithstanding the harsh treatment
thus inflicted on him, from the fact that he was permitted
to commit the government during his absence to some
person for whose conduct he should be responsible. By
a step still more unaccountable than any of those that had
involved him in suspicion, he intrusted the administra¬
tion to his eldest son Thomas, a stripling scarcely twenty-
two years of age, who, to the rashness of youth, and a
natural violence of temper, added an insolent contempt of
his rivals, and a boyish confidence in the irresistible power
of the Geraldines. The news of his father’s imprisonment
could not fail soon to arrive in Ireland. Common fame,
aided by the artifices of the enemies of the family, swell¬
ed it into an assertion of his execution. The young lord
lent a credulous ear to these falsehoods, and, as impetuous
as he was credulous, instantly had recourse to means of
vengeance as desperate as they were chivalrous. Attend¬
ed by a retinue of an hundred and forty followers equip¬
ped in a style of gaudy display, which, even in those times
of courtly splendour, earned for him the title of “ the
Silken Knight,” he proceeded to St Mary’s Abbey, on the
northern bank of the Liffey, where the privy council were
assembled; and there, throwing down the sword of state,
he solemnly renounced his allegiance, and declared himself
the mortal enemy of the English government. All the
other members of the council gazed on him in silent as¬
tonishment. Archbishop Cromer, then primate and chan¬
cellor, alone interfered, and remonstrated with the fiery
young man on the madness of the act he was committing.
The appeal to his better judgment was interrupted by
the family bard, who, unconscious, through his ignorance
of the language, of what was going forward, commenced
a rhapsody on the glories of the Geraldines, the treatment
of their chief, and the vengeance which it claimed. Passion
prevailed over prudence. The voice of age and wisdom
was drowned in the clamours of his attendants, and the
young lord tore himself from the chancellor, rushed out
of the council board, and, without premeditation or pre¬
paration, plunged into a war against the whole power of
England.
Baffled in an attempt to surprise the castle of Dublin,
Lord Thomas ravaged all the district of Fingal, in its north¬
ern neighbourhood, during which Alen, archbishop of
Dublin, one of the determined enemies of his family, was
AND.
taken prisoner. When brought before him, his hasty ex- Hist;
pression, “ Away with the English churl,” was translated by ,
his rude Irish followers into a mandate for execution, and
the wretched man was immediately butchered. He then
renewed his attempt to seize the castle, but was prevented,
and eventually driven from the city by the citizens, who
even burned part of the suburbs, to prevent them from af¬
fording shelter to his troops. From being the aggressor,
he was now forced to act on the defensive. Maynooth
Castle, his strongest fortress, was invested, and, after a re¬
sistance of fourteen days, was captured by the treachery of
a foster brother of Lord Thomas, who, after having been
paid the pecuniary remuneration of his treason, received a
more adequate recompense by being hanged by the orders
of the English deputy. The irregular army of the insur¬
gents began to dissolve on the intelligence of this disaster,
and their leader was driven to a desultory warfare in the
fens and mountains, from which he was inveigled by a so¬
lemn assurance of pardon given by the English general
Lord Grey, and confirmed by the communion of the holy
sacrament. Grey was rewarded for his services by the of¬
fice of lord-justice. His first act of government was one
of atrocious perfidy. In spite of his previous solemn pro¬
mise, he sent his prisoner to London, where the first news
the wretched youth received was, that his father had died,
not by legal execution, but through grief at his insane re¬
bellion. This act of Grey was followed by a similar one,
if possible of deeper guilt. Henry breathed the most fu¬
rious revenge against the whole family of Kildare, and sent
orders to have the five uncles of the young lord seized.
To effect this, the lord-deputy invited them to a banquet,
where, in the midst of the pretended hospitality, they were
arrested, forced on board ship, hurried to England, and
executed along with the real instigator of the rebellion.
A brother of Lord Thomas, a boy about twelve years of
age, who was also included in this decree of blood, after
having been sheltered for some time, at no small risk, by
his aunt, the widow of M‘Arthy, a Munster chieftain, was
conveyed to France, and, when Henry had the meanness
to claim him as a subject, he escaped to Flanders. Thence,
when pursued by the same spirit of despicable malignity,
he fled to Germany, and finally found shelter in Rome,
under the protection of Cardinal Pole, wfflo, in defiance of
Henry’s protestations, received and educated him as his
kinsman, and, by his favour and support, enabled him to re¬
cover his birthright, and restore the otherwise extinct ho¬
nours of the house of Kildare.
A period now arrived in which religion, hitherto little
noticed in the political events of the country, was forced
to assume a character as dissonant to its real nature as pre¬
judicial to its true interests. Henry determined to extend
to Ireland the reformation he had with so little opposition
established in England. Commissioners were sent over to
procure an acknowledgment of the king’s supremacy, who,
though opposed by Cromer, the archbishop of Armagh, a
strenuous champion for the religion at that time establish¬
ed by law, succeeded in obtaining it. A parliament, as¬
sembled at the special suggestion of Browne, the first Pro¬
testant archbishop of Dublin, exhibited a subserviency to
the royal wishes as great as even the despotic character of
Henry could require. It pronounced the king’s marriage
with Catherine of Aragon null; declared the inheritance
of the crown to be in the king’s heirs by Anne Boleyn;
and as the passing of this declaration was followed by an
account of that unhappy lady’s condemnation and death,
and the king’s subsequent marriage with Anne Seymour,
it altered the succession anew to correspond with the new
change in the king’s disposition. It also acknowledged the
king’s supremacy in the fullest manner, forbade appeals to
Rome, renounced the authority of the Romish see, and de¬
creed the suppression of most of the monastic institutions.
IRELAND.
363
istory. An act, more creditable to the body whence it emanated,
ryO was also passed, by which schools were to be founded in
every parish for instructing the natives in the English lan¬
guage, and in the rudiments of useful knowledge.
But words and writings were not of themselves sufficient
to accomplish the mighty undertaking which Henry’s im¬
petuous zeal had commenced. The Irish clergy in general
were averse to a change. Many of them relinquished va¬
luable preferments rather than submit to it. The Irish
chieftains found in it a new motive to animate themselves
and to influence their followers against the Saxons. The
feeling was fomented by a communication from Rome, ex¬
citing the northern chieftains, and more particularly O’Neill,
to rally round the sacred standard of their forefathers.
O’Neill joyfully accepted the post thus assigned him. He
proclaimed himself head of the northern Irish, assembled
a numerous force, advanced to Tarah, and there had himself
proclaimed on the ancient hill of royalty of the native mo-
narchs of Ireland; but, content with this idle display of
pomp, he prepared, after ravaging the country, to return
into his own demesnes. The deputy had expected this
storm, and was prepared against it. With the forces raised
in Dublin and Drogheda he pursued the retiring Irish, and
overtook them at Bellahoe, on the borders of Meath, where,
after a partial engagement, in which the van of the latter
army only was concerned, the Irish fell back on their main
body, which, struck with an unaccountable panic, immedi¬
ately gave way and fled. The administration of Lord Grey
ended with this victory. He was recalled, and thrown
into the Tower, on charges equally futile and malicious.
Apprehensive of the irritable temper of his brutal master,
he waived all defence, pleaded guilty, and perished by the
same fate into which he had so treacherously drawn Lord
Thomas Fitzgerald and the rest of the ill-fated Geral¬
dines.
The next step taken by Henry to complete the tranquil-
lization of Ireland, was the assumption of the royal title.
Hitherto, though exercising all the essentials of sovereign¬
ty, the kings of England had contented themselves with
the title of lords of Ireland. This term was now changed
by act of parliament into that of king. The alteration was
commemorated by conferring peerages on several of the
heads of the great families. O’Neill was made Earl of
Tyrone, with the singular privilege of transmitting the
title and estate to an illegitimate son, to the prejudice of his
lawful issue. Ulick de Burgho was created Earl of Clan-
ricarde, and O’Brien Earl of Thomond. Several of inferior
note were created barons. Besides the act declaring the
king’s regal title, others, to the following purport, give strik¬
ing indications of the manners of the times: Laymen and
boys were excluded from ecclesiastical benefices; homi¬
cide and robbery were punished by fine, wilful murder and
rape by death ; coygne and livery were prohibited, unless by
command of the lord-deputy; idle men and retainers were
forbidden; noblemen were allowed no more than twenty cu¬
bits or bandies of linen in their shirts, which were not to be
dyed with saffron ; and the people of a country into which a
theft was traced, were to trace it thence, or make restitution.
A glaring omission in these statutes rendered them almost
nugatory. Whilst the great lords were rendered more de¬
pendent on the crown by the abolition of their ancient
tenures, no provision was made in favour of the subordi¬
nate chieftains, or the great mass of the population, over
whom their ancient masters were still permitted to exert
their former arbitrary dominion. Neither was this omis¬
sion caused by inadvertence. The petitions of the natives
to be governed by English law were disregarded or denied.
O’Byrne, the head of a sept which had long kept the capi¬
tal in a state of alarm, vainly petitioned that his territory
should be converted into an English county by the name
ot Wicklow. A similar proposal for the Annaly, from its
proprietors the O’Ferrals, was treated in like manner, al- History,
though the king, when applied to, had acquiesced in the
arrangement. The only territorial change ventured upon by
the lord-deputy was the division of the territory of Meath into
the counties of East and West Meath. Still, however, the
civil reformation of the country was in progress. A state
of general tranquillity was perceptible. Such, indeed, was
the spirit of allegiance at this period, that Francis I. then
at war with England, found it impossible to move the Irish
to insurrection. On the contrary, Henry was attended to
Calais on his French expedition by a considerable body of
Irish troops, who distinguished themselves equally by their
agility during the march, and their ferocity in the combat.
But the happy prospect which now began to dawn over the
country was marred by the mismanagement of the English
government. O’More and O’Connor of Offaly had renewed
their incursions into Leinster. They were soon driven
back into their fastnesses, whence they were lured, by a
delusive expectation of pardon and favour, on condition
of presenting themselves to the king. Scarcely, however,
had they arrived at court when they were seized and
thrown into prison, where the former soon sunk under the
severity of his treatment. The disgust excited by this act
of treachery was heightened by the manner in which the
reformation was pressed upon the people. When Dowdal,
the primate, who had succeeded Cromer, refused to coun¬
tenance the new doctrines, an old controversy relative to
the superiority of the sees of Armagh and Dublin was re¬
vived, and, by a royal patent, the title of primacy was
transferred from the former to the latter see. Dowdal,
unable to brook the indignity, peevishly as well as injudi¬
ciously deserted his see, and retired to the Continent.
The opposite party, taking advantage of this false step, im¬
mediately placed Goodacre, a Protestant bishop, in the see
he had abdicated. Throughout the country parts also, the
removal of the clergy of the ancient faith, and the intro¬
duction of those of the new doctrines, were carried on
in a spirit of violence and acrimony unbecoming the cause
and irritating to the people. The garrison of Athlone at¬
tacked the ancient and venerated recess of Clonrnacnois,
plundered its furniture, defaced its ornaments, and defiled
its altars. Similar excesses took place in other parts. Thus
the impression made by those champions of reform was,
that the new system sanctioned sacrilege and robbery.
In the north, the general peace was disturbed by the fa¬
mily dissensions of the O’Neills. Shane or John O’Neill,
the legitimate son of the first Earl of Tyrone, laboured se¬
dulously to induce his father to alter the arrangement
which gave the inheritance to his natural son Matthew.
The latter threw himself for protection on the lord-deputy,
who could devise no better means for closing the family
schism, than- by seizing on the persons of tl)e earl and his
countess, whom he kept in close confinement. The con¬
sequence of this arbitrary act was the throwing the whole
of that country into the hands of Shane, who claimed it by
the principles of the English law, and who, assisted by a
body of Scots, committed terrible depredations on the pro¬
perty of those who disputed his right or set his power at
defiance.
A new revolution, occasioned by the death of Edward
VI. added to this state of confusion. The religion was
again changed. Dowdal was recalled to the primacy ; the
most violent of his opponents flecl the country, and the
great body of the clergy returned to their former faith.
This restoration was attended with no acts of violence;
the Protestants were not persecuted. On the contrary,
several of the English, who had fled from the severity of
the law in their own country, were received and sheltered
by the Catholics in Ireland. Not so with the Irish. The
septs of Leix and Offaly resisted the forfeiture of their
lands. They insisted that the offences of their leaders
«u I R E L
History, ought not to involve in their confiscation the inferior
heads. They took up arms in defence of their rights;
but they were soon taught the futility of their opposition.
An armed force was sent into the country, which proceeded
in the work of extermination with such ruthless ferocity,
that scarcely a remnant of the ancient residents could be
found to avail themselves of the tardy pardons procured for
them by the generous interference of the Earls of Kildare
and Ossory. The territory was reduced into shire-ground,
under the names of the King’s and Queen’s Counties, in
honour of Philip and Mary, whose names were given to the
respective assize towns of each.
Elizabeth, on her accession, found the whole island in¬
volved in a state of petty warfare. The Earl of Thomond
contended with another branch of the O’Briens for the ru-
lership of North Munster. The Desmonds and Butlers re¬
newed their contentions in the south. jVPWilliam Oughter
rose in arms against the De Burghos of Clanricarde. Ihe
dispossessed inhabitants of Leix and Offaly revenged
themselves by the pillage of the neighbouring districts of
Leinster, and Shane O’Neill was making rapid strides to¬
wards the sovereignty of the whole of Ulster. The last
named of these parties was the first pacified. Sir Henry
Sidney, the new lord-deputy, instead of turning the mili¬
tary force of the queen against him in the first instance,
had recourse to gentler measures. Accepting an invitation
to settle the matters in controversy at O’Neill’s own resi¬
dence, he was received with such splendid hospitality, and
heard such a statement of facts, as induced him not only
to relinquish all ideas of severity, but to engage to be his
mediator with the queen. O’Neill even attended the
lord-deputy to Dublin ; but when there, being made more
fully aware of the deadly machinations of his secret ene¬
mies, who thirsted to make his princely property an object
of confiscation, he adopted the daring resolution of proceed¬
ing to London, and laying his case before the queen in
person. Attended by a chosen band of followers equipped
in the most appropriate costume of the country, he entered
that city, to the astonishment and delight of the population,
then as well as now fascinated by show and singularity. A
native Irish chieftain, followed by a band of men armed in
a strange fashion, with heads bare, their ham flowing in
clustering curls on their shoulders, clad in saffron linen vests
of exubei'ant folds, surcharged with light and polished cui¬
rasses, and bearing broad double-edged battle-axes over
the shoulders, caught the fancy and dazzled the imagina¬
tion, not only of the populace, but of the queen herself. She
received the singular visitant with marked favour, and sent
him back to Ireland secured in the possession of the title
and property which he claimed as his right upon his fa¬
ther's death. But this unexpected tide of royal favour only
whetted the ipgenuity of his enemies at home. Complaint
after complaint, either of actual offence or of imputed ill
intention, was sent over to Elizabeth, whose answer, “ that
if he revolted it would be better for her servants, as there
would be more forfeitures to divide amongst them,” excited
their hopes, as the prospect of the prey had roused their
cupidity. Sir Henry Sidney had placed a garrison in the
town of Derry. This step O’Neill considered as an infringe¬
ment of his rights, and an intrusion on his sovereignty. A
body of forces led by him against it defeated and slew the
governor. Shortly afterwards, the church, which had been
used as a powder magazine, was blown up by accident, and
the garrison forced to evacuate the place. This event
was construed by the people into a judgment from heaven
for the profanation. O’Neill then proceeded to Armagh,
which he took by storm, and burned the cathedral; but was
baffled in a subsequent attempt upon Dundalk. The tide
of fortune now set strongly against him. Several of the
native chieftains in the north, and Desmond in the south,
took part with the government. His forces were unequal
A N D.
to contend against such a combination. Finding resist- Histor
ance hopeless, his first emotion was to throw himself on wn—
the mercy of the lord-deputy; but the treatment of
Q'More under similar circumstances deterred him. He
therefore determined to seek the protection of a body of
Scotchmen, who were encamped in that part of Antrim
then known by the name of Claneboy. His proposal of
joining this party, which was readily accepted by them,
became known to the English governor, who sent an offi¬
cer of the name of Piers to the Scotch commander, to
persuade him to assassinate his unsuspecting guest. The
plot succeeded. O’Neill, on his arrival, was assailed by
a party of his host’s followers, upon the futile pretence of
a sudden quarrel during the entertainment to which he
was invited. His head was sent to Dublin, and Piers re¬
ceived a thousand pounds for his share in the transaction.
The deputy named a feeble old man, named Tirlogh Ley-
nagh, as head of the sept, to prevent this office being fil¬
led by a more youthful and daring individual.
The ruin of O’Neill in the north was followed by that
of Desmond in the south. A small body of Spaniards
was brought into that part of Ireland by a banished
branch of the Fitzgerald family. Though the Earl of
Desmond steadily persevered in avoiding to connect
himself with their proceedings, the conduct of some of
his relations involved him in suspicions, which were then
nearly tantamount to guilt. His brothers Sir John and Sir
James having joined the invading party, the former disgra¬
ced himself, and injured his cause, by the unprovoked mur¬
der of an English gentleman of the name of Davels, who
had been sent by the deputy to persuade them to continue
in their allegiance. The whole force of the government
was directed against the family. The army of the insur¬
gents was utterly routed at Kilmallock. The earl himself,
though as yet guilty of no overt act, received a peremp¬
tory order to surrender within twenty days ; and upon his
declining to appear, he was declared a traitor. The war
was carried on against him with unexampled cruelty.
Slaughter, fire, and famine, desolated the finest parts of
the rich province of Munster. Desmond, driven to des¬
peration, made a vigorous stand. At one time he pos¬
sessed himself of the town of Youghal, but was soon af¬
terwards defeated by his old and bitter enemy the Earl of
Ormond. At this time a new lord-deputy was sent over
in the person of Lord Grey. His first effort was an attack
upon the O’Byrnes of Wicklow, who were charged with
having banded themselves in alliance with Desmond. He
determined to attack them in their stronghold of Glen-
dalogh, in the very centre of the mountains; but, when
entangled in the inextricable labyrinths of these moun¬
tain fastnesses, he was assaulted with such well-judged
fury, that his army was cut off almost to a man, he him¬
self scarcely escaping to Dublin, overwhelmed with shame
and confusion. Hence he was soon afterwards called away
to Munster. A body of Spaniards seven hundred strong
had arrived in Kerry to the aid of Desmond ; but the num¬
ber was too small to be effective. On their landing they
secured themselves in an intrenchment, which they named
Fort d’Ore. Flere they were blocked up by the lord-de¬
puty, so as to render escape impossible. They surrender¬
ed, whether on terms or at discretion is uncertain. But
the subsequent atrocity is as certain as it is detestable.
Lord Grey ordered the whole of the garrison to be butch¬
ered. His instructions were executed to the letter. Sir
Walter Raleigh, and Spencer the poet, were involved in
the infamy of this abominable act, the one as the officer
presiding at the massacre, the other as assisting in the
councils where it was devised. The war was now at an
end, but the chief victim still found means to avoid the
indefatigable pursuit of his enemies. Hunted from lair
to lair, he suffered all the extremity of famine. A few ot
I II E L
story, his daring adherents had seized a prey of cattle for his
sustenance. They were traced into a wooded valley,
where, attracted by a light, his pursuers were led to a
hovel, in which they found only a feeble old man. On
being assaulted and wounded, he called out for mercy,
and told them he wras the Earl of Desmond. This was
the signal for his death. The soldier repeated his blow,
and slew him. His head was forwarded to the queen,
who ordered it to be fixed upon London Bridge.
The government of Sir John Perrott, who succeeded
Lord Grey, presents one of the bright spots in the history
of the country. His first act was to publish an amnesty,
and to denounce the military slaughters and spoliations
which were encouraged by too many of the commanders.
He took care to secure all parties in their persons and
properties, to administer justice to all alike, and to reform
the gross abuses in the public departments. Nor were his
endeavours unsuccessful. The natives vied with each other
in tendering proofs of loyalty. The old lords of the pale
suspended their feuds, and came up to attend his court in
Dublin. A parliament was assembled, which, though with
some reluctance, passed an act for the attainder of the
deceased Lord Desmond, together with an hundred and
forty of his followers, and confiscated his immense estate
to the crown. Having thus reduced the south to order, he
turned his attention, to Ulster. Hugh, the eldest son of
Matthew, Lord Dungannon, was entitled to the honours and
estates belonging to the earldom of Tyrone. He had been
educated in England, and had served with honour in the
queen’s army. He now applied for his seat in the House
of Lords, and for the restoration of his property. Perrott
granted him the first of these requests, and referred him
to the queen as to the second. He therefore presented
himself at court, not, like his predecessor, in the wild at¬
tire and equipage of an Irish dynast, but as a British
courtier. He was received with marked partiality, and
soon restored to his possessions. The close of Perrott’s
government was stained by an act unworthy of him.
O’Donnell, the chieftain of Tyrconnel, was suspected of
meditating a revolt. Perrott undertook to stifle the at¬
tempt without difficulty or expense. To effect this, he
caused O’Donnell’s eldest son to be inveigled on board a
ship sent into Lough Swilly, on pretence of trafficking in
wine, and had the young man brought up to Dublin,
where he was kept for some time in close confinement.
But such had been this governor’s general conduct, that
even an act so unjustifiable did not deprive him of gene¬
ral confidence. On his recall, being aware of an impend¬
ing Spanish invasion, he assembled such of the lords and
chieftains as were most likely to be swayed from their
allegiance by the appearance of a foreign force, point¬
ed out to them the consequences which must result from
the apprehended invasion, and persuaded them to give
hostages in proof of their determination to adhere to
their sovereign. He then quitted the country, followed
by the blessings and prayers of thousands. The conduct
ot his successor, Sir William Fitzwiiliam, whose sole ob¬
ject appeared to be the accumulation of wealth, enhanced
the feelings of regret for his departurew After the de¬
feat ot the Spanish Armada, several of the ships belong¬
ing to it were lost on the northern coast of Ireland. Re¬
ports were rife as to the quantities of money acquired
from the wrecks by the chieftains residing in the neigh¬
bourhood. Fitzwiiliam seized upon some of them, on the
mere suspicion of their being in possession of these trea¬
sures, and kept them for years in close confinement. He
afterwards imprisoned M'Mahon, the head of the sept that
held Monaghan county, on a charge of treason, for having
employed a military force to collect his revenues, an usual
custom in the Irish districts, and brought him to trial be¬
fore a jury of soldiers, by whom he was at once condemn-
A N D. 365
ed and consigned to immediate execution. These and simi- History,
lar severities excited the spirit which they professed to re-
press. Young O’Donnell, who had been treacherously en¬
trapped by Perrott, found means to escape from Dublin
Castle, and took refuge in the mountains of Wicklow,
whence, after a year’s residence, he made his way, through
extraordinary difficulties, to his own country, where he was
most active in fomenting the spirit of discontent amongst
his neighbours.
About this time the university of Dublin was founded, on
the site of a suppressed monastery. The project wTas first
conceived by Sir John Perrott, but it was not acted upon
until the time of his successor. It was the only successful
effort since the arrival of the English at imparting to the
country a knowledge of the higher branches of learnins.
O’Neill, ever since his restoration to his estate, had been
preparing means for the part he afterwards acted. Amongst
the stipulations in his favour on his restoration, was the
privilege of being attended with a certain number of arm¬
ed men. These he frequently changed, so as to have in a
short time a large number of his followers trained to the
use of arms. When he conceived himself sufficiently pre¬
pared to set the English power at defiance, he threw off
the mask, and openly laid siege to the fort of Blackwater,
built some time before for the avowed purpose of keeping
him in check. Sir Nicholas Bagnal was sent to relieve it.
The opposing armies met near Armagh. The numbers on
each side were nearly equal, but fortune turned the scale of
victory. In the heat of the engagement, the explosion of
a magazine threw the queen’s forces into confusion. The
death of Bagnal, who, whilst raising Ins visor, was shot
through the brain, rendered the confusion irremediable.
The victory of the Irish was decisive, and fifteen hundred
of the enemy fell in the field. The fort of Blackwater im¬
mediately surrendered, and Armagh was evacuated by the
queen’s troops.
Elizabeth at length determined to make one irresistible
effort to crush an adversary now become truly formidable.
She sent the Earl of Essex into Ireland as lord-lieutenant,
at the head of twenty thousand men; a number deemed
more than sufficient to accomplish her object in a single
campaign. Essex had orders to proceed directly against
Tyrone ; but he took a course diametrically opposite. He
directed his march southwards through Munster, where he
found an impoverished and depopulated country, and an
enemy that eluded every effort to bring them into decisive
collision. In passing through Leix, his cavalry suffered
heavily from the repeated desultory attacks of O’More,
who cherished all his ancestor’s hereditary hatred of the
English ; whilst another division of his army was defeated
by the O’Byrnes of the mountains. In another quarter Sir
Conyers Clifford, who was sent into Connaught to create a
diversion in favour of the main body, was routed and killed
in the Curlew Mountains, by O’Ruark, prince of Breffney,
as the county of Leitrim was then called. These repeated
losses so diminished the numbers and broke the spirit of
the English, that when Essex moved northwards to effect
his main object, he found his means inadequate to the at¬
tempt. An interview was proposed and accepted, which
w7as followed by a truce for six weeks, in consequence of
which the English army returned to its quarters in Lein¬
ster.
The anger of Elizabeth at this termination of her ex¬
pensive expedition was extreme. Essex, to ward off its
effect, took the desperate expedient of returning unbidden
to court, to justify himself in person. The act was as un¬
fortunate as inconsiderate. He was arrested, imprisoned,
and, on a still more frantic effort to excite the citizens of
London against the queen, was tried and beheaded.
Sir Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, was sent to Ireland
in the place of Essex. His love of literature had excited.
366 I R E L
History, an opinion of his effeminacy. O’Neill exulted openly at the
appointment of a man “ who would lose the season of ac¬
tion whilst his breakfast was making ready.” He was soon
to learn that the graces of polite literature are by no means
incompatible with the qualifications of a warrior. At the
commencement of Lord Mountjoy’s proceedings, an occur¬
rence took place which excited in his mind strong doubts of
the honesty of the Earl of Ormond, who had still the chief
command of the army. This nobleman having allowed him¬
self to be trepanned into a conference with O’More, the
chieftain of Leix, on pretence of treating as to terms of sub¬
mission, was seized and long detained prisoner, as Mount-
joy was not over hasty in paying a large ransom for a man
who, he shrewdly suspected, had been the secret cause of
his owrn calamity. The proceedings against O’Neill were
conducted with much policy. The inferior chiefs were
bribed to join in the confederacy against him. Rival claim¬
ants were set up against his friends. The lands of those
who adhered to him were mercilessly devastated. Pardon
was granted to the insurgents only on the condition of be¬
traying or murdering a relative or friend. A strict adhe¬
rence to these practices soon -wasted O’Neill’s strength.
He persevered in his resistance, however, in the hope of
succours from Spain. These at length arrived, but fell far
short of what his expectations had anticipated, or the great¬
ness of the emergency called for. Two thousand men, un¬
der the command of Don Juan d’Aquila, were all that Philip
of Spain would or could spare towards this effort to crush
his rival, or at least to dismember her empire. To com¬
plete the series of ill-combined arrangements, the invading
force landed at Kinsale, in the south of Ireland, whilst the ally
whose interests it was sent to maintain was shut up in the
northern extremity of the island. The Spaniards, as soon
as they landed, were blocked up in Kinsale by the combined
forces of the lord-deputy, and Sir George Carew, px-esident
of Munster. Don Juan wrote in the most urgent terms to
O’Neill and O’Donnell to come to his relief. They advanced
at the extraordinary speed of forty miles a day, through a
country already desolated by the protracted continuance
of a war of extermination. At the same time that they
ari-ived near the scene of action, the landing of a second
Spanish armament at Castlehaven, joined to the intelli¬
gence that this was to be followed by still further succours,
induced several of the southern chieftains to declare them¬
selves openly in favour of the Spaniards; and Mountjoy now
found himself blocked up in turn, between the garrison of
Kinsale on the one side and the Ixfish army on the other. Un¬
der such cii’cumstances, delay would have been ruin. Famine
and disease, already active in his camp, must soon have ac¬
complished the annihilation of his army. The impatience
of the Spanish general, and the want of concert among the
Irish, saved him. O’Neill was prevailed upon to hazard an
attack upon the English lines. In this he was anticipated.
Mountjoy, aware of his intention, marched to meet him
with part of his forces, leaving the remainder to keep the
besieged in check. The enemy were taken by surprise,
and, after a short resistance, the main body of the Irish was
broken and scattered. O’Donnell, who commanded the
rear, fled without sti'iking a blow. O’Neill, after some in¬
effectual attempts to rally his men, still much superior in
numbers, gave up the attempt in despair, and hurried back
to the north. The Spanish genei'al, finding himself de¬
serted, and, as he thought, betrayed, by his new auxiliaries,
surrendei-ed upon terms. The war of desolation was now
carried into the northern province. The forts of Charle-
mont and Mountjoy were erected to curb the Irish in that
quarter. The open country was desolated. Large tracts
were converted into deserts, where the miserable remnant
of the population endeavoured to support nature by feed¬
ing on grass, or the filthiest garbage. O’Neill’s friends and
adherents gradually fell off. He at length applied to be
AND.
received into mercy. Mountjoy, at this time aware of the Histc
precarious state of Elizabeth’s existence, was equally anxious 1
to terminate the struggle. After receiving from O’Neill
an abject submission on his knees at Mellifont, he admit¬
ted him to pardon, and encouraged him wdth the hope of
restoration to his title and estate. Scarcely had the cere¬
mony been concluded when the news of Elizabeth’s death
arrived. O’Neill, on hearing of it, burst into a flood of
tears, occasioned, as he said, by his regret for a princess
whose kindness he had so ungratefully repaid, but, with
more probability, by the reflection that an earlier intima¬
tion of the event might have enabled him to take advan¬
tage of it for procuring terms less degrading. The war
could not have been much longer continued. It had worn
itself out; the resources of the country were completely .
exhausted ; the population was reduced to the number of
from six to eight hundred thousand ; the finances vrere in
the most ruinous state ; and the debasement of the coin,
an expedient adopted by Elizabeth to parry off the ruin,
ultimately served only to aggravate the distress.
With the exception of an effort made in the cities of
Waterford and Cork to restore the old forms of worship,
which was speedily put down with the effusion of but little
blood, the submission of Tyrone restored the general tran¬
quillity to such a degree, that Mountjoy felt justified in
proceeding to England to present himself before his new-
sovereign, leaving Sir George Carew in his place as lord-
deputy. He was accompanied by O’Neill and O’Donnell,
the former of whom was confirmed in his title of Tyrone,
and the latter created Earl of Tyrconnel. Before his de¬
parture he published a general amnesty, and received into
the protection of the English law the whole of the Irish
people hitherto exposed to the ill-defined rule of their re¬
spective chieftains. But the dawn of tranquillity was dark¬
ened by the apprehension of fresh convulsions. An anony¬
mous letter was found in the council-chamber of the cas¬
tle, hinting at the existence of a conspiracy carried on by
some of the great Irish lords against the state. On the
alarm being given, the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, ac¬
tuated either by a consciousness of guilt, or by an appre¬
hension that they were specially marked out as the objects
of persecution, left the country, and took refuge in Spain.
Their flight was considered as sufficient proof of their guilt.
They were attainted, and their immense possessions for¬
feited to the crown. In one district of the north the flame
of insurrection broke out openly. Sir Cahir O’Dogherty,
proprietor of Innishow^en, who had hitherto espoused the
cause of the English, disclaimed his allegiance, seized by
treachery the fort of Culmore, and thence proceeded to
attack the town and fort of Derry, which he took by storm,
putting the whole garrison, with the commandant, to the
sword ; but after continuing his ravages for five months, his
followers were routed, and himself slain, in an engagement,
by Sir Arthur Chichester, the lord-deputy, who found his
presence necessary for the complete suppression of the in¬
surrection.
The death of this chieftain and the flight of the two
earls having placed nearly the whole of Ulster in the king’s
hands, he resolved to remodel the province, by removing the
ancient possessors, and introducing a colony of English and
Scotch settlers in their stead. The tract on which the ex¬
periment wras to be made comprehended the counties of Tyr¬
connel, since called Donegal, Tyrone, Derry, Fermanagh,
Armagh, and Cavan, spreading over upwards of half a mil¬
lion of acres. The lands were to be portioned out into
estates varying from one to two thousand acres, the pro¬
prietors of which were bound to build substantial residen¬
ces in them after the English fashion, and to people them
with English and Scotch tenantry. The city of London
was peculiarly active in promoting this plan. A company
of merchants and undertakers there, under the name ot
I R E L A N D.
istory. the Irish Society, contracted for large tracts of land, which
'Y-'**' they still hold under this tenure. The remainder was por¬
tioned out amongst private individuals, either English or
Scotch, who thus became the founders of most of the prin¬
cipal families now residing in these counties. The order
of baronets was instituted in order to promote the execu¬
tion of this favourite project of James. The number of
its members was limited to two hundred, each of whom
purchased his rank by the payment of a sum adequate to
support thirty men on the new plantation for three years.
About the same time, the county of Wicklow, heretofore
the property of the septs of the O’Byrnes, and O’Tooles
or O’Tothils, was made shire-ground, after the natives had
been dispossessed by a summary process, somewhat similar
to that employed in the settlement of the northern counties.
In order to secure the permanence of these changes by
positive law, a parliament was convoked, after a lapse of
twenty-seven years. It was the first to which members from
all the counties of Ireland were sent. To secure a prepon¬
derance in favour of the crown, a number of new boroughs
was created, in the charters of which the right of election
was placed in hands which secured subserviency to the
ruling power of the day. Notwithstanding this precaution,
the political aspect which this assemblage presented was
by no means promising. In the upper house, which con¬
sisted of but four earls, five viscounts, sixteen barons, and
twenty-five bishops, the numbers of the latter order gave
the crown an irresistible preponderance. But in the House
of Commons the parties were more equally balanced. The
election of a speaker served as a trial of strength. The
court party proposed Sir John Davis, the attorney-general,
an Englishman, and author of the celebrated tract on the
Causes why Ireland had never been completely subdued.
The country party set up Sir John Everard, an’Irish law¬
yer of respectable family. The election went in favour of
the former, by a majority of a hundred and twenty-seven
votes to ninety-seven. The defeated party, not content
with protesting against the unfair construction of the house,
took advantage of the absence of the majority, who had
left the apartment for the purpose of being counted on the
division, put their own speaker in the chair, and were pro¬
ceeding to pass resolutions, when the excluded members
returned, and, failing in an attempt to eject Everard
from the chair, placed their own nominee in his lap. The
scene of disgraceful tumult which followed was at length
terminated by the secession of the minority, after they had
protested against all the acts that should be passed, as in¬
formal and unconstitutional.
A commission, issued for the discovery of defective titles,
at the head of wdiich was placed Sir William Parsons, a
name of no small notoriety in the series of subsequent
events, began now to excite alarm. During the long con¬
tinuance of civil war, the loss of family documents, the ne¬
glect of the performance of feudal services, the ignorance
of the great proprietors, and the uncertainty of the law
fluctuating between English and Irish tenure, brought most
persons of property wdthin its fangs, and excited the alarm
of all. By means of it the king established a claim of right to
upwards of an additional half million of acres. The chief
profit of these confiscations accrued to the members and
dependents of the government, who employed agents, tech¬
nically called discoverers, to scrutinize titles and discover
flaws, receiving as their reward a portion of the lands
charged with being concealed or illegally withheld from
the crown. Their success in other parts led them to pro¬
ject the confiscation of the whole of Connaught. The
king s claim rested on a case of the most flagrant iniquity.
I he lands of this province had been surrendered by their
proprietors to Sir John Perrott, and restored to them by
grants from the queen, to be held under the provisions of
English law. Having neglected to enrol their patents in
that reign of turbulence and internal commotion, they sur¬
rendered them anew to James, and took out new patents,
for the enrolment of which a sum of three thousand pounds
was paid. The officers of chancery, either through negli¬
gence, or from a worse motive, omitted to execute the pro¬
cess of enrolment, and the Icing, towards the close of his
reign, was preparing to take advantage of the laches of his
own servants, and to seize on Connaught, in order to have
it parcelled out anew, as he had done wdth Ulster. The
injured party, aware of their adversaries’ power, prepared to
avert the ruin which impended over them, by the proffer of
ten thousand pounds. Whether the necessities of this ex¬
travagant monarch would have led him to the acceptance
of that sum for the fulfilment of his part of an equitable
contract, cannot now be decided. His death left the ques¬
tion at issue to be handed down to his successor, as one of
the ingredients of discontent in the cup of bitterness that
he vras condemned to drain to the very dregs.
Charles I. began his reign by sending a large force to
Ireland, both to provide against the danger of foreign in¬
vasion, and to curb internal disaffection ; but, through a de¬
ficiency of pecuniary means to support the troops, he had
recourse to the exertion of his prerogative, and quartered
them on the counties and principal towns, obliging the in¬
habitants to supply them, not only with lodging, but with
money and provisions. The murmurs against this oppres¬
sive impost were loud and frequent. A meeting of the
principal Catholic recusants and great landed proprietors
having assembled in Dublin, proposed to Lord Falkland, the
lord-lieutenant, to grant the king a voluntary assessment
of an hundred and twenty thousand pounds, on a guarantee
of security in their rights and properties. The proposal
was accepted by the king, who sent over the document
containing the required concessions, ratified by his signa¬
ture, in order to their being confirmed by the ensuing par¬
liament. The principal articles in this covenant, which
was known by the name of The Graces, were, that the
king’s claim to lands should be limited to sixty years; that
the Connaught proprietors should receive new patents;
that the exactions of the soldiery should be restrained, the
fees of the king’s officers and the powers of his courts de¬
fined, the powers of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction limited,
and a general pardon granted for all past offences. When
the parliament which was to give the sanction of law to
these favours had met, an informality in the writs for as¬
sembling was alleged as a reason for not having then con¬
firmed them ; and as no new writs were issued, nor any steps
taken to convoke another parliament, the people, who had
advanced their money on the security of this promise, en¬
tertained strong doubts of the king's sincerity. The recall
of Lord Falkland served to confirm these suspicions. The
lords-justices who were appointed on his departure execut¬
ed the laws against recusant Catholics with great severity.
They caused the celebrated place of penance in Lough-
derg, called St Patrick’s Purgatory, to be dug up and de¬
secrated ; and on being resisted by a tumultuous mob in
an endeavour to prevent the Carmelite friars of Dublin
from publicly performing their religious rites, they seized
upon fifteen religious houses, and dispossessed the Catho¬
lics of their college in Backlane, giving it to the Dublin
university, which kept it open for some time as a Protes¬
tant seminary. These measures only augmented the spirit
of discontent, to repress which Charles sent over Lord
Wentworth, afterwards Earl of Strafford. This nobleman,
from being one of the most active leaders of the popular
party in the English parliament, became at once the most
violent assertor of the king’s arbitrary measures. Equally
proud and daring, he took no pains to conceal or palliate
Ids desertion. “ You see, gentlemen,” said he to some of
his former political friends, “ I have quitted you.” “ We
see you have,” replied one of these sturdy republicans;
367
History.
368 I R E L
History. “ but, with God’s blessing, we will never quit you while
you have a head on your shoulders.” His policy on his
arrival was to treat Ireland as a conquered country, and
to beat down opposition, from whatever quarter it might
arise, by the stern arm of power. His arbitrary conduct
made no distinction of persons. The Earl of Kildare hav¬
ing left the country without his permission, for the purpose
of laying a complaint against his overbearing conduct be¬
fore the king, was forced to make an abject submission to
the person against whom he complained. Lord Mount-
norris, for having used an unguarded expression, which
could be distorted into a threat against the lord-lieutenant,
was seized, tried by a court-martial, and sentenced to death,
and escaped punishment only by the universal outcry raised
against such a stretch of power. One Irish nobleman only
had courage sufficient to oppose this conduct. Strafford,
on the meeting of parliament, had issued orders that the
members should lay aside their swords when they took
their seats. The Earl of Ormond, who had just come of
age, on being stopped at the entrance of the House of
Lords, and required by the usher of the black rod to give
up his sword, answered, that if that officer must have his
sword, it should be through his body, and passed on to his
seat. On being summoned before the council to answ'er
for this daring insult on the viceregal authority, he defend¬
ed himself by saying that he had received the investiture
to his earldom per cincturam gladii, and was ordered by the
writ of summons to attend parliament gladio dnctus. The
answer, as spirited as it was unexpected, staggered Strafford.
He felt that such a spirit in so young a man must either be
crushed at once, or otherwise directed. He had the pru¬
dence to adopt the latter course; and Ormond, at the age
of twenty-four, was admitted into the Irish privy council.
The imperious and harsh measures of the lord-lieutenant
had, however, the effect of putting down all opposition in
parliament. Six subsidies, amounting to three hundred
thousand pounds, were granted, and no steps taken to se¬
cure to the people, by the sanction of parliament, those
graces which the king had pledged himself to grant, and
for which they had paid so highly. In some respects
Strafford’s government was laudable. He reformed the
army, so as to render it efficient without being burdensome
to the people ; he encouraged the linen manufacture, using
at the same time every means to depress that of wool; he
promoted a spirit of commerce, and guarded the coasts
with great vigilance against the annoyance of pirates.
Amongst the worst acts of his government, wras his project
to subvert all titles to estates in Connaught, in order to
plant a new Protestant colony in that province. Taking
with him a large body of soldiers to overawe the juries, he
held courts of inquest to investigate titles. His measures
were effectual in four counties. In Galway, the jurors
having presumed to give a verdict against the crown, were
summoned before the court of the council chamber in
Dublin, and the sheriff fined a thousand pounds for re¬
turning an improper jury. The exigencies of Charles’s
affairs induced him to call over Strafford to England,
where, after some time, he was impeached by the House
of Commons. The principal charges against him rested
upon his conduct whilst in Ireland. Several articles were
certainly groundless, others exaggerated, but more than
sufficient remained to justify the sentence which brought
his head to the block, and fulfilled the ominous prediction
of the party he had deserted when in the zenith of his
prosperity.
Whilst general discontent in Ireland was fermenting
through the duplicity of the king, the arbitrary conduct
of his officers, the suggestions of his enemies in England,
and their bloody triumph over his great agent, a secret
conspiracy was forming to rescue the country by force of
arms from its present oppressed state, and to restore the
AND.
property of it to those whom the late changes had eject- His
ed. The deviser and main-spring of the plot was Roger w-.
Moore, a descendant of the O’Mores of Leix, who had
been dispossessed in the reign of Mary. In conjunction
with a son of the Earl of Tyrone, who, on escaping to
Spain, had obtained the command of a regiment in the
Spanish service, he set about procuring the means to ac¬
complish this daring measure. Returning to Ireland, he
gained over several of the heads of the old Irish families.
The death of Tyrone checked, but did not prevent, his
proceedings. Application was made to another branch of
the family, Owen Roe O’Neill, then in the service of the
king of France, from whom the conspirators received as¬
surances of military aid when matters should be ripe.
The seizure of the castle of Dublin was to be the first overt
act, and the 5th of October was fixed on for the attempt.
The timidity of some of the parties caused its postpone¬
ment. Roger Moore, after having visited his friends in
Ulster, on whose exertions, owing to the severity with
which they had been dispossessed in the late settlement
of that province, he placed most dependence, came up to
Dublin to superintend the attack, which was now fixed
on for the 23d of the same month. The lords-justices,
Sir William Parsons and Sir John Borlase, were till this
moment unaware of the conspiracy, and unprepared for
resistance. On the evening of the 22d, information ofits
existence was given, through Owen Conolly, a Protestant,
who had been invited to join in it. Parsons paid little
attention to his statement, but Borlase took the alarm,
placed guards on the castle and principal avenues, and
seized M‘Mahon and Lord M‘Guire. Moore had sufficient
notice of the discovery to make his escape. Dublin was
thus saved; but the insurrection broke out with irresisti¬
ble fury in the north, where Sir Phelim O’Neill, one of the
Tyrone family, a man of mean capacity but violent pas¬
sions, took the lead, by surprising the castles of Charle-
mont, Dungannon, and Mountjoy. Tanderagee, and the
border town of Newry, soon afterwards fell into the hands
of the insurgents. Fermanagh was seized upon by a bro¬
ther of Lord M‘Guire, and Monaghan by the M‘Mahons.
So well organized was the conspiracy, that within eight
days’ time the Irish found themselves masters of the coun¬
ties of Tyrone, Monaghan, Longford, Leitrim, Fermanagh,
Cavan, Donegal, and Derrjq together with some parts
of Armagh and Down.
In the mean time the lords-justices were engaged in
taking measures for their own security in Dublin. All
strangers were ordered to quit the city. Parliament was
prorogued. The sheriffs of the counties of the pale re¬
ceived orders to provide for the security of their respec¬
tive districts. The Catholic lords of the pale attended
the counsel, declaring their readiness to assist in the de¬
fence of the country. The lords-justices, suspicious of
their motives, yet unwilling to irritate them by an expres¬
sion of doubt, furnished a small supply of arms to those
most exposed to danger. After the first burst of an explo¬
sion so general and so unexpected, the progress of the in¬
surgents failed to keep pace with their primary exertions.
The Protestants in Down took refuge in Carrickfergus.
In Fermanagh, Enniskillen set the attempts of the insur¬
gents at defiance, and Lord M'Guire’s castle was taken
by storm. Sir Phelim O’Neill was driven with disgrace
and loss from Castleclerg, was defeated in Donegal, forced
to retire from before Newry, and again routed at Lisburn,
then called Lisnegarvey, with such slaughter that the
number of the slain is said to have trebled that of the gar¬
rison. These reverses were attended with consequences
truly dreadful. The Irish, exasperated by defeat, carried
on their hostilities without mercy. The inhabitants of
Lurgan, who bad surrendered on terms, were seized, and
the town plundered. Lord Caulfield, who had been taken
I jstory, in Charlemont, was murdered, with fifty others. Prison-
» ers, whilst removing from one place of confinement to ano¬
ther, were attacked on the road and massacred, or driven
into the nearest river. These excesses were not confined
to the one side only. The garrison of Carrickfergus fell
upon the Catholic inhabitants of the neighbouring penin¬
sula of Island Magee, and forced a number of them over
the rocks into the sea. Sir Charles Coote, who was sent
out from Dublin to oppose the insurgents, carried on a war
of extermination against all suspected of favouring them.
That these atrocities did not stain the rebellion at its com¬
mencement, but grew out of its progress, is evident from
the fact, that no mention of a massacre is made in any of
the proclamations issued by the lords-justices, even so late
as the 23d of December, three months after its commence¬
ment ; the protestation of the Irish parliament, which
met on the 17th of November, is also silent on the point;
nor does any state paper emanating from the Irish govern¬
ment afford grounds for the charge. The parliament, on
assembling, sat but for two days. Its only acts were a
protestation against those who had taken arms, and the
appointment of a committee to confer with their leaders.
Alarmed at this act of concession, it was prorogued by the
lords-justices; and the conference was broken off in the
most indignant manner by O’Moore, when he found him¬
self and his friends stigmatized in it by the name of re¬
bels. The lords-justices now proceeded to deprive these
noblemen and gentlemen of the pale of the arms furnish¬
ed to them in the first paroxysm of terror. Exposed thus
undefended to the attacks of the insurgents on the one
hand, and to the suspicions of the government on the
other, they held meetings with the leaders of the insur¬
rection, first at the hill of Crofty, and afterwards at that
of Tarah, in consequence of which they determined to
embody themselves as a force distinct from the Ulster
Irish, under the command of Lord Gormanstown and the
Earl of Fingal, with the professed purpose of confining
their operations to self-defence. The lords-justices were
alarmed. They now sent to invite the discontented lords
and gentry to Dublin, to confer with them on the state
of the country. These excused themselves, on the plea
that they would not venture within a city under the con¬
trol of Sir Charles Coote, whose sanguinary speeches at
the council board, and massacres throughout the country,
had already rendered him peculiarly obnoxious. They
also drew up an address to the king, complaining of the
injurious conduct of the lords-justices, by which they
had been driven to the necessity of arming themselves in
their own defence ; and they published a manifesto to the
same purport, for general circulation. The latter document
produced a decisive effect. The insurrection, hitherto
confined to Ulster and a small portion of Leinster and
Connaught, at once became general. At the commence¬
ment of the year the authority of the lords-justices was
confined to Dublin and Drogheda, the latter of which was
in a state of siege. In Connaught, the town of Galway
was retained in its allegiance through the influence of the
Marquis of Clanricarde, the king’s steady friend. In
Munster, the cruelties of Sir Warham St Leger, president
of the province, which equalled those of Sir Charles Coote
in Leinster, drove even those hitherto well disposed into
insurrection.
The arrival of supplies of men from England produced
achange^and encouraged the lords-justices to exert them-
, selves to crush their enemies. The means adopted by
them were those of extreme severity. The prisoners of
the lower orders brought into Dublin were summarily
executed by martial law; those possessed of lands were
tried by the regular course of law, in order to secure the
confiscation of their property. Bills of indictment for
high treason were found against all the Catholic nobility
VOL. XII.
and gentry in Meath, Wicklow, and Dublin, and against History,
many in Kildare. Several persons of imputed guilt were
put to the torture to extort confessions. The Earl of Or¬
mond, who had the command of the army, received in¬
structions not only to kill all rebels and their adherents,
but to burn all the places where they had been harboured,
and to destroy all the male inhabitants capable of bearing
arms. Nor were these merely denunciations, circulated
for the purpose of producing obedience through terror.
Sir William Cole’s regiment alone boasted, that, besides
killing two thousand five hundred men in battle, they had
starved and famished, of the vulgar sort, whose goods they
seized on, seven thousand. The Earl of Ormond was des¬
patched into the county of Kildare to relieve and secure
the castles which still held out for the government. After
executing his commission, he defeated at Kilrush a large
body of the Irish under Lord Mountgarret; but being un¬
able, through want of supplies, to follow up his advantage,
he was forced to content himself by thus securing a safe
retreat to Dublin.
On the other side, the arrival of Owen Roe O'Neill gave
fresh vigour to the cause of the Irish in Ulster. A Scotch
force, which had been sent thither under the command
of Lord Leven, remained inactive. Lord Leven, after an
empty display, quitted the country, leaving the command
to General Munroe, who, following the example of his
predecessor, remained quiet in his quarters, whilst the
forces of O’Neill were daily augmenting, by the accession
of numbers of the natives, and by supplies of officers, mi¬
litary stores, and money, from the Continent.
The insurgents now began to find themselves sufficient¬
ly powerful to give form and regularity to their proceed¬
ings. A general assembly of delegates from all the pro¬
vinces was convened at Kilkenny. Their first act was a
declaration, in which, after professing their determination
to adhere to their allegiance to the king, they disclaimed the
authority of the Irish government in Dublin, administer¬
ed as it was by a malignant party in conjunction with the
king’s enemies in England. They appointed for the exe¬
cution of their edicts subordinate councils in the provinces,
from which there was to be an appeal to the supreme
council of the Catholics of Ireland, a permanent body, con¬
sisting of twenty-four members, chosen by the general
assembly. Having thus organized their civil constitution,
they provided for their military operations by giving Owen
Roe O’Neill the command of their forces in Ulster; Ge¬
neral Preston, who had lately brought a supply of arms
and ammunition from France, in Leinster; Garret Barry
in Munster; and Colonel Burke in Connaught. Lord
Castlehaven, who, on the first breaking out of the war, had
made a tender of his services to the government, but had
been refused, having afterwards appeared in Dublin to
justify himself from a charge of treason, was thrown into
prison, whence he contrived to escape after a confinement
of twenty weeks, and was appointed to the command of
the Leinster cavalry.
The good effects of system soon showed themselves.
Munroe was defeated in Ulster, and the united forces of
Lords Muskerry and Castlehaven were successful in Mun¬
ster. Connaught was wholly in obedience to the confede¬
rates ; and though Preston had allowed himself to be de¬
feated near New Ross, Lord Ormond found himself too
weak to reap any decisive advantage from his victory. Yet,
notwithstanding these favourable appearances, the leaders
of the confederates, aware of the great superiority of their
opponents, and not firmly united amongst themselves, were
anxious to put an end to hostilities. But the English par¬
liament obstinately refused to negotiate with those whom
they styled rebels and murderers. The Earl of Ormond
at the same time undertook to continue the war on the
part of the crown, provided the lords-justices furnished
370 I R E L
History, him with a supply of ten thousand pounds. After much
delay, a cessation of arms was acquiesced in by both the
belligerent parties, for which the confederates agreed to
advance to the amount of thirty thousand pounds for the
king’s service, one half in money, and the remainder in
cattle.
The great object of the cessation of hostilities was to
procure from the king a permanent settlement of the coun¬
try. Both parties sent in their proposals. In these the Ca¬
tholics asked for freedom of religion, seminaries for the edu¬
cation of their children, a free parliament, from which all
who had not property in Ireland should be excluded, and
an amnesty for the past. The Protestants, on the contrary,
called for the strict execution of the penal laws, the total
disarming of the Catholics, the vesting of all estates hi¬
therto forfeited in the crown, and the distribution of
them when so vested amongst English settlers exclusively.
Charles gave no decisive answer to any of these proposals.
He pleaded the difficulties of his situation, and referred
them to Ormond, whom he had appointed chief governor
instead of Parsons and Borlase, and had raised to the dig¬
nity of a marquis. Ormond procrastinated. The mean
motives of avarice and personal aggrandizement are char¬
ged against him for his indecision in such an emergency.
But be the cause what it might, the opportunity for a pa¬
cific settlement was let slip, and lost for ever.
The first eventful change was the desertion of the con¬
federate party by Lord Inchiquin, who, on being refused
the office of president of Munster by the king, declared
for the parliament, and became the bitter enemy of his
former associates. Still, however, the confederates had
the advantage in several minor encounters, for military
operations were not wholly stopped by the armistice. At
this period, whilst they refused to furnish the king with
supplies either of men or money until their interests were
more fully secured than by the temporary stipulations of
a truce, and whilst Ormond, on the king’s part, resisted
every attempt at a permanent peace, the pope’s legate,
Rinuncini, archbishop of Fermo, arrived, and in his mas¬
ter’s name protested against any pacification which did not
secure the public establishment of his religion. Charles,
pressed by the exigencies of his situation, and unable to
overcome Ormond’s reluctance, employed another agent.
He sent over the son of the Marquis of Worcester, Ed¬
ward Lord Herbert, better known by the title of Earl of
Glamorgan, to which he was soon afterwards promoted,
who, through his influence with the confederates, succeed¬
ed in persuading them to make a double treaty, the one
public, the other private ; which latter contained articles
insisted on by the Catholics, but deemed to be such as,
if generally known, would increase the prejudice against
the royal cause in the minds of the English. The secret
clauses were, a provision that the members of each religi¬
ous persuasion should pay their tithes to their own clergy,
and that the churches should remain in the hands of their
present possessors.
Rinuncini, who, while on his way to Ireland, had ob¬
tained from the queen an assurance of terms even more
favourable than those of the private treaty, objected to
both of them; he also insisted on the publication of the
former. His wish was accomplished by an accident. Sir
Charles Coote, the second of the name, for the former had
been killed in a skirmish soon after the breaking out of
the war, having defeated, near Sligo, a body of men com¬
manded by the Archbishop of Tuam, found amongst the
baggage of this prelate a copy of the secret articles. The
document was immediately transmitted to the English
parliament, which lost no time in publishing it through¬
out all parts of the country. Charles at once denied its
authenticity. He declared that Glamorgan had exceeded
his powers, and caused him to be arrested on a charge of
AND.
treason, and examined before the Irish privy council. His Hist
duplicity gained him but little credit even at the time, and
documents preserved in the public libraries of England
have since furnished incontestible proofs of his insincerity.
Glamorgan was soon liberated upon bail. The transaction
destroyed all remaining confidence between the confede¬
rates and the king. Ormond refused to ratify the secret
articles. Rinuncini, also, who had private information of
the progress of a treaty at Paris between Charles and the
pope, insisted on delay. In the mean time, the king’s
affairs became desperate; and Ormond, when it was now
too late, consented to relinquish his objections to the repeal
of the penal laws, and concluded a treaty with the confe¬
derates. But the want of confidence excited by the king’s
conduct caused delays ih carrying the terms of the treaty
into effect, which ended in the utter ruin of the royal
cause. Rinuncini, still averse to a compromise which
withheld from the Catholic church the enjoyment of any
of its former privileges, made party with Owen Roe O’Neill,
who, through the aid of the nuncio’s money, was enabled
to undertake offensive operations, and defeated Munroe
at Benburb, a village on the Blackwater. Rinuncini, elat¬
ed with his success, entered Kilkenny, appointed a new
confederate council, and imprisoned the members of the
old one. Ormond, in despair, resigned the sword of state,
and retired to the Continent; and though he returned
again armed with full powers as lord-lieutenant, and
though a new general assembly of the confederates, con¬
voked at Kilkenny, had declared themselves favourable to
terms in which both parties might be led to acquiesce, and
were violent in their protestations against the stubborn re¬
sistance of the nuncio, the adoption, of any decisive measure
wras postponed, until all were aroused from their lethargy by
the appalling news of the demand made by the parliamentary
army in England to bring the king to trial. Then, indeed,
the confederates agreed to the terms proposed by Ormond.
The leading points were, the free exercise of religion, and
the retaining of the churches then in possession of the Ca¬
tholics until the king’s pleasure should be known. Twelve
individuals appointed by the general assembly, under the
name of the commissioners of trust, were made guardians
of the treaty, and vested with powers to levy soldiers, raise
money, and perform all acts of supreme authority. The
treaty was signed on the 17th of January 1648. But it was
then too late. Before the news of its ratification could ar¬
rive in London, Charles had forfeited his life upon the
scaffold.
Previously to the death of the king, no less than five
armies were maintained in Ireland, each acting for a dif¬
ferent object. The Marquis of Ormond commanded that
of the king, for the purpose of restoring him to his govern¬
ment. The parliamentary forces, under Colonel Jones,
had possession of Dublin ; and in the south he was sup¬
ported for some time by a force under the Earl of Inchi¬
quin. General Preston commanded the troops of the
confederate Catholics in Leinster. Owen Roe O’Neill,
who had attached himself to the nuncio, and therefore
was equally opposed to the king, the parliament, and the
confederates, had the command of all Ulster, except a
small portion of its eastern extremity, where Munroe was
at the head of an army which favoured the Scotch. All
these elements of intestine commotion were again thrown
into action by the king’s death. Rinuncini, indeed, find¬
ing that this event, which he was charged with having
hastened by his obstinacy and violence, had alienated the
whole of the Catholic population, quitted the country
privately. Ormond then endeavoured to gain over O’Neill,
but failed ; he afterwards made overtures to Colonel Jones,
with whom he was equally unsuccessful, his proposals
being met with the retort that his suspicious conduct had
been the cause of exciting the apprehensions of the king s
insincerity, which prevented any of the parties in Ireland
from coalescing with him sincerely, and thus led to his
destruction. Having at length, from his own resources,
collected an army sufficient to take the field, he invested
Dublin, with the intention of reducing it by famine. But
an advanced post at Baggotsrath having been successful¬
ly assaulted by a sortie from the garrison, which followed
up its success by an attack on the marquis’s head-quar¬
ters at Rathmines, the whole besieging army was seized
with such an unaccountable panic that it dispersed in all
directions, leaving the general so utterly deserted, that
when he wrote to Jones respecting the prisoners who had
fallen into his hands, this officer’s taunting reply was, that
he did not know where to find his lordship in order to
wait upon him on the business.
Before the marquis could recover from the effect of
this defeat, news was brought him of the arrival of Oliver
Cromwell in Dublin, with a select and well-appointed army
of ten thousand men. After a short delay in that city to
refresh his troops and to regulate the civil affairs of the
country, Cromwell proceeded to besiege Drogheda, which
Ormond, suspecting his intention, had provided with a
good garrison, and abundance of military stores. After
having made a practicable breach, the assault was given,
but the besiegers were twice repulsed. On the third at¬
tack, led on by Cromwell in person, his troops forced
their way into the town, and the garrison laid down their
arms on promise of quarter. The promise, however, was
kept only as long as resistance was apprehended; for as
soon as the place was completely reduced, orders were
issued for the indiscriminate massacre of the inhabitants,
without distinction of age or sex ; which were so punctual¬
ly obeyed, that thirty only survived, who were forthwith
transported as slaves to Barbadoes. From Drogheda
Cromwell proceeded southwards to Wexford, which be¬
ing well garrisoned and provided, was expected to make
a long resistance, so as to give time to Ormond to collect
his forces from other quarters. But it was betrayed by
the treachery of the officer placed in command of the
castle, and, when taken, treated with the same merciless
cruelty as that which had before marked Cromwell’s tri¬
umph at Drogheda.
The effect of these terrible examples of severity in
paralyzing opposition, was increased by the orders given
by Cromwell to his troops to abstain from any wanton
injuries on the peaceable peasantry, and to pay them in
full for all their supplies ; a system directly contrary to all
former practice, according to which, the soldier, whether
friend or foe, was ever the peasant’s terror.
Ihe only hope for the royalist party now rested in the
cordial union of Ormond and O’Neill. Both were sensible
that a junction of their forces was absolutely requisite to
counteract the movements of Cromwell. To effect this
object, O’Neill moved southwards with his army, but was
seized on his march with a defluxion of the knees ; a com¬
plaint attributed at the time to a pair of poisoned boots
prepared tor him by an agent of the confederates. Un¬
willing to retard the movements of the armies, he had
himself conveyed in a litter, but sunk under the accumu¬
lated pressure of disease and fatigue, and died at Clough-
outer Castle.
I he commissioners of trust were so much alarmed at
the treatment of Drogheda and Wexford, that they were
with difficulty prevented, by the remonstrances of Or¬
mond, from abandoning Kilkenny. The want of con¬
fidence which he experienced, both from the leaders of
the confederates, and the inhabitants of several of the
large towns in the south, tended much to embarrass him.
Ihe city of Waterford absolutely refused admission to
his troops, even at a time when a passage through it was
required to make a successful assault on the retiring
army of Cromwell. This general commenced the cam- History,
paign in 1650 by a movement on Kilkenny, which was to '*^~y~***'
have been betrayed into his hands. But the plot being
discovered, and the traitor executed, he was forced to lay
regular siege to the place. It made a very gallant defence.
Alter a breach had been effected, the besiegers were re¬
pulsed in two attempts, and Cromwell was preparing to
retire, when he received secret information that the town
magistrates were anxious to surrender. A third assault
was then made, with as little success as the former; but
Ireton having come up with a fresh supply of men, and
the garrison having been informed that no assistance
could be afforded them from without, the town surrender¬
ed on terms highly honourable to its defenders, who, on
marching out, were complimented by Cromwell for their
gallantry, and told, that had it not been for the treachery
of the town’s people, he must have raised the siege.
Clonmell still held out against the parliamentary army.
The garrison was commanded by Hugh O’Neill, another
branch of the family which had signalised itself in the
wars of Ireland. The first assault was repelled with such
slaughter that the infantry refused to advance a second
time, and Cromwell was compelled to bring forward his
own favourite regiment of cavalry. These succeeded in
entering the breach, but met with an opposition so fierce
and so unexpected, at a retrenchment thrown up within,
that the greater part of the storming party lay dead or
wounded on the spot, and the remainder evacuated the
place. In the two assaults Cromwell lost two thousand
of his best soldiers. Not daring to venture on a third, he
changed the siege into a blockade. The Marquis of Or¬
mond, aware of the importance of the place, made every
exertion for its relief. Assisted by the Catholic bishop of
Ross, he collected a numerous but tumultuary body of
men in the western part of Cork. These were attacked
and routed, and the bishop taken. His life was promised
to him, provided he would prevail on the garrison of a
neighbouring fort, which greatly annoyed the besiegers,
to surrender. On going thither, he exhorted the garri¬
son to persevere in their defence, and, on his return to
the camp of Cromwell, was executed. O’Neill having de¬
fended the town as long as his ammunition lasted, with¬
drew his troops by night unobserved ; and Cromwell, un¬
aware of the movement, gave the people very favourable
conditions, to which he was the more inclined, as the in¬
telligence of Charles II. having taken refuge in Scotland,
and the hostile indications from that quarter, rendered his
presence in England necessary to his party. Immediate¬
ly after the surrender of Clonmell, he proceeded to
\oughal and embarked for England, leaving the army in
charge of his son-in-law, Ireton.
All rational hope of successful resistance to the parlia¬
ment was now at an end. Ormond prepared to quit the
kingdom. The commissioners of trust for some time op¬
posed his intention, conscious of the confusion which must
arise from such a public avowal of his despondency. But
with the Catholic clergy it was otherwise. They suspect¬
ed that he was secretly negotiating with Cromwell. His
former conduct afforded plausible grounds for such a sus¬
picion ; and during the siege of Clonmell he had procur¬
ed passes from that general for himself and Lord Inchi-
quin to go to England. A synod of the bishops, held at
Jamestown, resolved upon sending a deputation to him,
calling upon him to quit the country7, and transfer his
powers to some trustworthy person, who enjoyed the con¬
fidence of the nation. A second resolution denounced
excommunication against all who should hereafter adhere
to him. Whilst the relics of those who professed attach¬
ment to the royal cause were wasting their strength and
ruining their prospects by these proceedings, Ireton was
engaged in extending his authority by the reduction of
IRELAND.
one place of strength after another. Ormond, as a last
resource, convened a general assembly at Loughrea ; but
the party of the clergy was too powerful. Finding all
means ineffectual to induce them to recall their hostile
declaration, he embarked in a frigate provided for him by
the Duke of York, transferring his powers as lord-lieute¬
nant to the Marquis of Clanricarde. An extraordinary
negotiation was now commenced with the Duke of Lor¬
raine, by which it was proposed, that on the advance of a
large sum of money, and a proportionate supply of mili¬
tary stores, he should be declared protector of the royal
cause, and receive some towns as cautionary securities.
But the rapid progress of Ireton baffled all these projects.
Limerick was reduced, partly by the effects of a pestilen¬
tial disease, partly by treachery. Amongst the victims
of the plague was Ireton himself. After his death, Gal¬
way surrendered to Ludlow, his successor. A last des¬
perate attempt at resistance was made in Connaught by
Clanricarde, aided by Sir Phelim O’Neill, who now again
began to make himself conspicuous. It was defeated, and
Clanricarde fled to one of the islands on the coast. Sir
Phelim was taken prisoner, and ultimately executed as a
traitor. The nuncio’s party sent ambassadors to offer the
crown of Ireland to the pope, the kings of France and
Spain, and the Duke of Lorraine ; but none of them would
accept the worthless bauble. Clanricarde still endea¬
voured to maintain a mountain war amidst the glens and
wastes of western Connaught. It was but the expiring
effort of unbending loyalty. At length a letter from
Charles, recommending him to provide for his own safety,
released him from the shackles of the self-imposed bonds
of loyalty. He applied to Fleetwood, Cromwell’s deputy,
for a pass to retire to England. It was granted, and he
submitted to the parliament on an assurance of not being
called upon to perform any act inconsistent with his duty
to his sovereign. Shortly afterwards, a proclamation from
the English parliament announced the termination of what
was called the rebellion in Ireland.
The victors had now only to share the spoil. The
greater part of the nobility and gentry of Ireland, and of
the army, had expatriated themselves ; the estates of the
confederates were deserted. It remained to apportion
them amongst the friends and followers of the parliament,
in such a manner as would best secure a zealous attach¬
ment to the new order of things. The ordinance of the
English parliament to this effect decreed, that all who
had been concerned in the rebellion previously to the
10th of November 1641, all Jesuits and priests, all who,
not being themselves in arms, had slain English soldiers,
and all who, being now in arms, did not lay them down
within twenty-eight days, should be excepted from par¬
don. The Marquis of Ormond, the Earls of Inchiquin and
Roscommon, and Bramhall, Protestant bishop of Derry,
were also specially excepted. All persons who had borne
a command against the parliament were to be banished
during pleasure, to forfeit two thirds of their estates, and
to be assigned lands to the value of the remaining third
wherever the parliament should appoint. All Catholics
who had resided in Ireland at any time during the war,
and had not manifested their constant good will to the
commonwealth of England, were to forfeit one third of
their estates. All others residing in Ireland, as before,
who had not been in arms for the parliament, or manifest¬
ed their good will towards it when an opportunity offered,
were to forfeit one fifth.
A high court of justice, somewhat of the nature of a
court-martial, being composed of parliamentary officers,
who acted in the double capacity of judges and jurors, and
whose decisions were not regulated by any settled rules of
evidence, sat on the cases of delinquency. Yet, after the
severest scrutiny, the number of those subjected to the
penalties of the first clause of the instructions was very Hi- L
small. Lord Mayo in Connaught, and Colonel Bagnal in - v
Munster, were condemned, as it was thought, unjustly.
Lord Muskerry was saved by the evidence of the numer¬
ous English settlers, who pressed forward to vouch for the
protection and security they enjoyed under his control.
In Ulster, Sir Phelim O’Neill was the only victim. Al¬
though offered not only pardon, but restoration of property,
if he could produce substantial proof that he had had a com¬
mission from Charles to commence the insurrection, he dis¬
claimed the fact, and died maintaining the contrary. Of
others, not quite two hundred could be found who came
within the strictness of the clause, so much had the ac¬
counts of the atrocities committed at the breaking out of
the insurrection been magnified, or so completely had the
actors in it been swept off by the desolation of the hostili¬
ties that succeeded.
The disposal of the forfeited lands was regulated accord¬
ing to the principles of an act of the English parliament, by
which those who at the commencement of the war had sub¬
scribed L.200 towards the reduction of Ireland were to have
1000 acres in Ulster; those who had subscribed L.300, the
same number in Connaught; and those who had subscribed
L.450 and L.600, a like quantity of land in Munster and
Leinster. The holder of the lands thus granted was bound
to pay a yearly quit-rent to the crown, of one penny an acre
in Ulster, three halfpence in Connaught, two pence in
Munster, and three pence in Leinster. The soldiers who
had served in Ireland since the landing of Cromwell there
in 1649, were entitled to a share of the lands in lieu of
their arrears, on the same terms as those who had advanced
money, and who were distinguished by the name of adven¬
turers. Those who had served previously to that date
were to look for payment to the residue of lands which
might be over and above after the former division had
been made ; a kind of security which was found to be very
deficient. In order the more effectually to secure the new
possessors in their properties, the Catholics who should be
found entitled to retain any part of their estates under the
provisions of the act above specified, were to surrender such
part if in any of the other provinces, and to receive an
equivalent, or, as it was called, “ to be reprized,” by waste
lands in Connaught, which new allotments were assigned
in the parts of the province situated at least a mile from
the coast. No Catholic was, under any condition, to be suf¬
fered to remain in a town, or within a certain space around
it. By the latter part of this provision, it was intended to
cut off the Irish from any communication with foreigners,
as by the former the broad boundary of the Shannon se¬
parated them from any contact with the residents in other
parts of the kingdom. Commissioners of delinquency sat
at Athlone, to decide upon the qualifications of the Roman
Catholics; others, appointed to arrange the details of set¬
tlement of those transplanted to Connaught, held their
court at Loughrea. A third body of commissioners met in
Dublin, to receive and hear claims. Under their direction
a survey was made by the celebrated Sir William Petty, of
all the forfeited lands, which, notwithstanding the lapse of
time, and the state of the country when executed, is found
to be singularly correct in its details. The confiscation
comprehended by much the greater part of the surface of
Ireland, and threw the property, and consequently the in¬
fluence, of the country into the hands of a new class ot
men. Private soldiers, or desperate adventurers, now be¬
came the lords of extensive tracts, once enjoyed by the na¬
tive families of ancient descent, or by the Anglo- Irish no¬
bility. It also produced another change, of less striking
character at first, but of overpowering influence on the fu¬
ture destinies of the country. The land was likely to be
useless for want of cultivators. The continuance of a war¬
fare, in which mercy was deemed a symptom of timidity or
I R E L
[istory. of' treachcry, had swept away the peasantry in multitudes.
Numbers had been transported as slaves to the plantations ;
many had emigrated as soldiers or colonists. The plan of
peopling the wilds of Connaught by transplanted Catholics
was almost totally relinquished. Hands were wanting on
the new estates ; the tenants were therefore retained, but
they were treated with all the jealous severity arising from
a consciousness of weakness, and an apprehension that ad¬
vantage would be taken of it. They experienced the harsh¬
ness of slavery, without the enjoyment of that protection
which the selfishness of ownership in some degree spreads
over It.
The government of Ireland was intrusted by Cromwell
to his son Henry, who proved himself worthy of the
choice. He visited most parts of the island, so as to make
himself personally acquainted with its resources and ca¬
pabilities. He checked the frauds attempted to be com¬
mitted by the commissioners in the disposal of the forfeit¬
ed lands, repressed the violence of the soldiery, and af¬
forded the protection of the law to the ill-used peasantry.
He had even devised plans on an extended scale for the
improvement of the country, which the short duration of
his power prevented him from executing. Impressed with
the necessity of diffusing knowledge as the surest foun¬
dation for the solid advancement of the people, he pur¬
chased the library of Archbishop Usher, in order to be¬
stow it on a second college which it was intended to
found in Dublin. Amongst other plans for the consoli¬
dation of the interests of the two countries, it was intend¬
ed that Ireland, instead of being governed by a domestic
parliament, should send representatives to that of Eng¬
land. The number fixed upon was thirty. But the death
of Cromwell, and the resignation of his son Richard, put
an end to all these well-intended projects. On the an¬
nouncement of this latter event, the English parliament,
aware of Henry Cromwell’s abilities and popularity, and
apprehensive of an attempt on his part to maintain him¬
self in the government, sent over Sir Hardress Waller to
seize upon the castle of Dublin ; but the precaution was
unnecessary. Cromwell retired without opposition, re¬
maining in privacy in his house in the Phoenix Park until
he had provided himself with the means of removing to
England, having administered the government with so
much disinterestedness during a period in which he had
the means of amassing unlimited wealth, that he could not
at once defray the expenses of his passage over.
The thoughts of the new settlers, who were now trans¬
formed from needy adventurers and soldiers into landed
proprietors, began to turn upon the means of securing the
properties so unexpectedly acquired. The agitation con¬
sequent on the death of Cromwell, whose overruling mas¬
ter-mind had hitherto kept all parties subservient to his
views, began to take a turn decidedly favourable to the
restoration of royalty. The great leaders of the parlia¬
mentary party perceived this, and prepared to shape their
course accordingly. Lord Broghill, who had already
changed from a royalist to a republican, was the first to
retrace his steps. He was followed by Sir Charles Coote,
the most sanguinary of the parliamentary leaders. The
towns of Youghal, Bandon, and Kinsale, which had been
amongst the first to revolt to Cromwell, were now led by
Lord Broghill to declare for the king. Coote secured
Galway and Athlone. The same party, after a short
struggle, seized upon Dublin Castle. Sir Hardress Wal¬
ler, who had taken possession of it for the parliament, was
sent a prisoner to London ; and Ludlow, who, upon the
alarm of the change of sentiment in the parliamentary
party in Ireland, had been sent over to take the chief
command, on arriving in Dublin Bay, was prevented from
landing, and forced to return to England. A convention
was assembled in Dublin. The council of state in Eng-
AND. 373
land ordered its dissolution. The order was set at de- History,
fiance. The king’s declaration at Breda being presented to
the convention, was accepted by acclamation, and Charles
was proclaimed with every demonstration of joy in all the
great towns. Thus, the restoration of the son in Ireland
was effected by the same persons who had been mainly
instrumental in bringing his father to the block.
The sudden change of public opinion gave Charles irre¬
sistible influence in Ireland. All parties looked to him.
Above all, the Catholics, whose attachment to his father
had been the great cause of their sufferings, and of the
ruin of their property, anticipated an immediate restora¬
tion of their estates. So sanguine were they, that many
proceeded to take forcible possession of them, and to eject
the new proprietors. The Protestants raised the cry of
a new rebellion, employed agents in London to resist
their claims, and had influence sufficient to obtain clauses
in the act of indemnity, excluding from it all who had
at any time aided the Irish, and prohibiting the resto¬
ration, upon any terms, of lands already disposed of by the
parliament or convention. Nor was it without the great¬
est difficulty that an exception could be carried in favour
of the Marquis of Ormond and other Protestants. Every
severe ordinance against the Catholics was strictly en¬
forced. The commoner sort were prohibited from quitting
their place of residence without permission. Assemblies
of the Catholic gentry were forbidden. A proclamation
was issued for apprehending Irish rebels, and for assuring
all adventurers and soldiers in the quiet possession of
their grants.
At length the king’s declaration, which was to form the
basis of the new settlement of the landed property of the
country, was published. This document, after vesting all
the confiscated property in the king, confirmed the adven¬
turers and soldiers in the lands already granted to them.
The officers in the king’s service before 1649, distinguish¬
ed by the name of “ Forty-nine Men,” were to receive
their arrears in lands at the rate of twelve and sixpence
in the pound, and an equal dividend of whatever should
remain of their security. Protestants whose estates had
been given to adventurers were to be restored, and the
present holders “ reprised,” that is, given other lands of
equal value. Innocent Papists were also to be restored,
and the holders reprised ; those restored to property with¬
in corporate towns were to be reprised in the neighbour¬
hood, as no resident Catholics were to be permitted in
those places. Such Catholics as had accepted lands in
Connaught were to continue bound by that act. I hose
who had joined the king in his exile, and served under
his banners, were to be restored when the present holders
were reprised ; such persons were called “ Ensign-men.’
Additional grants were made to Ormond and Inchiquin,
who had been restored by the English parliament. Monk,
now Duke of Albemarle, and some others, received grants.
The king’s brother, James, duke of York, had several ot
very great extent. Thirty-six of the Irish nobility and
gentry, to be specially named by the king, were also to be
restored under the title of “ Nominees.” Those who had
any share in the trial and execution of the late king were
specially excluded from the benefit of this arrangement.
Lands belonging to corporations were to be restored, and
the possessors reprised. The qualifications which entitled
a Roman Catholic to claim the benefit of the clause re¬
specting “ innocent Papists,” were so worded as to render
the chances of an acquittal almost impossible. None were
to be restored as such, who, at the time of the cessation
in 1643, had been of the royal party, or had lived within
the quarters of the confederates, except the inhabitants
of Cork and Youghal, who had been forcibly expelled
from those towns, and driven by the fanatics into the ene¬
my’s lines; who had acted with the confederates before
374
History.
IRELAND.
the peace of 1648, or had adhered to the nuncio or the and justice ineffectual, challenged Ormond. Ihe latter Hist<,
papal power against the royal authority, or, when excom- made his complaint to the council; Talbot was committed <
municated for such adherence, had submitted and obtain- to the Tower, and detained there till he made an humble
ed absolution. Whoever derived his title from persons submission. The bill, with all its clauses, received the
guilty of those crimes ; whoever claimed his estate on royal assent, and was sent back to Ireland, where it was
the articles of peace, thus acknowledging his concurrence adopted by both houses of parliament,
in the rebellion ; whoever had held correspondence with But the passing of the act was not sufficient to render
the confederates, sat in their councils, or acted under it operative. Every one was dissatisfied with it. Even
their commission ; whoever had employed agents to treat the adventurers, wrhose interests were best guarded by it,
with any foreign powrer to bring forces into Ireland, or exclaimed against it most loudly. Ihey considered the
had been a tory, the name given to the marauding parties rejection of the doubling ordinance as the deprivation
which harassed the country; were also excepted. Few of so much of their justly purchased property. The*land
Roman Catholics could hope to escape being included in granted to the nominees, the number of whom had been
some one or other of those sweeping clauses. increased by the king, was looked upon as so much cut off
The principal subjects which engaged the attention of from the common fund whence they were to be repaid,
the Irish parliament that met after the Restoration, were The restoration of church property was peculiarly galling
the established church, and the settlement of property, to their religious prejudices. The Protestant officers felt
Ormond, to whom the management of Irish affairs was that their security was greatly diminished by large grants
principally intrusted, contrived, by postponing the consi- lavishly made to some of the king’s special favourites,
deration of the question of the lands, to secure the adop- The Catholics complained that, so far from having justice
tion of the former. Although the House of Commons done to their services, their agents were not even admit-
was almost exclusively composed of those who had a few ted to plead their cause before the council,
years before been most zealous in pulling down the church Ormond, now elevated to the rank of a duke, was sent
and abolishing the liturgy, it now not only readily as- over as lord-lieutenant to calm these effusions of anger,
sented to the revival of both, but concurred in censuring and to settle in the most amicable manner the conflicting
the solemn league and covenant, and in condemning their interests of the parties. The first proceedings were those
former oaths of association. They also procured an order of the commissioners of innocency, who soon found that
from the lords-justices to adjourn the law term, and close the number of those who could clearly establish their in-
the courts of justice, in order to prevent the reversal of nocence, even before a court cautiously and carefully
outlawries, or the ejectment of adventurers and soldiers composed of Englishmen and Protestants, was inconve-
before their titles could be secured by statute. niently great, and excited the most serious alarm amongst
The act of settlement, the next object of parliamentary the other party, who felt that every acquittal abstracted
attention, was framed according to the spirit, and nearly so much from the fund to which they themselves had to
according to the letter, of the declaration published by the look for a settlement. Out of a hundred and eighty-seven
king. The principal alterations were respecting reprisals, cases adjudicated in the first three months, a hundred and
and what was called the doubling ordinance. The com- sixty-eight were pronounced innocent, and but nineteen
missioners of the court of claims had been guilty of gross condemned. The House of Commons called upon the
partiality respecting these. They rejected the claims of lord-lieutenant to make the qualifications more rigorous,
the nominees, and the ensign-men, on the plea that there The more violent of the old parliamentary soldiers laid a
were not lands sufficient to reprise the present possessors, plan for a general insurrection. Ormond was steady. He
a defalcation caused by the clandestine disposal by them- put down the conspiracy, and executed a few of the
selves of these lands to their own friends. Through the ringleaders. He refused to make any change as to the
exertions of the House of Lords, a clause was inserted for qualifications. But he contrived to effect, by an evasion,
the revocation of these fraudulent grants. The doubling what a regard for consistency of character had made him
ordinance was still more pregnant with injustice. The reject in public. Upwards of four thousand cases had
English parliament having found that the sums subscrib- been entered, and, from the number already decided, and
ed by the original adventurers had fallen short of the the character of the decisions, it was felt that by much
amount required to finish the war, and being in want of the greater proportion of the Catholic proprietors would
further supplies, passed a law, that whosoever advanced be restored to their estates. To prevent such an occur-
one fourth more than his original share, should be entitled rence, the time of the sitting of the court was limited to
to as much land as if he had actually doubled his sub- a fixed number of days, during which not more than one
scription; and that if any adventurer refused to make fourth of the claims could by any possibility be heard. It
such advance on his original share, any other person, on thenclosed, and thus upwards of three thousand ancientand
paying it, should reap the benefit of the doubling clause, respectable Irish families were stripped of their fortunes,
provided he repaid to the adventui’er the sum at first sub- without even the form of a trial before a court specially
scribed. With great exertions, and by the determined constituted to do them justice. The injured parties ap-
interference of the Earl of Kildare, it was at length de- plied to the king; but he refused to listen to them, and
termined that the adventurers should receive lands for they were irremediably ruined. Though their claim was
the money actually advanced by them, and no more. The rejected, however, its justice was recognised by a conces-
Irish parliament, however, could only frame heads of a sion, and the lord-lieutenant was permitted to select
bill to this effect, which was liable to be modified by the twenty out of the three thousand, to be restored to their
king and privy council in England. Thither, therefore, estates as objects of special favour.
all parties interested sent agents to defend their respec- To remedy, in some degree, the defects of the act of
live claims. London became the scene of controversy, settlement, a bill was brought into parliament, chiefly by
intrigue, cabal, and even violence. The Irish called for the instrumentality of the Duke of Ormond, which made
the fulfilment of the articles of the peace of 1648. Or- a few alterations in some of its most obnoxious provisions,
mond, who hated the Catholics even more than he did the This is known by the name of the act of explanation,
regicides, persuaded the king that such fulfilment would The two together form the tenure under which by much
be detrimental to his favourite scheme of maintaining an the greater part of the landed property of Ireland is held;
English interest in Ireland. Richard Talbot, afterwards they have therefore been quaintly, and with more regard
Lord lyrconnel, the advocate of the Irish, finding reason to their binding force than their justice, styled the Mag-
IRELAND.
listorv. na Charta of the Protestants of Ireland. To account justice within a fortnight; the other prohibited Catholics
for the Duke of Ormond 8 conduct towards Ins former from entering Dublin Castle, or any fortified place and
friends, to whom during the war he owed so much, and caused all fairs to be held without the walls of cities and
his master every thing, and his sacrifice of their interests corporate towns. But restraints, however rigorous were
to the bitter enemies both of himself and the king, it may not sufficient. The bigotry of the time called for a vie
be sufficient to mention, that his estates, which, before the tim. Plunket, the Catholic archbishop of Armagh was
breaking out of the civil war, had yielded but about accused of being the instigator of a plot to raise seventy
L.7000 per annum, now brought him in a yearly income thousand men to overturn the government. He was sent
of upwards of L.80,000, in addition to the pecuniary grants to London, tried there for a crime committed in Ireland
made him for losses during the disturbances. The acts denied either time or means to bring over witnesses 000'
which ruined so many of the adherents to the royal cause demned as a traitor, and executed at Tyburn, professin-
secured him in the undisturbed enjoyment of this princely his innocence to the last. The only subsequent act of
income. ... . Charles’s reign, of consequence enough to merit notice
Notwithstanding the apprehensions arising from the was a second attempt to deprive Ormond of his power!
still uncertain state of title, the condition of the country And it proved successful. Partly from a plea of his ad-
began to improve with a rapidity alarming to the English, vanned age and increasing infirmities, partly from a ne!
who were now suffering through a decline oi their domes- cessity avowed by the king of removin<:r from office seve-
tic trade, which prejudiced persons imputed in a great ral of his friends, the sword was takenfrom him and as!
degree to the excessive importation of Irish cattle. To signed to his relative Lord Rochester,
prevent the supposed ill effects of this, acts were passed All the political arrangements consequent on the acces-
prohibiting the Irish from sending cattle or provisions sion of James II. indicated a settled and systematic de-
into England after the first of July, which exclusion was termination to disturb, if not wholly to nullity, the provi-
afterwards extended to all periods of the year. So strong sions of the act of settlement. Talbot, afterwards Earl
was the prejudice, so powerful the alarm, that when the of Tyrconnel, was placed over the army, which he imme-
Irish parliament, through a wish to alleviate the suffer- diately began to new-model, by cashiering and disband¬
ings of the people of London after the great fire in that ing most of the Protestants, and bringing Catholics into
city in 1666, sent them a free gift of thirty thousand their places; and by disarming the militia, which consist-
oxen, the only wealth of the country at the time, the well- ed chiefly of Protestants, under the plea that they were
intended donation was rejected, as an attempt to evade suspected to have been connected with Monmouth’s re-
the prohibition under the mask of benevolence. The bellion. These apprehensions were still further increased
king endeavoured to alleviate, though he was too weak by the promotion of Tyrconnel to the chief government,
and too timid to prevent, this impolitic act of injustice. The first overt act was made against Dublin College, by
He issued an act of state, permitting the Irish to export nominating a Catholic to the professorship of the Irish
to foreign countries all commodities of their own growth language, which was defeated on the ground that no such
and manufacture; and the Duke of Ormond, on his part, professorship existed. An attempt'niade to appoint a
encouraged the woollen manufacture, for which the coun- Roman Catholic to a fellowship was frustrated by the gross
try was peculiarly fitted, from its capability of rearing incapacity of the person recommended,
sheep, and its water-power for machinery. He brought in The king’s attempts against the Irish corporations were
foreigners acquainted with the processes of the manufac- more successful. In order to carry into effect all his
ture, established a board of trade in Dublin, and encou- changes, the sanction of an Irish parliament was neces-
raged factories on the Suir. His attention was also di- sary ; and to effect this, it was equally necessary to secure
reeled to the improvement of the linen manufacture. But a majority in the boroughs, in which the Protestant inte-
his laudable efforts were thwarted by his enemies at court, rest had hitherto been almost exclusively predominant,
who persuaded Charles to recall him. Lord Robarts, who Tyrconnel caused all the charters of these bodies to be
was appointed in his place, rendered himself so offensive seized into the king’s hands, on the plea of violation or
to all parties, that he was soon removed, and his place non-performance of conditions, and granted new charters,
supplied by Lord Berkeley, who was also as speedily with- so arranged as to throw the whole of the borough influ-
drawn, in consequence of his being active in procuring a ence into the hands of the Catholics. A few of the cor-
commission of inquiry as to frauds practised on the Ca- porate bodies still hold under these charters ; but the great
tholics in the adjudication under the act of settlement, majority of them having been passed after the abdication,
The government of Lord Essex, his successor, was equally are considered as of no authority in the courts of law.
short-lived; and it was found necessary to restore Or- On the landing of the Prince of Orange in Torbay,
mond, as the only person sufficiently acquainted with the Tyrconnel received orders to send over four thousand
state of parties in Ireland, to manage the country without men to England. So little prepared was he at the time
danger of a sudden explosion. to meet the exigency, that he found it necessary to with-
Shortly after his return to office, the Popish plot occur- draw the garrison from Londonderry in order to make up
red. The devisers of this execrable contrivance endea- the number. But he soon became sensible of his error,
voured to involve the Irish in a share of the guilt. Charges The Protestants in the northern counties had already been
were made against Talbot the Catholic archbishop of roused to a movement of self-defence, in consequence of
Dublin, Lord Mountgarret, and Colonel Peppard, as being an anonymous letter sent to Lord Mount-Alexander,
principals in it. On investigation, the first of these im- warning him of the intention of an immediate insurrec-
puted conspirators was found to be labouring under a com- tion to extirpate them. Just at the time, a Roman Ca-
plication of disorders, beneath which he soon afterwards tholic regiment, lately raised by the Marquis of Antrim,
sunk; the second was bedridden through age; and the had been ordered to Derry in room of the troops sent to
third was entirely unknown. The Duke of Ormond, more England. The appearance of the men, now approaching
probably through a conviction of the necessity of yielding the town, noway tended to diminish the feelings of alarm
something to popular clamour, issued two violent proclama- already excited by the previous warning. The first divi-
tions. The one required the relations of tories to be an- sion of the newly-arrived regiment was within a few hun-
swerable for them, and also that the priests of parishes dred paces of the town, when several young men, said to
in which a robbery or murder had been committed should be apprentice boys, hurried armed to the gate, shut out
be transported, unless the offender were delivered up to the soldiers, hastened to the walls, pointed the guns, and
376 I R E L
History, threatened them with destruction if they attempted to
force their entrance.
This decided act of the people of Derry was followed
up by all the northern Protestants. The town of Ennis¬
killen was secured in a similar manner, and armed asso¬
ciations were formed throughout every part of the pro¬
vince, to maintain the Protestant religion, and secure the
dependency of Ireland. The first act of these bodies,
after providing themselves with the means of resistance,
was to apply to William. But he had already opened a
treaty with Tyrconnel, to whom he sent General Hamil¬
ton, then prisoner with him, under a promise, that if he
failed in gaining over Tyrconnel, he himself should re¬
turn. Hamilton’s conduct on the occasion was inexcus¬
able. Instead of using arguments to persuade Tyrconnel
to submit, he encouraged him to persevere in the cause
of James, and remained with him instead of redeeming
his parole, and proved his zeal in the cause he had thus
faithlessly adopted, by heading a body of troops in Ulster,
by which the whole province, with the exception of Derry
and Enniskillen, was brought again under its allegiance
to its former king.
James soon afterwards landed at Kinsale with a small
body of French forces, having declined the aid of a more
powerful armament, from a wish to be indebted for his re¬
storation to the unassisted loyalty of his own subjects. On
arriving ut Dublin, he was welcomed with loyal addresses
from all ranks and classes, amongst which the Protestant
clergy were not less forward than others in their profes¬
sions of zealous attachment. Finding himself at the head
of what he considered as an unanimous people and a large
army, his first movement was the reduction of the city
of Derry, which, instead of listening to terms offered by
Tyrconnel, resolved upon an obstinate resistance; expel¬
led the governor set over the city by the king, upon a
well-founded suspicion of intended treachery on his part;
marshalled themselves in regiments; chose for leaders in
this desperate attempt, George Walker, a clergyman of
the established church, who had already signalized him¬
self by raising a regiment of a thousand Protestants, and
Major Baker; and, turning their guns against James, who,
from a mistaken reliance on his personal influence, had
approached the walls, compelled him to retire. The sword
was now drawn between king and subject. The men of
Derry had not only renounced their allegiance to their
sovereign, but defied his power and insulted his person.
James, convinced of the irresistible force of the numbers
brought against the place, and of the futility of their means
of resistance, their numbers not being more than seven
thousand men, and these undisciplined and badly armed,
the place unprovided with military stores, or even suffi¬
cient quantity of provisions, and the defences by no means
adequate to resist the advances of a well-organized be¬
sieging force, returned to Dublin, leaving the conduct of
the siege to Marshal Rosen, who had been a German of¬
ficer in the French service. After some feeble attempts
at gaining the town by storm, Rosen adopted the surer
though more tedious method of blockade. The inhabit¬
ants were soon reduced to extreme privations, yet still
they adhered to their determination of holding out. After
upwards of two months suffering, they were cheered by
the appearance of a fleet sent by William to their relief;
but, after an empty display of assistance, Kirke, who com¬
manded it, sailed away to Lough Swilly, where he em¬
ployed his time in sending supplies to Enniskillen, which
stood less in need of them. Still the garrison persevered
in its defence. Rosen, enraged at their obstinacy, or¬
dered all the Protestants in the neighbouring districts to
be driven under fhe walls, in order to expedite the ex¬
tremity of famine. The townsmen, in retaliation, pre¬
pared to hang up all the prisoners on the town walls.
AND.
An express order from James forced the besieging gene- Histo
ral to relinquish this inhuman device for augmenting the
horrors of war. The wretched sufferers were allowed to
return home, and the town’s people adroitly seized this
opportunity of recruiting their strength, by taking in some
of the younger and more vigorous, and sending away in
their stead those exhausted by the hardships of the siege.
After the garrison had been reduced to the necessity of
subsisting on food loathsome to humanity, Kirke made a
second attempt for its relief. A frigate and two provi¬
sion ships sailed up the river, broke the boom thrown
across it to obstruct their passage, and entered the town
uninjured. The Irish army, whose hopes of success had
rested wholly on the effects of famine, raised the siege in
despair. The town’s people, though reduced to half their
original number by the casualties of war and sickness,
had the hardihood to issue out in pursuit of the retiring
army; but their temerity was punished by a severe check.
About the same time the Enniskilleners gained a signal
victory at Newtown-Butler, over a body of the enemy
three times their number.
The military career of James in Ireland was neither
creditable nor fortunate ; his political efforts during the
short period of his Irish government remain to be can¬
vassed. A parliament was assembled in Dublin, in which
the Protestant party, as might have been expected, was
considerably outnumbered by the Catholics. One of its
first acts was the attainder of about two thousand Protes¬
tant noblemen and gentlemen, adherents of William, whose
estates were to be forfeited, unless they surrendered be¬
fore a certain day, and who, if found guilty, were to be
excluded from the benefit of a royal pardon; an act al¬
most equalling in the extent of its powers, and the seve¬
rity of its inflictions, the rigours of the act of settlement.
The other measures of this parliament were of a different
character ; one was an act for establishing liberty of con¬
science, and repealing all such as were contrary thereto;
another, connected with religious observances, directed
that all should pay their tithes to the pastor of their own
persuasion. A bill was also brought in to repeal the act
of settlement, which was carried after much opposition
from the Protestant bishops, and some of the lords. Ano¬
ther to prevent appeals to England was also carried,
though with much difficulty. Two more, the one to re¬
peal Poyning’s law, the other to establish inns of court in
Dublin, were opposed by James himself, who, still fondly
clinging to the hope of a restoration to his seat of domi¬
nion in England, was averse to whatever had a tendency
to diminish the dependency of Ireland. His conduct with
respect to the circulating medium is the most unjust, as
well as the most impolitic, of his measures. Parliament
had voted him a subsidy of twenty thousand pounds a
month. He doubled this sum by a royal ordinance. The
money, notwithstanding votes of parliament and kingly
proclamations, came in slowly. James erected a mint in
Dublin, where he had large quantities of base metal coined
into pieces of large nominal value. The plan, as a finan¬
cial project, proved a complete failure, bringing discredit
on the deviser, and inflicting injury on the friends of his
cause, who were the ultimate sufferers by the depreciation.
Whilst James was neglecting his military operations in
the north of Ireland, and injuring his credit and resources
by his financial mismanagement in Dublin, his antago¬
nist William, now freed by the death of Dundee from the
apprehension of a Scotch invasion, was making extensive
preparations for carrying on the war in Ireland. In the
summer of 1689, his favourite general Schomberg landed
near Carrickfergus, with a well-appointed army of ten
thousand veterans. After taking that town, which sur¬
rendered on honourable terms, he moved southwards to
Dundalk, where the scarcity of provisions, and the ap-
IRELAND.
tory. proach of the Irish army under James, obliged him to halt
yrW an(j encamp. His position was low and unhealthy, his
camp ill supplied with provisions. His men sunk rapidly,
through sickness and inaction. James, though much
urged to it by his officers, could not be prevailed upon to
hazard an assault. After remaining some time opposed
to each other in a state of inaction, Schomberg took ad¬
vantage of the arrival of some fresh troops to change his
position, and retrace his steps towards Carrickfergus,
where he was more secure against the necessity of com¬
bating to disadvantage with a superior force.
Next year William resolved to take the field in person.
He landed early in June at Carrickfergus, and being
joined by Schomberg noth the remains of his shattered
forces, advanced southwards in the same direction that
had formed the line of march in the last campaign. His
forces now amounted to six and thirty thousand men, the
greater part veterans, who had proved themselves on the
Continent. James’s army had been in the mean time
furnished with a supply of five thousand Frenchmen ; but
these were raw and undisciplined, and procured by an
exchange of an equal number of Irish, the flower of his
army. After retreating before his rival from Dundalk to
Drogheda, he at length took up a position on the south
side of the Boyne, where, contrary to the advice of all his
officers, he determined to make a stand, and to set his
chance of dominion on the hazard of a battle. William,
whose disposition and circumstances equally urged him to
bring the contest to an immediate decision without hesi¬
tation, prepared to force the passage of the river. Whilst
engaged in reconnoitring the enemy’s arrangements, he
received a wound on the shoulder from a piece of artillery
levelled at him from the opposite bank, but not sufficient
to prevent him from appearing at the head of his troops in
the ensuing day’s engagement. The next morning his
army, headed by himself, moved to the attack in three di¬
visions. Crossing the river where the water in some places
came up to their breasts, his troops gained the opposite
bank, notwithstanding a galling fire from the infantry, by
which they were lined, and repeated charges of the Irish
cavalry led on by General Hamilton. Schomberg was
killed, as is supposed by a chance shot from his own sol¬
diers, in the confusion of one of these desperate assaults.
Callimote, the leader of the French Protestants in Wil¬
liam’s army, also fell during the passage. WTalker, like¬
wise, the clerical defender of Derry, fell here. When his
death was reported to William, the only remark made by
the cold Dutchman was, “ The fool; what business had
he there?” The Irish, after some vain efforts to drive
back the enemy into the river, in one of which Hamilton
was taken prisoner, finally broke and quitted the field, think¬
ing only of making good their retreat.
Whilst William was thus actively engaged in asserting
his title to his newly-acquired throne, James was standing
aloof on the hill of Donore, an idle spectator of a struggle
which involved the fortunes of himself and all his adhe¬
rents. On seeing the discomfiture of his army, he imme¬
diately fled to Dublin, and thence to W’aterford, leaving
directions to have the bridges broken down after him, to
check his pursuers. William, adopting the same system
towards him as when he had driven him from England, al-
owed him to continue his flight unmolested. Proceeding
to Drogheda, he forced it to surrender on a threat of mi-
itary execution in case of resistance, and thence continued
ns march without interruption to Dublin, holding out of-
crs of protection to the peasantry, who accepted his pro¬
tection, but declaring that he would leave the leaders, of
w at he chose to call a rebellion, to the chances of war.
he main body of the Irish army retreated to Limerick
j Athlone, placing the strong line of the Shannon be-
ween themselves and their victorious enemy. An attempt
VOL. XII.
377
made upon Athlone by General Douglas was unsuccessful. History.
After being baffled in an attempt to force a passage there,
and in another at Lanesborough, lower down the river, he
was forced to desist and retire to Dublin. A similar at¬
tempt made by W illiam upon Limerick met with the same
termination. Relying for success on the dissensions that
existed between the French and Irish officers in James’s
army, he advanced to that town, carrying with him only a
field train of artillery. On being apprized of his error by
the formidable aspect of defence presented by the garrison,
he sent for his battering train from Dublin, which, when
within seven miles of his camp, was attacked and totally
destroyed by a sortie of General Sarsfield. William, how¬
ever, was not of a temper to be easily discouraged. With
two pieces which had escaped the fate of the others he
effected a breach, and proceeded to attempt an entrance
by storm; but the breach was defended so gallantly that
he was forced to retreat and raise the siege, after having
suffered a loss of two thousand of his best men. The ur¬
gency of his affairs in England obliged him to go thither,
leaving the command of the army to his generals, Solmes
and Ginckel. The war was carried on during the w inter,
chiefly from a suggestion of the Earl, afterwards the cele¬
brated Duke, of Marlborough, who proposed the taking of
Cork and Kinsale, so as to secure the command of the
southern coast. The suggestion was adopted, and its exe¬
cution intrusted to the proposer of it. The fortifications
of Cork were in a state of great dilapidation; the place
was in a hollow, commanded by the surrounding mountains.
After a short resistance, the only remarkable feature of
which was the death of the Duke of Grafton, one of the
natural sons of Charles II., the town surrendered on con¬
dition of protection to persons and property. But it was
with much difficulty that the commanding officers enforced
the observance of these terms. As soon as the troops had
entered, a tumult was excited, the governor was wound¬
ed, the Earls of Tyrone and Clancarty narrowly escaped,
and the houses of many Catholics were plundered. Kin-
sale, which was afterwards invested, presented more diffi¬
culty. The garrison abandoned the town, and confined
their defences to two castles. One of these, the old castle,
was soon stormed; but the other held out until its garrison
procured permission to march out with their arms and
join the main body of the Irish. Ginckel, after the cap¬
ture of these places, attempted to carry the war into the
west of Cork and Kerry ; but his troops were foiled in the
mountain passes, and forced to return with loss. Whilst
the military operations were proceeding thus languidly,
the civil officers of King William were more active and
successful in securing their own interests, by the confisca¬
tion of the property of the adherents of King James. The
forfeitures made by them comprehended a million of acres,
the property of three thousand nine hundred and twenty-
one sufferers, and were valued at three millions three hun¬
dred and twenty thousand pounds. The injustice of in¬
flicting such a penalty on adherence to the cause of a right¬
ful sovereign can only be surpassed by the means of its
enforcement. The Irish gentry who possessed estates were
indicted for high treason in their respective counties, and
the causes then removed by certiorari into the King’s
Bench in Dublin. Thus, in most cases, the accused per¬
sons were deprived of the means of making their defence.
In many, they were ignorant even of their accusation, un¬
til they found themselves stripped of their patrimony by
the sentence of the court. At the same time rumours of
plots and conspiracies were set afloat, and proclamations
issued in consequence, assessing the Catholic inhabitants
of peaceatfle counties for injuries to Protestant property
in others, excluding from protection those who had sons
in the enemy’s quarters, prohibiting assemblages of more
than ten Catholics, and subjecting to transportation the
3 b
IRELAND.
parish priest of places where such assemblages were held.
These proceedings drove the great body ot the Catho¬
lics to desperation. They saw no hope but in the subver¬
sion of a government whose establishment was to be se¬
cured only by their utter ruin.
Military operations recommenced vigorously at the be¬
ginning of summer. St Ruth, who had been sent from
France to take the chief command, determined to make a
stand at Athlone, which he strengthened with some works.
Ginckel directed his main force against it. His first as¬
sault failed. After a delay of nine days spent in prepara¬
tions, a second attempt was made with still less effect. Mot
Only were his troops repulsed, but his works were burned.
St Ruth, intoxicated with his success, withdrew the greater
part of his men from the defences, in spite of the warnings
of his Irish officers. Ginckel, aware of the inconsiderate
cation of a proclamation, offering to the Irish in arms terms Histo
as liberal as they could have hoped for after a victory;'s—y-
granting, in fact, to the Catholics all the privileges they
had heretofore enjoyed, and all they have since obtained.
The lords-justices hastened to the camp, and in two days
after their arrival the articles of Limerick received the
signatures of both the contracting parties.
By this treaty it was stipulated that the Roman Catho¬
lics should enjoy the exercise of their religion, as during
the reign of Charles II.; to which was added a promise
that the king would endeavour to procure further security for
them on this point, as soon as parliament should be assem¬
bled. It was further agreed, that all the inhabitants of Li¬
merick, and those in arms for Ring James in the counties
of Limerick, Clare, Kerry, Cork, and Mayo, should enjoy
their estates, and be suffered to pursue their respective
of his Irish officers, a™catio^ ^molested; that the Catholic gentry should be
relZnon0bylrpS whils; St Ruth was celebrating allowed the use of arms, and should not be galled upon to
take any oath but that of allegiance ; and, finally, that all
the soldiers who were unwilling to submit to these condi¬
tions should be conveyed to the Continent at the expense
of the English government. Two days after the signing
of this treaty, a French fleet arrived on the coast with a
large supply of reinforcements and military stores. But it
was then too late. Nothing now remained in order to ter¬
minate the war, but the execution of that part of the treaty
which permitted the Irish soldiery to choose between resi¬
dence at home and service under a foreign but friendly
power on the Continent. The Irish guards set the exam¬
ple ; they all volunteered for the service of the king of
France, seven individuals only excepted. Two regiments
of Ulster Irish returned home in a body. Of the remain¬
der of the Irish army, but one thousand horse and fifteen
hundred foot remained. The generous self-devotion of
those who sacrificed their country for their principles was
but ill rewarded. On the arrival of the troops in France
no quarters were assigned to them. The regiments weie
bro£f£theoffic£«duced -wc^,^
his victory by balls and entertainments in his camp at
some distance. The Irish general then retired to Aghrim,
on the borders of Galway, there determined to make ahnal
stand, on a position chosen by himself. He was soon fol¬
lowed thither by the English, who attacked the position
with undaunted intrepidity. For some time the contest
was doubtful; but the death of St Ruth, who fell by a
cannon-ball in the heat of the action, decided its fate.
Whether from jealousy or contempt, this foreigner had
avoided communicating his plans to the Irish generals
who were to execute them. His sudden death, therefore,
left the army without a head. All was confusion; and
Ginckel, taking advantage of this state of things, pressed
on and obtained an easy, but not a cheap victory. In the
preceding struggle, upwards of two thousand of his men
had fallen. The loss of the Irish, which occurred mostly
in the rout, exceeded seven thousand.
The remains of the Irish army fell back upon Limerick.
This city was now the only place of any importance that
held out. Galway had surrendered upon favourable condi¬
tions. The garrison of Banagher, on declaring their de¬
termination to return home after surrendering, weie sup¬
plied by their conqueror with the means of proceeding thi¬
ther. Ginckel, who had remained some time inactive in
Galway, hoping that terms of accommodation would be of¬
fered, as Tyrconnel was now dead of an illness said to be
caused by disappointment, and the lords-justices who suc¬
ceeded him were inclined to make terms, provided the in¬
terests of the general body of the Catholics were secured
by them, at length opened the trenches before Limerick.
At first the operations of the besiegers proceeded but
slowly. Having, however, made themselves masters of a
pass across the Shannon, through the treachery of Colonel
Clifford, the officer who commanded there, they were ena¬
bled to invest the town on all sides. This advantage was
followed by an assault on one of the gates, which was urg¬
ed with so much ardour, that the officer there thought it
necessary to raise the drawbridge with so much precipita- testants were no, uuunu - F— B^oVernment and
tion that upwards of a thousand of the garrison were left first open breach that occurred between the
on the outside, exposed to the besiegers’ fire. The great- the House of Commons was caused by the mtroductio
er part of these unfortunate victims were killed either by
the enemy or in attempting to swim the river; a few were
captured. The act itself was condemned as over hasty.
The officer who gave the order for it was a Frenchman, and
his conduct was imputed to bad motives. The bad feeling
that had long subsisted between the strangers and the na¬
tive troops was thus greatly exasperated. The latter, con¬
ceiving that their countrymen had been wantonly sacrifi¬
ced, determined to seek for peace. Their resolution was
encouraged by Ginckel, and a cessation of arms for the
purpose of adjusting the terms of a treaty was the conse¬
quence. The news was immediately forwarded to the
lords-justices in Dublin, just in time to prevent tire publi-
generals excluded from court. After some time, however,
the value of their services was acknowledged, and the Irish
brigade, during the succeeding continental wars, long main¬
tained the highest character for fidelity to the cause it had
embraced, and for the intrepidity it manifested under every
circumstance of difficulty and danger. .
A parliament was convened shortly after the ratification
of the treaty. It was the first that had assembled after a
lapse of twenty-six years of intestine commotion. Com¬
posed as it was of a great majority of Protestants, it testi¬
fied little inclination to co-operate with the king’s washes,
in adhering to the strict fulfilment of the articles of Lime¬
rick. The king evidently wished them to be maintained
in the spirit as well as in the letter. The feelings of the
leading party in parliament were sufficiently indicated in a
sermon preached by the Bishop of Meath before the or s
justices, which inculcated the detestable doctrine that Pro¬
testants were not bound to keep peace with Papists. e
first open breach that occurred between the governmt
the Plouse of Commons was caused by the introduction o
two money bills. According to the system of Ireland un¬
der Poyning’s law, no bill could be brought into parliament
until it had received the approbation of the king throng
the privy council. According to the principles of the Bri¬
tish constitution, all money bills should originate with tlie
House of Commons. The party opposed to the king too
their stand upon the latter ground. One of the two DU »
was rejected altogether, and the other suffered to pass
solely in consideration of the present exigency of attair ,
and the pressing necessity of raising a supply for the king s
service. Lord Sidney, in retaliation, suddenly prorogu
the parliament, after reprehending the House of
sharply for what he styled an undutiful and ungratelui
IRELAND.
iistory. vasion of the royal prerogative. This act increased the
general discontent, as several measures of importance then
in progress were left unfinished.
A new parliament, assembled in 1695 by the Lord-de¬
puty Capel, opened with an assurance from the throne,
that the king was intent upon the firm settlement of Ire¬
land upon a Protestant interest. Such a declaration was
hailed with joy by the prevailing party. In order to sup¬
port the king in this measure, a committee was appointed
to consider what penal laws were in force. The following
were found to be the principal: 1. An act subjecting all
who maintained the supremacy of the church of Rome to
the penalties of a praemunire, and requiring the oath of su¬
premacy as a qualification for every office. 2. An act im¬
posing fines on absence from the parish churches on Sun¬
day. 3. An act authorizing the chancellor to appoint a
guardian to the child of a Catholic. 4. An act to prevent
Catholics from being private tutors, without license from
the bishop. Having ascertained the actual state of restric¬
tions on the Catholics, as they had existed previously to
the treaty of Limerick, the parliament proceeded, not to
secure them in the privileges guaranteed to them by that
instrument, but to increase the number of penalties and re¬
strictions, contrary to its spirit and tenor. The following
statutes, passed by this parliament, formed the commence^
ment of the system of restrictive legislation now known by
the name of the penal code, which, when wound up to its
acme of intolerant severity, by the successive enactment of
laws, each surpassing its predecessor in severity, was de¬
scribed by Burke as the acme of refinement in political
persecution. These acts were, 1. to deprive Catholics of
the means of educating their children, either at home or
abroad, except under Protestant teachers, and to prevent
them from being guardians even to their own children ; 2.
to disarm the Catholics; 3. to banish Catholic priests and
prelates. Having passed these acts in direct violation of
the treaty, they proceeded to confirm those articles, or
so much of them as might consist with the safety and
welfare of the king’s subjects in these kingdoms. The
bill took care that the precautionary proviso should not
be a dead letter. It abrogated the articles which provid¬
ed for the security of the Catholics from disturbance on
account of their religion, which confirmed them in the
possession of their estates and the exercise of their pro¬
fession, which allowed them the use of arms, and which
required the oath of allegiance only as a test of their loy-
!r!r’ passed the House of Commons with little
difficulty. But in the House of Lords, where several of the
Catholic peers still had seats, it was strenuously resisted ;
and when carried, a protest against it was entered on the
journals by thirteen peers, six of whom were bishops.
Ihis mutilated ratification of the treaty was followed up
by three other penal laws: 1. To prevent the intermar¬
riages of Protestants and Catholics ; 2. to prevent Papists
from being solicitors; and, 3. to prevent them from be¬
ing gamekeepers.
The spirit of religious intolerance that gave birth to
these acts was not the only evil that checked the pros-
penty of the country. The commercial spirit of mono¬
poly of the English manufacturers, who had long viewed
with a jealous eye the increase of the woollen manufac-
ure ln Inland, to which the cheapness of living and the
excellency of the pasturages afforded peculiar advantages,
prevailed on the king to make a solemn assurance that he
would do all that in him lay to discourage that manufac-
ure, adding as a mitigation of a declaration so iniquitous,
lat every encouragement should be afforded to the linen
1 an?,;acture* former part of the promise was rigid-
y adhered to, the latter was disregarded. Every attempt
°e8jab*h the linen manufacture in the south of Ireland
379
the introduction of an equitable modus for the tithe of History.
failed ^ nr “ ..e 1 uie bOUlu or Areianu Jointures were secured to conforming waves. Papists
. icily from the opposition given by the clergy to were forbidden to be assistants in schools. Popish priests
nf w-li-St parliamf ‘ wa« t^s employed during the reign
of William, in undoing the bonds of the treaty of Lime¬
rick, the court of claims appointed to investigate and dis¬
pose of the lands forfeited by the adherents of James was
equally active m its invasion of their property. Amongst
the chief sufferers by the decisions of this court was the
Earl of Clancarty. It appeared doubtful whether his
noble estate should be included amongst the forfeitures.
The point was decided by a declaration of the grand jury
of the county of Cork, which resolved that its restoration
would be prejudicial to the Protestant interest. It was
therefore sold, under a decree of the court. A subsequent
attempt made in his favour in the reign of George II. was
not only equally unsuccessful, but all attempts at a repe¬
tition of it were crushed by a vote of the House of Com¬
mons, that any lawyer who pleaded in his behalf should
be deemed an enemy to his country.
The annals of Ireland during the reign of Queen Anne
are merely a record of the exertions of the Irish parliament
i^no etian<? extend the penal laws. By an act passed in
1703, the father of a Papist who conformed to the esta¬
blished religion was incapacitated from disposing of his
property by sale, mortgage, or bequest; and a Papist was
prohibited from being guardian to his own child, who, on
conforming, was to be taken from his parent, and given in
charge to a Protestant. Papists were rendered incapable
of holding lands for more than thirty-one years; and if
the piofit lent of such land was found to exceed one third
of the actual rent, the benefit of the lease was to be trans-
fened to the Protestant who made the discovery. They
were also prevented from inheriting the lands of their
Protestant relatives, and their own lands were to be
gavelled after death amongst their children. The most
extraordinary provision of this monstrous act, was the re¬
quiring the oath of abjuration, and the sacramental test,
to be taken as a qualification for office and for voting at
elections. The cause of its insertion is singular. The
English government was at this time negotiating with
the emperor of Germany for the toleration of Protestant¬
ism throughout his dominions. To press the enactment
of severe laws against the Catholics at home at such a
period, exhibited an inconsistency as absurd as it was ini¬
quitous. An effort was therefore made to dissuade the
Irish parliament from proceeding with the bill, but to no
purpose. Knowing, therefore, that the majority of the
lower house consisted of Protestant dissenters, the clause
requiring the taking of the sacramental test was inserted
by the English council, in the hope that the rigid puritans
would reject the whole bill rather than saddle themselves
with the disqualification. But they were mistaken. Bi¬
gotry prevailed over self-interest; and the puritans of the
day acquiesced in the passing of a law, which deprived
the conscientious members of their own persuasion of the
right of exercising the most valuable privileges of free¬
men, rather than suffer their Catholic countrymen to par¬
ticipate in them.
Phis act was followed up by resolutions calling upon
all the civil officers of the government to enforce its pro¬
visions, and declaring that the prosecuting and informing
against Papists was an honourable service to the govern¬
ment. But this law, and these resolutions, were not deem¬
ed sufficient. In 1709 another act was passed, imposing
additional restrictions upon the Catholics, by which they
were prohibited from holding annuities for life; requiring
the father of a conforming child to give in to the chan¬
cellor a strict account of the value of his property, in or¬
der to apportion a due share thereof to his support.
Jointures were secured to conforming waves. Papists
380
IRE L A N D.
History, who conformed were allowed a stipend of L.30 a year,
''-’■'-V'*'' that of a Protestant curate being L.50; and rewards were
offered for the discovery of popish prelates, priests, and
teachers, at the rate of L.50 each for the first of these
classes, L.20 for the second, and L.10 for the third. A
subsequent statute excluded Catholics from acting as she¬
riffs, and from sitting on grand juries, and even proceed¬
ed as far as to enact, that in trials arising out of sta¬
tutes for strengthening the Protestant interest, the plain¬
tiff might set aside a juror on the ground of his being a
Papist. The example of the parliament was followed by
the corporations. Bye-laws were enacted, excluding Ca¬
tholics from every profitable branch of trade. The result
was, that all the Catholic gentry possessed of the means
of emioration quitted the country, as did all the merchants
of respectability, carrying with them, to fructify in other
and in hostile countries, the property which might have
enriched that of their persecutors.
The system was now nearly complete. The Catholics
were excluded from every opening to political power.
They were not exterminated, because the land would have
been valueless to the new proprietors, without the assist¬
ance of labourers sufficient to extract its produce. The
effects of the system soon began to appear. The son of
James II. made an attempt to recover his father’s do¬
minions in the beginning of the reign of George I. The
new proprietary took the alarm. On the first rumour of
his intended project against Scotland, a number of Irish
Catholic gentlemen were thrown into close confinement.
The government, however, ashamed of this unnecessary
ebullition of terror, soon afterwards caused them to be
liberated, even without payment of the customary fees.
The alarm was futile. The Irish had not the means, nor
even the inclination, to renew the contest. Their spirit
was broken by the grinding degradation of the restrictions
thrown around them. Yet, to make assurance still surer,
these restrictions were increased by the addition of new
clauses to the penal code, mostly of minor importance, by
one of which Papists were excluded from voting in vestries
for the assessment of money for repairing or rebuilding
parish churches.
The Irish Protestants were equally active in asserting
their own liberties, as in extinguishing those of the Catho¬
lics. An attempt made by the English House of Lords
The state of the Catholics was now brought down near¬
ly to the lowest point of depression. An address of con¬
gratulation to George II. on his accession, presented to
the lord-lieutenant by Lord Delvin, on their part, was
suffered to remain unnoticed, except so far as to render
so faint an effort an apology for still further restraints.
A bill was brought in for excluding Papists from voting at
elections. By another, lawyers and attorneys married to
Papists were prevented from practising. Even converts
could not hold the office of justice of the peace if their
wives and children continued to be recusant; and persons
plundered by privateers in the service of a popish nation
were to be reimbursed by a levy on the goods of Roman
Catholics only. A vote of the Commons, declaring any
person who took legal steps for the recovery of his tithes
of dry cattle, commonly called the tithe of agistment, to
be an enemy to the country, threw the greater part of
the burden of maintaining the Protestant clergy from the
rich proprietor, whose land was wholly under pasturage,
upon the Roman Catholic cotter, who was obliged to raise
some grain on his little patch of ground for the subsist¬
ence of his family.
Whilst the Irish parliament were thus vigilant in cutting
off from the Catholics all means of regaining political
power, they were no less so in preventing any encroach¬
ment of the English government upon the rights they
themselves possessed. The relations of these two latter
parties towards each other after the Revolution were pe¬
culiar. The members of the House of Commons held
their seats, not, as in Great Britain, by septennial election,
but during the pleasure of the crown. Their tenure was
therefore generally regarded as tantamount to a life es¬
tate, subject only to a dissolution on the demise of the
crown. Hence they were virtually unrestrained by po¬
pular control. On the other hand, as the lord-lieutenant
came over to Ireland but once in two years, to hold a par¬
liament for granting the supplies, the management of the
country rested with the lords-justices nominated to hold
the reins of government in his absence, who were select¬
ed from among the most powerful of the great Protestant
families. Their influence, in questions between the two
countries, was therefore often directed to thwart the mea¬
sures of the English cabinet, particularly when these
seemed to interfere with their own aggrandizement. The
His'
J
to exercise the right of ultimate jurisdiction in cases of operation of the penal laws, whilst it enslaved the Catho-
disputed property, to the prejudice of the peers of Ireland, lies, pauperized the country. I he great mass ot the po-
was stubbornly resisted; and though the dispute was cut pulation was deprived by them ot the mam stimulus to
short for the time by an English act, declaring that the industry, the hope of improving their condition^ by their
British parliament had full power and authority to make own exertions. I he great proprietors found tneir land
laws to bind the people of Ireland, the acquiescence of becoming ot less value, from the neglect of agricultural
the latter proceeded, as future events fully proved it, from improvement. I he supplies for the service of govern-
a consciousness, not of the defect of right, but of power ment were therefore granted with a niggardly and reluc-
to assert it. In its resistance to another act of British in- tant spirit. Ihe English cabinet hoped to cut the knot
terference the country was more successful. The coin- that thus linked them to the Irish parliament. An ad¬
age, particularly of copper, was deplorably defective both tempt was made to obtain a vote for the supplies 01
in quantity and in value. An application for a domestic twenty-one years rr’eh nnatnrrncv immediately
mint, a right often before allowed and exercised, was re
jected, and in lieu of it a patent was granted to an Eng¬
lish brassfounder of the name of Wood to coin copper to
a large amount. The pride of the Irish took fire, and the
circumstances of the case elevated the feeling into patriot¬
ism. Amongst the opponents of Wood’s patent, Jonathan
Swift, the celebrated dean of St Patrick’s, was most emi¬
nent. In a series of letters, published under the name of
the “ Drapier,” he denounced the scheme as illegal and
ruinous. One of the letters was deemed libellous, and a
large reward was offered for the discovery of the author.
But the fidelity of the dean’s partisans bore him harmless ;
the storm passed over without injury to him. The invi¬
dious patent was recalled; and his grateful country has
embalmed his memory in the immortality of patriotism.
The Irish aristocracy immediately
took the alarm. However acquiescent in the general te¬
nor of their votes, they now rallied, and the insidious at¬
tempt was rendered abortive by a majority of one.
The depression of the country, arising from the treat¬
ment of the Catholic part of the population, was endea¬
voured to be remedied by the extension of education, the
formation of patriotic societies, and the execution ot public
works. To educate the Catholics, it was necessary they
should first be converted, because by the penal code do¬
mestic education according to the principles ot their own
faith was prohibited. Schools were therefore opened, in
which the pupils were taught the elements of literature
and the useful arts, and were also clothed and fed at the
public expense. Being established by letters patent from
the crown, these obtained the name of charter schools.
IRELAND.
381
Utory. Their professed object was the diffusion of useful know-
rsr^ ledge; but as their primary process was based upon Pro¬
testant instruction, and as this, to be effective, required
a total severance of the parental tie which linked the Ca¬
tholic peasant to his family, the effort failed. The second
element of national regeneration was attempted by the
formation of a society, in imitation of the Royal Society of
London, under the name of the Physico-Historical Society,
for the improvement of agriculture, husbandry, and the
useful arts, which afterwards merged into the Royal Dublin
Society. The last-named element of improvement, the
execution of public works, gave rise to the measure of in¬
land navigation. But none of these were effective to the
extent proposed by those who set them on foot. The great
object was not merely to give Protestantism the ascen¬
dency, but to eradicate Catholicism; to realize, in fact,
what was imagined by a fiction of law, when, in a case
where a Catholic came into a court of justice, he was
gravely told that the law did not recognise the existence
of a Papist. Education, whether of the primary rudiments
or of the higher departments of science, gave know¬
ledge, and knowledge revealed the extent and gloom of
degradation. Useful works required workmen, and thus
circulated capital amongst the Catholic population, to
which the undertakers were compelled to have recourse
for the mechanical parts of such undertakings. A state
of society so anomalous, in which universal liberty was
the avowed principle, yet slavery, unmitigated by the pro¬
tection which sordid interest extends to the preservation
of individual property, was the practice, could not but be
most precarious. The ruling party, aware of the danger
of explosion, at length found itself compelled to give vent
to the under-workings of the re-action against oppression,
by a partial change of system. That of ever-increasing
compression, painful and hazardous at all times, was found,
in periods of general agitation or impending warfare, im¬
practicable. The threatened invasion of England by the
young Pretender was the crisis which led to a change of
domestic policy towards the Catholics. Ireland, as the
weakest point of the empire, was looked upon as the most
exposed. The Irish population was numerous and dis¬
contented. Their deficiency in the means and the organi¬
zation of war could be instantaneously supplied by the
wealth of France, and by the long-proved skill and valour
of their countrymen, the Irish brigades in the French ser¬
vice. To ward off the apprehended danger, Lord Ches¬
terfield was sent over in the spirit of conciliation. To the
Catholics, worn down by the action of half a century of
increasing oppression, the slightest relaxation of the high¬
ly strained engine of oppression became comparatively a
blessing. An accidental circumstance afforded the new
governor an opportunity to evince the sincerity of his
professions. Hitherto the Catholics had held their assem¬
blages for religious worship in the most secluded and se¬
cret places. , The rewards offered by the laws for the de¬
tection of their priests, or of those who attended their ce¬
remonies, compelled them to the strictest secrecy. The
floor of a building in one of the confined streets of Dublin,
where mass was celebrated, gave way, and caused the
death or mutilation of a number of the wretched beings,
congregated to worship their God at all hazards, in the
way in which they had been trained. Lord Chesterfield,
with the tact which has immortalized him as a first-rate
character in the annals of fashionable life, seized the op¬
portunity of declaring openly that he would not be a party
to a system of religious prevention, liable to the hazard of
such results; and the meetings of Catholics for the pur¬
pose of religious worship were consequently winked at. Still,
however, the spirit of the penal code remained unrestrict¬
ed; and operative laws were passed during the govern¬
ment of this, the first of the tolerating lord-lieutenants, not
only annulling all marriages between Protestants and Ca- History,
tholics, if celebrated by a Catholic priest, but also render-
ing the clergyman who performed the ceremony liable to
capital punishment. The threatened storm from abroad blew
over. The invasion of the young Pretender forms no part
of Irish history. The Irish Catholic remained unmoved in
his habits of passive obedience. The Irish Protestant re¬
turned to his parliamentary controversies with the ruling
powers in England. Where there existed such a consci¬
ousness of overwhelming superiority on the one side, act¬
ing upon a spirit of domineering independence, checked by
an internal conviction of weakness, the weakness of divi¬
sion, on the other, collisions between the English cabinet
and the Irish ascendency party could *ot fail to be fre¬
quent and acrimonious; much less could such collisions
fail to throw to the surface some of those restless spirits
which political convulsions have shaken from their orbits
of ordinary movement. A contest between the Irish privy
council, which then exercised the most important parts of
the legislative functions of government, and the corpora¬
tion, stimulated Charles Lucas, a Dublin apothecary, to as¬
sert the rights of the latter. Though unsuccessful, he was
not unrewarded. The death of the two representatives
for Dublin gave rise to a contested election, an event of
rare occurrence under the then existing constitution of the
Irish parliament. Lucas was elected, under the pledge of
vindicating, in the House of Commons, the perfect inde¬
pendence of the Irish legislature. This doctrine, first
broached by Molyneaux shortly after the Revolution, in a
treatise called the “ Case of Ireland,” was viewed with alarm
by the English party in the house, and with jealousy by
that of the Irish aristocracy. By the one it was viewed
as a severance of the connection of sovereignty and depen¬
dence between the two countries, by the other it was felt
to sap the foundations of their own domestic omnipotence.
Passages of libellous tendency were extracted from Lucas’s
publications. The House of Commons declared him an
enemy to the country, and passed a vote for his prosecu¬
tion. Fie evaded the coming storm only by retiring to the
Continent. On a subsequent vacancy, however, he was re¬
elected, and took his seat as one of the representatives of
the people, which he retained till his death. The Irish par¬
liament, arrogant where it felt secure in its own power, was
tamely submissive under circumstances wherein an asser¬
tion of its just rights would have been truly creditable. A
surplus revenue remained in the Irish exchequer. The Eng¬
lish council insisted on the king’s right to dispose of it at
pleasure. The Irish Commons equally insisted on their ab¬
solute control over the public purse, without any interfer¬
ence from other quarters. The bill acknowledging the
necessity of the royal consent to the appropriation of
the surplus income was rejected by the Commons. The
English council cut the matter short. The money in dis¬
pute was drawn out of the treasury by a king’s letter, and
the Commons passively acquiesced in the spoliation and
insult.
In this state of torpid tranquillity, ruffled only by appre¬
hensions of internal commotion, or by the agitation of par¬
tisan quarrels between the rival factions of court and coun¬
try which divided the dominant party, Ireland continued
to advance for nearly seventy years after the Revolution,
until at length the elements of activity were roused by the
reality of an actual invasion. In the year 1759, a fleet
was fitted out in the French ports, for the avowed purpose
of landing a large armament in Ireland. A small squadron
under M. Thurot, supposed to be an advanced section ot
the main fleet, and intended to cause a diversion of the de¬
fending forces, landed in the north of Ireland, and took
possession of the town and castle of Carrickfergus, with
little opposition. After holding it a few days, the French
commander, checked by the appearance of the general and
382
IRELAND.
History, determined resistance which was gathering around him
through all the northern counties, deemed it expedient,
instead of proceeding to the assault of the wealthy and un¬
defended town of Belfast, which lay at but a few miles’
distance, to re-embark. Any further repetition of his pre¬
datory incursions was prevented by the destruction of his
little armament in the channel, in an engagement, in which
Thurot himself lost his life.
The alarm excited by the threatened invasion afforded
an opportunity to the Catholics to call the attention of the
government to their sufferings. An address, framed by a
committee of their body, was presented to the lord-lieu¬
tenant, making a tender of their allegiance at this critical
period. Its favourable reception brought forward others
of the same kind from every part of the country, and thus
was the first impulse given to the movement for the repeal
of the penal code. Another opportunity of echoing the
sentiments contained in these addresses presented itself on
the accession of the new king, George III. It was eagerly
seized on, and the address was received with equal favour
as the former. The state of the country required some
vital change in its internal administration. The revenue
was declining, and the peasantry were every year becoming
more destitute and discontented. The wretched sufferers,
attributing their misery to the exaction of tithes and the en¬
closure of lands hitherto left open in commonage, banded
themselves together in large bodies at night, and destroy¬
ed the new enclosures; whence they at first received the
name of Levellers, but were afterwards better known by
that of Whiteboys, from their wearing white shirts over
their clothes, to be known to one another in their noctur¬
nal expeditions. From the invasion of property they pro¬
ceeded to the attack of persons obnoxious to them, parti¬
cularly tithe proctors, treating with wanton and barbarous
cruelty those who fell into their hands. The government,
instead of probing the evil to the bottom in order to effect
a cure by the removal of the cause of irritation, retaliated
by a series of severe and arbitrary laws, known by the
name of the Whiteboy Acts, many of which are still in
force. Attempts were made to connect those insurrec¬
tions of desperate misery with the political movements of
France. Rumours were circulated that the Whiteboys
were encouraged by money from that court, and that their
combination was the explosion of a plan for restoring the
Pretender. A parish priest of the name of Sheehy, who
had made himself obnoxious to the gentry in his neigh¬
bourhood by his exertions to shield the peasantry from
their oppressions, was arrested on a charge of treason ; and,
though acquitted of that crime after a patient and long
investigation by a jury in Dublin, he was, on his return
home, again arraigned on a charge of murder, universally
known to be false, and executed. The situation of the
British government in Ireland at this time was extremely
irksome and invidious. In order to carry on the public
business smoothly, it became necessary to conciliate the
great landed proprietors, who, through their borough in¬
fluence, had the control of the House of Commons. They
were to be gained over partly by allowing them a large
share in the disposal of all places of trust and profit, and
partly by indulging their enmity to the Catholics, who were
still suspected of being cemented in a secret union for the
recovery of their forfeited estates. The party which thus
virtually ruled the country by playing the British govern¬
ment and the Irish people against one another, wras known
by the name of the Undertakers. They had a double ob¬
ject ; the one to make the crown, as far as Ireland was con¬
cerned, dependent on themselves ; and the other to check
the spirit of liberty in the people, and at the same time to throw
on the government the odium of the measures of which
they themselves were the instigators. To break down this
petty aristocracy, which had intruded itself between the pre¬
rogative of the crown and the rights of the people, the Bri- Histor
tish cabinet resolved, in the early part of George III.’s reign,
that the lord-lieutenant, who had hitherto visited the coun¬
try only once in two years for the purpose of holding a par¬
liament and passing the supplies, leaving the management of
the country during the intervening period to two or three
lords-justices chosen from among the leaders of the U ndertak-
ers, should reside permanently in Dublin, so as thus to be the
immediate and ostensible organ of government patronage
and influence. At the same time, to put a stop to the out¬
cry against the mismanagement of the public income, which
was attributed to the people’s want of a sufficient check
over their representatives, the duration of parliaments,
w hich hitherto had terminated only on the demise of the
crown, was limited to eight years, so that, as the parlia¬
ments then sat only ever second year, there should be four
sessions between each dissolution. Lord Townshend, a
nobleman of moderate political, but of great convivial en¬
dowments, w^as selected as the most fitting person to effect
the change. He succeeded with much difficulty, some loss
of character, and great expenditure of the public money.
But the people felt no benefit from the change. The
places and pensions, hitherto bestowed on the dependents
of the Undertakers, were now lavished with augmented
profusion on the creatures of the lord-lieutenant. The
disappointed borough holders of the old parliaments felt
their power in the House of Commons increased by the
curtailing of the period of legislation. They threw them¬
selves into the ranks of opposition, to thwart the measures
of the government w hich they could no longer direct. The
parliament wns the arena for the struggle between the
two parties, and the real interests of the country were dis¬
regarded. The severity of the Whiteboy Acts caused a
temporary cessation of insubordination in one part of the
country, only to give vent to it in another. The disturb¬
ances in the south had been imputed to Catholic conspi¬
racy, aided by foreign influence. A similar systematized
spirit of outrage now displayed itself in Ulster, which was
chiefly inhabited by a Protestant population, that had al¬
ready testified its loyalty during Thurot’s invasion. The
real cause of disaffection was the same in both parts of the
country. High rents, and the rapacity of the agents of
absentees, drove the people into insurrection. The assem¬
bled multitudes here took the name of Hearts of Steel.
For their suppression, the legislature passed an act that of¬
fenders should be tried in counties different from that in
which the crime was committed. The extreme severity
and injustice of the law counteracted its operation. Dub¬
lin juries, disgusted at a measure so arbitrary and uncon¬
stitutional, acquitted the prisoners, and the law was soon
repealed. Emigration to the American colonies was the
consequence of the depressed state of the peasantry, and
of the severity with which they were treated. The war
with those colonies, by closing this vent for the discharge
of the popular discontents, caused them to accumulate at
home. It also increased their amount by the addition of
other grievances arising out of the change from peace to
war. America had been the great mart for Irish linens,
now the only thriving branch of the national manufactures;
it was also the great market for Irish provisions. The w ar
closed the trade, and an embargo laid on provisions in fa¬
vour of some great English contractors put a stop to their
export. The country was also deprived of its portion of
the regular troops, which the increasing emergency of the
struggle with the revolted provinces called away. The
sufferings of the people were intense ; and the alarm of dan¬
ger was shortly afterwards increased by the well-founded
apprehension of an invasion from France, now the avowed
ally of the Americans. To allay the spirit of discontent
which was rapidly pervading all ranks, two measures were
proposed, the one in England, the removal of the restnc-
IRELAND.
istory. tions imposed there, as unwisely as selfishly, on Irish com-
merce; the other the relaxation of the penal code in Ireland.
The commercial jealousy of the mercantile interest in Eng¬
land prevented the former; the latter succeeded so far as
to allow Catholics to hold lands by lease for a long term of
years. This boon, though it might excite the hope of more
extended liberality, could avail little toward relieving the
pressure of immediate distress. Want at home, and dan¬
ger from abroad, stared the country every year more fully
in the face. The landed and commercial interests called
on the government for protection. The Earl of Bucking¬
hamshire, then lord-lieutenant, a man of moderate abili¬
ties, returned for answer that the government had none to
give. The people, urged on by the exigency of the crisis,
resolved to arm themselves. Volunteer associations were
not hitherto wholly unknown in the country. The mili¬
tary spirit of the nation had shown itself on many preced¬
ing occasions, in the readiness with which numerous bodies
of men, assuming a self-formed and self-taught military or¬
ganization, united together on occasions of local or tempo¬
rary danger. The invasion of Thurot gave rise to some
in the, north, the outrages of the Whiteboys led to others
in the southern counties. But such instances were tem¬
porary and local. The impulse now given to the public
spirit, by the desponding reply of the government to the
appeal for protection, was universal and permanent. The
organization commenced in Belfast, to which the lord-lieu¬
tenant’s answer had been more specially directed. The
constituted authorities had told them they were not to look
to them for protection, but to themselves. They took the
hint, and formed several companies of self-armed, self-
disciplined, and self-officered soldiers. The surrounding
towns followed the example; and the government, acting
in the spirit of its own suggestion, supplied these new-
raised levies with arms. The flame of military ardour
spread with unexpected rapidity through all parts, and
the number of well-disciplined corps soon became so
great and so formidable as to dispel all thought of inva¬
sion on the one side, and all apprehension of it on the
other. The same spirit caused a re-action against the
monopolizing restrictions of the British legislature. The
people of Ireland entered into a very general combination
to confine themselves to the use of their own manufac¬
tures. The sudden check to industry thus produced in
England caused the supporters of the measure to reflect
on its inexpediency; and the military display could not
fail to attract their respect.
The people of Ireland now began to expect from their
volunteer associations what, according to the principles of
the constitution, should only be looked for from the legis¬
lature. These bodies were not backward in meeting such
expectations. Assemblages of volunteer corps in Dublin
and elsewhere passed resolutions that the king, lords, and
commons of Ireland alone were competent to make laws
to bind the people of Ireland. The political feeling thus
excited increased the number of military associations;
and, whilst in the parliament the old system of corrupt in¬
fluence carried all before it by numerical majorities, the
volunteers of Ulster, in the consciousness of their strength,
held a meeting at Dungannon, declarative of the neces¬
sity of a thorough reform of the state of the representa¬
tion, and of a combined exertion of the whole volunteer
force of Ireland to procure it. The effervescence of pa¬
triotism was increased by the unsettled state of the ad¬
ministration in England; Lord North had resigned, and
the death of Lord Rockingham put a premature end to
his short-lived administration. The result as to Ireland
was the dissolution of the parliament, against which the
feelings of the nation were so highly excited. A new
parliament was about to meet; and at the same time a
meeting of delegates from all the volunteer corps in Ire-
383
land was to assemble in Dublin, to urge on the favourite History,
measure of parliamentary reform.
At this time several individuals had raised themselves
to the highest pinnacle in the scale of patriotism. The
most remarkable was the Earl of Charlemont, who, after
spending his youth amidst the elegancies of Italian re¬
finement, devoted his maturer years to the service of his
country at home. Next to him were Grattan and Flood,
both members of parliament, both eager to establish the
independence of their common country on sure grounds,
yet fatally adverse to each other as to the foundation on
which it was to be laid ; the former considering a simple
repeal of all English laws interfering with Irish rights as
a sufficient disavowal of the assertion of supremacy, the
latter requiring an open and explicit disclamation on the
point. Grattan was successful, and the country voted him
L.50,000. The breach between the rival patriots w as ir¬
remediable. Grattan remained at home to continue the
struggle for securing the newly-gained rights of his coun¬
try. Flood soon afterwards retired to England, where a
seat in the British legislature flattered him with a more
enlarged sphere for the display of his powers. But he
failed, and was no longer named as a patriot or statesman.
The meeting of the new parliament and of the volun¬
teer convention took place simultaneously. The first and
only act of any consequence adopted by the latter, was a
resolution as to the necessity of a reform in parliament;
which having been immediately afterwards introduced by
Mr Flood into the House of Commons, was there rejected
by a large majority; and the convention, partly through
an apprehension among many of its members, of dangers
from a collision between two representative bodies, both
emanating from the same source, and both claiming to be
the constitutional organ of their constituents, and partly
through a manoeuvre of some of its leaders, quietly ad¬
journed, and never afterwards assembled.
Assemblages of large bodies of armed men, uncon¬
nected with and beyond the control of the government,
could not fail to alarm the ruling powers. The union of
these bodies into a deliberative meeting, for the avowed
purpose of influencing the legislature, was still more
alarming. The first effort of the volunteers to attain
this position had been baffled. The meeting of delegates
was dissolved; but it might, and there was every reason
to suppose that it would, be re-assembled. To prevent
such a recurrence by violent means was dangerous. The
volunteer body was numerous. It counted upwards of
100,000 men, embracing the greater part of the wealth
and respectability of the country, in its ranks; its num¬
bers and discipline were yearly increasing. The conse¬
quences of a hostile collision with such a body, particu¬
larly at the close of an unsuccessful war, commenced with
the avowed determination of crushing the spirit of inde¬
pendence in the American colonies, were fraught with
great hazard. An attempt was therefore made to break up
the strength of this body by internal divisions. The Ca¬
tholic question effected this. The volunteers were almost
exclusively Protestants. The extension of rights to a por¬
tion of the population, so long held in a state of passive
degradation, was viewed by many of them with a jealous
eye. They looked upon every new concession to the Ca¬
tholics as so much abstracted from themselves. Still,
however, the Catholic cause was gaining ground.
The extension of a free trade to Ireland had aft’orded
the means of accumulating property. It was eagerly seized
on by the Catholic merchants and traders. The lately
conceded permission to hold land on long leases gave the
holder of such property a fixed position and weight in the
country. New laws, framed in the spirit of the increasing
liberality of the age, extended their rights. They were
permitted to purchase, hold, and dispose of land, by will
*S4 I R E L
History, or otherwise, as freely as Protestants. The penal acts
prohibiting the celebrating or hearing of mass, keeping
horses above the value of five pounds each, instructing
their own children, or acting as teachers, were repealed;
as were those taxing them for the losses sustained from
privateers, obliging them to pay Protestant watchmen,
excluding them from residence in particular towns, and
some other petty and irritating restrictions. Still they
were far from being on a political equality with their Pro¬
testant countrymen; and at the very time that the severity
of the code was thus relaxed as to property, new laws
were passed still further contracting their political rights.
By one of these they were debarred from admission into
the Inns of Court; by another the English act of William
III. excluding them from sitting in parliament, was for¬
mally enacted in Ireland. The passing of it atti acted but
little notice, as the act of William had been hitherto pas¬
sively acquiesced in by the Catholic body.
Whilst the government was successfully busied in sow¬
ing the seeds of disunion amongst the volunteers, it paid
little attention to conciliate the people by economy or
good management. The reckless system of lavish and
profligate expenditure introduced by Lord Townshend, to
break down the monopoly of the Undertakers, was perse¬
vered in to secure majorities in the House of Commons.
A feeble effort made by the Duke of Buckingham to re¬
trench and restore order into the finances only led to his
recall. Yet it was soon found that a government resting
on majorities thus purchased depended on a very frail se¬
curity. The mental derangement of the king in 1789
showed the futility of such reliance. The English cabi¬
net wished to restrict the Prince of Wales in the discharge
of the regal powers intrusted to him as regent. The
Irish privy council was prepared to follow the example.
But the opposition in parliament, anxious to extend their
own influence by gaining over the heir-apparent, who had
till then always made professions of great liberality of po¬
litical opinion, resolved to grant him the regency of Ire¬
land, with no restrictions beyond those imposed by the
constitution on the sovereign himself. An address to
this effect, voted by both houses of parliament, in opposi¬
tion to the lord-lieutenant, was forwarded to London.
The sudden and unexpected recovery of the king pre¬
vented its effect. But the British minister, having now
so fully before him a warning of the consequences that
might result from similar collisions of the two legislatures
upon future questions, seemed fully determined to seize
on every opportunity of preventing it, by taking measures
for effecting a union of the parliaments of both countries,
similar to that which took place in Scotland at the com¬
mencement of the century. The prevalence of opposition
to the wishes of the English cabinet was as transient as it
had been sudden. The members who voted against the
ministry on the regency question were-again found in their
places on all ministerial questions, with the exception of
those whose rebellion had been too gross and daring to
admit of pardon; and the parliamentary management of
the country began to subside again into its former state of
torpidity.
But the calm was not to be of long duration. A new
element of convulsion was at w ork. The French revolu¬
tion broke out in the same year in which the king’s insa¬
nity had caused such excitation. For some time it pro¬
duced but little effect on the popular movements in Ire¬
land. The Protestants, indeed, began to call more loudly
for reform, and the Catholics to press more openly for ad¬
mittance into the pale of the constitution. Both were
disregarded. The government felt itself strong in its ma¬
jorities, and in the plenitude of its means for securing
them. The question of reform was disregarded; that of Ca¬
tholic relief was not only scouted with marked contumely,
AND.
but, during the ensuing recess in 179:2, every exertion was Histo:
made on the part of government to draw forth from the
grand juries of the several counties the strongest resolu¬
tions against any further concessions. Yet the very next
year a bill was introduced into parliament by the govern¬
ment, for extending the elective franchise to the Catholics,
which was passed by a majority nearly equal to that w'hich
had refused to take their claims into consideration in the
last session. Bills for amending the representation, and
for disqualifying placemen from sitting in the House of
Commons, were also introduced. The promises of reform
thus held out induced the minority to acquiesce in several
coercive measures, particularly one against the holding of
conventions by delegation. Enactments of the latter cha¬
racter having been secured, that of reform was allowed
to languish, and, next year, was rejected by an over¬
whelming ministerial majority. The French war in which
England was now involved had been the cause of this -
sudden burst of concession; but when the means of car¬
rying it on, and of checking by severity any efforts to ex¬
cite discontent at home, had been assured, the mask was
thrown off, and the management of affairs carried on with
increased profligacy of expenditure, and disregard of pub¬
lic opinion. The advocates of reform, despairing of any
change of measures from parliament, endeavoured to carry
the question of reform by a pressure from without, through
the agency of voluntary associations. I hey formed a
Whig"Club, which afterwards was superseded by that of
the United Irishmen. One of the leading features of both
societies, especially of the latter, was the advocacy of
the Catholic question, as it now appeared evident that
the question of reform was hopeless, without the previous
admission of the Catholic body to their rights of freemen.
The government, after some further perseverance in mea¬
sures of harshness and restraint, heightened by the in¬
creased violence of the leaders of the people, the principal
of whom, Wolf Tone, Hamilton Rowan, and James Nap-
per Tandy, were forced to expatriate themselves, changed
at once to a system of conciliation. In assurance of the sin¬
cerity of the change of sentiment, Earl Fitzwilliam, a noble¬
man possessed of large estates in Ireland, and a steady advo¬
cate of liberal measures, was sent over as lord-lieutenant.
He commenced his government by arrangements for bring¬
ing in a bill for the total repeal of the penal statutes, and
by the removal from office of the inferior agents of go¬
vernment, who, by their long continuance in place, and
the manner in which their mutual interests were connect¬
ed, virtually possessed the supreme power. The latter
of these efforts caused the lord-lieutenant’s removal. The
family of the Beresfords, which had for many years pos¬
sessed the chief places of profit and influence, remonstrat¬
ed effectually against their own dismission and the break¬
ing up of the old system, and Earl Fitzwilliam was sud¬
denly recalled. Earl Camden, who succeeded him as
lord-lieutenant, recurred to the former system of patron¬
age and coercion. The United Irishmen now looked not
to a reform, but to a separation from Great Britain, and
the establishment of an independent republic in alliance
with that of France, as the only means of securing the in¬
dependence of their country. A well-arranged system of
secret confederacy was spread over the greater part of
the kingdom, headed by an executive in the capital, the
members of which, though wholly unknown, except to the
few individuals in immediate communication with them¬
selves, issued orders for enlisting, combining, and arming
their adherents, which were zealously and implicitly obey¬
ed. The northern and midland counties had for some
time been disturbed by the fierce and deadly contentions
of the peasantry of the two opposite religious creeds; the
Catholics took the name of Defenders, the Protestants
that of Orangemen. As the struggle grew more despe-
I R E L A N D.
[story- rate, the attraction of party extended to the higher classes,
and the former of these predial disturbers merged into
the great mass of United Irishmen, whilst the latter, con¬
solidated by the infusion of a superior spirit of wealth and
intelligence, formed a compact, well-organized, and reso¬
lute body, under the original name of Orangemen, deter¬
mined to maintain to the utmost their own monopoly of
power, and the entire exclusion of the Roman Catholics, who
formed the great mass of the population, from any parti¬
cipation of it. The increasing hostility of both parties
showed itself by acts of augmented atrocity on both sides.
The Defenders’ means of aggression were nocturnal plun¬
der, house-burnings, and murders. The other party,
backed by the sanction of the government, had recourse to
the force of statutes of increased rigour, and, where these
failed, to the agency of military violence beyond the law.
In the year 1796 the organization of the united system on
the one side, and on the other the increased severities of
the Orangemen, supported by the government, and directed
exclusively against the Catholic peasantry, compelled the
leaders of the people to press upon the French government
the necessity of an immediate invasion. In consequence of
their repeated and urgent applications, aided by the exer¬
tions of Wolf lone, who, since his departure from Ireland,
had devoted himself to this object, a large armament was
equipped in the western ports of France, for the avowed
purpose of invading Ireland. The command of it was in¬
trusted to Hoche, then considered as the first officer of the
time. Taking advantage of a storm which drove the block¬
ading squadron of England off the coast, a large fleet sailed
from Brest under his command in the middle of December;
but the same violence of weather which afforded it the oppor¬
tunity of eluding the vigilance of the British navy dispersed
it when at sea, insomuch that but a part of the armament ar¬
rived on the coast of Ireland. Having lain for some time
in Bantry Bay undiscovered by the enemy, waiting the
arrival of the general, who had embarked in a frigate, and
finding the further continuance on the station every day
more precarious, it departed, contrary to the pressing re¬
monstrances of Wolf Tone, and returned to Brest, whither
the remainder of the fleet soon afterwards arrived, with the
loss of a few ships. A second expedition from the Dutch
coast was equally unsuccessful. The possibility of an in¬
vasion being thus demonstrated, and the probability of its
ultimate success, if effected on a great scale, being appre¬
hended in the present excited state of the public mind, the
government had recourse to still stronger measures to put
down the spirit of insurrection. The habeas corpus act
was suspended, domiciliary visits throughout the country
j’arts were frequent, meetings of the people were dispersed
by violence, torture was inflicted to force confession from
suspected persons, and bodies of soldiery were allowed to
hve at free quarters in suspected districts. The relaxation of
iscipline and consequent outrages arising from these prac¬
tices caused General Abercromby, who came over to take
t e command of the army at this juncture, to declare, in ge¬
neral orders to the troops, that “ the army was in a state of
icentiousness which rendered it formidable to every one but
the enemy.” The announcement was as unpalatable as it w as
ars . The general was recalled. General Lake was sent in
is place. By his commands the soldiery exercised an almost
uncontrolled authority, in which they were sanctioned byin-
s inctions from the government empowering the army to use
orce at the discretion of the officers against the people. At
e same time the strength of the United Irish Association
as considerably impaired by the arrest or flight of the ex-
^cu ive, caused by the treachery of some of their ow n body.
^ circumstance, however, produced no despondency.
n f ie contrary, it led to increased exertion. A new ex-
cu ive was formed, and a resolution adopted to press for-
ar ^‘le insurrection without waiting for French assist-
vol. XU. &
385
ance. A second act of treachery baffled this effort. Twelve History,
of the leading members of the United Irishmen were seized, y-w
w ith their papers, whilst in committee. A third act of treach¬
ery led to the disclosure of the details of the plans. Cap¬
tain Armstrong, of the king s county7 militia, entered the
association for the purpose of betraying its leaders. By his
information two barristers of the name of Sheares, brothers,
w ere anested; and shortly afterwrards, Lord Edward Fitz¬
gerald, a brother of the Duke of Leinster, to whom the
chief command of the insurrection had been intrusted, was
seized in his place of concealment in Dublin, and carried to
prison, where he soon after died either of his wounds or
from his treatment whilst there. Notwithstanding these
checks, the insurrection exploded at the time arranged by
its leaders. On the evening of the 23d of May, the United
Irishmen assembled in large bodies in the neighbourhood
of Dublin and the adjoining counties. The warnings pre¬
viously given to government were sufficient to provide
against the intended attack upon the capital. The parties
collected in its neighbourhood w7ere easily dispersed, w ith
the loss only of a few lives. Unfortunately the same vigi¬
lance did not extend to the more distant parts. The sig¬
nal for commencing operations on the side of the insur¬
gents was to be the non-arrival of the mail coaches at their
respective places of destination. The northern and west¬
ern mail coaches were stopped. The town of Naas was
attacked, but, ow ing to an anonymous warning, the garrison
was prepared, and the assault was repelled. Unsuccessful
attacks were also made on Carlow, Hacketstown, and Mo-
nasterevan. A large body which had assembled on the
hill of Tarah was routed with much slaughter. The ope¬
rations of the army were seconded by the most violent acts
on the part of the government. Several of the leaders who
had been previously seized were tried and executed. Num¬
bers arrested on suspicion were brought to places prepared
for the purpose, and there tied up and flogged, to extort
confession. The principal places in Dublin for these in¬
quisitorial executions w ere the Royal Exchange, the Old
Custom-House, the Prevot Barrack, and a riding house
belonging to a cavalry corps commanded by one of the
Beresfbrd family. The atrocities practised in the capital
under the sanction of the government were improved upon
in the country parts, where the military, to whom full li¬
cense was permitted, by putting the country under mar¬
tial law, not only adopted the same method of extorting
confession, but used others of more refined agony to elicit
discoveries or to gratify revenge. In some cases they
hanged up their victim, and let him down again just before
life was extinct; thus repeating at pleasure the sufferings
of strangulation. On the heads of others they applied caps
lined with heated pitch, which, when fastened on, and al¬
lowed to cool, were suddenly torn off, carrying with them
the hair and skin. In the spirit of fiendish mockery, they
cut ridges in the hair of others, in the form of a cross, and
filling up the furrow7 with gunpowder, set fire to it. On
the first breaking out of the rebellion, a number of sus¬
pected persons, some of them respectable farmers, who
had been confined in a racket-court at Hacketstown, were
deliberately shot, without even the form of trial, on the
removal of the troops from that place, lest they should
join the rebel camps. A similar massacre was perpetrated
at Dunlavin. fhe insurgents of Kildare, finding them¬
selves defeated in almost every assault upon the king’s troops,
came forward to surrender on promise of pardon. Many
laid down their arms, and were permitted to disperse in
safety. But a large body of them, assembled for the same
purpose, was unexpectedly attacked by a detachment of
the military, who had not been made acquainted with the
arrangement, and cut to pieces.
The system of torture was carried by the soldiery into
the county of Wexford, which had hitherto remained quiet.
3 c
386
IRELAND.
History. Here the insurgents were more successful. After cutting
to pieces a detachment of cavalry from Dublin, and ano¬
ther of infantry and artillery from Duncannon Fort, and
taking Enniscorthy by storm, they seized on the town of
Wexford, which had been evacuated on the first alarm by
the military. Having established themselves here, and at
Vinegar Hill, an eminence near Enniscorthy, they remained
comparatively quiet, being chiefly occupied in putting to
death prisoners charged with having been active in the
cruelties practised upon the insurgents. Their first se¬
rious defeat was at New Ross, from which they were re¬
pulsed after a sanguinary contest of ten hours. In revenge
for this defeat, a party of the fugitives set fire to a barn
at Scullabogue, in which upwards of an hundred of their
prisoners were confined, all of whom were either burned, or
piked in attempting to escape from the flames. The same
impulse of sanguinary despair caused the insurgents in
Wexford to put their prisoners to death, by piking them
on the bridge, and flinging their bodies into the sea ; a pro¬
cess of cruelty continued for several days, notwithstanding
the active interference and remonstrances of several of
their own clergy. At length, however, their main posi¬
tion at Vinegar Hill was invested by a large military force,
and stormed after a short resistance. Wexford soon after¬
wards fell into the hands of the royal troops, having sur¬
rendered without resistance, on conditions which were im¬
mediately violated. The leaders of the insurrection who
had not fallen in the field were executed by court-martial,
and the insurrection in this and the neighbouring county
of Wicklow totally suppressed.
The news of the first successes of the insurgents in
Wexford caused a rising in the counties of Antrim and
Down, which had remained passive on the first breaking
out of the insurrection in Kildare. But it was speedily
put down after a battle in the town of Antrim, and another
at Ballynahinch, in both of which the insurgents, who dis¬
played much courage, but no military skill, were totally
defeated. The marauding parties, who still harassed the
country after the dispersion of the main bodies, were
ultimately broken up by the prudent and merciful conduct
of Lord Cornwallis. This nobleman, who succeeded Earl
Camden as lord-lieutenant, not only put an instant stop to
the system of torture and extermination which had been
adopted and perseveringly acted on by his predecessor,
but issued an amnesty to all who submitted and returned
to their dwellings. This merciful policy had its full effect;
and the country, after being convulsed for two months by
the deadly struggles of the contending parties, entertained
the hope of being restored to tranquillity, when the pro¬
spect was suddenly overcast. Towards the close of sum¬
mer, a small French squadron landed a force of about
twelve hundred men at Killala, in the west of Ireland.
Humbert, the general, being joined by a number of the in¬
habitants, pressed on to Castlebar, where a force of from
five to six thousand men under General Lake was posted
to oppose him. This force was taken by surprise, and
routed almost without firing a shot. The French then
proceeded to Coolooney, where they received a tempo¬
rary check from a party of the Irish militia, which made a
gallant stand against superior numbers ; and thence pro¬
ceeded, followed by General Lake, into the county of
Longford. Having arrived at the village of Ballynamuck,
the French commander, finding himself surrounded by an
overwhelming majority of force, collected from all parts
by Lord Cornwallis, surrendered at discretion, leaving his
Irish auxiliaries to the mercy of the enemy. No quarter
was given to these. A second attempt at invasion, equally
feeble and futile, was made the following month. A small
squadron appeared off the northern coast, filled with troops
intended for disembarkation ; but it was routed by a su¬
perior English fleet, with the loss of one line-of-battle
ship and six frigates, in which were some of the expa- Hisio
triated Irish who were embarked in this desperate expedi- ''■'v *
tion. Amongst these was Wolfe Tone, who, on being
brought prisoner to Dublin, anticipated the sentence of a
court-martial by an act of suicide.
The explosion of the insurrection hastened on the steps
for effecting a legislative union, long a favourite measure
with the British minister. The intention was announced
in the lord-lieutenant’s speech at the opening of the par¬
liament in 1799. After a discussion of upwards of twenty-
four hours in the lower house, a resolution approving of
the principle was carried by two voices, a majority so
small that it was viewed on both sides as tantamount to
a rejection of the question. In a subsequent debate the
opinion of the house was more expressly declared against
it by a majority of five. The public discussion of the sub¬
ject being thus suspended by this expression of a majo¬
rity of the representatives of the people, the Irish go¬
vernment employed itself for a renewal of the effort, by
bringing into action every means of intimidation and in¬
fluence at its command. Public meetings convened to
express sentiments adverse to a closer connection with
Great Britain, were either prevented or dispersed by mili¬
tary authority ; tenders of honours and emoluments were
lavished upon all who possessed the means of influencing
the votes of members of the House of Commons. The
great body of the people were induced to give the measure
a tacit though reluctant assent, from a promise held out to
them of Catholic emancipation as its result. Confiding
in the success of these arrangements, Lord Castlereagh,
the Irish minister, revived the question early next session;
and, on a division, found himself at the head of a majority
of forty-two, notwithstanding the violent and impassioned
exertions of all adverse to the measure, which proceeded
even to a hostile collision between two of the leaders of
the contending parties, Mr Grattan, and Mr Corry, the
new chancellor of the exchequer, the latter of whom was
wounded on the occasion. The principle being thus ad¬
mitted, the details were easily arranged, as they had been
settled by the British parliament during the late session;
so that at the close of the year the two separate parlia¬
ments of Great Britain and Ireland were dissolved, never
to meet again, and a proclamation issued for the assem¬
bling of an imperial parliament in January 1801. The
principal articles of this international treaty are,—1. The
permanent union of the two kingdoms into one, under the
name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire¬
land. 2. The succession to the throne to continue limit¬
ed as at present. 3. The kingdom to be represented by
one parliament, to be called the Parliament of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 4. Twenty-eight
peers temporal elected for life, and four spiritual peers suc¬
ceeding each other by a rotation of sessions, were admit¬
ted into the House of Lords; one hundred representa¬
tives, two for each county, two for Dublin city, two for
Cork city, and one each for thirty-one towns and the uni¬
versity, were to be elected into the lower house. 5. The
churches of England and Ireland were to be united into
one, to be called the United Church of England and Ire¬
land, the doctrine, worship, and discipline of which was to
be the same as that established for the Church ol Eng¬
land. 6. The subjects of Great Britain and Ireland were
to be placed on the same footing as to manufactures, trade,
and commerce. 7. The contribution of each portion of
the empire towards the general expenditure was to be in
the proportion of fifteen to two between Great Britain
and Ireland for twenty years; after which, to be regu¬
lated at the discretion of parliament. 8. The existing
laws and courts of justice in each island were to continue
as heretofore, except that appeals from the Irish chancery
were to be brought before the House of Lords in England.
IRELAND.
Utory. The style of the king was in consequence changed to that
of king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire¬
land, and the blazoning of the royal standard was altered
accordingly.
The act of union, after it had been carried by an un¬
precedented combination of corruption and intimidation,
did not at once produce the results promised by its ad¬
vocates. It neither tranquillized the country, nor aided
the consolidation of its resources. The Protestants, who
constitute the aristocracy, found their influence diminished
by it. The Catholics soon discovered the hopelessness
of the expectation of being thereby admitted to the rights
of freemen. When the question of their emancipation
was about to be made an object of discussion, it was now
for the first time publicly announced that the king had
insuperable objections to the measure. The consequence
was a change of ministry, which was followed up by' legis¬
lative measures of great severity towards Ireland, founded
on a suspected apprehension of the existence of a secret
spirit of disaffection there. Martial law was re-enacted,
and the acts for the suspension of the habeas corpus,
and for preventing seditious meetings, were revived.
These measures of prospective severity did not prevent
* the mischiefs apprehended. In 1803, less than three
years after the passing of the act, an insurrection, devised
and matured by a gentleman of the name of Robert Em¬
mett, the younger brother of a barrister of the same name
who had expatriated himself in consequence of the lead¬
ing part he had taken in the proceedings of the United
Irishmen, broke out in the city of Dublin. Its explosion
was so sudden and unexpected, that no suspicions, at
least none strong enough to lead to the adoption of mea¬
sures of precaution, were entertained by the government.
Soon after sunset on the 23d of July, Mr Emmett, at the
head of a number of his followers, armed chiefly with
pikes, issued from a depot established by him in an ob¬
scure street in the west of Dublin, and after cutting down
some of the military who were proceeding individually to
their several quarters, moved towards the Castle, the main
object of attack, when his followers were delayed by the
approach of Lord Kilwarden’s carriage. This nobleman,
who had been chief justice of the King’s Bench during the
late troublous times, was coming' into Dublin as a place
of security, in consequence of a rumour of a rising hav¬
ing reached him in his villa, a few miles from town. On
being recognised, he was immediately assailed, mortally
wounded, and lingered only about two hours. His last
words were, an entreaty that none engaged in the insur¬
rection should be put to death without trial. His daugh¬
ter and his nephew accompanied him in his carriage ; the
latter was killed on the spot, the former was allowed to
pass unmolested through the crowd, every one exclaim¬
ing that the lady must be spared. The arrival of two
small piquets immediately dispersed the collected multi¬
tude, with the loss of a few lives. Emmett, on finding the
failure of his scheme, escaped to the neighbouring moun¬
tains, where he was soon afterwards taken, brought to trial,
and executed. Thus died a young man of good family, su¬
perior talents, and enthusiastic zeal for the independence
of his country, through a deplorable error of judgment, in
endeavouring to attain an object in itself so honourable,
by means totally inadequate to its magnitude, and attain¬
able through a frightful expenditure of human life. A
similar attempt at insurrection was arranged in the north
of Ireland by an associate of Emmett, of the name of Rus¬
sell. It was discovered before the time fixed for its ex¬
plosion. Measures of prevention were adopted, and its
leader, being soon afterwards taken in his place of conceal¬
ment in Dublin, was also executed. The whole transaction
was but the act of an hour; its only permanent conse¬
quence the revival of statutes of extreme severity, which,
387
by placing the people beyond the protection of the usual History,
course of law, served to foster in the mind the seeds of w
discontent and disaffection, which it was the professed ob¬
ject of such legislation to extinguish.
The agitation of the feelings of mutual irritation between
the two great parties in Ireland, arising from the late insur¬
rection, had not sufficiently subsided to admit of the most
distant hope that the Catholic claims would receive the
slightest attention in parliament until 1805. Even then,
so powerful was the party adverse to the entertaining of
the question in any manner, that motions for a committee
on the petitions of the Catholics presented in that year
were rejected in both houses by overwhelming majorities.
Even a bill, which asked no more than to put Roman Catho¬
lic officers in the army on the same footing in the English
as they were in the Irish service, brought in by the then
ministry, led to a dissolution, both of the administration
and of the parliament, in consequence of the king’s aver¬
sion to it. For several years afterwards, the question was
periodically mooted in one or both houses of parliament,
and uniformly rejected, though on each subsequent occa¬
sion by a diminished majority against it. In 1811, so
little were the rights of conscience respected, so little re¬
gard was paid to the religious feelings of Catholics, that
soldiers of that persuasion were sentenced to do duty
with their coats turned, in consequence of having attend¬
ed at the public worship of their own church. The ef¬
fect of the punishment was directly the reverse of that
intended. Such a wanton insult on the feelings of the
great body of the people excited universal disapproba¬
tion, and an order was issued, not merely to permit the
Catholic soldiery to be present at their own places of
worship, but to take care that they should proceed thither
in military order.
The Catholic committee, which had sat under various
names and forms from time to time ever since its original
institution in 1756, having, in 1811, proposed to assemble
by delegation in Dublin, steps were taken by the govern¬
ment to put it down, as being contrary to the convention
act, which prohibited such assemblages, and one of the mem¬
bers, Dr Shendan, was prosecuted ; but, in consequence of
his acquittal by a Dublin jury, no further proceedings were
then taken. About the same period the exacerbation be¬
tween the members of the two great parties, the Orange¬
men on one side, and the Catholics on the other, led to
frequent personal collisions among the lowTer classes, which
terminated in bloodshed in several places. In 1817 public
opinion had advanced in favour of the Catholic claims so
far as to admit of the question of securities being a topic
of discussion both in and out of parliament. The royal
exertion of a veto in the nomination of the Catholic hie¬
rarchy was now the great point. A letter on the subject
from M. Quarantotti, president of the sacred missions at
Rome, to Dr Poynter in England, in favour of it, excited
much controversy. The general feeling of the Catholics
of Ireland against any ministerial interference with the mi¬
nisters of their religion was decisive and strongly marked.
The question therefore was dropped.
During these protracted and angry discussions, it was
not to be expected that the internal prosperity of the coun¬
try could have increased. On the contrary, the sanguine
anticipations of the advocates of the union, as to its good
effects on the great interests of Ireland, were so far from
being realized, that, in 1817, the public debt of the coun¬
try had increased to such a magnitude as to threaten a na¬
tional bankruptcy, which was averted only by the consoli¬
dation of the exchequers of the two great parts of the em¬
pire ; Great Britain thus being made responsible, if not for
the discharge of the principal, at least for the regular pay¬
ment of the interest, of the Irish debt. Three years after¬
wards, the failure of ten private banking-houses, one in
IRELAND.
388
History. Dublin, and the others in the south and west, caused a ge-
neral stagnation of trade. The greatest distress among the
working classes was the consequence. In 1821 the king
(George IV.) proposed to visit Ireland, with the view, as
was universally understood, of establishing, by his personal
interference, a bond of amicable relations between all classes
of Irishmen. He landed on his birth-day, was enthusias¬
tically received, entered Dublin with a splendid retinue,
visited all the public institutions, conferred some honours,
and, after a visit of about six weeks, spent partly in the
metropolis, partly at the mansion of the Marquis of Co-
nyngham, in the county of Meath, he quitted the country,
as he had entered it, amidst the acclamations of congre¬
gated thousands. Previously to his departure, a letter was
issued by his order, expressive of his gratification at the re¬
ception he had met with, and of his desire of the mutual
good will of his subjects. But his visit effected nothing.
The remedy was too superficial, too evanescent, to effect a
cure ; the cause of irritation remained still untouched, rank¬
ling in the heart’s core of the community. Shortly after
his departure, the feud that had been lulled by respect and
expectation broke out anew. Catholics and Orangemen
were again opposed to each other. The insurrection act
was again called for, and granted. In 1822, the failure of
the crops produced a state of destitution truly appalling.
It was relieved by the generous exertions of the people of
Great Britain, who, when informed of the exigency of the
case, through the instrumentality of Mr J. Smith, a London
banker, and member of parliament, came forward with a
liberality of contribution, which, aided by the efforts of the
governmeht, thus directed to the knowledge of the exist¬
ence of an evil that it ought to have foreseen, checked the
consequences of extreme famine.
In 1823 the Catholic question began to assume a new
and more imposing form. Its change of character was ow¬
ing to Mr Daniel O’Connell, a barrister, who, after having
signalized himself on his first entrance into political life by
his energetic and eloquent protest against the extinction of
the parliament of Ireland, had been subsequently an active
and most influential actor in all the proceedings of the Ca¬
tholic body. Deploring, alongst with his friend and coad¬
jutor in political action Mr Shiel, the state of torpid depres¬
sion in which the question now seemed sunk, he suggested
the revival of a central body to advocate and manage their
cause, planned its details, and commenced its organization.
The first meeting of this body, so soon, under the name of
the Catholic Association, to be the acknowledged organ of
the public sentiment of the greater part of the population
of Ireland, commenced in a meeting of three individuals,
of whom O’Connell himself and Sheil were two. Its dis¬
tinguishing characteristics were the exclusion of any thing
savouring of delegation, a strict adherence to the letter of
any law that had been or might be enacted in order to stifle
the expression of the sentiments of the Catholics, and, above
all, the admission of the great body of the people into it.
This last element of its constitution was finally secured
and firmly grafted into it, after a precarious struggle for
existence for some time, by a pecuniary contribution, which
Mr O’Connell, its inventor, as sagaciously as quaintly de¬
nominated “ the Catholic rent.” By this every Catholic
was called upon to subscribe at least one penny per month
to defray the expenses of the association, and thereby be¬
came a member of it. These expenses were far from in¬
considerable. They were applied partly to protect poor
Catholics from the petty persecutions of intolerant magis¬
trates and landlords, partly to meet the general expenditure
of the association, whose communications with all parts of
the country could not otherwise be effectively carried on,
and partly for the gratuitous circulation, throughout every
part, of a newspaper, containing a detail of all the proceed¬
ings and debates of the association. Opportunities soon
presented themselves of displaying the powers of the orga- Histt
nization thus devised. The first was the consequence of Wy (
an act passed for its suppression, which, from its severity,
was nick-named “ the Algerine act.” Its operation was so
parried by the ingenious management of the association,
as to render it ineffective, and the association continued to
meet in open submission to its provisions, but in virtual
defiance of them. The second was, if not more effective,
certainly more imposing. The county of Waterford had
for more than seventy years been represented by a mem¬
ber of the Beresford family. On the dissolution of parlia¬
ment in 1826, the Catholic, or as they now began to style
themselves, the liberal party, resolved to throw off the yoke
to which they had tamely submitted for nearly a century,
and to send into parliament a representative of their own
choice, without regard to any accustomed rules of family
claims or rights of landlords. Mr Stewart, a young gentle¬
man of large fortune, then travelling on the Continent,
was invited to stand as candidate. He obeyed the call,
and in a few weeks arrived in Waterford. The prepara¬
tions for a contest were at first disbelieved or derided by
the county aristocracy. So far were the landlords from an
apprehension of a disruption of the old bond by which they
heretofore held their tenantry engaged to obey their dic¬
tates in the choice of a representative, that the Duke of
Devonshire, who, though, as a liberal, he would not openly
take part with the Beresfords, yet wished to maintain the
long-established custom of the tenants’ subserviency, de¬
clared, that “ though, from respect to the constitutional
rights of the people, he refused as a peer to interfere with
the votes of his fifty-pound freeholders, he expected of
course that his forty-shilling freeholders would abstain from
giving their votes to either of the rival candidates.” His
dictation was to no purpose. When the day of election
arrived, his as well as all the other Catholic tenantry voted
for the new candidate, so that at the close of the fifth day’s
poll the brother of the Marquis of Waterford, hitherto the
undisputed nominee of the family, relinquished the contest
in despair. The example of Waterford was followed in
Louth, Monaghan, and Westmeath, in each of which coun¬
ties popular feeling triumphed over family influence in the
choice of a representative.
The dissolution of Mr Canning’s ministry by the unex¬
pected death of its leader, and the formation of that of the
Duke of Wellington, gave a character of increased energy
to the Catholic struggle. Mr Canning had appointed the
Marquis of Anglesey to be lord-lieutenant. The senti¬
ments of this nobleman upon the Catholic question were
little known ; but the apprehensions of his hostility enter¬
tained by many on his firsL arrival were quickly dissipated.
The association was not suppressed, coercive statutes were
not called for ; the people were suffered to discuss and to
petition without official interruption, as long as they re¬
strained themselves within the limits prescribed by law.
On the Duke of Wellington’s succession to power, he was
universally believed to be decidedly and irreclaimably ad¬
verse to concession. One of the first measures then ta¬
ken by the Catholics, was the adoption of pledges to be
given by every candidate, on an election, to oppose his ad¬
ministration. These pledges were intended for the next
general election. An earlier opportunity of trying their
efficacy presented itself. A vacancy was occasioned in the
representation of Clare, by one of the county representa¬
tives, Mr Vesey Fitzgerald, accepting a place in the ca¬
binet. Mr Fitzgerald had always been an advocate for
Catholic emancipation ; he was a resident landed proprie¬
tor, of amiable manners ; and his father had resigned a lu¬
crative post at the bar rather than vote against the feelings
of the country on the question of the union. But he was
the nominee of the Duke of Wellington, the reputed ene¬
my of the Catholics. He therefore came within the mean-
IRELAND.
istorv. ing of the pledges, and was to be rejected if the Catholic
power in Clare was sufficient for the effort. A new diffi¬
culty presented itself. The candidate chosen by the people
refused to stand in opposition to Mr Fitzgerald. The day
of election was hastening on. No other suitable resident
was to be found to supply his place. In this emergency Mr
O’Connell, the leader of the Catholic body, the founder of
the Catholic Association, stood forward and offered himself.
The result was the same as at Waterford. The election
terminated in an overwhelming yet peaceful triumph. Mr
O’Connell was the acknowledged representative of the
county of Clare, the first Catholic returned to sit in the
imperial parliament of Great Britain.
For some time previous to this event, the Orange or
anti-catholic party, alarmed at the rapid progress of their
antagonists, and the high position they were on the point
of attaining, had banded themselves into a new^ system of
counter-association, under the name of Brunswick Clubs,
the avowed object of which was to resist any further con¬
cessions to the Catholics. Both parties now every day pre¬
sented more and more the aspect of uncompromising hostili¬
ty. Their speeches assumed the character of mutual de¬
nunciation. The arm of each was all but lifted up. Each
seemed to wait only that his antagonist might strike the
first blow, and be the first to outstep the bounds of con¬
stitutional resistance. In this awful pause, the liberal Pro¬
testants, who had hitherto advocated, mildly, if not timid¬
ly, the cause of the Catholics, felt that their own safety and
that of their common country required more decided mea¬
sures. Mr John David Latouche, a banker in Dublin, the
head of a family long known and respected for extensive
benevolence and liberal political sentiments, prepared a
declaration expressive of the necessity of parliament taking
the whole subject into its immediate consideration, with a
view to its final and conciliatory adjustment. Copies of
this declaration were circulated throughout all parts, and in
a singularly short period it received the signatures of sixty-
nine peers, either Irish, or holders of large properties in
Ireland, and upwards of two thousand other landed proprie¬
tors. At this crisis the Marquis of Anglesey was suddenly
and angrily recalled, in consequence, as was universally
believed, of his recommendation to the Catholics, express¬
ed in a letter to their primate, of peaceful but determined
perseverance in the pursuit of their rights. An impres¬
sion now prevailed amongst parties that this act was de¬
cisive as to the Duke of Wellington’s determination to
resist all concession. The Brunswick Club held its meet¬
ing in Dublin. Its bearing was that of boldness and de¬
fiance. The liberal Protestants, who had as yet assum¬
ed no specific title of recognition, determined on an an¬
tagonist meeting. It was held in January, and was even
more numerously attended than its most zealous devisers
had anticipated. Petitions to the king and both houses of
parliament for the total repeal of all the laws disqualifying
the Catholics were adopted; and the basis was laid for the
formation of a society of united Protestants and Catholics,
for the attainment of civil and religious liberty, under the
name of the Irish Association. The unexpected change in
the measures of the king’s government towards Ireland
rendered any further progress in these projected plans
unnecessary. The Catholic emancipation bill passed on
the 13th of April 1829, clogged indeed with two provisos
not quite in unison with the spirit of liberality that mark¬
ed its main enactments. The one was general in its ob¬
ject, the disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders ;
the other was personal, excluding Mr O’Connell, not by
name, but virtually, from the seat to which he had been
nominated at the late Clare election. The latter excep¬
tion proved altogether futile. Mr O’Connell was again
jeturned at the next election. The attainment of Catho-
m emancipation was followed by a loud though not uni-
389
yersal demand for the repeal of the legislative union, and Statistics,
tor the abolition of tithes; an impost considered as de-
grading in principle, as it was felt to be oppressive in
the mode in which it was levied. The reform question
also was added to the number of stimulants of the public
mind. This last-named subject of irritation has been laid
at rest in a manner not so satisfactory to Ireland as to
the other great divisions of the empire, but so as to lead
to reasonable hopes of its progressive efficacy. The ques¬
tion of repeal has been silenced as far as can be done by
an authoritative declaration of one, and that one the more
powerful, of the parties interested in its decision ; the tithes
still remain a question, no longer of Irish, but of imperial
interest.
STATISTICS.
The island of Ireland is of a rhomboidal shape, having Dimen-
its longer sides nearly in the direction of the meridian^ sions.
and its shorter from south-west to north-east. It lies be¬
tween the latitudes of 51. 26. and 55. 20. north, and the
longitudes of 5. 28. and 10. 28. west. In the direction of
its greater diagonal, from Browhead in the south to Fair-
head in the north-east, it measures 306 miles. Its ex¬
treme length, from its most southern point, already named,
to Walinhead, its most northern extremity, is 290 miles; its
greatest length on a meridian 235 miles. Its breadth where
greatest, measured from Emlagh-rash, in the peninsula of
the Mullet, to Killard Point, at the entrance of Strangford
Lough, is 182 miles; but its least breadth, from the eastern
side of Galway Bay, near Oranmore, to Ringsend, near
Dublin, is not more than 110 miles. The whole comprises
an area of 20,499,550 acres, or 320,312 statute miles. Se- Bounda-
parated from the adjacent island of Great Britain by anries.
arm of the sea not more than forty-nine miles across at its
southern extremity, and narrowing to twelve miles at the
north, but expanding in its intermediate space into the
Irish Sea, it is washed on its three other sides by the
Atlantic Ocean, whose waves have indented its western
and southern shores with many large bays and inlets,
trenching far into the country; so that the whole outline
of the coast, including that of the estuaries of the great
rivers, to the boundary of the tide, is estimated to measure
upwards of 2200 miles.
This extended line contains a great number of fine bar-Coasts,
hours and roadsteads. The eastern coast has but one ;
that of Strangford or Lough Cone, which forms a very
deep bay, with sufficient depth of water for every kind of
ship. The bays of Carrickfergus, Dundalk, and Carling-
ford, are adapted only for vessels of lesser draught; Dub¬
lin is so defective as to require the construction of two safe¬
ty harbours ; one to the north, at Howth, and the other to
the south, at Kingstown. The coast to the south of Dub¬
lin affords no shelter for large ships; Wicklow, Arklow,
and Wexford, admitting only vessels of very small size.
This part of the coast is also dangerous, from the shoals
which extend along it near the land. On the southern side
of the island is the fine estuary of Waterford, formed by
the confluence of the Suir, Nore, and Barrow. Here
ships of large burden can discharge at the quay of Water¬
ford. Farther on is Cork Harbour, securely land-locked
and protected by large batteries, and therefore chosen as
the principal naval station on the Irish coast in time of
war. Still farther are Baltimore Harbour, Long Island,
Skull, Cape Clear, Crookhaven, Dunmanus, and Bantry
Bay, all of sufficient depth and capacity for the largest
ships. A French fleet, designed for the invasion of Ire¬
land, lay in the last named of these in the winter of 1796.
Turning westward are Berehaven, Quoylagh Bay, Ken-
mare River, and Kilmichalog and Sneem Harbours, Valen-
390
IRELAND.
Statistics.
Islands.
tia, Ventry, Snierwick, and Brandon Bay. The estuary of the
Shannon contains several good stations. Farther north is
Galway Bay, also containing several smaller ones; Casheen,
Kilkerran, and Roundstone Bays, the last of which is ca¬
pable of containing the whole navy of Britain ; Birter Bay,
Ardbear or Clifden, Cleggan Bay, Ballynakill and Killery
Harbours; Clew Bay, within which a numerous archipelago
of islets affords many safe stations. Proceeding still in a
northern direction is Blacksod Bay, Broadhaven, Killala
Bay, Killibegs Harbour, and Macswine’s Bay. On the
northern coast are Milroy Harbour, and the two fine gulfs
of Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle. The harbours and
inlets for the reception of smaller vessels are too nume¬
rous to admit of detailed enumeration. In short, there
are upwards of seventy harbours well suited for the gene¬
ral purposes of commerce, and fourteen capable of ac¬
commodating large naval armaments.
The islands near the shore are numerous, but few of
large size. Their total number is nearly an hundred and
fifty. Amongst the most remarkable are, on the north shore,
Rathlin or Raghery, celebrated for its basaltic formation ;
Tory, Ennisbofin, and the Rosses, the largest of which is
Arranmore. On the west, Enniskea, Achill, Clare, En¬
nisbofin, the southern islands of Arran at the entrance of
Galway Bay, the Blasquets, and Valentia. On the south
are Bear and Whiddy in Bantry Bay ; Cape Clear, long
supposed to be the most southern point of Ireland ; and
Cove Island, in Cork Harbour. The few islets on the
eastern coast are uninhabited, except one. The most re¬
markable of these are, Dalkey, Ireland’s Eye, Lambay,
the Skerries on the coast of Dublin, and the Coplands at
the entrance of Carrickfergus Bay. The population of all
the coast islands is estimated at 43,000 souls. They are
thus classed as to provinces.
Provinces.
Total
Number.
Inhabited. Population.
Leinster.. ..
Ulster 
Munster....
Connaught.
6
40
70
80
196
1
27
50
60
138
34
4,546
22,827
15,592
42,999
Surface. The surface of the country i«, generally speaking, plain,
yet not altogether level, but rising in most parts into hills
of small elevation. The most level parts are in the centre,
in a band extending across the island from Dublin to Gal¬
way, in which the land rises gradually from the coast, to a
height of 322 feet. The hill of Moat-a-Grenogue, in
Westmeath, is the highest point of the plain. Both in the
north and south the land rises into heights much greater,
but none of such elevation as to retain the snow during
any long period of the year; the most elevated point in
Ireland not attaining to the range of 3500 feet above the
Mountains, level of high water. The mountains form groups rather
than chains. The highest is in the west of Munster, the
next in height in Leinster, the third in Ulster, and the
fourth in Connaught. All are near the coast. IT6 com¬
parative altitudes of the highest points in each group are
as follows:
Munster, S. W. M‘Gillicuddy’s Reeks, Kerry.... 3410
Mangerton, Kerry  2693
Leinster, S. E. Lugnaquilla, Wicklow  3070
Thonalagee, Wicklow  2696
Ulster, N. E. Slieve Donard, Down  2809
Connaught, N. W. Muilrea, Mayo  2737
Croaghpatrick, Mayo  2660
Nephin, Mayo  2630
Furmnagur, Mayo...  2569
The largest river is the Shannon, which, rising in the Statist
mountains in the confines of Fermanagh and Leitrim, flows j
through Lough Allen, and thence in a south-western di--^iver
rection, separating Connaught from Leinster, till, arriving
at Limerick, it turns westward, and discharges itself into
the Atlantic, through a fine estuary, which, at its entrance
between the capes of Loophead and Kerryhead, is eight
miles wide. It is navigable for large vessels to Limerick,
near which its course is checked by natural obstacles. Du¬
ring its passage from Lough Allen to Limerick it expands
into the large lakes of Lough Reagh, fifteen miles, and
Lough Dearg, twenty-one miles, in length. Each of these
is narrow, and studded with numerous islets. The Black-
w^ater rises near Charleville, and, flowing south-eastwards,
discharges itself into the Atlantic at Youghal, after form¬
ing the boundary between the counties of Cork and Wa¬
terford. Between the latter county and that of Wexford
is the estuary of the Suir, the Nore, and the Barrow,
all of which have their sources not far from each other in
the central range of the Slievebloom Mountains; and,
after diverging so that their streams enrich a great por¬
tion of the provinces of Leinster and Munster, unite again
near the city of Waterford. The Slaney rises in the
mountains of Wicklow, and empties itself into St George’s
Channel at W'exford. The Boyne, famous for its histo¬
rical recollections as well as for its natural advantages,
has its sources in the central elevated plain of Leinster,
and, flowing north-eastwards, falls into the Irish Sea at
Drogheda. The Bann rises in the Mourne Mountains,
flows northwards through Lough Neagh, and, after sepa¬
rating the counties of Londonderry and Ant rim, flows into
the Atlantic at Coleraine. The Foyle is formed by the
union of the streams of the Poe, the Mourne, the Finn,
and the Derg* which, flowing from different parts of the
interior of Ulster, discharge their combined waters into
Lough Foyle near Londonderry. The Erne, which gives
vent to the waters of Lough Erne, has a short course to
the Atlantic westwards, checked by several ridges of rock,
which form fine falls. The other rivers, though nume¬
rous, amounting nearly to an hundred, are small, and mostly
confined to the counties that give them birth. The Lif-
fey, which rises in the mountain-land of W icklow, and,
after a circuitous course through Kildare, discharges itself
into the Irish Sea, is remarkable for little more than that
Dublin city, the metropolis of the island, is seated on its
banks.
The lakes are numerous. Lough Neagh, in Ulster, is the Lab
largest. It covers 97,272 acres at high-water mark. The
river Bann passing through it affords the means of lower¬
ing its surface, if such a process should be deemed advisa¬
ble ; but as its lowest part is beneath the level of low wa¬
ter, its total drainage would be impracticable. Tradition
states that it was once dry land; and the boatmen assert
that the tops of buildings may at times be seen in it. It
contains but one islet, Ram Island, remarkable only for a
round tower. Its vicinity to five of the most agricultural
and manufacturing counties of Ulster, Antrim, Down, Ar¬
magh, Tyrone, and Londonderry, each of which its waters
touch, present great advantages for internal trade by in¬
land navigation. This lake has long been celebrated for
its petrifying qualities, by which trunks of trees have been
converted into a siliceous substance. Lough Erne, the
next in size, lies wholly within the county of Fermanagh.
Its total length is upwards of forty miles, but its greatest
breadth is not more than eight. Strictly speaking, it con¬
sists of two lakes ; the more inland measuring about four¬
teen miles in length, and that nearer the sea twenty-five.
They are connected with one another by a narrow chan¬
nel, on which the town of Enniskillen is built. Its area
covers 48,797 acres, and it is adorned with upwards of
an hundred islets. The level of its waters is 140 feet
IRELAND.
I iatics. above the sea. Its coasts are studded with numerous
! seats and villas of much beauty. Lough Corrib and Lough
Mask, in the west of Connaught, are separated from each
other by an isthmus not more than three miles broad.
The former of these lakes is thirty miles long, and from
nine to ten broad in some places. It discharges its wa¬
ters into Galway Bay by a short but broad and rapid ri¬
ver, which skirts the town of Galway. Though its level
is but fourteen feet above that of the sea, the means of
connecting them by water communication has not yet
been effected. Lough Mask is of smaller dimensions,
and has attached to it Lough Gara, still more diminutive.
Farther north is the narrow lake of Lough Conn, fourteen
miles long. The other lakes are too numerous, and not
of sufficient importance as to size or local peculiarity, to
admit of a detailed description. Most of them lie in the
central plain, particularly in the counties of Cavan, West¬
meath, and Longford. From this sweeping exclusion
a few must, however, be excepted. Lough Lane, or the
Lake of Killarney, in Kerry, has long been celebrated for
its picturesque scenery. The tract of water distinguished
by this name consists of three parts, connected by short
straits. Lough Derg, in the south of Donegal, is small,
but of great celebrity from an islet in it called St Patrick’s
Purgatory, which has been resorted to from time imme¬
morial as a place of penance by pilgrims of the Roman
Catholic persuasion. Several attempts have been made
to put an end to the religious ceremonies performed
there, but without success. It still continues to be visit¬
ed by multitudes of strangers from all parts, from a re¬
liance on its supernatural qualities. This lake is not to be
confounded with the Lough Dearg already noticed as lying
on the course of the Shannon. Lough Gill in Sligo, Lough
Shellin to the north of Meath, and Lough Oughter in Ca¬
van, are also worthy of notice for their scenic beauties.
■ -sts. Ireland was once so thickly covered with timber as to
receive the name of the Island of Woods. During the
early periods of its connection with England, its exten¬
sive and impenetrable forests formed a main obstacle to
the progress of the English troops. Westminster Hall is
said to be roofed with oak cut in the woods of Shillelagh.
Numerous trunks of large trees are constantly found in
the bogs. Even in mountain tracts devoted for a long
succession of years to the pasturage of sheep, timber trees
shoot up spontaneously wherever the land is secured from
the intrusions of cattle. Many places, where the vestige
of a plantation is not to be seen, retain a name of which
the word “ wood” forms a component part. The extension
391
of agricultural improvement, and more especially the tim- Statistics,
ber act, which gives the tenant, at the expiration of his
lease, a pecuniary interest in the trees he has planted, are
gradually removing this defect, the consequence of ages
of disturbance and desolation.
To the same cause may be attributed in a great mea- Bog.
sure the extent of bog with which the face of the country
is disfigured. The bogs are chiefly found in the elevated
central district. Two lines drawn across the island, the
one from Howth to Sligo, the other from Wicklow to Gal¬
way, will comprehend by much the greater portion of bog
throughout the island. The total quantity, independent¬
ly of small mountainous and detached patches, has been
thus estimated:
Flat red bog, capable of being reclaim¬
ed 1,576,000 acres.
Mountain bog, mostly convertible into
pasturage 1,255,000
2,831,000
The bogs are distinguished, according to their sub¬
stance, into red or fibrous, and black or compact. The
former, which consists chiefly of the Sphagnum palustre,
or bog-moss, is the most general. Its colour is of a reddish
brown, approaching when dry to that of an olive. Its sur¬
face is generally covered with heath, which gives it a still
darker hue. The black bog varies in colour from dark
brown to perfect black ; in which latter case it is extreme¬
ly hard and close grained, separating, when broken, into
angular fragments. On cutting downwards, the substance
grows denser and darker, exhibiting a black mass very
compact, strongly resembling pitch or coal, and when ig¬
nited emitting a smell so offensive as to prevent its gene¬
ral use as an article of fuel. The peat is found to rest on
a blue clay, and ultimately on limestone gravel. The
depth of the bogs in some places is nearly forty feet;
twenty-five may be considered as a general average. In
all cases they are found above the level of the sea. The
greatest height of any is 488 feet, the least 25; and they
invariably afford easy means of communication to some
river by which their superfluous waters can be carried off,
where draining is requisite for reclaiming them.
The following table exhibits the area of every county
of Ireland, according to a return made to the House of
Commons in 1832. It also contains an estimate of the
total value of the land, the average value per acre, and
a statement of the amount of county rates on an average
of the years 1830-1831.
392
IRELAND,
Statistics.
Counties.
Carlow 
Dublin 
Kildare 
Kilkenny....
King’s 
Longford....
Louth 
Meath 
Queen’s 
Westmeath.,
Wexford....
Wicklow....
Leinster.
Clare  
Cork 
Kerry 
Limerick..
Tipperary.,
Waterford.
Munster.
Antrim 
Armagh 
Cavan 
Donegal 
Down 
Fermanagh....
Londonderry.
Monaghan 
Tyrone 
Ulster
Galway 
Leitrim 
Mayo 
Roscommon.
Slum  
Connaught.
Ireland.
Cultivated
Land.
Acres.
196,833
237,819
325,988
417,117
394,569
192,506
191,345
561,527
335,838
313,935
545,979
400,704
Mountain
and Bog.
Acres.
23,030
10,817
66,477
96,569
133,349
55,247
14,916
5,600
60,972
55,982
18,500
94,000
Lakes.
Acres.
4,114,160
524,113
1,068,803
581,189
582,802
819,698
353,247
3,929,852
483,048
267,317
421,462
520,736
502,677
320,599
372,667
309,968
555,820
3,754,294
955,713
266,640
871,984
453,555
257,217
2,805,109
14,603,415
635,424
259,584
700,760
552,862
91,981
182,147
118,034
1,905,368
225,970
42,471
30,000
644,371
108,569
101,952
136,038
9,236
171,314
1,469,922
476,957
128,167
425,124
131,063
168,711
248
15,892
Total Con¬
tents.
16,334
32,474
18,655
14,669
11,328
44,652
49,790
18,394
21,987
158
48,797
9,565
7,844
27,261
183,796
1,430,022
5,440,736
77,922
25,568
57,940
24,787
8,260
194,477
455,399
Acres.
219,863
248,631
392,435
513,686
528,166
263,645
206,261
567,127
396,810
386,251
564,479
494,704
Total Esti¬
mated Value.
4,782,058
802,352
1,769,563
1,148,720
674,783
1,013,173
471,281
5,879,872
758,808
328,183
743,449
1,165,107
611,404
471,348
518,270
327,048
754,395
5,408,012
1,510,592
420,375
1,355,048
609,405
454,188
4,329,608
20,499,500
£
164,895
250,201
255,082
437,693
317,019
151,595
164,765
510,414
277,767
251,063
395,134
296,822
441,293
1,203,936
344,616
629,932
886,439
295,324
569,149
178,955
807,741
349,501
489,123
259,241
310,962
212,581
528,065
868,894
210,187
550,018
379,628
227,443
~ sc
<1> E
E E3
<D E
bc,rH
a df
o> o
County
Hates.
15
49
13
28
12
Hi
32-1-
18
14
13
14
12
11
21f
7i
33i
17l
1'2
26
15
17
13
6
16
11
12
13
14
£
10,326
36,150
18,904
19,268
15,095
10,215
11,694
25,724
19,556
15,735
33,728
18,650
,
Itfl
O "g
£ o
30,439
84,325
30,559
36,436
52,532
21,328
13i
10
8
121
10
43,720
23,655
23,852
24,606
37,471
16,795
24,849
19,643
42,893
34,172
14,091
21,724
23,070
19,224
31
30
25
17
15
29
32
13
24
26
14
18
7
1
5
10
6
21
8
27
19
4
11
20
16
28
9
2
23
3
12
22
! 2 ^
°12
£ 3
30
29
22
16
18
31
32
7
21
24
9
17
10
1
6
5
4
20
13
26
15
11
12
23
19
25
8
2
27
3
14
28
Stati
V—V
The contents in acres of the following cities and towns,
each of which is a county in itself, are included in the
preceding table in the total contents of the county at
large, wherein they are situated. As the average value of
land in the counties of cities and towns exceeds consider¬
ably that of the county at large, a statement of it is an¬
nexed, together with that of the average of the county at
large, if taken without such additions:—
IRELAND.
393
itistics.
'Y"w'
City or Town.
Dublin city 
Kilkenny city 
Drogheda town 
Carrickfergus town.
Cork city 
Limerick city 
Waterford city 
Galway town 
Total Con¬
tents.
8,527
22,287
5,777
16,524
44,463
34,162
9,683
25,059
Estimated
Value.
34,108
44,574
14,402
12,406
66,694
85,405
18,366
18,894
Average
Value per
Acre.
s. d.
80 0
40 0
50 0
15 0
30 0
50 0
40 0
15 0
Countv.
Dublin ....
Kilkenny..
Louth 
Antrim 
Cork 
Limerick..
Waterford.
Galway 
Average
Value in
County per
Acre.
s. d.
18 0
16 0
15 0
15 0
13 6
17 0
12 0
11 6
Statistics.
logy. The great central plain, already described as containing
by much the larger portion of the bogs, rests on a subsoil
of flcetz limestone, which may be considered as in a great
measure the substratum of the whole island, as there is in
fact but one county, that of Wicklow, in which this rock,
either of primary or secondary formation, does not appear.
Secondary limestone is much more generally diffused, the
primary being found only in the counties of Antrim, Ty¬
rone, Donegal, Londonderry, Sligo, and Galway. The
mountainous district in the north consists of three groups
of different character. The first is that of the Mourne
Mountains, of which Slieve Donard is the summit. Gra¬
nite is the basis of this group, and of most of its subordi¬
nate branches. Hornblende and syenite frequently occur
in the borders of the granitic region. The mountainous
district in Londonderry and Tyrone, included between the
Roe and Mourne, two branches of the Foyle, constitute
the second northern group. Its formation is primitive.
Most of the country consists of mica slate, accompanied
with primitive limestone. In the eastern part is a range
of secondary hills, capped by an immense covering of ba¬
salt, which spreads itself over the north-eastern part of
Antrim. The third group is formed by the two chains
which the valley of the Bann passes through in its course
to the Atlantic. The formation is secondary, and is in¬
variably covered with masses of stratified basalt, in some
places exceeding 900 feet in thickness, but of an average
depth of 545 feet, and spreading over a surface of 800
square miles.
in Whin dykes have been found only in the northern re-
,-5, gion. Most of them are on the coast, none more than fif¬
teen miles ffom it. They are generally found in groups,
several lying within a short distance of each other. They
maintain a singular uniformity in their line of direction.
Iheir bearing is constantly ffom south-east to north-west.
Great diversity exists as to their width; that on Arrigle
Mountain rises perpendicularly, like a partition wall, to the
height of forty feet. Their depth has never been ascer¬
tained ; but it is observed that their sides never converge,
nor do they ever branch off into minute veins, or swell
into what are called, in the technical language of miners,
bellies.
alt. The same part of Ireland exhibits the only specimen of
columnar basalt to be found in the island. The Giant’s
Causeway, in the north of Antrim, is the most remarkable
specimen of it. It forms a low point, projecting into the
sea, and ultimately covered with water ; and consists wholly
of prismatic pillars of stone, of various angular forms, all
standing upright, each pillar being separated into pieces con¬
vex below and concave above, fitting into each other like a
pile of dinner-plates or saucers. Along the same shore the
precipices which overhang the sea present several other
instances of this kind of basalt, one end of which only is
^sible, the remainder being buried in the mountain. At
oon Point, in the island of Rathlin, on the same coast, is
VOL. XII.
another collection of columnar basalt, differing from that
on the main land by having the columns curved or horizon¬
tal, as if forced from their perpendicularity by a sudden
shock during the process of formation. Traces of a simi¬
lar columnar formation appear in other parts of the great
basaltic mass which covers most of the county of Antrim,
where the rock has been accidentally denuded of its sur¬
face soil.
Another granitic region shows itself to the south of the
great limestone plain in Wicklow, where it forms the base
of the mass of which that county is wholly composed,
whence it extends into the mountainous ridge between
Carlow and Wexford. The granite field is here bounded
on each side by clay slate, which constitutes the greater
part of the formation of the south-east and south of the
country. The total absence of metallic veins on the west¬
ern side of this granitic region, whilst they exist in abun¬
dance on the eastern, forms a singular feature of the dis¬
trict. The southern counties are chiefly a combination
of clay slate and red sandstone, the latter showing itself
mostly in the mountains. In the Slievebloom Mountains,
between the King’s and Queen’s Counties, the sandstone
bursts forth in the southern part of them from out of the
clay slate in which it is imbedded. To the north of these
mountains three insulated hills of sandstone rise out of
the limestone plain, at Moat-a-Grenogue, Ballymahon, and
Slieve Gouldry. The Galtees and Kilworth Mountains,
in Cork, are of sandstone. In Kerry the clay slate predo¬
minates, till it is lost in the limestone which occupies its
northern parts. In the west of Connaught the division
between the limestone and granitic district is distinctly
marked; a line from Galway to Oughterard designates
their respective limits. All to the north, spreading over
part of Mayo and Roscommon, is of the former; that to
the south and west is of the latter formation.
The following table exhibits a general view of the geo¬
logical features of the country, arranged according to the
great natural regions into which it may be divided :—
Northern Region.
Mica Slate—Donegal; Londonderry, west; Tyrone.
Flcetz Trap—Londonderry, east; Antrim, north.
Sandstone—Mayo, east; Sligo ; Roscommon ; Leitrim,
north ; Fermanagh ; Tyrone; Cavan, north ; Mo¬
naghan, north ; Armagh, north ; Antrim, south.
Clay slate—Monaghan, south ; Down ; Louth ; Longford,
north ; Cavan, south ; Armagh, south.
Granite—Down, south.
Coal—Antrim, north ; Tyrone ; Roscommon ; Leitrim.
Central Region.
Flcetz Limestone—Mayo, west; Leitrim, south; Long¬
ford, south; Westmeath; Meath; Galway, east; King’s;
Kildare, east; Dublin, north; Clare, west; Queen’s;
3 D
394
IRELAND.
Statistics. Kilkenny, north; Carlow, west; Limerick, north; Kerry,
north ; Cork, north.
Sandstone in the mountain ridges—Mayo; Leitrim ; Clare;
King’s ; Queen’s.
Clay Slate—Clare, east.
Granite—Galway, west.
Coal—Tipperary ; Queen’s ; Kilkenny.
Southern Region.
Sandstone in the mountain ridges—Kerry, south ; Lime¬
rick, south ; Cork ; Waterford ; Kilkenny, south.
Clay slate—Kerry, south ; Cork, south ; Waterford ; Wex¬
ford ; Wicklow, east and west; Dublin, south.
Granite—Carlow, east; Wicklow, central.
Coal—Cork ; Kerry.
Coal. By the preceding table it will be seen that coal exists in
each of the provinces ; that in the two southern being car¬
bonaceous or stone-coal, the slaty glantz-coal ot Werner;
that in the two northern provinces bituminous or blazing
coal. The most productive mines are those of Leinster,
which supply the surrounding country, and are conveyed
by the canal to more distant parts. The Munster collie¬
ries are considered as of the greatest extent and rich¬
ness, but their coal is less in demand, from the diffi¬
culty of conveyance, owing to the badness of the roads,
and the rugged nature of the country in which they are
lodged. The Tyrone coal is raised in quantities barely
sufficient for the demand of the immediate neighbour¬
hood. The Antrim collieries are scarcely worked. Those
of Connaught labour under the inconveniences already
pointed out respecting the collieries of Munster. I he
quantity supplied on the whole does not exclude the im¬
portation of British coal in large quantities, which is fre¬
quently preferred for culinary and domestic purposes, even
in the vicinity of the native collieries.
The following table, showing that the demand for Bri¬
tish coal increases with the increase of the population, is
a proof that the quantity of native coal raised is every
year less commensurate with the wants of the population.
Account of the Quantity of Coal sent to Ireland.
Mines.
Years. Tons.
1819  669,060
1820  606,400
1821  ...644,787
1822  694,024
1823  693,413
1824  691,429
Years. Tons.
1825 695,832
1826.... 779,584
1827  650,728
1828  740,071
1829  840,246
The scarcity of this valuable mineral is, however, am¬
ply compensated by the almost inexhaustible supply of
peat fuel raised from the bogs in every part of the country.
Notwithstanding repeated attempts, made at consider¬
able expense, to work the metallic mines discovered in
Ireland, few have been found sufficiently productive to
repay the outlay of capital employed on them. Gold was
discovered accidentally in the streams flowing from the
mountain of Croghan Kinselagh, in the confines of Wick¬
low and Wexford. Several of the peasantry having en¬
riched themselves by collecting it, the mine was taken
possession of, and wrought under the directions of the go¬
vernment ; but, after several years experience, the result
was found to be inadequate to the expenditure, and the
workings have been relinquished. The principal veins of
copper and lead have been found on the eastern side of
the granitic region of the county of Wicklow, the west¬
ern being without any. The copper mines of Cronebane
and Ballymurtagh were wrought with great effect for
some years. They are now less productive. A mine at
Bonmahon in Waterford, and another at Allihies in Cork,
are worked with much spirit; but as, from the want of Statist
a sufficient supply of native coal, the ore has to be ex- -v~
ported to Swansea to be smelted, the profit is much di¬
minished. Mines of copper at Cappagh, at Kenmare and
Ross Island in Kerry, and at Boulard in Galway, have all
been relinquished in consequence of the failure of timber
for fuel. Lead mines are more numerous and more pro¬
ductive. The principal are at Ballycorus, and Luganure
in Wicklowr, Kildrum in Donegal, Clea in Armagh, Came
in Wexford, Castlemaine and Kenmare in Kerry, and
Sheffry in Mayo. A rich vein of iron was worked at
Arigna, near Lough Allen, until stopped from the failure
of fuel. On the discovery of coal in the neighbourhood,
the workings were resumed with a reasonable prospect of
permanent profit; but this not having been fulfilled, the
workings have been again abandoned. Antimony has
been found at Castleshane, in Monaghan. Gypsum, ful¬
ler’s earth, manganese, and ochres of various kinds, have
been raised in many parts. Amethysts, chalcedony, and
garnets, have also been found. Transparent crystals are
met with frequently in Kerry. Several parts of Ireland
produce marble, in much demand for domestic purposes.
That of Kilkenny is of a deep black, mottled with white
spots, evidently the exuviae of marine shell-fish. The
marble of Armagh is red, and less susceptible of polish.
Galway contains several species; but the difficulty of
conveying it through a mountainous district makes them
little sought for. The most remarkable fossil remains Fossil
are those of the Elk or Moosedeer, celebrated for the
great size of the horns, one pair of which measured ten
feet ten inches from tip to tip. A complete skeleton
of this noble animal has not yet been found; but a fine
specimen, comprising most of the bones, is preserved in
the museum of Trinity College, Dublin. Mineral springs
are numerous, most of them are chalybeate. Those of
chief note for their medicinal qualities are Mallow in Cork,
resembling the hot wells in Bristol; Ballynahinch in Down,
and Golden bridge near Dublin, sulphureous and chaly¬
beate ; Swadlinbar in Cavan, and Lucan in Dublin, sul¬
phureous ; and Castleconnel near Limerick, chalybeate.
The prevalent soil is a fertile loam, resting on a rocky Soil,
substratum, chiefly of limestone. The depth, though in
general not great, is in some parts such as to admit of
fresh vegetable mould being repeatedly thrown up by suc¬
cessive ploughings to a greater depth. This occurrence is
most striking in Meath, and in the district of the counties
of Tipperary and Limerick, long distinguished by the name
of the Golden Yale, from its extraordinary fertility. In
some parts, particularly in Galway, the rock shows itself
above the surface in ridges like waves, the interstices being
filled with rich mould, which produces a thick, close sward,
extremely grateful to sheep. Large tracts of grazing land
similar to the Downs in England are unusual ; the only
tract of any extent of such description is the Curragh ot
Kildare, which has been used, time immemorial, for a sheep
walk. The mountains are capable of tillage to a consider¬
able height; and their summits, with the exception of a
few of the very highest, are fit for pasturage in summer.
The moisture of the climate, caused by the insular posi- dim ’•
tion of the country, and the prevalence of western and
southern winds, contributes its full share to the peculiar
adaptation of the soil for pasturage, insomuch so that its
perennial verdure has justly acquired it the poetical title of
the Emerald Isle. Neither does this peculiarity of climate,
which tends so powerfully to the increase of the agricultu¬
ral wealth of the country, detract from its salubrity, as is
apparent from the comparative ratios of length ot life in
Great Britain and Ireland; the proportion of persons above
an hundred years of age being in the former as •! to 10,000,
whilst in the latter it is as *5 to the same quantity. The
same proportion applied to the several provinces of Ire-
tistics.
mla-
IRELAND. 395
land, proves that the province of Connaught, confessedly
the most moist in climate, is also the most favourable to the
duration of human life. The ratios are as follow :—
Leinster ‘5 to 10,000
Ulster "3 to 10,000
Munster *5 to 10,000
Connaught ‘9 to 10,000
The same peculiarity of climate serves to account for the
absence of venomous reptiles. Snakes are unknown, as
are toads, unless, as is asserted by some zoologists, they
are to be seen occasionally in parts of Kerry, where they
are said to be distinguished by the name of creeping frogs.
Even this latter animal is not aboriginal. Its introduction
is no earlier than the last century, when, after the living
animal had been imported without success, it was after¬
wards propagated by means of spawn.
Previously to the calculations made by Sir William Petty
to ascertain the numbers of the inhabitants of Ireland, scarce¬
ly any data, even for a probable or conjectural estimate, ex¬
isted. The marks of the plough observable on the tops of
hills which have for many years been devoted to pasture
only, have been adduced as a proof that the superabundant
population of former ages compelled the farmers to have
recourse to the poorer ground there to raise a sufficiency of
grain; but the fact has been imputed, Avith equal shoAv of
probability, to the disturbed state of the country, when a
ferocious enemy, having desolated and possessed the more
fertile lands in the plains, compelled the natives to have
recourse to the poorer soils on the hills. It has also been
attributed by some to the superior mildness of the climate
in ancient times. The opinion of Agricola, quoted by
Tacitus, that a single legion would be sufficient to conquer
the island, does not indicate a very numerous population
at that period; and, subsequently, the smallness of the
force which enabled Henry II. to make such an impression
on the country favours the same conclusion. After the
close of the desolating wars of Elizabeth, in which the
Irish in arms were generally exterminated as rebels, Fynes
Moryson, Lord Mountjoy’s secretary, asserts that not more
than five or six hundred thousand escaped the edge of the
sword or the horrors of famine. Sir William Petty’s first
estimate, as stated in the ensuing table, rests upon conjec¬
ture ; his second is founded on the number of “ smokes ’
or hearths in the country. Those given by the tax-collec¬
tors are founded on data of the same description, correct¬
ed in the case of Mr Bushe by collateral calculations. I he
returns of the established clergy were made at a time
in which much of the country was without a resident cler¬
gy of this persuasion, and therefore must be of doubtful
weight. De Burgho’s, formed from information collected
through the Catholic clergy, then in a state of the lowest
political degradation, must be equally dubious. Newen-
ham formed his from a great variety of ingenious calcula¬
tions on the quantity of food, exports, and imports, and
other similar circumstances. The first of the parliament¬
ary inquiries was a total failure, several counties having
declined to make any return, and those of several others
being glaringly deficient and inaccurate. The second, Statistics,
which ascertained not only the number, but the name,
age, occupation, and degree of mutual relationship, of every
inhabitant, particulars which still exist in the archives of
Dublin Castle as a permanent record of the facts, may be
considered as approximating very closely to accuracy. In
the third, which might be presumed to be an improvement
on the preceding in these respects, the returns of the enu¬
merators employed were not subjected, as in the preced- t
ing instance, to any effectual check, and therefore little
reliance can be placed on its statements. The returns of
occupations in the city of Dublin, where their accuracy
can be easily ascertained, are extremely faulty. The
latest return of the population, that of 1834, rests on the
same defective basis as that of 1831 ; but as it was after¬
wards checked and corrected by the commissioners of pub¬
lic instruction, through the medium of the resident clergy,
its statements are entitled to more credit. Unhappily for
statistical and political purposes, the returns of this last
census have been made according to the ecclesiastical ar¬
rangement of dioceses, which it is nearly impossible to
reduce to that of counties, on which all the former returns
had been formed. According to these documents, it ap¬
pears, that from 1672 to 1723, a period of fifty years, the
population had nearly doubled. In the next fifty years,
from 1723 to 1777, it had advanced more slowly; and,
from 1777 to 1831, somewhat more than fifty years, it had
nearly trebled, the period of doubling, from 1777 to 1805,
if Newenham’s calculation be correct, being but twenty-
eight years.
Population of Ireland at different periods.
1652 Sir William Petty  850,000
1672 Ditto 1,320,000
1695 Captain South 1,034,102
1712 Thomas Dobbs 2,099,094
1718 Ditto 2,169,048
1723 Ditto 2,317,374
1726 Ditto 2,309,106
1731 Established Clergy 2,010,221
1754 Tax Collectors 2,372,634
1760 De Burgho, Hibern. Dominican 2,317,384
1767 Tax Collectors 2,544,276
1777 Ditto 2,690,556
1785 Ditto .2,845,932
1788 Gervais P. Bushe 4,040,000
1791 Tax Collectors 4,206,612
1792 Dr Beaufort 4,088,226
1805 Thomas Newenham 5,395,456
1811 Parliamentary Return 5,937,856
1821 Ditto 6,801,827
1831 Ditto 7,734,365
1834 Commissioners of Public Instruction 7,943,940
The following table contains the summaries of the three
parliamentary returns according to counties, that of 1834
being omitted for the reason already stated.
396
Statistics.
IRELAND.
Population by Counties.
Statist
Order according to
Surface.
Total Density
Popula- of Popu-
tion. lation.
Carlow 
Dublin 
Dublin, city..
Kildare 
Kilkenny. 
Kilkenny,city
King’s 
Longford 
Louth 
Drogheda, tn.
Meath 
Queen’s 
Westmeath 
Wexford 
Wicklow 
Leinster.
31
30
25
17
15
29
32
13
24
26
14
18
Clare 
Cork 
Cork, city.
Kerry 
Limerick 
Limerick,city
Tipperary  
Waterford 
Waterford, |
city /
Munster.
32
4
31
17
24
30
28
20
23
26
19
29
Total Population.
1813.
17
5
27
13
24
6
2
23
18
20
21
30
13
1
11
7
2
21
Antrim 
Carrickfer- |
gus, town /
Armagh 
Cavan 
Donegal 
Down 
Fermanagh 
Londonderry...
Monaghan 
Tyrone 
Ulster.
Galway....
Galway, town
Leitrim 
Mayo 
.Roscommon.
Sligo  
Connaught....
27
19
4
11
20
•16
28
9
23
3
12
22
14
15
10
5
25
16
18
9
26
9
32
7
12
15
69,566
110,437
176,610
85,138
134,664
113,226
95,917
16,123
142,479
113,857
83,109
1821.
27
6
12
22
1
10
29
4
25
11
3
19
31
22
28
14
16
160,603
523,936
64,394
178,622
103,865
290^531
119,457
25,467
231,548
6,136
121,449
287,290
111,250
186,181
140,433
250,746
78,952
150,011
185,881
99,065
158,716
23,230
131,088
107,570
101,011
18,118
159,183
134,275
128,819
170,806
110,767
1831.
81,576
183,042
203,652
108,401
169,283
23,741
144,029
112,391
108,168
17,365
177,023
145,843
136,799
182,991
122,301
Ratio of In¬
crease from
1821 to 1831.
1,757,492
208,089
629,786
100,658
216,185
218,432
59,045
346,896
127,842
28,679
1,935,612
140,995
24,684
94,095
237,371
158,110
262,860
8,023
197,427
195,076
248,270
325,410
130,997
193,869
174,697
261,865
1,927,967
258,262
705,926
107,041
264,559
233,505
66,575
402,598
148,077
28,821
2,215,364
1,998,494
309,599
27,775
124,785
293,112
208,729
146,129
1,110,229
314,608
8,698
220,651
228,050
298,104
352,571
149,555
222,416
195,532
302,943
2,293,128
394,287
33,120
141,303
367,956
239,903
171,508
3
22
6|
9^
44
11
8f
6*
7
24
10
6
22
7
13
16
16
14
1,348,977
20
8
Hi
17
20
8i
14
15
12
154
14
27£
19
13
251
15
18
22
Ratio of Po¬
pulation to
total number
of Acres.1
2- 69
L31
3- 62
2- 96
3- 66
2- 34
1- 85
3- 20
2*72
2- 82
5-08
4- 04
2-48
3- 10
2*44
4- 34
2-88
251
3-12
2-65
2-41
1- 44
2- 07
3- 91
1- 73
3-15
2- 12
1- 67
2- 12
2-36
3-78
2- 97
3- 63
2-54
2-53
3-28
Ratio of Po¬
pulation to
the number
of cultivable
Acres.1
2- 42
1- 25
3- 00
2- 33
2- 74
1-71
1- 69
3- 17
2*30
2- 3Q
2- 95
3- 27
2-13
2-03
1- 45
2- 19
2-25
2-03
2-99
1-76
L48
1-21
1-85
1-07
1- 42
2- 14
1-67
1-58
L83
1-63
2-40
1-88
2-37
1-89
1-49
2-07
Ireland.
6,801,827
7,784,536
14
2-69
1-89
The population or extent in acres of the-counties of cities and towns is not included in these calculations of ratios.
itistics.
visions.
IRELAND.
397
The returns of 1821 give a general average of five and of the duration of human life. But the following table, Statistics,
three-fourth souls to a family. The defective state of taken from the parliamentary return of 1821, on which re-
parish registers in a country in which these documents are liance may be placed, furnishes the ratio of ages to every
kept by three classes of clergymen, each observing a sys- 10,000 of the total population at that period. The state-
tem of arrangement peculiar to themselves, prevents any ment of ages in the late census of 1831 is still less worthy
authoritative deductions from that source as to the question of credit than that of the numbers.
Statement of the comparative duration of Human Life, according to a ratio of Ages to every 10,000 of the Papulation of
1821.
Age.
Leinster.
Under 5
5 to 10
10 to 15
15 to 20
20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50
15-070
13-000
11-890
11-440
18-630
11-760
8-140
Ulster.
14-800
13-190
12-480
12*530
17-190
10-800
7-980
Munster.
15-600
14-070
12-160
12-340
17-350
11-970
7-363
Connaught.
16- 140
14-190
12-180
12500
17- 110
11-590
7-200
Ireland.
15-320
13-550
12-180
12-190
17-600
11-500
7-710
Age.
50 to 60
60 to 70
70 to 80
80 to 90
90 to 100
Above 100
Leinster.
6-090
2-780
945
206
34
3
Ulster.
6-160
3-300
1-230
290
30
5
Munster.
5-830
2-350
787
140
23
5
Connaught, j Ireland.
5-930
2-280
770
96
28
9
6-000
2-730
960
230
30
5
The most ancient annals record a twofold division of the
country by two of the descendants of Milesius, who made
a line drawn from Dublin to Galway the boundary of their
respective shares; of these the northern was called Death
Conn, the southern Death Mogha. In the time of Ptole¬
my the island was partitioned out by a number of tribes,
whose position has been determined by Whitaker as fol¬
lows :—
Name according to
Whitaker.
NORTH.
Robogdii
EAST.
Damnii
Voluntii
Eblani
Caucii
Menapii
Coriundi
SOUTH.
Brigantes
Vodii
Ibernii
WEST.
Duceni
Velaborii
Cangani
Auterii
Nagnatse
Hardinii
CENTRAL.
Ptolemy.
Scoti
Po£oy&o<
Aag/vo/
Ovoko-jmoi
’ECXavo/
Ka-jxo/
Mavavr/w
Kog/ov5/o/
Bg/yamj
’ OvoblO!
'Oimgro/
’ Oi/sX/Co^o/
Tayyavot
Nay var at
'E£cS/>o/
Modern County.
Dondonderry, Antrim
Antrim, Down
Down, Armagh, Douth
Meath, Dublin
Dublin, Wicklow
Wicklow, Wexford
1
Wicklow, Kildare, Carlow-
Wexford, Waterford
Cork
Cork, Kerry
Kerry
Kerry, Dimerick
Clare
Galway
Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon,!
Deitrim, Fermanagh j
Donegal
Tyrone, Fermanagh, Dei-
trim, Monaghan, Cavan,
Dongford, Westmeath, <{
King’s, Queen’s, Kil
kenny, Tipperary
Boundary.
From
Hornhead
Fairhead
Ardglas
Boyne River j
Dilfey River
Oboca
Between the Boyne and
Barrow Rivers, the
Eblani, and tbe Brigan¬
tes.
Carnsore
Blackwater
Bann
Dingle Bay
Galway Bay
Dibnius
Ballyshannon
Bounded by the Shannon,
Doughs Allen and Erne,
west; Barrow, Boyne,
and Dough Neagh, east;
Suir and Blackwater
south; and a chain of
mountains north.
To
Fairhead
Ardglas
Boyne River
Daebius or Diffey
River
Oboca or Ovoca
Carnsore Point
Blackwater River
Bann River
Ibernus or Dingle
Bay
Senus or Shannon
River
Dibnius River
Rhebius or Bally¬
shannon River
Hornhead
A subsequent division was that into the five petty king- which last consisted of the counties of Meath, W estmeath,
doms of Deinster, Ulster, Munster, Connaught, and Meath, Dongford, and parts of Armagh and Douth. This division
398
IRELAND.
Statistics, existed till after the arrival of the English, when, in the reign
v—of John, the parts subject to his sway were formed into
the twelve counties of Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Uriel (now
Louth), Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork,
Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary. No further change took
place until the reign of Philip and Mary, when the King’s
and Queen’s Counties were formed. Elizabeth divided
Connaught into the seven counties of Galway, Clare, Ros¬
common, Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim, and Longford; and Ulster
into the nine counties of which it consists at present.
Wicklow was separated from Dublin, and made a distinct
county, by James I. The only alteration which has occur¬
red since, is the transfer of some of the counties of Con¬
naught into the adjoining provinces , and the division of
the county of Cork into Wo parts, called the East and
West Ridings. This latter division took place in 1823.
An act, passed in 1835, gives the lord-lieutenant a discre¬
tionary power of subdividing the larger counties, as has
already been done with respect to Cork. Ihe topographi¬
cal arrangement of Ireland, given by Camden in his Bri¬
tannia, retains the pentarchical division. It is as follows :—
Munster, including Kerry, Desmond (now incorporated
into Cork and Kerry), Waterford, Limerick, Tipperary,
with the county of Tipperary Holycross ; Leinster, includ¬
ing Kilkenny, Caterlough (now Carlow), Queen’s, King’s,
Kildare, Weishford, Dublin; Meath, including Eastmeath,
Westmeath, Longford ; Connaught, including Twomund
(now Clare), Galloway, Maio, Slego, Letrim; and Ulster,
including Louth, Cavon, Fermanagh, Monaghan, Armagh,
Down, Antrim, Colrane (now Londonderry), Tir-oen, Tir-
connell or Donegall.
The counties are subdivided into baronies, the baronies
into parishes, and these again into townlands or plough¬
lands, which is the name of the smallest territorial subdi¬
vision. Besides the thirty-two counties already named, a
few cities and towns, with a small surrounding portion
of land, form separate jurisdictions under their own ma¬
gistrates, and are also called counties. There are eight
of them; five cities, Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Waterford,
and Kilkenny, and three towns, Galway, Drogheda, and
Carrickfergus. The territorial divisions of the country,
according to the civil arrangement of it, are as follow:
Provinces.
Leinster....
Ulster 
Munster....
Connaught
Total...
Counties
at of Cities
Large, or Towns.
12
9
6
5
32
Baronies.
115
68
68
44
8
295
Parishes.
830
311
708
276
2125
Parts of
Parishes.
75
51
50
22
Daln-liquir (unknown, but by some supposed to have Statists
merged into Meath), Dearri (Derry); Dublin, containing
Glendelagh, Fern, Ossori or De-Canic, Lechlin, Kildare or
Dare ; Cassel, containing Isle of Gatha (now Innis-Scat-
tery, and united to Limerick), Limric, Laon or De Ken-
dalnan (now Killaloe), Cellumabrath (called also Fenebore,
now Kilfenora), Melie or Emileth (Emly), Ross or Ros-
crea, Waterford or Baltifordian, Lismore, Clone or Clua-
nan (Cloyne), Cork, Rosalither (now part of Cork), Ard-
forth ; Tuam, containing Duac or Kilmacduach, Mage (or
Mayo, now part of Tuam), Enachdun (also part of Tuam),
Cellaiar (unknown), Roscommon (translated to Elphin),
Clonfert, Achad (Achonry), Lade or Killaleth (Killala),
Conani (Clonmacnois, now part of Meath), Kilmunduach
(Kilmacduagh), Elphin.
The modern division, until the alterations made since
the reform act, is as follows:—
List of the archbishops and bishops of Ireland, accord¬
ing to the ecclesiastical provinces as they were arranged
previously to the act for the reduction of ten bishoprics,
with the amount of their respective incomes. Those mark¬
ed with an asterisk are the bishoprics to be reduced under
the act. Those in Italics are already united each with an¬
other see, according to its provisions.
Armagh L.17,669 16
Meath and Clonmacnois 5,220 10
* Clogher 10,371 0
Down and Connor 5,896 0
Derry 14,193 3
* Raphoe 5,787 8
Kilmore 7,477 17
* Dromore .'   4,813 6
Dublin and Glandclagh 9,320 12
* Kildare and Christ-Church Deanry 6,451 13
* Ossory   3,859 0
Ferns and Leighlin 6,550 2
Cashel and Emly 7,354 2
Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe 5,368 13
* Waterford and Lismore 4,323 7
* Cork and Ross 4,345 18
Cloyne .....5,008 18
Tuam and Ai’dagh 8,206 3
* Elphin   7,034 8
* Clonfert and Kilmacduagh 3,260 19
* Killala oxid Achonry 4,081 18
7
6
2
1
9i
2
01
9
9
3
6f
10
0
5
1
n
10*
9*
4f
8
198
Ecclesias- ecclesiastical arrangement of the country was, un-
tical divi- til lately, framed on the same fourfold provincial division
sions. as the civil, but under different names and with different
Establish- boundaries. There were four archbishoprics, one for
ed church, each province ; but named from the place in which the
archiepiscopal see was fixed. The number of bishoprics
subject to each of these varied at different periods, and
two or more sees were frequently united to afford a re¬
venue competent to maintain the dignity of the holder.
Formerly the dioceses were much more numerous than at
present, as may be seen from the following list, taken from
an old Roman Provincial, and given nearly in the words
of the original.
Armagh, containing Meath or Elnamirand, Down or Dun-
dalethglass, Clogher or Lugundun, Connor, Ardachad (Ar-
dagh), Rathbot (Raphoe), Rathlue (now part of Derry),
Total L.151,127 12 4|
By the new ecclesiastical arrangement there are to be
but two archbishoprics, Armagh and Dublin, the two others
being reduced to the rank of bishoprics. The bishoprics
are also to be consolidated under twelve bishops, instead
of eighteen, as heretofore. The arrangement, when com¬
pleted by the falling in of the several sees on the demise
of their present incumbents, will stand as follows:—
Archbishops and Bishops since the Reduction, with their
respective Incomes.
Armagh, with Clogher L.13,170
Meath •*. 5,221
Derry, with Raphoe 8,033
Down, with Connor and Dromore 5,896
Kilmore, with Ardagh and Elphin 7,478
Tuam, with Killala and Achonry 5,020
Dublin, with Glandclagh and Kildare 9,321
Ossory, with Leighlin and Ferns 6,550
Cashel, with Emly, Waterford, and Lismore 7,354
Cloyne, with Cork and Ross 5,009
Killaloe, with Kilfenora, Clonfert, and Kilmacduagh 4,532
Limerick, with Ardfert and Aghadoe 5,369
L.82,953
I R E L
itistics. The other dignitaries of the establishment are thirty-
three deans, twenty-six precentors, twenty-two chancel¬
lors, twenty-one treasurers, thirty-four archdeacons, two
provosts, and one sacristan, besides which there are 178
prebendaries and nine canons. Of these, forty-two of the
dignitaries and fifty-two prebendaries are sinecurists, or
nearly so, requiring only an occasional attendance at the
cathedral church ; the remainder derive their incomes
from benefices with cure of souls, and may therefore be
considered as parochial clergy. There are likewise some
A N D. 399
subordinate corporations, consisting of five canons, fifty- Statistics,
nine vicars-choral, and fifteen choiristers, in twelve of the
cathedral churches. 1 he number and names of parishes,
according to the ecclesiastical arrangement by which the
clerical duties are performed and the tithes collected,
vary considerably from the civil arrangement according
to which the county assessments are levied. The latest
returns state the number of parishes at 2348, which are
condensed into 1385 benefices, each under a separate in¬
cumbent, who enjoys the emoluments, as follows:—
Statement of the Ntimher of Parishes and Benefices.
Provinces.
Armagh.
Dublin..
Cashel...
Tuam....
BENEFICES, CONSISTING OF
A Single Parish,
or Part of One.
396
174
301
36
Two or more
Contiguous.
90
115
132
54
Parishes or Parts
not Contiguous
16
22
36
13
TOTAL OF
Benefices.
502
311
469
103
Parishes.
658
624
791
275
Ireland.
907
391
87
1385
2348
The income by which the whole establishment is main'
tained, is as follows :—
Archbishops and bishops L.151,128
Deans and chapters  1,043
Economy estates of cathedrals  11,056
Subordinate ecclesiastical corporations  10,526
Dignities and prebends without cure of souls, and
exclusive of those held by bishops....  34,482
Glebe lands    92,000
Tithes   555,000
Minister’s money  10,300
L.865,535
The population for whose spiritual benefit this exten¬
sive and complicated structure of ecclesiastical jurisdic¬
tions is maintained, is thus distributed among the several
sects, according to the late returns of the commissioners
of public instruction, as shown by the following table,
which exhibits also the proportion per cent, borne by
the several religious denominations to the total popula¬
tion :—
Denomination. t,
Population.
Established church  852,064
Roman Catholics 6,427,712
Presbyterians...,  642,356
Other dissenters  21,808
Total population 7,943,940 100-000
By referring to the amount already stated as being the
income of the established church, it will appear, that whilst
the Roman Catholics provide for the total maintenance
of their clergy by voluntary contribution from amongst
themselves, the religious instruction of the Protestant por¬
tion of the population costs the country two shillings per
head annually; or, in other words, every family has to
contribute nearly twelve shillings a year towards the
maintenance of the established clergy; whereas, if that
body were to derive its support solely from the contribu¬
tions of its own members, as is the case with the Roman
Catholic clergy, the sum to be annually paid by every
Protestant, man, woman, and child, in order to make up
the sum of L.865,000 deemed necessary for the mainte¬
nance of their establishment, would be one pound each,
or six pounds for every family.
Proportion
per cent.
10-726
80-913
8-086
0-275
The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic church still con- Roman
tinues of the same form that it bore previously to the Catholic
Reformation, consisting of four archbishops and twenty-church,
two bishops, to which another has been lately added; the
town and vicinity of Galway, which had been hitherto an
exempt jurisdiction under an ecclesiastical head styled
warden, having been erected into a see. The hierarchy
is supported by the profits of some one or more parishes
in the respective dioceses, by fees from the incumbents
of the others, and by those of marriage licenses. The
incomes of the bishops, as well as those of every class of
Catholic clergy, are derived wholly from voluntary con¬
tributions. Monasteries and convents are numerous, and
some, particularly those for females, are well endowed.
The presbyterian church, which flourishes chiefly in presbyte-
the north of Ireland, is governed by a synod, which rian
chooses a moderator annually as its president. The mi-church,
nisters are maintained partly by the voluntary contribu¬
tions of their respective congregations, and partly by an
annual parliamentary grant called the Regium Donum.
Ireland is represented in the imperial legislature by Represen-
twenty-eight temporal and four spiritual peers, and 105tation.
commoners. The temporal peers hold their seats for life;
the spiritual peers sit annually, according to a rotation of
sees. The changes in the right of franchise for the elec- Constitu¬
tion of commoners have been very considerable since the ency.
passing of the Catholic relief bill, which diminished the
number of electors in an extraordinary degree. The fol¬
lowing table shows the alterations caused by the legis¬
lative measures adopted since the passing of that act, as
compared with the previous state of the constituency.
The first line gives the average number of electors before
1829. The other lines show the effects since produced
by subsequent acts of parliament.
Year. L.100. L.50. L.20. L.10. 40s. Total.
1829, 303 18,066 6806 ... 191,606 216,791
1830, 98 17,409 7319 11,804 ... 39,772
1832, 31 10,214 8414 42,066 ... 60,725
The executive government is committed to a lord-lieu- Govem-
tenant deputed by the crown. He holds his place dur-ment.
ing pleasure, but is generally continued in office for five
years. He is assisted by the privy council, a body also
nominated by the king, and invested with extensive
powers, as well judicial as ministerial; also by a chief
secretary, who is a member of the House of Commons, and
400
IRELAND.
Statistics, is the person looked to by the legislature for the manage-
' ment of the country. Each county is also placed under
a lord-lieutenant nominated by the crown, who is consi¬
dered to be responsible for the preservation of good or¬
der, and has much weight in the nomination of the ma¬
gistrates. He is aided by a number of deputy lieutenants,
also nominated by the crown.
The levy and expenditure of money for local purposes
is in the hands of the grand juries in every county ; the
members are named annually by the high sheriff, from
among the chief landed proprietors or their agents. This
arrangement has given rise to much abuse in the ma¬
nagement of the funds intrusted to them. The sums
the pound was laid on all merchandise imported and ex- Statist
ported, except wine and oil; and a tax, by way of subsidy,
of 13s. 4d. on every hide of land. During this reign the
revenue seldom exceeded L.5000. During the reign of
Henry VIII. the revenue was increased by the suppression
of monasteries. The laws against absentees were also en¬
forced. During the first fifteen years of Elizabeth, the re¬
venue was L.120,000, or L.8000 per annum, according to
Ware, though Sinclair states it at only L.6000, whilst the
expenses amounted to L.490,779. 7s. 6^d. In 1599, at the
close of Tyrone’s rebellion, L.600,000 were spent in six
months ; and Sir Robert Cecil affirmed that Ireland had
cost the queen L.3,400,000 in ten years’ time. The pacific
levied bear very heavily on the industry of the actual reign of James tended much to the improvement of the re¬
landholder ; and the application of them is subject to venue. The customs increased from L.50 to L.3000, and
Law.
Military.
strong imputations, often too well founded, of fraud and
favouritism.
The administration of law is vested in the lord chan¬
cellor, who is assisted by the master of the rolls, and in
the twelve j udges of the supreme courts, namely, the King’s
Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer. The judges
visit the counties twice a year, in six circuits, for the de¬
cision of weightier causes, and the investigation of heavy
offences. Minor cases are brought before the magistrates
at petty sessions, who are then assisted by a lawyer no¬
minated by the crown, under the name of assistant bar¬
rister.
A very numerous armed force has long been maintain¬
ed in Ireland. Regular troops, to the number of from
twenty to twenty-five thousand men, are quartered in
barracks in all parts ; besides which, a well-armed and or¬
ganized body of police, amounting to nearly 6000 effec¬
tive men, is maintained. These are placed under the
immediate control of stipendiary or salaried magistrates,
appointed by the crown. In addition to the military and
police, a force of armed yeomanry, mostly Protestant,
was supported until lately, and called out occasionally
into active service
at the close of his reign to L.9700. The wardships and
other feudal rights produced about L.10,000, notwithstand¬
ing which the income was inadequate to the expendi¬
ture. To defray the expense of the army, an order of ba¬
ronets was established, by which L.98,500 was raised, in
addition to which L.247,433 were remitted from England
to clear off the debts incurred by Elizabeth. The Irish
parliament granted the same king a subsidy of 2s. 8d. in
the pound on every personal estate of three pounds annual
value, and fourpence in the pound on every real estate of
one pound value; an act of liberality with which James was
so much pleased, that he declared “ he would hereafter
hold his Irish subjects in equal favour with those of his
other kingdoms.” In the succeeding reign Strafford raised
the customs to four times their previous amount. In the
same reign the first mention is made of an excise tax.
The distractions of the country till the restoration afforded
little means to ascertain the progress of the revenue.
Thurloe, however, in his state papers, mentions that the
revenue for two years ending in 1657 amounted to
L.137,558.13s. 3d., whilst the expenditure was L.142,509.
11s., leaving a deficit of L.4959. 17s. 9d. When the Irish
parliament met after the restoration, it granted, first, an
Revenue. Before the arrival of the English, the revenues of Ireland hereditary revenue to the king, his heirs and successors;
‘ ’ ’ second, an excise for maintaining the army ; third, the sub¬
sidy of tonnage and poundage for the navy ; and, fourth, a
tax of two shillings each on hearths, in lieu of the feudal
burdens, which were then abolished. After the revolution,
the information respecting this important element of na¬
tional statistics becomes more precise and satisfactory. The
revenue, from the landing of Schomberg in 1689 till the
end of the reign of William, was as follows, the total of the
previous military expenditure of the war with James having
amounted to L.3,851,655 :
were paid in cattle; and even after that period the custom
prevailed for several centuries in the parts less subject to
foreign influence. Traces of it have been met with so late
as the reign of Elizabeth. The new government, under
the English, introduced the method of raising money by
subsidies. John exacted a subsidy from the Irish clergy,
and established 'the court of exchequer for the general
management of the revenue. The same method was con¬
tinued during the reigns of Henry III. and the first Ed¬
wards ; but the income thus extracted from the people
proved so inadequate to meet the wasteful expenditure
caused by a repetition of foreign wars and intestine com¬
motions, that recourse was had to the legalized extortion
of coygne and livery, which was the levying of man’s meat
and horse’s meat for the soldiery in time of service. The
amount of the regular revenue, in the reign of Edward III.,
is stated by Walsingham and Holingshead to have been
L.30,000 ; but Sir John Davis, who collected his informa¬
tion from the pipe-rolls, and other authentic sources, re¬
duces it to L.10,000. The most remarkable financial mea¬
sure of Richard II. was a tax upon absentees. In 1433,
the eleventh of Henry VI., the revenue was reduced to
L.2339. 18s. 6d., whilst the expenses of the government
were L.2348. 16s. 1 l^d., thus exceeding the income by
L.18. 17s. 5^d. At the latter end of the same reign, the
Duke of York, when sent over as lord-lieutenant with ex¬
traordinary powers, not only obtained the whole revenue,
but stipulated for an additional supply from England of
4000 marks for the first year, and L.2000 for every year
thereafter. Edward IV. raised money by the imposition of
duties on all merchandise sold in Ireland except hides. In
the fifteenth year of Henry VII. a duty of one shilling in
1689  L.8,834
1690  93,910
1691  274,949
1692  393,926
1693  444,183
1694  430,534
1695  438,304
1696  L.513,534
1697  548,967
1698  601,846
1699  701,932
1700  766,620
1701  697,955
1702  581,286
During the earlier part of Anne’s reign the income ex¬
ceeded half a million, but in her latter days it was less pro¬
ductive. In the reign of George I. the state of the re¬
venue continued nearly as in the preceding reign. In that
of George II. there was a surplus, which was applied, not
always judiciously, to public works.
From the earlier part of the reign of George III. to the
present period, the total amount of the public income was
formed of the customs, excise, land tax, assessed taxes,
stamps, postage, duties on pensions and offices, lotteries,
and poundage pells and casualties. Up to 1811 the first
four of these make but a single item in the parliamentary
account. After that date the customs are specified as a
separate item. The Irish lottery ceased at the union; the
land tax at the consolidation of the exchequers in 1817;
IRELAND. 401
Iistics. the assessed taxes were repealed in 1822-23, since which following table, exhibiting the receipts for every fifth year, Statistics,
time the whole income is formed of the items of customs, from 1790 to 1830, will give a general view of the progress
excise, stamps, postage, and poundage and casualties. The of taxation in its leading departments during that period.
Account of the 'Receipt of the Revenues of Ireland for every Fifth Year from the 5th of January 1790, to the 5th of
January 1830, arranged under the several Heads of Collection.
1795
1800
1805
1810
1815
1820
1825
1830
1835
Customs.
L.
t,031,035
2,335,034
2,622,268
2,281,609
1,737,512
1,514,260
1,087,999
1,187,978
1,744,764
Excise.
Land Tax.
Assessed
Taxes.
The Excise, Land Tax, and Assessed
Taxes, are included in the preceding
item of Customs.
L.
1,014,887
2,598,049
1,707,151
1,654,756
1,790,288
1,966,531
The Land and Assessed
Taxes are included in
the preceding item of
Excise. L.
280,607
Stamps.
L.
67,560
122,001
316,527
569,678
645,578
482,470
490,945
456,669
470,286
Postage.
L.
15,973
17,150
38,893
53,050
82,154
53,538
76,615
105,000
215,374
Pensions,
&c.
L.
12,642
7,865
Lotteries.
L.
1,002
62,546
Poundage,
&c.
L.
51,362
36,196
38,642
32,102
41,411
10,561
9,749
8,887
3,998
The expenditure for every fifth year corresponding
with the years in the preceding table is given in that
which follow's. The first item states the payments of inte¬
rest and management of the public funded debt; the se¬
cond, the payments out of the consolidated fund, which
include the civil list, miscellaneous payments, and interest
on Irish treasury bills; and then follow the charges for the
army, the navy, and the miscellaneous expenditure. The
last column consists chiefly of advances for the relief of
trade, and other public objects.
1795
1800
1805
1810
1815
1820
1825
1830
Table of the Public Expenditure for every Fifth Year from 1790 to 1830.
Dividends.
Consolidated
Fund.
L.
149,949
926,695
1,702,871
2,437,803
3,460,447
1,026,650
1,008,988
1,178,454
L.
282,830
491,802
510,631
425,220
550,901
503,638
507,101
584,969
Army.
L.
1,360,663
3,528,801
3,627,223
3,372,662
2,782,995
1,377,259
1,019,279
986,209
Navy.
L.
21,1*26
Ordnance.
L.
138,756
350,769
486,541
633,202
404,186
129,219
234,785
Miscella¬
neous.
L.
321,301
395,443
349,144
394,770
643,173
374,943
436,713
366,872
Relief of
Trade, &c.
L.
823
22,673
80,542
153,483
327,411
380,817
The national debt of Ireland, incurred by an excess of
expenditure beyond the income of the country, increased
with great rapidity towards the close of the last century
and till the year 1817, when it ceased to form a separate
item in the public accounts, in consequence of the con¬
solidation of the British and Irish exchequers. Its pro¬
gressive increase since the revolution is exhibited in the
following table.
Public Debt of Ireland.
1716 L.16,106
1720 87,511
1730 220,730
1740  296,988
1750 205,117
1762 223,438
1770 L.628,883
1780 1,067,565
1790 1,586,067
1800 22,245,190
1810 75,240,790
1817 134,602,769
wesof Ireland has, till of late years, been almost exclusively
enue- a pastoral country. The population drew its chief sus¬
tenance from cattle, and the few manufactures were de¬
rived from the same source.
0°llens. The rich pasturages, adapted both for black cattle and
sheep, furnished in abundance the material for two branches;
the woollen trade, and the tanning of leather. The former
was carried on to a considerable extent at a very remote
period. Traces of an export of woollens to Italy as early as
VOL. XII.
the reign of Edward III. have been discovered. The manu¬
facture was an object of legislative interference as early as
the third year of Edward IV. (1462) ; and an act of Henry
VIII. in 1542 expressly notices the exportation of woollen
yarn from Ireland. The former of these acts was the first
attempt to restrict the importation of foreign goods into
England, to the prejudice of the native artist. By it
woollens, laces, and ribbons were prohibited ; but a provi¬
sion was inserted, “ that all wares and chaffers made in
the land of Ireland may be brought and sold in this land
of England, as they were wont to do before the making
of this statute.” Although subsequent prohibitory acts
of Elizabeth, James, and Charles 1. make no mention of
Ireland, there is little reason to suppose that any change
was made as to the freedom of trade witn this country,
until the 12th of Charles II., when an act was passed in
the English parliament, imposing such rates of duty as
effectually prevented importation. By an act of the same
year, the exportation of wool from England was prohibit¬
ed generally, as was that from Ireland, to foreign ccmm
tries. An act of the 9 th and 10th of William III. prohibited
the exportation of fullers’earth to Ireland. But the great
blow to this branch of national industry was caused by an
address from both houses of the English parliament to
William in 1698, praying him, “ with a view to secure the
3 E
402
IRELAND.
Statistics, woollen manufacture as much as possible entire to Eng-
land, that he would use his utmost diligence to hinder the
exportation of wool from Ireland, except to be import¬
ed hither ; and for discouraging the woollen and encourag¬
ing the linen manufactures of Ireland.” The immediate
consequence of these addresses was the passing of an act
prohibiting the exportation of wool or woollens, except to
England, from which country the manufactured article
was already excluded by the act of the 12th Charles II.,
still in force. Under this code England effectually re¬
strained the Irish trade. The supply of the raw material
was narrowed by the impossibility of importing British
wool, and the manufactured goods were confined to the
domestic consumption of the country.' Scarcely a vestige
of this ill-advised system now exists. The laws which
prohibited the exportation of Irish woollens to foreign
countries, and to the British colonies, were repealed in
1779. I}y the act of union, the duties on woollens im¬
ported into either island were confined to th'ose.Called
“ old and new draperiesand the high duties of Charles
II. were reduced to eightpence halfpenny per yard on
the old, and twopence three farthings on the new drape¬
ries. By the same act, England relaxed her monopoly so
far as to permit the export of wool and woollen yarn duty
free to Ireland. According to evidence before the House
of Commons in 1832, one third of the cloth used in Ire¬
land is brought from Great Britain ; but as that import¬
ed is usually of finer quality, the value of it is estimat¬
ed at one half. The manufacture of Ireland is confined
to the coarsest description of goods ; every attempt to in¬
troduce the manufacture of the higher-priced articles has
been the cause of the ruin of the speculator who ventur¬
ed upon it. Broad cloths and blanket manufactories exist
nowhere north of Dublin ; flannels are made in Wicklow,
and blankets in Kilkenny. Prize of the coarsest kind is
made in most counties by the farmers, during the inter- Stati
vals of their agricultural labours, for their own use, and v—
for the supply of the adjoining districts.
The following tables show the quantity, quality, and
declared value of woollens imported since the union. The
imports previous to that period will be found in a general
table of imports and exports under a subsequent head.
British Drapery imported into Ireland.
Years.
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1800
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
New.
Yards.
887,903
929,325
571,674
857,731
842,811
659,319
917,025
1,399,155
1,484,958
1,555,667
1,421,793
1,506,832
1,627,583
976,521
739,078
' 546,217
912,934
873,363
911,240
733,337
1,212,437
1,437,662
Old.
Yards.
1,078,381
1,470,466
1,190,143
1,351,209
1,517,561
1,472,974
1,545,543
1,678,945
1,796,986
1,253,113
1,573,860
2,270,166
2,648,999
1,999,376
1,064,904
767,315
1,259,245
1,368,948
1,436,539
987,121
1,289,623
1,188,366
Ornamented.
Yards.
29,063
56,839
42,237
56,464
65,223
43,479
59,725
58,414
34,419
44,115
42,682
29,865
25,856
15,677
1,953
7,080
9,902
14,515
Statement of the Qualities and Values of British Woollens Imported.
Cloths of all sorts 
Coatings 
Kerseymeres 
Baizes 
Flannels 
Stuffs   
Stockings 
Other Hosiery 
Tapes, &c 
Woollens, Mixed 
Woollen and Worsted Yarns....
Cloths of all sorts 
Coatings 
Kerseymeres   
Baizes   
Flannels   
Stuffs 
Stockings 
Other Hosiery  
Tapes, &c 
Woollens, Mixed 
Woollen and Worsted Yarns...
1814.
Quantity.
Yards.
62,773
130
4,221
162
245,447
36,241
25,138
206,424
884,152
Value.
L.
781,205
575
51,508
850
32,341
72,457
29,580
21,511
3,124
37,832
125,015
1815.
Quantity.
Yards.
28,677
2,540
7,248
138
232,183
11,920
22,506
104,910
683,683
Value.
L.
427,993
10,028
114,247
649
23,724
34,036
26,855
4,375
9,357
29,849
103,139
1816.
Quantity. Value.
Yards.
24.437
41
4,002
91
200,123
8,131
12,385
121,483
523,638
L.
325,138
260
60,817
555
18,762
20,845
14,086
4,951
6.629
25,444
65,612
1818.
Quantity.
Yards.
51,465
302
3,788
253
291,875
28,599
20,235
149,090
472,721
Value.
L.
610,888
2,483
46,560
1,123
29,155
42,086
20,803
9,690
3,970
22,384
71,279
1819.
Quantity.
Yards.
48,156
78
4,327
399
232,753
19,636
25,092
121,280
712,574
Value.
L.
599,205
551
48.732
2,055
21,313
51,100
22.733
759
5,529
21,461
95,047
1820.
Quantity.
Yards.
36,275
37
3,453
239
157,362
17,893
33,095
45,082
700,556
Value.
L.
423,441
310
35,743
1,757
15,281
47,855
28,831
955
4.996
7,423
90,256
1817.
Quantity. ! Value.
Yards.
39,334
80
5,213
310
259,305
9,888
13,036
252,542
625,185
L.
498,192
464
62,875
216
24,511
21,399
14,555
4,358
13,169
40,847
73,268
1821.
Quantity. Value
Yards.
48,990
4,389
339
281,228
30,542
37,327
71,102
842,801
L.
598,765
39,827
1,707
24,940
77,382
31,190
5,890
12,511
90,015
IRELAND.
403
i ;istics<
I m.
The same legislative measure which deprived Ireland
of its woollen manufacture stated, that “if the Irish turn¬
ed their industry and skill to the settling and improving
of the linen manufacture, they should receive all the
countenance, favour, and protection for its encourage¬
ment, and promotion to all the advantage and profit they
might be capable of deriving from it.” This declaration
should not lead to the inference that the manufacture
had been previously unknown or disregarded in Ireland.
On the contrary, the use of linen was so prevalent amongst
the higher orders, that sumptuary laws were enacted to
check its excessive use. The unfortunate Earl of Straf¬
ford seems also to have anticipated the views of the Bri¬
tish manufacturers on the subject. He, however, took a
more honest, and perhaps a more judicious course. In¬
stead of extinguishing the woollen trade by exclusive
duties, he laboured to foster that of linen. He imported
flax seed in large quantities from Holland, and held out
premiums to induce Flemings and Dutchmen acquainted
with the manufacture to settle here. On these laudable
objects he spent upwards of L.30,000 of his private fortune;
and his example was followed by the Duke of Ormond.
Still, however, the woollen trade prevailed, particularly in
the south and west, where the climate and the extensive
pasturage for sheep insured a copious and cheap supply
of the raw material. In the same spirit, an act was pass¬
ed by the English parliament in 1696, to encourage foreign
linen manufacturers to settle in Ireland ; and with that view
all articles made of flax or hemp in this country were
admitted into England duty free, a privilege which is esti¬
mated to have given that branch of trade an advantage of
L.25 per cent, over other nations in the English market.
The Irish parliament, responding to the sentiments and
wishes of that of England, promised that “ it would heart¬
ily endeavour to establish the linen and hempen manu¬
facture, so as to render it useful to both kingdoms add¬
ing, that “ it hoped to find such a temperament in re¬
spect to the woollen trade here, that the same may not
be injurious to England.” The “ temperament” here an¬
nounced was evinced most effectually by laying prohibi¬
tory duties on the export of its own woollens, thus ac¬
cepting the compact on the part of Ireland, and giving
the country an incontrovertible claim upon England for a
perpetual encouragement of that branch which was to be
nurtured in lieu of the natural staple of the country. In
furtherance of the measures mutually agreed on between
both kingdoms, a board of trustees for the encouragement
of the linen manufacture was established in 1710, consist- Statistics,
ing of a number of individuals of most influence in each
province. Under its control a code of regulations was de¬
vised and maintained, which extended to the most minute
particulars of the processes, and had the effect for many
years of securing the fabric a decided preference both in
the home and foreign market. A large sum was annually
granted to this board, for premiums and the supply of
wheels and other implements, which was continued'till
the year 1830, when the grants were discontinued, and
the board consequently ceased to act. The flax seed is
chiefly imported. Little is grown in the country, as,
notwithstanding all the exertions made by the grower, the
plant raised from it is considered as of inferior quality.
The principal part of the seed is brought from America,
the remainder from Holland, Prussia, and Great Britain.
The following table shows the number of hogsheads and of
acres sown during a period of four years.
Hogsheads. Acres. Hogsheads. Acres.
1818  47,607 80,785 1820 52,416 77,755
1819  44,431 91,728 1821 45,163 83,312
The three following tables show the value of the brown
or unbleached linen sold in the several linen markets in
Ireland during a period of four years ; also the state of the
export of linens both plain and coloured, and of linen yarn,
in periods of ten years each since the formation of the
linen board in 1710 ; exhibiting both the total amount of
quantity and value during each period, and the average
annual amount of quantity and value for each year in the
respective periods. The sums stated in the former of
these tables are the first cost paid to the manufacturer
by the country purchaser; the value of most of the linen
sold is afterwards considerably increased by the process
of bleaching and other treatment.
Total of Brown or Unbleached Linen sold in Ireland.
1822
1823
1824
1825
Total
L.
285,354
336,698
207,638
192,888
1,022,578
L.
2,066,122
2,127,529
1,968,180
2,109,309
8,271,140
L.
68,870
82,202
95,195
110,420
356,687
Connaught.
L.
117,664
130,914
140,856
168,090
557,524
Total.
L.
2,538,010
2,677,343
2,411,869
2,580,707
10,207,929
State of the Exports of Linen and Linen Yarn from 1710 to 1824.
Periods
of Ten
Tears.
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
.1800
1810
1820
1823
Total of Linen and Yarn Exported.
Quantity.
Official Value.
Linen.
Yards.
19,812,816
38,259,347
52,479,565
74,916,255
127,159,229
160,874,400
203,108,197
251,892,458
409,729,904
381,636,867
418,578,079
176,851,345
Total...! 2,315,298,462
Yarn.
Cwts.
121,942
147,238
150,139
208,537
260,944
333,920
317,525
321,553
204,837
126,572
130,980
29,664
2,353,851
Linen.
L.
1,137,354
1,912,959
3,284,519
5,166,551
8,187,714
10,718,281
14,434,318
16,818,992
27,309,717
25,561,259
27,919,743
11,789,988
154,241,395
Yarn.
L.
1,122,869
872,387
848,762
1,251,248
1,565,677
2,003,538
1,905,175
1,941,346
1,229,051
759,438
785,889
177,994
14,463,374
Total.
L.
2,260,223
2,785,346
4,133,281
6,417,799
9,753,391
12,721,819
16,339,493
18,760,338
28,538,768
26,320,697
28,705,632
11,967,982
168,704,769
IRELAND.
404
Statistics.
Periods
of Ten
Years.
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1800
1810
1820
1823
Average.
Annual Average of Linen and Yarn Exported.
Quantity.
Linen.
Yards.
1,981,281
3,825,934
5,247,956
7,491,625
12,715,922
16,087,440
20,310,819
25,189,245
40,972,990
38,163,686
41,857,807
44,212,836
20,309,636
Yam.
Cwts.
12,194
14,723
15,013
20,853
26,094
33,392
31,752
32,155
20,483
12,657
13,098
7,416
20,098
Official Value.
Linen.
L.
113,735
191,295
328,451
516,655
818,771
1,071,828
1,443,431
1,681,899
2,730,971
2,556,125
2,791,974
2,947,497
1,352,994
Yarn.
L.
112,286
87,238
84,876
125,124
156,771
200,353
190,517
194,134
122,905
75,943
78,588
44,498
126,871
Total.
L.
226,021
278,533
413,327
641,779
975,542
1,272,181
1,633,948
1,876,033
2,853,876
2,632,068
2,870,562
2,991,995
1,479,865
Stat
The following table exhibits the progress of the trade, wool and yarn imported from all quarters affords a general
with respect to the foreign demand, from 1820 till the latest view of the increase of the manufacture from its origin to
period that public documents supply information. 1823.
Cotton.
An Account of the number of Yards of Irish Linen, and
the number of Ells of Irish Sailcloth, exported from the
United Kingdom ; also of the quantities of Irish Linen
imported into the United Kingdom, and the quantities re¬
tained for Home Consumption, in the years specified.
Years.
Linen
Exported.
Sailcloth
Exported.
Linen
Imported.
Retained for
Consumption.
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
Yards.
12,455,419
15,408,561
15,931,939
16,765,928
17,933,195
16,023,268
10,868,407
14,022,496
11,924,603
11,924,918
13,244,269
14,738,358
Ells.
18,117
12,153
16,039
32,239
66.185
51,104
55,178
52,413
83,903
51,256
32,550
28.185
Yards-
42,665,928
45,518,719
43,226,710
48,066,591
46,466,950
52,560,926
Yards-
33,243,497
33,888,618
30,372,703
34,171,905
31,292,598
38,755,733
Placed under coast re¬
gulations, and exempt¬
ed from entry inwards,
in theyears subsequent
to 1825.
The cotton manufacture was early an object of atten¬
tion to the Irish parliament, which endeavoured to secure
a monopoly of the home market by high import duties and
by bounties. The first cotton mills were erected at Prospe¬
rous, in the county of Kildare, and in Belfast, about the year
1784. From that period till the union, it throve, in conse¬
quence of the measures adopted to prevent foreign competi¬
tion. At the union it was arranged that the then existing
duties should continue for eight years, after which they
were to be gradually lowered, by eight annual reductions,
in such manner that, after the year 1816, they should stand
at ten per cent, ad valorem. The progress of the manu¬
facture has been very slow as compared with that of Great
Britain. The alteration of the scale of duties materially
affected the home demand, and the immense capital and
great superiority of the British artist have contributed much
to secure to his manufacture a preference in the foreign
market; yet it is a curious fact, that cottons printed in
Dublin are sent to Manchester, where they are purchased
by the Irish retailer, and obtain a preference by the home
consumer. The following table of the quantity of cotton
Account of the quantities of Cotton Wool and Yarn im¬
ported in 1771, and for every Fourth Year after, to 1823
inclusive.
Years.
1771
1775
1779
1783
1787
1791
1795
1799
1803
1807
1811
1815
1819
1823
Wool.
Cwts.
1,296
3,063
1,345
4,550
8,977
14,949
14,206
12,130
18,378
18,429
53,133
20,551
30,609
34,162
Yarn.
989
742
4,689
6,516
37,945
205,515
313,973
508,038
1,105,877
1,060,334
314,349
950,879
1,295,655
1,799,259
The silk manufacture was introduced into Ireland by Silk-
French emigrants after the revocation of the edict^ of
Nantes. Its principal seat was the city of Dublin, where
it was maintained by the aid of protecting duties. Some
feeble attempts to fix it in the country parts failed com¬
pletely. The last of these was so lately as 1825, when a
company was formed for the purpose of fixing the trade
on a secure basis in the south of Ireland, by rearing the
silk-worm there, and thus having the benefit of the raw
materia] for the labour of producing it; but after consider¬
able expense had been incurred for the purchase of
ground and the planting of mulberry trees, the scheme was
relinquished as hopeless. One branch of the manufacture,
a fabric of mixed worsted and silk, known here by the
name of tabbinet, and in England by that of Irish poplin,
is in considerable demand, both at home and elsewhere, for
the richness and beauty of the texture. It is almost the
only branch now flourishing. The general trade has been
nearly annihilated by the removal of the protecting duties
since the union. The following table of the official va¬
lue of the silk imported since the commencement ot the
manufacture evidently proves its decline.
I R E L
tistics- Statement of the Value of Silk imported into Ireland, in Irish
currency, for 177], and for every year afterwards to 1823
inclusive.
1771 L.80,361 1799 L.63,626
1775 95,224 1803 74,423
1779 57,116 1807 53,225
1783 99,647 1811 71,203
1787 113,695 1815 68,528
1791 81,413 1819 65,372
1795 51,930 1823 45,523
i &c. The manufactures of iron, copper, and brass are very
confined. The few iron founderies that still exist are li¬
mited to the execution of orders for works or manufacto¬
ries carried on in the neighbourhood, which necessarily
require the article to be made according to pattern, and on
the spot. The same observation applies to those of copper,
brass, and lead. The great advantage enjoyed by Great
Britain in the inexhaustible stores of native metal, parti¬
cularly iron, and of coal, together with the command of
capital, and the elegance and cheapness of finish, arising
from long experience, deprives Ireland of any reasonable
hope of a successful competition in these branches, even
for the wants of its own population.
iss. The manufacture of glass was carried on to a consider¬
able extent. There were four establishments in Dublin,
two in Belfast, two in Cork, one in Waterford, and one in
Derry. The raw material, except coal, was to be had in
A N D. 405
abundance, and in some places of excellent quality. The Statistics,
white glass was in much estimation for its goodness and
brilliancy. The bottle manufacture supplied the entire
demand of the country. But the trade has sunk under
the effects of the assimilation of the duties with those in
Britain. There is now scarcely an establishment existing. .
1 he making up of provisions for the army and navy, and Provision
for the foreign market, has long been a great source oftrade'
wealth to the country. The principal part of the provi¬
sion trade was carried on in Cork until of late years, when
Belfast and Newry obtained a large share of it. The
flesh is suffered to lie seven or eight days in salt before it
is packed. The expedition with which the whole process
is then carried on is astonishing. The beef, when cured,
is assorted according to quality, in three classes, called
planters’, India, and common beef. The hides are re¬
turned to the grazier : those of the oldest cattle are most
valued. The fat is disposed of to the tallow merchant.
Bacon and hams are salted on an extensive scale for Lon¬
don, at Limerick, Clonmel, Waterford, and Belfast, in
which last town the superior mode of preparing the arti¬
cle has given it a high character. The progress of the
trade may be judged of by the following tables, exhibiting
a statement of the quantities of salted meat and butter
exported every fourth year from the union until 1825,
when the official returns cease to give separate details for
Ireland ; and of the quantity of salt imported every tenth
year, from the earliest returns to the same period.
Quantities of Beef Pork, Bacon, Hams, Butter, and Lard, exported in every fourth year since the Union.
Years.
1801
1805
1809
1813
1817
1821
1825
Butter and Pork.
Great
Britain.
Barrels.
132,406
180,515
191,836
209,321
195,496
162,354
147,290
Foreign
Parts.
Barrels-
28,434
41,583
70,908
72,182
67,109
56,811
33,986
Total.
Barrels-
160,840
222,098
262,744
281,503
262,605
219,165
181,276
Bacon and Ham.
Great
Britain.
Cvvts-
21,100
94,485
165,038
218,590
179,093
362,846
361,139
Foreign
Parts.
Cwts-
61
588
2,084
16,016
11,932
3,363
1,139
Total.
Cwts.
21,161
95,073
167,122
234,606
191,025
366,209
362,278
Butter.
Great
Britain.
Cwts-
250,620
233,771
330,155
351,832
320,180
413,088
425,670
Foreign.
Parts.
Cwts-
54,046
60,644
55,798
109,682
77,785
59,856
48,491
Total.
Cwts.
304,666
294,415
385,953
461,514
397,965
472,944
474,161
Lard.
Great
Britain.
Cwts.
1,565
5,915
14,795
13,779
10,740
22,380
31,882
F oreign
Parts.
Cwts-
484
448
1,487
6,357
6,441
6,109
3,397
Total.
Cwts.
2,049
6,363
16,282
20,136
17,181
28,489
35,279
virit
tde.
Quantities of Salt imported from all parts of the World every
tenth year from 1773 to 1823, distinguishing Foreign,
Rock, and White Salt.
The use of spirituous liquors was known in Ireland at
an early period. Camden, who derived his knowledge of
the country from writers that lived long before himself,
states that “ the excessive moisture of the air and soil oc¬
casions many to be troubled with fluxes and catarrhs,
particularly strangers, to stop which they have excellent
usquebagh, much less heating and more drying than ours.”
But the article itself was not subjected to fiscal regula¬
tions till the reign of Charles II. when, in 1661, an excise
duty of 4d. per gallon was laid on it, and continued at that
rate till 1715, when an additional duty of 3d. was impos¬
ed; and two years after a further duty of Id. This duty
in 1719 produced a revenue of L.5785. In 1785 the duty
was fixed at Is. 2d., and so continued for some years. Its
produce at that rate in 1791 was L.204,648. After a va¬
riety of changes, by which it was progressively raised, it
stood in 1814 at 5s. 6d.; and though, for a year or two
after, an attempt was made to augment it to 6s. the expe¬
riment was found to be so unsuccessful that it was lower¬
ed to the former rate after two years’ trial. Severe re¬
strictions were imposed, and a most complicated and ha¬
rassing system of checks established, upon every part of
the process, to prevent the possibility of yielding to the
temptations to defraud the revenue occasioned by the
enormous charge of duty. The consequence was, that
the whole spirit trade was thrown into the hands of a few
capitalists, who, by their mutual understanding, were en¬
abled in their turn to check and control theofficers of the re¬
venue in their attempts to stop the issue of spirits from the
distilleries which had not paid duty ; whilst in the country
parts, and particularly in the mountainous districts in the
north and west, illicit distillation was carried to an extent
that ultimately set all means to prevent it at defiance. No
country has suffered more than Ireland from the excessive
height to which the duties on home-made spirits have been
carried. If heavy taxes, enforced by severe fiscal regula¬
tions, could make a people sober and industrious, the Irish
would be tbe most so of any on the face of the earth. In
406
IRELAND.
Statistics, order to make the possessors of property join heartily in
suppressing illicit distillation, the novel expedient was re¬
sorted to of imposing heavy fines on every parish or town-
land in which an illicit still was found at work, and those
detected in making it were transported for seven years. But
instead of the effect looked for, these unheard-of severities
not only did not check the practice, but filled the country
with bloodshed, and established an organized resistance
to the laws. In 1811, when the duty was 2s. fid. per gal¬
lon, 6,500,000 gallons were paid for ; in 1822, when it was
raised to 5s. fid., only 2,950,000 gallons were brought to
charge, whilst at this latter period the commissioners of
revenue, from whose reports this statement is extracted,
estimate the total consumption at not less than 10,000,000
gallons, of which therefore upwards of 7,000,000 paid no
duty. The profits on the manufacture were such as to
induce the country people to run all risks, and to set at
defiance every effort of the constituted authorities to put
down the practice. Another mode was then at last re¬
sorted to. The duties were reduced in 1822 from 5s. fid.
to 2s. the wine gallon, or 2s. 4d. the imperial gallon. The
results are best exhibited by the following table, showing
the quantity of spirits that paid duty each year, the rate
of duty, and the net amount of revenue collected.
Years.
Gallons Impe-
rial Measure.
Rate per Gallon.
Net Amount of
Revenue.
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
2,649,179
2,328,387
3,348,505
6,690,315
9,262,744
6,837,408
8,260,919
9,937,903
9,212,223
9,004,539
8,710,672
8,657,756
8,168,596
9,763,808
5s. 6d. per Irish gal...
Ditto 
Ditto 
2s. per English gallon
Ditto 
2s. lOd.per imp. gal...
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto  
\ 2s. 10d., 3s., and ^
J 3s. 4d. per do. J
3s. 4d 
Ditto 
Ditto 
3s. 4d. and 2s. 4d 
L.912,288
797,518
634,460
771,690
1,084,191
964,509
1,122,096
1,395,721
1,305,064
1,409,128
1.451.580
1,442,845
1,360,769
1.464.581
A superficial view of this table might lead to the con¬
clusion that the consumption of spirits in Ireland had
•nearly trebled since 1823 ; but, in fact, the apparent in¬
crease was caused solely by the general use of licensed
instead of illicit spirits under the reduced scale of duties.
The measure was most effective, and it will be found by
the succeeding table, exhibiting the progress of convictions
under the illicit distillation laws, that the subsequent in¬
crease of duty in 1830 has been pernicious. The truth is,
that 2s. 4d. was as high a duty as the article would bear,
and the additional 6d. has again thrown the balance in fa¬
vour of the smuggler, and led to a partial revival of illicit
distillation. The subsequent reduction of the duty in
1834 proves that this financial error has been perceived
and corrected.
Convictions for Illicit Distillations. (Inspectors of Prisons
for 1829 and 1835.)
1822  1003
1823  1057
1824   912
1825   994
1826   824
1827   693
1828   652
1829   617
1830   658
1831   276
1832   363
1833   896
1834... .....1149
From the preceding statements it is evident, that as Statist!
long as the undue proportion between the duty and the
intrinsic value of spirits induces a continuance of the
practice of illicit distillation, no official returns can afford
adequate data for calculating the quantity of home-made
spirits consumed in the country. As far, however, as a
conclusion can be drawn from the number of houses li¬
censed for the retailing of spirituous liquors, it would ap¬
pear that Ireland is not excessive in this point. The
number of spirit licenses granted in 1834, in each part of
the united kingdom, were, for
New.
Renewed at an
increased rate
of duty.
Total.
England..
Scotland.
Ireland...,
Total.
546
432
1047
2025
46,766
15,846
17,369
79,981
47,312
16,278
18,416
82,006
There are breweries in most of the large towns in Ire-Brewerie
land, not only adequate to the internal demand, but al¬
lowing an export, which has been increasing for the last
few years. The importation of beer from Great Britain
has been progressively diminishing for many years, parti¬
cularly since the union, as will appear from the following
table of the average amounts of the quantities of beer and
ale imported in the several periods stated.
From 1721 to 1760  6,307, average during 40 years.
1760 to 1800 56,323, average during 40 years.
1800 to 1810  3,710, average during 10 years.
1810 to 1821  512, average during 10 years.
It does not, however, appear that the consumption of
home-brewed beer has increased in proportion to the di¬
minution of that imported. The number of barrels of
malt used in the breweries of Ireland in 1810 was 446,436 ;
in 1822 it was only 361,301 ; and, according to another
official account, the number of quarters of malt used by
brewers in 1823 was 174,466, whilst in 1833 it was
192,867, an increase not at all proportional to the in¬
crease of the population during the same period.
The exports of ale and beer from Ireland, as compared
with those from England and Scotland, show that the ar¬
ticle produced here is increasing steadily in demand in
foreign countries.
England.
Scotland.
Ireland.
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Barrels.
53,013
42,602
59,472
71,842
74,902
Barrels.
1,827
1,679
2,509
3,304
3,131
Barrels.
9,855
10,000
11,261
14,499
15,207
Ireland, as has been already noticed, is, both from soil Agricul-
and climate, a pastoral country. The habits of the people ture.
tended to keep it such. Nor was it till the beginning of
the last century that any efforts were made to introduce
an attention to tillage upon an extended scale. Primate
Boulter, when one of the lords-justices, pressed strongly
on the British government the importance, or rather the
necessity, of enforcing a tillage system ; and for this pur¬
pose proposed a law in 1727, to compel landholders to till
five acres out of every hundred in their possession, exclu¬
sive of meadows and bogs; and also to release tenants to
the same extent from the penal covenants against tillage,
inserted with equal want of policy and justice into their
IRELAND.
tistics. leases. Mr Dobbs, who wrote several valuable tracts on
Ireland about the same period, ascribes the poverty of the
country to the neglect of tillage. The Irish legislature at
length became sensible of the necessity of some general and
vigorous expedient to direct domestic industry into this
channel. It saw a large sum annually remitted to England
to purchase grain, producing a drain of capital, and holding
out as it were a premium to indolence at home. The re¬
medy devised was not the best, but it produced to a cer¬
tain degree the effect. Bounties were given for corn
brought by land-carriage to Dublin, where the demand
for grain was greatest. The progress of the excitement
thus produced appears by the progressive increase of the
amount of bounties, which were ultimately withdrawn,
partly because the desired object, the direction of public
attention to this branch of national industry, had been at¬
tained, but more so in consequence of the many frauds
and abuses which had crept into its management.
The amount of the bounties paid was, in
1764 L.5,483
1767  6,074
1770  18,706
1774  49,674
1777  61,786
1780    77,800
The counties which drew the largest amount of bounty
were Tipperary, Kilkenny, Meath, Queen’s, and Carlow.
The nature of the tenures by which land was held had
also an unfavourable influence on the agricultural im¬
provement of the country. After the transfer of by much
the greater part of the territorial surface to Cromwell’s
adventurers, the original patentees in many instances were
glad to grant leases at long terms of years, and in many
cases in perpetuity, for what would now be considered
as trifling considerations. These lands, as their value in¬
creased by the increased feeling of the permanency of
the new government after the revolution, were re-let by
the holders, who preferred to draw a fixed rent from them,
rather than to hold them in their own hands. Hence arose
the class of middlemen, sometimes in a triple or quadruple
order, living in independence and idleness on the labours
of the occupying tenant, the whole of whose earnings, be¬
yond the means of a bare subsistence for his family, was
drawn away from him by this succession of intermediate
landlords.
The system of exaction thus produced was increased
by the operation of the penal law, which forbade a Ro¬
man Catholic to hold any land if the rent did not amount
to two thirds of the actual value, thus leaving one third
only for the subsistence of the tenant and the payment
of tithes and local taxes. Land was essential for the ex¬
istence of the Catholic peasant, who could not afford to
emigrate. He therefore paid the rack rent, and of course
had the preference as a tenant; and the Protestant was
forced to follow the example or quit the country.
The size of farms, as well as their mode of culture, va¬
ries greatly in different parts. Generally speaking, in the
manufacturing districts of the north, the small allotments
ot land, there dignified by the name of farms, are limited
to a few acres, the cultivators of which no more deserve
the name of farmers than would the occupiers of mere
cabbage gardens. In the grazing counties the farms are
of very great extent, often spreading over upwards of a
thousand acres ; whilst in the counties in which greater
attention is paid to tillage, they are more moderate in
dimensions. The mixture of grazing and tillage so fre¬
quent in England is much less usual here, except on the
farms of gentlemen, where both the feeding of stock and
the growth of grain are carried on, in numerous instances,
to as high a state of excellence as in any part of Great
Britain. Nor are there any large tracts of country ex-
407
clusivety devoted to the breeding of cattle, as in the high- Statistics,
lands of Scotland. "
I he grazing of various kinds of stock is seldom com- Grazing,
bined. A usual mode, with respect to black cattle, par¬
ticularly in Connaught, is to collect yearling calves, which
are fed till they are four years old, when they are sold, at
the great annual fair at Ballinasloe, to the graziers of Li¬
merick, Tipperary, Roscommon, and Meath, by whom,
when fattened for the butcher, they are either shipped
alive for Liverpool, or sent to the markets of Dublin and
the larger northern towns, or to Limerick and Cork, where
they are cured for exportation.
The dairy farms form a conspicuous feature in the ru¬
ral economy of the country, occupying a still larger por¬
tion of the soil than that used by the grazier. Butter,
much celebrated for its excellence, is exported in large
quantities. That of Carlow bears the highest charac¬
ter in the foreign market. It may appear strange that a
country whose character stands so high in the produc¬
tion of butter, should be so unsuccessful in that of cheese.
Yet such is the fact. With the exception of some made
in the county of Antrim, particularly at Carrickfergus,
Irish cheese is of very inferior quality. The failure of the
many attempts to produce a good article may in most
cases be attributable to the want of.that tact in the ma¬
nagement of it during its fabrication, which is only to be
acquired by long and persevering practice. Yet it is stated
of Lord Hawarden, whose estate lies in one of the richest
tracts in Tipperary, that two skilful persons from different
parts of England, who had successively a fair course of
trial, failed to make, from the milk produced from those
fine pastures, a single cheese that combined the essential
qualities of excellence of flavour and durability of keeping.
Calves are seldom fattened except in the neighbourhood
of large towns, where that meat is to be found of very fine
quality. In the country parts it is the custom to slaughter
the male calves when but a few days old ; and the meat
of them is sold to the lower classes, by whom it is dis¬
tinguished by the name of slink veal.
The chief breeding counties for sheep are Roscommon,
Galway, Clare, Limerick, and Tipperary. The flocks are
usually managed by the herd, who attends the cattle; a
regular shepherd, as in England, being seldom set over
them. Folding is little practised, and the use of turnips
for winter food is by no means general. In many parts
sheep are kept for the sole purpose of supplying wool for
the use of the owner’s familyr. No county in Ireland
equals Galway in the management of this valuable animal;
and nowhere are finer flocks to be seen. There is rea¬
son to suppose that, in the time of Giraldus Cambrensis,
the Irish breed of sheep was black. The introduction of
the white breed of an improved kind is attributed to the
English. Latterly much attention has been directed to
the bettering of the stock, whether for the shambles,
the wool comber, or the clothier, by judicious crossing.
The merino sheep has latterly been brought over, and has
been found to agree well with the soil and climate. On
the mountains is found a breed similar to that of Wales,
small, with nearly as much hair as wool.
The total number of sheep in the British isles is esti¬
mated by Mr Macculloch to have been, in the year 1830,
as follows:—
Englan d 26,500,000
Scotland  3,500,000
Ireland  2,000,000
United kingdom 32,000,000
The right of pasturage on mountains is frequently let
to the inhabitants of a village in common, each of whom
maintains on it a determinate stock of cows, goats, and
sheep. In the apportionment five goats are considered as
408
IRELAND.
Statistics, equal to a cow. Sheep are rated as goats, but are not so
''-"‘v'''**' frequent; for milk is the chief object, and a ewe does
not yield it so abundantly as a goat. Large flocks of
this latter animal are to be seen amongst the mountains,
where the cottier must be poor indeed who does not rec¬
kon one at least as part of his property.
Horses for agricultural purposes are seldom of great
excellence. But a breed for general use, both for draft
and saddle, is much esteemed ; and blood-horses of high
price and repute are bred in the rich pastures of the prin¬
cipal grazing counties. In general this animal is treated
with less care and greater harshness than in England.
The old Irish hobby, a small but excellent breed, suppos¬
ed to be derived from a Spanish race, is nearly extinct;
yet some vestiges of it are still to be traced in the western
parts of Connaught, and in Kerry. In this latter county,
a small breed of cows, very hardy, and excellent milkers,
is still kept up.
Hogs are kept in great numbers. The native breed is
tall, bony, and ill proportioned; but crosses from some of
the most approved British stocks, particularly the Lei¬
cester, have been introduced, to the great improvement of
the animal. In general the cottier’s hog is the inmate
of his cabin, a member of the family, upon whom the
owner chiefly depends for the payment of his rent. Hence
it acquires a docility of manners unknown elsewhere. Its
food is invariably the potato. When fit for market it is
either slaughtered in the provision markets of Cork, Wa¬
terford, Belfast, and Newry, or exported alive, chiefly to
Liverpool.
Wakefield, in his observations on the state of tillage,
classes the country into nine agricultural districts, accord¬
ing to the peculiarities of soil and culture. The first
comprehends the flat parts of Antrim, the eastern side of
Tyrone, and the counties of Down, Armagh, Monaghan,
and Cavan. In these the farms are small, and spade cul¬
tivation common. Potatoes, oats, and flax, are the prin¬
cipal crops. The second district comprehends the coun¬
ties of Londonderry and Donegal, the mountainous part
of Antrim, and the north and west of Tyrone. Agricul¬
ture is in a more backward state here than in the preced¬
ing district. Wheat is little known. In the third, which
is confined to the northern parts of Fermanagh, the sys¬
tem of tillage is better, and the farms larger. Wheat is
largely planted, but oats form the great staple crop. The
whole of the north-west of Ireland, comprehending Sligo,
Mayo, Galway, Clare, with Roscommon and Longford,
forms the fourth district. Oats is still the prevalent crop,
but much barley is also raised in the districts near the
sea. The plough is often drawn by four horses abreast. Illicit
distillation is carried on here upon an extensive scale, and
much of the land is leased to tenants in common, accord¬
ing to what is called the corn-acre system. In the fifth
district, which comprehends Limerick, Kerry, the south¬
western and northern parts of Cork, and all Waterford, cul¬
tivation is not far advanced. The greater part is a grazing
country. Where tillage prevails, the land is much subdi¬
vided, and the farms consequently very small. The sixth
district includes the southern part of Cork. Spade culture
is here frequent, the farms small, and hogs constitute the
main dependence of the poor. The best farming in Ire¬
land is to be seen in the seventh district, which takes in
Tipperary, the Queen’s, and King’s Counties. Tillage is
carried on in a systematic manner, and wheat forms an
important part of the crop. The character of the eighth
district, which comprehends Kilkenny, Kildare, Carlow,
Westmeath, Meath, and Louth, much resembles that of
the preceding, except that the system of tillage is not ma¬
naged with so much neatness and precision. The farms
are large, and the English mode of treatment adopted; but
the details are executed in a more slovenly manner. Wex¬
ford, and the arable part of Wicklow, form the ninth dis- Statist!;
trict. Beans are largely cultivated. A very singular
mode of ploughing may be seen here. One man leads the
horses, another holds the plough, and a third sits on it to
keep it down.
The preceding sketch shows that oats are the prevailing
crop, then wheat and barley; flax on an extensive scale
is confined to the northern counties. Potatoes are uni¬
versally cultivated. It is the crop on which the great mass
of the population depends for its subsistence; its failure,
wherever it occurs, produces a famine. The outcry
against the clumsy and defective construction of agricul¬
tural implements is every year less merited. In most parts
much attention is paid to their construction; and, where
they differ from those most in vogue in Great Britain, the
cause can be traced to the peculiarities of the soil. The
spade is narrower in the blade than the English, and longer
in the handle. In many parts its use is supplied by a nar¬
row spade, with a projection for the foot only on.one side;
it is called a loy. In cutting turf, a kind of double loy,
called a slane, is used. Oxen are little employed in tillage.
When used in the plough they are yoked sometimes by
the horns, sometimes by the breast. The Scotch cart or
dray, with two large wheels and a single horse, is to be
found in every part, its structure having been found best
adapted to a hilly country such as Ireland generally is. It
has in a great measure superseded the old Irish car. In
the mountainous parts the slide-cart without wheels is
still employed. The ends of the shafts, which lie on the
ground and are dragged on by the horse, being shod with
iron, allow the vehicle to slide along with considerable
facility. The fences vary extremely, according to the cha¬
racter of the soil. In the rocky districts in the north and
west they are mostly dry-stone walls, sometimes of great
thickness at bottom, being used as well for a means of get¬
ting rid of the numerous loose stones on the surface, as for
the enclosing of the land. A mound, planted at top with
furze, or gorse, is a common fence in those parts where
fuel is scarce. In the more improved parts white thorn
hedges are most usual. Lime and limestone gravel is the
most general manure. It is often used mixed with turf
mould. On the sea-coasts coralline sand and sea-weed are
employed ; the former is often conveyed to great distances
into the interior. Paring and burning, though prohibited by
statutory enactments, which impose a fine of ten pounds on
the person practising it, is very frequent, and found, under
judicious restrictions, to be highly salutary.
As the potato forms the main article of food for the ge¬
neral population of the country, it is evident that by much
the greater part of the other crops raised must be disposed
of in other countries, and therefore that the quantities ex¬
ported will form no bad criterion of the progress of tillage,
and of the crops to which it has been chiefly directed; hut
as this point comes more properly under another division
of the work, the reader is referred to it, where he will find,
in the statement of exports, an enumeration of the quan¬
tities of agricultural produce sent out of the country at dif¬
ferent periods.
The peculiar natural advantages of Ireland with respect Fisher!
to the fisheries were long since noticed. Sir William
Temple observes of them, that “ they might prove a mine
under water as rich as any under ground.” Young asserts
with truth, that “ there is scarcely a part of Ireland but
what is w ell situated for some fishery of consequence ; and
that her coasts, and innumerable inlets and creeks, are the
resort of vast shoals of herring, cod, ling, hake, mackerel,
&c. which might be converted into funds of wealth.” Da¬
niel, in his Rural Sports, speaking of the inland fisheries,
says, that “ the waters of Ireland abound in all that can in¬
vite an angler to their banks ; they are more largely stored,
and with fish of a better quality, than elsewhere in the
IRELAND.
409
• *• united kingdom.” Such descriptions would lead to the
conclusion that the fisheries were in a very flourishing con-
^ dition. The contrary is the fact. The several attempts
to establish them have failed, not certainly from want of
fostering superintendence, but more probably from injudi¬
cious nurture, perhaps over attention. In the beginning
of the reign of George III. the Irish parliament established
a liberal system of bounties, particularly for the herring Statistics,
fisheries. The result of the experiment was the very re-
verse of what had been anticipated by the devisers of the
measure. The following table shows that the import of
herrings for nine years after the granting of the bounties,
exceeded that of the nine preceding years by no less than
155,156 barrels.
Quantity of Herrings imported into Ireland for Nine Years before and Nine Years after the enactment of the
Bounty System.
Years.
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
Before the Bounty.
Great Britain.
Barrels.
28,999
28,955
29,960
23,611
17,038
20,411
21,388
23,519
14,932
Average.
23,201
Elsewhere.
Barrels.
1277
2080
1370
113
142
844
2156
8661
1847
Total.
Barrels.
30,276
31,035
31,330
23,724
17,009
20,554
22,232
25,675
23,593
25,048
Years.
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
Average.
After the Bounty.
Great Britain.
Elsewhere.
Barrels.
14,587
35,552
12,094
16,640
11,286
22,891
12,952
10,445
13,471
16,657
Barrels.
17,030
24.555
12,618
23,252
25,847
23,655
26.555
34,241
40,539
25,365
Total.
Barrels.
31,617
60,107
24,712
39,892
37,113
46,546
39,507
44,686
54,101
42,022
The chief seat of the herring fishery was along the north¬
western coast, from Lough Swilly to Broadhaven. To se¬
cure it, large sums were laid out in establishing stations
for taking and curing the fish in the islands of the Rosses;
but, after much expenditure, the fish deserted the shores
about the year 1780, and the fisheries were of course aban¬
doned. The Nymph Bank, on the southern coast, was dis¬
covered in 1736. It abounded with white fish, and a com¬
pany was formed to take advantage of it; but the breaking
out of the Spanish war three years afterwards put an end to the
project. It afterwards remained unnoticed till 1801, when,
through the exertions of Captain Robert Fraser, a company
was formed for the special purpose of supplying the Lon¬
don market with fresh fish from it by means of well-boats ;
but the scheme proved abortive, apparently from internal
mismanagement. In 1819, the attention of the legislature
was again directed to the improvement of this source of
national wealth, and a large sum was granted annually to
commissioners, partly for the payment of bounties, partly
for the erection of fishing piers, and partly for the issue
of loans for building boats and providing fishing tacKle.
After twelve years’ experience the grants were disconti¬
nued, and the commission was revoked. The following
tables will serve to showr the results of the efforts made to
establish fisheries previously to the formation of the Fish¬
ery Board in 1819, and the effects of the exertions made
by the commissioners, as stated by themselves in their re¬
ports.
Exports and Imports of Cured Fish at different periods before the establishment of the Fishery Board.
EXPORTS.
Cod, barrels  
Hake, cwts 
Herring, barrels  
Ling, cwts 
Mackerel, barrels 
Pilchards, hogsheads.
Salmon, tons 
1711.
1734.
141
1859
6674
27
920
2
470
21,057
20
2,594
545
1738.
1532
7743
1
110
2754
513
1740.
1245
258
293
366
383
1762.
32
1163
5838
77
671
489
1783. I 1807.
272
1,367
48,441
170
253
4248
381
121
1808.
1809.
743
867
52
2
282
50
1810.
24
48
IMPORTS.
Cod, cwts 
Cod, barrels 
Hake, cwts. 
Herring, barrels 
Ling, cwts 
Mackerel   
Pilchards, hogsheads.
Salmon, tons  
1711.
14
13
1734.
300
15
39
173a
122
1740.
678
22
43
1762.
427
33
36
18
214
18
69
21
1783.
531
3
4324
281
47
1807-
10,822
33
22,248
1,600
1808.
3,674
195
42,597
2,312
1809.
8,449
229
33,531
1,138
12
1810.
14,022
59
37,733
2,255
25
VOL. XII.
IRELAND.
410
Statistics.
Statement of the Quantities of Herrings, and of Cod and other Fish, on which Bounty was allowed by the Fishery
Board.
Statist]
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
Herrings.
490
8,901
7,243
19,827
34,264
Cod.
Cwt.
5
471
1282
2526
3076
2934
Ling.
Cwt
1
1094
2433
3743
4416
2645
Cwt.
37
6,019
9,035
7,923
12,060
9,500
Cwt.
1
51
116
354
322
Glasson.
Cwt.
768
3204
1177
4930
1203
1339
Cong. Eel
Cwt.
154
513
774
1185
610
Herrings.
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Bar.
41,376
26,698
15,784
13,513
16,855
Cod.
Cwt.
2574
3763
3312
4613
7880
Ling.
Cwt.
4418
4052
3197
4319
4852
Hake.
Cwt.
11,916
9,929
23,964
16,235
32,088
Haddock.
Cwt.
224
492
444
171
573
Glasson. Cong. Eel
Cwt.
2377
4145
2718
7989
7898
Cwt.
1603
1867
1067
1201
2295
Number of Fishermen enrolled as Sea Fencibles at the several Fishing Stations of Ireland in 1810.
Buncrara 869
Rutland 699
Killybegs   539
Killala 289
Broadhaven 143
Westport 264
Bunowen 249
3052
Galway 452
Tarbert 318
Tralee 521
Dingle 994
Kenmare 393
Berehaven 205
C. Townsend 449
3332
Kinsale 655
Cove 731
Passage 446
Wexford 312
Wicklow 412
Malahide 482
C. Fergus 469
3507
Total number of fishermen enrolled, 9891.
Number of Vessels and Men engaged in the Fisheries during the continuance of the Fishery Board.
Years.
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Decked.
No.
294
306
354
377
378
305
337
353
345
Men.
1908
2095
1623
2416
2504
1981
2155
2246
2147
Half Decked.
No.
421
286
406
446
485
694
669
711
769
Men.
2248
1684
1479
2371
1947
3478
3311
3566
3852
Open Sail.
No.
2051
2516
2489
2562
2334
1879
1822
2373
2483
Men.
10,581
12,733
9,997
13,071
11,838
9,470
9,378
11,936
12,560
How Boats.
No.
4889
6196
7150
7497
7626
9147
9298
9174
9522
Men.
21,422
28,380
27,142
34,296
38,931
43,115
44,477
45,673
46,212
Total.
Men.
36,159
44,892
49,448
52,482
57,809
58,044
59,321
63,421
64,771
Whales and sun-fish are often seen off the western coast.
The fishing of them has frequently been attempted, but al¬
ways with loss. Seals are frequent along the rocky shores.
They are occasionally shot; but as they are extremely
wary, and must be struck on the head in order to kill them
at once, they are seldom taken in this manner. They are
sometimes, particularly the young ones, caught by moon¬
light, in the caverns where they sleep ; but the attempt is
very venturous. The old ones bite most furiously in de¬
fence of their young; and, as they are supposed never to
let go their hold until they hear something crash between
their teeth, the seal-catchers have bags, with charcoal quilted
into them, fixed on their arms by way of defence. Most
of the embouchures of the great rivers have salmon fishe¬
ries attached to them. That at Coleraine is particularly
valuable ; nearly all the fish caught there is sent fresh to
Liverpool packed in ice. Eels are caught in large quan¬
tities in the large rivers, particularly after floods. As they
do not take the bait, the usual mode of entrapping them is
by stretching coarse hay ropes under water at the bridges,
in which they are entangled while shooting down the stream.
Shell-fish is abundant, particularly on the western and south¬
ern coasts. Oysters of much repute are raised at Carling-
ford ; those from Burren and Lissadil on the western coast
are also thought worthy of being transported across the
island to Dublin. Muscle-beds are abundant, especially
in the south; but they are sought after chiefly on ac¬
count of the pearls occasionally found in them. In Cork
the muscles are caught in sunny weather, at which time
only they open their shells. The fisherman thrusts an
osier twig into the aperture, the fish closes on it, and is
drawn up. Pearls of the size of a pea, but seldom of good
quality, are found in them.
The circulating medium in Ireland was, until lately, sub-Circuit
ject to a great variety of alterations. Without entering into ing me-
the disputed question of the existence of a mint in Ireland dium.
established by the Ostmen or Danes, the first certain account
of a mint there is that established in 1210, by King John,
who caused pennies, halfpennies, and farthings to be coined
and made current by proclamation. Further coinages were
made by Henry III. and Edward I. The latter prince was
the first who added the title of Dominus Hibernie to that
of Rex Anglie on his Irish coinage. It consisted of groats,
halfpence and farthings. The first important alteration as
to value was in the latter part of the reign of Edward lib
who caused the ounce of silver to be cut into twenty-six
deniers or pennies, instead of twenty, as before, which caus¬
ed precisely the same depreciation of eight and one third
per cent, in the Irish, as compared with the British cur¬
rency, that lately existed, until the final assimilation in 1825.
Henry VI. or rather the Duke of York, his lieutenant in
Ireland, had mints in Dublin and Trim, in which both sil-
IRELAND.
411
istics. ver and copper were coined. In the beginning of the sub-
sequent reign of Edward IV. the value of the silver coins
was raised to the double of its previous amount. The con¬
sequence was an enormous increase of price in all the ne¬
cessaries of life; to remedy which, the Irish parliament
enacted, that the master of the mint should strike, in the
castles of Dublin and Trim, and in the town of Drogheda,
five kinds of silver coins; the gross (or groat), the demi-
gross, the denier (or penny), the demi-denier, and quad¬
rant (orfarthing); eleven groats to weigh an ounce troy, and
each, unclipped, to pass for fourpence. A very few years
afterwards, the price of silver was again raised so excessively,
that the difference between the Irish and English groat
was fifty per cent, in a pound of bullion. In the reign of
Henry VII. the difference between the two coinages was
one third. Soon after the accession of Henry VIII. the
coin in Ireland was so clipped, defaced, and scarce, that
the Earl of Surrey, then lord-lieutenant, sued for his re¬
call, in consequence of the want of money to carry on the
war against the Irish. Elizabeth ordered the ounce of
silver to be cut into sixty pennies, so that the coin of that
name was reduced in weight from the twentieth to the
sixtieth part of an ounce. The total value of the money
coined in Ireland by that princess is said to have been
L.94,577. 19s. 6d. English, which, at the rate of six¬
teen pence Irish for a shilling English, amounts to
L.118,222. 9s. 4^d. Irish. The Irish shilling, or harp as it
was called, from the impression on its reverse, was worth
ninepence English. By a proclamation issued in the fifth
year of James I. the same proportion of values was con¬
tinued. In 1613 English money was current in Ireland
at an increased value ; the English five-shilling crown-
piece passing for six shillings and eightpence, and the
other coins in proportion. The exchange between Dub¬
lin and London was at .twenty-one shillings Irish for fifteen
English, with sixpence or eightpence per pound extra,
payable in London. By a proclamation in 1637, the name
of Irish money was ordered to be abolished, and all pay¬
ments reduced to English sterling money. About 1672,
small change was so scarce in Ireland, that towns and pri¬
vate dealer’s were obliged to issue copper tokens. James
IL, on his arrival in Dublin in 1688, issued a proclama¬
tion, by which the English guinea was to pass current at
L.l. 4s., the crown-piece at 5s. 5d., and all lesser coins in
the same proportion. In 1690, he depreciated still further
the value of the coin, by the issue of pieces of base metal,
which were to pass at a nominal value far above their in¬
trinsic worth ; so that the coins issued of the nominal
value of L.965,375 according to some, but, according to
others, of L.l,596,799, were really worth no more than
L.6495, estimating the metal at fourpence per pound.
On the accession of William, this coinage was cried dov/n.
In 1725, the new gold coin of Portugal was made current
in Ireland, the largest coin, or Portugal piece, being rated
at L.4. About the same time, in consequence of the scar¬
city of small change, Wood obtained his patent for the
issue of a copper currency, which was prevented by the
literary exertions of Dean Swift in his celebrated publica¬
tions called the Drapiers Letters. In 1780, the acts of
parliament prohibiting the carrying of gold or silver into
Ireland were repealed. At that time the value of the
precious metals in circulation as specie, or hoarded, was
estimated at L.3,000,000 Irish. No further legislative
change took place until the assimilation of the Irish and
English currency in 1825, previously to which, however, Statistics,
the want of a metallic circulation was so severely felt, par-
ticularly during some periods of the French war, that pri¬
vate bankers and other dealers issued notes or tickets for
small sums, from five shillings down to twopence-halfpenny ;
and also copper tokens of a great variety of values and im¬
pressions. The character of the silver currency was much
deteriorated during the same period, in consequence of the
arrival of several regiments of English militia from War¬
wickshire and the neighbouring manufacturing counties,
who, taking advantage of the defaced state of the Irish
coinage of shillings, counterfeited them so ingeniously, that
the country was for a time inundated with this description
of base money. The evils of this combined pressure of
the scarcity of legal and the abundance of counterfeit
coin, was ultimately remedied by the issue of silver tokens,
estimated at six shillings, tenpence, and fivepence, by the
Bank of Ireland, which circulated freely until they Avere
replaced by the issue of a pure standard coinage of silver
from the royal mint.
The entire banking business of Ireland, until 1783, was in Banking,
the hands of private individuals, who often issued notes to
an amount not only far beyond their respective capitals, but
exceeding, in a great degree, what the wants of the coun¬
try required, or its credit could support. To remedy the
evil effects of a system so pernicious, a national bank was
established in that year, with similar privileges to those of
the Bank of England in respect to the restriction of more
than six partners in a private bank. The injury that Ire¬
land has sustained from the repeated failure of banks may
be mainly attributable to this injudicious regulation. The
loss that the country has suffered by the failure of banks
may be described in a few words. In 1804, there were fifty
registered banks. Since that year, many more have been
opened; but all have failed, one after another, with the
exception of four in Dublin, three in Belfast, and a few
that have withdrawn from business. In 1821, in conse¬
quence of the failure of eleven banks nearly at the same
time in the south of Ireland, government made an arrange¬
ment with the Bank of Ireland, by which joint-stock com¬
panies were allowed to be established at the distance of fifty
Irish miles from Dublin, in return for which concession, that
company was permitted to increase its capital L.500,000;
but, in consequence of several restrictions remaining unre¬
pealed, no new company was formed until 1825, when the
Northern Banking Company of Belfast began to act on the
new system. In the same year the Provincial Bank of
Ireland began business with a capital of L.2,000,000; and
the Bank of Ireland has established branch banks in seve¬
ral of the larger towns. The capital of the Bank of Ire¬
land at its commencement amounted to L.600,000. It has
been since increased at different periods; and in 1821 it
amounted to L.3,000,000. At present no bank with more
than six partners can be established within fifty Irish miles
of Dublin ; nor can such bank draw bills on Dublin for
less than L.50, or at a shorter date than six months, which
is a virtual prohibition of the drawing of such bills. The
Bank of Ireland draws on London at twenty days date,
and discounts at the rate of five per cent. Its charter ex¬
pires in 1838.
The following table exhibits the amount of the issue of
Bank of Ireland notes, and the highest and lowest aggre¬
gate amount of Bank of Ireland notes and post bills issued,
as far as can be collected from official documents:—
412
Statistics.
IRELAND.
Issue of Bank of Ireland Notes and Post Bills for every Fourth Year from 1798 inclusive.
Statist!
Years.
Bank Notes.
Of L.5 and upwards.
Lowest.
1798
1802
1806
1810
1814
1818
1822
859.337
1,917,730
1,119,393
1,327,617
1,676,450
1,809,495
1,792,090
Highest.
1,101,624
2,391,168
1,325,940
1,560,567
2,067,761
2,050,319
2,077,321
Under L.5.
Lowest.
763,177
772,979
1,231,098
1,004,838
1,267,361
Highest.
929,934
844,620
1,507,362
1,260,579
1,529,888
Post Bills.
Lowest.
277,718
490,485
436,706
832,199
1,122,049
1,264,649
1,582,981
Highest.
365,183
601,995
646,799
976,176
1,393,624
1,448,540
1,940,393
Total of Notes and
Post Bills.
Lowest.
1,137,056
2,470,630
2,341,784
3,046,313
4,099,647
4,304,877
4,787,884
Highest.
1,465,198
2,934,334
2,799,036
3,381,363
4,760,551
4,568,375
5,451,508
Average Amount of Bank of Ireland Notes, including
Post Bills.
Y cars
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
L.5 and upwards.
L. s. d.
2,894,777 5 0
3,501,119 11 0
3,618,111 1 0
3,528,625 7 0
3,890,337 8 0
4,666,995 0 0
Under L.5.
L. s. d.
1,314,806 15 0
1,710,603 3 0
1,552,321
1,588,764
1,732,118
1,964,354
Total.
4,209,584 0 0
5,211,792 14 0
5,170,432 3 0
5,117,389 14 0
5,022,455 14 0
6,411,349 8 0
In the Provincial Bank, twenty-live per cent., or L.500,000,
has been paid up. Its head is in London, but it has of¬
fices in all the large towrns of Ireland. The business of
the branch banks is managed, under the control of the di¬
rectors in London, by the managers, with the aid of two^
or more residents in the district, who must be holders of
ten shares each. This bank has had several severe runs
to contend against. In 1828, L. 1,000,000 in gold was
sent from England to maintain its credit. Its notes are
received in the treasury in payment of taxes ; and it is
the bank of the excise, post-office, and stamp-departments,
in all places beyond the restricted limit. The dividends
have been at the rate of four, five, and, since December
1832, of six per cent. Its stock is at a high premium.
The Northern Bank transacts business on similar prin¬
ciples with the Provincial, but on a smaller scale. The
Hibernian Joint-Stock Loan Company was formed by some
Roman Catholic gentlemen and merchants, in consequence
of their exclusion from seats in the direction of the Bank
of Ireland. Its nominal capital was L. 1,000,000, in 10,000
shares, of which twenty-five per cent, was paid in. It is¬
sues no notes, and has no branch offices. In 1824, the
company obtained an act, which gave them some additional
facilities in transacting their concerns. Two new joint-
stock banking companies were commenced in the year
1833 ; the one, called the Agricultural and Commercial
Bank of Ireland, is managed in Ireland, and rests on Irish
capital; the other, called the National Bank of Ireland,
has a proprietary in London, who have contributed a large
capital on the principle of advancing to any bank formed
in connection with it in Ireland, a sum equal to that sub¬
scribed there, and receiving half of the profits of the joint
capital. Both of these banks have branches in some of
the great towns. Private banks are now to be met only
in Dublin, where there are but four. Ireland has but few
manufactures and little commerce, and banks abound only
in wealthy and commercial countries. Another striking
circumstance is the vast proportion of notes under five
pounds issued by the country banks. This is accounted
for by the smallness of the transactions, and the peculiari¬
ties of Irish trade, which in the north is chiefly confined
to the domestic manufacture of linen ; and in the south to
the provision trade, the supplies for which are furnished,
in consequence of the great subdivision of land, by a num¬
ber of dealers, each of whom can furnish a very limited
quantity. The fairs and markets are attended by multi¬
tudes of people, bringing each his butter, corn, and poultry,
for sale, few of whom individually take away to the amount
of five pounds.
A reference to the preceding table of the issue of Bank
of Ireland notes will confirm this position, by showing that
the increased issue of that bank, since the commencement
of notes under five pounds, has arisen from the increased
number of those under that value.
Account of the Number of Country Bank Notes stamped each
year from 1820 to 1831 both inclusive.
Between
L.l & L.5.
1820
11821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
435,369
354,041
from 15 th
Aug. 1^.
334,570
270,301
669,602
1.213,486
558,231
406,435
86,000
46,100
136,998
64,000
Between
L.5 & LUO-
26,800
5,700
10,000
5,800
16,000
28,814
30,405
3,300
Between
L-10 & L.50-
19,253
6,146
8,849
5,925
12,200
26,000
14,450
5,269
1,500
Amounting
to L.50.
Between
L.50 A- L.100-
240
75
120
30,
200
500
110
24
100
20
300
The system of savings’ banks was introduced from Scot¬
land in 1817, when an act was passed, by which a fixed
interest of L.4 per cent., resting upon public security, was
granted to the depositors. This rate was in 1828 reduced
to three per cent., in consequence of the influx of deposits
from persons who thereby derived a larger interest from
their lodgments than what was then attainable from fund¬
ed security. The confidence at first excited in favour of
this mode of securing small sums has been latterly consi¬
derably diminished, from the discovery, that though the
interest payable is secured by act of parliament, yet the
management, being lodged in the hands of private indivi¬
duals who undertake it ostensibly from benevolent mo¬
tives, is under no effective check beyond that of the gene¬
ral character of the directors. Several instances have oc¬
curred of losses to a considerable amount, from the negli¬
gence or misconduct of the managers. The following
1 H E LAND.
itistic
ade
•ds.
tables show the progress of the system as far as can be
/ ascertained by public documents; the first showing the
gross amount of deposits and deductions to the latest re¬
turn published; the latter the rates of the deposits at two
periods, by which not only the progress of the system, but
the proportional number of contributors of different pecu¬
niary means, may be conjectured.
Amount of Lodgments and Deductions in Savings Banks
from their first Formation.
413
Years.
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
Lodged.
L.46,615
82,338
123,230
175,292
207,738
156,249
139,080
254,400
311,600
213,020
288,875
272,193
L.2,270,630
Drawn out.
L.25,200
8,030
11,723
17,538
35,047
87,085
164,939
134,608
179,002
221,769
316,819
193,467
L.1,395,227
Excess of
Lodgments.
L.21,415
74,308
111,507
157,754
172,691
69,164
119,792
132,598
78,726
L.937,955
62,552
Remaining in bank to the ere-1
ditof the depositors in 1832 j L-875,403
Deficiency of
Lodgments
25,859
8,749
27,944
L.62,552
Comparative Statements of Deposits in Savings Ba?iks in
1830 and 1833.
Depositors.
Number of Amount of
Depositors. Deposits.
Under L.20
50
100
150
200
Above 200
Total.
1830.
17,360
11,141
4,443
961
230
66
34,201
L.l 16,818
333,160
287,725
111,693
38.511
17,149
L.905,056
1833.
Number of
Depositors.
23,600
18,262
5,579
1,242
419
68
49,170
Amount of
Deposits.
L.173,525
550,557 I
367,161 1
148,432 j
70,840 l
16,6071
L.l,327,122
The internal traffic of the country is carried on chiefly
y wheel-carriage^ roads. Canals are few, and railways al¬
most unknown. The great roads are mostly kept up by
turnpikes, against which there was, until lately, a violent
and just outcry, as the outlay upon them did not at all
correspond with the amount of tolls collected. Latterly
most of them have been placed under the control of the
post-office, which lets them out to contractors. Their
con ition, both as to lines of direction and mode of con¬
struction, is excellent. The limestone, which is the ge¬
neral substratum of the greater part of the country, is the
best material for their formation; and the system now so
generally known and highly appreciated under the name
macadamizing was long and successfully practised in
iany o the leading lines of road in Ireland before it was
oug t of in Great Britain. Young remarks upon this
peculiarity as early as the year 1779. “ For a country,”
snfiri iS0 very behind us as Ireland to have got so
tap/6,1) ^ 116 start 0^. us *n tbe article of roads, is a spec-
e lat cannot fail to strike the English traveller ex¬
ceedingly. I will go here ; I will go there ; I could trace Statistics
a route upon paper as wild as fancy could dictate, and
everywhere I found beautiful roads, without break or
hindrance, to enable me to realize my design. But from
this commendation the turnpikes in general must be ex¬
cluded ; they are as bad as the cross roads are admirable.”
The cause of this eulogy is to be traced to acts made on
the subject from the time of Charles I. till the beginning
of the reign of George III. Before that time the roads
were constructed and repaired, like those in England,
under the miserable police of the six days’ labour. The
new law totally changed the arrangement. The system
according to which the cross roads, or, as they are call¬
ed, the presentment roads, are made, is this : The part to
be acted upon is measured by two persons, who swear to
the measurement, to their opinion of its utility, and to its
probable expense. A certificate to this effect is signed
by the measurers, the overseers who propose to undertake
the work, and the justice before whom the oath is taken.
It is then sent in to the grand jury at the assizes, and if
approved there, the work is undertaken by the overseers
at their own expense, and must be finished before the en¬
suing assizes, when, on a certificate upon oath that the
money has been honestly expended, it is passed by the
grand jury, fiated by the judge of assize, and paid forth¬
with by the county treasurer. In like manner, bridges,
jails, houses of correction, and other public works, are
built. The expense is defrayed by a tax on the lands,
paid by the occupying tenant, either by the acre or by
the plough-land or town-land. In the latter case, as these
denominations are of very unequal dimensions, the tax
falls very unfairly upon the holders of the land. The re¬
striction upon a wanton outlay of money, either in conse¬
quence of an unnecessary line of road, or an exorbitant
estimate of expense, is by traversing, or opposing, the
presentment in the first case, that is,"by denying the al¬
legations in the certificate. The presentment is then
laid by till the ensuing assizes, and in the intermediate
time inquiries are made respecting the conflicting state¬
ments. In the latter case, payment is suspended until
the case is cleared up and proved. The good effects of
this system rest upon the principle, that when indivi¬
duals act for the public alone, the public is likely to be
negligently, and therefore badly served ; but when their
own interest as well as that of the public is concerned,
good is likely to be done. For a few years after the
passing of the act, the good roads were found all leading
from the mansions of the principal gentry in the coum
ties, as rays from a centre, with a surrounding space
through which there was no communication ; but every
year brought the remedy, until in a short time those rays,
proceeding from so many centres, met, and the communi¬
cation was complete. At first, roads were, like bridges,
paid out of the common stock of the county, but after¬
wards they were charged upon the barony through which
they were made. By subsequent acts, narrow mountain
roads, and foot-paths along the sides of the greater roads,
were constructed upon the same principle. The exorbi¬
tancy of expense, arising from the power of imposing the
tax having been vested in the hands of the great landed
proprietors as grand jurymen, whilst the payment came
out of the pocket of the poor occupier, was the less felt,
except in some extreme cases, because the money was
expended among those who paid it, and gave employment
to many hands that otherwise would have been pining
away in idle destitution. Still, however, it must be ac¬
knowledged, that complaints against what is called job¬
bing were, and still continue to be, general, and too often
upon solid grounds.
With respect to canals, the manner in which Ireland is Inland na.
circumstanced in this respect may be most fairly estimat-vigatien,
&c.
414
IRELAND.
Statistics, ed by a view of the following table, which exhibits the
relative proportion, or rather disproportion, of the means
of internal communication, by means of inland navigation
and railways, in that country and in England.
Ireland. England.
Acreable contents 20,499,500 37,094,960
Population in 1831  7,734,365 16,537,398
Canals miles 280 2400
Navigable rivers miles 380 2000
Railways miles 5§ 400
The idea of improving Ireland by means of inland navi¬
gation is attributable to the unfortunate and misguided
Earl of Strafford, who had the sagacity to perceive that
the general flatness of the country, and the abundance of
lakes, waters, and bog, were very favourable to it. Yet
no parliamentary steps are on record respecting the sub¬
ject until 1703, when bills were brought in to make the
Shannon navigable from Limerick to Jamestown in Lei¬
trim, for the rivers Barrow and Boyne, and for connecting
Newry with Lough Erne. No further steps were taken
till 1709, when the subject was revived. In 1715 a com¬
pany for rendering the Shannon navigable was formed,
under an act which also gave general powers for similar
undertakings elsewhere. Many projects were started un¬
der the provisions of this act. The following is a sum¬
mary of their results:
1. From Dublin to Banagher on the Shannon; accom¬
plished by the Grand Canal.
2. The Barrow, with a canal thence to join the Grand
Canal; accomplished.
3. The Glyn and Bann, from Newry to Coleraine ; effect¬
ed as far as Lough Neagh by the Newry Canal.
4. The Nore and Brosna, from New Ross to the Grand
Canal; unaccomplished.
5. The Liffey and Greece, from Dublin to Carlow ; par¬
tially effected by the Kildare branch of the Grand Canal.
6. The Blackwater, from Youghal to Newmarket; effect¬
ed as far as Lismore.
7. The Foyle, Finn, Derg, and Mourne, from Derry to
Omagh ; effected to Strabane.
8. The Boyne, from Drogheda to the Grand Canal;
the river made navigable to Navan.
9. The Suir, from Waterford to Thurles ; a towing-path
made to Clonmell.
10. The Lee, from Cork to Macroom; some locks made,
but to no purpose.
11. The Erne, above Lough Erne; unattempted.
12. The Maig, from Limerick to Cork ; unattempted.
13. A line from Sligo to Carrick-on-Shannon; unat¬
tempted.
14. A line through Lakes Corrib and Mask, from Gal¬
way to Killala; unattempted.
15. The Slaney, from Wexford to Baltinglas; unat¬
tempted.
16. A line from Galway to the Shannon ; unattempted.
17. The Inny, from Lough Shillin to the Shannon ; un¬
attempted.
18. The Suck, from Castlerea to the Shannon; unat¬
tempted.
19. The Bandon, from Kinsale to Dunmanway; unat¬
tempted.
20. The Laune, from Newcastle to Castlemaine; unat-
tempted.
After a lapse of fourteen years, it was found that works
of such magnitude could not be carried into effect without
public aid; a fund was therefore formed by parliament from
taxes on wheel-carriages, cards, dice, and wrought plate.
The amount of the income thence arising amounted in
1735 to L.3000 per annum, in 1740 to L.4000, and in
1750 to L6000. For nineteen years the whole fund was
applied to the navigation from Newry to the Tyrone col¬
lieries. The committee for the improvement of tillage Statist;,
having reported that inland navigation was the most effec-
tual means for its increase, the lines of the present Grand
and Royal Canals were struck out, but the public money
was applied solely to the former of these. In 1771 the board
of inland navigation was empowered to transfer the property
of any canal in progress to a local company which would sub¬
scribe towards its completion ; and several additional grants
of money were made in aid of such companies ; but in 1789
it wras found that the board had involved itself in debt to
the amount of upwards of L.26,000, whereupon it was dis¬
solved, the payment of debts secured by debentures, and
the navigations transferred to local commissioners. In the
same year parliament resolved to grant one third of the
expense to any new undertaking of this kind ; and from
thence to the union many large grants wrere made on this
principle. The two great canal companies, during the
same period, were induced to undertake an expensive sys¬
tem of wet docks in Dublin, which greatly embarrassed
their funds, without a prospect of adequate remuneration.
At the union, L.500,000 were granted for inland naviga¬
tion generally, and for some specific lines of works, to be
under the control of a board. Since that period to 1812,
L.213,000 were further granted to them. The principal
objects of expenditure were the Grand and Royal Canals,
the Shannon and the Barrow Rivers, the Newry and Tyrone
Canals. The board has also, since 1810, caused several
surveys to be made of lines between the Shannon, Barrow,
Suir, and Grand Canal, and also towards Loughs Erne and
Neagh. Various minor lines have likewise been pointed
out, in consequence of the general survey of the bogs; so
that it may truly be said, that a more perfect knowledge of
the levels and waters of Ireland has been obtained than of
any other country in the world except Holland.
To proceed to some of the details of the works that have
been completed : The Grand Canal commences near the
embouchure of the Liffey, where it has floating docks with
sixteen feet depth of water, and capable of containing 400
sail of vessels, with three entrance-locks, and three graving-
docks. It sweeps round thence by the southern verge of the
city westward for eighty miles, to the Shannon at Banagher,
with branches to the Barrow at Athy, and some minor ones.
The summit-level is 240 feet above the level of the sea, and
160 above the Shannon. The commodities conveyed on
it are flour, grain, potatoes, turf, coal, manure, brick, stone,
flags, slates, and assorted merchandise. Its revenue in
1813 amounted to L.90,000, but since the peace it has
diminished considerably. A branch of this canal was car¬
ried on westward of the Shannon to Ballinasloe in 1828,
being a distance of fifteen and a half miles.
The Royal Canal extends from Dublin westward to the
Shannon, nearly parallel to the Grand Canal, and for a long
part of its course seldom more than ten miles distant from
the latter. It begins on the north side of the Liffey, with
which it communicates by a sea-lock, opening into a floating-
dock capable of containing twenty-seven sail of shipping;
and thence by the Broadstone, where there is a harbour, to
Tarmonbarry in Longford; its total length being eighty-
eight miles. The summit-level is 307 feet above the sea.
The company by which this navigation was undertaken
having become insolvent, it lapsed into the hands of govern¬
ment, by whom it has been completed and rendered availa¬
ble. The principal commodities conveyed by it are grain,
meal, flour, butter, potatoes, turf, timber, bricks, and stone.
In 1828, during a severe scarcity of potatoes in Leinster and
the south of Ireland, whilst there was a superabundance in
Connaught, 22,292 tons were brought to Dublin from the
latter province by the Royal Canal, which greatly allevi¬
ated the distress of the poor in the other parts. The ge¬
neral tonnage on these two main canals has been as fol¬
lows :—
IRELAND.
istlCS.
Years.
Grand Canal.
Royal Canal.
Tonnage.
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
Tons. Cwts
142,622
134,939
143,147
166.749
188,731
189,686
179,173
190,387
191,774
224.749 10
$37,809 15
Amount of Toll.
L.
32,517
24,866
24,058
27,679
32,328
28,408
33,587
35,212
31,435
33,464
36,735
13
4
6
7
7
16
4
19
15
8
12
d.
10i
9
7
3
1
4
91
o|
Oi
3“
Tonnage.
Tons.
108,933
80,366
75,273
84,887
119,262
127,884
145,519
213,774
154,001
140,019
129,844
Amount of Toll.
L.
8,654
9,903
7,306
6,843
7,717
10,842
11,624
13,229
19,434
13,091
12,729
d.
4
2
5
5
0
9
2
4
3
11
1
415
Statistics.
Of the lesser artificial lines of inland navigation, the water navigation. The Nore, a branch of the Barrow, is
Newry Canal is the most important, and was the first com- navigable for barges from New Ross to Thomastown. The
pleted. It is navigable from the tideway at Fathom, to Suir, another branch, admits vessels of the largest draft
Newry, for vessels of nine or ten feet draught; and thence at Waterford, and thence is navigable for sloops to Carrick,
to the Bann, where that river becomes navigable for barges and for barges to Clonmell. The southern Blackwater ad-
of sixty tons. Its summit is sixty-five feet above the sea. mits vessels of 300 tons over its bar, and sloops can proceed
The navigation is carried on in the Bann for twelve miles eight miles up the river to Dromore. A navigable canal
to Lough Neagh, which is navigable through an extent of has been cut by the Duke of Devonshire, from Cappoquin
fifteen miles by eleven. The Lower Bann, from Lough to Lismore, three miles. Three miles of canal were also
Neagh to the sea below Coleraine, is yet unnavigable, from
obstructions in its course.
The Lagan navigation extends from the tideway at
Belfast, partly in the river, partly artificially, to Lough
made above Mallow. The Lee admits vessels of 200 tons
as far up as the city of Cork, and barges a short distance
farther. The Bandon is navigable from Kinsale to within
three miles of Bandon. On the western coast, the Laune
Neagh, a distance of twenty miles. It is the only under- and Main in Kerry uniting, fall into the head of Dingle
taking of the kind which has been maintained by local Bay. They admit sloops to Castlemaine. The noble
taxes, assessed upon the neighbouring districts at their river of the Shannon, which, if properly treated and clear-
own request. ed of its impediments, might be called the great aorta of
The Tyrone Colliery Canal extends from Coal Island in Ireland, is navigable, but with frequent interruptions, from
Tyrone, four miles to the Blackwater, and thence by a Limerick, for 230 miles. The Maig, one of its branches,
short cut into Lough Neagh, which thus forms the recep- admits boats as far as Adare; and the Fergus, which dis-
tacle for three branches of inland navigation. The com- charges itself into its estuary, has been rendered naviga-
munication from the colliery basin to the mines is by a ble for boats as far as Ennis. The Moy, in Mayo, admits
wooden railway. small vessels from Killala to Ballina. The only
A new line of inland navigation, under the name of the
Ulster Canal, is now in progress. Its object is to con¬
nect Loughs Neagh and Erne. The workings have been
carried on from the former of these points to Tullybrick
Lake in Armagh.
The river navigation, commencing from Dublin, may be
summed up as follows: The Lift’ey is navigable mere-
gable river on the northern coast is the Foyle; it is na¬
vigable by nature for nine miles to St Johnstown, and
thence by the assistance of art for four miles farther to
Strabane. Proceeding north about to the eastern coast,
the only river to the north of Dublin is the Boyne, in
which, by the attention paid to clear its channel, vessels
of considerable burden can run up as far as Drogheda, four
ly to the western extremity of Dublin city, and that only miles from its mouth. The navigation is continued thence
from half flood. The Slaney is navigable for barges from for boats in the bed of the river to Slane, and beyond that
Wexford to Enniscorthy, a distance of nineteen miles, by artificial means sixteen miles further, to Navan and
On the southern side of the island, the Barrow has been Trim. The total ascent from the former to the latter of
rendered navigable from the tideway at the Scars, below these places is 190 feet. The following table affords a
fit Mullins, to Athy, a distance of forty-three miles ; the summary view of the length of the chieflines of inland navi-
total fall is 172 feet. It is partly a river, partly a still gation, and of the expense at wdiich they have been formed.
Comparative Rates of Expense per Mile, of the several Navigations in Ireland, with Rate of Lockage on each respectively.
Denomination.
Length.
Grand Canal 
Royal Canal   
Limerick Navigation...
Barrow Navigation 
Boyne Navigation...
Ragan Navigation...
Miles.
100
72
12
34
15A
22
Lockage.
Feet.
■ o
%
Cost per
Mile.
L.
18,610
19,749
10,297
7,220
7,463
4,363
Total Cost.
L.
1,861,008
1,421,955
123,560
255,502
115,678
96,000
j Six and a half miles still water, five and
^ a half river navigation,
f Five miles still water, twenty-nine river
^ navigation.
f Partly still water, partly river naviga-
^ tion.
416
IRELAND.
Statistics.
Cattle
trade. &c.
Besides these river navigations, and that of Lough Neagh
already noticed, Lough Corrib is navigable from Galway
for boats for nearly fifty miles. The chief trade is in turf,
lime, and grain to Galway. The Erne becomes navigable
at Belturbot, whence there is a navigation through the
lakes, but obstructed at the gut of Enniskillen by weirs.
The free passage from the lakes to the sea is prevented
by the salmon weirs at Ballyshannon.
The only rail-road is that between Dublin and Kings¬
town, a distance of five miles and three quarters. It is
formed on the model of that between Liverpool and Man¬
chester. It was opened in 1834, and promises to be very
productive, chiefly by the conveyance of passengers. Its
shares are at a premium of upwards of a hundred per cent.
The cattle trade is chiefly transacted at fairs, of which
by far the most important is held at Ballinasloe in Con- Statisj
naught. There are two annual fairs; that of October W\- ]
regulates the transactions as to live stock in black cattle and
sheep for the ensuing year. The extent of dealings can be
estimated by the subsequent tables. The sheep and heifers
sent thither are from three to four years old, the bullocks
from four to five. The latter are mostly lean, and are
kept for a year on the rich pastures of Leinster before
they are thought fit for the Dublin or Liverpool market.
The decline in the number of cattle and sheep in the lat¬
ter years, stated in the table, is attributed partly to the
increase of tillage cultivation, caused by the great in¬
crease of the population, and the consequent continual
subdivision of land, and partly to the increased demand
for cattle and sheep in several other fairs.
Number of Sheep and Black Cattle Sold and Unsold at the October Fairs at Ballinasloe, for every Fourth Year
from 1790 to 1834 both inclusive.
Years.
1790
1794
1798
1802
1806
1810
1814
1818
1822
1826
1830
1834
Sheep.
Sold.
59,231
64,580
64,700
75,927
64,222
69,481
72,678
65,585
74,718
57,808
66,874
57,810
Unsold.
2,700
2,895
9,451
8,571
23,171
21,520
7,602
5,292
15,497
36,597
14,611
8,904
Total.
61,931
67,475
74,151
84,498
87,393
91,001
80,280
70,877
90,177
94,405
81,485
66,714
Black Cattle.
Sold.
7,782
7,106
6,931
6,232
5,158
5,331
3,748
6,354
5,322
4,393
5,894
7,521
Unsold.
850
231
700
3,512
7,032
1,727
5,863
3,256
3,695
3,844
1,563
2,116
Total-
8,632
7,337
7,631
9,744
12,190
7,258
9,611
9,610
9,017
8,240
7,457
9,637
The traffic in cattle slaughtered for exportation is trans¬
acted in the towns in which the trade is carried on, whi¬
ther the animals are sent from great distances. The prin¬
cipal marts are Cork, Limerick, Waterford, and Belfast.
The corn sold is either purchased by factors or sent to
the mills in the neighbourhood, where it is ground and
disposed of for domestic consumption or for export. The
extent and progress, both of the provision and corn trade,
will best be ascertained in the tables of exports under a
subsequent division of this article. The linen trade is
carried on chiefly at the weekly markets held in the lar¬
ger towns of the northern province, to which the manufac¬
ture is mostly confined.
Trade and The external trade of Ireland branches out into two
commerce, great divisions, the cross-channel trade with Great Bri¬
tain, and the commerce wdth foreign nations. The pro¬
gress of domestic navigation will appear best from the
first of the following tables, containing a summary, in pe¬
riods of ten years each, of the number and tonnage of
ships built in Ireland, and of the number and tonnage
of those belonging to the several ports of Ireland; while
the relative importance of each port, as respects its com¬
mercial character, will appear from the second, which
contains a specification of the number of vessels register¬
ed in each of the ports of Ireland in each of the years
specified.
Statement of the Number and Tonnage of vessels Built in
Ireland, and of the Number and Tonnage of those that
belong to the several Ports there, arranged in totals of
Ten Years.
Years.
New Vessels.
Vessels.
Burthen.
Vessels Registered.
V essels.
Burthen.
1787 to 1797
1797 to 1807
1807 to 1817
1817 to 1827
1827 to 1834
No.
458
286
372
484
295
Tons.
20,576
15,289
17,616
21,252
17,396
No.
11,171
10,428
11,467
12,184
10,107
Tons.
633,659
550,959
604,953
659,352
736,850
tistics-
IRELAND.
Number of Vessels Registered at each of the Irish Ports in every Year specified.
Ballimore 
Belfast   
Coleraine 
Cork 
Donaghadee 
Drogheda 
Dublin 
Dundalk 
Galway 
Killibegs 
Kilrush 
Kinsale 
Larne 
Limerick 
Londonderry 
Newport 
Newry and Strangford.
Sligo 
Tralee 
Waterford and Ross....
Westport 
Wexford 
Wicklow 
Youghal 
Ireland.
1791.
Ships.
47
61
17
121
28
19
243
7
58
34
50
35
17
31
11
83
13
7
60
54
39
136
1,176
Tons.
1801.
1,623
6,245
569
9,704
777
959
16,051
433
2,286
2,052
1,883
1,548
1,158
1,317
727
4,865
546
297
4,633
2,253
1,558
5,926
Ships.
69,233
39
51
13
75
23
15
251
10
29
10
57
33
33
16
4
84
9
8
42
62
18
119
1,003
Tons.
1,248
4,539
409
5,376
783
861
17,450
755
715
419
2,010
1,286
1,485
1,150
120
3,631
376
200
2,727
2,704
685
5,310
54,232
1811.
Ships.
67
77
13
88
27
20
207
2
42
13
67
40
49
12
2
132
11
12
27
70
32
119
1,133
Tons.
2,104
8,365
426
5,682
1,068
1,178
11,948
248
1,699
329
2,316
1,440
2,110
1,127
55
6,411
296
356
2551
3,271
1,049
5,155
59,155
1821.
Ships.
85
123
15
95
40
31
251
1
16
10
2
96
44
41
18
3
171
20
10
30
74
41
124
1,345
Tons.
2,356
11,631
664
5,566
1,375
1,840
14,578
137
703
161
68
3,473
1,505
1,653
2,084
70
7,386
1,160
298
2,795
3,717
1,331
4,194
69,036
1825.
Ships.
76
153
5
83
44
34
272
6
14
11
11
84
44
36
20
5
182
7
13
36
85
43
127
1,391
Tons.
2,309
15,142
114
5,425
1,589
2,210
18,132
381
423
436
310
2,987
1,364
1,372
2,606
108
8,651
255
404
3,623
4,552
1,387
5,253
80,583
The progress of the general navigation of Ireland with
other countries may be inferred from the following table,
which also affords a view of the outlets for Irish com¬
merce at the periods specified. The official returns pre¬
viously to the union do not state the number or tonnage
of the vessels which cleared out from Ireland for foreism
parts. What has been published is sufficient, however,
to show the great preponderance of the trade with Great
Britain over that with all the world besides. The accounts
could not be stated according to any cycle of years, in con¬
sequence of a chasm in the official documents from 1806
to 1817.
Number of all Vessels, British, Irish, and Foreign, entered inwards into Ireland.
Russia 
Sweden 
Denmark and Norway..
Prussia  
Germany 
Netherlands 
France 
Portugal 
Spain 
Italy 
Turkey 
United States 
West Indies, Foreign.,.
West Indies, British....
British North Colonies.
Asia 
Africa.
Total from all the world except England.
From England 
General Total.
1795.
70
73
264
72
5
46
2
106
53
10
107
11
38
19
893
6,193
7,086
1800.
28
51
237
78
19
11
17
132
44
5
128
5
25
12
846
6,852
7,298
1808.
54
45
420
14
10
47
7
98
49
10
130
36
29
1
1,100
7,837
8,936
1817-
30
17
114
18
6
26
16
96
60
16
1
97
1
45
109
5
755
9,790
10,545
1821.
30
9
91
38
2
30
21
79
71
20
1
60
69
165
795
9,523
10,318
1825.
82
9
193
72
1
61
18
no
39
41
5
59
1
74
277
1,116
11,542
12,658
VOL. XII.
417
Statistics.
v  
3 G
418
IRELAND.
Statistics.
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IRELAND.
420
Statistics.
Statist
Summary View of the Official and
Foreign Parts, and all Parts, for
Peal Value of the Imports and Exports of Ireland, to and from Great Britain,
the year 1801, and every Fourth Year to 1829 inclusive, in Pounds Sterling.
Official value of imports into Ire¬
land from 
f Great Britain..
J Foreign parts..
[All parts 
Official value of exports from Ire¬
land, being the produce of the
united kingdom, to 
Official value of exports from Ire¬
land, being foreign and colo¬
nial merchandise, to  
f Great Britain
J Foreign parts
l All parts   
f Great Britain..
J Foreign parts..
[ All parts 
Official value of the total exports
from Ireland to 
f Great Britain..
J Foreign parts
l All parts 
Real value of the produce of the
united kingdom exported from
Ireland to 
{Great Britain
Foreign parts.
All parts 
1801.
L.3,270,351
1,350,994
L.4,621,345
L.3,352,069
426,076
L.3,778,145
L.185,656
100,744
L.286,400
L.3,537,725
526,820
L.4,064,545
Not recorded.
1805.
L.4,067,717
1,227,250
L.5,294,967
L.4,201,077
469,570
L.4,670,647
L.87,090
44,431
L.131,521
L.4,288,168
514,001
L.4,802,169
Not recorded.
1809.
L.5,216,557
1,580,265
L.6,896,822
L.4,367,425
625,416
L.4,992,841
L.220,880
84,597
L.305,477
L.4,588,306
710,012
L.5,298,318
L.9,260,783
1,321,616
L. 10,582,399
1813.
L.6,746,354
1,050,933
L.7,797,287
L.5,164,483
1,132,781
L.6,297,264
L.245,844
157,149
L.402,993
L.5,410,327
1,289,931
L.6,700,258
L.11,228,401
2,467,824
L.13,696,225
Official value of imports into Ire¬
land from 
f Great Britain..
• J Foreign parts..
All parts.
Official value of exports from Ire¬
land, being the produce of the
united kingdom, to 
Official value of exports from Ire¬
land, being foreign and colo¬
nial merchandise, to 
f Great Britain..
J Foreign parts.,
i
l All parts 
f Great Britain..
Foreign parts..
f All parts.
Official value of the total exports
from Ireland to 
f Great Britain.
Foreign parts..
All parts 
Real value of the produce of the
united kingdom exported from
Ireland to 
f Great Britain..
J Foreign parts..
[ All parts
1817.
L.4,722,766
923,797
L.5,646,563
L.5,569,465
877,960
L.6,447,425
L.127,149
23,413
L.150,562
L.5,696,614
901,373
L.6,597,987
L.9,114,428
1,411,897
L. 10,526,325
1821.
L.5,338,838
1,068,590
L.6,407,428
L.7,067,252
637,818
L.7,705,070
L.50,200
27,605
L.77,805
L.7,117,452
665,424
L.7,782,876
L.8,974,510
832,135
L.9,806,645
1825.
1829.
L.7,048,936
1,547,849
L. 1,669,406
L.8,596,785
L.8,404,288
697,668
L.747,515
L.9,101,956
L.127,067
14,187
L. 15,964
L.14l,254
L.8,531,355
711,855
L.763,480
L.9,243,210
L.793,615
L.617,596
Another view of this interesting illustration of the im- quitted the ports of Ireland during the period therein
portance and value of the commercial ties which connect mentioned ; the third shows the progressive increase of
together these two great portions of the united kingdom, the interchange of the commodities of both islands by the
may be had from the following tables, the two first of cross-channel trade,
which exhibit the number of vessels that entered and
IRELAND.
42!
Statistics.
Years.
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
British and Irish Vessels.
From Great Britain.
Vessels.
9037
9552
8638
9186
9278
9905
9229
9440
9562
9382
7534
8922
6388
7411
8790
8922
8455
9029
9374
9270
9796
Tonnage.
730,357
736,011
712,620
770,547
752,020
823,191
783,750
819,648
832,927
786,637
615,396
741,182
632,972
737,752
925,505
906,159
880,965
821,128
970,481
1,001,808
1,061,766
All other Parts.
Vessels, j Tonnage.
685
513
522
489
514
577
466
439
522
426
413
440
569
515
516
571
553
613
579
617
558
111,268
69.325
74,255
71,900
78,120
94,647
76,561
65,782
80,661
63,384
70,317
82,673
117,032
102,906
95,717
109,142
113,087
126,222
129,393
136,924
118,369
Foreign.
From all Parts.
Vessels.
179
418
321
234
337
348
230
182
261
258
308
332
281
209
150
152
137
159
82
92
100
Tonnage.
32,817
80,042
69,703
45,073
63,229
64,636
42,337
32,936
49,125
47,797
56,355
54,712
51,334
75,340
26,455
24.161
22.161
26,195
12,878
14,911
16,386
Total.
V essels.
9,901
10,483
9,481
9,909
10,129
10,830
9,925
10,061
10,345
10,066
8,255
9,694
7,238
8,135
9,456
9,645
9,145
9,801
10,035
9,979
10,454
Tonnage.
883,432
935.648
856,578
887,520
893,370
982,474
902.648
918,366
962,713
897,818
742,068
878,567
801,338
875,998
1,045,677
1,039,461
1,016,213
1,073,545
1,112,751
1,153,643
1,196,521
Average Amount of Imports and Exports between Great Britain and Ireland.
Imports
into Ireland.
Exports to
Great Britain.
Imports
into Ireland.
Exports to
Great Britain.
1749 to 1759, ten years L.1,015,305 L.1,274,569
1759 to 1769, ten years  1,367,573  1,719,575
1769 to 1779, ten years  1,823,183  2,405,747
1779 to 1789, ten years  2,286,562  2,710,039
1789 to 1799, ten years L.2,923,321 L.3,816,018
1799 to 1809, ten years  4,317,828  4,114,704
1809 to 1819, ten years  4,787,434  5,722,242
1819 to 1825, five years  5,046,389  6,450,803
The imports may be considered as almost wholly in- nufacture, or for the immediate use of the people, as the
tended for home consumption, either as materials of ma- quantities imported for re-exportation, though increasing
422
IRELAND.
Statistics, of late, bear a very small proportion to their total amount, importation of these for every tenth year, until the ter- Statii
The principal articles imported in a raw or unwrought mination of the official returns, will give a general idea of ,
state are, coal, iron, flax-seed, flax, hemp, ashes, cotton the quantities imported, and their increase or diminu-
wool, timber, deals, staves, tallow, bark, and silk. The tion.
Raw Material of Manufacture imported from all parts in 1773, and every Tenth \ear after.
Years.
1773
1783
1793
1803
1813
1823
Iron.
Cwts.
126,376
164,187
228,830
245,208
414,351
277,755
Flax
Seed.
Hhds-
39,750
24,617
59,079
25,269
38,108
49,801
Ashes.
Cwts.
62,729
130,893
93,756
102,588
128,111
119,499
Cotton
Wool.
Cwts.
3,729
4,550
20,503
18,378
26,109
34,162
Timber.
Tons.
11,530
8,569
29,651
19,379
120,603
49,735
Tallow.
1,561
28,999
5,106
52,905
Bark, Oak.
lbs.
75,290
90,836
165,200
110,321
139,419
115,441
Silk.
104,227
49,167
Wood,
Deals.
No.
7,528
10,167
101,665
23,235
16,479
4,585
Hemp.
Cwts.
9,670
7,222
31,604
28,712
21,792
21,145
Staves.
No.
34,821
19,032
43,448
24,495
53,121
37,017
Flax.
Cwts.
10,551
3,680
13,560
11,687
1,145
4,530
The exports from Ireland are chiefly the agricultural
produce of the country, with a few manufactured articles
produced from them, without having undergone many pro¬
cesses of manipulation. The articles forming these exports,
and the increase or decrease of value of each description
sent into Great Britain after a lapse of ten years, terminat¬
ing at the latest period of which official documents afford
information, may be deduced from the following table:—
Species of Exports to Great Britain, and the value of each
description, at two periods of Ten Years distance.
1815. 1821.
Bacon and hams L.378,161 L.519,049
Beef 148,452 126,714
Butter 463,130 621,245
Grain, meal, &c 683,557 1,700,963
Cotton goods 356,819
Cows and oxen 37,252 146,935
Flax, dressed and undressed 47,448 101,424
Hides 10,241 7,731
Horses 16,845 39,832
Lard 21,595 44,998
Linens 1,628,659 2,111,696
Paper 32,546
Pork 227,561 167,879
Sheep   16,236
Skins 25,162 9,090
Spirits, Irish 40,325 55,787
Swine 32,959
Wool  33,774 29,427
Yarn, cotton 20,980
 linen 75,247 26,234
Other articles 264,786 376,018
L.4,167,597 6,544,575
Taking the article of linen from among those quoted in
this table, to show the increasing ratio of the cross-chan¬
nel trade, and its superiority over that with all the rest of
the world besides, the following totals of the number of
millions of yards exported to Great Britain and elsewhere
will serve as a satisfactory illustration of the fact.
1801. 1805. 1809. 1815. 1817. 1821.
37 43 37 39 56 49
34 40 33 35 50 45
3 3 4 4 6 4 24
The facilities for promoting this mutual intercours'e, to
which both countries owe so much, have been augmented
to an extraordinary degree by the discovery of open-sea
steam navigation. The earliest attempt at establishing a
company for this purpose was made in Dublin about the
year 1816. Two small vessels were fitted out; but the
construction of their machinery was faulty, their dimen¬
sions were too small, and the effort proved abortive. Now,
1825.
55
524
the trade, with the exception of that of coal, is chiefly
carried on by means of steam.
Many of the principal features of the character of theNatii
people may be deduced from the preceding summary ofchara
their history, and of their present state. In appearance,&c.
the peasantry are of full size, strong, vigorous, athletic,
healthy; capable of much labour, but averse from long con¬
tinued exertion. In moral and intellectual qualities they
are ardent in their affections, extreme in the indulgence of
their passions both of love and hatred, easily roused, des¬
perate and daring to excess when excited, but also quick¬
ly dispirited and deeply desponding under failure; viva¬
cious, social, much attached to home, dreading expatria¬
tion more than death ; addicted to rural sports and amuse¬
ments ; fond of music and song, and still more so of dan¬
cing ; adhering with inviolable fidelity to their engage¬
ments to each other, but lax in their sentiments of moral
obligation towards those whom they consider as their ene¬
mies ; of quick, shrewd intellect, admirers of literature,
and vain of their own acquirements in it. This general
description, both of external and intellectual qualities, is
varied by striking shades of difference in the different
parts of the country. Derived from distinct aboriginal
stocks, the inhabitants of each province, particularly those
in the extreme and less-frequented districts of each, ex¬
hibit marked traits of their parentage, in person, phy¬
siognomy, customs, and language. In the north-eastern
part of Ulster, the Scotch features, dialect, manners, and
dispositions, are strikingly prevalent. In the south of
Leinster the peasants still retain much of the old Eng¬
lish language and customs. In Kerry, the Spanish de¬
scent is clearly to be traced in the personal appearance,
the dress, and the style of building prevalent there. In
Connaught and the north-west, the vestiges of the abori¬
ginal Celt is still prominently conspicuous. The Irish
language is spoken in all parts except in the Welsh colony
in Wexford, and in that of the Scotch settlers in the east
of Ulster, but with marked variations of dialect and tone
in various parts. That of the mountainous districts of Do¬
negal is said, by those deemed to be adepts in the study
of national philology, to be the most pure. Few countries
exhibit such a contrast in the architectural construction
of the habitations of the higher and lower orders. The
mansions of the nobility and great landed gentry are
capacious, splendid, and fitted up with every appendage of
rural luxury. Those of the middling classes, whose great
ambition it is to imitate, and if possible to rival, the style
of living of their superiors, are generally neat and elegant.
The glebe-houses of the Protestant clergy exhibit every
appearance of English comfort. The cottages of the pea¬
santry are seldom more than huts of earth, covered with
straw, with one or two windows. In the mountainous dis¬
tricts, where timber is scarce, they are miserable in the
extreme. The clothing of the great body of the people
IRELAND.
tistics. is home-mad^frize and linen. The former material is ge-
■y^ nerally dyed with some peculiar tint that marks at sight
the locality of the wearer. Latterly, cottons have super¬
seded to a great extent the use of linen, particularly
amongst the women. The universal food is the potato,
aided occasionally by bacon, and, in the maritime parts, by
fish. Milk is the usual beverage. Indulgence in spirit¬
uous liquors has long been imputed to the Irish as a na¬
tional vice. There is a very trite proverb throughout the
country, that where there is smoke, there is fire. Even
423
though true, it admits of the qualification, that where there Statistics,
is most smoke, there is often but little fire. A reference '
to facts and printed documents will show that the.quan¬
tity of spirits consumed in Ireland, compared with that in
the other divisions of the united kingdom, does not bear
out the sweeping and prevalent charge of excessive ine¬
briety. Parliamentary documents lately published fur¬
nish the following statement of the number of gallons
of spirits of every kind that paid duty in each part of the
united kingdom.
Rum 
Brandy  
Geneva 
Other foreign spirits.
Total foreign.
Home-made spirits...
General total.
England.
Gal.
3,306,650
1,326,204
13,075
8,003
4,554,086
7,654,465
12,208,551
Scotland.
Gal.
111,169
37,075
6,075
1,534
155,917
6,045,043
6,200,960
Ireland.
Gal.
27,358
25,360
2,264
364
55,346
9,708,462
9,763,808
Total.
Gal.
3,345,177
1,388,639
21,632
9,901
4,765,349
23,407,970
28,173,319
According to the data here afforded, the average con¬
sumption of spirits, compared with the population of each
portion of the united kingdom, will be as follows:
Population in millions 
Spirits in millions of gallons.
Average consumption per man in ]
gallons, nearly j
13
2|
n
So that England being the standard of unity, the ex¬
cess of consumption is but one fourth in Ireland, whilst it
rises to one and three fourths in Scotland. A deduction,
however, must be made for the large quantity of spirits
sent, by some strange anomaly in the. management of the
excise, from Scotland, both into England and Ireland,
notwithstanding the lower rate of duty here; for which,
if due allowance be made, it is probable that the average
consumption of ardent spirits will be found to be nearly
equal throughout all parts of the united kingdom, and
that the character of excess which still adheres to Ire¬
land may be accounted for parti)' from prejudice, which
is apt to cling pertinaciously to long-established and old
opinions, and partly to the fact that the indulgence on
the part of the lower classes is more public.
As far as drunkenness and crime are connected in the
relation of cause and effect, the comparative view of con¬
victions in Ireland shows that crimes of atrocity, which
are most likely to be the result of passions excited by the
excessive indulgence in spirituous liquors, are on the de¬
cline. The number of executions is considerably dimi¬
nished since 1822, and of those which have taken place,
many, if not most, were for murders connected with poli¬
tical circumstances. The following table exhibits a view
of the criminal oftences from 1822 to 1834 inclusive.
Committed—Males 
Females...
Total.
Not prosecuted.
No bills found..
Acquitted 
Transpor¬
tation for
Convicted and sen-)
tenced to death /
life 
14 years 
7 years....,
f3 years 
| 2 years  
<! 1 year  
6 months 1
and under)
c s
o <2
s E
-H ^
Fined
Total convicted.
Executed 
1822.
12,766
2,485
1823.
12,240
2,392
15,251 14,632
157
4,659
2,863
341
57
29
633
10
118
555
5,571
258
7,572
101
181
4,473
2,693
241
27
17
607
2
115
621
5,370
285
1824.
12,444
2,814
1825.
15,258
184
4,431
2,901
295
26
21
692
2
76
745
5,495
390
7,285
61
7,743
60
12,563
2,952
15,515
163
4,392
2,389
181
45
17
733
6
108
785
6,395
331
8,571
18
1826.
13,268
3,050
16,318
187
4,645
2,770
281
49
31
762
1
98
883
6,283
328
8,716
34
1827-
1828.
14,508
3,433
18,031
304
4,461
3,059
346
118
44
985
1
69
947
6,846
851
10,207
37
11,909
2,764
14,683
91
3,078
2,245
211
66
20
665
3
75
880
6,449
900
9,269
21
1829.
12,471
2,800
15,271
3,200
2,622
224
51
15
746
2
90
919
6,526
876
1830.
12,709
3,085
15,794
3,463
2,429
9,449
38
262
93
25
839
55
563
7,506
559
9,902
39
1831.
13,148
3,044
16,192
3,694
2,893
307
178
26
872
1
120
844
6,840
417
9,605
37
1832.
13,160
2,896
16,056
3,848
2,449
319
162
29
956
102
914
6,905
372
9,759
39
1833.
14,923*
2,896
17,819
3,970
2,405
237
224
21
711
10
199
924
8,836
282
11,444
39
1834.
17,757
3,624
21,381
4,593
2,535
197
244
11
781
%
151
1,053
11,190
624
14,253
43
424 I R E L
Statistics. Other official documents for last year tend to show, as
far as the number of places for vending spirits can exhibit
it, that their sale is more general in England than in
either Scotland or Ireland, whilst in the last-named por¬
tion of the kingdom the consumption of beer is evidently
on the increase. Of the following summaries the former
gives the number of retail spirit-licenses issued last year,
the latter the quantity of malt used by brewers.
AND.
England. Scotland. Ireland. Total. statist
1. 47,312 16,278 18,416 82,006 W
2. 15,837,409 997,771 2,055,326 10,890,506
The following table of the consumption of articles of
foreign luxury may serve as a criterion of the progress of
refinement throughout the country. In drawing conclu¬
sions from it, the increase of the population at each period
here stated should be kept in mind.
Quantities of Articles Imported for Home Consumption in 1784, and for every Fourth Year after.
The statement of savings’ banks already given may also
serve as another element of calculation in forming the
same estimate. Friendly societies, so largely spread over
England, and protected there by several statutory enact¬
ments, seem to have taken but little root in Ireland. The
following return shows the number of these societies,
whose regulations are filed with the clerks of the peace,
according to the law, from 1792 to 1832, a period of forty
years, viz. England, 17,365; Scotland, 2144; Ireland, 274.
Education. The efforts to improve the state of the people by reli¬
gious and literary instruction have been numerous and
extended. For some centuries after the settlement of
the English, these efforts were, however, conducted on a
principle as unjust as impolitic. All attempts at better¬
ing the condition of the people were limited to the Eng¬
lish settlers or the inhabitants of the pale, those of the rest
of the island being treated as enemies. To such a height
was the distinction carried, that whilst the murder of an
Englishman was death, that of a native was suffered to
go unpunished, provided it could be proved that he was
mere Irish, and not one of the five bloods of the O’Neills,
O’Melaghlins, O’Connors, O’Briens, and M‘Murroughs,
who were admitted by special favour to the privileges of
English subjects. It was not till the reign of James I.
that the whole of the island was allowed to participate in
the protection afforded by English law.
The machinery used for diffusing religious instruction
has already been developed in the account of the eccle¬
siastical state of the country. That of the literary in¬
struction remains to be stated. It may be arranged un¬
der three heads; collegiate institutions for the higher de¬
partments of science and literature ; academies and schools
for rudimental instruction in the same studies; and pri¬
mary schools for affording the first elements of knowledge
to the great mass of the population.
The first attempt at founding an university after the
arrival of the English was made by John Leek, archbi¬
shop of Dublin, who obtained a papal bull for the purpose
in 1311, which was carried into effect in 1320 by Alex¬
ander Bicknor, his successor. The disturbed state of the
country prevented its success. Little more is known of
it than that, after lingering through an existence of some
time, it died away. Another similar attempt was made,
with similar success, at Drogheda, where an university
was founded by act of parliament in 1465, with the same
privileges as that of Oxford. The next attempt was more
happy. In 1593 the university of Trinity College, Dub¬
lin, was opened in the buildings of the dissolved monas¬
tery of All-Hallows. It still continues to be the sole uni
versity in Ireland. Another was opened by James II.;
but after his flight it was handed over to Trinity College,
and soon afterwards finally closed. The celebrated Henry
Flood left a bequest for the endowment of a college after
his death ; but the legacy lapsed, from a neglect of apply
ing it within the proper time. In 1810 the inhabitants of
Belfast opened a collegiate institution for scientific and
literary instruction by private subscription. It has been
sanctioned by act of parliament, and receives a liberal
grant of public money; but as it has not been privileged
to grant degrees, it cannot be ranked as a university.
With respect to the second class of places of public
education, an act of Elizabeth required that a grammar-
school should be maintained in every diocese, by the con¬
tributions of the bishop and beneficed clergy. James I.
improved on the idea, by vesting large tracts of forfeited
lands for the maintenance of similar schools. His exam¬
ple was followed by Charles I. Erasmus Smith, also, one
of the adventurers who obtained large tracts of land dur¬
ing the time of Cromwell, applied some of his property to
this purpose. Classical schools were also endowed by
other private individuals. The schools of royal founda¬
tion were those of Armagh, Dungannon, Enniskillen, Ra-
phoe, Cavan, Banagher, and Carysfort. Those of Eras¬
mus Smith’s, and other private foundations, were, Droghe¬
da, Galway, Tipperary, Ennis, Navan, and Ballyroan.
The diocesan schools never exceeded seventeen out of the
twenty-two dioceses.
The primary schools owe their foundation to an act of
Henry VIII., which bound every incumbent of a parish by
oath to maintain a school therein to teach the English lan¬
guage. The bond was neglected by many, and observed
with culpable laxity by most others. The statute having
fixed upon forty shillings as the minimum of the teacher’s
salary at the time of its Hfractment, the incumbent, regard¬
less of the great subsequent depression of the value of mo¬
ney, deemed his duty to be fulfilled and his conscience clear¬
ed by paying that annual stipend to his parish-clerk, or some
other person who professed to teach in the parish. Soon
IRELAND.
ttistics. after the revolution, a project was started and eagerly follow-
ed up by the established clergy, of founding schools, in which
the children of the poor should be instructed in the rudi¬
ments of literature, as well as in useful works, and also main¬
tained at the public expense. To these laudable objects
was also added that of converting them to the Protestant
doctrine. These schools being incorporated by act of par¬
liament, received the name of charter-schools. They were
long a favourite object of interest to the legislature, which
annually voted large sums for their support, in addition to
those procured by donation or bequest. Notwithstanding
several essays on general education were subsequently writ¬
ten, and the subject brought before parliament at different
times, nothing further was practically attempted till 1819,
when a voluntary society was formed in Dublin, for the
avowed purpose of instructing the poor, without interfer¬
ing with their religious opinions. The society was at first
generally supported ; and being aided by liberal grants of
public money, promised fair to achieve its professed object.
But a stipulation introduced into its regulations shortly
after its commencement, requiring the Bible to be used as
a school-book, aroused the suspicions of the Roman Ca¬
tholic clergy, who excited such a distaste to it throughout
the country, that it was found expedient to withdraw the
grant, and to transfer the management to another body.
The important duty of providing literary instruction to
the great body of the people is now delegated to a board,
consisting of the two archbishops of Dublin, the modera¬
tor of the synod of Ulster, and a few other commissioners
nominated by the crown. The main feature of difference
between this board and the society it superseded, general¬
ly called the Kildare Place Society, from the site of its of¬
fices and model school, is, that' instead of insisting on the
Bible being used as a school-book in all cases, selections
from it are employed for the purpose of general education,
and a portion of every week set apart, in which the clergy
of each religious persuasion may instruct the pupils of their
425
own flock in the peculiar tenets of their doctrines. The Statistics,
board has been too short a time in existence to form a deci-
sive opinion as to its probable results. Its views are suffi-
ciently extensive. It proposes to establish five professor¬
ships in the training institution : 1. Of the art of teaching
and conducting schools ; 2. of composition, English litera¬
ture, history, geography, and political economy ; 3. of na¬
tural history in all its branches; 4. of mathematics and
mathematical science ; 5. of mental philosophy, includ¬
ing the elements of logic and rhetoric. Every candi¬
date for the charge of a school is to study at least two
years in this department, so as to receive instruction in all
the departments of knowledge there taught. It is also pro¬
posed to establish a model-school for each county, in which
all candidates for admission into the central training es¬
tablishment should undergo a preparatory process of in¬
struction. The annual salaries of teachers of primary
schools is estimated at L.25, with a gratuity of L.5 de¬
pendent on good conduct; and that of a teacher in the
model schools at L.100, with two assistants at L.50 each.
1 he population of Ireland being estimated at 8,000,000,
of which about one seventh, or 1,140,000, are between the
ages of seven and thirteen, and as one half of that num¬
ber would require the aid of the national system of edu¬
cation, there should be 5000 schools, of an average of 100
pupils each, established. Supposing this number to be
completed in nine years, during which the expenses would
fluctuate according to the number of schools erected each
year, it is estimated that the system could be carried
on permanently at an annual expenditure of about
L.200,000. The amount is very great, yet probably not
more than the magnitude and importance of the under¬
taking requires. rI he following table contains a statement
of it, formed from the latest official document presented
to parliament, and containing also an account of the sums
already expended in carrying the plan into effect, during
the three years since the issuing of the commission.
Expenditure of the Commissioners of National Education during the time of the existence of the Commission, and an
Estimate of the Expenditure required to render it effective in f uture.
b o (1833
{ 1834
1835
f 1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
[ 1845
Official
Establish¬
ment, and
Incidents.
L.
2,308
3,650
5,694
4,000
4,000
4,500
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
10,000
79,152
Teachers
of Model
Schools.
L.
580
2,049
1,078
4,000
6,400
6,400
6,400
6,400
6,400
6,400
6,400
6,400
58,907
Teachers
of Primary
Schools.
15,000
45,000
75,000
105,000
135,000
142,500
147,000
150,000
814,500
Books and
School Re¬
quisites
l. r
1,844
4,341
4,662
6,000
7,000
7,500
10,000
12,000
14,000
17,000
18,000
20,000
20,000
142,347
Inspection.
L.
862
1,960
2,438
2,400
3,000
3,000
3,000
3,500
3,500
4,000
4,000
4,000
4,000
39,660
Training.
L.
66
778
6,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
Building
Model
Schools.
L.
15,000
9,000
84,344 j 24,000
Building
Primary
Schools.
L.
2,827
0,113
9,007
2,000
90,500
180,500
180,000
180; ooo
180,000
45,000
27,000
18,000
920,947
Teachers
of Present
Establish¬
ment.
L.
2,224
5,274
9,221
11,824
11,824
7,000
2,000
1,000
50,367
Total.
L.
10,645
23,453
32,878
47,224
115,324
230.900
259.400
292.400
324.900
224.400
216.900
215.400
200.400
2,214,224
Since the commencement of the present century, four
pailiamentary inquiries have been instituted relative to
tins great national subject. The first, which commenced
in 1810, published fourteen reports, containing a copious,
accurate, and well-digested view of the then state of pub¬
ic education in Ireland, which presented a very discourag*
>ag detail of negligence and abuse among those to whom
tie care of the funds granted for education had been in-
VOL. XII.
trusted. The summary of it furnishes the following state¬
ment of the number of endowed schools and pupils, and
the expense of their education :
Schools. TAnnual ^0-0f
Income. Pupils.
Classical L.9,000 1000
English 70,000 4200
in which latter average the maintenance
Average Cost
of each.
L.9
19
of the pupils is
3 H
IRELAND.
426
Statistics, included in many cases. The total number of pupils in
seventeen dioceses out of twenty-two, from which only
returns could be obtained, was 3736 schools, containing
162,467 pupils, of whom 45,490 were Protestants and
116,977 Catholics; whence the commissioners inferred that
the total numbers of schools and pupils in Ireland were
4600 and 200,000. The second parliamentary inquiry
was made during the progress of taking the census in
1821, in which the enumerators were required to report
the number of pupils in each school. The result not be¬
ing a primary object of inquiry, cannot be considered as
strictly accurate. In 1824 another parliamentary com- Statisti
mission was issued, which published a very minute state- '"•'Y"
ment of all the important particulars relative to the num¬
bers, religious persuasions, and localities of the teachers
and pupils, and paved the way for the formation of the
board of national education, already noticed. The re¬
ports of this board form the fourth official statement on
the subject. The three last-named sources supply the
following summary of the state of education at the pe¬
riods stated in them, throughout the four provinces of
Ireland:
Number of Pupils receiving Public Instruction in the Years specified.
Leinster...
Munster...
Ulster 
Connaught
Ireland.
75,510
89,225
69,490
31,381
1821.
Males. Females.
265,606
38,788
40,070
35,244
15,105
129,207
Total.
114,298
129,295
104,734
46,486
394,813
Males.
94,405
123,766
83,653
48,088
1826.
Females.
64,502
65,342
54,556
25,527
349,912
209,927
Not ascer-
tained.
2,124
1,985
3,750
1,266
9,125
Total.
161,031
191,093
141,959
74,881
568,964
1834.
Males.
27,737
18,726
27,507
10,675
84,645
Females.
22,219
13,775
18,104
6,778
60,876
Total.
49,956
32,501
45,611
17,453
145,521
Antiqui- In a general view of the countr}% the antiquities can-
ties- not be wholly passed unnoticed, although, to do justice
to the subject, a much larger scope would be required
than the limits here prescribed will permit. They may
be classed in two great divisions, Pagan and Christian.
Of the former, the round or pillar towers are the most
striking and unique. They are tall, narrow, circular build¬
ings, generally from forty to fifty feet in exterior circum¬
ference at their base, rising to a height of upwards of
a hundred feet, topped, when perfect, with a conical roof,
having the entrance several feet above the level of the
surrounding country, some of them with projections for
four or five tiers of floors, and with four small windows
near the summit, generally opposite to the cardinal points.
The sites of upwards of ninety of them have been disco¬
vered. Their origin and purpose are wrapt in equal un¬
certainty. That they were anterior to any other erec¬
tions of stone in the country is now generally admitted ;
and the opinion that they were somehow connected with
the ceremonies of fire-worship is gaining ground. Altars,
commonly called Brehon’s chairs, circular enclosures of
huge pillar stones, rocking stones, cromleachs, and cairns,
are to be found in several places ; Danish raths or moats
everywhere. Among the more anomalous antiquities of
this class, a building, called by Vallancey a ship temple,
near Dundalk, a subterraneous, cruciform cavern at New
Grange, and a singular circular building in Kerry, form¬
ed of stone without mortar, of the appearance of an amphi¬
theatre, are the most singular. Weapons and implements
of mixed metal, and ornaments of pure gold, found in bogs,
may be referred to the same period.
The Christian antiquities may be classed into ecclesi¬
astical, military, and civil. The first comprehend the
monasteries, churches, chapels, and cells, of which some
are large and of an imposing appearance, though none
worthy of comparison in these respects with similar build¬
ings in England or on the Continent, while others are of
very limited dimensions and inartificial structure. Of the
castles, some retain traces of great feudal grandeur ; but
tbe greater number are merely square forts, erected for
the reception of a small detachment adequate to guard a
pass, or keep a surrounding sept under control. The
buildings of a character purely civil are confined to cor¬
porate towns.
A retrospect of the preceding concise summaries ofConclu.
Irish history and statistics may serve to show, that though sion.
much has been done towards the full development of the
capabilities of the country, so as to enable it to contribute
its full share to the maintenance, and derive its adequate
portion of advantage from the prosperity, of the empire
of which it forms so important a part, much still remains
to be effected. During the period that has elapsed since
the revolution in 1688, a revolution still more pregnant in
consequences to Ireland than either to England or Scot¬
land, a variety of tranquillizing remedies have been ap¬
plied to heal the evils of centuries of turbulence and dis¬
cord, each of which was in turn deemed a panacea of
power to eradicate every grievance. Shortly after that
period, education, on principles exclusively Protestant,
was expected to secure not only the allegiance, but the
conversion, of the great body of the people. Agricultural
improvement was then recommended. A closer connec¬
tion with the other portion of the empire was afterwards
suggested. Reform was called for, and now a very pre¬
valent longing indicates itself among the great body of
the people for the restitution of its domestic legislature.
Education has been tried repeatedly, and in various forms,
on a scale of liberal, if not lavish expenditure. Agricul¬
ture has extended itself into every part. Religious dis¬
tinctions have been done away with. Reform has been
procured. Yet still a country, endowed beyond most
others, through its natural resources, with capabilities for
the attainment of wealth, prosperity, and happiness, con¬
tinues in a state of comparative destitution as regards
the means of subsistence, and of degradation as respects
the intellectual character of the great mass of its popula¬
tion. A contemplation of this fact has led some to the
conclusion that there is something anomalous in the Irish
character which prevents the means of melioration, effec¬
tive elsewhere, from acting beneficially upon it. Such a
conclusion would be as disheartening to the philanthropist,
who aims at the improvement of the people, as degrading
to the nation that merited the imputation. Before it be
irrevocably formed, one experiment more should be added
to those already tried, founded on the principle that Irish¬
men are moulded of the same material as the rest of
mankind,—the application of a steady, well-devised sys¬
tem of cheap government, and even-handed justice.
IRE
-land, IRELAND, New, an island in the eastern seas, north
sTew * from New Britain. It is long and narrow, and extends
|1 from north-west to south-east about 190 miles. Its aspect
coutsk. from the sea is very mountainous, and appears to be co-
vered with thick woods, which abound in pigeons, parrots,
and other birds. The inhabitants are in a state of barba¬
rity, black and woolly headed like negroes; but without
the flat nose and thick lips. Their canoes are very long
and narrow ; one of them, that was formed of a single tree,
was not less than ninety feet in length. It is situated be¬
tween Long. 150° 30' and 153° 5' E. and Lat. 33° 40'
and 50° S.
IRENvEUS, St, a bishop of Lyons, was born in Greece
about the year 120 of our era. He was the disciple of
Pappias and Polycarp, by whom, it is said, he was sent into
Gaul in 157- He lived at Lyons, where he performed the
office of a priest; and in 178 was sent to Rome, where he
disputed with Valentinus, and his two disciples Florinus
and Blastus. At his return to Lyons, he succeeded Pho-
tinus, bishop of that city ; and suffered martyrdom in 202,
under the reign of Severus. He wrote many books in
Greek, but there only remains a barbarous Latin version of
his five books against heretics, some Greek fragments in
different authors, and Pope Victor’s letter mentioned by
Eusebius. The best editions of his works are those of
Erasmus, in 1526; of Grabe, in 1702; and of Father
Massuet, in 1710.
He ought not to be confounded with St Irenaeus the
deacon, who, in 275, suffered martyrdom in Tuscany, under
the reign of Aurelian ; nor with St Irenaeus, bishop of Sir-
mich, who suffered martyrdom on the 25th of March 304,
during the persecution of Diocletian and Maximianus.
IRENE, empress of the east, celebrated for her valour,
wit, and beauty; but detestable for her cruelty, having
sacrificed her own son to the ambition of reigning alone.
She died in 803.
IRIS, in Physiology, the rainbow. The word is Greek,
supposed by some to be derived from h^u, I speak, I
tell; as being a meteor that is supposed to foretell, or ra¬
ther to declare rain.
Iris is also applied to those changeable colours which
sometimes appear in the glasses of telescopes, microscopes,
and such like instruments, and is so called from their simi¬
litude to a rainbow. The same appellation is also given to
that coloured spectrum, which a triangular prismatic glass
will project on a wall, when placed at a due angle in the
sunbeams.
IRJAH, an Afghan town in the province of Cabul,
fifty-five miles S.E. from the city of Cabul. Lat. 33° 54'
N.; Long. 69° 5' E.
IRKOUTSK, an extensive government of Russia, com¬
prehending all the eastern part of Siberia or Asiatic Rus¬
sia. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, or,
more properly, by its gulfs called the Seas of Kamts-
chatka, Okhotsk, and Anadyr; on the north by the Fro¬
zen Ocean; on the west by Tobolsk; and on the south
by vast chains of mountains, continued from the Altai
chain, by which it is separated from Chinese Tartary. It
i R o 427
extends about twenty-eight degrees from east to west, and Irkoutsk
twenty-five from north to south, and comprises 126,460 |j
square geographical miles. It was erected into a separate Iron,
government in 1763, being formerly included in the go-^"^"^
vernment of Tobolsk; and, in 1783, the Empress Catha¬
rine conferred on it the privileges of a state. It was con¬
verted into a separate government, owing to the great ex¬
tent of the country, and the same cause occasioned its sub¬
sequent division into four separate districts, namely, Ir¬
koutsk Proper, Nertschink, Yakantsk, and Okhotsk; the
first comprehending the southern and fertile districts si¬
tuated round the Baikal, and near the sources of the Lena
and its tributaries. Yakantsk extends as far as the Arctic
Ocean, comprehending the vast and frozen plains which ex¬
tend northward to that sea. Okhotsk extends along the
eastern shore of Asia, and includes not only Kamtschatka,
but the Aleutian and Kurile isles, thus bordering on one
side with America, on the other with Japan. It is traversed
by the Lena and its tributaries, throughout its whole extent
from north to south. There are also the Olonek, the In¬
digirka, and the Kovyma, which are large rivers, and fall
into the icy sea. An imperfect census has been made of
the population, according to which they were reckoned at
between 400,000 and 500,000, and they have been con¬
siderably increased. Russians and Cossacks form a consi¬
derable proportion of the inhabitants. These are com¬
posed of colonists, merchants, and of those who are em¬
ployed in the civil and military establishments of the state,
Great part of the province is occupied by the native tribes,
who lead a wandering and pastoral life, or gain a living by
hunting and fishing. The most numerous of these are
the Tunguses. There are also the Mongols, who occupy
the southern parts ; the Juraki, a Samoiede tribe, who inha¬
bit the northern districts in the Icy Sea ; the Yakantes and
Koriaks, who dwell on the eastern coast, and derive a very
precarious living from pasture and the chase; the Tschut-
chi, who occupy the north-east point of Asia; and the
rude inhabitants of the Aleutian and Kurile islands.
IRKOUTSK, the capital of the above government and
district, containing 1500 wooden houses, with two houses
of stone. The streets are unpaved, though, owing to the
fineness of the weather, they are seldom dirty. It con¬
tains thirty-three churches and two cloisters, and is also
the seat of an archbishop, and the station of the officers of
the government and a considerable body of troops. A se¬
minary is maintained here by government, a popular school,
and, since 1762, a school has been established for the Ja¬
panese language and navigation. An hospital was also es¬
tablished in 1772 for the small-pox. Irkoutsk is also a
commercial mart of considerable importance, and is the re¬
sidence of many merchants engaged in the trade between
Russia and China, which is carried on at Kiachta. It has
in a good degree the aspect of a Chinese town, from the
quantities of porcelain, enamelled and lacquered ware, and
Chinese articles of dress and furniture, with which the
houses are filled. Long. 103° SO' E. ; Lat. 52° 16' N.
IRON, one of the metals, and one of the hardest and
most useful, as well as the most abundant.
428
IRON-MAKING.
L—HISTORY.
History. It is probable that iron was first accidentally obtained
v—during the operation of carbonizing wood. If the surface
of the country where this process was performed abounded
in ores of iron, fragments might casually find admission to
the fire, and, sinking through the ignited charcoal, become
partially reduced. An analogous case is presented to us in
the roasting of ironstone as now practised ; some peculiar
species of which, associated with a large quantity of bitu¬
minous matter, have, under favourable circumstances, pro¬
duced, during that process, plates of imperfectly malleable
iron.
Once discovered, whether by accident or otherwise, it is
scarcely conceivable, that a metal possessed of so many
valuable and obvious properties, would be long suffered to
remain an unique specimen. The benefit likely to accrue,
by being able to procure it at will, would lead at once to
numerous experiments, probably at first attended with little
success. The simple, turf-covered fire of charcoal, in which
the discovery was made, being found inadequate to the re¬
gular attainment of the desired end, would give place to
the rude structure of stone, and this, subject to various and
gradual improvements during a long period of years, would
at length be superseded by the powerful blast-furnace such
as we find it at the present day.
To trace the causes and principles of these improve¬
ments, the manner in which they modified the original pro¬
cess, and to shew their influence on the extent and pro¬
gress of the iron trade from its commencement, cannot be
uninteresting. The first smelting-furnace peculiar to the
manufacture, was undoubtedly the air-bloomery, a low co¬
nical structure, with small openings at the bottom for the
admission of air, and a larger orifice at top, for carrying off
the gaseous products of combustion. In order to produce
iron, the interior was filled with alternate strata of charcoal
and ore ; fire was applied at the lowest part, and the heat
was regulated by the narrowing or enlarging of the small
apertures. Such a structure it probably was that the Ro¬
mans made use of to smelt the ores of this island; scoria,
the refuse of ancient bloomeries, occurs in various locali¬
ties, in some cases more particularly identified with that
people, by the coincident remains of altars inscribed to the
god who presided ovdr iron. Park represents the rude
furnace just described as employed by the Africans; in¬
deed, with some slight modifications, it is still retained even
in Spain, and along the coasts of the Mediterranean, where
rich specular ores are worked.
At what time the simple air-bloomery ceased to be the
iron-making furnace of this country, it is impossible to say,
the event being so remote. It is certain, however, that
the next era which marked the progress of the manufac¬
ture was occasioned by the introduction of bellows, a very
obvious substitute for the natural current of air hitherto
employed. This instrument, which had probably arrived
at some degree of perfection before its application to the
new purpose, presented at once considerable advantages.
It obviated the necessity of an elevated site for the bloom-
ery, and it put the blast more immediately under the do¬
minion of the smelter, which before had been irregular or
intermittent during the progress of the same process, and at
all times more or less dependent on the weather. By the
application of bellows, some slight alterations in the furnace
were rendered necessary. The new construction was built
of stone, capable of enduring a high temperature, about two
feet in height, and from one and a half to two feet square
within. Besides the orifice or chimney at top, there were
two openings, one large in front, for drawing out the metal,
the other of smaller dimensions behind, for the insertion of
the bellows pipe. Such was the blast-bloomery.
Let us now contrast the operation, with its products in
each case, as performed in the two furnaces which have
been described, and which differ apparently so little. In
the air-bloomery, the principle of reduction consisted in the
deoxidation of a very rich ore, which, broken into mode¬
rately-sized pieces, was subjected to a long-continued ce¬
mentation. The ore was, of course, never brought into a
fluid state, although the fragments became soft, and tended
to coalesce. A small quantity of the associated earthy
matter was separated in the furnace. Accordingly, when
taken out, the iron was imperfectly malleable, being mixed,
to a greater or less extent, with scoria and unreduced oxide.
This put at once under the hammer of the smith, was
fashioned into a rude bloom, and, with other hammerings,
the greater portion of extraneous ingredients was removed.
In the blast-bloomery, on the other hand, although the fur¬
nace was probably charged in the same manner, and al¬
though the fire was still urged by common air, yet, on ac¬
count of the greater strength and regularity of blast, and
consequently greater heat produced, the result was very
different. The ore, after being deoxygenated, imbibed a
portion of carbon, and sunk in a fluid state to the bottom
of the furnace. Thus the resulting metal was not, as with
the air-bloomery, malleable ; it was rather a species of steel,
utterly useless to. the workmen of these days, unless we
imagine that a sort of refining process had been invented.
Here, then, it seems necessary to infer, that the fluid metal
was covered afresh with charcoal, the slag or vitrid matter
having been previously run off; and that the nozzle of the
bellows-pipe being inclined, a continued stream of air was
made to play upon the surface. In this manner the carbon
was burned out, the metal worked thick and tough, and
fresh surfaces being continually exposed, became eventually
capable of extension under the hammer.
To form an accurate idea of what the iron trade must
have been during the period that the blast-bloomery was
the exclusive instrument of manufacture, is not permitted
to us, by the existence of any authentic document. Some
conjecture, however, favourable to the opinion of its extreme
insignificance, may be advanced, when we call to recollec¬
tion the diminutive size of the furnace, the small quantity
of iron extracted from the ore (about one-half of what it
contained), and the inconsiderable extent to which, at so
early a stage of society, the division of labour had been
carried. This, however, was a state of things which every
day improved. To the progress of internal communica¬
tion, then in its infancy, the appreciation and pursuit of
new sources of wealth, the establishment of manufactures,
and to various other causes, as continually favouring the
rapid consumption of iron, are to be attributed those im¬
provements in the bloomery, which finally led to the con¬
struction of the blast-furnace, with all the innovations on
old-established practice, which its gradual introduction as
naturally produced.
It is reasonable to suppose, that an increasing demand led
the iron-smelter to speculate on the facilities which would be
given to his trade, by enlarging the capacity of the bloomery.
This, however, he probably did not foresee ; namely, that
every such enlargement, by prolonging the descent of the
ore through the furnace, exposed it to a lengthened contact
with the charcoal, and consequently to a proportionally
great absorption of carbon, and that thus eventually the
IRON-MAKING.
torV. difterent varieties of cast-iron, a compound till then perhaps
^ unknown, would be produced.
From the time that cast-iron became the product of the
smelting-furnace may be dated the refining of iron, consi¬
dered as a separate operation, and requiring as such a sepa¬
rate furnace and machinery. Enlargements in the blast-
bloomery, unaccompanied by any alteration in form, could
not be so made beyond a certain limit. After the furnace
had reached a certain height, the column of materials in
the interior would be found to weigh so heavily downwards,
as to repress the ascent, and render soft the quantity of
blast, which had been sufficient to penetrate a column of
three or four feet in the old bloomery. It was then that a
suspending agent was first thought of, and those internal
buttresses were introduced, which either then or subse¬
quently received the name of boshes. These, by creating
immediately above the tuyeres a lateral suspension of the
materials, relieved the pressure on the central parts of the
furnace, and allowed the blast to ascend with comparative
freedom. Whilst the good quality of the iron and the regu¬
larity of the process were thus insured, increase in quantity
was the result of improvements in the blowing apparatus,
which, hitherto worked solely by animal power, was now
made to depend on the greater efficiency afforded by the
employment of wrater. With these modifications, the fur¬
nace, as regards construction, was essentially the same as that
at present used, though not so large ; indeed, until the in¬
troduction of coke at a much later period, the blast-furnace
seldom exceeded fifteen feet in height, by six at the widest
diameter. During the long period that the air and blast-
bloomeries had been the only iron-making furnaces, large
accumulations of scoria, containing from 30 to 40 per cent,
of iron, had formed. The more perfect operation of the
blast-furnace allowed these to be re-smelted with great ad¬
vantage ; a new species of property was thus created ; ex¬
tensive proprietorships of Danish and Roman cinders were
formed; large deposits of scoria, which for ages had lain
concealed beneath forests of decayed oak, were dug up;
and in Dean Forest, it is computed that twenty furnaces,
for a period of upwards of three hundred years, were sup¬
plied chiefly with the bloomery cinders, as a substitute for
iron-ore.
At what period the complete transformation of the blast-
bloomery into the blast-furnace was effected, it is impossi¬
ble to say. It was probably during the early part of the
sixteenth century, as we find that in the seventeenth the
art of casting in metal had arrived at a great degree of per¬
fection ; and in the reign of Elizabeth there was a consi¬
derable export trade of cast-iron ordnance to the Continent.
In the forest of Dean are the remains of two blast-fur¬
naces, which formerly belonged to the kings of England.
But since the commencement of the struggle between
Charles the First and his Parliament, these furnaces have not
been in blast. Calculating from the quantity of scoria accu¬
mulated in the neighbourhood, and which appears to have
lain undisturbed for the last two centuries, Mr Mushett1
has attempted to deduce the period of their erection, which
he conceives to have been about the year 1550, in the
time of Edward the Sixth.
In reverting to the different facts which have been stated,
there is one thing which immediately suggests itself to the
imagination, namely, the influence which the gradual adop¬
tion of improvements must have exerted in changing the
site and locality of the manufacture. The air-bloomery, as
has been before noticed, was almost invariably placed on
elevated ground. At the introduction of bellows, the fur¬
nace became, to a certain extent, independent of the causes
which till then had determined its site, and was removed
to a lower level, more convenient, as being in the immediate Historv
neighbourhood of the ironstone, or of the hamlet where v
the workmen resided. Finally, the necessity of a more
perfect blast than could be obtained by mere animal power,
again changed the seat ci manufacture, which now sought
the deeper valleys, where the drainage of the surrounding-
country realized a powerful fall of water. In all that has
hitherto been said, wood charcoal has been understood as
supplying the requisite material for every operation. But
the wants of a constantly increasing population, not less than
the great consumption of the iron-furnaces themselves, at
length gave a check to the manufacture, by depriving it of
its vital support, the essential supply of fuel. In many
counties, wood had been destroyed to such an extent, that
the cutting down of timber for the use of the ironworks
was prohibited by special enactments. The forests of Sus¬
sex alone appear to have been exempted from this general
decree of conservation.
A languishing period of manufacture accompanied the
falling oil in the supply of charcoal, the number of furnaces
decreasing three-fourths; so that, in 1740, the amount of
iron produced, which but a short time before is said to have
been 180,000 tons a year, was only 17,350 tons. The
counties which produced the iron, with the number of fur¬
naces to each, were as follow :
Furnaces.
Brecon, . 2
Glamorgan, ... 2
Carmarthen, ... 1
Cheshire, ... 3
Denbigh, ... 2
Gloucester, . . . G
Hereford, ... 3
Hampshire, ... 1
Kent, ... 4
Monmouth, ... 2
Nottingham, ... 1
Salop, .... 6
Stafford, ... 2
Worcester, ... 2
Sussex, . . .10
Warwick, ... 2
York, .... 6
Derby, ... 4
Tons.
600
400
100
1,700
550
2,850
1,350
200
400
900
200
2,000
1,000
700
1,400
700
1,400
800
59 17,350
Tons. Cwt. Qr.
Annual average quantity for each furnace, 294 1 1
Weekly do. do. 5 13 0
James the First granted patents to ironmasters in dif¬
ferent parts of the kingdom for using pit-coal in the manu¬
facture of iron ; many obstacles, however, arose in the way
of this improvement. The denser substance and incombus¬
tibility of coke, and the less active affinity of its carbon as
compared with charcoal, for iron and oxygen, required not
only a more copious and powerful injection of air, but also
that the iron-making materials should remain a longer time
together in the interior of the furnace than had hitherto
been necessary. An ignorance of the causes of failure
herein implied, operated long and seriously; but all diffi¬
culties were at length surmounted by enlarging the height
of the blast-furnace, so as to prolong the descent and con¬
tact of the ore and coke, and more especially by the event¬
ual application of the steam-engine, which rendered the
working of the blowing machinery at once regular and
powerful.
1 See Philosophical Magazine for 1822.
430
IRON-MAKING.
History. It was now that furnaces arose, having a capacity of
-v-'w' three, four, five, or six thousand cubic feet; whilst of late
years, furnaces of ten or twelve thousand cubic feet have
been erected, without the maximum effect being decidedly
obtained. By the collation of the following table with that
which was given as representing the state of the manufac¬
ture in 1740, it will be seen that, in 1788, although the ab¬
solute quantity of charcoal pig-iron produced was less by
4250 tons, that considerable improvements in the process
must have been made, as indicated by the great increase in
the amount of produce to each individual furnace.
Counties.
Gloucester,
Monmouth,
Glamorgan,
Carmarthen,
Merioneth,
Shropshire,
Derby,
York,
Westmoreland,
Cumberland,
Lancashire,
Sussex,
Furnaces.
4
3
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
3
2
24
Tons each.
650
700
600
400
400
600
300
600
400
300
700
150
Total.
2,600
2,100
1,800
400
400
1,800
300
600
400
300
2,100
300
Making, 13,100
Tons. Cvvt.
Annual average produce from each furnace, 545 16
Do. of the former period (1740), 294 1
Qrs.
2
1
Annual increased produce in favour of the
improved period, . . 251
Average weekly quantity produced in 1788, 10
Ditto . . • 1740, 5
15
9
3
Weekly increase in favour of the improved
period, . . . • 4 16 3
At the same period the number of coke blast-furnaces,
with the quantity of iron produced in each county, were as
below:
Furnaces.
21
Shropshire,
Stafford, . • 6
Cheshire, . . 1
Derby, ... 7
York, ... 6
Cumberland, . . 1
Glamorgan, . . 6
Stafford (about to blow), 3
Brecon, ... 2
53
Tons each.
1,100
750
600
600
750
700
1,100
800
800
Tons.
907
17
Cwt.
0
9
About the year 1796 it was contemplated by Mr Pitt, to Hist,
add to the revenue by a tax upon coal. This, of course, ledy
to a powerful opposition on the part of the manufacturing
consumers, particularly in the iron trade. A committee
was appointed, witnesses were examined, and the measure
was abandoned as unwise and impracticable. The follow¬
ing table exhibits an abstract of the facts collected, and
shews the rapid progress of the iron trade in the course of
the eight preceding years :
Total.
23,100
4,500
600
4,200
4,500
700
6,600
2,400
1,600
48,200
Annual average produce,
Weekly do. do.
Annual manufacture at same period of charcoal iron, 13,100
In the same year there were erected and blowing in
Scotland the following furnaces:
Goatfield, .
B unawe,
Coke furnaces.
Carron,
Wilsontown,
Furnaces.
1
1
Tons.
700
700
1,000
800
In Britain, total quantity in 1788,
Ditto in 1740,
Total.
1,400
4,000
1,600
68,300
17,350
Counties.
Chester 
Cumberland.
Derby 
Gloucester...
Hereford 
York 
Shropshire..
Wales 
Stafford 
Sussex 
No. of
Fur¬
naces.
2
4
3
2
5
22
23
28
14
1
104
Excise Re¬
turn of
Iron Made.
4,710
5,144
2,138
380
2,850
21,984
68,129
45,994
15,820
172|
167,321|
Supposed
Quantity by
the Trade.
2,200
3,000
2,138
380
2,850
21,987
43,360
42,606
15,256
173
133,950
Actual Re-
turn.
2,034
2,107
380
2,529
17,947
32,969
35,485
13,210^
173
108,793
The return from Scotland exhibited a list of seventeen fur¬
naces, and an exact return of pig-iron manu¬
factured, .....
Making a whole annual quantity of
Annual average produce from each furnace, in¬
cluding the charcoal furnaces,
Annual average of 1788, including the charcoal
furnaces, .....
Tons.
16,086
124,879
1,032
800
Increase in tons,
232
Annual increase of pig-iron, 50,950
As a proof of the rapid strides and progress which the trade
was now making, it may be added, that, in the six following
years, there were building in England and Wales, forty ad¬
ditional furnaces, and in Scotland seven ; the collective ma¬
nufacture of which was computed at upwards of 170,000
tons annually.
From the preceding statements, some interesting informa¬
tion may be elicited with regard to the extent of the ma¬
nufacture of iron, at different periods, in various parts of
the kingdom, where it is either still successfully prosecuted,
or become altogether extinct as a branch of trade.
In the year 1740, the date of the earliest document in
our possession with regard to the distribution of blast-fur¬
naces, we find that Gloucester produced a much greater
quantity of iron than any other county in Britain. There
the manufacture was well understood; indeed, it had been
carried on in the forest of Dean from the earliest period.
The furnaces were large, as compared with those of other
districts; and, in consequence, the amount of iron to each
furnace exceeded the general average.
At the period to which we refer, Sussex contained the
greatest number of furnaces. With afew in Kent, the residue
required to make up the annual complement of iron, at that
time about 17,000 tons, were scattered sparingly throughout
the midland counties, and along the Welsh borders. Eight-
and-forty years afterwards, a little subsequent to the intro¬
duction of coke in smelting, the coal counties began to as¬
sume that rank in connection with iron, which for ages had
been more particularly accorded to the woodland districts;
and we find Shropshire making rapid strides towards that im¬
portance as an iron-making county, which, in conjunction
with Staffordshire, it has ever since maintained. In Shrop-
IRON-MAKING.
431
itory shire, there was then made a proportion of charcoal iron little
v--^less than the produce in that article of Gloucester, Mon¬
mouth, or Lancashire, whilst the quantity of coke pig-iron
which it turned out, amounted to the enormous sum (com¬
paratively speaking) of 23,100 tons ; thus equalling the col¬
lective manufacture of all the other coke pig-iron districts in
Britain. In the year 1796, the iron manufacture had be¬
come well-nigh extinct in Sussex, and altogether so in Kent.
On the other hand, South Wales had made great progress to¬
wards pre-eminence, though still exceeded by the Shropshire
and Staffordshire iron-works. These latter counties, indeed,
containing within themselves the seats of the most exten¬
sive manufactories of small iron articles, have always re¬
quired, for their own supply and consumption, an incredi¬
ble quantity of that material. For a long time, also, the
Staffordshire iron-masters enjoyed almost exclusively the
advantages conferred by the rolling-mill in the production
of various descriptions of iron, such as nail-rods, boiler¬
plates, hoop and sheet-iron, wire, &c. These advantages
they still enjoy to a certain extent, and, in consequence,
maintain a greater price for their iron than the Welsh
iron-masters. It is in Staffordshire and Shropshire that the
manufacture of iron is seen in its greatest perfection. The
beauty and finish of their small rolling machinery, which
is run at an immense speed, enabling them to secure al¬
most the whole of the very small and extra sizes of iron,
which they throw off at little more cost than the Welsh
manufacturers do their common bars. It is in South Wales
that the furnaces and manufactories produce the greatest
quantity; in Shropshire and Staffordshire that the highest
excellence in rolling has been attained.
In 1806, a bill was brought into parliament by Lord
Henry Petty, having for its object a tax of L. 2 per ton on
all pig-iron made. This measure, which exhibited through¬
out a remarkable ignorance of the nature and minutiae of
the iron trade, excited at once a determined opposition, and
was at length abandoned. Had it been carried into effect,
the price of all kinds of ironmongery would have risen to
an enormous extent; as will be obvious, from the following
statement in reference to common nails. At that period,
ten tons of pig-iron were required to make five tons of nails ;
shewing, in the various processes of puddling, rolling, slit¬
ting, forging, &c. a loss of precisely one-half the material.
Thus, with intermediate expenses, the proposed tax of L. 2
would have advanced nail-rods at least per ton L. 4, 10s.
Six tons of nail-rods would therefore have cost the nail-
ironmonger more than he was then paying, about L.27,
which, divided upon five tons of nails, is L. 5, 8s. per ton;
and this laid out by the retail dealer, would have caused an
additional charge of, let us say, 12s, making in all, on nails,
L.6. per ton.
This statement, which is made from one drawn up at
the time, is of course not altogether applicable in the pre¬
sent improved state of the iron manufacture. It affords,
however, a very correct exposition of what the general con¬
sequences would have been, had the tax been imposed.
During the time that the project was in agitation, a great
many important facts were elicited; amongst others, the
annual amount of pig-iron made in the country was shewn
to be at least 250,000 tons.
Since then, the manufacture has gone on increasing, al¬
though subject to great depression in 1816. For a consi¬
derable time previous to the general peace which ensued in
that year, the British and mercantile navies had been con¬
tinually requiring immense quantities of manufactured goods,
and the sudden cessation of large orders and contracts, of
course, threw a damp over the iron trade.
In 1820, it was computed that the annual manufacture
of pig-iron was,
In Wales,
Shropshire and Staffordshire,
Yorkshire and Derbyshire, .
Scotland and other places, .
Tons
150,000
180,000
50,000
20,000
Total, 400,000
History.
In 1827, the make had increased by 290,500 tons, as
shewn below:
Furnaces.
South Wales, ... 90
95
31
24
Staffordshire,
Shropshire,
Yorkshire,
Scotland,
North Wales,
Derbyshire,
18
12
14
Total,
Produce in Tons.
272,000
216,000
78,000
43,000
36,000
24,000
20,500
690,500
of which three-tenths are supposed to have been foundry-
iron. From this statement, it appears that the Welsh works
are considerably more productive than those of any other
district; a fact to be in part attributed to their compara¬
tively great size.
Within these last few years, the produce of iron in Wales
has greatly increased. The quantity sent down the Glamor¬
ganshire canal to Cardiff for exportation, chiefly manufac¬
tured in the immediate neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil in
1828, was 85,714 tons. At the same time, the shipments from
the town of Newport amounted to 108,000 tons. In 1830,
the iron exported was less from both places by 2000 tons;
indeed the collective manufacture of this year was not more
than in 1827, three years before. In 1833, the quantity
exported from Cardiff was 112,315 tons, exceeding the ex¬
portation of 1828 by upwards of 26,000 tons; whilst, at
the same time, the customhouse books at Newport exhi¬
bited a corresponding increase. In the year 1834, Cardiff
exported 110,797 tons; of this quantity 68,420 tons were
the manufacture of two works alone.
In glancing at the different iron and coalfields of Bri¬
tain, it is matter of astonishment that Northumberland and
Durham, possessing within themselves all the requisites for
the iron manufacture, should yet be so far behind, com¬
pared with other much less favoured districts. The only
way of accounting for this apparent apathy to extensive mi¬
neral treasure, is the fact, that the attention of capitalists
in that part of the country has hitherto been exclusively
devoted to the working and exportation of the coal alone.
Of late years, Scotland has made considerable progress
in the iron manufacture. The opening out of the numer¬
ous railways through the immense coalfield in the neigh¬
bourhood of Glasgow, has brought to light strata of the
richest ironstone, with coal of the most suitable quality for
the manufacture of iron. A stimulus has consequently
been given to the trade, which, with the general adoption
of the hot-air process, promises to raise Glasgow into im¬
portance as an iron district. No town, in fact, possesses
greater facilities for the sale of its produce, commanding, as
it does, the east coast, London, and Liverpool markets, at
two-thirds the cost of freight from either Wales or Stafford¬
shire, and also a ready outlet to the Atlantic.
In 1835, a return was made to an order of the House of
Commons, moved for by Mr Guest, containing an account
of the quantities of iron imported into, and exported from,
the United Kingdom in the years 1833 and 1834 ; also an
account of the quantity of British iron, including unwrought
steel, exported in the same years. From this document
it would appear, that in 1833 there were 17,913 tons of
bar-iron imported into this country from Russia, Swe¬
den, and other places. In the year 1834, the quantity
432 IRON-MAKING.
History, imported was 16,215 tons, shewing a decrease in the im-
'■v-*-''' portation of the preceding year, to the amount of 1698 tons;
the exportation of this description of iron in 1833 being
2024 tons, and that of 1834 being 2885 tons. The ac¬
count shews an increase of exportation in 1834, as com¬
pared with the previous year, of 861 tons. By the second
account it appears, that the quantity of British iron, of all de¬
scriptions, exported in the year 1833, was 160,226 tons (ex¬
clusive of 1587 tons of unwrought steel), and the quantity
exported in the year 1834, being 156,456 tons (exclusive of
1709 tons of unwrought steel), there is a decrease in the
quantity of British iron exported in 1834, as compared with
the preceding year, to the amount of 3770 tons. This falling
off in the quantity of iron exported, is to be attributed, in great
part, to the difference which took place in the United States
with the President and the Bank, in consequence of which,
large orders for iron sent here were withdrawn. The de¬
mand for that country is now larger than ever, and con¬
tinues to increase, in addition to which, the numerous rail¬
ways in progress in this and other countries, have given
such an impulse to the trade, that in October 1835, No.
2. iron at Cardiff was quoted at L. 7 per ton. As in some
measure connected with the subject under consideration,
it may be added, that in 1833, 16,497 tons of hardwares
and cutlery, of the declared value of L. 1,466,361, were
exported from the United Kingdom ; and that in 1834,
16,275 tons of the same of the declared value of L. 1,485,233
were exported, shewing a decrease in the exportation of
the year 1834, as compared with 1833, of 222 tons, whilst,
at the same time, there is an increase on the value to the
amount of L. 18,972.
Since the introduction of the blast furnace in its present
form, many improvements have been made in the various
processes of the manufacture, but none of such importance
as the rolling-mill and puddling-furnace, these enabling the
manufacturer to increase his quantity of finished iron at will,
always having a stock of pigs on hand to meet the demand of
the market. Previously to the introduction of puddling and
rolling (by Mr Cort in 1785), so inadequate was this coun¬
try to the supply of its own demands, that it imported from
Russia and Sweden, the enormous quantity of 70,000 tons
of bar-iron annually, being upwards of 40,000 tons more
than the importation of 1834. For several years past, nu¬
merous patents have been taken out in connexion with iron¬
making, bearing upon various parts of the manufacture;
for instance, the application of the spare-heat from the fur¬
naces to the roasting of ore ; the use of carburetted hy¬
drogen in smelting; the introduction of forge and refinery
cinder in the blast and puddling furnaces ; the use of salts
of soda and potash, to shorten the process in the latter, and
bring the iron, as the workmen term it, “ sooner to nature.”
But none of the improvements here aimed at, are likely to
be attended with any thing like the advantages which arise
to the country from the application of heated air in smelting.
This invaluable process, the invention of Mr Neilson of
Glasgow, will be described in an after part of this article.
It has already been adopted with immense advantage in
Scotland, France, Russia, and in several of the English and
Welsh iron-making counties.
I he following list of prices of bar-iron, shews the fluc¬
tuations in value undergone by that article during the last
twelve years:
1824,
1825,
1826,
1827,
1828,
1829,
List of Prices.
L.9 0 0 to L. 10 0 0
10 0 0 ... 14 0 0
8 10 0 ...
8 0 0..
7 10 0 ..
5 10 0
9 0 0
9 0 0
8 0 0
7 0 0
1830,
1831,
1832,
1833,
1834,
1835,
L.5 5 0 to L.6 0 0
5 5 0 ... 5 10 0
5 0 0 ... 5 10 0
5 10 0 ... 6 0 0
1 6 0 0 ... 6 10 0
5 10 0 ... 7 0 0
Manufec
ture.
The superiority of bar-iron, manufactured solely from
mine, without admixture of cinder, is so well established,
that an extra charge is usually made for it of from 10s. to
15s. per ton at the work. The workmen are generally paid
a fixed price per ton on all iron made, a ton weighing
20 cwt. of 120 lb. each. The manufacturer sells it out
per ton of 20 cwt. of 112 lb. each, making an allowance
to the buyer of 8 lb. per ton, which is denominated drafts.
This allowance is now done away with, agreeably to the 4th
and 5th of William III. cap. 49; a ton of iron is therefore
now only 20 cwt. of 112 lb. to each.
II.—THE MANUFACTURE.
Ihe manufacture of iron may be considered under two
divisions; the one comprising all those particulars which re¬
late to the production of crude or pig-iron in the blast-fur¬
nace ; the other, a detail of the operations at the forge and
rolling-mill, whereby the pig-iron is rendered malleable, and
brought into a state fit for the manufacturing consumer.
The blast-furnace as generally used throughout this coun¬
try, is a large mass of masonry, most frequently square,
though sometimes round at the base, from which the walls
are carried up slightly inclined to the vertical, thus forming
externally a truncated pyramid or cone. At each side is a
large arched opening, so placed for the more convenient
insertion of blast-pipes, and for running out the melted
metal. At the top is the tunnel-head, a cylindrical erection
of brick-wTork, having one or more doors, through which
the furnace is charged with the materials to be smelted.
In front of the furnace a roof projects from the wall, be¬
neath which is a bridge or cast-house, where the metal,
being run into moulds of sand, forms pigs.
Plate CCCIX. fig. 1. is a section of a blast-furnace, in
which the space marked A represents the hearth ; CB the
boshes, which in principle have been already explained; D
the body of the furnace ; E the tunnel-head with charging
doors of iron; F F F the blast-pipes, entering just beneath the
boshes, through small spaces in the brickwork, called tuyeres.
Fig. 2. is a ground-plan corresponding with the above section.
The greater part of the interior of the furnace is lined with
fire-brick, between which and the masonry, a thin stratum
or packing of sand is laid. In Wales the materials employ¬
ed in the construction of the hearth and boshes, is a very
infusible plumpudding-stone or quartz conglomerate, large
detached blocks of which occur on the mountains, and are
familiarly known amongst the workmen by the name of
Noah stones. A species of coarse sandstone, belonging
to the coal formation, and exceedingly refractory in the
fire, is also advantageously used. Slight variations from the
form of furnace here given, are of course to be met with;
a point of much importance is the proper inclination of the
boshes, so that the materials whilst smelting, may neither
press too heavily downwards, nor yet be so much retarded,
as to adhere in a half-liquid state to the brickw ork, and cool
there; thus forming what are known by the name of scaf¬
folds, the removal of which is a source of great inconve¬
nience. No general standard for the size of blast-furnaces
can be given, as they vary in this respect in almost every
iron-making district of Britain. The largest furnaces are
those of Wales and Monmouthshire, some of which are up¬
wards of sixty feet in height. In Staffordshire and Scot¬
land, they are generally much less, and from thirty to forty
IRON-MAKING.
ufac- feet in height, by about twelve or fourteen at the boshes,
re. or widest interior diameter, may be stated as a very fair
r""''average size. Before leaving this part of the subject, it
must be premised that of late years, the cupola-furnace has
come extensively into use. Its characteristic feature is
general slightness of structure, as compared with the more
massive blast-furnace. The walls are circular, built of fire¬
bricks, and, excepting about twelve or fourteen feet of ma¬
sonry at the bottom, in no part more than a single course
in thickness; the whole, however, are strongly bound toge¬
ther at the joints with wrought-iron hoops, whilst pillars of
cast-iron, bolted at each end to embedded rings of the same
metal, rise through the foundation to the summit of the
tuyere arches, giving considerable firmness and solidity to
the structure. Objections have been made to the thin sides
of the cupola, as permitting a great loss of heat; these,
however, do not seem to have prevented its very general
adoption. Cheapness and facility of construction are much
in its favour, and a furnace of this kind, when blown with
hot air, may certainly be used with great advantage. A
cupola twenty feet high, six feet at the boshes, and three
feet at top, requiring a blowing-engine of five or six horse¬
power, can be run up in a week, and may have iron manu¬
factured in it the next. Plate CCCXVII. contains a sec¬
tion and ground-plan of a cupola furnace lately erected at
an iron-work in Glamorganshire.
The communication between the ground and the tunnel
head is effected in various ways. The Welsh furnaces are
invariably placed on the slope of a steep declivity, which
affords ready means of access. Where this convenience
does not present itself, a small self-acting incline is substi¬
tuted, or an apparatus is affixed to the engine by which the
workmen and smelting materials are carried up and down
as may be required. Attached to every iron-work is a
steam-engine (or water-wheel), whose sole office is to throw
a continued current of air into the furnaces. This is in
most cases accomplished simply by attaching to the unoc¬
cupied extremity of the beam a piston, which is made to
work in a cylinder of large diameter. At every stroke the
air, entering this cylinder through proper valves in the
covers, is forced into pipes inserted at top and bottom,
which convey it to a large spherical vessel, built of boiler
plate, whence its own elasticity causes it to flow in an
equable and unintermitting stream into the furnace. Plate
CCCX. shews the plan, elevation, and section of a blast-en¬
gine erected at the Wylam Ironworks, Northumberland,
by the Messrs Plawthorn of Newcastle. This machine
differs in many respects from the common construction,
for a figure of which, in connexion with the blast furnace,
see Plate CCCX. AA represent the pillar on which the
engine is fixed, BB the blast-cylinder, cc the wind-boxes,
in which are fixed the discharging valves, dd the blast-
pipe leading to the furnaces, EE the steam-cylinder, ff
the force-pumps, g g the hand or working-gear, h h the
cross-heads, i i i i the slides for guiding the piston-rods, k k
the banging-boxes.
The pressure at which the blast enters the tuyeres is
from 2£ to 3| lb. on the square inch of course depend¬
ing on the area of the blowing cylinder, and the pressure
at which the engine is working.
At the Dowlais Ironworks, South Wales, is a blowing-
cylinder 12 feet in diameter, with 9 feet stroke, and worked
by engines of 260 horse power. By this machine ten or
twelve furnaces can be blown.
The diameter of the blast-pipes at the tuyeres is regu¬
lated by their number. Where three tuyeres are used, and
the pressure is about three pounds, the diameter should not
exceed or 3f inches. In practice, it is necessary to be
very particular with regard to this point, the well-working
of a furnace depending much on the attention which is given
to the blast. The best quality of cast-iron is produced by
VOL. XII.
433
a comparatively moderate quantity of air. On the con- Manufao
trary, a strong and powerful blast tends to the production ture.
of a large quantity ot metal, inferior in every respect, and
unfit for the purposes of the foundry.
Behind the furnace, and, if possible, on a level with the
tunnel-head, are placed a number of small kilns or ovens
for roasting the ore. The ironstone used in the blast-fur¬
naces of this country is a carbonate of protoxide, or more
simply a carbonate of iron, in conjunction with different
earths, such as alumina, silica, lime, &c. The object in
roasting is to drive off the carbonic acid, water, and sulphur.
The stone loses in the operation from thirty-five to forty
per cent., at the same time becoming partially peroxidized.
To produce iron from an ore like this, it is requisite not
only that a deoxidating agent should be used, but also
that there should be some other substance, such as lime¬
stone, to act as a flux, and disengage the earthy from
the metalliferous particles, leaving the latter free to the
carbonizing influence of the coke. The materials, then,
mine or ironstone, coke, and limestone, broken into small
pieces, and weighed out in the proportions which have been
determined by experience to be the right ones, are intro¬
duced into the furnace by the filler, who stands at the tun¬
nel-head, and w hose duty it is to see that these proportions
be observed, and that the mine and coke are properly burn¬
ed. He also takes account of the number of charges re¬
quired to keep the furnace full during the time of his ma¬
nagement (twelve hours to the day) ; and according to this
the furnace is said to drive fast or slow. The charge, or
quantity introduced into the furnace at once, is a barrow¬
ful of coke, containing about twenty cubic feet, with the
requisite proportions of mine and flux. These of course
difter slightly at different works, according to the quality
of the ore and limestone ; but it is the general practice to
mix rich and poor ironstones together, and thus to bring
the latter material as near as possible to some approved
standard, containing, say from thirty-five to forty per cent,
of iron.
The general action that takes place in the blast-furnace
is this: The contents being raised to an intense heat by
the combustion of the coke, are brought into a softened
state ; the limestone parts with its carbonic acid, and, com¬
bining with the earthy ingredients of the ironstone, forms
with them a liquid slag or scoria ; whilst the separated me¬
tallic particles, descending slowly through the furnace, im¬
bibe in their passage a large quantity of carbon, pass the
blast without oxidation, and, in virtue of superior gravity,
settle in the hearth or lowest part of the furnace, from
wffience, at stated intervals, the fusion is removed in the
state of liquid cast-iron. The slag which floats upon the
surface of the metal, whilst accumulating in the furnace, is
kept constantly running off by an aperture level with the
top of the hearth ; and it affords well-known indications, by
its degree of heat, fluidity, and colour, of the manner in
which the materials in the interior are performing the parts
assigned them in the operation. Thus, if the cinder has a
light greyish colour, or is nearly transparent, and flows
freely from the furnace, unsullied by any of the various
tints of blue, yellow, and green, afforded by oxide of iron
in combination with different proportions of earthy matter,
a favourable state of the furnace is indicated. If, from the
charge affording such results, a portion of coke be abstract¬
ed, or if to it, which is the same thing, a portion of mine
be added, the cinder immediately assumes a deep brown
or black colour, and flows in a broad, hot, and rugged
stream, shewing that the quantity of coke is insufficient to
deoxidate the whole of the iron, and that a portion of it,
consequently, to the great detriment of the furnace yield,
is combining in its state of oxide with the slag, to which it
communicates so deep a hue.
With regard to the constitution of blast-furnace scoriae,
3 i
434
IRON-MAKING.
Manufac- they are in general compounds of earths and earthy salts,
ture. where silica acts the part of an acid, and lime, alumina,
magnesia, oxide of iron, &c. are bases. Minerals are thus
formed artificially, presenting the most perfect crystalline
arrangement, and similar in every respect to some native
silicates. Indeed, without mentioning the graphyte or kish
which scales from the surface of newly-cast foundry pigs,
the splendent copper-coloured cubes of metallic titanium
so abundant in breaking up old furnace-hearths, or the
dark blue crystallized metallic-looking compound of sand
and oxide of iron, the slag from the bar-iron heating fur¬
nace, the rejected products of the iron manufacture present
perhaps more features of interest to the mineralogist than
the residua of any other chemical operation.
During the process of smelting, the interior of the fur¬
nace requires to be very carefully watched. The stream of
cold air that is constantly rushing through the tuyeres exerts
a chilling agency on the melted matter, directly opposed to
it, at its entrance. The consequence of this is, the forma¬
tion of rude perforated cones of indurated scoria, stretching
from either side horizontally into the furnace, each one
having its base directly over the embouchure of a blast-
pipe.
When these project only to a certain extent, they are
favourable to the working of the furnace, as the blast is
thrown right into the centre, and prevented from flowing
up the sides and burning the brick-work.
Sometimes, however, when the furnace is driving cold
and slow, these conduits of slag become so strong, and jut
out so far as to meet at length in the middle, and thus cause
a great obstruction to the entrance and ascension of the
blast. When this happens, there is no remedy but to in¬
crease the burden, that is, to add more than the usual pro¬
portion of mine to the charge ; this causes an intense heat,
the furnace is said to work hot, and the tuyeres of slag
drop clean off from the sides. But this is followed by bad
as well as by good consequences ; the brick-work is fre¬
quently melted, and for a time the iron produced is small
in quantity, and of the worst quality.
To bring the furnace again into its proper state, it is now
necessary to reduce the burden ; the sides, in consequence,
become gradually cool, new tuyeres are formed, and the
iron produced is good.
At the end of every twelve hours, more or less, the furnace
is tapped, that is to say, the aperture in the damstone, which,
at the commencement, had been stopped up with a mixture
of loam and sand, is re-opened, and the metal, the contents
of the hearth, allowed to flow out into moulds made in the
sand, of which the cast-house floor consists, thus forming a
cast or sow of pigs. When this operation ceases, the dam-
stone is again secured, and the work proceeds as before.
In this manner a furnace is kept continually going, night
and day, and never ceases to work until repairs are necessa¬
ry. Incessant action has even been thought essential to the
successful carrying on of an ironwork; but the example of
perhaps the largest iron-master in South Whales has shewn,
contrary to general practice in that district, that smelting
may be discontinued for at least one day in the week with¬
out any very serious derangement of operations.
At Merthyr, in Glamorganshire, the yield, or quantity of
materials required to make a ton of pig-iron, is as follows:
55 cwt. of roasted mine, 25 cwt. of limestone, and 2f tons
of coal. The charge, or quantity of materials introduced
into the furnace at once, is 7 cwt. 2 qrs. of roasted mine,
one barrow of coke containing about twenty cubic feet, with
3 cwt. 1 qr. 15 lb. of limestone. In all cases, the regular
rule is to fill in the coke first, then the flux, and lastly the
mine or ironstone. In the Glasgow district, the charge is
cwt. of coke, 3 cvvt. of ironstone, 1 cwt. 7 lb. of lime¬
stone ; total, 8 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. In a furnace twelve feet
at the boshes, fifty of these charges, in twelve hours, pro¬
duce 4} tons of iron; the same proportions have been known Manuf
to produce as much as 5^ tons, and as little as 3£. Again, ture.
the iron is not always of the same quality ; thus exemplify- "v*.
ing different states of the furnace, blast, management,
In three successive casts of a furnace, in which the amount
of charges was, in each case, coke, 11 tons 5 cwt.; iron¬
stone, 7 tons 10 cwt.; limestone, 2 tons 13 cwt.:
The first cast produced 4 tons 10 cwt. of No. 1. iron,
second do. 4 .., 12 ... No. 2. do. «
third do. 3 ... 16 ... No. 3. do.
Two different qualities of cast-iron are frequently the pro¬
duct of the same cast. The best kind runs first from the
hearth; and the pigs are distinguished from each other by
the striae or furrows formed on their surfaces in cooling,
No. 1. preserving a smoother surface than No. 2. or No. 3.
The following are comparative estimates of the cost of
making pig-iron in the neighbourhood of Merthyr, South
Wales, and in the neighbourhood of Glasgow:
At Merthyr.
3 tons 7 cwt. 0 qrs. of Mine (raw), at 10s. L.l 13 6
2 ... 16 ... 0 ... Coal, at 6s. . . 0 16 6
1 ... 5... 2... Limestone, . . 0 14
All other charges, . 0 9 1
L.3 0 5
Glasgoiv District.
3 tons 10 cwt. Mine (raw), at 4s. 6d. . . L.O 16 3
5 ... 15 ... Splint-coal, at 2s. 5d. .. . 0 14 0
0 ... 14 ... Limestone, at 3d. . . 0 3 6
1 ... 10 ... Coals for the engine, . . 0 3 0
All other charges, . . 110
L.2 17 9
Both of these estimates presume the iron to be made with
cold air, coke, and the mine roasted in the usual way.
The process of smelting iron, even on the large scale of
manufacture, where tons of the raw material are subjected
to an intense heat in the blast furnace, is an operation af¬
fected in the result by more delicate circumstances than is
generally supposed. The proportions of the materials must,
as we have seen, be in every case most accurately deter¬
mined ; and even then, with his furnace in good order, the
tuyeres of the right length, and the blast steady and regu¬
lar, is it difficult for the founder to predicate the quality of
the resulting iron. With the same charge, the same blast,
the same furnace, and the same management, the pigs may
be of the very best quality, or of the very worst.
There are other questions to be taken into consideration,
as, for instance, What is the season of the year, the direc¬
tion of the w ind, the hygrometric state of the atmosphere r
For it is a fact well warranted by experience, that all these
circumstances affect the working of a furnace.
A furnace will produce, on an average, more and better
iron in winter than in summer; the atmosphere being of a
higher temperature in the latter season, and consequently
capable of holding a greater quantity of moisture in solu¬
tion. To this greater or less degree of humidity in the air
supplying the blast-cylinder, is to be attributed the differ¬
ence of product so generally observed at different periods
of the year. There are many facts confirmatory of this.
Thus, to regulate the influx of blast to the furnace, a ma¬
chine called a water-regulator was formerly much employ¬
ed, and, indeed, is not yet entirely done away with. The
principle of this apparatus, as in the common gasometer, is
by the pressure of a column of water, to produce an unin¬
termitting stream of air from a large vessel into which it is
forced by the blast-engine. The water-regulator has fallen
IRON-MAKING.
mfac- into disuse, chiefly for this reason, that the air, in passing
ire. through it, imbibes a large quantity of moisture, which,
^ being carried into the furnace, deteriorates the iron. Again,
when the hot blast was first brought into action, the water
tuyeres (see Plate CCCXVII. fig. 4.), which the intensity
of the heat rendered necessary, frequently burst, and the
water was of course thrown into the furnace. Whenever
this happened, the very worst kind of iron was produced.
Cast-iron, as it comes from the furnace hearth, is by no
means a pure carburet of iron. The nature of the process
is such as to render it liable to an intermixture of various
extraneous ingredients. Thus, in newly cast pigs, frag¬
ments of charcoal, undecomposed ore, and earthy matter,
can in general be detected by the eye alone; whilst analy¬
sis as generally makes known the presence, in greater or
less proportion, of manganese, sulphur, or phosphorus. Three
principal varieties of cast-iron exist, distinguished from each
other in various particulars of colour, strength, and general
capability of adaptation to the purposes of art. Grey, or
No. 1. pig-iron, is comparatively dark coloured, and when
broken, exhibits a large open grain. It is easily rendered
fluid, runs freely and with such facility into moulds, that it
is the sole material of all the smaller and more delicate
sorts of foundry goods, which, when composed of No. 1.
metal alone, are distinguished by great smoothness on the
surface. It is tough, slightly capable of extension, and so
soft as to admit of filing, chipping, turning, &c.; hence it
is of extensive application in the formation of machinery,
particularly such parts as are small, and require much fit¬
ting up. White, or No. 3. pig-iron, is in every respect
precisely the reverse of what has just been stated concern¬
ing No. 1. It is characterized by its white silvery-like
lustre, more crystalline structure, and by a brittleness so
excessive, that it cracks like glass on any violent blow, or
sudden alternation of temperature. The file glances from
its hard and flinty surface without making any impression;
and its fluidity, when melted, is of so viscid and imperfect
a kind, that it runs with comparative difficulty into moulds.
No. 2. or mottled cast-iron, is a variety seemingly interme¬
diate between Nos. 1. and 3. Its colour, as the name im¬
ports, is not equable, but blends in unison two distinct shades
of grey, which, individually, are those of Nos. 1. and 3. The
degree of hardness is greater than in No. 1, though less
than in white pig-iron. In this metal we find united, to a
certain extent, the qualities of hardness and toughness.
When mixed largely with No. 1. iron, a proper material is
furnished for artillery, steam-engine cylinders, &c. In fact,
by melting the different varieties of cast-iron together in va¬
rious proportions, the founder is always able to procure a
material suited to his purpose, whatever be the property re¬
quired. This is also in some measure accomplished by the di¬
versity of character belonging to iron from different districts.
Thus the Staffordshire metal is generally remarkably fluid,
and makes excellent small castings. The Welsh pig-iron
is strong, and produces bar-iron of a very tough and good
quality; whilst the Derbyshire, the Shropshire, the Scotch,
and other irons, all differ in like manner, each being dis¬
tinguished for the possession of some property not common
to the rest.
From what has been said, it will be seen that grey and
white cast-iron are more especially distinguished from each
other. The different aspects which they assume in every
particular, such as colour, strength, and fusibility, was long
accounted for by supposing the grey metal to be more
highly carbonized than the white. From experiments, how¬
ever, of good authority, it would appear that, so far from
this being the case, there is actually, in many instances, an
appreciably greater quantity of carbon in the white than in
the grey. Respecting the wide diversity in external ap-
435
pearance and physical properties which the metals exhibit, Manufac-
chemists are disposed to attribute it to the mode of com- ture.
bination of the constituent elements, rather than to any ab- -v''-''
solute difference in amount of carbon; and they say that
there is no essential difference in this respect, for these
reasons, that the white variety may be changed into the
grey, by exposure to a strong heat, and cooling slowly;
whilst the grey may be changed into the white, by being
heated and rapidly cooled.
The latter circumstance, indeed, is no matter of specula¬
tion, being frequently taken advantage of in the arts, as
presenting a convenient method of case-hardening wheels,
rolls, plating anvils, &c., to effect which, it is simply suffi¬
cient to run the metal into a thick cast-iron mould, instead
of one of loam or sand. This process is called chilling. As
a mould, malleable iron, when the required shape can be
given to it with facility, is preferable, because, being a better
conductor of heat, it chills the metal in contact with it more
rapidly, and is less liable to crack from the sudden change
of temperature. That there is a difference in the mode of
combination of the constituents in grey and white cast-iron,
amply sufficient to account for the diversity in mechanical
properties which they present, experiment testifies. “ Ac¬
cording to Karsten, the carbon of the latter is combined
with the whole mass of iron, and amounts, as a maximum,
to 5.25 per cent.; but in some specimens, its proportion is
considerably less. The former, on the contrary, contains
from 3.15 to 4.65 per cent, of carbon, of which about three-
fourths are in the state of graphite, and are left as such after
the iron is dissolved by acids; whilst the remaining fourth
is in combination with the whole mass of metal, constitu¬
ting a carburet, which is very similar to steel. Grey cast-
iron may hence be regarded as a kind of steel, in which
graphite is mechanically mixed.”1
The first operation which cast-iron undergoes in render¬
ing it malleable, is that performed in the refinery, the ob¬
ject of which is to drive off a portion of the carbon.
The refinery is a small, low furnace, with a hearth of fire¬
brick, about three feet square. There are two sides ol
cast-iron, opposite to each other, and made hollow, so as to
allow the passage of a constant stream of water through
them. This is necessary, jn consequence of the intense
heat to which they are subjected, and which, were there no
such protection, would speedily burn them through. Each
side is furnished with three water tuyeres, in which as
many blast-pipes of an inch in diameter are inserted. The
front of the furnace is left open, but at the back are iron
doors, through which the hearth is charged with the neces¬
sary complement of pigs and coke. A low, hanging chim¬
ney surmounts the hearth. The description given is that
of the double refinery; in the single refinery, the blast en¬
ters only at one side.
The pigs to be refined being placed with the necessary
proportion of coke on the hearth, are brought into a state
of fusion, and the blast, which enters here at the same
pressure as with the smelting furnace, is kept in action, un¬
til a considerable quantity of carbon has been burned out.
The metal is then run from the hearth into a shallow ob¬
long mould of cast-iron, about eight feet by two feet, which
is kept cool by water running underneath. During the
continuance of the operation, a lambent blue flame plays on
the surface of the fused metal, indicating the combustion
of carbonic oxide; and when the metal is run out into the
mould, a quantity of scoria, or oxide of iron, collects at the
top and floats there, a necessary consequence of the une¬
qual rate of contraction in the two.substances.
In the refinery, then, there are two effects produced.
Carbon in moderate quantity is separated from the general
mass of the iron, whilst, at the same time, a portion more
1 See Turner’s Chemistry, 5th edition.
436
IRON-MAKING.
Manufac- exposed than the rest becomes decarbonized to such an ex-
ture. tent as to be free for combination with the oxygen of the
atmosphere ; and hence the production of cinder, which, it
must be remembered, is also partly owing to impurities ex¬
isting originally in the pigs. The metal which works with
the least trouble, and to the greatest yield in the refinery,
is No. 1, or grey pig; next to it stands No. 2, or mottled.
As for white cast-iron, they are obliged to mix it largely
with pig of a superior quality; when alone, it becomes thick,
and does not flow readily from the hearth. The time from
the commencement of the operation to the “ running-out,”
varies a little with the kind of metal and strength of blast
employed; it may be said to average about two hours. The
yield of coke and metal also varies in the same manner, and
much depends on the attention of the refiner. Taking the
best grey pig, the average yield to the ton of refined metal
may be stated at 22 cwt.; the quantity of coke consumed
will be from 9 to 10 cwt.; the charge or quantity of metal
worked off at once is 25 cwt. Below are actual practical
statements of the refinery yields at one of the largest works
in Merthyr.
Manufac
ture.
In the year 1823,
Refined Metal made in April, .
May,
June,
July,
August,
September,
October,
Tons. cwt. qrs.
975 9 2
1015 10
885 10
946 15
942 16
971 15
996 19
Yield 22
22
22
22
22
22
22
Cwt. qrs. lb.
15
25
22
4
6
10
0
Yield of coal, 9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Cwt. qrs. lb.
26
22
20
2
6
20
0 12
Average yield on 6734 16 0 is 22 1 0 Average coal, 9 i 8
hi the year 1824,
The quantity of pigs used was
Finers’ metal produced,
Tons. cwt. qrs.
14,073 9 3
12,592 11 2
Total waste on 14,073 tons 9 cwt. 3 qrs. . 1,480 18 1
Shewing the average yield to have been 22 cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lb. of pigs to the ton of refined metal.
In the year 1825, the yield was
1826,  
1827,  
Cwt. qrs. lb.
22 1 2
21 3 1
21 3 8
And the yield continues much the same to the present day, the chief saving being made in the puddling-furnace • a
portion of which is, however, again lost in the mill-furnace.
Refiner’s metal is totally unlike the pig from which it was
produced; it is as white as or whiter than No. 3. cast-iron,
and so brittle as to be broken in pieces by a single stroke
of a hammer. It is in fact, in every external particular, so
similar to white or No. 3. metal, that, for some inferior
kinds of iron, the refining process is altogether omitted, the
metal as it comes from the blast-furnace being merely run
into moulds of cast-iron, which, as before explained, chills,
and renders it hard, brittle, and white. A considerable
proportion of forge-pigs, as they are called, undergo no
other refining process than this, if that can be called refin¬
ing, which probably merely alters the arrangement of the
elementary molecules, without removing a particle of car¬
bon. The plate of refined metal is always more or less
honeycombed and cellular on the surface. "When this fret¬
ted and unsound texture extends to any great depth, the
plate does not puddle well; it is pointed out as too much
blown to be good.
The cinder or scoria produced during the refining of
iron, formerly accounted of little or no value, is now made
to reproduce great part of its iron in the blast-furnace. For
this purpose, however, it is necessary to mix it very largely
with earthy matter or common mine ; because, when smelt¬
ed alone, it is found, as seems also to be the case with the
pure native oxides, to burn the furnace, and to produce the
most ineffective result, both with regard to quantity and qua¬
lity of yield. Made use of even in sparing proportions, the
metal produced is rarely No. 1, or foundry-iron. The quan¬
tity of cinder generally used in the Welsh furnaces, is from 5
to 6 cwt. to the ton of good calcined mine; and, of course,
the proportion of limestone to the charge need not be so
much as usual. As the refiner finishes his plates of metal,
they are weighed, and, if there be no stock on hand, carried
directly to the puddling-furnace, where they lose carbon to
a still further extent. Refined metal is said, like steel, to
improve in quality by exposure to the atmosphere, and to
be better fitted thereby for the next operation which it un¬
dergoes. Accordingly plates of metal which have been on
hand for any length of time are preferred by the puddler;
I hey work more easily, and produce a better quality of
bar-iron, than if puddled directly from the refinery.
Puddling is performed in a common reverberatory-fur¬
nace, of which Plate CCCIX* figs. 3, 4, 5, are a section and
elevation. In fig. 3, a is the grate, supplied with fuel by an
aperture, also marked a in fig. 4, called the stoke-hole; and
h is the body of the furnace, where the gradual narrowing
of height, by means of the arched ceiling, causes the flame
in every part to beat on the hearth, or material placed there
to be heated. C C, figs. 3 and 4, is a door of iron, through
which the puddler charges his hearth, and performs other ma¬
nipulations incidental to his process. It is opened and shut
by raising or depressing the lever, to which the chain d is
attached. The sides of the furnace are large plates of cast-
iron, lined with firebrick; the plates E are protected from
the heat, by having their lower sides immersed to a certain
depth in a metal groove or socket, around which water is
kept flowing. The hearth is of cast-iron, covered with a
glaze or coating of finery cinder, to protect it from fusion.
After the puddler has brought his furnace to the necessary
temperature, he introduces his charge of metal broken into
IRON-MAKING.
437
iufac- small fragments, at the same time regulating the influx of from thence, without reheating, passed successively through Manufac-
- . air through the grate and stoke-hole, by means of the damp- the puddling rolls; first through a set of gradually decreasing ‘
■''' er in the chimney, so as to produce a most intense heat. In
about twenty minutes, the charge begins to shew signs of
melting; and the whole being brought into a state of fusion,
the puddler, with a long iron hoe-shaped instrument, keeps
stirring up the imperfectly liquid mass, and incessantly pre¬
senting fresh surfaces to the action of the fire. Whilst he
thus operates with the metal, it heaves and swells, and
emits flashes of blue flame, shewing, as in the refinery, the
formation and combustion of carbonic oxide. The stirring
being still vigorously kept up, all appearances of an elastic
fluid at length cease, the metal becomes curdy and clotted,
and so totally deprived of cohesion, as to crumble away
beneath the instrument of the puddler like dry earth.
The damper, which had been nearly shut, is now raised,
fresh fuel is put on the fire, and an intense heat begins
again to be excited. At this stage the puddler occasionally
throws a little water on the charge, which now, in a fine gra¬
nular state, is said to be coming round to nature, and as the
temperature rises, every exposed point of surface assumes
the vivid whiteness of welding iron. Presently the sepa¬
rated particles begin to coalesce, and to form into small
masses, which work more and more heavy, until the whole
are at length fashioned by the puddler into rude balls or
blooms, which are carried at once to the shingling forge
and rollers, there to be beaten and drawn into bars. The
charge introduced into the puddling-furnace is 4 cwt., either
wholly of refined metal, or mixed with a portion of No. 3,
or forge-pig. The best kind of iron is produced without
any the least particle of cinder or oxide being used; but
the temptation to make profit is so irresistible, that the iron¬
master allows his puddlers to introduce a large portion of
cinder from the forge and rollers, to improve the yield. The
consequence is, that the quality of the iron is deteriorated,
whilst the puddler frequently brings as much or more iron
out of the furnace than his charge of metal amounted to.
White cast-iron also, and forge-pig, when used in large
quantity, tend to the production of a weak and inferior
kind of iron ; nor is this the only disadvantage attending
their employment, the waste which they are subject to
being very great. A considerable degree of certainty is
given to the puddling furnace results by the previous opera¬
tion of the refinery, because there the different qualities
of cast-iron, blended in proper proportions, are reduced to
one common standard, comparatively uniform in texture,
and always presenting to the puddler a sameness of consti¬
tution in the material which he employs. Using cast-iron
indifferently as it came from the blast furnace, was the
great defect of puddling when first introduced ; nothing
connected writh the operation could be reckoned on with
safety; the waste was great, the quality of puddled iron
irregular, and the duration of the process tedious. Not¬
withstanding this, however, it has of late been attempted
to run the iron directly from the smelting into the puddling
furnace, omitting the refinery altogether. Furnaces con¬
structed with this view, have been erected in Staffordshire.
The toil and labour of puddling is excessive, and the
men require to be frequently relieved; four sets or shifts
of men, each set being six hours in and eighteen out, will
run twenty heats, or from 80 to 85 cwt. in the course of
the day. To effect this, .the furnace ought to be double,
or so contrived that, whilst one charge is puddling, a fresh
one is heating and preparing for the same operation.
Three qualities of British bar iron are recognised in
commerce, No. 1, or puddled iron ; No. 2, and No. 3. A
toigh and fibrous quality called cable iron, is also made.
Ine manufacture of these will now be shortly described.
The rough balls of iron, just as they are formed in the
puddling furnace, are carried directly to the shingling
torge, where they are knobbled into oblong blooms, and
ture.
elliptical holes, which rough them down, then through flat
openings or groves, (see Plate CCCXI.fig. 3.) by which thev
are formed into long flat bars, 3, 4, or 5 inches in breadth,
and from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in thickness.
These bars are, of course, very ragged and unequal in tex¬
ture, and still retain incorporated with them a considerable
quantity of cinder, acquired in the puddling furnace, al¬
though much has been forcibly squeezed out by compression
between the rollers. They are called No. 1, or puddled, or
mill-bars, and though exported to some extent as a cheap ar¬
ticle, are looked upon as requiring at least another process be¬
fore they can be called finished iron. For this purpose they
are earned to a large pair of shears (see Plate CCCXII. fig 3.)
where, being cut into lengths proportional to that of the
intended bars, they are piled up with reference to the re¬
quired thickness, and introduced into the mill-heating fur¬
nace (see Plate CCCXII.), where they are subject to a fur¬
ther loss of cinder or oxide, which, combined with sand,
runs from the furnace in a fluid state. A period of from
fifteen to t-wenty minutes is sufficient to bring the piles to
a welding heat; they are then carried to another set of
rollers, similar to those first described, and from thence to
the finishing rollers, where they receive the most perfect
form and accurate dimensions. These constitute No. 2.
bars ; when cut up, piled, reheated, and again passed
through the rollers, No. 3. bars are formed, and the iron
may then be said to have arrived at the maximum of
strength and value possible to be given to it in the actual
processes of manufacture; that is, supposing it to have
been made from pure mine alone, without any admixture
of cinder, either in the smelting or puddling furnaces. It
must indeed be kept in mind that the best iron is invari¬
ably that which has been produced from the purest mate¬
rials. If the ironstone or coke is bad, if they contain sul¬
phur, phosphorus, arsenic, or any other equally deleteri¬
ous ingredient, it may safely be pronounced that the pig-
iron will be bad, that the refined metal will be bad, and
that the bar-iron, no matter how many times it may have
been hammered, rolled, heated, piled, and rerolled, will
still be accompanied by the refractory ingredient which ex¬
isted in the raw material.
There is undoubtedly a practical limit to the good effect
produced in iron by beating and drawing out. All that
rolling does, is merely to squeeze out the cinder and im¬
pure matter, blended with the rough bar, and thus to force
the fibres into a more perfect state of juxtaposition. The
strength which such a process imparts, is thus due entirely
to a mechanical cause, and iron which has undergone the
operation may be indeed very tough and flexible at a cer¬
tain temperature ; but cool it below, or elevate it above
this, and you bring it within the sphere of a new and hi¬
therto quiescent power; the deleterious substances, origi¬
nally in the ore, come into play, you find that the iron is
either cold-short or hot-short, and in fact that the whole
of its good qualities are gone. In contradistinction to this,
an iron that has been smelted from the most suitable and
purest materials, and has gone through the usually pre¬
scribed course of manufacture, will be not only mechani¬
cally but chemically good. Its malleability will not be li¬
mited to one range of temperature, and its strength and
toughness will be owing not more to the agency of rolling,
than to the absence of all substances, by which such quali¬
ties could possibly be impaired.
In the contracts of the Admiralty for chain cables for
the British navy, it is stipulated as an express condition,
that the iron shall have been manufactured in the best
manner from pig-iron, smelted from ironstone only, and se¬
lected of the best quality for the purpose, and shall not
have received in any process whatever subsequent to the
438
IRON-MAKING.
Manufac- smelting, the admixture of either the cinder or oxides, pro-
/ duced in the manufacture of iron ; and shall also have been
^ puddled in the best manner upon iron bottoms, and at least
three times sufficiently drawn out at three distinct welding
heats, and at least twice properly fagotted.”
The following is a table of the breaking proof of chain
cables, and of the iron for the purpose of making them ;
also of the proofs required by his Majesty’s navy for chains.
Size of Bolt.
Proof of Bolt.
Proof of Chain.
Navy proof
of Chain.
Inches.
1
H
li
if
U
if
if
H
2
21-
Tons. Cwt.
5 7
8
12
16
21
27
33 10
40 10
48 4
56 11
65 12
75 6
85 14
96 15
Tons. Cwt.
8 11
13
19
26
34
48
53
65
77
90
105
120
137
155
4
5,
5
5
15
11
0
0
10
0
10
0
0
Tons.
41
lOf
13f
18
22|
28!
34
40!
47!
55!
631
72
81!
Besides the three varieties of bar-iron which have been
noticed, several works, chiefly in Wales and Gloucester¬
shire, make a very tough and strong quality called char¬
coal-iron, chiefly used for the manufacture of tinned plates,
and of horse-shoe nail-roads. Charcoal-iron is made from
the best pigs, and refined in the usual way ; but, as a sub¬
stitute for puddling, it undergoes a second refining pro¬
cess, in which charcoal, not coke, is used; the resulting
bloom is taken to the forge hammer, drawn out into a slab,
and is then ready for the manufacture of this plate.
The great defect of bar-iron, as before hinted at, is the
limitation of malleability to one temperature. Cold-short
is the term applied to iron which is brittle when cold,
though malleable at a red heat. The defect is generally
owing to the presence of phosphorus, but may be occa¬
sioned by remaining too long in the furnace.
Silica also renders iron cold-short. Thus, in producing a
welding temperature, it is common to throw a little sand
on the parts most exposed to the heat. A slag is thus formed
on the surface which protects iron from wasting; on this
account, however, that part of a bar where a weld has taken
place, will always be found to be more brittle than any
other. Red-short iron is malleable enough at common tem¬
peratures, but liable to crack and fly, when punched or
beaten at a red heat. This quality is at once detected in
giving to a bar any particular form. Thus, in turning links
(which is done by machinery), numbers are frequently to be
rejected on account of cracks at the outside of the bend.
The waste in the balling or heating furnace is much the
same, whether Nos. 1 or 2 bars be taken ; but the production
of cinder ought seemingly to be greatest in the case of
No. 1, as being a much more impure material, and such
probably would be the case, had not puddled bars a com¬
paratively loose and open texture, in consequence of which
they are sooner heated, and remain a shorter time in the
furnace. Sixteen tons, 7 cwt. 3 qr. 7 lb. of No. 2 iron
were cut down, piled, heated, and rolled into bars ; the pro¬
duce weighed 15 tons 7 cwt. 3 qr. 7 lb., and consequently
the yield to the ton w^as 21 cwt. 1 qr. 12 lb. Speaking
generally, bar-iron may be said to work to a w-aste of from
1 to 1| cw'ts., allowing for differences in the purity and
heating power of the coal, sizes of piles, &c.; for, when the
pile or billet is very small, there will be a greater waste Manufat
proportionally to the comparatively greater surface expos- ture.
ed in the furnace ; and this, with increased trouble and loss
of time in rolling, enhances very much the price of the smaller
descriptions of iron.
From what has been said of the various deteriorating
circumstances which are incidental to the manufacture, it
will readily be conceived that bar-iron is by no means re¬
gular in quality. The following trials of round-iron, per¬
formed in the years 1832, 1833, and 1834, present some curi¬
ous results, and certain cases particularly would seem to in¬
dicate that the having gone through an additional process of
rolling, is not alwrays a guarantee of superiority. The iron
was all of Welsh manufacture, though from different com¬
panies, and the experiments were made in a testing ma¬
chine on the lever principle.
Result of Experiments on the strength of Iron, intended
for Chain Cable.
December 10. 1832.
1| in bolt, in the state of No. 3, cable (mine) iron, broke
with 30! tons.
1| in bolt, the same material, but put through another
process, 31! tons.
1J in bolt, in the state of No. 3, cable (mine) iron, broke
with 32! tons.
1| in bolt, another trial, 31f tons.
January 5. 1833.
1J in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke with
34! tons.
1J in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke with
31 tons.
January 11.
1J in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke at
34J tons.
li- in bolt, in the state of No. 3 (mine) iron, broke at
31 tons.
Two trials of these with similar results.
January 11. 1833. Continued Experiments.
1| in bolt, in the state of No. 3 (mine) iron, broke with
32! tons.
1! in bolt, same material as the last, but put through an¬
other process, broke at 32! tons.
1! in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke with
23! t°ns-
1| in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke with
321 tons. The latter bolt had been previously, when
in the state of No. 1 iron, rolled-down much smaller,
and was consequently more worked in the roll.
January 14. 1833.
No. 1. 1| in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke
with 32! tons.
No. 2. 1J in bolt, in the state of No. 2 (mine) iron, broke
with 30| tons.
These bolts, No. 1 and No. 2, were the produce of one
pile, laid up above the ordinary size. After the pile was
heated carefully, and roughed down to three inches dia¬
meter, it was taken to the shears and divided into two
pieces. The No. 1 piece was instantly, and at the same
heat, rolled off; the other half was rolled into a flat bar at
the same heat. It was then cut down, piled, and rolled into
a bolt, and on subjecting both pieces to the testing ma¬
chine, it appeared to support a less strain than the No. 1
bolt.
One of the great advantages of the present system of
manufacture, as compared with that of some fifty or more
years ago, is the facility and cheapness of rolling. At
IRON-MAKING.
j mfac- every great ironwork it has become necessary to have not
re. only rolls for the manufacture of bar, bolt, and square iron,
—but also for numerous other articles, such as railway bars,
boiler plates, sheet-iron, hoop-iron, &c. Slit nailroads are
made with great dispatch, a number being cut at once from
a thin bar of iron, which is passed hot between revolving
cutters (see Plate CCCXIV. figs. 1 and 2). Boiler-plate
rolling is most laborious work. The plate is rolled from a slab
prepared previously under the forge hammer, and weighs
generally from 1 to 4 cwt. Instances have been known of
the slab weighing so much as 11 cwt.; the passage of so
large a mass of matter between the rolls causes an enor
439
Plate CCCXII. fig. 1, elevation of wheels for bar-iron mill. Manufac
•,2’ i elevatl0n of shears. Fig. 4, plan. ture.
r’late LCLXlli. fig. 1, elevation of wheel for small bolt
and hoop-mill; ABCD the several parts of the large spur-
wheel ; EFG pinions for connecting the rolls. Fig 2 is a
plan of the same.
Figs. 3,4,5,6, Back and front elevations, and plan of heat¬
ing-furnace, and section of stalk for the same ; A stoke-hole •
B charging-door ; C bridge ; D stalk; E ash-pit; FF fur¬
nace bars; G hole for running out the cinder or scoria.
Having thus considered the manufacture of pig and bar
mous strain, and unless the mill pinions be of the strongest iron, some details are requisite in connexion with the im-
wiofal t ic nrroQt VicG HHl  • i . i n ,
metal, there is great risk of their breaking. The various
shapes and forms of rolled and hammered iron, turned out
by an ironwork in active operation, are numerous beyond
description. Any peculiarity of form suggested by the
engineer, if the inducement be strong enough, is sure to
be accomplished in some one of the many ironworks in the
kingdom, and that with a dispatch and cheapness of execu¬
tion which it would once have been thought impossible to
attain. Shafts and beams, weighing from 3 to 4 tons, are
now manufactured under the forge-hammer in from three
to four days, that thirty years ago would have employed
from fourteen to sixteen men for as many weeks. An es¬
tablishment capable of throwing off weekly 200 tons of
finished bars, bolts, boiler „ plates, sheet-iron, nailrods,
cooper’s hoops, &c. will require five blast furnaces ; this is,
supposing nearly 1J ton of pig-iron to produce a ton of bar-
iron, and that a thousand tons per year are consumed as
castings at the work. The necessary machinery for the
manufacture of these goods are shewn in the plates annex¬
ed to this article.
Plate CCCXI. fig. 1, elevation of a puddling forge; A the
forge-hammer; B the anvil-block ; C the anvil; D the ham¬
mer helve; E the key or slot for securing the helve to F
the camring ; G the spring-block for giving effect to the
blow of the hammer; H tappet; II cast-iron bedplate ;
K cast-iron framing supporting the camring-hammer, &c.;
L framing to which the whole is secured : M carnage and
axle connecting the forge and puddling-rolls. Fig. 3, ele¬
vation of puddling-rolls; AA pinions for connecting the
forge and rolls ; BB the rolls; DD standards; CC small
pinions connecting the upper and lower rolls. Fig. 2, plan
of the whole. Fig. 4, wood-frame or anvil-block on which
the forge-anvil is sponorted, this is sunk into the founda¬
tion. .-r-yq. r'
Plate CCCXIV. fig1. -1, elevation of bar-iron mill; A A
pinions connecting the upper and lower reducing-rolls FF ;
B clutch for throwing the rolls in and out of gear ; C driv¬
ing-shaft ; D pinion-standard; EE coupling-boxes; GG
bar-iron rolls; HH coupling-boxes connecting the bar-
iron and reducing-rolls; III roll-standards; K pinion-stand¬
ard ; LL pinions ; MM coupling-boxes connecting the slit¬
ting machinery 00 ; NN standards, or frame for the cut¬
ters; PP bed-plate. Fig. 2, plan of bar-iron mill and slit¬
ting machinery. Fig. 3, elevation of pinion-standard. Fig.
4, elevation of roll-standard. Fig. 6, elevation of standard
for the slitting machinery.
Plate CCCXV. fig. 1, elevation of boiler-plate and sheet-
iron rolls, shews different diameters of the same, according
to the work required to be done. Fig. 2, plan of the
same. fe > R
a a^e. CCCX VI. fig. 1, elevation of small bolt and rod-mill;
A driving-shaft; B clutch; C coupling-box; DDD rolls
or reducing the billet; EEE coupling-boxes; FFF pi¬
nions ; HH coupling-boxes; GG finishing rolls. Fig. 2,
p an of the same. Fig. 3, elevation of hoop-mill; A A
pinions; DD rolls ; C driving-shaft. Fig. 4, plan of the
end view of standard for bolt and rod-mill.
* ‘S* °> end view of standard for hoop-mill.
proved method of smelting by heated air.
The origin of the invention, with the circumstances which
led to the discovery that hot air does not, as once gene¬
rally supposed, deteriorate iron in a liquid state, have al¬
ready been dwelt on in a preceding article (see Glasgow).
Nothing remains, therefore, but to mention some of the
results which have been arrived at, and to detail the pre¬
sent mode of applying the discovery, which is alike appli¬
cable to smelting, refining, and to the working of bar-iron,
Plate CCCXVII. fig. 1, shews the plan of a cupola fur¬
nace in connexion with the hot-air apparatus, as at present
in operation in several works in Glamorganshire; and a, a, a,
&c. the metal pipe in which the air is heated as it passes
from the blast cylinder to the cupola. At intervals along
the range are placed the heating furnaces, b, b, b, See., the
flame and smoke from which are carried along a brick con¬
duit or flue to the chimney, in the direction shewn by the
arrows. The furnace has three working tuyeres. Near the
entrance of two of these, the main pipes are laid down in a
short double row, in each case, connected together by four
smaller pipes, directly opposite to which are placed two of
the heating furnaces.
Thus the air, on arriving here, already at a high tempe¬
rature, is divided amongst several small tubes, exposing a
much greater surface to the action of the fire than could
conveniently be done in one single pipe.
Hence it becomes still more intensely heated, and the in¬
terval being so short, has no time to cool before entering
the furnace.
With this apparatus water tuyeres are necessary, the air
being heated to upwards of 612° Fahrenheit. Fig. 4.
is a section of the water tuyere, shewn also in the other
figures. It is merely a short duplex pipe of cast-iron,
placed at the entrance to the furnace, and having a stream
of water continually flowing through the interval formed
by the two surfaces.
When the heating apparatus was first employed, the con¬
traction and expansion to which the pipes were liable, from
fluctuations of temperature, was so great, as very materially
to derange the joints, which were then common flanches,
bolted together in the usual way. Each length of pipe is
now made with a small bead and dovetail groove at the ex¬
tremity ; and as the laying down proceeds, the joints are
firmly secured by having a solid ring or fillet of metal cast
on (see fig. 3).
Thus the whole range is as a single pipe, and the expan¬
sion is only felt at one extremity, where it is provided for
by a stuffing-box, or enlargement of the engine blast-pipe,
into which the heated air-pipe is inserted with the neces¬
sary play.
The advantage of heating the air for smelting arises
chiefly from the great economy of materials produced.
This has been invariably the case wherever the improved
process has been adopted, the economy becoming more ap¬
parent, proportionably with the elevation of temperature
given to the air. In the first place, the consumption of coal
and limestone, especially of the former, is considerably les¬
sened. In the neighbourhood of Glasgow, the aggregate
440
IRON-MAKING.
Ores of of materials required to make a ton of pig-iron is now little
Iron, Coal, more than one-half of what was necessary when cold air
&c* was used. Much the same is the result of using the hot-
blast in Derbyshire and Staffordshire. The following is an
estimate of the quantity of materials required in the year
calculated to impart deleterious qualities to the iron with Ores of
which they are associated. iron, Coa
Conceding, then, to these and other similar circumstances, &c.
their due weight, it arises that all the ores actually made
available to the production of iron, may be essentially com-
1829, to make a ton of pig-iron, with coke and cold air ; prehended under two great divisions; the one including
and, in 1834, with crude coal, and the air heated to 612
This statement refers only to the Glasgow district.
With cold air.
Tons. Cwt.
With hot air.
Tons. Cvvt.
Splint coal for smelting,
lioasted mine,
Limestone,
Coal for blowing engine,
Coal for heating apparatus,
15
15
14
0
0
0
17
11
11
8
10
It appears from the above statement, that the expense
of fuel for the blowing engine and heating apparatus, added
together, does not amount to so much as did the coals for the
blowing engine alone, before the heating apparatus was
used, the quantity of cold air required to blow a furnace
being much more than when raised to an elevated tempe¬
rature, on account of the increase of volume attendant on
those which, like the magnetic and specular, consist sim¬
ply of iron in direct union with a greater or less definite
proportion of oxygen ; the other, those which, like the iron¬
stones of secondary formations, consist of oxide of iron in
union with carbonic acid, and in contact or mixture with
numerous earths, See. hereafter to be enumerated. The
kind of ironstone existing in any district may in general be
inferred from the geological character of the country. Thus
the primary countries of Sweden and Scandinavia furnish
us with the purest of all the iron-ores. In the transition
districts of Lancashire and Cumberland we meet with a
mineral, less, though scarcely less pure ; and in the coal¬
fields of Europe, America, and New Holland, with the
most impure, yet certainly most valuable source of iron.
The iron-ore occurring in Cumberland and Lancashire is
the red glance, or haematite. In composition it is nearly a
pure peroxide, affording a small per-centage of silica, wa¬
ter, and, according to Chevalier, a little ammonia. It
possesses in general a high lustre, assumes the reniform
and botryoidal shapes, and frequently contains crystals of
quartz. Its situation in Cumberland and Lancashire, at a
the latter condition. To such an extent, indeed, is this the
case, that blowing machines, which were only capable of distance from coal, precludes it from being smelted in these
working three furnaces, when cold air was used, blow with districts to any great amount. Hence it is shipped, in the
ease four furnaces, when the blast is heated to 612°.
The decrease in the requisite quantity of iron-making
materials is accompanied by an increase of one-fourth in
the quantity of iron produced in a given time ; a furnace
that with cold air made sixty tons of metal per week, now
making as much as eighty tons during the same period.
Whether the metal produced by the hot-blast be equal to
that made in the usual way, admits of some doubt. The
general opinion seems to be, that the iron is weaker, both
in the pig and in the wrought bar.
There appears to be no possible reason why this should
be the case, provided that coke only be employed in the
blast-furnace. If the coal be used in a raw state, as it
most commonly is, when the furnace is blown by hot air,
then there certainly is room for suspicion that deleterious
substances may come in contact with the iron, which, had
the coal been coked, would, during that operation, have
been in great part, if not wholly removed.
Ill—ORES OF IRON, COAL, Sec.
Although it is not intended in this part of the work to
enter into a minute mineralogical examination of the va¬
rious ores of iron; yet it seems necessary to a right com¬
prehension of many facts and processes connected with the
manufacture of that metal, that we should be acquainted
to a certain extent with the chemical and physical charac-
former county, at Whitehaven, and at XJlverstone, in Lan
cashire, for different parts of the kingdom, where it is ge¬
nerally mixed with ironstone of a more meagre quality.
Much ore from Workington in Lancashire is smelted in
South Wales. The same material from the same neigh¬
bourhood is to be met with in Worcester, Shropshire, Staf¬
fordshire, Northumberland, Scotland, Sec. The argillaceous
ironstone is, with the exception of coal, the most import¬
ant mineral product of our island. It is the source whence
all the great iron districts of this country, Staffordshire,
Wales, Shropshire, Derbyshire, Scotland, &c. derive their
almost inexhaustible supplies. Occurring chiefly in the
coal measures, it exists to a greater or less extent through¬
out the whole of the carboniferous group, forming in the
different members of that series beds and layers of lenticu¬
lar nodules, conformably with the other strata, which con¬
sist of argillaceous and bituminous shales, micaceous sand¬
stones, and different varieties oA ^'^On and coal. Every
coal-field has thus the materials 1 vinthe iron manufacture
within its own geological limits, an abundance of metalli¬
ferous ore, coal to roast, reduce, and carbonise it, sandstone
for building, refractory fireclays for the furnaces, and moun¬
tain limestone for fluxing the ore, generally at no great dis¬
tance.
The ironstones of coal districts have been divided into
classes, according as the different earths preponderate in
their composition.
Is#, Argillaceous Ironstone, having fine clay as its chief
component earth, lime in the next proportion, and nearly
ters of its most useful ores, and also of the fluxes and other destitute of silica, when properly torrefied, exhibits fibres
adjuncts employed in their reduction. Notwithstanding on its internal surface, of a brown, dark brown, or claret
the numerous forms in which iron occurs mineralized, and colour, running either in streaks, or radiated and adhering
extending as it does in one or other of these, throughout tenaciously to the tongue, will afford, with a moderate pro-
the whole suite of rock formations, yet there are many portion of lime and coke, iron of the first quality, possess-
circumstances which limit the sources of its supply within ing strength conjoined with an intimate degree of fusibility-
narrower bounds than would otherwise have existed, had 2c?, Calcareous Ironstone, that which contains lime as its
there been no such difficulties to contend with. Sometimes principal earthy mixture, and holds clay in the next propor-
the minuteness of the quantity, disseminated through a rock tion, but is comparatively unalloyed with sand; when re-
or stratum, is such as to preclude every idea of its being gularly torrefied, it assumes a variety of shades, generally
made profitable to the miner; whilst at other times the lighter in colour than the former class, sometimes present-
substances composing the ore, and existing in contact or ing internal fibres, and adheres less tenaciously to the
combination with its metallic ingredient, are of a nature tongue. Its vein can always be reduced and carbonised
Il
IR O N-M A KIN G.
441
es of with a comparatively small quantity of limestone and coke.
, Coal, Under this class are found those which produce iron of a
iic. fusible nature, seldom connected with strength, but va-
y~—^ luable for fine castings, which require ornament more than
durability.
3d, Those ironstones, the component parts of which are
nearly an equalized mixture of clay, lime, and sand, which
torrefy with a slight degree of adhesiveness to the tongue,
assuming a darkened ore-brownish colour, void of every in¬
ternal fibre, always afford an iron of an intermediate qua¬
lity for fusibility and softness, but possessing strength in
an eminent degree, and excellently adapted for artillery and
the larger parts of machinery.
Ath, Ironstones which unite a large proportion of sand
with sparing proportions of clay and lime, and which, upon
being exposed slightly to heat, exhibit masses of semi-vi¬
trification, neither obedient to the magnet, nor adhesive to
the tongue, having a refractory disposition, and possessing
a dark blue or blue colour, always afford, with the usual
proportion of fuel, iron of the worst quality either as to
strength or fusibility. Such metal is commonly brittle, and
affords malleable iron of the cold short quality.
It is a matter of fact that phosphorus sometimes exists
in iron to so great an extent, as very materially to injure its
malleability at low temperature, rendering it, according to
technical language, cold-short. That phosphorus is actually
the agent productive of this effect, was ascertained by the
experiments of Bergmann and Meyer, who were invariably
enabled to detect a phosphuret in iron possessing the above-
named quality. The existence of phosphorus in iron is a
sufficient evidence of its presence in the ores of that me¬
tal, and would lead us to infer that there was a gradual de¬
position of animal matter during tire formation of the iron¬
stone beds. In this inference we are amply supported by
observation ; for traces of animal matter have been found
very extensively in ferruginous beds and nodules, traces
more particularly of membranous shells, and of the scales
and bones of fish.
In the Mid-Lothian coal-field, ironstone nodules are de¬
scribed as occurring in great number, and, when broken open,
exhibiting a very curious appearance. The mass of the
stone is of a dark brown colour, compact and solid; in the
centre, generally occupying about an inch, is an oblong
body, the structure of which is disposed in laminae, or con¬
centric layers. The round body, the appearance of a neck
and head, the four projecting substances corresponding to
legs, and the circular rings on the part corresponding to the
abdomen, all evidently corroborate the supposition that the
centre substance is an animal in a petrified state, or some or¬
ganic substance which has served as the nucleus of the stone.
In the Annales des Mines for 1825, M. Berthier gives
an account of his discovery of phosphate of lime, in asso¬
ciation with the argillaceous ironstones of the coal forma¬
tion at Riant in France. The specimen he examined had
absolutely the same appearance as the argillaceous ore of
iron with which it was found; and he adds that the fact,
interesting as it may appear in a geological point of view,
deserves also the notice of metallurgists, and should induce
them to institute a strict examination of the ores with which
the coal formation furnishes them.
The specimen of phosphate of lime, on being analyzed,
gave the following result:
Lime, . . . o.363 \
Phosph. acid, . 0.310 J
Protox. iron, . 0.096
Alumina, . . 0.090
Water, bitumen, and } n 1on
carbonic acid, # j 0.120
Phosph. lime(Apatite), 0.670
Carb. oflron, . 0.157
Alumina, . . 0.190
Water and bitumen, 0.06Q
0.979 0.979
The mineral is found in nodules of a globular form, some- Ores of
times flattened, and always of rather small size ; and these Iron, Coal,
nodules occur in great quantity in the black argillaceous &c-
schists which separate the second bed of coal from the _r
sandstones that support it. They are not homogeneous ;
their crust is almost entirely composed of carbonate of iron.
Sometimes they contain a great quantity of transparent la¬
minar carbonate of lime, which divides the mass into small
prisms; sometimes it is a coally matter, and at other times
they are enveloped in a crust of compact sulphuret of iron.
In the centre there is a nucleus of a pale yellow or grey co¬
lour ; compact, fine granular, and traversed by impressions
of gramineae. It is this nucleus which contains the phosphate
of lime. The crust of a nodule, assayed in a covered cru¬
cible without addition, gave 0.20 of hard cast-iron, equiva¬
lent to 0.43 of carbonate of iron ; and a slag, weighing 0.56,
which was opaque, of an apple-green colour, and entirely
similar to melted phosphate of lime. The ore of iron call¬
ed Bog Iron Ore, which is daily forming by deposition from
pools, the waters of which have previously percolated
through ferruginous strata, very frequently contains a large
proportion of combined phosphoric acid. The iron made
from this ore is cold-short, but is excellent for producing
distinct and well defined castings, as it swells in cooling.
The greater part of the Berlin ornaments are made from
bog-ore.
In enumerating the more general ingredients of iron¬
stones, perhaps titanium should be noticed ; which, since its
first detection as a new substance at Merthyr Tydvil, where
it had been supposed to be a species of pyrites, has been
found in the slags of nearly every furnace in the kingdom,
as well as in Germany and France, a pretty evident proof
of its wide dissemination in connexion with minerals afford¬
ing iron.
Whether titanium ever combines with the iron during
the process of reduction, and is thereby productive of a
good or bad effect, we do not feel competent to assert. It
seems not improbable, that its presence in small quantities
may tend to improve the quality of the iron, with which it
is alloyed, in the same way that certain other hard and re¬
fractory metals, as rhodium, See. are productive of an admi¬
rable effect in common steel. Indeed, the supposed case
is not without analogy, as in reference to manganese, to the
presence of which Berzelius attributes in a great measure
the superiority of the Swedish over the British iron.
When magnesia exists to any great extent in an iron-
ore, the infusibility of the combined mine and flux are
greatly increased. Presenting itself under so deleterious
an aspect, this earth is unfortunately of common occur¬
rence both in ironstones, cokes, and limestones. On this
account all the members of the magnesian limestone depo¬
sits are to be most carefully avoided.
In concluding these remarks upon ironstones, it may
not be unimportant to add a few observations on coal, a
mineral of so much importance in connexion with iron¬
making, when practised in thinly wooded countries. Of the
different species of coal enumerated by mineralogists, the
common varieties of the black or bituminous class appear to
have been most extensively employed in smelting operations,
a fact resulting not only from their more universal distri¬
bution, but also from certain peculiarities in their organiza¬
tion, as contrasted with those coals which approximate in
character to the anthracites. Nor does this preference ap¬
pear to have been conceded wholly without trial. Thus,
in South Wales, the extensive development of stone-coal
seams, in connexion with rich deposits of ironstone, have
led to frequent attempts at using this coal in the raw state
as a substitute for coke. These attempts have hitherto
proved unsuccessful, a result the more unexpected, consi¬
dering that the coal is a dense and nearly pure mineral
3 K
VOL. XII.
442
IRON-MAKING.
Ores of carbon; and that the close-grained and more ponderous
Iron, Coal, cokes have generally been regarded as best adapted for
&c. iron-smelting. It has been suggested that the imperfect
conducting power of this mineral for heat, arising probably
from the compactness of its texture and its want of bitu¬
men, presents the obstacle, which has hitherto prevented
its application with any success to processes conducted in
the blast furnace. This imperfect transmitting power is
so great, that the application of the blast to a furnace, in
which the stone coal is placed as fuel, instead of producing
ignition throughout the mass, actually extinguishes the
fire.1
In a patent taken out some years ago, it was proposed
to smelt iron with stone coal, introducing at the same time
a stream of carburetted hydrogen.
The following are analyses of several varieties of coal:
No. 1,
No. 2,
No. 3,
No. 4,
No. 5,
No. 6,
Carbon.
89-00
82.00
69.00
85.60
52.45
52.88
Volatile matter.
8.00 .
14.50 .
28.00 .
13.40 .
45.50 .
42.83 .
Ash.
3.00
3.50
3.00
1.00
2.04
4.28
No. 1. is an analysis of the Welsh stone coal.
No. 2. is an analysis of the furnace or iron-making coal
of Wales. A most important and peculiar property resi¬
dent in this coal is the proneness to ramification or swell¬
ing exhibited by it during combustion, which frequently
gives the coke an arborescent appearance, and renders it
in some varieties as light and porous as wood charcoal;
whilst in others, as, for instance, the great seam at Mer¬
thyr, the coke is much harder, more ponderous, and admi¬
rably adapted for iron-smelting.
No. 3. is an analysis of the bituminous or binding coal
of South Wales, many seams of which possess the important
property of being free from sulphur. The coke of this coal,
when it can be procured, is mixed with that of the branch¬
ing coal in smelting.
No. 4. is an analysis of the great seam at Merthyr, the coal
from which a great portion of the coke for the blast-furnaces
is procured. It is coked in heaps in the open air, and pro¬
duces a close-grained coke of a silvery lustre, and very free
from sulphur.
No. 5. is an analysis of the Alfreton furnace-coal, and
No. 6. is an analysis of the Butterly furnace-coal.
Besides the ingredients indicated by the analyses here
given, as constituting coal, a great number of extraneous
substances are commonly blended and associated with that
mineral, such as sulphuret of iron, carbonate of lime, mag¬
nesia ; and these of course exercise a detrimental influence
when the coke is brought to play its part in the blast-fur¬
nace.
The object in coking is to obtain the carbon of the coal
in as insulated and independent a form as possible, by driv¬
ing off the moisture, sulphur, and gaseous constituents.
The earthy ingredients not being volatilisable, of course re¬
main, and even the sulphur is never wholly driven off. The
relative amount of these substances, as indicated in some
degree by the quantity, weight, and colour of the ash, when
a certain portion of coke is burnt, should in every case be
ascertained before a coal is appropriated to smelting ope¬
rations.
The method of coking varies in different places. In
some iron districts the process is performed in small ovens,
the access of air being prevented as much as possible. In
South Wales, on the contrary, long heaps of coal are ig¬
nited in the open air, and allowed to burn from one end R0i|ei.
to the other beneath a slight covering of turf or ashes. Forge, &’c
After the cokes have done smoking, the cokers frequently
stir the heaps, in order, as they say, to allow the escape of
sublimed sulphur; and, after the ignition has continued a
sufficient length of time, the burning cokes are extinguished
with water, which is also said to favour the escape of sul¬
phur ; perhaps in this way. A portion of the water being
decomposed by contact with the cokes at so elevated a tem¬
perature, the sulphur of the coke probably attaches itself
to one of the liberated gases, and makes its escape in the
form of sulphurous acid gas, or sulphuretted hydrogen. It
cannot fail of being perceived, that the process here de¬
scribed must be of a very uneconomical nature; and, in¬
deed, if the weather happen to be very windy, no exertions
can at times prevent the loss of many tons of coal in a sin¬
gle night.
Coke is of various degrees of weight and quality, cor¬
responding in great measure with the properties of the coal
from which it is derived. Sometimes it has a dull grey
fibrous fracture, very similar in appearance to charcoal of
wood. More generally the fracture is porous, with a bright
vitreous, nay almost metallic lustre. The quantity of coke
that can be procured from a given quantity of coal, of course
differs considerably; so much, indeed, in different seams
and in different districts, as to render it difficult to give any
numerical standard on the subject.
In the Glasgow Coal-field,
11 tons of best splint coal produce 1 ton of coke.
2 tons of inferior do»   do.
2J tons of the main do  do.
3 tons of Pietshaw do  do.
And it is generally observed, amongst the manufacturers of
that district, that one ton of the best Scotch coals is only
equal to three quarters of a ton of the best Newcastle.
The Welsh coals, as will be seen from the comparative
analyses before given, contain a much less quantity of vo¬
latile matter than either the English or Scotch ; and hence
their great superiority as an iron-making coal.
IV.—ROLLERS, FORGE, &c.
In the preceding pages we have given a description of
the manufacture of iron, up to the time of producing finish¬
ed bars in the rolling-mill; but as yet, nothing further has
been said of the machinery employed, than the explanation
of processes under consideration, rendered absolutely ne¬
cessary. Supposing the manufactory in an active state of
working, to turn out 200 tons of finished iron per week, it
may be well to enter into some details connected with the
making and fitting up of the rollers, describing at the same
time that part of the establishment exclusively appropriat¬
ed to this purpose. After the manufactory is furnished
with the machinery in daily use, such as rollers, coupling-
boxes, pinions, spindles, hammers, anvils, the parts of the
different furnaces, &c., it is usual to provide duplicates of all
these.
The rougher pieces of apparatus, such as hammers, an¬
vils, the several parts of the heating furnaces, plates for the
floors, &c. are run at once from the blast-furnace. On the
other hand, the finish, and accuracy of size and shape, which
bars, bolts, and in fact, all other descriptions of rolled iron
are required to have, demand that the greatest care and
attention be paid to the getting up of the rollers. They
should be made in the best possible manner, and of the
1 Foster, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Newcastle.
IRON-MAKING.
illers, strongest metal, a proper melting furnace being provided,
j re, &c. and kept entirely for the purpose. The best coals are in-
v. dispensably necessary, otherwise the work will be deterio¬
rated by the impurities which it cannot fail to take up
when in a highly heated or liquid state. The material
ought to consist wholly of No. 1. pigs. A mixture of Staf¬
fordshire, Shropshire, and Welsh metal is most suitable.
The best grained rollers for boiler-plates are cast in loam
or sand. The mould, which is sunk perpendicularly in the
cast-house floor, is capable of containing in an upper part,
at least one-third more metal than is necessary to form the
roller. The object of this is, to give weight and pressure to
the fluid material below, and thereby insure a perfect cast¬
ing. Without this precaution, the rollers generally turn out
honeycombed and unsound. It is also necessary during
the running of the metal into the mould, to keep it alive,
by constantly stirring it with a stick, the extra metal or
head at the same time making up for any deficiencies caused
by shrinking or evolution of gas in the interior of the cast¬
ing. The roller, for whatever purpose it might have been
intended, used generally to be cast as a plain cylindrical
mass, the grooves being afterwards all cut out by the slow
and tedious process of turning. It is now moulded as near
as possible to the form which it ought to have when finish¬
ed, allowing only as much superfluous metal as will admit
of its being cleaned up, and brought to a true centre in the
lathe. Rollers for boiler-plates and sheet-iron, from the
great strain to which they are occasionally subjected, should
have the bearing part or neck turned in the shape re¬
presented at AA. The barrel
or cylinder should also be slight¬
ly concave, because when the
slab is first passed through the
rollers, it comes in contact only with a small portion of the re¬
volving surfaces. The central parts of the roller thus become
highly heated, whilst the extremities are comparatively cool;
the consequence is, that the expansion is greatest at the mid¬
dle, so that, unless this be provided for by concavity in the
barrel, the plates become buckled; that is, both warped and
uneven in thickness, and consequently unfit for the pur¬
poses of the boiler builder. Bar and bolt-rolls are gene¬
rally slightly case-hardened, this is effected by chilling in
a mould or cast-iron case fit for the purpose. That the
chilling may not exceed what is necessary, the roller, when
cast, is turned out of the case red-hot. This prevents its
hardening too much, and allows the turner to finish it with
less injury to his turning tools.
We will now enter into a few particulars respecting the
sizes of the different kinds of rollers, and the speed at which
they are run. Rollers for roughing down are from 4 to 5
feet long, by 18 inches in diameter. The rollers for mer¬
chant bars and bolts are generally about 2 feet 6 inches
long, 13 inches in diameter, and make about 70 revolutions
per minute. With regard to boiler plate and black sheet
iron rollers, much depends on the size of the work which they
are to perform. They vary in size, from 2 feet 6 inches in
length, by 13 inches in diameter, to 5 feet 6 inches in
length, by 18 inches in diameter, the speed at which they
are run varying from 35 to 40 revolutions per minute. For
roughing down small iron, it is usual to run three rollers
backwards and forwards ; that is, the rollers run in opposite
directions. These, and also the finishing rollers for the same
descriptions of iron, are generally 10 inches in diameter,
and make about 120 revolutions per minute. Guide rollers
for small rounds and squares are 8 inches in diameter, and
make about 200 revolutions per minute. In all the large
works, the rollers vary as to size and also velocity; but the
proportions wre have here given are those in most general
use. Of course, if the rollers are increased or decreased in
diameter, the speed must be regulated accordingly. In
some of the Staffordshire mills, guide rollers are run so small
443
as 4 inches in diameter, with a speed equal to 400 revolutions Rollers,
per minute. All, except the roughing and boiler-plate rollers, Forge, &c
are usually case-hardened. The small rollers, in particular, are v ’ v ■ '
fitted up with the greatest accuracy, and carefully chilled.
\\ hilst the speed of rolling thus varies with the size and
description of the roller, there is one condition which should
be invariable: It is this, that the process ought always to
proceed at a certain temperature, so that the particles of
the iron may be compressed to the greatest possible degree,
and the bar be turned out, with a clean and well-polished
skin. For the general purposes of the rolling mill, the
engine should be of eighty horse power. In rolling boiler
plates, however, where, as was before mentioned, the slab
sometimes weighs as much as 10 cwt., a hundred horse
power will not be too much. The fly-wheel and shaft, to
overcome the great resistance, ought to weigh from 25 to 30
tons. The whole of the boiler plate machinery should be
proportionally strong, and detached from the other parts of
the mill, so that, when necessary, the whole available power
of the engine may be concentrated on the working of these
rollers alone. The pinions, if not made of the strongest
metal, are liable to almost constant breakage. The con¬
necting spindles ought, if possible, to be made of wrought
iron. At some manufactories, the coupling boxes are also
made of wrought iron. The shaft of the spur-wheel, and
indeed all the other shafts, should be of the same material,
the bearings carefully turned, and well case-hardened.
Associated with the rolling-mill should be a large and strong
lathe of the most improved form and construction, with
self-acting slide rests. When the mill is in an active state,
this will be almost constantly employed in turning rollers,
which, for railway bars and the like, require to be of an
endless variety of forms and sizes.
So far the Forge has been considered merely as an auxi¬
liary to the rolling mill, being employed to shingle the pud-
dler’s blooms preparatory to their passing through the rollers,
and being formed into mill-bars. Something further than
this seems requisite, in order to a right appreciation of this
most valuable piece of machinery in the manufacture of
various large and heavy articles required by the engineer.
Few of the larger works interest themselves in the manu¬
facture of iron, after it leaves the rolling-mill. This, there¬
fore, forms a separate branch, and is carried on to a great
extent in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Birmingham, Bristol, and
several other large towns in the kingdom. It is at esta¬
blishments in these towns and their neighbourhoods that
shafts, cranks, crossheads, and other parts of the steam-en¬
gine are forged, and that large chains and mooring anchors
are manufactured, not only for the British, but also for the
Dutch, Swedish, French, Turkish, Egyptian, and American
navies. So low, indeed, is the price at which British iron
can be produced, and to so great a degree of perfection has
the manufacture of anchors and chains been carried, that
these powers pay little more for the latter articles than the
cost of Russian or Swedish iron in their own country.
Until forty years ago, it was not attempted to make any
work under the forge-hammer exceeding one cwt. We are
now indebted to the forge for the manufacture of anchor-
shanks, weighing singly from 30 to 45 cwt.; arms for the
same, of 18 cwt. ; palms, 3 to 4 feet wide, and from 8 to
12 cwt.; steam-engine shafts, 25 feet long, and weighing
from 5 to 6 tons.
To shew the improvements which have been made in
the manufacturing of machinery since 1792, we subjoin a
statement of the manual labour attending the making of
an anchor for the British Navy at that time and now.
In the year 1792, it required 16 men, each working 27
days, to forge and finish an anchor for a first-rate ship in the
navy; the anchor when finished weighing 8960 lb.; total
number of days, 27 X 16 = 432 days. In the year 1835,
■HI
444 IRON-MAKING.
Rollers,
Forge, &c.
with the assistance of the forge, the same quantity of work
can now be finished in 173 days, making a saving of manual
labour by the use of the forge of 259 days.
This statement, along with others which could be given,
fully bears out the assertion, that in no part of the manu¬
facture has so much progress been made as in the getting
up of anchors and chains. In the year 1808, the sum paid
for workmanship on one ton of chains amounted to L. 18;
at present chain-cables can be bought for the same sum,
including both iron and workmanship.
The “ Sovereign of the Seas," built in 1637, carried
eleven anchors, one of which weighed 4400 lb., or 39 cwt.;
but the largest anchor now made for the navy weighs five tons.
Fifty years ago, it was not thought possible to roll bolts and
bars; at that time all the boltstaves required for shipping were
rounded under the smith’s hammer, from Russian and Swe¬
dish iron. In the same manner, so little were the uses of the
forge understood, that it is only within these very few years
that the great and increasing demand for large wrought-
iron machinery for steam-boat and railway engines, has led
the iron-manufacturer to attempt what had previously been
thought impossible.
The forging of large machinery, which is carried on to a
great extent at Bedlington, near Morpeth, is sufficiently in¬
teresting to claim a particular account in these pages. There
the writer of this had the opportunity of seeing the manufac¬
ture of a large shaft for the rope-rollers of the Stanhope and
Tyne Railway incline engine. It was laid up in a faggot
from large flat bars, as shewn in the figure adjoining;
End view. Top view.
a long bar of iron, called a “ Porter,” being welded into
the interior of the mass at one end, for the convenience of
moving it about under the hammer. The weight of the
iron, previous to being heated, was 7 tons 6 cwt. 1 qr.
26 lb., and the weight of the shaft, when finished at the
forge, 5 tons 8 cwt. 2 qrs. 6 lb., shewing a waste in the pro¬
cess of manufacture of 1 ton 17 cwt. 3 qrs. 201b., or about
one-fourth of the whole. This shaft, which was 25 feet in
length, with a cross sectional area of 13 square inches, was
probably the largest single piece of iron ever manufactured
under a forge hammer. It was finished in eight days. Had
it been made under the small hammers, according to the
method of working forty years ago, it would have required
as many weeks.
Messrs Maudsley and Co. of London have occasionally
had shafts forged at these works near five tons in weight;
the same manufactory is not less celebrated on another ac¬
count, namely, as having produced the first rolled malleable
iron railway bars. After the shaft has been laid up in the
manner described, it is carefully heated in an air furnace,
constructed for the purpose, drawn out when ready, as
quick as possible, swung upon the anvil, and worked under
a very heavy hammer. The better to effect this, it is
slung in a cradle working on a screw, which is suspended to
a collar, playing over the jib of a strong and powerful crane,
capable of sustaining at least twenty tons. This apparatus
suffices for the purpose of enabling the forgeman and his
assistants with strong iron levers or caul-hooks, to move
about and turn round their work as tire operation may de¬
mand. Sometimes it is urged forwards, at others, by the
combined exertions of the workmen, turned over on the
anvil, each side in succession being presented to the stroke
of the hammer. In this manner it is astonishing to see
with what ease and facility the massive shaft is handled
during the progress of the heat, which generally bsts about
half an hour. At its conclusion the shaft is returned into Roller*
the furnace, raised afresh to the welding temperature, ano- forge, 4
ther heat is taken, and so on until it is finished. It is of'''—Y'*
the greatest importance that the work be accomplished in
so complete a manner, under the forge hammer, that no¬
thing further shall be required of the smith, as the shaft
in the process of forging, has acquired a stiffness, which it
is desirable that it should retain. After-heating weakens
it much, loosening the fibres of the iron, and destroying its
elasticity. Notwithstanding all the care of the workman,
and repeated heavy hammerings, few shafts are solid to the
centre; indeed, it is doubtful if it be possible by any
means to obtain a perfectly homogeneous mass where the
magnitude is so great.
Large masses of forged and hammered iron almost inva¬
riably exhibit a hollowness at or near the central axis.
It is difficult to say exactly how this arises,
as a curious and important fact, however, it
deserves attention. Some time ago it was
customary to lay up work of the kind we have
been describing with feathered or wedge-
shaped bars, as in the attached figure. Du¬
ring the French war, most of the large anchors for the
British navy were manufactured in this manner ; but many
of the shanks of these anchors breaking, it was discovered
that only a crust or exterior rim of the shank, exceeding
little more than two inches in thickness, was perfectly weld¬
ed, whilst the bars in the centre, although undergoing the
same degree of heat and hammering, were quite loose,
and might have been taken out unaltered, at least as to
shape.
All the larger pieces of wrought-iron machinery ought to
be made under a heavy hammer, capable of being felt to
the very centre of the pile of bars, when in a welding state,
finished there as far as possible, and then passed into the
lathe, planing-machine, or drill, there to be further fashioned
to the required shape. If the shaft or other piece of ma¬
chinery be returned to the fire for a dressing up, it becomes
brittle and considerably weakened, the fibre of the iron is
destroyed, and the shaft rendered less susceptible of resist¬
ance to torsion or twists, that it may be subjected to, in any
particular situation; as, for instance, in a steam-boat en¬
gine during a heavy sea and hard gale.
It is to be regretted that the iron manufacturer should
ever be obliged, as he frequently is, to deteriorate from the
quality of a well-forged piece of machinery, for the sake of
accomplishing what, with a little more expense, could be
as well or better done in the lathe, at the same time with¬
out the slightest risk of injury to the iron. When a shaft,
which has been fabricated under circumstances of this kind,
gives way or breaks, the cause of failure is seldom traced
to the right source. The manufacturer is blamed for using
a bad quality of iron; the engineer, in nine cases out of
ten, little thinking that to his owrn misplaced economy, or
ignorance of the properties and manufacture of iron, is to
be attributed, in great part, the misfortune.
Shafts and large machinery are best made from scrap-
iron, collected in the dockyards, shops of the large engi¬
neers, coach manufactories, and other places where refuse
iron accumulates. The scraps, being of various sizes and
descriptions, are cut into very small pieces, called nut-iron,
blended together, carefully piled upon a flat freestone plate,
or, if not convenient, a fire-clay tile, and put in this man¬
ner into the balling furnace. The piles heated at once
amount from 6 to 8 cwt. After remaining in the furnace
about twenty minutes, they are successively taken out with
a pair of tongs, thrown under the forge-hammer, and speedi¬
ly shingled into slabs or blooms. These are again heated
in another furnace, and rolled into bars of the shape and
size required.
Scrap-iron is the most suitable material for all kinds of
I R R
roI1_ engine-work. It also makes the best boiler-plates, rail-
king bars, &c. Not being so fibrous as the best British iron, it
|| is less liable to split or crack, bears the heat in a large body
nation, better, and makes sounder work. Some of the large iron-
masters make a description of iron which they denominate
scrap-iron. This is manufactured from the crop-ends of the
bars, and other refuse collected in the work. It consists,
consequently, of all the varieties of quality found in Nos. 1,
2, and 3 iron, the whole being blended together. The re¬
sult of such a mixture is, the greatest irregularity in quality
and texture. The No. 1. or puddled iron in the composi¬
tion not having undergone the same working as the No. 3,
does not unite or coalesce with it; the several parts of the
bar have the appearance of being imperfectly welded, and
exhibit splits and cracks on the edges.
On the contrary, good scrap-bars, of the description be¬
fore mentioned, being made from old, and consequently
well-worked iron, assume a sound and strong body; and
the pieces also of which the bloom is fashioned being small,
thrown together indiscriminately, and not piled regularly
as the iron from crop-ends, meet together at various angles
l R R 445
to each other; the fibres are thereby crossed, and the bar is Irrigation,
rendered less subject to that longitudinal lamination so se-
riously felt in rail-bars, tyres for locomotive-engine wheels,
and other similar work.
It is not by any means to be imagined that the advanta¬
ges of the forge are confined to the putting together of such
large masses of iron as have hitherto only been described.
In fact, all kinds of edge-tools, agricultural and plantation
hoes, sugar-cane bills, axes, adzes, spades, shovels, and the
like, are now, made with an immense saving of manual la¬
bour by the forge ; the machinery for this purpose being, of
course, lighter in proportion, and the hammer made to work
with a greater speed. Nor are the uses of the forge in the
manufacture of large articles much more striking than the
performances of the rolling-mill in the same department. We
have seen large plates, containing as much as thirty-eight
square feet of area, engine-beams weighing 11 cwt. when
finished, and 13 cwt. in the slab, respectively formed in the
rollers, from a single piece of iron previously prepared be¬
neath the forge-hammer. (c. c. c. c.)
IRONY, in Rhetoric, is when a person speaks contrary
to his thoughts, in order to add force to his discourse ; for
which reason Quintilian calls it diversiloquium. Thus, when
a notorious villain is scornfully complimented with the title
of a very honest and excellent person, the character of the
person commended, the air of contempt that appears in the
speaker, and the exorbitancy of the commendations, suffi¬
ciently discover the dissimulation of irony.
Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of trope ;
which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing in the
clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to
pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beauti¬
fully described the noise and tumults of Rome, he adds
ironically,
Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome.
IROQUOIS, the name given by the French to the con¬
federacy of North American Indians, called by the English
the Jive, and afterwards the six nations. They occupied
an extensive tract of country near Lake Ontario, and make
a considerable figure in the early history of British Ame¬
rica. They are now very greatly reduced. Some of the
tribes are extinct; others have made considerable advances
in civilization ; and others, again, have fallen into a state of
squalid misery.
IRRADIATION, the act of emitting subtle effluvia, like
the rays of the sun, in every direction.
IRREGULAR, something that deviates from the com¬
mon forms or rules. Thus we say, an irregular fortifica¬
tion, an irregular building, an irregular figure, and the like.
Irkegular, in Grammar, such inflections of words as
vary from the general rules. Thus we say, irregular nouns,
irregular verbs, and the like. The distinction of irregular
nouns, according to Mr Ruddiman, is into three kinds, viz.
variable, defective, and abundant; and that of irregular
verbs into anomalous, defective, and abundant.
IRRIGATION.
A hasty inspection of irrigation and draining would
lead to the belief that they are founded on opposite prin¬
ciples. It is seen that draining deprives the land of wa¬
ter, and that irrigation, on the contrary, supplies it with
water. It is obvious that the great object of draining, and
particularly of furrow-draining, is to [ 'resent surface water
which descends through the upper soil to the retentive sub¬
strata below it, with frequent opportunities of egress; and
it is also obvious, that the great object of irrigation is to sup¬
ply the upper soil, the firm foundation on which plants rear
their superstructures, as much of surface-water as it can
retain, for the purpose of promoting increased vegetation.
Notwithstanding this apparent difference in principle be¬
tween them, both induce similar effects, but the origin of
which, lying deeper than the surface of the ground, might
easily escape the notice of superficial observers. Both
operations, in the first place, are meant to prevent all stag¬
nation of water in the upper and under soils; both in fact
create currents of w ater in the soil; and these circumstan¬
ces are of themselves quite adequate to explain the effects
of draining and irrigation on the same principle, and for
the same purpose,—the promotion of vegetation. It has
been found that all plants usually cultivated in agriculture
cannot survive in stagnant water, and that in it their places
are taken by others of a coarse nature. Now, aqueous
meteors are generated in the atmosphere, and afterwards
fall on the ground, and reach plants by the absorption of
the soil in large quantities, and would stagnate there, wrere
draining not to draw off the superfluous water unnecessary
to vegetation in sensible currents, and prevent its stagnation.
In like manner, although irrigation presents a copious flow'
of water to the soil; yet it provides the means of drawing
off the redundancy in sensible currents, and preventing
stagnation. As draining has the effect of rendering reten¬
tive subsoils porous, so irrigation is practised with most
effect on porous soils. In short, so dependent are irrigation
and draining on each other, that the former acts most bene¬
ficially only in conjunction with the latter. Thus the prin¬
ciple which is common to draining and irrigation is the pre¬
vention of the stagnation of waiter; and although of a ne¬
gative character, it affords sure outlets to the superabun¬
dant moisture, and directly promotes vegetation.
The principle on which land is irrigated being thus ex¬
plained, let us see how it may be made to operate practi¬
cally, how land is really irrigated. There are four ways of
irrigating land with water; and in order to preserve a com¬
mand over its motions, it must in all cases enter the land
to be irrigated at a higher level than where it leaves it.
IRRIGATION.
446
Irrigation. This disposition of materials is the only way to make water
move in a sensible and equable current. l.?£, One kind of
irrigation is called Bed-work Irrigation, which is the most
efficient kind by which currents of water can be applied to
level ground. ‘Id, Another kind is called Catch-work Irriga¬
tion, which is suited to uneven ground. 3rf, A third gets
the name of Subterraneous Irrigation, from the water being
supplied upwards to the surface through drains in the sub¬
soil. Ath, And the fourth kind is called Warping, when the
water is allowed to stand over a level field till it has depo¬
sited the mud it contains.
Several particulars require deliberate consideration be¬
fore determining on forming any kind of water-meadow.
The vicinity of a river is a requisite particular, not so much
on account of the supply of water, for that may be obtained
in winter beside a mountain torrent or a lake, but on account
of the fertilizing matter which is generally suspended in the
waters of a river. Hence a river, flowing through an alluvial
and cultivated country, is preferable to one through a moun¬
tainous and rocky country. An ample supply of water is
absolutely necessary to beneficial irrigation. It is folly to
incur the expense of forming the most perfect water-mea¬
dow without an ample supply of water to fill the channels to
overflowing. The supply of the water must be on a higher
level than the ground to be irrigated. The fall need not
be more than is necessary for a pretty rapid current of wa¬
ter, which in ordinary cases may be ten inches or a foot
for one hundred or two hundred yards, and about two feet
for three hundred yards. The water, if possible, should be
taken as far above the meadows as to have a sufficient fall
without damming up the river. When this plan is im¬
practicable, but only when impracticable, a dam should be
thrown across the stream at such a distance above the
meadow, as to secure not only a sufficient fall, but the
fields on both sides of the river from inundation, whether
the fields belong to different proprietors or not. For, in re¬
gard to dams across small streams which form the boundaries
of farms or estates, it may not be irrelevant to mention that
altercations have frequently arisen from supposed damages
arising from inundations or infringements on the rights of
waters. In every case, therefore, of constructing a dam for
irrigation, it will be wise to avoid the chance of disputes, by
acquiring, in the first place, the right for such an erection
by purchase or otherwise. When a dam is inevitable, it
should be constructed substantially. The first cost will
be less than the repairing of a dam which has blown up
from under or burst out at the sides. When water cannot
be obtained under these pre-requisites, conjoined to an ample
supply, then the formation of water-meadows at that place
should be altogether relinquished. But should the requi¬
site desiderata be available, the field to be converted into
a water meadow should in the first place be thoroughly
drained. The most perfect piece of workmanship as a wa¬
ter-meadow will be comparatively useless, unless the water
which has passed through the soil to the subsoil find a free
egress by drains. Without drains the water will inevitably
stagnate on the subsoil, unless indeed the subsoil consists of
very porous materials, such as sand, gravel, or fissured rock.
Besides the particulars enumerated, two essential rules in
the formation of water-meadows should never be neglected,
namely, that no part of them, however small, should be on a
dead level; and that every drop of water, while irrigating,
should be kept constantly in motion. These rules are found¬
ed on the very principle of irrigation which has been illustra¬
ted in the prefatory remarks. True inclined planes can be
the only form of surface to which these rules will strictly
apply; but although it may not be possible to stretch such
planes along a great extent of surface, as ground is prover¬
bially uneven, yet every portion of it which is watered di¬
rectly from the main supply should be so exactly inclined. irrigai
The spirit-level should be the vade-mecum of the irrigator, v,
the eye being deceptive in regard to the levelness of ground;
and even with that indispensable instrument, the irrigator
will find the formation of a complete water-meadow on an
irregular surface no easy task. Superficial observers may
see little difficulty in the operation; but the practical irri¬
gator knows how nice a thing it is to adjust irregularities
of ground to the constant and equable flow of water. So
great is this difficulty, that none but professional irriga¬
tors ought to attempt the formation of water-meadows,
and they ought to be of established character and ex¬
perience; for, as Arthur Young wisely remarks, “ I should
recommend, in the first instance, the employment of a
professed irrigator, could the young farmer possess know¬
ledge enough to ascertain the skill of such a man ; but I
have seen such gross blunders made in Norfolk by such a
one, on the farms of four or five persons, and yet highly
recommended and coming from Gloucestershire, that I
really think a man may just as well trust to himself, with
the assistance of books, as put any faith in men who are re¬
puted skilful only in proportion to the ignorance of those
who employ them. In the cases to which I allude, the
ignorance was unpardonable ; for, as they discovered that
he drew out all his works without the assistance of a spirit
level, they ought to have dismissed him. Not that such a
man cannot make improvements, no one can well contrive
to bring water on land without improving it; but to pay
L. 4 or L. 5, or perhaps more, per acre, for using a small
quantity of water to some advantage, when the same might
be used elsewhere to the greatest, is, comparatively speak¬
ing, throwing away money.” 1
The first thing to be done for any water meadow is to
make the conductor or drain which brings the water from
the river to the meadow. The size of the conductor de¬
pends entirely on the quantity of water which the meadow
requires. Its bottom, at its junction with the river, should al¬
ways be as low as the bottom of the river, in order to carry
away as much mud as possible to the meadows. Its course
should be as straight and as near an inclined plane as possible.
The stuff taken out of the conductor should be employed
in equalizing its banks, or filling up irregularities in the
meadow. These general directions naturally lead to the
examination of the particulars of which the different kinds
of water meadows enumerated consist.
I. BED-WORK IRRIGATION.
This species of irrigation is eminently applicable to level
ground, and under it, as the name implies, the ground is
thrown into beds or ridges. After the conductor has been
brought from the river to the meadow as directed, it should
be led along the highest end or side of the meadow in an in¬
clined plane ; and should it terminate in the meadow, and
not have to proceed farther on to another, its end should be
made to taper when there are no feeders, or to terminate in
a feeder. The tapered end will retard the motion of the wa¬
ter, and containing, of course, less water, the water will over¬
flow the banks of the conductor. The main drain to carry
off the water after it has irrigated the meadow should next
be formed. It should be cut in the lowest part of the
ground at the lower end or side of the meadow. Its di¬
mensions should be capable of carrying off the whole water
used, so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation, and dis¬
charge it into the river. The stuff taken out of it should
be used to fill up irregularities in the meadow. In case
the river takes a turn along the lower end or side of the
meadow, the turn should be used as a main drain to carry
off the water, and save the expense of cutting a drain It
1 Farmer's Calendar, p. 295.
IRRIGATION.
ation. may be imagined that as a portion of the water will be ab-
sorbed by the soil, the main drain need not be made so
large as the conductor, merely to carry off the water that
has been used; but in practice it will be found, that when
the water is muddy, but little of it comparatively will enter
the ground, because the sediment, acting as an impervious
covering, prevents much of the water from descending into
the ground. The next process is the forming of the ground
intended for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That
portion of the ground which is to be watered by one con¬
ductor should be made into beds to suit the circumstances
of that conductor ; that is, instead of reducing all the beds
over the meadow to one common level, they should be form¬
ed to suit the different swells in the ground, and should any
of these swells be considerable, it will be necessary to give
each side of them its respective conductor. The beds should
run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the conduc¬
tor. The breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of
the soil and the supply of water. Tenacious soils and sub¬
soils, and a small supply of water, require as narrow beds as
thirty feet. Porous soils and a large supply of water may
have beds of forty feet. The length of the beds is regu¬
lated by the supply of water and the fall from the conductor
to the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction
longitudinally, their crowns should be made in the middle;
but should they fall laterally as well as longitudinally, as is
usually the case, then the crowns should be made towards
the upper sides, more or less according to the lateral slope
of the ground. The crowns should rise a foot above the
adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope in
an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that
the water may flow equably over them. The beds are wa¬
tered by what are called feeders, that is, by channels gra¬
dually tapering to the lower extremities, and cut down their
crowns, wherever these are placed. The depth of the feed¬
ers depends on their width, and the width on their length.
A bed two hundred yards in length requires a feeder of
twenty inches in width at its junction with the conductor,
and it should taper gradually to the extremity, which should
be one foot in width. The taper retards the motion of the
water, which constantly decreases by overflow as it pro¬
ceeds, whilst it continues to fill the feeder to the brim.
The stuff which comes out of the feeders should be care¬
fully and evenly laid along the sides of the beds. The wa¬
ter overflowing from the feeders down the sides of the beds
is received into small drains formed in the furrows between
the beds. These small drains discharge themselves into
the main drain, and are in every respect the reverse of the
feeders ; that is, their tapering extremities lie up the slope,
and their wide ends open into the main drain, to accelerate
the motion of the departing water. The depth of the small
drain at the junction is made about as deep as that of the
main drain, and it gradually lessens towards the taper to six
inches in tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth
of the feeders is the same in relation to the conductor.
The stuff obtained from the small drains is employed to
fill up inequalities in the meadow. For the more equal dis¬
tribution of the water over the surface of the beds from
the conductor and feeders, small masses, such as stones,
solid portions of earth or turf fastened with pins, are placed
in them, in order to retard the momentum which the water
may have acquired. These stops, as they are termed, are
generally placed at regular intervals, or rather they should
be left where any inequality of the current is observed.
Heaps of stones answer very well for stops in the conduc¬
tor, particularly immediately below the points of junction
with the feeders. Solid portions of earth are usually left
m the feeders, or tough pieces of turf fastened down with
wooden pins; but care must be taken to keep the tops of
the pins below the reach of weeds floating on the surface
ol the water. These stops, however, are nothing but ex-
447
pedients to rectify work imperfectly executed. It must be Irrigation
obvious that a perfectly-formed water-meadow should re-' S
quire few or no stops. The small or main drains require
no stops. I he descent of the water in the feeders will no
d°u1bt1neJcessai;ily ^crease in rapidity, but the inclination
ot the beds, and the tapering of the feeders, should be so ad¬
justed as to counteract the increasing rapidity. At all events
notches cut into the sides of the feeders to retard the velo¬
city of the water, is much more objectionable than stops,
although some writers recommend them; but where they
have been observed, the spectator may depend on having
seen an imperfect water-meadow. The distribution of the
water over the whole-meadow is regulated by the sluice,
which should be placed at the origin of every conductor.
By means of these sluices any portion of the meadow that
is desired can be watered, whilst the rest remains dry; and
alternate watering must be adopted when there is a scarci¬
ty of water. Each sluice should be placed according to the
elevation or depression of the ground which it supplies
with water. All the sluices should be substantially built
at first with stones and mortar; because a carelessly con¬
structed sluice will permit the leakage of water at all times ;
and should the water from the leak be permitted to find its
way into the meadow, that portion of it will stagnate and
produce coarse grasses. In a well formed water-meadow
it is as necessary to keep it perfectly dry at one time, as
it is to place it under water at another. A small sluice
placed in the side of the conductor opposite to the meadow,
and at the upper end of it, will serve to drain away the
leakage that may haply have escaped from the head sluice.
The laying out of the beds, feeders, and small drains, con¬
stitutes the nice part of the formation of a water-meadow;
it constitutes the test by which the skill of the irrigator
is tried; and it is impossible to acquire the skill without
practice.
To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground should
be broken up and remodelled; for it is rare to find a piece
of ground naturally possessing the requisite qualifications
of a water-meadow. Such a remodelling will no doubt be
attended with cost; but it should be considered that the
first cost is the least; and remodelling the only way of ob¬
taining the desired object of having a complete water-mea¬
dow which will continue for years to give satisfaction. To
effect a remodelling when the ground is in stubble, let it be
ploughed up, harrowed, and cleaned as in a summer fallow;
the levelling-box employed when required, the stuff from
the conductors and main drains spread abroad, and the beds
ploughed into shape. All these operations, as of the farm,
can be performed at little expense, and they form the sub¬
stantial foundation of the nicer operations of the spade,
the barrow, and the level. The meadow should be ready by
August for sowing with grass-seeds. The seeds best suited
for a water-meadow are perennial rye-grass (Lolium peren-
ne), sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum),
crested dog’s-tail grass ( Cynosufus cristatus), meadow fox¬
tail grass {Alopecurus pratensis), rough-stalked meadow-
grass (Poa trivialis), and florin (Agrostis stoloniferd). The
florin is the prevailing grass in all good water-meadows,
and it makes a most delicious hay. It is best propagated
by sowing the stems chopped into pieces like chaff. These
grasses do not always produce a good crop the first year,
but the rye-grass will assist to thicken the crop. Some
writers, and particularly Mr Smith in his Essay on Irriga¬
tion, assert that it is of no importance what grasses are
sown in water-meadows, as the most congenial kinds will
in time spring up and banish all the others; but is it not
better to supply the ground at once with the best grasses
than wait for the extirpation of the worst ? The method
now described of forming a water-meadow is attended with
one great disadvantage; the soft ground cannot be irriga¬
ted for two or three years after it is sown with grass-seeds.
448
IRRIGATION.
Irrigation, disadvantage can only be avoided where the ground Stephens’ Practical Irrigator and Drainer, 1834 (p. 10),
is covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On a work of great practical utility. The meadow, as may be 8 ltm'
ground in that state a water-meadow may be most perfect¬
ly formed. Let the turf be taken off with the spade, and
laid carefully aside for relaying. Let the stript ground
then be neatly formed with the spade and barrow, into beds
seen, in fig. 1, lies on both sides of the river Biggar, and con¬
tains eight acres, partly of clay, but mostly of gravel, and
both resting on a gravelly subsoil. The river supplies the
meadow amply with water. The expense of straightening
varying in breadth and shape, according to the nature of the river, building the dam and sluices, and forming embank-
the soil and the dip of the ground ; the feeders from the ments against inundations in every flood, was L. 9 per acre,
conductor, and the small drains to the main drain being The work was executed late in spring 1823, and in 1825,
formed at the same time. Then let the turf be laid down four hundred stones of hay per acre were cropped, worth
again and beaten firm, when the meadow will be complete sixpence per stone, or L. 10 per acre, and L. 1 per acre for
at once and ready for irrigation TGic 5c thp must heauti- t-l-io aftprmath. from land that, was not, worth L. 2 npr nrra
This is the most beauti
ful'and most expeditious method of making a complete
water-meadow, and should always be adopted where prac¬
ticable, although it should at first be the most expensive.
- The water should be let on, and trial made of the work,
whenever it is finished; and the motion of the water regu
the aftermath, from land that was not worth L. 2 per acre
before being irrigated. The references to the cut are these:
a is the Biggar water ; b is the dam 30 inches high across
it; cccc sluices in conductors; ddddd conductors; eeee
feeders ; f fff small drains ; ggg main drains ; h a drain
for cutting off natural springs; i a small sluice on the side
lated by the introduction of a stop in the conductors and of the conductor, to carry off any leakage of water from the
feeders where a change in the motion of the current is ob- sluice c; A a carry-bridge or aqueduct; ll conductor to
served beginning at the upper end of the meadow. Should another meadow; stops in conductors and feeders.
the work be finished as directed by August, a good crop of
hay may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There are
few pieces of land where the natural descent of the ground
will not admit of the water being collected a second time,
and applied to the irrigation of a second and lower meadow.
In such a case the main drain of the watered-meadow may
form the conductor of the one to be watered, or a new con¬
ductor may be formed by a prolongation of the main drain ;
but either expedient is only advisable where water is scarce.
Where it is plentiful, it is better to supply the second mea¬
dow directly from the river, or by a continuation of the
first main-conductor. In some instances it may be neces¬
sary to carry a conductor over a hollow piece of ground
along an aqueduct made for the purpose, called a carry -
bridge. Such an aqueduct may be made either of wood,
cast-iron, or stone and mortar.
Tig. I.
II. CATCH-WORK IRRIGATION.
This kind of irrigation is only applied to sloping banks, and
should never be practised where the bed-work system can be
introduced, although many are tempted, by the ease and eco¬
nomy of its construction, to prefer it. It is quite different in
its construction from the bed-work. Were the feeders placed
up and down the slope at right angles to the conductor, as in
the case of bed-work irrigation, the water would acquire such
a momentum in its descent, as to cut the ground into ruts.
No number of stops could prevent this mischief. In order to
prevent.it, the feeders are cut across the face of the slope
in parallel rows below each other. The water overflowing
from the upper feeder is caught by the one below it, and
so on in succession, till at last it finds its way into a main
drain or the river. Main drains are less useful in this kind
of irrigation than in the bed-work, as there are no small
drains necessary to open into them, the tapering ends of the
feeders discharging the water equally over the margin into
the river. But it is obvious, that were the feeders on the
lower level to receive their whole supply of water from
those above them, the sediment in the water would be
chiefly deposited by the upper feeders. It is therefore re¬
quisite to give a direct communication from the conductor
to each feeder. To effect this, the direction of the feeders
is made at an acute angle with the conductor, and their dis
tance from each other is regulated by the fall of the ground,
and the nature of the subsoil. Where the subsoil is porous,
and the fall of the ground one foot in twenty or thirty, the
distance between the feeders may be made from twenty to
thirty yards ; but where the declivity is less, and the sub¬
soil tenacious, the distance should never exceed ten yards.
Stops should be placed in the conductor immediately be
low the points of junction with the feeders; and in the
feeders at regular distances, or rather where the current
appears to accelerate its motion.
The expense of forming a catch-work meadow may vary
from L. 3 to L. 5 per acre. The comparative cheapness
of this kind of irrigation, induces many to adopt it in situ¬
ations which ought to be occupied with bed-work irrigation.
The following design of a catch-work meadow, is taken
from Mr Stephens’ work above referred to. The meadow
was formed by him in 1823, on the estate of Closeburn, in
As a real example of a water-meadow, such as has been Dumfries-shire, belonging to Mr Stuart Menteith. The
described, will illustrate the several particulars specified references to the cut are these •. a a a, fig. 2, is the riverboo
more accurately than any imaginative case, fig. 1 is a de- are conductors ; ccc feeders ; ddd main drains, and the river
sign of one belonging to Mr Loch of Rachan in Peebles- also acts as amain drain ; e is a lake;/ the dam across the
shire, and executed in 1823 by Mr George Stephens, drainer river; gg are sluices in the conductors ; .... stops in the
and irrigator, Edinburgh. The design is taken from Mr conductors and feeders.
IRRIGATION.
Fig. 2.
It may frequently happen that the bed-work and catch-
work systems may be beneficially united at the same fall of
water. The conductor may be led along the higher ground,
and give rise to a system of catch-work irrigation on the
sloping ground, and terminate in the bed-work on the more
level portion below. Such a compound structure may
save much expense in levelling, and will make the most of
the water. Instances of this compound-work may be seen
at Whitehaugh in Peeblesshire, belonging to Sir John Hay,
Bart., and at the Townfoot Meadow of Dolphinton in La¬
narkshire, belonging to Mr Richard Mackenzie, writer to the
Signet, Edinburgh.
MANAGEMENT OF WATER-MEADOWS.
The formation is not the only difficulty attending water-
meadows; their good management is a nice business, and
essential to the deriving of benefit from them. It must
be confessed that much ignorance and negligence prevail
in their management; and when the risk is considered of
losing the whole of the fine herbage, and getting coarse in
its stead, by bad mangement, a skilful irrigator is a charac¬
ter who ought to be highly appreciated. The particulars
which require constant attention are, the state of the water
in the river, whether there is sufficient to water the whole,
or only a part of the meadow ; the regulating of the sluices,
so as not to permit more nor less water than the part of the
meadow intended to be watered requires; the length of
time the water should be allowed to remain on the meadow
at different periods of the season ; the proper time at which
hay harvest and pasturage should commence and terminate ;
the state and nature of the soil to be irrigated, whether
porous or impervious; and the removal of all minute ob¬
structions to the perfect irrigation of the meadow.
Every size of river is not equally suitable for irrigation.
A large flowing stream, supplying sufficient water at all
times, affords facilities for irrigating a part or the whole of
a meadow, much better than a brook which swells and falls
with every shower of rain. At the same time whatever may
be the command of water, it is an error to attempt to irri¬
gate too large a surface at one time. The attempt to force
a larger quantity of water than the feeders and drains can
easily convey, will end in deluging one part, whilst ano¬
ther will be stinted; and where there is inequality of irri¬
gation, there will be inequality in the quantity and quality
of the grass. Where there is an ample supply of water,
therefore, no more ground should be irrigated at one time
than can be covered equally to the requisite depth by the
natural force of the water. Where the supply is short of
this, which is more frequently the case, the water should,
only have as much ground allotted to it as it can effectual¬
ly irrigate. The intervals between the irrigations will be
greater when the supply of water is scanty than when plenti¬
ful; but notwithstanding this, the effects produced on the
meadow in both cases may be nearly equal, according as the
VOL. XII.
weather is favourable or otherwise. The adjustment of the I rrigation.
water by the sluices is a delicate operation under every cir-
cumstance, but particularly so when there is at times a de¬
ficiency of water. Jhe falling or rising of the water in the
river requires particular attention, and the changing of the
w ater from one part of the meadow to another, or even from
one bed to another, according to its abundance or defi¬
ciency, particular dexterity. Attention to the sluices for
a short time every day, will obviate many risks of bad ma¬
nagement. A great error may be committed by permit¬
ting the water to remain too long on the ground at a time.
Unless the ground gets the air and becomes dry at stated
periods, the finer grasses will be destroyed, and those of
coarse quality will spring up. The watering may be con •
tinued for as long as fifteen days in the beginning of the
irrigating season in November, but the time should be
gradually lessened till March or April, when it should cease
altogether. Between the intervals of watering, the land
should be laid completely dry. Precautions are particu¬
larly necessary in letting the water off and on in frosty wea¬
ther, frost taking quick hold of wet grass land, and throw¬
ing the plants out by the roots. The water should be let
off’ on the morning of a dry day, and the land thus becom¬
ing dry in the course of the day, the frost will not injure the
grass at night. Or, what is a still safer method, the water
should be taken off in the morning and put on again at
night, but few persons will take the trouble of attending so
minutely to irrigation. In spring the new grown tender
grass will be easily destroyed by frost, if the utmost atten¬
tion be not paid to the state of the ground, either by pro¬
tecting it with water, which is the surest protection it can
receive, or making the ground thoroughly dry in dry wea¬
ther, for dry cold never injures even young grass. There is
another error which should be guarded against: when
water remains too long on the ground in the spring, it ge¬
nerates a white scum, of the consistence of melted glue,
which, when left on the grass, inevitably destroys it. In¬
stances may be observed of water being permitted to re¬
main on meadows from the autumn till eight or ten days
before the cutting of hay. The consequences are, that
the hay is of the coarsest quality, and the early bite for
sheep entirely lost. It seems to be a judicious recommend¬
ation to depasture the early grass on water-meadows with
ewes and lambs in March and April, and to eat it barely
down before May with a heavy stock. After that the grass
is allowed to stand for hay; but some recommend that it
should be irrigated for a week, or a few days, to clean the
pasture ; whilst others think the irrigation unnecessary, and
even dangerous, where sheep are kept, by tainting them
with rot on the aftermath. There is no doubt that grass
after being irrigated in summer, will affect sheep with rot;
but whether that which has been irrigated in May, before
the hay has been cut down, will so affect them on the after-
math, is not so decidedly known. At all events it is well
known that the purest water allowed to irrigate land too long
at any time, but particularly in spring or summer, deposites
a substance which cannot be called a sediment, nor, judging
by the eye, can it even be called an impurity. It is a very fine
transparent colouring on the grass, nearly resembling the
fine cobwebs which float through the air in a beautiful day
in autumn. From its bad effects on sheep it was observed
by our forefathers, and known to them by the name of lace.
It may occasionally be observed on the sides of mountains
near wells, having a sparkling appearance. This lace is a
rapid promoter of rot in sheep.
When it is determined to irrigate, the drains and feed¬
ers should be previously inspected, all obstructions re¬
moved, and dilapidations amended. Whatever difference
of opinion may exist on irrigating at this particular period
of the season, all irrigators are agreed that early irrigation
in autumn produces greater effects than late, and that water
3 L
IRRIGATION.
450
Irrigation, should be used largely during the winter, and scantily du-
v'——v—ring the spring. It is possible that the benefits derived
from early irrigation, especially after rains, may arise from
the good effects of manure of various kinds, accumulated
on the land during summer, being washed down by the
rains, and mixed with the irrigating water ; and it is certain
that abundant irrigation in winter protects the grass from
cold, as the temperature of grass under water in winter is
seldom under 40° Fahrenheit. The signs of early and
luxuriant vegetation observable on water-meadows in spring,
when the rest of the ground may be covered with snow,
evince the protective power of water. After the hay is
carried off, the water is sometimes let on, to promote the
growth of the aftermath, which it will no doubt do; but
the rank grass encouraged by this summer irrigation will
undoubtedly rot sheep. Where sheep are kept, and intend¬
ed to depasture meadows, there should be no irrigation in
summer. Cattle are not affected as sheep.
Should the irrigation be postponed till the autumn, in the
beginning of October, the first duty of the irrigator is to
see that all the feeders and drains are cleared of every ob¬
struction, occasioned by the treading of sheep or cattle.
The sluice is then drawn up, and if the water be abundant,
the conductor and feeders will be filled with water in about
half-an-hour. The motion of the water should first be ad¬
justed in all the conductors; then in the feeders nearest
the upper part of the meadow, and then in the lower ones
in succession. The sluices regulate the water in the con¬
ductors, and the position of the stops regulates the water
in the feeders. The stops should be so placed, as to cause
the water to overflow the sides of the feeders, by mak¬
ing the openings at the sides of the stops wider or nar¬
rower. This first general inundation will shew any irre¬
gularities on the surface of the meadow; and that some
irregularities will exist in the best-constructed water-mea¬
dows, it is not in the power of art to prevent. The earth
in the filled-up hollows will subside, whilst the hard por¬
tions of ground which have been reduced will maintain
their new shape. The irregularities should now be mark¬
ed and rectified in the ensuing summer. At least three
such adjustments of the water are necessary, before an irri ¬
gator should be satisfied that the meadow is properly irri¬
gated with the requisite depth of one inch of water. This
quantity of water should be continued over the meadow
during October, November, December, and January, from
fifteen to twenty days in succession, according as the wea¬
ther is fresh or frosty, wet or dry. Between every such
interval, the meadow should be laid thoroughly dry for five
or six days, to give the grass air ; and should the weather
threaten a lengthened period of hard frost, the watering
should be entirely discontinued for the time ; for in thawing,
the sheet of ice which covers the surface of the meadow'
will draw every plant of grass out by the roots, and make
the soil like a mass of fermented dough. During the pe¬
riod of irrigation, the meadows should be regularly visited
and inspected once in every three or four days, to correct
any deviation from regular watering, such as may arise
from collections of weeds, petty depredations of men and
beasts, sticks, stones, or leaves, that may have fallen in and
been detained in the conductors and feeders.
In February, great attention is required from the irri¬
gator, as the grass will now begin to vegetate. The periods
of watering must be shortened, and those of drying must
be proportionally lengthened. White scum, frost, and such
like evils, should be carefully avoided, as the tender grass
will sensibly feel their injurious effects.
In March, the same precautions are requisite ; but in
the south of England, where grass is sufficiently abundant
for stock in this month, the irrigation should be dispensed
with. In Scotland, irrigation may be continued all April,
but w ith such caution, that the water should be allowed to
run only five or six days at a time, and gradually lessened Irrigation,
towards the end of the month ; and in the beginning of ^
May dispensed with altogether, and the meadow laid tho¬
roughly dry for the summer. It should be borne in mind,
that this is the most trying season for young grasses in
Scotland ; and also, that if watering is continued after this
month, the, blades of grass will be covered with a gritty
sediment, which not only injures the quality of the hay, but
renders the mowing of it a difficult process.
The annual expense of keeping a water-meadow in repair
may be about five or six shillings an acre. The greatest
expense in keeping a meadow will be incurred in the se¬
cond year, on account of the sinkings of those places which
had been made up with loose earth having to be brought
up to the common inclination.
III. SUBTERRANEOUS IRRIGATION.
This species of irrigation is so named, because the supply
of w ater is derived from under the surface of the ground to
the upper soil. It is only applicable to perfectly level ground,
so raised above the supplying river, as to admit of a complete
drainage of the field to be irrigated. This system of irrigation
consists, in the first place, of ditches being formed around
all the sides of the field. These act the part of conductors
when the field is to be flooded, and of main drains when it
is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as
conductors into built drains or conduits, formed at right-
angles to them, in parallel lines through the fields, and it
rises upwards in them as high as the surface of the ground,
and again subsides through the soil and the conduits into
the ditches as main drains, and thence into the river.
Sluices are requisite to convey the water from the river
into the ditches. This submersion, as it may be called,
rather than overflow, of the ground in water, must he con¬
ducted with great care, and the water let on very calmly;
for were the water let on or taken off with a forcible cur¬
rent, the finer particles of the soil would be detached, and
carried off into the river. Indeed, however carefully the
operation may be conducted, the only advantage derived
from this species of irrigation is the moistening of dry ground
in dry weather, which w ould otherwise be parched up; and
in this respect the operation is best conducted in summer,
and is as applicable to arable as to pasture land. It can
therefore be of no importance to subterraneous irrigation,
whether the water be clear or turbid, since all the sediment
must be seethed through the soil, before it can possibly
reach the surface of the ground.
IV. WARPING.
Warping is the overflowing of level ground with salt
water within tide mark. Of course, it can only be prac¬
tised near the^sea, and most frequently it is attempted
within the estuaries of large rivers, which have flowed
through alluvial cultivated countries. Its immediate effect,
which is highly beneficial, is the deposition of silt from the
tide. To insure this deposition, it is necessary to surround
the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order to
retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted
by valved sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field,
and shut by the pressure of the confined water when the
tide recedes. These sluices are placed on as low a level as
possible, to permit the most turbid water at the bottom of the
tide to pass through a channel in the base of the embankment.
The silt deposited after warping is exceedingly rich, and
capable of carrying any species of crop. It may be ad¬
mitted in so small a quantity as only to act as a manure to
arable soil, or in such a large quantity as to form a new
IRRIGATION.
nation, soil. This latter acquisition is the principal objectof warp-
v—^ ing, and it excites astonishment to witness how soon a new
soil may be formed. From June to September, a soil of
three feet in depth may be formed under favourable cir¬
cumstances. These circumstances are summer, and the very
driest season and longest drought. In winter and in floods
warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary circumstances,
a soil from six to sixteen inches in depth may be obtained,
and inequalities of three feet filled up. But every tide ge¬
nerally leaves only one-eighth of an inch of silt, and the field
which has only one sluice can only be warped every other
tide. The silt, as deposited in each tide, does not mix into
a uniform mass, but remains in distinct layers. The water
should be made to run completely off, and the ditches should
become dry, before the influx of the next tide, otherwise the
silt will not incrust, and the tide not have the same effect.
Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of form¬
ing canals, embankments, and sluices for warping land, is,
on an average, about L. 10 an acre. A sluice of six feet in
height, and eight feet wide, will warp from sixty to eighty
acres, according to the distance of the field from the river.
The embankments may be from three to seven feet in height,
as the field may stand in regard to the level of the highest
tides.
V. FLOODING.
Flooding land on the margins of lakes may be considered
as a species of irrigation or warping. A successful attempt
of this kind may be seen on the margin of Loch Ken, in
Kirkcudbright, where 240 acres can be flooded at pleasure,
when the water of the lake is in a favourable state.
In Great Britain, irrigation is practised to the greatest
extent in Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, and Drumffiesshire,
and partially in some other counties. In England it has
long been successfully practised. Into Scotland it is com¬
paratively of recent introduction. The estates of the Duke
of Buccleuch on the Esk, Ewes, Yarrow, and Ettrick rivers,
first enjoyed the benefits of irrigation to any extent in
Scotland ; but it is painful to observe that those water-mea¬
dows have fallen into decay from inattention. The land is
now in a worse condition than if it had never been irrigated,
because the very means which were used to direct the wha¬
ler to the land for beneficial irrigation, now form receptacles
in which surface-water stagnates. Many of these meadows
have since been broken up for corn culture, the high price
of corn during the war having tempted their destruction.
Now that live-stock remunerates the farmer better than
corn, the rash step of destroying them has no doubt been
by this time sincerely repented of. The water-meadows
belonging to Mr Menteith of Closeburn, in Dumfriesshire,
were formed about the same time, but having, since their
formation, been carefully attended to, they continue to yield
abundantly.
Warping is only practised in Lincolnshire and York¬
shire, in the estuary of the Humber, in the rivers Trent,
Ouse, and Dun, which flow into it. The silt is an extra¬
ordinary substance. It seems to be doubted whence it
comes. The Humber is clear at its mouth, and none of
the rivers which flow into it bring the silt down in the
floods. On the contrary, the floods invariably injure its
quality, which is in the highest perfection in the driest
summers. Apparently it is a mixture of sand and clay, for
it cakes on drying, and will cleanse cloth of grease like
luller s earth; and its arenaceous property is quite obvious;
but its analysis by a chemist many years ago afforded no
c7> principal ingredients being a fine sand, a con¬
siderable portion of lime, some mica, and a minute portion
451
of saline matter. It would be desirable to have a correct Irrigation.
analysis, by some eminent chemist of the present day, of^  
this remarkable substance.
Subterraneous irrigation is chiefly practised in drained
morasses, which are apt to become too dry in summer, by
closing up the mouths ot the main drains, and causing the
water in them to stand back in all the drains till it rises up
to the soil. It was recommended by the late celebrated en¬
gineer Mr Rennie, to be practised on some extensive fens
which he had drained in Lincolnshire, near Boston. To
irrigate effectually in this manner, it is necessary to build
the mouths of the main drains with strong masonry, and
erect sluices for the retention of the water in the drains.
This species of irrigation may also be attempted on any
flat piece of ground resting on a gravelly bottom, by means
of ditches which surround it, and which can command wa-
ter from a lake or river. Turnips or potatoes, or any kind
of crop, whether drilled or not, might be beneficially wa¬
tered in this manner in a dry summer.
ADVANTAGES OF WATER-MEADOWS AND WARPING.
The advantages derived from water-meadows and warp¬
ing, as stated by authors who have written on those sub¬
jects, almost exceed credibility. One author of some stand¬
ing says:—“ Having heard that the proprietor of an old
floated meadow at South Cerney (in Gloucestershire), had
disposed of the produce of it, in the year 1795, in a w^ay
well calculated to ascertain its real value, I wrote to a per¬
son who resides on the spot, requesting him to send me a
particular account of the product, and I received the fol¬
lowing statement—In order to make the most of the spring
feed, the proprietor kept the grass untouched till the 2d
day of April, from which time he let it to the neighbour¬
ing farmers, to he eaten off in five weeks (ivhich ran a week
into May), by the undermentioned stock, at the following
rates per head, viz. a sheep tenpence per week ; a cow three
shillings and sixpence ; a colt four shillings. The quantity
of land is eight acres.
107 wether sheep one week,
8 cows do.
4 colts do.
Which for five weeks amount to
Add three colts for three weeks,
L.4 9 2
1 8 0
0 16 0
L.6 13 2
L. 33
1
5 10
16 0
Equal to L.4 : 7 : 8 per acre, L.35 1 10
The hay crop was, as usual, about fifteen tons,
and was five weeks in growing.
15 tons, suppose at 50s. per ton,
Aftermath, 15s. per acre,
37
6
10
0
Total, equal to L.9 : 16 : 5 per acre,3 L.78 11 10
The L.4 :7 : 8 were made at a time when other grass¬
lands are in a dormant state, or exhibit but feeble symp¬
toms of vegetation. But the reader will perhaps see the
advantages of this art in a still stronger light, when he is
told that this meadow, which is now in the occupation of a
miller, was a few years ago in the hands of a farmer, who,
being at variance with the miller, was entirely deprived of
the use of the water for a whole winter, which, unfortu-
nately, was succeeded by a very dry spring and summer ;
of course the spring feed was lost; and the whole hay crop
of eight acres was only three tons.”1
In 1802, Mr Smith laid out a water-meadow on the Pais-
1 Wright on Irrigation,
IRRIGATION.
452
Irrigation, ley farm, near Woburn, Bedfordshire, for the Duke of
N'—^ Bedford, and in 1803 its produce was as follows :—
In March, 240 sheep for three weeks, at 6d. each per
week, . . . . . . L. 18 0 0
In June, mowed 18 tons hay, at L. 4 per ton, 72 0 0
In August, mowed 13^ do. do. 54 0 0
In September, eighty fat sheep for three weeks,
at 4d. each per week, ... 400
It then fed lean bullocks, the feeding not) l Hg 0 0
valued, equal to L. 16 : 13:8 per acre,1 /
These two cases may suffice as examples of successful
irrigation in England. The following cases occur in Scot¬
land, a country, from its irregularity of surface, not na¬
turally suited to that species of improvement. Neverthe¬
less, in all the pastoral districts, both in the north and
south, an abundance of early food in spring for ewes and
lambs might be obtained, by judicious irrigation, in every
valley which contains a river. In mountainous districts,
the rivers may not supply the richest quality of water for
irrigation, but there the soil on the margins of rivers being
generally of friable loam, would be peculiarly benefited by
irrigation. Such land is invariably sound for sheep when
drained ; and if made dry, and then irrigated, it would, early
in spring, and indeed throughout the summer, afford the
finest quality of the richest herbage. Water-meadows in
such situations could be inclosed by themselves, and they
could supply hay, if required, for the sheep-stock in winter,
or be pastured at pleasure by any kind of stock during the
summer.
To begin with an instance of simple irrigation in a pas¬
toral district. “ Fallaw Meadow, on a large sheep-farm
belonging to Sir George Montgomery, Bart, of Macbiehill,
in Peeblesshire, containing fifteen acres, was inclosed from
moorland in 1816; and by collecting-the water from the
surrounding sheep-drains, five acres are partially irrigated,
and the remaining ten are top-dressed with the manure
made from part of the produce which is consumed in win¬
ter by the sheep of the farm, in a wooden shed near the
meadow. By this simple method of improvement, fifteen
acres of common sheep-pasture land give the proprietor from
three thousand five hundred to four thousand stones of hay
per annum, averaging sixpence per stone. What an immense
advantage to a sheep-farm! By this simple process of in¬
closing, and cutting a few small feeders and drains, the
owner is enabled to provide food for his flock, when his
less fortunate neighbours’ sheep must either starve or be
supplied from the farm-yard; but I am afraid there are very
few sheep-farmers who are so fortunate as to have any hay
beyond what is requisite for stock at home. Sir George
fed the same number of sheep on the farm as he did before
the meadow was taken off and inclosed; and I am fully
persuaded that the same improvement might be made on
almost every sheep-farm in Tweeddale, for in almost all of
them, there are situations where fourteen or fifteen acres
might be inclosed and partially irrigated, as in every pas¬
toral district there are numerous rills which might be easi¬
ly collected and used to the greatest advantage, at a very
trifling expense ; so that, instead of being obliged, in snow¬
storms, to send fifty thousand sheep to a milder climate in
the southern parts of Dumfriesshire (where owners are
obliged to be at the mercy of their southern neighbours,
not to mention the very serious injury the flocks receive by
long and fatiguing journeys), by adopting the above system
of improvement a considerable part of the losses generally
sustained every year would be prevented.” 2
Here is an instance of the conversion of peat-bog of lit¬
tle value into a water-meadow of great value. “ Sir Tho¬
mas Gibson Carmichael, Bart, of Castle Craig, commenced, Irrigation,
in the year 1817, by forming five acres with the plough
and spade into regular bed-work. The land, in its natural
state, was a complete bog, valued at eight shillings of year¬
ly rent per acre. The formation was difficult, on account
of the great number of deep peat-holes which were obliged
to be filled up, to bring the surface to a proper level. The
expense of levelling and forming the beds was L.6 per acre,
the crop of hay was 466 stones of 22 lb. per stone per acre,
valued at fivepence per stone, and the after-grass at 18s.
per acre, making L. 10 : 12 : 2 per acre of gross pro¬
duce.” 3
But the greatest promoter of irrigation in Scotland is
Mr Stuart Menteith of Closeburn, in Dumfriesshire. His
water-meadows comprehend both mossy and good soil.
They extend to about two hundred acres, and are connect¬
ed with reservoirs for containing water which can flood two
hundred acres more. In his estate in Ayrshire, on the
river Nith, Mr Menteith intends to form two hundred acres
more of ■water-meadows. As a proof of the possibility of
improving good land by irrigation, the catch-work meadow,
represented by fig. 2, containing twenty-five acres, is a re¬
markable and satisfactory instance of Mr Menteith’s opera¬
tions. “ The land of this meadow, before being watered,
was worth L 3, 10s. per acre, the expense of levelling and
formation L.5 per acre. The produce of 1824 was as fol¬
lows :—
200 ewes and lambs for seven weeks, at 5d. each
per week, ...... L.29 3 4
300 stones of hay per acre, at 8d. per stone, 250 0 0
Aftermath, at 20s. per acre, . . . 25 0 0
L.304 3 4
Being L.12 : 3 : 4 per acre. The quality of the hay was
equal to that of any clover-hay in the kingdom.” 4
Another instance only, among many which exist in Scot¬
land, shall be given of the advantages derived from com¬
mon irrigation, and that is, of the bed-work water-meadow
belonging to Mr Loch of Radian, in Peeblesshire, and
forming the subject of the first figure illustrating this pa¬
per. “ It was formed late in the spring of 1823 ; the crop
of hay in 1825 was judged by the neighbours to be up¬
wards of 400 stones per acre, worth sixpence per stone, and
the aftermath at L.l per acre, making the gross produce
worth L.ll per acre, instead of L.2, at which the land was
valued before being irrigated.” 5
But this enumeration of the several cases of successful
irrigation would be incomplete, were the water-meadows
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh omitted to be par¬
ticularized. The city of Edinburgh stands on an emi¬
nence, which commands the cultivated country around it.
Commanding as the situation is, water from the Crawley
Spring, in the Pentland Hills, situate at seven miles dis-
tance-, flows to the top of every house in the city.. A ready
means is thus provided of washing away all the filth of the
houses and streets, which is conveyed in large sewers to
the lower end of the town, where their contents are made
to irrigate many acres of naturally rich and also of poor soil.
Probably upwards of 200 acres are thus irrigated for the
production of grass for the cowfeeders who supply milk to
the inhabitants. The rent for which these meadows are
let in small portions to cowfeeders varies on an average
from L.20 to L.30 per acre. Some of the richest meadows
were let in 1835 at L.38 per acre; and in that season
of scarce forage, 1826, L.57 an acre were obtained for
the same meadows. The largest proprietor of these mea¬
dows is Mr Miller of Craigintinny, who possesses about one
hundred and thirty acres; part of them, comprising land
1 Smith’s Essaij on Irrigation.
Stephens’ Practical Irrigator.
3 Ibid.
* Ibid.
5 Ibid.
IRRIGATION.
jrr tion. now of the richest quality, having been thus watered for
^ nearly a century, and part of them of the poorest sandy soil.
The waste land called the Figget Whins, containing thirty
acres, and ten acres of poor sandy soil adjoining them, were
formed into water-meadows in 1821, at an expense of
L.1000. The pasture of the Figget Whins used to be let
for L.40 a-year, and that of the ten acres at L.60. Now
the same ground, as meadows, lets for L.15 or L.20 an
acre a-year, and will probably let for more as the land be¬
comes more and more enriched. It is stated by Mr Ste¬
phens, 1 that one hundred and ten acres of Mr Miller’s mea¬
dows, in 1827, yielded a clear profit of L.2300. The re¬
pair of these meadows costs from tfen to fifteen shillings
per acre, which is comparatively a large sum for repairs,
but then they are not only watered during the winter, but
for two or three days between the intervals of cutting the
grass during the summer. The grass is cut from April to
November, every three, four, or five weeks, according to
the richness of the vegetation. It is exceedingly tender
and succulent, and suitable to the production of a large
quantity of milk ; and were it not frequently cut, it would
lie down, and soon rot at the roots.
After these striking instances of the advantages which
are derivable from irrigation in a pecuniary point of view,
by largely increasing the rent of land, must be mentioned
the advantages which are derived from a large increase in
the produce of the soil. The early grass in March, which
could only be fostered by irrigation, is of the most essen¬
tial use to ewes and lambs, and it offers an excellent sub¬
stitute for the artificial grasses, which are usually obliged
to be heavily stocked in early spring, when they are unable
to bear it; and in truly pastoral districts, where artificial
grasses are cultivated to a limited extent, and where old
grass is generally long in springing, the breeding stock of
sheep is apt to suffer in spring; but an irrigated meadow
would not only supply early and abundant food, but it would
enable the store-masters to raise an early crop of lambs.
The large crop of fine hay which is subsequently cut from
water-meadows after the pasturage of the early grass, also
insures the safety of the flock, and the growing condition
of the herd, in the severest winter; whilst it at the same
time supplies the manure which fertilizes, to an increasing
extent, the land kept under arable culture. Whether, there¬
fore, in pastoral districts, or in the neighbourhood of large
towns, or wherever an abundant supply of river water
through an alluvial cultivated country can be obtained, ir¬
rigation will certainly repay, in a short time, all the expense
and trouble which are necessary for its preparation.
The advantages of warping are thus described, in a par¬
ticular instance, by Arthur Toung:2 “ Mr Webster, Bank-
side, has made so great an improvement by warping, that
it merits particular attention. His farm of 212 acres is all
warped, and to show the immense importance of the im¬
provement, it would be necessary only to mention that he
gave L.ll an acre for the land, and would not now (1805)
take L.70 an acre; but he thinks it worth L.80, and some
even L.100 ; not that it would sell so high at present; yet
his whole expenses of sluices, cuts, banks, &c. did not ex¬
ceed L.2500, or L.12 an acre. Take it at L.12, and add
L-ll, the purchase money, together L.23 an acre ; if he can
sell it at L.70, it is L.47 per acre profit. This is prodigious,
and sufficient to prove that warping exceeds all other im¬
provements. He began only four years ago. He has
warped to various depths eighteen inches, two feet, two and
a half feet, &c. He has some, that before warping was
moorland, worth only one shilling and sixpence per acre,
now as good as the best. Some of it would let at L.5 for
flax or potatoes, and the whole at fifty shillings. He has
453
twenty acres that he warped three feet deep between the Irrigation.
beginning of June and the end of September, and eighteen —V'—
acres, part of which is three feet and a half deep. He has
applied it on stubbles by way of manuring, for it should be
noted, as a vast advantage in this species of improvement,
that it is renewable at any time; were it possible to wear
out by cropping or ill management, a few tides will at any
time restore it. As to the crops he has had, they have
been very great indeed; of potatoes from 80 to 130 tubs
of 36 gallons, selling, the round sorts, at three shilling to
three shillings and sixpence a tub, and kidneys at five to
eight shillings. Twenty acres warped in 1794, could not
be ploughed for oats in 1795, he therefore sowed the oats
on the fresh warp, and scuffled in the seed by men drawing
a scuffler, eight to draw and one to hold; the whole crop
was very great, but on three acres of it, measured separate-
ly, they amounted to fourteen quarters one sack per acre.
I little thought of finding exactly the husbandry of the Nile
m England. I had before heard of clover-seed being sown
in this manner on fresh warp, and succeeding greatly. He
warped twelve acres of wheat stubble, and sowed oats in
April, which produced twelve quarters an acre. Then wheat
thirty-six bushels an acre. His wheat is never less than
thirty. Six acres of beans produced thirty loads per acre,
or ninety bushels; one acre, measured to decide a wager,
yielded ninety-nine bushels; has had 144 pods from one
bean on four stalks; and Tartarian oats seven feet high.
One piece warped in 1793, produced oats in 1794, six quar¬
ters an acre; white clover and hay-seeds were sown with
them, mown twice the first year; the first cutting yielded
three tons of hay an acre; the second one ton, and after¬
wards an immense eddish. Flax forty to fifty stones per
acre. Warping, it seems, brings weeds never before seen,
particularly mustard, and cresses, wild celery, with plenty
of docks and thistles.”
It is seen, from this statement of Mr Young, that the
advantages of warping are very great; and surely so im¬
portant an improvement ought not to be neglected when it
can be put into practice. It is much superior in its effects
to irrigation with common water, the mud creating a new
soil, and not merely amending an old one. What the land
intended to be warped may be, is not of the smallest conse¬
quence ; a bog, clay, sand, peat, is all one, as the warp
raises a soil in one summer of six to eighteen inches thick,
and fills up every inequality.
Warped land at first being raw and cold, requires parti¬
cular treatment. Corn is not the best crop after warping.
Oats, it has been seen, may succeed, barley is never at¬
tempted, and wheat is not advisable, but sown grass-seeds
thrive most luxuriantly. It is good husbandry, therefore,
to sow warp with grass-seeds, and let them remain for at
least two years ; after them wheat will succeed, then beans,
and then wheat again, but never barley on any considera¬
tion. All the green crops succeed well. In some instances,
warp may contain as much salt as to hurt vegetation, in
which case an exposure to the air in summer is necessary
to neutralize its pernicious action on vegetation.
rl he quality of the water is an important element in the
process of irrigation. It has been alleged that whether
water is clear or turbid, irrigation is of service to grass land.
T here is much truth in this allegation; but it does not de¬
clare the whole truth. No doubt moisture alone is of great
service to the vegetation of grass on sandy soils in a dry
season; but a deposition of mud along with the moisture
would surely not benefit the grass the less, nor would it in¬
jure the bare soil.
The waters of the Nile and Ganges would alone promote
vegetation on their banks, the soils of which seldom expe-
1 Stephens’ Practical Irrigator, p. 77*
2 Farmers Calendar, p. 387.
IRRIGATION.
454
Irrigation, rience the refreshing sustenance of rain ; but the inunda-
 v—tions of those mighty rivers would not be hailed with ecsta¬
sy and gratitude on the return of every season, were their
waters devoid of the fertilizing mud with which they are
largely impregnated. Major Rennell states that the Gan¬
ges contains a two-hundredth part of its volume of mud, and
that it thus carries 2,509,056,000 cubic feet of it per hour.
In like manner, the Nile contains a hundred and twentieth
part of its bulk in mud, or 14,784,000 cubic feet of it per
hour. It is impossible but that the wrater of all rivers con¬
tains at all times, even when purest, some sediment; but
it is obvious that those rivers which flow through cultivated
countries must contain at all times the greatest quantity of
sediment. In this way the rivers of plains must contain
more mud than the rivers of mountains; and hence irriga¬
tion exhibits the most favourable results in the plains. But
were no other proof of the superiority of turbid over clear
water for irrigation to be found, the luxuriant produce of the
water-meadows in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, which
are watered from the common sewers of that city, woulcfjof
itself supply a convincing illustration.
Similar results could never be derived from clear water;
nor is it ever found so superabundantly rich as to be neces¬
sary to be treated like the water of those meadows next
the town, where holes are dug in the ground, for the pur¬
pose of catching the grosser materials with which it is
charged, before it is used for irrigation.
VI. HISTORY OF IRRIGATION.
Irrigation is at least coeval in antiquity with embanking
and draining. It is probably of greater antiquity. Nature
had, no doubt, first taught man the art of irrigation by the
inundations of rivers; but nature could teach neither em¬
banking nor draining. Egypt was the field which was first
artificially irrigated. There the fertilizing effects of the
water of the Nile, after its overflow, could not fail to at¬
tract the attention of its inhabitants, and teach a simple les¬
son to the Egyptians, who had only to imitate nature, to se¬
cure the fertility of the soil lying beyond the reach of the
inundations of the Nile. The remains of canals as capa¬
cious as the beds of rivers, which are still to be seen in that
sand-desolated country, evince the gigantic efforts which
had at one time been made by its inhabitants to irrigate
that portion of their country upon which a drop of rain never
falls to refresh its languishing vegetation. These canals
traverse the whole country, and are so directed as probably
to have been made to receive the water of the Nile, and
conduct it to every part, to the top of the rising grounds as
well as to the bottom of the hollows; the inequalities of
hill and dale not being great in Egypt. The large lakes of
Moeris, Behire, and Mareotis, all probably artificial excava¬
tions, had perhaps once formed extensive reservoirs to sup¬
ply the canals, after the Nile had retired within its own
banks. At what time all these mighty contrivances were
begun, history is as silent as on the origin of the pyramids.
It is, however, related that Sesostris greatly increased the
number of the canals, which must have been at a period of
great antiquity, for he reigned about the sixteenth cen¬
tury before the Christian era. Greater efforts to promote
irrigation were more urgent in Egypt than in most other
countries; for no rain fell in that country to cherish vege¬
tation ; and rice forming the chief food of its inhabitants,
it could not be raised without a great supply of water.
It is therefore highly probable that the remains of great
canals and lakes are indicative of the majestic scale with
which the Egyptians had prosecuted the art of irrigation.
It is, however, prudent to speak with caution on matters
connected with the agriculture of ancient Egypt; for our Irrin t
knowledge of its husbandry is chiefly derived from hints
contained in Scripture history, and not from its own histo- ^
rical records. The historian of Egypt, Herodotus, was a
Greek, and lived at so late a period as the fifth century be¬
fore the Christian era, long after the glory of Egypt had de¬
parted ; whereas the Scriptures supply us with facts of
Egyptian agriculture of much greater antiquity, isolated
though they certainly are. Such circumstances as the fol¬
lowing indicate the existence of irrigation in Egypt at a
very remote period of the world. When Abraham and Lot
journeyed together in search of a country to abide in after
they had left Egypt, they agreed to separate, when they
found that the land they were then in could not supply suf¬
ficient food for their united flocks and herds; and we are
told that Lot chose the plain of Jordan, because it was wa¬
tered as well as the land of Egypt. “ And Lot lifted up
his eyes and beheld all the plain of Jordan as thou comest
into Zoar, that it was well watered every where, before the
Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the garden
of the Lord, like the land of Egypt.”1 Egypt never con¬
tained rivers to water it, there being only the Nile ; so that
the similitude between “ the plain of Jordan” and “ the
land of Egypt,” to the mind of Lot, must have arisen from
the rivers in Jordan being as numerous as the canals in
Egypt; and Lot having witnessed the fertilizing powers of
the water of these canals in Egypt, naturally supposed that the
rivers would produce a similar effect on the plain of Jordan.
The Egyptians had been in the habit of watering their gar¬
dens as well as their fields, and this they accomplished at
pleasure, by raising water with a machine which they worked
with the foot. Simple as such contrivances were, and they
are to be seen in Egypt at this day, they could not fail to be
troublesome. Dr Clarke describes the Egyptians, when
raising water for their gardens, as requiring to work stark
naked, or only partially covered with a blue striped shirt.
When Moses, therefore, described the promised land to the
Israelites, he represented it as a land which was supplied
with water in a natural manner, in contradistinction to the
more difficult and artificial way by the foot in Egypt: “ For
the land whither thou goest to possess it, is not as the land
°f Egypt from whence thou earnest out, where thou sowedst
thy seed and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of
herbs : But the land whither ye go to possess it, is a land
of hills and valleys, and drinketh water of the rain of Hea¬
ven : And it shall come to pass, if ye shall hearken dili¬
gently unto my commandment which I command you this
day, that I will give you the rain of your land in due sea¬
son, the first rain and the latter rain, that thou mayest
gather in thy corn, and thy v/ine, and thine oil.”2
By irrigation, the soil of Egypt had been rendered so
fertile that Pliny compares it to that of the Leontines, for¬
merly the most fertile part of Sicily. Certain it is that
Egypt was very prolific in corn even in the days of Abra¬
ham, who had recourse to it in years of famine, and that
was at least eighteen centuries before the Christian era.
Too little is known of the agriculture of the ancient
kingdoms of Assyria, Babylon, Carthage, Phoenicia, and
Greece, to enable any one to ascertain how they practised
irrigation ; but as they all had Egypt as an example in agri¬
culture and the arts, it is probable that they had followed
those practices in husbandry which were most suitable to
their respective countries. The little that Xenophon says
in his Anabasis of the husbandry of Persia, would lead to
the belief that canals had been cut from rivers to irrigate
the country after the manner of Egypt.
The sagacious Romans* it is well known from the writings
of their rustic countrymen, adopted irrigation on an exten¬
sive scale, as one of the best means of improving land. Tlie
1 Gen. xiii. 10.
2 Deut. xi. 10, 11, 13, 14.
IRRIGATION.
■ion. oldest Roman rustic writer, Cato, expressed his opinion that
—' the way to become rich quickly was “ by grazing cattle
well,” and hence he gives the preference to meadows. He
does not maintain that grass is the most valuable crop which
the land can produce, for he only places meadows in the
fifth degree of value, giving preference in this respect to
vineyards, watered gardens, willow fields, and olive gar¬
dens, but that they yielded most profit in proportion to the
expense attending them, and they were always ready;
hence their ancient name, parata. Agreeably to this opi¬
nion, Cato recommends the formation of meadows, and
particularly of water-meadows, whenever there is a com¬
mand of water : Praia irrigua, si aquam habcbis, potis-
simum facito.1 Columella recommends the same precept,
and enters more minutely into the kinds of soils which
should be converted into water-meadows, and of the na¬
ture of the surface best adapted to them, as well as the
management of the water in the time of irrigation. “ Land
that is naturally rich,” says he, “ and that is in good heart,
does not need to have water set over it; and it is better
hay which nature of its own accord produces in a juicy
soil, than what water draws from a soil that is overflowed.
This, however, is a necessary practice when the poverty of
the soil requires it; and a meadow may be formed either
upon stiff or free soil, though poor, when water may be set
over it. Neither a low field with hollows, nor a field broken
with steep rising ground, are proper; the first, because it
contains too long the water collected in the hollows; the last,
because it makes the water run too quickly over it. A field,
however, that has a moderate descent may be made a mea¬
dow, whether it is rich or so situated as to be watered; but
the best situation is where the surface is smooth, and the
descent so gentle as to prevent either showers or the rivers
that overflow it from remaining long; and on the other
hand, to allow the water that comes over it quietly to glide
off. Therefore, if in any part of a field intended for a
meadow, a pool of water should stand, it must be let off by
drains, for the loss is equal, either from too much water or
too little grass.” 2 But none of the Roman rustic wTiters
give directions how a water-meadow should be made, nor
say any thing about the utility of sluices, although Colu¬
mella gives minute directions about the formation of dry
meadows. It does not appear, moreover, that they were
acquainted with the raising of turf and laying it down again
for meadows, because they only recommend hay-seeds from
the hay-lofts and cribs to be sown, and deprecate the wa¬
tering and pasturing of cattle on the new meadows till the
surface becomes hard. There is no specific notice taken
by any of them of how long a period meadows should be
watered, if one sentence of Pliny be excepted, wherein he
directs that “ meadows ought to be watered immediately
after the equinox, and the waters restrained whenever the
grass shoots up into the stalk;”3 but there is no hint
whether they should be laid dry at intervals.
Pliny alone mentions watering before the first crop of
hay is cut, on the principle that w et grass, whether wetted
by water or dew, is cut more easily than dry: Noctibus
roscidis secari melius.^ The Romans were in the custom
of cutting their meadows at least twice a-year, in May and
August or September, and making hay of both these cut¬
tings ; but meadows for forage were cut sometimes four
times. The autumnal hay was emphatically called cor-
dum, and being soft, and sweeter than hay come to its full
growth, it was the kind most proper to be given to sheep
in winter. T he produce of the Roman meadows appears
to have been very considerable, and it is therefore no won¬
der that they put such a high value on grass-land. Both
Columella and Pliny estimate it a day’s work for a man to
455
mow a jugerum and bind 1200 bundles of hay, of four Irrigation,
pounds each. According to a calculation made by Dr Dick-
son, these quantities would give a produce of 265 hay stones,
of 22 lb. to the stone, per acre (416 imperial stones per im¬
perial acre), of prepared hay, besides the autumnal crop and
the rakings taken up afterwards, and which may be estimated
at one-half more.5 This is not the proper place to describe
the Roman method of making hay, which differed from the
method of this country, but having alluded to hay having
been bound in bundles, it may not be irrelevant to state
that the Romans made up their hay into bundles of four
pounds each before they carried it into the barns or hay¬
lofts, and that they never ricked it but in rainy weather.
Immediately after the fall of the Roman empire, agricul¬
ture declined, and was kept in a very depressed state during
the middle ages, which depression, with respect to agricul¬
ture, lasted about ten centuries. It need therefore excite no
surprise that the general agriculture of Italy was not much
improved, from what it had been amongst the Romans, till
after the revival of letters. Irrigation was perhaps the only
branch of agriculture which received improvement or ex¬
tension before the expiration of the dark ages ; and its im¬
provement at that time was even confined to the north of
Italy. The irrigation of Lombardy to this day forms the
principal feature of its agriculture. The Lombard kings,
following the example of the Romans, encouraged and ex¬
tended irrigation, and they were ably assisted by the inmates
of their numerous and wealthy religious establishments.
Under these favourable auspices, irrigation had been ex¬
tended on a great scale in Lombardy as early as 1037 ; and
such expert hydraulic engineers had the monks of Chiare-
valle become, that they were consulted and employed as
such by the Emperor Frederick I. in the thirteenth cen¬
tury ; and, ever since, so assiduous has been the care with
which the agriculturists in Lombardy have preserved en¬
tire, and in good working order, their water-meadows, that
at the present day no other part of the globe can exhibit
that operation on so grand a scale and in such excellent
order, and producing so rich a pasturage, verdant through¬
out the year. The largest rivers in the north of Italy, the
Po, the Adige, the Tagliamento, and others, are put under
requisition for a supply of water in summer and winter, for
the purposes of irrigation ; the whole country from Venice
to Turin being almost one continued water-meadow. But
there irrigation is not confined to grass-land ; water being
also conducted between the ridges of corn-land; in the
hollows between drilled crops ; among vines ; and over the
flats appropriated to the production of rice: and it is also
used to deposite mud, in the manner of warping, where it
contains sediment. Irrigation naturally passed from Lom¬
bardy into the south of France, where it is used to raise
many of the more valuable productions of the soil. Spain
to this day employs irrigation to so considerable an extent,
that few crops are there raised without it. Some water-
meadows in the neighbourhood of Salisbury, in Wiltshire,
which are said to have existed from time immemorial, have
led to the belief that irrigation has been practised in Bri¬
tain from the time of the Romans. It is, indeed, extremely
probable, that had the Romans constructed such works
during their sojourn in Britain, the pastoral habits of their
Saxon successors would have preserved them from destruc¬
tion. But be this as it may, it is certain that irrigation
after the method of Italy was not extensively introduced
into Britain till the sixteenth century, when it was attempt¬
ed on a large scale in Cambridgeshire, on the estate of
Barbraham, by one Pallavicino, the collector of Peter’s
pence in the reign of Queen Mary, but who, on the acces¬
sion of Elizabeth, had the art to turn Protestant, and
1 Cat. cap. ix. 2 Col. lib. 2. cap. xviL
6 Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 321.
Nat. Hist. lib. Ify cap. xxvii.
4 lb. lib. 18, cap. xxviii.
456 I R R
Inita- purchase that estate with the balance of money which he
'bility. had in his possession, amounting it is said to L. 30,000 or
L. 40,000, and appropriate it to his own use.1 This dis¬
honest experiment of Pallavicino was so gross, that his ex¬
ample as an irrigator was not followed at the time, nor in¬
deed were many water-meadows formed in England till the
end of the last or beginning of the present century. Since
that time, many of them have been scientifically made both
in England and in Scotland, which all have proved how
profitably irrigation might be extended, and of which a few
successful examples have been enumerated. As might
be expected from the nature of the climates, irrigation is
extensively practised in India, China, and parts of America,
particularly Mexico; but as the irrigation of those coun¬
tries presents no features peculiarly different from that re¬
lated of Egypt and Italy, it is unnecessary to enlarge upon it.
VII. THEORY OF IRRIGATION.
The theory of irrigation, as propounded by the late Sir
Humphrey Davy, is given by him in these words: “ Water
is absolutely essential to vegetation ; and when land has
been covered with water in the winter or in the beginning
of spring, the moisture which has penetrated deep into the
soil, and even the subsoil, becomes a sort of nourishment
to the roots of the plants in the summer, and prevents those
bad effects which often happen in lands in their natural state
from a long continuance of dry weather. When the water
used in irrigation has flowed over a calcareous country, it
is generally found impregnated with carbonate of lime, and
in this state it tends, in many instances, to ameliorate the
soil. Common river water also generally contains a cer¬
tain portion of organizable matter, which is much greater
after rains than at other times, and which exists in the
largest quantity when the stream rises in a cultivated coun¬
try. Even in cases where the water used for flooding is
pure, and free from animal and vegetable substances, it acts
by causing the more equable diffusion of nutritive matter
existing in the land ; and in very cold seasons it preserves
the tender roots and leaves of the grass from being affected
by frost. ... In general, those waters which breed the
best fish are the best fitted for watering meadows; but
most of the benefits of irrigation may be derived from any
kind of water. It is, however, a general principle, that
waters containing ferruginous impregnations, though pos¬
sessed of fertilizing effects, when applied to a calcareous
soil, are injurious on soils that do not eftervesce with acids;
and that calcareous waters, which are known by the earthy
deposite they afford when boiled, are of most use on sili¬
ceous soils, or other soils containing no remarkable quan¬
tity of carbonate of lime.” 2 To show the protective power
of water against cold, it is only necessary to state the well-
known physical fact, that water is of greater specific gra¬
vity at 42° Fahrenheit than at the freezing point of 32°;
and hence water in contact with the roots of grass is rarely
below 40°, a degree of temperature not at all prejudicial to
the living organs of plants. Professor Rennie, of King’s
College, London, has recently given another theory of ir¬
rigation. It was promulged by M. De Candolle of Ge¬
neva, in his Physiologic Vegetale, and his views have re-
I R R
cently been corroborated by the experiments of M.TMa- Irrit*.
caire of Geneva, that plants exude an excretion from their filitv.
roots into the soil, and that this excretion is detrimental tov'"“v^
the healthy growth of the same kind of plants which pro¬
duced it. Hence it is concluded that grasses do not con¬
tinue permanently in a healthy state in the same site, be¬
cause they are in time injuriously affected by their own
excretions, which, encouraging the growth of plants of a
different nature, such as mosses, they spring up and extir¬
pate the grasses. It is supposed to be probable that every
species of grass is not alike affected by its own, or the ex-
crementitious matter from other grasses, and therefore
some species withstand the poison longer than others. Now,
the water of irrigation, in its descent through the soil and
subsoil, washes away or carries off in solution the injurious
excrementitious matter exuded by the grasses, and thereby
cleanses the soil in which they are growing free of it. Hence
the perennial verdure of irrigated grass.3 These theories
establish four advantages which are derivable from irriga¬
tion. It supplies moisture to the soil, necessary in dry
seasons and in tropical countries; it affords protection to
plants against the extremes of heat and cold; it dissemi¬
nates manure most minutely to plants ; and it washes away
injurious matter from the roots of plants.
Whichever theory is adopted, or both of them, for they
are not inconsistent with each other, the benefits derivable
from irrigation are purely mechanical; they have no refer¬
ence to chemical action. The opinion of Sir Humphry
Davy, therefore, that “ in the artificial watering of mea¬
dows, the beneficial effects depend upon many different
causes, some chemical, some mechanical,”4 appears very
problematical. Chemical action only commences after ir¬
rigation has ceased. This conclusion will appear evident,
when the following particulars have been considered.
The operation of water bringing matter into minute sub¬
division ; the sediment which it contains when used in irriga¬
tion being minutely distributed around the stems of the
plants ; water protecting plants in irrigation against the ex¬
tremes of heat and cold, by completely covering and embrac¬
ing every stem and leaf; and the supplying of moisture to
the soil, and washing excrementitious matter out of it, are all
purely mechanical operations. Warping is obviously a
mechanical operation. Could the hand of man distribute
manure around the roots and stems of grass as minutely and
incessantly as turbid water; could it place a covering of
woollen manufacture upon each blade and around each stem
of grass, as completely as water can embrace each plant
and keep it warm ; could it water the grass as quietly and
constantly as the slow current of irrigation ; and could it
wash away injurious matter from the soil as delicately around
the fibres of the roots of grass as irrigating water, there
would be no need of irrigation; the husbandman could then
command at will verdant pasturage for his flocks and herds
throughout the year, and in the driest season. His me
chanical agency would be as effective as that of irrigation.
But the relative powers of things being as at present con¬
stituted, man employs irrigation as the instrument of his
will, and attains the maintenance of his live-stock by in¬
ducing Nature to assist him in a work in which she un¬
doubtedly displays her superiority over him both in indus.-,
try and dexterity. (k. k. k.)
IRRITABILITY, in Anatomy and Medicine, a term
first invented by Glisson, and adopted by Haller, to denote
an essential property of all animal bodies, which exists in¬
dependently of, and in contradistinction to, sensibility. This
ingenious author calls that part of the human body irrita¬
ble, which becomes shorter upon being touched ; very irri¬
table, if it contracts upon a slight touch ; and the contrary,
if by a violent touch it contracts but little. He calls that
1 Vancouver’s Cambridgeshire.
3 Quarterly Journal of Agricultwe, voL v. p. 24.
2 Agricultural Chemistry, 4to edition, p. 305.
4 Agricultural Chemistry, p. 305.
I R R
•rita- a sensible part of the human body, which, upon being
lity. touched, transmits the impression thereof to the soul; and
'v^"-''in brutes, he calls those parts sensible, the irritation of
which occasions evident signs of pain and disquiet in the
animal. On the contrary, he calls that insensible, which
being burned, torn, pricked, or cut till it is quite destroy¬
ed, occasions no sign of pain or convulsion, nor any sort of
change in the situation of the body. From the result of
many cruel experiments, Haller concludes that the epidermis
is insensible 5 that the skin is sensible in a greater degree
than any other part of the body ; that the fat and cellular
membrane are insensible; and that the muscular flesh is
sensible, its sensibility being ascribed by him rather to the
nerves than to the flesh itself. The tendons, he says, having
no nerves distributed to them, are insensible. The ligaments
and capsulae of the articulations are also believed to be
insensible; and hence Haller infers, that the sharp pains
of the gout are not seated in the capsulae of the joint, but
in the skin, and in the nerves which creep upon its external
surface. The bones are all insensible, says Haller, except
the teeth ; and likewise the marrow. Under his experi¬
ments, the periosteum and pericranium, the dura and pia
mater, appeared insensible ; and he infers, that the sensi¬
bility of the nerves is owing to the medulla, and not to the
membranes. The arteries and veins are held to be sus¬
ceptible of little or no sensation, excepting the carotid, the
lingual, temporal, pharyngal, labial, thyroidal, and the aorta
near the heart, the sensibility of which is ascribed to the
nerves that accompany them. Sensibility is allowed to the
internal membranes of the stomach, intestines, bladder,
ureters, vagina, and womb, on account of their being of the
same nature with the skin; the heart is also admitted to
be sensible, but the lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys, are
possessed of a very imperfect, if any, sensation. The glands,
haying few nerves, are endowed with only an obtuse sen¬
sation. Some sensibility is allowed to the tunica choroides
and the iris, though in a less degree than the retina ; but
none to the cornea. Haller concludes, in general, that the
nerves alone are sensible of themselves ; and that, in pro¬
portion to the number of nerves apparently distributed to
particular parts, such parts possess a greater or less degree
of sensibility.
Irritability, he says, is so different from sensibility, that
the most irritable parts are not at all sensible, and vice
versa. He alleges facts to prove this position, and also to
demonstrate, that irritability does not depend upon the
nerves, which are not irritable, but upon the original for¬
mation of the parts which are susceptible of it. Irritability,
he says, is not proportioned to sensibility ; and in proof of
this, he observes, that the intestines, though rather less sen¬
sible than the stomach, are more irritable, and that the heart
is very irritable, though it has but a small degree of sensation.
Irritability, according to Haller, is the distinguishing
characteristic between the muscular and cellular fibres;
and hence he determines that the ligaments, periosteum,
meninges of the brain, and all the membranes composed of
the cellular substance, are void of irritability. The ten¬
dons are not irritable ; and though he does not absolutely
deny irritability to the arteries, yet his experiments on the
aorta produced no contraction. The veins and excretory
d.uctj are in a small degree irritable, and the gall-bladder,
the ductus choledochus, the ureters and urethra, are only
affected by a very acrid corrosive ; but the lacteal vessels
are considerably irritable. The glands and mucous sinuses,
he uterus in quadrupeds, the human matrix, and the geni¬
tals, are all irritable ; as are also the muscles, particularly
t e diaphragm. The oesophagus, stomach, and intestines,
are irritable ; but of all the animal organs, the heart is en-
ued with the greatest irritability. In general, there is
nothing irritable in the animal body but the muscular
res; and the vital parts are the most irritable. This
vol. xir.
ISM
457
P°Jer of motion, arising from irritations, is supposed to be Irrogatio
different from all other properties of bodies, and probably II
resides in the glutinous mucus of the muscular fibres, alto- Irvine-
gether independently of the influence of the soul. The irri-
tabihty of the muscles is said to be destroyed by drying the
fibres, congealing the fat, and more especially by the use
of opuun in living animals. The physiological system, of
which an abstract has now been given, has been adopted
and confirmed by Castell and Zimmermann, and also by
Brocklesby, who suggests, that irritability, as distinguished
from sensibility, may depend upon a series of nerves dif¬
ferent from such as serve either for voluntary motion or
sensation. This doctrine, however, has been controverted
by M. le Cat, and particularly by Dr Whytt, in his Phy¬
siological Essays.
IRROGATIO, a term of the Roman law, signifying the
instrument in which were put down the punishments that
the law provided against such offences as any person was
accused of by a magistrate before the people. These
punishments were first proclaimed viva voce by the accuser,
and this was called Incfuisitio. But the same being imme¬
diately afterwards expressed in writing, took the name of
Rogatio, in respect of the people, who were to be consult¬
ed or asked about it, and was called Irrogatio in respect
of the criminal, as it imported the mulct or punishment
assigned him by the accuser.
IRROMANGO, or Erromango, one of the New He¬
brides islands, is about 24 or 25 leagues in circuit; the
middle of it lies in Eat. 18° 54' S.; Long. 169° 19'e/ See
Australasia.
IRTISH, a large river of Asia, in Siberia, which rises
amongst the hills of the country of the Kalmucks, and, run¬
ning north-east, falls into the Oby near Tobolsk. It
abounds with fish, particularly sturgeon, and delicate sal¬
mon.
IRVINE, a seaport town and royal burgh of Scotland,
in the bailiwick of Cunningham, and county of Ayr; it is
agreeably situated at the mouth of a river of the same name
on the Frith of Clyde, at the distance of eleven miles north
of Ayr, sixty-seven from Edinburgh, twenty-five south-south¬
west of Glasgow, and six and a half west of Kilmarnock.
It is a town of considerable antiquity, as appears by the re¬
cords of the burgh, Alexander II. having granted a charter
to the burgesses, confirming some other royal grants. It
is a small but thriving place, consisting, besides smaller
streets, of one broad street, running from south-east to north¬
west the whole length of the town, on the south side of the
river, but connected with the town by a bridge. The road
leading to the harbour is lined by a row of houses on either
side, and mostly inhabited by seafaring people; and the road
leading to Ayr is provided with houses in the same way.
The bridge of Irvine is the widest and handsomest in the
county. This burgh possesses a town-house, a parish
church, and three other places of worship. There is an
excellent academy, in which the higher branches are taught,
a subscription free-school, several private schools, a news¬
room, and a subscription library. This port had formerly
employed in the herring fishery several busses, that is, ves¬
sels fitted out under certain regulations to entitle them to
a bounty. At present there are about one hundred ves¬
sels belonging to the port, tonnage 11,000, navigated by
about seven hundred and thirty men. About twenty-one
of these vessels are employed in the North American trade,
three or four in the Mediterranean, one to India, and the
remainder in the Irish or coast trade. There is a consider¬
able timber and grain trade at this port, and a very exten¬
sive coal-trade. In 1834, the quantity of coal exported,
principally to Ireland, was 91,462 chalders, equal to about
137,600 tons. The annual revenue of customs is from
L.3000 to L.4000. Ship-building, chain, cable, and rope¬
making are carried on to some extent in Irvine. As a
3 M
ISA
royal burgh it is governed by a provost, two bailies, a dean
of guild, treasurer, and twelve councillors. The popula¬
tion of the town and parish was 7007 in 1821, and 7200 in
1831.
ISAAC, the Jewish patriarch, and an example of filial
obedience, died 1716 before Christ, aged one hundred and
eighty years.
ISJSUS, a celebrated Greek orator, whose birth-place
was uncertain even in the time of Dionysius of Halicar¬
nassus, who treats of him at considerable length. Some
thought him a native of Athens, and others of Chalcis, in
the island of Eubsea. The precise dates of his birth and
death are not given, but we know that he flourished after
the Peloponnesian war, about b. c. 400, and continued to
take part in public affairs till the reign of Philip, b. c. 364.
He was the pupil of Lysias and Isocrates, but he is chiefly
distinguished as being the master of Demosthenes, who
seems to have preferred him to all the orators of that age.
The style of Isseus so much resembled that of Lysias, that
Dionysius says it was difficult to distinguish them. It is
simple, elegant, and full of vivacity, so that it has passed
into a proverb, Isceo torrentior. (Juv. iii. 74.) He was
chiefly employed in courts of law, and all the orations of
his which have been preserved, were delivered in defence of
his clients. Of sixty-four which were attributed to him, of
which fourteen were considered as apocryphal in the time
of Photius, there are only ten now preserved. The most
esteemed edition of his works is that of Reiske, Leipsic, 1775,
and of Shoemann, Gryphiswald, 1831. They have been
translated into English by W. Jones, London, 1779 ; into
French by Auger, Paris, 1783; and into German by Shoe¬
mann, Stuttgart, 1830. Another discourse of Isaeus (J)e
Meneclis Hareditate) was discovered in a manuscript of the
Library of St Lawrence, at Florence, and published by
Tyrwith, London, 1785.
This Isaeus ought not to be confounded with Isaeus, ano¬
ther celebrated orator, who lived at Rome in the time of
Pliny the younger, about the year 97.
ISAIAH, or the Prophecy of Isaiah, a canonical book
of the Old Testament. Isaiah is the first of the four
greater prophets; the other three being Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and Daniel. This prophet was of royal descent, his father
Amos being brother to Azariah king of Judah. The first
five chapters of his prophecy relate to the reign of Uzziah ;
the vision in the sixth chapter happened in the time of
Jotham; the following chapters, to the fifteenth, include
his prophecies under the reign of Ahab ; and those which
were made under the reigns of Hezekiah and Manasseh,
are related in the subsequent chapters to the end. Isaiah
foretold the deliverance of the Jews from their captivity in
Babylon by Cyrus, one hundred years before it came to
pass. But the most remarkable of his predictions are those
concerning the Messiah, which describe not only his de¬
scent, but all the remarkable circumstances of his life and
death. The style of this prophet is noble, nervous, and
sublime, insomuch that Grotius calls him the Demosthenes
of the Hebrews. However, the profoundness of his thoughts,
the loftiness of his expressions, and the extent of his pro¬
phecy, render him one of the most difficult of all the pro¬
phets ; and the commentaries which have been hitherto
written on his prophecy fall short of a full explication of it.
Bishop Lowth’s translation, published in 1778, throws con¬
siderable light on the composition and meaning of Isaiah.
ISAURA, or Isaurus, in Ancient Geography, a strong
city of Mount Taurus, in Isauria, which was twice demo¬
lished ; first by Perdiccas, or at least by the inhabitants,
who, through despair, destroyed themselves by fire, rather
than fall into the hands of the enemy ; again by Servilius,
who thence took the surname Isauricus. Strabo says there
were two Isauras, the old and the new, but so near that
they were often confounded.
I S E
ISAURIA, a rugged and mountainous country, touch-
ing Pamphylia and Cilicia on the north, situated almost in f
Mount Taurus, and taking its name from Isaura; and, ac- Lere.
cording to some, extending by a narrow slip to the Medi-
terranean. Stephanus, Ptolemy, and Zosimus, make no
mention of places on the sea ; though Pliny and Strabo do;
but the latter are doubtful whether these are places in
Isauria Proper, or in Pamphylia, or in Cilicia.
ISCA Dumniorum, in Ancient Geography, a town in
Britain ; now Exeter, capital of Devonshire. Lat. 5° 44',
Long. 3° 4(y W.
Isca Silurum, in Ancient Geography, the station of the
Legio Augusta Secunda in Britain ; now Caerleon, a town
of Monmouthshire, on the Uske.
ISCHALIS, or Iscaus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Bel gee in Britain ; now Ilchester, in Somersetshire,
on the river 111.
ISCHIA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, on the
north-west side of the Bay of Naples, of volcanic origin,
but fertile in wheat, wine, and fruits. It contains about
twenty-seven square miles. The mountain Spomea, in
height 2500 feet, is an extinguished volcano, but has woods
and good pasture land, and several dairies are maintained, in
which excellent cheese is made. It contains the capital, ol
the same name as the island, with 3140 inhabitants. The
whole of the population amoun ts to 22,470 persons, who are
active in producing silk, wine, excellent oil, and various
kinds of fruit.
ISCHURIA, (formed from I stop, and
urine), in Physic, a disease consisting in an entire suppres¬
sion of urine.
ISELASTICS, a kind of games, or combats, celebrated
in Greece and Asia, in the time of the Roman emperors.
The victors at these games had very considerable privi¬
leges conferred on them. They were crowned on the spot
immediately after their victory, had pensions allowed them,
were furnished with provisions at the public cost, and were
carried in triumph to their own country.
ISELWORTH, a town of the county of Middlesex, in
the Hundred of the same name, eight miles from London.
It is pleasantly situated on the banks of the Thames, and
contains Sion House, belonging to the Duke of Northum¬
berland, and several other mansions of high respectability.
The principal industry is exercised in gardening, for the
supply of the metropolis. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 4346, in 1811 to 4661, in 1821 to 5269, and in
1831 to 5590.
ISENBERG, now a province of the principality of Hesse
Cassel, having been added to it when the former sovereign,
who is still the chief proprietor, was mediatised. It is
about 100 square miles in extent, is a hilly district, with
extensive woods, is watered by the rivers Kinzig and
Bracht, and the population living in four market-towns and
forty-four villages, to the amount of 47,500, subsist chiefly
by agricultural occupations. None of the four towns in it,
except Berstein, has a thousand inhabitants.
ISERE, a department of the south of France, formed
out of the ancient divisions of Graisivaudan and Bienois,
which were formerly portions of Dauphine. It extends
over 3564 square miles, or, according to the royal alma¬
nack, 841,230 hectares. It is divided into four arrondisse-
ments, and these into 45 cantons, with 558 communes, hav¬
ing 471,660 inhabitants. The latter mostly adhere to the
Catholic Church, but there are about 7000 Protestants.
The common language is a patois, composed of Celtic,
Latin, French, Italian, and Greek, but in which the Latin
words predominate. The pure French, with the southern
accent, is generally spoken in the towns. The face of the
country is generally hilly, and in many parts mountainous,
exhibiting most picturesque natural scenery, rising gra*
dually from the plain through which the Rhone flows to the
I S E
serlon lofty elevations bordering on Savoy, where the highest of
J them, the Col de Saix, is 10,296 feet above the level of the
S1JC~ ,sea. Some of the numerous valleys which extend between
the ranges of mountains are of peculiar beauty, especially
the valley of the Isere or Graisivaudan, which is nearly
fifty miles in length, and considered as the most delightful
district of France.. It resembles a well cultivated garden,
through which, with many windings, the river flows, be¬
tween meadows and corn-fields, where scattered mulberry
and other fruit trees, fine vineyards, and small woods on
the sides of the hills, are ornamented by country houses
and neat villages intermingled amongst them. Though, from
the elevation, a great portion of the department remains
uncultivated, and is incapable of cultivation, yet the other
portions are fertile and highly productive. The soil is
sandy, mixed with small shells in the valleys, resting on
granite, and is easily worked; it is well irrigated,^and
adapted to almost every vegetable production. The only
navigable rivers are the Rhone and the Isere, whose con-
tributary streams are numerous. There are also some
canals, which serve the double purpose of navigation and
of irrigation. There are several mountain lakes within the
department, and some of them are 7548 feet in height.
The climate varies with the elevation; some of the eastern
sides of the mountains are constantly covered with snow,
whilst the valleys are in summer intensely hot. The chief
agricultural products are wheat, maize, barley, potatoes,
hemp, flax, rapeseed, stone fruits, wine, chestnuts, filberts,
and some medicinal plants, besides cattle and game. There
are mines which yield small portions of silver, copper, iron,
lead, and coal, but none of them is extensively worked.
The manufactures are cotton, silk, and woollen goods, earth¬
enware, gloves at the capital, Grenoble, in large quantities,
fine linen, paper, glass, liqueurs and brandy. There is also
much leather prepared for the glover’s trade.
ISERLON, a city of Prussia, the capital of a circle of
the same name in the Arensberg division of the province
of Westphalia. It stands on the river Baaren, and is one
of the first manufacturing places in the kingdom for silks,
velvets, and ribbons, and also has manufactories of cutlery,
and other iron goods, with extensive linen weaving and
bleaching. It contains two Lutheran, one Reformed, and
one Catholic church, 786 houses, and 5690 inhabitants.
Lat. 51° 25' 6", and Long. 7° 35' 22" E.
ISH, in Scotch Law, signifies expiration. Thus we say
“the ish of a lease.” It signifies also to go out; thus we
say “ free ish and entry” from and to any place.
ISIA, feasts and sacrifices anciently solemnized in
honour of the goddess Isis. The Isia were full of the most
abominable impurities, for which reason, those who were
initiated into them were obliged to take an oath of secrecy.
I hey were held for nine, days successively, but grew so
scandalous, that the senate abolished them at Rome, under
■^>*so ant^ Gabinius. They were re-esta¬
blished by Augustus, and the Emperor Commodus himself
assisted at them, appearing amongst the priests of that
goddess with his head shaven, and carrying the Anubis.
ISIAC Table, is one of the most considerable monu¬
ments of antiquity discovered at Rome in 1525, and sup¬
posed, by the various figures in bas-relief upon it, to re¬
present the feats of Isis, and other Egyptian deities. There
ave been various opinions as to the antiquity of this mo¬
nument. Some have supposed that it was engraved long
efore the time when the Egyptians worshipped the figures
o men and women ; but others, amongst whom is Bishop
arburton, apprehend that it was made at Rome by per¬
sons attached to the worship of Isis. Dr War burton con-
si ers it as one of the most modern of the Egyptian monu-
ments, on account of the great mixture of hieroglyphic
characters which it bears.
ISIA Cl, priests of the goddess Isis. Dioscorides tells
1 S L 459
TnstSd S-enlb°re a^fanch of sea wormwood in their hands Isidorus
instead of olive. They sung the praises of the goddess II
twice a-day, namely, at the rising of the sun, when they ^ la
opened her temple, after which they begged alms the rest „Gente
of the day and returning at night, they repeated their ori-
sons, and shut up the temple. The Isiaci never covered ^
their feet with any thing but the thin bark of the plant
papyrus, which occasioned Prudentius and others to say
that they went barefooted. They wrore no garments ex¬
cept linen, because Isis was the first who taught mankind
the mode of preparing this commodity.
, . ISIDORES, called Damiatensis, or Pelusiota, from
his having lived in a solitude near that city, was one of the
most famous of all St Chrysostom’s disciples, and flourished
in the time of the general council held in 421. We have
upwards of two thousand of his epistles in five books. They
are short, but well written, in Greek. The best edition
is that of Pans, in Greek and Latin, printed in 1638, in
folio.
ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians. Some sup¬
pose her to be the same as lo, who was changed into a
cow, and restored to her human form in Egypt, where she
taught agriculture, and governed the people with mildness
and equity, for which reasons she received divine honours
mter death. According to some tarditions mentioned by
Plutarch, Isis married her brother Osiris, and was pregnant
by him even before she had left her mother’s w omb. These
two ancient deities, as some authors observe, comprehended
all nature and all the gods of the heathens. Isis was the
Venus of Cyprus, the Minerva of Athens, the Cybele of
the Phrygians, the Ceres of Eleusis, the Proserpine of Si¬
cily, the Diana of Crete, and the Bellona of the Romans.
Osiris and Isis reigned conjointly in Egypt; but the rebel¬
lion of Fyphon, the brother of Osiris, proved fatal to this
sovereign. The ox and the cow were the symbols of Osi¬
ris and Isis; because these deities, whilst on earth, had
diligently applied themselves to the cultivating of the earth.
Since Isis was supposed to be the moon, as Osiris was the
sun, she was represented as holding a globe in her hand,
with a vessel full of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed
that the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile pro¬
ceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed for the loss
of Osiris, whom Typhon had basely murdered. The word
Lsts, according to some, signifies “ ancient,” and on that
account the inscriptions on the statues of the goddess were
often in these words : “ I am all that has been, that shall
be ; and none amongst mortals has hitherto taken off my
veil.” The worship of Isis was universal in Egypt, and her
priests were obliged to observe perpetual chastity; their
heads were closely shaved, and they always walked bare¬
footed, and clothed themselves in linen garments. They
never ate onions, they abstained from salt with their meat,
and they were forbidden to eat the flesh of sheep and of
hogs. During the night they were employed in continual
devotion near the statue of the goddess. Cleopatra, the
beautiful queen of Egypt, was wont to dress herself like
this goddess, and affected to be called a second Isis.
Isis, or Thames, a river that takes its rise in Gloucester¬
shire, and flows through only a small part of Wiltshire. It
enters this county near its source, and begins to be navi¬
gable for boats at Cricklade; but after running in a ser¬
pentine manner about four miles, it leaves Gloucestershire
at a village called Castle Eaton.
ISJUM, a city of the province Ukraine in Russia, the
capital of a circle of the same name on the river Jszumez,
which near to it falls into the Donez. It is surrounded
with walls, but in a neglected condition ; and contains four
churches, 718 houses, and 4500 inhabitants, whose chief
trade consists in the sale of corn and cattle. Lat. 49° 12'
30" N.; Long. 37° 30' 5" E.
ISLA de la Gente Hermoga, or Island of Handsome
460
I S L
ISM
Isla de People, an island in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Men- ISLAMPOOR. There are two towns of this name in Islampooi
i-eon dana, about six leagues in circumference. Lat. 10° S.; Hindostan, one in the province of Ajmeer, seventy-seven [|
H Long. 175° 10' W. miles north from Zeypoor. Lat 27° 4' N.; long. 75° Ismik.
Islamna- jsla de Leon, a city of Spain, in the kingdom of Seville, 23' E. Another in the province of Bahar, district of Bahar, ^^
^r~ , and in the province of Andalusia. It is a place generally thirty-five miles south from Portna. Lat. 25° T N.; long,
containing 40,000 inhabitants, but from being within the 85° 15' E.
line of defence of the Spanish troops and the garrison of ISLAND, a tract of dry land encompassed with water ;
Cadiz, during the siege it was supposed to contain more in which sense it stands contradistinguished from Conti-
than double that number. When the French armies were nent, or Terra Firma.
in possession of the rest of Spain, this city became the re- ISLE, a city of the arrondissement of Gaillac, in the de¬
luge of the loyal party, the place of assembly for the national partment of the Tarn in France. It stands on the river
representatives, and the seat of the government. From Tarn, and is an ill-built manufacturing town, containing
being near the arsenal of Caraccas, the officers and work- 6520 inhabitants, who make various kinds of woollen goods,
men employed there, found it convenient to take up their and trade largely in wine.
residence in this city. The streets are wide, the houses ISLEBIANS, in ecclesiastical history, a name given to
large, the public buildings splendid, and its whole appear- those who adopted the sentiments of a Lutheran divine of
ance gives it an air of great magnificence. It is separated Saxony, called John Agricola, a disciple of Luther, and a
from the continent by the narrow but navigable river Sante native of Isleb, who, interpreting literally some of the pre-
Petri, over which is an ancient bridge called Puente de cepts of St Paul regarding the Jewish law, declaimed against
Zuarzo, generally, but erroneously, believed to have been the necessity of good works. See Antinomians.
built by Julius Caesar; it is, however, known to have been ISLINGTON, a large parish in the hundred of Ossulton,
erected by Cornelius Balbo the younger, seventeen years in the county of Middlesex, one mile and a half from Lon-
before the Christian era. The foundations are now the don. It rises in a gentle declivity from the metropolis, but,
same as then existed, but the upper works, and some of the by the houses connecting with it, appears to be only a pro¬
arches, were built in 1437. On both sides, but especially longation of the city. It is chiefly occupied by persons
towards the continent, the river has extensive and boggy carrying on trade in London, or by those who have retired
marshes, which can only be crossed by means of a narrow from commerce. It contains no very splendid mansions,
causeway, exposed to the attacks of several heavy batteries, but a great number of respectable and comfortable dwell-
The strength of this place, and the secure retreat from it ings. It contains the hamlets of Upper and Lower Hollo-
to Cadiz, of still greater strength in case of emergency, way, and part of Newington Green and Kingsland. Being
made it the natural and valuable asylum of all that re- on the great north road, carriages are passing through it
mained of freedom in Spain from the year 1810, till the re- at all hours. Besides the parish church it has three others,
suit of the battle of Salamanca compelled the French to and chapels for sectaries of every description. The New
evacuate Andalusia. The marshes on the banks of the River passes through the parish, and the Regent’s Canal.
Sante Petri afford prodigious quantities of salt, crystallized The latter, by a tunnel, goes under the principal street,
by the heat of the sun. It is piled in heaps of a pyramidi- and under the New River, and thus conveys coals and other
cal form ; and when the rain dissolves the upper part, the heavy articles from the Thames at a cheap rate. The
sun crystallizes it again, and thus forms a roof of a solid New River head, from which a great part of the metropo-
cake of salt, and defends the heap from the future effects lis is supplied with water, is in this parish, as well as the
of any bad weather. It is permitted to be exported on minor theatre known as Sadler’s Wells. A mineral water
payment of a very trifling duty, and numerous ships are here was once frequented for its medicinal qualities, but the
loaded with it. What is conveyed to the interior becomes fashion seems to be changed, as it is now rarely resorted to.
the subject of a royal monopoly, and is subject to a very A collegiate institution has been lately founded at Highbury
heavy tax. Lat. 38° 53' 16" N. ; Long. 5° 40' 31" W. in this parish, for the education of dissenting ministers of
ISLAM, or Islamism ; the true faith, according to the the class of Independents. The population of the parish
Mahommedans. See Mahommedanism. amounted in 1801 to 10,212, in 1811 to 15,065, in 1821
ISLAMABAD, a town of Bengal, in the district of Chitta- to 22,417, and in 1831 to 37,316.
gong, of which it is the capital. It is situated on the western ISMAELITES, the descendants of Ismael, dwelling from
bank of the Chittagon, near about ten miles from its junc- Havila to the wilderness of Sur, towards Egypt, and thus
tion with the sea. It carries on a considerable trade, and overspreading Arabia Petraea ; wherefore Josephus calls
ships are also built there, and sent to Calcutta for sale. Ismael the founder of the Arabs.
This town was early known to the Portuguese, by whom it ISMAIL, a town of the Russian province Bessarabia, the
was called Porto Grando. It was taken from the rajah of capital of a circle of the same name. It is situated on an
Arracan by the Moguls in 1666 ; and was at that period well arm of the Danube, is strongly fortified, and has become ce-
fortified with 1200 cannon. Its name was changed from lebrated for the carnage which attended its capture in 1789
Chittagong to Islamabad. In 1689, the English made an by Suwarrow. Since that period it has not recovered its
unsuccessful assault upon it. Since it was ceded to the former importance, and contains but few inhabitants, with
British in 1760, the fortifications have been allowed to go little commerce or produce. Lat. 45° 21' 30"; Long. 28
into decay. The entrance to the river is dangerous without 44' 35" E.
a pilot, as it has only four fathoms over the bar, and after- ISMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Ci-
wards deepens to from five to seven fathoms. The en- cones in Thrace, giving name to a lake, and by Virgil
trance to the river is in 22° 13'N. The town stands in long, called Ismara.
91° 42' E. ; lat. 22° 22' N. This is also the name of a ISMID, a town of Asia Minor, the ancient Nicomedia,
considerable town of Cashmeer, situated on the north side capital of Bithynia. It retains no traces of its former
of the river Ihytyur, over which is a wooden bridge eighty grandeur, nor any antiquity, except the remains of a church,
yards in length. Its houses are built of stone, with gar- It contains 750 families, and is situated on the side of a hill
dens on their roofs; and its principal manufacture is shawls, overlooking the Gulf of Nicomedia. Lat. 40° 39' N.;
Lat. 34° 6' N.; Long. 74° 7' E. Long. 29° 34' E.
ISLAMNAGUR, a town of Hindostan, in the Mahratta ISMIK, a town of Asia Minor, the ancient Nice, which
territories, province of Malwah, five miles north-east from now contains scarcely 300 houses, yet exhibits numerous
Bossal, in lat. 23° 19' N.; long. 77°31'E. There are monuments of ancient grandeur. It is situated on a lake
many small places of this name in* Hindostan. communicating with the Sea of Marmora, and carries on
ISO
jgo -onal some trade in silk. This place is famous in ecclesiastical
history, as the seat of two councils, in 325 and 387. During
Is< ites. t]ie period of the crusades, it became the capital of a king-
^ dom erected along the coast of Asia Minor. The old walls
of the town may be still traced over a circumference of four
miles. Lat. 40° 16' N.; Long. 29° 50' E.
ISOCHRONAL, is applied to such vibrations of a pen¬
dulum as are performed in the same space of time ; as are
all the vibrations of the same pendulum, whether the arches
it describes be longer or shorter.
Isochronal Zme, that in which a heavy body is supposed
to descend without any acceleration.
ISOCRATES, one of the most celebrated rhetoricians of
Athens, was born, b. c. 436, five years before the begin¬
ning of the Peloponnesian war, twenty-two years after the
birth of Lysias, and fifty-four after that of Demosthenes.
He died b. c. 338. He was son of Theodorus, who was a
manufacturer of musical instruments, but, though of hum¬
ble parentage, he seems to have enjoyed the best education
which Athens could furnish. His early years were spent
under Gorgias of Leontium, one of the most celebrated so¬
phists of the age; Prodicus of Ceos, whose beautiful apo¬
logue of Hercules between Virtue and Vice, has immor¬
talized his name; and Theramenes, who was afterwards con¬
demned to death by the thirty tyrants, because, though
their colleague, he refused to participate in their tyranny.
With their assistance, Isocrates soon began to display the
talents of which he was possessed, and became anxious to
illustrate his name as a statesman and legislator. Nature,
however, it would appear, had placed an impassable bar¬
rier against his entrance on public life, by furnishing him
with a weak voice and timidity of nature which he found
himself unable to overcome. Thus prevented from pur¬
suing the path to which his inclination pointed, he de¬
termined to make his talents subservient to his fortune.
He opened a school for oratory, and soon found himself
surrounded by a numerous body of young men anxious
to profit by his instructions. Amongst the more cele¬
brated we may mention Theopompus, Ephorus, Isaeus, Ti-
motheus, Philiscus, and Xenophon. So numerous were the
disciples of Isocrates, that Hermippus composed a work in
several books respecting them. The sophists of his time
were accustomed to discuss subtile points of logical casuis¬
try ; Isocrates first distinguished himself by discussing the
great political interests of the time, and examining im¬
portant questions of morality. As his speeches were not
intended to be delivered, but to be perused in the retire¬
ment of the closet, Isocrates was obliged to pay particular
attention to beauty of style, to the rounding of his periods,
and avoiding whatever might prove offensive to the ear.
He is said to have been employed ten years in polishing
one of the most celebrated of his productions, entitled the
Panegyric. It might be expected that this mode of pro¬
ceeding would be attended with some defects ; it occa¬
sioned a want of animation, a constant monotony, and often
an enfeebling of the ideas, which were enveloped in a mul¬
titude of words, useful only to round the period and to pro¬
duce the necessary rhythm and cadence. He was not al¬
ways able to secure himself against the envy of his country¬
men, and they even accused him of holding a suspicious in¬
tercourse with Philip of Macedon, with whom he kept up
a constant correspondence ; but he proved, by the closing
scene of his life, that his intentions had always been pure,
and that he had sincerely loved his country. After the
battle of Chaeronea, b. c. 338, so fatal to the liberties of
Greece, he determined no longer to drag on a life which
, would be embittered by seeing his country subject to the
Macedonians. He preferred to starve himself to death.
ISP 461
Of his works we still possess twenty-one orations and nine Isoperime-
letters. The first is addressed to Demoricus, of whom we trical
know nothing, and is a collection of remarks and maxims Pigures
for the direction of a young man’s conduct. It is attributed r '1
by some critics to Isocrates of Apollonia, who is mentioned v sPa^ an ^
by Suidas and Harpocration. One of the finest of his pro¬
ductions is the Panegyric (ncevyyvgtxos), which was written
B. c. 380, with the view of putting an end to the internal
dissensions of the Greeks, and inducing them to unite against
the Persians. We may also mention the oration entitled
noivu0iivMx6s, as one of the best specimens of his peculiar
style, though it was composed, b. c. 342, at the advanced
age of ninety-four. It is a high panegyric on the Athe¬
nians and their ancestors. Numerous editions of his works
have been published. The editio princeps was printed at
Milan in 1493, by Demetrius Chalcondylas, but the best is
that by Coray, Paris, 1807. The Panegyric has been pub¬
lished separately by Morus, 1803, by Pinzger, Lips. 1825,
and by Dindorf, Lips. 1826. Many of his other works have
also been published separately.
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in Geometry^ are such
as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOSCELES triangle, in Geometry., one that has two
equal sides.
ISPAHAN, from time immemorial the capital of the
Persian monarchy, and long celebrated as one of the most
splendid cities of the East, though now nearly in a state of
ruin and decay. Its original name is said to have been
Sipahan, which it received from the Persian kings, in con¬
sequence of its having been the general place of rendezvous
for their armies. The origin of this city is lost in a remote
antiquity ; but it is generally supposed to have arisen from
the ruins of Hecatompylos, the capital of Parthia; whilst
some will have it to stand on the site of the Aspa or Aspadu-
ra of Ptolemy. It is well adapted, from its central situation
with the noble river Zeinderood flowing through it, for the
capital of the empire. It was under the caliphs of Bagdad
that it rose to be the capital of Irak, and under their powerful
protection it soon increased in wealth, population, and trade.
The invasion of Timor gave a fatal blow to its rising prospe¬
rity. Ispahan was taken by his conquering army in the year
1387 ; and at first he contented himself with exacting a
large contribution from its inhabitants But being apprised
that the inhabitants meditated a nocturnal insurrection
against his troops, he gave up the place to military execu¬
tion ; and in the indiscriminate massacre which followed, it
is computed that 70,000 inhabitants perished ; indeed their
heads piled up in heaps on the walls of Ispahan, attested
the merciless severity of the conqueror. From this deso¬
lation, owing to its favoured situation, it quickly revived ;
and under the early sophis great efforts were made to re¬
store its former prosperity. But it was reserved for the
renowned Shah Abbas to raise it to the height of royal
magnificence, and to render it not only a luxurious capital,
but the great emporium of the Asiatic world. During his
reign it contained nearly a million of people, and to supply
its markets required the labour of 1400 villages, whose in¬
habitants drew their subsistence from its prosperity. “ Its
bazaars,” says Sir R. K. Porter, “ w'ere filled with mer¬
chandize from every quarter of the globe, mingled with the
rich bales of its own celebrated manufactures.”1 It was the
scene of industry, diligence, and activity ; whilst the court
of the great king was the resort of ambassadors from the
proudest kingdoms of the East, as well as from Europe ; and
travellers visited it, to behold its splendours, and to enjoy
the gracious reception bestowed by its monarch on the
learned and ingenious of all nations. It was visited by Char¬
din at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and its mag-
1 See Travels in Georgia, Persia, <%c., vol. i. p. 407, et seq.
462
ISP
ISP
Ispahan, nificence was such, that no city of the East could compare
with it, except the capitals of Hindostan and China. Such
was the state of Ispahan during the reign of Abbas the
First, and also during the subsequent reign of the second
Abbas. In 1722, it was taken by the Afghans, when all
its prosperity and splendour were for ever extinguished by
those merciless invaders. The people were massacred with¬
out mercy ; the most superb edifices erected by the Per¬
sian kings were reduced to ruins ; and the wall which for¬
merly surrounded the city was entirely destroyed by them.
In 1727 it was retaken by Nadir Shah, who took no pains,
however, to restore its prosperity. Since this period, Is¬
pahan has never again been a royal residence, the late so¬
vereigns of Persia having preferred a more northern capi¬
tal, particularly Teheran ; and Ispahan, instead of being re¬
paired and beautified as formerly, has gor>e more and more
into decay, and now presents little else than a scene of
ruin. Its people are in fact reduced to scarcely one-tenth
of their former numbers; the streets are everywhere in
ruin ; the bazaars remain silent and unattended ; the cara¬
vansaries are equally forsaken ; its villages lie waste ; and
its palaces are solitary, the sounds of revelry, which were
wont to be heard in the festive halls, being now succeeded
by the howling of jackals and famishing dogs.
According to the ancient account of this city by Char¬
din, it was twenty-four miles in circuit, contained 172
mosques, 43 colleges, 1800 caravansaries, and 273 public
baths. The most splendid edifice which adorned the city
was the palace of Shah Abbas. It is said to have been
five miles in circuit, and was divided into gardens and plea¬
sure grounds, with summer-houses and other elegant struc¬
tures. The extent and elegance of the buildings, the num¬
ber and beauty of the fountains dispersed through the gar¬
dens, and the grandeur of the royal halls in the interior,
are said to have surpassed any thing of the kind to be found
in Europe. The walls and buildings of the palace remain
still nearly entire; but it has been stripped of all its costly
furniture, and every thing valuable that could be removed.
The Meydun is a large square, nearly one-third of a mile
in length, and about one-half in breadth. It was formerly
surrounded by a canal, bordered by very fine plane trees;
but all vestiges of both are now obliterated. Its original
purpose, by Shah Abbas, was for the display of horseman¬
ship and military exercises, but it is now entirely devoted
to trade, being the place of the city where the finest
shops are to be found, with a second storey, in which mecha¬
nics have their working apartments; and in the middle is
a market for horses and cattle. In the centre of this im¬
mense area stand some edifices remarkable for grandeur
or for character. In the north-west we find the great gate
or rather tower of entrance to the bazaar, on which in
former times stood the celebrated clock of Ispahan. The
south-eastern side of the quadrangle shews the Mesched
Shah, a superb mosque, which Shah Abbas built and dedi¬
cated to Mehedi, one of the twelve imams. On the north¬
east is the mosque of Looft Ullah; and on the south-west
the Ali-kapi, or gate of Ali, forms a majestic parallel to the
bazaar porch on the opposite side. This is the most perfect
piece of fine brick-work to be found in the Persian empire.
Another remarkable object is the Chahar Bagh, or four
gardens. The royal domain which bears.that title, is a very
extensive tract, inclosed with four majestic walls, and divided
into gardens with pleasure-grounds. The prevailing plan of
all these is that of long parallel walks, shaded by even rows
of tall and umbrageous planes; and jnterspersed with a va¬
riety of fruit-trees, and of every kind of flowering shrub.
Canals, which receive the waters of the Zeinderood, flow
down the avenues in the same undeviating lines, and gene¬
rally terminate in some large marble basin of a square or
octagon shape, ornamented with sparkling fountains; the
effect of the whole, though formal, being extremely grand.
Many magnificent rivers and palaces opened into these
grounds, which are now all destroyed. That at the east
called Hooser Jereeb, one of the noblest edifices of Ispa¬
han, was reduced into a heap of rubbish by the Afghans.
Its garden, however, still remains, and is nearly a mile iii
extent. The object of this garden was to form a reposi¬
tory of the finest fruits which Persia produced, and which
are still to be found there in the greatest perfection. The
palace of Forty Pillars, which was the favourite residence of
the Sefi kings, is said to exceed all our European ideas of
splendour, and to realize the wonderful tales of the Ara¬
bian Nights’ Entertainments. At a considerable distance
from the Chehel Setoon, or the palace of the Forty Pillars,
to the left of the gardens, stands the Winter Palace, con¬
taining the harem, royal arsenal, and stables, where Ashneff,
the second tyrant of the Afghan invaders, held his short and
cruel sway, which he stained with the blood of its native
prince, the captive Shah Houssain. Close to the winter
palace stands a superb structure, lately erected by the Ni-
zam-a-Doulah, for the reception of his present majesty,
should he ever visit the capital. The general style of the
architecture is the same with that of the neighbouring
palaces, but executed in a more light, simple, and elegant
taste.
There are several very handsome bridges in Ispahan
across the Zeinderood. They were all the work of Shah
Abbas, built of brick, and on the same plan, being perfectly
level, presenting the appearance of Roman aqueducts. Each
bridge is formed of a long succession of small arches, over
which the causeway is laid; and on that run two lines of
arcades on each side of the bridge, affording a road for
foot passengers, and leaving the middle part open for horse¬
men and cattle. The bridge which joins the Chaur Bang
with the suburb of Julpha, is 1000 feet long, and has thir¬
ty-four arches. The streets of Ispahan are narrow, wind¬
ing, and irregular ; and being quite unpaved, the wind, in
dry weather, raises such clouds of dust, that the sun can¬
not be seen. Great pains are in consequence bestowed in
watering the streets. The houses within, though they are
handsome and convenient, have a mean appearance from
the street, being built merely of bricks dried in the sun,
and covered with flat roofs. The walls by which the city
was formerly surrounded, are now entirely obliterated.
They were merely built of mud dried in the sun, and were
never able to offer any effectual resistance against a vigo¬
rous assault.
Ispahan, during its prosperity, was greatly distinguished
by the extent and beauty of its suburbs. The suburb of
Julpha was very wealthy and populous. It wTas chiefly in¬
habited by Armenians, who were transferred here from
Old Julpha in Armenia, on account of their skill in manu¬
facturing industry. They were soon joined by others of
their countrymen, as well as by a number of Georgians,
Circassians, and other Christians, the suburbs being appro¬
priated to the professors of that faith. The streets are
broad, with well built houses and a numerous population,
with walks of trees, cooling fountains, and pleasant gardens.
It is now reduced to a complete ruin. Its 10,000 inha¬
bitants have diminished to 300 wretched families, dwind¬
ling every year both in respectability and numbers; its
thirteen churches are reduced to two, and these dirty and
dark and dismal in their appearance. The- worship of the
Guebres, the ancient w orshippers of fire, and that of Abbas
Adab, formerly very extensive, have quite disappeared.
Ispahan, after such a long period of misery and desolation
from foreign wars and internal revolutions, has begun to
revive from its low state, partly through the spontaneous
efforts of its inhabitants, anxious to better their condition,
and partly also through the exertions of Hajee Mahommed
Hussein Khan, who, from the lowest situation, having ac¬
quired immense wTealth, has employed it in the improve-
ISP
I ra ment of his native city and province. He has completed
a royal palace, and has beautified and rebuilt many of the
Iss lun. baZaars; repaired and added to the number of the foun-
'*'■ tains and aqueducts which supply the public gardens with
water; and inclosed and cultivated all the waste land in
the vicinity of the city, by planting rice fields, which are
irrigated by the waters of the Zeinderood, and the cultiva¬
tion of which is likely to supersede entirely its once abun¬
dant nurseries for cotton and silk. Ispahan has still very
extensive manufactures. It excels in silk manufactures and
in gold brocade ; and it is also a great emporium of inland
trade, and a depot of Indian produce, being the chief me¬
dium of intercourse between India, Cabul, and the east, and
Turkey, Egypt, and the countries round the Mediterra¬
nean, in the west. Lat. 32° 25' N.; Long. 52° 50' E.
ISPIRA, a town of Turkish Armenia, the ancient His-
piratis, now an inconsiderable town, but situated in a very
fertile district, and surrounded by many fine and rich vil¬
lages. It is ninety miles east of Trebisond.
ISRAEL, the name which the angel gave to Jacob, after
having wrestled with him all night at Mahanaim or Penuel
(Gen. xxxii. 1, 2, and 28, 29, 30, and Hosea xii. 3). It
signifies “ a conqueror of God,” or “ a prince of God,” or,
according to many of the ancients, “ a man who sees God.”
By the name of Israel is sometimes understood the per¬
son of Jacob ; sometimes the whole people of Israel, or the
whole race of Jacob ; and sometimes the kingdom of Israel,
or of the ten tribes, distinct from the kingdom of Judah.
ISRAELITES, the descendants of Israel, who were at
first called Hebrews, by reason of Abraham, who came
from the other side of the Euphrates ; and afterwards Is¬
raelites, from Israel the father of the twelve patriarchs;
and, lastly, Jews, particularly after their return from the
captivity of Babylon, because the tribe of Judah was then
stronger and more numerous than the other tribes.
ISSACHAR, one of the divisions of Palestine by tribes,
situated to the south of Zabulon, and by a narrow slip
reaches the Jordan, between Zabulon and Manasseh (Jo¬
shua, xix). But whether it reached to the sea, is uncer¬
tain. Some hold that it did ; but this is an assertion not
easy to be proved, as Joshua makes no mention of the sea
in this tribe, nor does Josephus extend it farther than to
Mount Carmel; and in Joshua (xvii. 10) Asher is said
to touch Manasseh on the north, which could not be if Is-
sachar extended to the sea.
ISSENGEAUX, an arrondissement of the department of
the Upper Loire in France, extending over 1200 square
miles. It is divided into six cantons, and these into thirty-
seven communes, which contain 76,306 inhabitants. The
capital is a city of the same name, which contains 1050
houses, with 6571 inhabitants, who subsist chiefly by agri¬
cultural operations.
ISSIN, a small town of Persia, two miles north of Gom¬
broon, to which many of the inhabitants of that city retire
during the unhealthy season.
ISSOIRE, an arrondissement of the department of the
Puy-de-D6me in France, extending over 758 square miles,
divided into nine cantons, composed of 116 communes, and
inhabited by 95,500 persons. The capital is a city of the
same name, situated on the river Crouse, which a little be¬
low falls into the Allier. It contains 730 houses and 5,479
inhabitants, who manufacture some jewellery. Lat. 45° 33';
Long. 3° 10' E.
ISSOUDUN, an arrondissement of the department of
the Indre in France, extending over 466 square miles, di¬
vided into four cantons, and those into fifty-three com¬
munes, and containing 39,887 inhabitants. The capital
from which it takes the name, is a city which is situated on
the river Theals, a second-rate stream. It is surrounded
with ditches and walls, defended by towers, and contains
2050 houses, with 10.710 inhabitants. A great quantity of
1ST 463
leather is cured in it, and there are many hats and stock- Issue
ings made. Lat. 46° 56' 53" ; Long. 1° 54' 5" E. H
ISSUE, in common law, has various applications, being Italica.
sometimes taken for the children begotten between a man v ^
and his wife ; sometimes for profits growing from amerce¬
ments or fines; sometimes for profits of lands and tene¬
ments ; but more frequently for the point of matter depend¬
ing in suit, upon which the parties join, and put their cause
to the trial of the jury. In all these occasions, issue has
but one signification, which is, an effect of a cause pre¬
ceding ; as the children are the effect of the marriage be¬
tween the parents ; the profits growing to the king or lord,
from the punishment of any man’s offence, are the effect
of his transgression ; and the point referred to the trial of
twelve men is the effect of pleading, or process.
ISSURDU, a town of Hindostan, in the province of
Asmeer, in the Rajpoot territories. It is surrounded with
a wall and ditch, has a citadel in the centre, and is one of
the best built towns in the province. Lat. 26° 26' N.:
Long. 76° 10' E.
ISSUS, now Ajazo, a town oi Cilicia in Natolia, with a
harbour on the Levant sea, a little to the north of Scande-
roon. Lat. 36° 56' N. ; Long. 36° 25' E.
ISTAKHAR, a castle of Persia, formerly one of the
citadels of Persepolis. It is situated on a very lofty and
steep rock, and completely commands the surrounding
plains. On the top is abundance of water.
ISTHMIA, or Isthmian Games, one of the four solemn
games which were celebrated every fifth year in Greece.
They derived their name from the isthmus of Corinth,
where they were celebrated. In their first institution, ac¬
cording to Pausanias, they consisted only of funeral rites
and ceremonies in honour of Melicertes; but, as Plutarch
informs us, Theseus, in emulation of Hercules, who had ap¬
pointed games at Olympia in honour of Jupiter, afterwards
dedicated these to Neptune, his reputed father, who was
regarded as the particular protector of the isthmus and
commerce of Corinth. The same trials of skill were ex¬
hibited here as at the other three sacred games; particu¬
larly those of music and poetry. These games, in which
the victors were only rewarded with garlands of pine
leaves, were celebrated with great magnificence and splen¬
dour as long as Paganism continued to be the established re¬
ligion of Greece ; nor were they omitted even when Co¬
rinth was sacked and burned by Mummius the Roman ge¬
neral ; at which time the care of them was transferred to
the Sicyonians, but wras again restored to the Corinthians
w hen their city was rebuilt.
ISTHMUS, a narrow neck or slip of land, which con¬
nects two continents ; or joins a peninsula to the terra firma,
and separates two seas. The most celebrated isthmuses are
that of Panama or Darien, which joins North and South
America; that of Suez, which connects Asia and Africa;
that of Corinth, which unites the Morea wuth Western
Greece ; that of Crim-Tartary, otherwise called Taurica
Chersonesus; and that of the peninsula Romania, and
Erisso, or the isthmus of the Thracian Chersonesus, twelve
furlongs broad, being that which Xerxes undertook to cut
through.
ISTRIA, a peninsula of Italy, in the territory of Venice,
situated in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea. It is
bounded by Carniola cm the north ; and on the south, east,
and w'est, by the sea. It produces wine, oil, and pastures ;
and there are quarries of fine marble. One part of it be¬
longs to the Venetians, and the other to the house of Aus¬
tria. Capo dTstria is the capital town.
ITALICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Baetica in
Spain, built by Scipio Africanus, and famous for being the
birth-place of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, and of the
poet Silius Italicus. It is now Seville Vieja, a small village
of Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir.
464
ITALY.
History.
A.D. 476
to 568.
This extensive and interesting portion of Europe did
not receive the name it has long borne till the extension
of the Roman empire. The origin of that name has been
derived by different persons from various sources. Ti-
maeus and Yarro have deduced it from a Greek word, Ira-
Xof, which signifies an ox, because it contains a vast ex¬
tent of pasture land, peculiarly adapted to that animal.
Thucydides and Dionysius of Halicarnassus derive the
name from a king Italus. In early periods it was some¬
times called Saturnia, from the name of a deity, Saturn, in
the heathen mythology. It was sometimes called CEno-
tria, from a Sabine chief named CEnotrius ; and frequently
Ausonia, from Auson, a son of Ulysses, who is said to have
established a tribe in the centre of the peninsula. All of
these more ancient names seem, however, to have refer¬
red only to particular districts, which, when the Roman
power had subjected them all, assumed, with the other
parts subsequently united to them, the general name it still
continues to bear. The Greeks at all times applied to it
the name Hesperia, on account of its being to the west¬
ward from their country; and the Teutones or Germans
called it Waelschland, because the parts nearest to them
were inhabited by a people called Galles, changed into
Walles; and in their present language the name of Waelsch-
land is still retained by the common people.
The history of Italy before the rise of the Roman power
is, like that of all rude nations, involved in obscurity, or
clouded with indistinctness; through which the indefati¬
gable Niebuhr, with a profusion of learning, has endea¬
voured to grope his way. Before Rome began to be power¬
ful, Italy was peopled by inhabitants who had made some
advances towards civilization. In the northern part the
Gauls were rude and fierce, and they the longest resisted
the encroaching power; whilst lower down, on the Arno
and the Tiber, there was a number of smaller tribes, such
as the Etruscans, the Samnites, and the Latins, who, in
a kind of confederacy, though sometimes at variance with
one another, long sought, and ultimately in vain, to defend
their freedom against the rising and aspiring city. In the
southern parts were colonies of emigrants from Greece,
with but little union, and frequently engaged in hostilities
amongst themselves. When and by what means all these
tribes became finally subjected to Rome, belongs to the
history of that empire ; for the history of the conquered is
swallowed up in that of the conquerors.
The fate of Italy was that of Rome till the dissolution
of that colossal power. When the seat of empire was re¬
moved to Constantinople, Italy, though accounted a por¬
tion of the western empire, was treated as a dependent
province, and continued with only the semblance of power,
which power was finally wrested from all dependence on
Byzantium by an adventurous Gothic warrior, who, about
the year 476 of the Christian era, founded the kingdom of
Italy.
Odoacer had raised himself, by his intrigues amongst the
mercenary guards, to the command of those troops, who
from inactivity had become restless and mutinous. Au-
gustulus, the last emperor of the West, was unable to re¬
sist the power of his disaffected troops, and withdrew to
Pavia. That city was besieged, captured, and ravaged,
and Augustulus retired to obscurity, when Odoacer pro¬
claimed himself king of Italy. He exercised the power
with dignity, and, as regarded Augustulus, with clemency,
by assigning him a liberal establishment, during the few
years that remained of his life, in the retreat he had se¬
lected in Campania. Italy was in a wretched state, and
Odoacer used as much prudence and humanity as could Hist
have been exercised by a rude conqueror, to improve the '—-vCi
condition and the institutions of the country; but the li¬
centious troops who had been the means of his obtaining
it could not be kept in obedience by a power so created,
and disorders became universal. When Odoacer had reign¬
ed fourteen years, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, at
the instigation of the Emperor Zeno, who reigned in By¬
zantium, invaded the newly-founded kingdom; defeated
and assassinated Odoacer; and, in 493, added the whole of
Italy to his dominions, which thus extended from the Alps
to Sicily. The only part not subjected was some islands
in the lagunes of the Adriatic Sea, inhabited by fisher¬
men and salt-makers, who had first found a refuge in
these from the ravages of Attila, and had there secured
freedom, and by their union, and by the capability of de¬
fending themselves, laid the foundation of what subse¬
quently became the republic of Venice. In the favoured
climate of Italy, and under the government of Theodoric,
the Goths multiplied rapidly; and they were almost the sole
masters of the soil, and of the slaves who cultivated it.
By his external policy he had acquired the confidence of
the other Gothic tribes, even in the remote regions that bor¬
der on the Baltic Sea, and had introduced strong and regular
forms of government into Rhaetia, Noricum, Dalmatia, and
Pannonia. Though the jealousy of the emperor at By¬
zantium induced him to invade the territory commanded
by Theodoric, and to employ both a large fleet and a
powerful army, his attempts were repelled by sea and by
land, and his forces were dispersed or dispirited, and re¬
tired from the contest.
Theodoric w as not less successful in another attack from
the west by King Clovis, the leader of the Franks, who
were checked in the midst of a career which had commen¬
ced with brilliant success.
Ravenna was the seat of the government of this prince,
though he occasionally resided at Verona. He once vi¬
sited Rome, where he was received with rapture by the
populace, and with the highest marks of respect by the
senators. During the latter and peaceful portion of his
reign he endeavoured to amalgamate his Italian and Gothic
subjects ; but his success was much obstructed by the re¬
ligious controversy between the orthodox and the Arians,
though, whilst adhering to the latter sect, he tolerated and
even honoured many of the other profession. But a union
was in some measure effected between the conquerors and
the conquered, and civilization was advanced during this
long reign, although at the sacrifice of the manly simpli¬
city of the former to the corruption and luxurious indulgen¬
ces of the latter.
Theodoric died in the palace he had built at Ravenna,
in 526, after a reign of thirty-three years, having by his
will divided his dominions between two grandsons, be¬
queathing Italy to Athalaric, then a boy of twelve years
of age. The youthful sovereign was left under the pupil¬
lage of his mother Amalasontha, from which he was early
withdrawn by the flatterers who surrounded him. His
mother then entered into intrigues with the Emperor Jus¬
tinian, tending to deliver up Italy to its ancient depen¬
dence on the court of Byzantium. Her son, as he advan¬
ced in age, entered on the most dissolute courses, by
which his life was terminated in the sixteenth year of his
age. His mother, who assumed the power, was speedily
assassinated by a husband she had chosen to be a sharer of
the throne.
The imperial court was eager to take advantage of the
gi ry. unsettled state of Italy to reduce it again under subjection.
^ Belisarius, the most renowned of the generals, was despatch¬
ed, but with an inconsiderable force. Hostilities raged with
great fury, and after a variety of changes in the aspect of
affairs, the imperial commander had so weakened the Goths,
and so engaged the confidence and assistance of the Italian
inhabitants, that the prospect of complete subjugation pre¬
sented itself. This was, however, clouded by the dissen¬
sions which broke out amongst the officers in command of
the several divisions of the army of Justinian in 538. At
that time the chief command was conferred on Narses, a
eunuch, whose conduct at that period, whatever military
merit he afterwards displayed, tended greatly to the injury
of his sovereign’s party.
Narses was indeed soon recalled, and Belisarius rein¬
stated in the supreme command ; but in the midst of
discord the Goths had been permitted to breathe, an im¬
portant season was lost, Milan had been destroyed, and the
northern provinces of Italy were afflicted by an inundation
of the Franks. Under Belisarius the events of the war
underwent a favourable change ; he captured the strongly
fortified city of Ravenna, and returned with numerous
captives to Constantinople to receive the applause of the
people and a splendid triumph, the last reward of his va¬
lour and his humanity.
The removal of Belisarius from Italy revived the spi¬
rits of the remaining Goths, and the feeble efforts of the
successive generals of Justinian were insufficient to crush
the civil war. The handful of the barbarians, scarcely
amounting to five thousand, and in possession of no other
strong place than Pavia, chose Totila for their chief, and
proclaimed him king of Italy, in the year 541.
His progress was rapid, and almost without interrup¬
tion, from the north of Italy to Naples. He captured
that city, and returned to Rome, which he besieged ; and
though Belisarius, who had been recalled from the wars
of Persia, attempted to relieve it, he was unable to do so ;
and the citizens, compelled by famine, allowed the Goths
to occupy the capital of the western empire in the year
546. After an useless occupation of Rome when it had
been abandoned by Totila, Belisarius was recalled to
Constantinople, and the command once more confer¬
red upon Narses, who was furnished with troops, stores,
and money, with a profusion widely different from the
parsimony exercised towards his predecessor. He ad¬
vanced with his forces by the head of the Adriatic Sea,
and in a tremendous battle encountered the Goths under
Totila, whom he totally defeated, whilst that chief was
killed in the conflict. After his death, those who had es¬
caped elected Tejas as their king ; but he too became the
victim of his ambition, was soon subdued by Narses, and
with him terminated, in 553, the Gothic kingdom of Italy,
by the capture of the last of their fortified places.
Italy, after these events, became once more a province
of the Roman empire, of which Ravenna formed the ca¬
pital, and in which the representatives of the emperor, the
exarchs, fixed their residence. Narses, the first of them,
was removed by the jealousy of the Byzantine court; and
his successors neglected the defence of the Alpine passes,
by which the Longobards, or Lombards, a German race,
entered the country. They are supposed to have been of
Scandinavian origin, and to have gained a settlement be¬
tween the Oder and the Elbe in the reign of Augustus.
I hey gradually descended towards the south, and ap¬
proached the Danube. At the solicitation of Justinian,
they passed that river, to reduce, in pursuance of a treaty,
the cities of Noricum and the fortresses of Pannonia ; but
the spirit of rapine soon tempted them beyond these li¬
mits, and at length, under Alboin, in 568, they penetrated
into Italy.
Before the Lombards entered Italy, they were establish-
vol. xir.
ed on the frontiers of the Roman empire, and had for History,
neighbours two other barbarous tribes, the Avars and the
Gepidae, who were sometimes hostile towards each other, a. d. 568
though commonly at peace, demanding and receiving what 774.
they deemed tribute, but what the imperialists in their
weak state denominated presents. The Avars and the
Lombards, at the instigation or with the connivance of
the Emperor Justin, the successor of Justinian, jointly at¬
tacked the Gepidae. The bravest of them fell in battle ;
their king Cunimund was slain, and his daughter Rosa¬
mund became the captive of Alboin, the chief of the Lom¬
bards, and by marriage shared that throne which had be¬
fore been occupied by the daughter of Clovis, the king of
the Franks.
The ambition of Alboin was excited rather than satis¬
fied by the conquest of the Gepidae, and the submission of
the Avars to his authority; and he turned his eyes from the
Danube to the richer banks of the Po and the Tiber. Fif¬
teen years before, his subjects, as the confederates of
Narses, had visited Italy; the mountains, the rivers, and
the highways, were familiar to their memory. The report
of their success, and the views of the spoil, kindled in the
rising generation the flame of emulation and of enterprise.
Their hopes were encouraged by the spirit and eloquence
of their leader. No sooner had Alboin, or Alboinus, erect¬
ed his standard, than the native strength of the Lombards
was multiplied by the adventurous youth of Germany and
Scythia. The robust peasantry of Noricum and Pannonia
resumed the manners of barbarians ; and the names of the
Gepidae, as well as of the Bulgarians, the Sarmatians, and
the Sueves, are now to be found in the provinces of Italy.
It has been said that Narses the eunuch, to resent an af¬
front offered him by the Empress Sophia, the wife of Jus¬
tin, had instigated Alboin to the attempt, and counselled
him to form an alliance with the Huns before he commen¬
ced his operations.
The whole nation of the Lombards, accompanied by
their allies, and attended by their wives, their children,
their cattle, and their most valuable effects, began their
march in April 568. They had no opposition to encoun¬
ter as they passed through the Venetian country, and the
city of Aquileia opened its gates, most of the inhabitants
having abandoned their homes at the approach of the for¬
midable invaders. Alboin passed the winter in Friuli,
with his troops quartered around him, which city he erect¬
ed into a dukedom, and appointed his nephew Gisulphus
to govern and watch over the territory. In the succeeding
year the conqueror advanced and occupied Trevigio, Oder-
zo, Vicenza, Verona, and Trent, leaving in each city a
garrison, and intrusting the whole to one of his officers,
with the title of duke during his command. Padua and
some other cities were passed by, either because they did
not intercept his progress, or because they were too strong¬
ly garrisoned. In the third campaign Alboin passed into
Northern Liguria, and possessed himself of Brescia, Ber¬
gamo, Lodi, and Como, with little opposition, the inhabi¬
tants having escaped to the mountains. Milan, then the
capital of Liguria, was captured after a short siege, the
principal people, with their bishop, Honoratus, having fled
to Genoa. In Milan the ceremony of the inauguration
was solemnly performed. Alboin was lifted on a shield in
the midst of his troops, received the emblems of royalty
then in use, and was proclaimed king of Italy.
From Milan Alboin sent out expeditions, which reduced
Piacenza, Parma, and Modena, and the other inland cities
in iEmilia and Tuscany. At Pavia he met an obstinate
resistance, but, after a siege which endured more than
three years, that city at length surrendered; and being
strongly fortified, it was fixed as his place of residence, and
long continued to be the capital of the Lombard kingdom.
Whilst Alboin was in Pavia taking the steps necessary to
3 N
ITALY.
466
History, defend the dominions he had acquired, and to reconcile
v—his new subjects to his rule, he was murdered at the insti¬
gation of his wife, in the palace at Pavia, in the year 575.
The queen, with her paramour, made an attempt to obtain
the command of the Lombards ; but not succeeding in
their purpose, they fled to the Koman garrison at Ravenna,
where both perished most miserably. Clephis, a relation
of Alboin, having been raised to the throne, extended the
Lombard power to the gates of Rome ; but he conducted
himself with such cruelty, that he was killed by his ov\ n
people, after a reign of less than a year. His actions pro¬
duced a dislike to monarchical power, and for ten years no
king was chosen. The dukes who had been created among
the chiefs of the Lombards acted in their respective terri¬
tories as independent but allied sovereigns. Under this
kind of government their power continued to extend, and
that of the emperor gradually retreated before it. Ihe
want of a central authority was, however, soon discovered;
and, in 586, Autharis, the son of Clephis, was chosen as
king, and, by his valour and prudence, established the
throne so securely, that it continued to flourish through
the two succeeding centuries. It is not necessary to enter
into a minute history of the several kings of Lombardy who
ascended the throne of that country. A kind of aristocra¬
tic monarchy was created, composed of thirty principali¬
ties, the chiefs of which were distinguished by the titles of
dukes, counts, or barons, which, with the revenues of the
land, were held as fiefs under the kings, and became gra¬
dually hereditary. The islands of the Adriatic were form¬
ed into a republic, and the inhabitants, by electing, in 697,
their first doge or duke, formed an independent and cen¬
tral government. The exarch appointed by the govern¬
ment at Constantinople held authority at the city of Ra¬
venna, and had under his power Romagna, the Pentapolis,
or five maritime cities of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Senigaglia,
and Ancona, and almost the whole sea-shores of Lower
Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had their own dukes of the
Greek nation. The island of Sicily, and the capital, Rome,
in which a patrician ruled in the name of the emperor,
formed also parts of the imperial dominions.
Constantly pressed upon by the Lombards, the power
and influence of Constantinople gradually declined; and
its fall was hastened by the Emperor Leo, called the Is-
aurian, whose zeal in the destruction of images embit¬
tered the clergy of the orthodox church in Italy. The
inhabitants of cities forcibly expelled the imperial authori¬
ties, and elected a senate, with consuls, as in the time of
the Roman republic. In Rome itself a certain power was
acknowledged in the bishop, which, on account of the
sanctity of his character, was of a paternal nature ; at first
it was exercised in ecclesiastical affairs, but by degrees
extended to civil matters, and in process of time arrived
at temporal sovereignty. The popes, who were anxious to
defend their territory against the Lombards, when the By¬
zantine court had neglected or abandoned them, applied
for assistance to the Franks.
It may not be improper here to remark, that the original
Lombard invaders, composed as they were of various tribes,
comprised different religions, some of them still adhering
to the ancient heathenism, either of the Greek or the Go¬
thic description ; whilst others had embraced the Christian
religion, but with the heretical tenets of Arianism. These
tribes, with little attention or little adherence to any doc¬
trinal points, had gradually been led to embrace the profes¬
sion of the Roman Catholic church. Luitprand, who as¬
cended the throne of Lombardy in 711, was the last of that
nation to abandon his heresies, which he did in the pre¬
sence of Pope Gregory at Rome in 729 ; upon which the
pontiff made a public renunciation of his allegiance to the
imperial court, and withdrew all claim of obedience from
it. Gregory was, however, indisposed to form an alliance
with Luitprand, whose vicinity to the capital of his diocese Histor
he viewed with suspicion. When the emperor was making
preparations to invade Italy, in order to enforce his de¬
crees for the destruction of images, the pope addressed
himself to the Frankish monarch, then one of the most
powerful princes of western Europe.
The Franks were at that time governed by the celebrat¬
ed Charles Martel, who had highly distinguished himself
in war, and was considered as the best commander of his
time. Gregory despatched an embassy to his residence,
with numerous presents of holy relics. It was received
with respectful distinction, and a treaty was speedily con¬
cluded, by which Charles engaged to march with an army
into Italy in defence of Rome and of the church, in case
any attack should be made by the emperor or the king of
Lombardy. The Romans, on their part, were to acknow¬
ledge Charles as their protector, and to confer upon him the
dignity of the consulship.
Leo the Isaurian was succeeded by his son Constantine
surnamed Copronymus, who carried his rage against images
to a greater extent than his predecessor, and forbade
the worship of the saints and of the Virgin Mary. This
occasioned new disturbances in Italy, and made the Ro¬
mans more zealous than before to separate themselves
from their dependence on Constantinople. Zachary, who
had succeeded to the chair of St Peter, urged on Luit¬
prand the restoration of the four cities, and also the dis¬
trict of Sabina, which had been seized upon thirty years
before; and in compliance with the representation, they
were thus added to the sacred patrimony. Luitprand
died in 743, after a reign of thirty-two years. His son
Rachis, who succeeded him, was anxious to extend his
dominions, and invaded the territory ceded to the holy
see by his father, when Pope Zachary visited him, and,
by his representation of the punishment hereafter to be
inflicted on those who violated the rights of the church,
so operated upon his mind, that he not only restored the
towns and territory he had seized, but took the habit of a
monk, and entered into the monastery of Monte Cassino,
where he passed the remainder of his days, honoured as a
saint by the other monks of the fraternity.
Astulphus succeeded his father on the Lombard throne
in 751. The exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of
Rome excited his love for conquest. The city, the capital
of the first, was surrendered with little difficulty. He
advanced towards Rome, and, when arrived at Narni, sent
an embassy to the pope, announcing his determination to
enter that city, to seize the wealth of the Romans, and to
impose a tax of a golden solidus on every one who would
not swear allegiance to the Lombard throne. Stephen, who
then filled the papal chair, attempted by negotiation to avert
the threatened storm; but failing to appease Astulphus,
in imitation of his predecessor, he had recourse to the as¬
sistance of France. Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, now
filled the throne of that kingdom, and professed unlimited
obedience to the holy see. Stephen, by the consent, or
at least connivance, of Astulphus, whose forces were en¬
camped round the city of Rome, made a journey to France,
and Pepin immediately, accompanied by the pope, passed
the Alps with a large army, and advanced into Italy. As¬
tulphus could not raise a sufficient force to repulse his as¬
sailants, and, after some slight reverses, retired to Pavia.
In that city he was besieged, and compelled to sue for
peace. This was granted, upon the condition that he should
give up, not to the emperor, but to the pope, the several
cities he had captured in the exarchate and the dukedom,
and deliver hostages for the performance of the conditions
agreed on. Pepin with his forces returned to France; and
the pope proceeded with exultation to the south, in the
expectation of being placed in possession of the cities and
territories which Astulphus had stipulated to deliver up,
I T A
Hi ry. and which Pepin had guaranteed to the holy see. The
•w' Lombard king, however, as soon as the storm had passed
over, broke into the dukedom and besieged Rome. The
pope again had I'ecourse to Pepin, who readily advanced.
Astulphus, after an unavailing siege of three months, aban¬
doned Rome, and once more took refuge in the strong for¬
tifications of Pavia. During this second siege, which Pepin
speedily commenced, an embassy from the Emperor Con¬
stantine Copronymus arrived at his camp, to remonstrate
against the donation of the exarchate to the pope; and
offered to repay the expenses of the war to France, if the
territories were delivered over to the power of the empe¬
ror. Pepin replied to the envoys, that “ as he had a right
to those territories by the sword, and had thought pro¬
per to bestow them on the pope, nothing should induce him
to alter his resolution.” By a vigorous prosecution of the
war, Pepin obtained a peace ; and for the pope the city of
Commachio, in addition to what had been before ceded to
him. From this period, 756, the pontiffs assumed the lan¬
guage as well as the power of sovereigns, no longer using
for the dates of their rescripts the year of the reign of the
emperor, but that of their own pontificates.
Astulphus, soon after executing the treaty concluded at
Pavia, met an untimely death, the manner of which, how¬
ever, has been variously described. During the succeed¬
ing twenty years the Lombards languished in a state of
weakness and decay, but interrupted by a disputed suc¬
cession, which ended in the elevation of Desiderius to the
vacant throne. A double marriage was arranged between
two daughters of this Lombard king and Carloman and
Charles (usually called Charlemagne), the sons of Pepin.
Charles soon divorced his wfife, under the pretence of bar¬
renness; and Carloman died, leaving two sons, the grand¬
sons of Desiderius, who detained them in the hope that
they might be made use of to produce disturbances in
France. Thus family jealousy was one amongst many
grounds of quarrel. Desiderius was induced to attack
the dominions granted to the pope ; and, at the invitation
of the pontiff, Charlemagne advanced with a large army.
Desiderius, like his father, took refuge in Pavia; and after
the capture of Verona, and a visit to Rome, Charlemagne
drew up his forces, a part of which had blockaded it,
around that city. The defence was brave and protract¬
ed ; but by famine, and by the plague, which raged within
the walls, the city was at length compelled to surrender.
Desiderius being thus made prisoner, and sent with his
family to France, all the other cities submitted to Charle¬
magne in 774. That monarch claimed the kingdom of
the Lombards by right of conquest, and caused himself
to be crowned king, with an iron crown, by the hands of
the Archbishop of Milan, in the presence of his army,
at a place called Modastia, about twelve miles from that
city.
Thus ended the kingdom of Lombardy, after it had ex¬
isted two hundred and six years. Though the Lombard
kings were at first rude and barbarous, yet, when they had
embraced the Christian religion, they ruled with great equity
and mildness. “ Under their government,” sa}rs Paulus
Diaconus, “ no violence was committed, no one unjustly
dispossessed of his property, none oppressed with taxes;
theft, robberies, murder, and adultery, were seldom heard
of, and every one went whither he pleased. They were
the only-power in Italy capable of defeating the ambitious
views of the bishops of Rome, and hence arose the inve¬
terate hatred which the popes bore to them ; but their
many wholesome laws, which are still extant, are at the
same time convincing proofs of their justice, humanity,
and wisdom, and a full confutation, as Grotius observes,
of the many calumnies with which the popes and their
partisans have endeavoured to asperse them.”
The conduct of Charlemagne to his newly-acquired king-
L Y. 467
dom appears to have been wise and liberal. He sanction- History,
ed the laws by which the districts had been governed, y^w'
whether Roman or Lombard; but to the latter he made a
few additions. I he emperor was left in quiet possession
of the dnkedom of Naples, and of the other places in Italy
that he held. He allowed to the Dukes of Spoleto, Friuli,
and Benevento, the same power and authority as they had
exercised under the Lombard kings ; and the smaller dukes
were continued in their dignities, but were compelled to
take annually the oaths of allegiance to him ; and, unless
they violated it, the dignity was made hereditary in their
families. Having thus settled the affairs of Italy, he re¬
turned to France, having, in 781, appointed his son Pepin
his viceroy.
A seditious controversy in Rome, respecting the election a. d. 774
of a pope, induced Leo III. who had been raised to thatt(J 9S1.
dignity, to pass the Alps and apply for protection to Char¬
lemagne, against the Roman populace. The conqueror of
Italy, in consequence of this, repaired to Rome, where, on
Christmas day 800, during the celebration of divine rites,
Leo suddenly placed a valuable crown on his head, and the
church resounded with the acclamations of the people,
“ Long life and victory to Charles, the most pious Augustus,
crowned by God, the great and pacific emperor of the Ro¬
mans.” The title thus conferred by the pretended sudden
impulse of a pope, on a conqueror who denied all partici¬
pation in the project, has been retained by his German
successors, till it was abandoned in the present century, out
of compliment to revolutionary France.
During the life of Charlemagne, whilst his son Pepin
was acting as viceroy, Venice, which had grown up to be a
consolidated and warlike power, disavowed the title con¬
ferred by the pope, and commenced hostilities against his
Italian dominions. The Saracens, a new power, availed
themselves of the circumstances, and attacked the islands
of Corsica and Sardinia, where they obtained much plun¬
der, and made many of the inhabitants captives. Pepin
equipped an army and a fleet to reduce Venice to submis¬
sion ; but having failed in the attempt, and lost most of his
vessels among the shoals and rocks of the islands, chagrin
at the reverses he sustained caused his death, which took
place soon afterwards at Milan. A natural son of Pepin,
named Bernard, was nominated by Charlemagne as his
viceroy in Italy.
Charlemagne died in 818, and was succeeded by his son
Louis. Louis and Bernard met at Aix-la-Chapelle, and
appeared to have arranged the mode of ruling the extensive
dominions of their departed ancestor; but the ambition of
Bernard led him to attack his uncle, and to dispute his suc¬
cession. Louis, however, was enabled to baffle his aspiring
nephew, who was defeated, captured, and condemned to
the loss of sight, under which operation he expired, in the
fifth year of his reign.
Italy remained as a portion of the Frankish monarchy
till the treaty of Verdun in 843, when it was delivered
over, with the imperial title, and with the addition of the
country of Lorraine, to Lotharius I. the eldest son of Louis.
He bequeathed his dominion to Louis II. in 850, who ap¬
pears to have been the best of the princes of the Carlo-
vignian race. He died, after a prosperous but rather a tur¬
bulent reign, in 875. The election of a pope, Benedict III.
his rejection by Louis, and the ultimate submission of the
monarch to its legality, were sources of vexation, though
not of actual hostility. In the latter years of his reign, the
Saracens, instigated by the emperor, invaded the south of
Italy ; but having been defeated near Capua, they were ex¬
pelled the country. Three years afterwards they again
resumed their attacks, and besieged Salerno; but meeting
with a severe repulse, they again departed, leaving Italy
at peace at the time of the death of the monarch.
His death seemed the signal for discord, from the va-
468
ITALY.
History, rious claimants in the imperial family to the Italian do-
minions. Charles the Bald of France first took possession ;
but dying in 877, Carloman, king of Bavaria, seized the
inheritance ; and he was followed in 880 by his brother
Charles the Fat, king of Suabia, who, for the last time, unit¬
ed under one sovereign the whole of the Frankish monar¬
chy. During seven years Italy was the theatre of lawless
violence, in which the nobles required an Italian prince,
and the pope was anxious to have a foreigner placed on
the throne; whilst the Saracens, availing themselves of
the disturbances, extorted money from the pope as the
price of peace, and still continued their depredations.
Berengar duke of Friuli, and Guido duke of Spoleto, with
the Marquis of Ivrea, were rivals for the throne; but
Guido was, in 894, crowned as emperor and king, and his
son Lambert nominated as his successor in these dignities.
Arnulf, the German king of the Carlovignian race, urged
and succeeded in his pretensions, and was crowned in
896 ; but, like those who succeeded him, he was unable to
exercise any considerable power except whilst he conti¬
nued to reside among his subjects.
After the death of Lambert in 898, and of Arnulf in
899, Louis, king of Lower Burgundy, appeared as the
rival of Berengar I., but without effect; and the same
fate befell another claimant, Rudolph of Upper Burgun¬
dy ; in spite of the pretensions of both, the possession of
the throne was at length, in 915, in the hands of Be¬
rengar, who was solemnly crowned. The power in the
hands of the feudal vassals of the throne was so much
weakened by the recent dissensions, that it became almost
impossible to repress the plundering inroads which the Sa¬
racens were continually making on his dominions. This
monarch was murdered in 924, when Rudolph of Upper
Burgundy was induced to transfer his pretensions to the
throne to Hugo, count of Provence. Hugo endavoured,
by the exercise of the most bloody tyranny, to gain the
unsteady dominion of Italy; but his nephew Berengar, mar¬
quis of Ivrea, having escaped some snares that were laid
for him, fled for refuge to Otho the Great, in Germany, col¬
lected there a number of fugitives, turned towards Italy,
and in 945 succeeded in compelling Hugo to abdicate the
throne, and transfer it to his son Lotharius, who was less
the object of general aversion than himself, and who, upon
his accession, appointed Berengar his first minister of
state.
The death of Lotharius occurred in 950, and was supposed
to have been the result of poison administered by Berengar,
who was desirous to force the beautiful wife of the former to
unite with his son. To avoid this match, and to escape from
the consequences of rejecting it, she fled for safety to the
city of Canosa, against which her persecutor commenced
a siege. She then applied for assistance to King Otho.
He with great expedition passed the Alps, liberated the
lady, defeated Berengar, captured Pavia, and having seat¬
ed himself on the throne of Italy, espoused the fair Adel-
held in 951. Berengar made himself useful to the new
sovereign by his early submission, and by his delivering up
the Friouls, the keys of Italy, to the brother of Otho; and
thence his offers of service were accepted, and he was ap¬
pointed to rule the country in the name of Otho. After
ten years, complaints reached the throne from the great
vassals in Italy, when Otho returned there, dismissed Be¬
rengar from his station, led him as a prisoner to Bamberg
in Germany, and having united Italy with his German
dominions, was crowned with the iron crown at Milan in
the year 961. Otho certainly granted the best lands as
feuds to his German nobles ; but he conferred great privi¬
leges on the cities of Italy, and on these were grounded free
constitutions, which, however, soon converted the coun¬
try into a theatre of anarchy. During the tenth century,
the liberality of the Frankish kings, who had served their
purpose, so corrupted the church, and so weakened the History
royal authority, that it effectively undermined it; whilst the
clergy and the people elected the popes according to the
dictation of the consuls and of the inferior patricians.
Thus it happened that, in the first half of the tenth cen¬
tury, two eminent intriguing females disposed of the holy
see. Theodora, in 914, raised her son by her lover Pope
John X., to the chair of St Peter, which he filled under
the name of John XI. The brother of the last, Albe-
rich of Camerino, and his son Octavian, were absolute
masters of Rome ; and the latter was consecrated pope in
956, at the age of twenty years. Otho, when crowned
at Rome in 962, annulled the election, and appointed
Leo VII1. in his stead ; but the people, jealous of this ex¬
ercise of power, elected Benedict V. The popes, instead
of governing Rome, were thus themselves dependent on
the leaders of the populace.
The republics of Gaeta and Amalfi, in the Neapolitan
part of Italy, still maintained their independence against
the Lombard dukedom of Benevento. This was more
easily defended, from a division having been made of the
territory of the dukedom, which diminished its power, and
because they had a common enemy to contend with in the
Saracens, who had by each party been invited to afford
them assistance in their quarrels, but who had fixed
themselves in Apulia, and there constructed powerful for¬
tifications. The Emperor Louis II. and King Macedo,
by their united forces, had so broken the power of the Mus¬
sulmans in 866, that the latter could no longer maintain
themselves in Lower Italy; and thus enabled the Greeks
to form establishments on the territory previously occupied
by the Saracens. They founded a province, called the
Thema of Lombardy, which was ruled by a chief residing
in Bari, and which maintained its independence during
more than a hundred years.
Otho the Great was succeeded, in 973, by his son Otho a. d. 9C1
II. Under his reign Crescentius, then consul in Rome, to 1073.
on the pretence of restoring the ancient constitution, at¬
tempted to secure to himself the sole power of that city;
whilst Otho was occupied in carrying on some plans of
conquest in Lower Italy, and suffered the vicious popes,
Boniface VII. and John XV. to exercise supreme autho¬
rity. But, in 983, Otho III. succeeded his father, and
elevated his cousin Gregory V. to the papal throne, when
(Aescentius, with the assistance of the populace, was en¬
abled to drive him from the city, and to fill his station
with a Greek pope, John XVI.; and he attempted also to
lead back the Romans to an apparent subjection to the
Greek emperor. Otho soon replaced Pope Gregory in
the papal chair by force, and besieged Crescentius in
the Castle of St Angelo, where he was at length, with
twelve others of his associates, made prisoner, and, along
with them, suffered decapitation in 998. Though compelled
to take the oaths of allegiance, the submission of the city
was reluctant, and the disposition to throw it off was only
repressed by force of arms.
The death of Otho III. in 1002 was deemed by the
Italians a dissolution of their connection with the Ger¬
man emperors, and Hardouin, marquis of Ivrea, was crown¬
ed king of Italy in Pavia; upon which the jealousy of
the Milanese, the habitual rivals and enemies of Pavia,
induced the citizens of that place to declare Henry II. of
Germany as king also. The immediate consequence was
a civil war, in which each city and district took a greater
or a less part, and all suffered most severely. Henry
was indeed, in 1004, acknowledged by the assembly of
nobles collected in Pavia; but, in the tumult which arose
on the occasion, a great part of the city was destroyed
by fire.
After the death of Hardouin in 1015, Henry was ac¬
knowledged as king by the whole of Lombardy; as was
ITALY.
Hi ry. also, after his death, his son Conrad II. who was, however,
^ known in Italy as Italus or Italicus I. A general assembly
was held near Piacenza, at which all the power of the feu¬
datories was declared to be hereditary by an irreversible
law, and zealous attempts were made to obtain peace
and security to all the states. These efforts were ineffec¬
tual, from the rage between the growing cities and their
bishops, as well as the hatred between the clergy and the
nobles, and between those bodies and the inferior inhabi¬
tants. In republican Rome, where the family of Crescen-
tius still directed the voices of the public, neither Henry,
nor Conrad, nor the pope, could enforce obedience. When
Henry III. the son of Conrad, came to Italy in 1046, he
found no less than three popes in Rome. These he dis¬
placed, and selected, by his sole power, Clement II. who
was placed in the chair of St Peter; and regularly after¬
wards raised to the spiritual dignities respectable German
ecclesiastics. This reform, although apparently wise at the
time, as giving dignity to the pontiffs, was afterwards found
in practice to have tended to corrupt them.
During the long minority of Henry IV. after the death
of his father, Hildebrand, a monk, afterwards Pope Gre¬
gory VII. took the lead in opposition to the temporal
power, and increased that of the ecclesiastical to an alarm¬
ing extent. This increase of clerical power was much
promoted by the transactions of the Normans. As early
as the year 1016, some warriors from Normandy settled
in Apulia and Calabria, and having early formed alli¬
ances with the Lombards, the republics, or the Greeks,
as best served their purpose, against the Saracens, they
became, through their warlike habits, a very powerful par¬
ty. Leo IX. made several attempts to draw them away ;
but these all failed, and ended in his own captivity and
submission. Nicholas II. on the other hand, formed allian¬
ces with the Norman leaders, and in 1059 endowed Ro¬
bert Guiscard with the feudal rights of all the lands he
had conquered in Lower Italy. Afterwards, the popes,
in the contentions with the imperial power, trusted chief¬
ly to the aid they could draw from their faithful confe¬
derates, the newly-created Dukes of Apulia and Calabria,
to whom were afterwards added the chiefs of the Nor¬
mans in the island of Sicily. Whilst, in the south of
Italy, the small states thus became larger, in the north
the great states were broken up into several of small ex¬
tent and power. The Lombard states founded their sub¬
sequent greatness, and Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had al¬
ready become rich and powerful. The Pisans, who, in
980, were in alliance with Otho II. and performed great
services against the Greeks, and against the Saracens in
Lower Italy, united with the Genoese, now a seafax-ing
and warlike people, to attack the unbelievers in Sardi¬
nia, and twice, in 1017 and 1050, conquered those in¬
truders, and finally divided the lands, in large districts,
amongst the most eminent of the native inhabitants.
^ 1 073 Gregory VII., usually called Gregory the Great, was at
° head of the church, using all the exertions and influ¬
ence of his station to extend its power. He laid claims to
authority over Spain as a fief of the church, and required
ot that kingdom all the conquests which had been made from
the Moors. Sardinia was demanded of the conquerors,
and France was under his authority. He made attempts
to exercise his power in Hungary, and even in Russia;
and extorted from England the tax known by the name of
Peter’s pence,'which long continued to be paid. In Italy,
where knowledge had begun to dawn, there were many
opposed to the vast extension of the papal power; but
they were outnumbered by others, who feared more the
government of a German prince. In most of the other
parts of Europe the regular priests had so much influence,
that the monstrous pretensions of the pontiff were submit¬
ted to with little or no reluctance. It was not so, however,
469
in Germany. The policy of Gregory had enjoined on the History,
priests the observance of celibacy, and the German clergy
were reluctant to put away their wives. They opposed the
pope’s decrees, and joined with the emperor in resisting
them. The German bishops in council pronounced the de¬
position of the pope ; and the pontiff issued his excommuni¬
cations against them and their emperor. A war thus broke
out between Henry of Suabia and Pope Gregory, though
Clement III. had been created pope by the Germans. Gre¬
gory and his army was defeated, and he retired to the Cas¬
tle of Angelo, where he was long besieged, and at length,
being released by Robert the Norman, removed to Salerno,
where he died in the year 1085. Two popes were chosen in
succession by the cardinals, viz. Victor III. and Urban II.;
whilst the antipope Clement, with his conclave, sometimes
in Rome, at other times driven from it, never ceased to
fulminate his excommunications. Urban maintained the
contest with Clement, and in fact triumphed over him.
His success was owing in a great measure to the part he
took in favour of the Crusades, which about that period be¬
gan to excite the attention and rouse the passions of all
Europe to achieve the conquest of the Holy Land. The
enthusiasm of the period enabled Urban to drive Clement
from the city of Rome, and to take possession of the chair
of St Peter, in which dignity he terminated his life in the
year 1099. Paschal II. was fixed by the cardinals at Rome
in the papal chair ; and though the party of Clement on his
death elected another antipope, it did not weaken the se¬
cure hold on the dignity to which Paschal had been ele¬
vated. The son of Henry IV. was encouraged by the
pope to rebel against him, as one who, being excommuni¬
cated, could not convey to his successor any right. The
father was made prisoner by the son, and Henry V. was
then crowned emperor and king.
Henry V., though, until he obtained the throne, the de¬
voted defender of the papal claims, after his accession be¬
came their antagonist, and thus gained the support of his
German nobles. After suppressing commotions in other
parts of his dominions, he crossed the Alps with an army
of eighty thousand men; passed through Italy to Rome
without serious opposition; and there massacred many of
the citizens, shut up the pope, the cardinals, and the nobility
in prison, and held them confined till he had obtained from
the pontiff the full investiture of all his dominions. The
pope then crowned him as emperor, and honoured him
at his departure with every mark of respect. Henry had
scarcely reached his patrimonial dominions when he found
a general flame kindled around him. The Lateran council *
disavowed all that his holiness had done, upon the noto¬
rious ground that it had been extorted by force. The
French clergy had acquiesced in the excommunication,
and those of Germany rejected the bull of investiture; whilst
a rebellion, excited by Duke Lothario, broke out in Saxony.
By the aid of the Duke of Stauffen-Suabia, Henry was
enabled to lull the domestic threatening storm, and again
with an army marched to Italy, and seized upon Rome,
whilst the pope fled to Apulia. He was once more crowned,
the ceremony being performed by the Archbishop of Bra¬
ga, in Portugal, on the assumption that the former coro¬
nation had been invalid, from the perjury of the pope who
had performed the ceremony. At the conclusion of his
reign Henry V. had nearly lost his influence in Rome; so
that he had, at least tacitly, given up all concern in the
election of a pope, when Calixtus was chosen by one party,
and Honorius II. by another, to fill that dignity. Shortly
afterwards he died at Utrecht in May 1125.
During the reigns of these German princes many of the
cities of Italy had risen to considerable wealth, power, and
splendour, and, from the emperors being often absent with
their armies in the other parts of their dominions, had as¬
sumed to themselves almost all the rights of sovereignty.
470 I T A
History. These cities forced the others of less extent near to them
into an alliance, by which they obtained the aid of their
population whenever they had occasion to have recourse to
arms. The two cities of Milan and Pavia, in the north
of Italy, were the chiefs of rival associations. Disputes
between Milan and Cremona gave occasion to the first
hostilities between the former of those cities and Pa¬
via, in 1129, to which a contest between two rivals for
the crown of Italy, Lothario II. and Conrad of Ilohen-
stauffen, gave a different direction, and created two parties,
the Guelphs, the adherents of the popes, and the Ghibe-
lines, the supporters of the German emperors. These two
parties, which long divided Italy, derive their origin from a
family which in the eleventh century held extensive posses¬
sions in the north of Italy, amongst the mountains between
St Gothard and the Brenner, and bore the name of Welf.
They descended into the plains of Germany, and obtain¬
ing settlements in some of its finest provinces in the south
of that country, this enabled them in process of time to be¬
come the founders of both the royal and ducal houses of
Guelph; the first seated on the throne of Great Britain,
and the second enjoying the duchy of Brunswick.
This family quarrelled among themselves, one branch
bearing the name of Welf, changed by the Italians into
Guelph, and the other Waiblingen, changed into Ghibe-
line ; and they had, before their intermeddling in the
Italian wars, fought a bloody battle at Winsberg in 1140.
The state of Italy favoured the creation of parties, to
which the chiefs of the two branches of this German fa¬
mily attached themselves, and continued their animosity
during more than one hundred years.
In Rome were violent schisms between the partisans of
rival popes; and this again gave rise to that spirit of inde¬
pendence which that city had constantly nourished. It
was especially excited by the preaching of Arnold of
Brescia, an eloquent monk, the pupil of Abelard, who de¬
claimed with great energy against the luxury of the clergy,
and in favour of that liberty which Rome had in ancient
times enjoyed. Though banished in the year 1146, he
returned again from Zurich, where he had taken refuge,
and, under Pope Adrian IV. was condemned and execut¬
ed in 1155. In the mean time the two great cities had
strengthened themselves. Milan had in her alliance the
cities of Tortona, Crema, Bergamo, Brescia, Placentia,
and Parma. Pavia was at the head of Cremona and No¬
vara. Verona, Padua, Vicenza, Treviso, and Mantua, who
were nearly equal in power, maintained each its inde¬
pendence. Turin was at the head of the towns of Pied¬
mont, and disputed the authority of the Counts of Savoy.
The great feudatories were the Marquis of Montserrat
and the Prince of Asti. To the south of the Po the city
of Bologna had acquired great power, and exercised in¬
fluence over Modena and Reggio on one side, and Fer¬
rara, Ravenna, Faenza, Forli, and Rimini on the other.
Florence had risen to superiority in Tuscany by the des¬
truction of Fiesole, and had as allies the cities of Pistoja,
Arrezzo, San Minato, Volterra, Lucca, Cortona, Perugia,
and Sienna.
Such was the state of affairs in Italy when the diet of
the empire of Germany, assembled at Frankfort in the
year 1152, bestowed the crown of that kingdom on Fre¬
derick duke of Bavaria, of the house of Hohenstauffen,
better known by the name of Barbarossa, the nephew of
Conrad, his predecessor in that dignity. The new em¬
peror is recorded by the authorities of his time to have
been brave, just, and notaddicted to cruelty, yet his reign
inflicted the most severe visitations on Italy. The cities
were zealous to defend the rights of self-government which
they had obtained, and, though filled with factions, re¬
solved to maintain them. They were surrounded with
strong walls, impregnable against the arts of attack then
L Y.
practised ; and they were well peopled with men, pa- History
tient, brave, and abstemious, when a siege demanded the
exercise of such qualities. The open country and the
smaller towns, from which the numerous fortified cities
drew their sustenance, suffered severely whenever an
army traversed that country; and, to produce a greater
pressure on the cities, the rude soldiery of that time not
only destroyed the provisions they could not consume,
but cut down the growing crops before they were fit to be
harvested, or set them on fire, with the houses and the
barns of the cultivators. Barbarossa viewed the whole of
Italy as his subjects, and treated those who opposed him
as rebels and traitors; and as the Ghibelines, who were
the weaker party, adhered to him, his chief operations
were directed against the Guelphs, of whom Milan was
the main support and the centre of union.
Six times did the emperor cross the Alps with a nume¬
rous German army to reduce the country to obedience,
and each time his attempts were frustrated. In 1154, in
conjunction with the city of Pavia, he defeated the Mi¬
lanese army, but could not take the city ; yet he destroy¬
ed Tortona, and was then crowned, both in Pavia with the
iron crown of Lombardy, and at Rome with the golden
crown of the empire, though the ceremony was perform¬
ed in the suburb, admission within the walls of the latter
city being refused. After plundering Spoleto, sickness
and desertion so thinned his ranks, that he led back the
remnant of his troops, and repassed the Alps by way of
Trent and the Tyrol. The most savage destruction was
perpetrated in the retreat; but the cities were unassailed,
and rejoiced in their freedom, though they did little in¬
jury to the retiring army. In the interval that followed,
a civil war was carried on by the two parties, at the head
of which were Milan and Pavia; but in this the latter,
the weaker of the two confederates, suffered the most,
whilst by the former the citizens of Tortona were re¬
ceived with sympathy, their houses rebuilt, and their for¬
tifications restored.
Barbarossa entered Italy again in 1158, with the vas¬
sals who crowded to him from all parts of Germany. At
Brescia, the terror of his name induced that city to re¬
nounce the alliance with Milan, which refused to receive
the emperor. By the aid of the militia of Cremona and
Pavia he was enabled to besiege Milan; but his engines
being insufficient to beat down the walls, he resolved to
starve it into surrender, and intercepted all provisions
and destroyed the growing crops. In this situation of
distress, Blandrate, an independent noble, known as a pro¬
tector of Lombardy, with some others of the same rank,
assumed the office of mediator, and obtained favourable
terms. The city agreed to pay a tribute, and to re¬
store the rights of the emperor, on condition that they
should elect their consuls, and not be bound to open their
gates to the emperor. Tortona and Crema were both
included in this pacification, which was signed on the 7th
of September 1158. A few weeks afterwards, a diet of
the kingdom of Italy having been convoked at Roncaglia,
fixed much wider bounds to the regal rights than the Mi¬
lanese would admit, upon which they again took up arms
and prepared to defend themselves. Another diet was
called, which met at Bologna in the spring of 1159, and
by whose decision Milan was declared to be under the
ban of the empire. As that city was too strong to be
captured, the first attempt of the emperor was directed
against the allied city of Crema, which was compelled to
surrender, after a siege of six months, in January 1160.
The German troops were exhausted by the severe duty
of the siege, and their term of service having expired,
many of them withdrew; but Frederick, with the Italian
Ghibeline cities of Pavia, Cremona, and Novara, carried
on the war by devastating the country of the Guelphs, and
C w
ITALY. 471
3rv. excluding all supplies from Milan. In June 1161, a new
-O army reached the theatre of war in Italy, when the empe¬
ror resolved to reduce what he called his rebellious city.
The defence of Milan was hopeless, but firmly maintained,
when a fire, which destroyed the chief magazine of provi¬
sions, induced the inhabitants to surrender at discretion in
March 1162. Frederick, though proud and severe, was
not cruel, and never put to death by the hands of the exe¬
cutioner either enemies or rebels when vanquished. He
ordered the militia of the Ghibeline cities to raze the
walls, and so to destroy the buildings, that not one stone
should be left on another. The poorer inhabitants were
placed in villages at some distance from the place; and
many sought hospitality in other cities, where their perse¬
verance was recorded with applause, and where they spread
the love of freedom and hatred of tyranny. The spirit of
independence so rapidly increased that it was soon com¬
municated to the Ghibeline cities ; and the effect of it was
to produce a confederacy of a most extended nature. Fre¬
derick had entered Italy in 1163, attended only by his
splendid train of nobles, but without an army, under the
impression that he could at pleasure call out the militia of
the Ghibeline cities. He directed his steps towards Rome,
where, on account of a contest for the papal chair, occa¬
sioned by the death of Adrian IV., he thought his pre¬
sence necessary. Whilst in the south, a union was formed
in the Veronese, which he deemed injurious to his prero¬
gatives ; and he hastened to call out the militia of the Ghi¬
beline cities of Pavia, Cremona, Lodi, and Como, to lead
them against Verona ; but they were indisposed to the ser¬
vice, upon which he returned to Germany to collect an
army, on whose exertions he might depend.
In October 1176 Frederick descended from the Grisons
with his newly-collected army. His military operations
were ineffectual; and whilst he advanced to Rome and to
Ancona, the confederation of the cities of the Guelpns and
the Ghibelines was cemented, and assumed the name of
the League of Lombardy. Frederick had been repulsed at
Ancona, whilst he had been victorious at Rome; but his
victory proved useless. His army was attacked by dis¬
ease, which swept away great numbers ; and with the rem¬
nant he could scarcely protect himself from the increasing
influence of the League, whose authority had already re¬
stored Milan, and built the new city of Alessandria, at the
confluence of the rivers Tanaro and Bormida. In March
1168, the emperor, with but a very few troops, w'as ena¬
bled to effect his retreat from his Italian subjects, by the
road of Mount Cenis, and soon prepared a new German
force, which was to be employed in coercing them.
In the efforts to lead the Germans again into Italy, he
was baffled by their reluctance, and remained, as far as re¬
garded Italy, in a state of repose during five years. He
sent, indeed, his warlike chancellor, Christian, archbishop
of Mentz, to raise his party in Tuscany, the only district
in which there existed any portion of attachment to the
Ghibeline cause.
In October 1174, Frederick again entered Italy at the
head of a powerful army, but w-as detained four months by
the siege of the newly-built town of Alessandria; and the
sickness among his troops, occasioned by the severity of the
winter, so weakened him, that having abandoned the siege
in April 1175, he was too weak to attack the forces of the
League, and thus induced to enter on a negotiation. Much
time was spent, but no plan of conciliation was adopted ;
and Frederick again sent into Germany for an army, which
arrived in the spring of 1176 at Como, whither he wras en¬
abled secretly to join them ; but he could get very little aid
from the few cities of the Ghibeline party. He advanced
to the neighbourhood of Milan, and at Lignano attacked
the forces of the League. Though at first he met with
success, yet the issue of the battle was so decisively
against him, that his camp was pillaged, his army dispersed,
and himself rendered a fugitive ; but finally he escaped to History.
Pavia, to contradict the report of his death, which had pre-
vailed during several days. Negotiations followed this
defeat. The pope and the Venetians acted as mediators,
and in 1177 a truce for six years was concluded. During
its continuance the political power of the League was
strengthened and consolidated; whilst, on the other hand,
the emperor had learned the lesson, untaught to his pre¬
decessors, of submitting to restrictions imposed by subjects
on their sovereign. The truce was followed by the treaty
of Constance in 1183, which secured the privileges of the
cities, and recognised the prerogatives of the monarch, with
certain necessary restrictions.
Barbarossa partook of the religious enthusiasm which
infected all Europe, and, after the peace of Constance,
repaired to the Holy Land, where, in 1190, he died of an
apoplectic attack.
Though the peace of 1183 gave political freedom to
the cities, yet this not being followed by any confedera¬
tion, they each thought only of strengthening their de¬
fences, and of intriguing for power and supremacy. A
party spirit was thus kindled, which spread and continued
during the whole period that the emperors of Germany
of the house of Hohenstauffen continued to exercise the
shadow of sovereignty. The cities were soon divided again
into Guelphs and Ghibelines, but had changed their party
principles, the Ghibelines being the defenders of the papal
power, and the Guelphs the assailants thereof. The party
feeling within each of the cities was strong and active.
In those where the Guelphs had the government, a large
minority constantly opposed them; and the same was the
case v/here the opposite faction had the upper hand. Noble
and other families were engaged in long feuds with each
other, which endured through generations, and were con¬
stantly occasioning open murders or private assassinations.
The history of these cities is filled with narratives that ex¬
hibit human nature in forms most revolting to our best
feelings.
A single, though far from a solitary, instance of the pre¬
valent feudal proceedings, may not be without its use in
showing the effects of such a state of society as existed in
these cities. A noble Guelph, named Buondelmonte, of the
upper vale of the Arno, had demanded the hand of a young
lady of the Ghibeline house of Amidei; and his proposals
having been accepted, preparations were made for the mar¬
riage. But a lady of another family, the Donati, stopped
the lover as he passed her door; and bringing him into
the apartment where her females were at work, raised the
veil of her daughter, whose beauty was most captivating.
“ Here,” said she, “ is the wife I had reserved for thee.
Like thee, she is a Guelph; whilst thou takest one from
the enemies of thy church and race.” Buondelmonte,
dazzled and enamoured, instantly accepted the proffered
hand. The Amidei considered this inconstancy as a deep
affront; and all the noble families of Florence of the Ghibe¬
line faction, about twenty-four in number, met, and agreed
that he should atone with his life for this offence. Buon¬
delmonte was attacked on the morning of Easter Sunday,
as he passed the bridge on horseback, and was there killed.
Forty-two families of the Guelphic faction then met, and
swore to avenge the insult; and thus blood was shed to atone
for blood. Every day some new murder or some open bat¬
tle alarmed the citizens of Florence, during the space of
thirty-three years. These two parties stood opposed to
each other within the walls of the same city ; and although
sometimes in appearance reconciled, yet every little acci¬
dent renewed their animosity, and they again had recourse
to deadly warfare.
The nobility of Italy, who possessed extensive feudal es¬
tates in the intervals between the cities, and some in con¬
tact with them, were bound by their tenures to take part
with the emperor in the hostilities he had carried on
ITALY.
472
History, against the cities. By this they had been much impove-
rished and in debt; and their creditors were for the most
part the inhabitants of the cities, to whom the estates were
hypothecated. They were a high-spirited race, had by
practice acquired great skill in arms, and were acuter and
abler political intriguers than the magistrates of the cities.
Some of the nobles, who had castles sufficiently strong,
lands sufficiently extensive, and vassals sufficiently nume¬
rous, to defend themselves, became attached to the Ghibe-
line party. Those of them whose castles were weak from
their situation, or near to cities too populous to be ruled by
them, had been admitted to become citizens of such places,
had assisted them in war, had obtained a considerable
share in their government, and were for the most part com¬
pelled by their interest to become adherents of the Guelphic
faction. The plains of Italy were thus deprived of all the
independent nobility, who had become citizens of some of
the free republics; but every chain of mountains was thickly
set with castles, held by those who, whilst they maintained
their own independence, professed to owe and to acknow¬
ledge allegiance to the emperors. As war was their sole
occupation, they were often gladly received by the repub¬
lics, which stood much in need of able captains. It seems
that the independent nobles who became connected with
the cities as commanders of the forces were not always,
though most commonly, of the same faction ; for the Ghi-
beline family of Visconti, which held most extensive fiefs,
associated itself with the Guelphic republic of Milan. These
nobles, however, when connected with the cities, soon ac¬
quired extensive influence, and became finally founders of
families who obtained hereditary, and, some of them, so¬
vereign power. Of these the house of Este, allied to the
Guelphs of Saxony and of Bavaria, who had strong castles
on the Euganian Hills, joined the republic of Ferrara. The
family of Ezzel or Eccelino, whose fiefs and castles were
at the foot of the Tyrolean range, and who were devoted
to the Ghibeline party, formed connections with the re¬
publics of Verona and Vicenza. On the northern side of
the Apennines, the fortresses of several Ghibeline nobles
excited and maintained revolutions in Placencia, Parma,
Reggio, and Modena; whilst on the southern side of those
hills were the castles of other Ghibeline nobles, in turn
citizens or enemies of the republics of Arezzo, Florence,
Pistoja, and Lucca. In the lower valleys of the Po, as
well as in the upper vale of the Arno, the castles of the
Guelphic nobles supplied leaders to the republics in their
vicinity.
The factious and ferocious state of society here briefly
sketched continued during the whole of the reign of the
family of Hohenstauffen ; but it is only justice to observe,
that in the latter years of that period the art of painting
first made its appearance in Italy, and that the first dawn
of the revival of literature became visible in the horizon,
by the improvement made in the language, by the disco¬
very of magnifying glasses and of the magnet, by the esta¬
blishment of the university of Bologna, and by some wri¬
ters of talent, to whom the literature and civilization of all
Europe became deeply indebted.
During the nominal reign of the German family, no one
of the individuals who succeeded to the title after the
death of Barbarossa is deserving of notice, excepting his
grandson, Frederick II., who attained the dignity before
he had arrived at the age of eighteen. During his reign,
Pope Innocent III. attained the pontifical chair ; a man of
rare talent, great learning, strict morals, and adequate
energy. Though the founder of the mendicant orders of
Franciscans and Dominicans, and of the fearful power of
the inquisition, and though the instigator of the crusades
against the Albigenses in France, all his acts originated in
the view he took of the moral effect of the increase of the
ecclesiastical power, and of its concentration in the head
of the church. He made efforts in Rome to establish civil History,
liberty, by forming a representative senate, to whom all
power but the judicial was intrusted; but he issued his
commands to all the princes of Europe in stronger tones
than those of Gregory the Great, which, if obeyed, would
have deprived them of all political liberty.
Frederick carried on wars, in spite of the pope’s anathe¬
ma, with great success. In 1237 he defeated, at Corte-
nuovo, his opponents, who lost 10,000 men; and his sub¬
sequent activity gained all Upper Italy to his party, ex¬
cept the four cities of Milan, Brescia, Placentia, and Bo¬
logna. But Gregory IX., who had succeeded Innocent
on the papal throne, induced the maritime republics of
Venice and Genoa to rescue the Guelphs from destruction.
This gave a turn to affairs, though Pisa still held fast to
the emperor and the Ghibelines. A general council, sum¬
moned by the pope, pronounced his excommunication,
and his party forsook him by degrees. The mendicant
orders everywhere excited conspiracies against him; he
became suspicious of every one around him, and was at
length obliged to concede every thing to the pope; and,
through the mediation of St Louis of France, he proposed,
as the condition of his re-admission to the church, that he
should go to the Holy Land and join the crusaders, en¬
gaging never to return. Whilst waiting the effect of his
proposals at his castle of Florentine in Sicily, where he
still ruled, he was seized with a dysentery, and died in
December 1250.
After the death of Frederick, and the triumph of Pope
Innocent IV., much confusion ensued, in which all freedom
was extinguished. The pontiff was deceived in the expecta¬
tion of general submission which he had formed. He was,
during a progress, in some places received with coldness,
and in others with disdain. The populace were in a state
not to be restrained ; the demagogues who directed could
not rule them till they had assumed military and despotic
power. In this progress the most unheard-of cruelties
were perpetrated. In the single city of Padua there were
eight prisons always full, notwithstanding the incessant
toil of the executioner to empty them ; and two of these
prisons contained three hundred prisoners each. The
Eccelinos became for a time absolute masters of the north
of Italy, and were succeeded by the family of Romano,
and they by Marten della Torre. The cities of Mantua
and Ferrara fell into the power of D’Este, and Verona into
that of Mastino della Scala. Palavicino became lord of
Cremona, and in process of time, when the disorders had
attained their greatest height, of Milan, Brescia, Alessan¬
dria, and Tortona. The whole of Italy, with the excep¬
tion of Tuscany and the maritime cities, had learned that
the rule of an individual was far better than that of a de¬
mocracy, and quietly submitted themselves to a military
commander.
During the period in which the emperors of Germany a. dM^IO
of the Suabian or Hohenstauffen race were the kings oft0
Italy, the maritime cities of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, had
grown up to be powerful republican states, and were only
by slight ties bound to the common sovereigns of Italy.
The nobility who had been admitted to the rights of citi¬
zenship were the senators; and some member of their fa¬
milies was commonly chosen as a ruler, with the title of
doge or duke. They were strict aristocracies, preserved
in that form by laws which, whilst they gave security to
their privileges, secured in like manner the rights and
possessions of each individual. Under this state of se¬
curity they naturally became wealthy, and their progress
was accelerated by favourable circumstances. The Cru¬
sades, which animated the whole west of Europe, creat¬
ed a demand for shipping to convey troops and stores to
and from' the Holy Land ; and thus a mercantile navy
was called into being, which could at any time be easily
ITALY.
473
L converted into a military navy. It was in this way that
> Venice was enabled to take, and for a time to retain, the
city of Constantinople itself. The commerce of the East
had also greatly contributed to increase the wealth, and
consequently the power, of these free cities. The chiefs
of the Crusades, who returned from these expeditions,
brought with them from Asia a taste for its luxuries ; and
for these the maritime cities became the storehouses, sup¬
plying the countries in the western part of Europe.
After the death of Pope Alexander IV. in 1261, his
successor, Urban IV., among several princes who sought
the government of Italy, selected Charles of Anjou, brother
of St Louis of France, appointed him king of Naples, a
senator of Rome, papal vicar of Tuscany, and finally king
of Italy. This gave a new direction to the two parties, the
Guelphs and the Ghibelines, which still distracted the coun¬
try. One of them was considered as the friend, and the
other as the enemy, of the French aspirant. Besides these
parties, there were also the republics ; and besides them,
contests between the nobles and the people, in most of
which the latter were, in the beginning at least, the con¬
querors. Charles invaded Naples, and defeated Manfred,
the king, in 1265, and thus gave the superiority to the
Guelphs, which he further increased by placing a garrison
in Florence, and excluding from the councils the whole of
the nobles, and all others of the Ghibeline party. He w as
for a short time alarmed by an invasion from Germany
under Conrad, the grandson of the last Suabian emperor.
This prince was only sixteen years of age when he arriv¬
ed at Verona at the head of 10,000 cavalry, where he was
joined by all the Ghibeline commanders who had distin¬
guished themselves under his ancestor, and aided by the
efforts of the Ghibeline cities, Pisa and Sienna. The citi¬
zens of Rome were so disposed to favour him, that on his
advance they opened their gates and promised assistance.
But all this zeal in his favour was of no avail. He passed
the Abbruzzi Mountains, and at the foot of them fought a
desperate battle in August 1268. It terminated in the total
defeat of the Germans. Conrad, with the chiefs, were made
prisoners, and, after a mock trial, were condemned and be¬
headed at Naples on the 26th of October 1268. After these
executions, an uninterrupted exhibition of similar spec¬
tacles filled the two Sicilies, and some other parts of Italy,
with such horror and dismay, that Charles of Anjou reign¬
ed triumphantly, and soon acquired the mastery over the
republican cities.
Gregory X., who ascended the papal throne in 1272, saw
the impolicy of his predecessors, who had given themselves
a French master. He endeavoured to raise the Ghibeline
party so as to counterbalance the Guelphs ; and engaged
Pisa, Venice, and Genoa, to co-operate with him in choos¬
ing a chief. The election was made the following year, when
Rodolph of Habsburg, the founder of the house of Austria,
was declared emperor. Martin IV., who was made pope in
1280, undid the work of his predecessor, and persecuted
the Ghibelines with great fury. But in the mean time
the popes had secured to the holy see the temporal power
over the ecclesiastical territories. During this period hos¬
tilities took place between the maritime republics. The
Genoese had assisted Michael Palaeologus in his successful
efforts to retake Constantinople from the Venetians, and
had received for their reward the island of Chios. Near
to Meloria, in a sea-fight, the Genoese had nearly annihi¬
lated the fleet of the Pisans; and in another battle, near
Curzola, they had gained the command of the sea by their
defeat of the Venetians.
Charles was preparing an armament in all the ports of
Naples and of Sicily, with the intention of contending in
Greece for the eastern empire. This induced him to levy
taxes of great amount with excessive rigour, and the judges
endeavoured to prevent resistance by striking terror into
VOL. XII.
all those who declined or even delayed the required pay- History,
ments. John de Procida, the friend” and confidant of Fre- ■'-'-v'-"'-'
derick and of the deposed Manfred, a native of Salerno,
visited secretly the cities of both Sicilies, to re-animate the
zeal of the Ghibelines, and to rouse their hatred towards
Charles and the French. He had also obtained promises
from Greece and from Spain. It was not necessary, how¬
ever, to have recourse to foreign aid, for a sudden and po¬
pular explosion took place in Palermo. It was excited by
a French soldier, who behaved rudely to a betrothed lady,
as she was on her way with her affianced husband to a church
to receive the nuptial benediction. The indignation of her
family was on the instant communicated to the populace.
The bells of the churches were ringing for vespers; the
people answered by the cry, “ To arms; death to the
French.” The French were furiously attacked in every
quarter. Those who attempted to defend themselves were
soon overpowered; others, who endeavoured to pass for Ita¬
lians, were known by the pronunciation of the two words
“ ceci” and “ cieri,,} which they were forced to utter, and on
mis-pronunciation were instantly put to death. In a few
hours more than four thousand persons thus perished in Pa¬
lermo, and every other town in Sicily followed the bloody
example. Thus the Sicilian vespers overthrew the domi¬
nion of Charles and of the Guelphs ; separated that island
from the kingdom of Naples; and transferred the crown
of the former to Peter of Aragon, the son-in-law of Man¬
fred, who was considered as the heir of the house of Ho-
henstauffen. The massacre occurred on the 30th of March
1282.
Florence had, by 1282, been led to a democratic state by
the attainder of the nobles as a body, and, by its judicious
regulations, had greatly strengthened the Guelphic party ;
but some disputes, which had originated in the neighbour¬
ing insignificant town of Pistoja, were extended to Flo¬
rence, and in a short time divided the whole of Tuscany
into two factions of Guelphs, called the Bianchi and the Neri,
or the Whites and the Blacks, whose mutual animosity and
hostility were continued till 1300, when, by the intrigues
of Pope Boniface VII., and the instrumentality of Charles
de Valois, the Bianchi were plundered and expelled the
country, upon which a part of them joined the Ghibeline
faction. In Lombardy the dying cause of freedom still
continued to exist, and was at length rekindled ; and the
people, wearied out w ith the feuds of their nobles, between
1302 and 1306 drove them out. At this period, by the
management of Philip le Bel, a Frenchman, Clement V.
was chosen pope, and removed the seat of the papal throne
to Avignon, where it continued till 1377. This gave room
for the display of the spirit of freedom in Rome, and in all
the territory of the church. The authority and almost the
name of the emperor of Germany had been neglected in
Italy during sixty years, whilst their minds were wholly
occupied with internal disputes. At length, in 1308, the
diet of Germany advanced Henry of Luxembourg to the
imperial dignity, after three other princes had occupied
that station. Henry VII. had little power to enforce obe¬
dience in Germany, and foresaw symptoms of opposition,
which he wished to divert by flattering the vanity of con¬
flicting parties, and uniting them in projects for extending
his authority over the several parts of Italy. Henry cross¬
ed Mount Cenis, and appeared in Italy in 1310, accompa¬
nied by a few cavalry, not amounting to two thousand,
composed chiefly of Belgians, Germans, and some Savoy¬
ards. At Turin he was w aited on by many of the nobles
of Lombardy and Piedmont, who at least professed obe¬
dience ; and even the cities, in confusion and distress as
they all were from their internal contentions, gave indica¬
tions of a strong desire for tranquillity under their consti¬
tutional chiefs. Henry professed impartiality between all par¬
ties, and his conduct corresponded with his professions; but he
ITALY.
474
History, wanted money, and it was issued out to him with great par-
simony by all but the citizens of Pisa, who were extremely
liberal, and increased his force with a guard of six hundred
bowmen, who accompanied him to Rome, where he received
the golden crown of the emperor from the pope’s legate,
without the walls, as the citizens refused admission to him
and his troops, but had admitted a garrison of Neapolitans.
The term for which his foreign troops had enlisted had ex¬
pired on his coronation, and they mostly left his service;
but the Ghibelines and Bianchi of central Italy gathered
round him, and formed a respectable force. He made some
ineffectual efforts to conquer the democracy of Florence,
who had taken a garrison of mercenaries into their pay.
He then, reinforced by the Pisans, marched towards Rome
to contend with Robert, king of Sicily, who maintained an
ill-disciplined force in that city, and expected reinforce¬
ments from the Guelphs of Tuscany. On the road, not far
from Sienna, on St Bartholomew’s day 1313, he received
the communion from the hands of a dominican monk, and
expired a few hours afterwards, with strong suspicions of
having been poisoned.
When Henry died, disputes arose at the diet at Frank¬
fort respecting his successor in the empire; but they
seemed to have had little effect on the condition of Italy.
In a few years most of the republican cities in the middle
of Italy had fallen under the government of some distin¬
guished military family, whilst Tuscany alone maintained
a share of liberty, by selecting Robert, king of Naples, as
its protector. The Ghibeline city of Pisa found a master
in Uguccione della Faggiuola in 1314; and, after his ex¬
pulsion in 1316, in Castruccio Castracani. Padua fell to the
house of the Carraras. Alessandria, Tortona, and Cremona,
became submissive under the Visconti of Milan. Mantua
fell to the shai’e of Gonza in 1328. In Ferrara the family
of the Este established their hereditary power; and Ra¬
venna became the patrimony of the Polentas, who had
long held power there. In the other cities the same ty¬
ranny was established, but, from generation to generation,
so uncertain in its administration as to increase the evils
it created. These small princes adhered to Robert of
Naples, whose greedy lust of power obtained the means of
indulgence by Clement V. having appointed him vicar-
general of Italy, designing thereby to hold the balance of
parties in his own hands. Louis of Bavaria made his ap¬
pearance in Italy in 1327, in order to put down both An¬
jou and the Guelphs. He was supported by the Ghibelines ;
but, by want of firmness, and a breach of his professions,
so estranged them, whilst, on the other hand, the wicked¬
ness of Pope John XXII., who supported the Guelphs, had
so cooled their zeal in his favour, that the two parties who
had so long opposed each other, uniting in the cause of
common freedom, were drawn much closer together.
At this period that estimable royal adventurer, John,
king of Bohemia, the son of the Emperor Henry VII.,
made his appearance in Italy ; and having been invited by
the citizens of Brescia, and favoured by the pope, he was
announced as the mediator and pacificator of the kingdom.
He arrived in 1330. But his purposes were frustrated by
the opposition of Tuscany, where a dread of the government
of a single person was generally entertained. His fickle
disposition made him soon abandon his objects, and he
quitted Italy in 1333.
After his departure, Mastino della Scala, who had been
one of his supporters, and who was lord of the half of
Lombardy, and of the territory of Lucca, began to threat¬
en the independence of Italy; but he was opposed by a
league, headed by Florence, which led to hostilities ; but
they were soon terminated, and the freedom of Flo¬
rence was thereby secured. The necessities of Mastino
induced him to sell his city of Lucca to the Floren¬
tines, upon which the Pisans rose and took that city for
themselves. After this transaction, the Florentines, dis- Historj
gusted with those who had caused the loss of Lucca, se- WY>
lected as their chief a military adventurer, who, in the
Crusades, had obtained the title of the Duke of Athens;
but, owing to his severity, they soon dismissed him. In
Rome, torn by aristocratic factions, Cola Rienze was cho¬
sen tribune of the people, in order to restore the laws and
tranquillity; but after seven months he was obliged to
give way before the power of the nobles, in 1347. After
a banishment of seven years, in 1354 Cardinal Albornoz
was recalled ; but his rule was short, having been killed in
an insurrection instigated by the nobles. The Genoese,
tired out with everlasting quarrels between the Guelphic
families of Spinola and Doria, and the Ghibeline families
of Grimaldi and Fiesche, drove them all out of their city,
and elected their own first doge or duke. In Pisa the
Ghibelines were divided into two violent parties, those of
Bergolini and of Raspanti, when, after much contention,
the latter succeeded in expelling the former, in 1348. At
this period Italy suftered from a dreadful famine, which,
in 1347, swept aw ay, by absolute starvation, vast numbers
of the inhabitants ; and in the following year a pestilence
of a most mortal nature spread over every part; and such
was the suffering produced by these visitations, that it was
calculated that two thirds of the whole population were de¬
stroyed by them. Another tremendous scourge followed,
and was longer endured. After each peace, bands of dis¬
missed soldiers were formed under chiefs, called condot-
tieri, who carried on war on their own account, burning
some towns, ransoming others, and plundering everywhere.
They were mostly Germans, who had been called in by the
Viscontis and Della Scalas. A Duke Werner, a Count
Lado, and a Friar Morale, led bands of these robbers, who
devastated Italy from Montserrat to the extremity of Na¬
ples, between 1348 and 1354. Meantime another war had
broken out between the maritime republics of Genoa and
Venice. The Venetians formed alliances with the Greek
emperor and with Peter of Aragon. Formidable fleets
were collected, one commanded by the Genoese admiral,
Paganino Doria, and the other by the Venetian, Nicolo
Pisani. A battle was fought between them on the 13th of
February 1352, which proved indecisive ; but in a second,
fought in the following August, the Genoese were defeat¬
ed with great loss. In two years success changed sides;
and after a defeat of the Venetians in November 1354, a
truce was agreed to, which terminated in a peace in the
month of May following.
The family of Visconti had raised themselves to great
power in the centre of Italy. John of that name had in¬
fluence in Genoa, intrigued in Venice, and threatened to
destroy the independence of Tuscany. He died in 1354;
and his power and pretensions, being divided between his
three nephews, became weaker, and received a check by
the appearance of Charles IV., who again returned to
Italy in 1355, where he was enabled to new-model the
cities of Pisa and Sienna, and so far to overcome Tuscany,
though but for a short period, as to compel even Florence
to adopt the title of an imperial city. With but little real
powder he opposed the Visconti; but ended in obtaining
money from them, as he did from most parts of Italy, in
his progress through the country. In 1363, he liberated
the city of Lucca from the dominion which the Pisans had
obtained over it. About the same period Pope Innocent
VI., by his legate, between 1365 and 1375, obtained abso¬
lute power over the cities of the papal dominions; but lost
much of it again, from the discontent excited by the ty¬
ranny of the legate, and by the interference of Florence in
favour of their freedom. Robert of Geneva, who was
elected as pope, and took the name of Clement VII., es¬
tablished his court at Naples in 1378, under the protec¬
tion of Queen Joan. He was opposed by another pope,
ITALY.
475
A v namely, Urban VI. The church was thus divided between
^ 'J, tw0 popes and two colleges of cardinals, and the temporal
power of the holy see was weakened. Several of the ci¬
ties had been enfranchised by the Florentines ; but those
of Romagna, writh some others, fell under the yoke of
petty tyrants.
The continuance of the thirst for dominion of the Vis¬
conti in the centre of Italy, where they had rendered
themselves masters of Genoa and Bologna, excited a ge¬
neral combination against them, at the head of which
was Florence ; and the old parties of Guelphs and Ghi-
belines were forgotten in this new and threatening crisis.
In Florence the Guelphs were divided into two parties,
the Ricci and the Albizzi. After great tumults, Michael
de Lando, of lowr origin, but a brave and generous man,
produced tranquillity in 1378. The party of the Ricci,
which had thus been for a moment defeated, was essen¬
tially aristocratic, and numbered amongst it the members
of the family of Medici, whose names are then for the
first time to be met with in Italian history. This party
soon afterwards, in another tumult, banished Lando, and
those who had supported his nomination, and then constitut¬
ed the former aristocracy more firmly than it had before
existed.
In the other republics the same progress was made.
The leaders of the democracy, or their heirs, created them¬
selves tribunes of the people, and became a fresh aristo¬
cracy, with the power of transmitting it to their families.
At Genoa, a civil war was carried on for a long time
between the two strongest parties, but ended in their con¬
ferring the sovereignty, in 1396, on Charles VI., king of
France. <
In Lombardy, Gian Galeazzo, of a French family, had
seated himself on the throne of Milan, and having ren¬
dered himself master of the smaller cities in that district,
alarmed Sienna, Pisa, Bologna, and other considerable
places. Being restrained, by the opposition offered by
Florence, from attacking them at that time, he succeeded
in a few years, and conquered most of them; and ulti¬
mately brought Tuscany itself into a dangerous position,
from which it was relieved by a pestilence, which, amongst
many thousands whom it swept away, carried off also the
object of its dread, Gian Galeazzo, in 1402. This event
gave a breathing-time to that part of Italy; and, during
the minority of the son of Gian, many of the places he
had taken were retaken. Milan fell into a state of anarchy,
and the Venetians availed themselves of it to conquer Pa¬
dua and Verona, whilst, on the other side, the Florentines
captured Pisa; and Gian Maria, a youth, was only sup¬
ported on the tottering throne of Milan by the arms of
the hired mercenaries. His tyranny and cruelty is painted
in the blackest colours by all the writers of his age ; and
he at length fell a victim to the indignation of some of the
nobles, by whom he was assassinated, in May 1412.
In 1409, a new but transitory danger threatened the re¬
public of Florence, by the invasion of Ladislau, king of
Naples, which was no sooner repressed than the power of
the Visconti became predominant. The Duke Philip Ma¬
ria of that family, with the assistance of his celebrated ge¬
neral, Carmagnola, between 1414 and 1420, conquered all
the states which had belonged to the family in Lombardy;
and Genoa submitted to him in 1421. Venice and Flo¬
rence then made a league in 1425, and General Carmag¬
nola, having turned to these parties, conquered the whole
of the territories on the river Adda, and secured them by
the peace of Ferrara in 1423. The condottiero Braccio
Montone contrived to make himself master of the city of
Perugia, and of the whole of Umbria, and extended his
power to Rome itself; whilst the Petrucci, in 1430, firmly
established their power in Sienna.
After the weakening of Milan by the Florentines and
Venetians, and owing to the constant disturbances raised History,
in Naples by the party of Anjou against Alfonso of Ara-
gon, there was no longer any dangerous preponderating
power in Italy. There existed, however, constant hostility
between the armed military bands, in two divisions, ac¬
cording to their usual practice. One of these was led
by Braccio Montone, and the other by Sforza Attendolo.
Francis Sforza was enabled to make himself, after the
death of Visconti, master of the whole territory of Milan,
in 1450. The Venetians, greedy of extended territory,
made an alliance with some of the smaller states; Sforza
made a counter-treaty with Florence, which, under the
change of circumstances, providently changed its policy.
At this period the house of Medici, by its wealth and its
prudence, began to attract notice and to gain importance
in Florence. The power of Milan, where Sforza ruled ;
of Venice, which possessed the half of Lombardy ; of
Florence, which was wisely directed by Lorenzo de’ Me¬
dici ; and of Naples, that was not in a state to venture on
offensive war ; formed, towards the end of the fifteenth
century, the political balance of Italy, and, in spite of ma¬
nifold feuds, gave confidence to each power that its inde¬
pendence was secure.
In 1494, Charles VIII., king of France, advanced to¬
wards Italy, designing to conquer Naples; and Ludovico
Sforza came forward, first to support, but afterwards to op¬
pose him, whilst the pope, Alexander VIII., in order to
elevate his son Caesar Borgia, courted the French alliance.
The opposition to Charles was feeble, but the cruelties
and the rapine which he caused or permitted filled Italy
with disgust. Ludovico Sforza collected an army in the
north, which induced Charles to leave one half of his forces
to retain the possession of Naples, which he had gained.
He was impeded in his retreat, and lost in it the greater
part of his army before he could enter his own kingdom.
That portion of his force which he had left in Naples was
at length obliged to capitulate at Atilla in July 1496 ; so
that, after two years of war of the most ravaging description,
France did not gain the least footing. Louis XII., who
had succeeded to Charles VIII. in April 1498, made pre¬
tensions to the government of Milan. He was opposed
only by Ludovico Sforza, because Venice, who would
have joined Ludovico, was engaged in an alarming wrar
with the Turks; and Florence, from which the Medicis
had been banished, was ruled by a seditious faction, intent
upon subjecting Pisa to their authority. Pope Alexander,
who had opposed Charles, formed an alliance with Louis,
on condition that his relation Caesar Borgia should be
made Duke of Valentinois in France, and of Romagna in
Italy. Frederick king of Naples, though aware that he
must be ultimately the victim of France, was too much
occupied in restoring tranquillity at home to take any ac¬
tive measures to protect Italy.
Louis, favoured by the position of affairs, passed the Alps
with a pow erful army in August 1499. He took some small
towns by assault, and put the garrisons and most of the in¬
habitants to the sword ; a ferocious proceeding, which pro¬
duced universal terror, so that Sforza could make no op¬
position, but dispersed the army he had collected, and
withdrew with his family and treasures into Germany.
There he found protection with the Emperor Maximilian.
The cities of the north of Italy opened with trembling
anxiety their gates to the troops of the French king, and
he was installed as Duke of Milan in that capital, whilst
Genoa, which had been an ally of Sforza, made terms with
France. After this hasty subjugation, Louis returned to
Lyons. The insolence of the French, their violation of
all national institutions, their contempt of Italian manners,
the accumulation of taxes, and the irregularity of their ad¬
ministration, rendered the yoke insupportable. Ludovico
soon became acquainted with the ferment which prevailed,
476 I T ^
History. an(j the eager wishes of his subjects to see him again at
their head. He was on the Swiss frontier, and hastily col¬
lected a small force. With this he entered Lombardy
in February 1500, having only five hundred horse and eight
thousand infantry. Como, Milan, Parma, and Pavia, open¬
ed their gates to receive him ; and after a short siege No¬
vara capitulated. But Louis was active, and his general,
Tremouille, advanced to suppress this rebellion with an army
in which were ten thousand Swiss. Hired troops of the can¬
tons were in both armies. When they met, these troops
had parleys between themselves, and the part in Ludo¬
vico’s army agreed with those in the army of Tremouille
to murder their Italian fellow-soldiers, and to leave the
service in which they had entered. This was executed.
Ludovico Sforza was delivered up and sent to France,
where he died after ten years’ imprisonment; and the
Swiss returned home with the wages of perfidy and the
curses of Lombardy, whilst the French continued masters
of the country till 1512.
The French then attempted to gain Naples, and a most
infamous treaty was concluded with Ferdinand the Catholic,
of Spain, who had engaged to defend that kingdom, by
which that unfortunate country was subdued; and in the
division of it quarrels broke out between the French and
Spaniards, in consequence of which, after a battle had
been gained by Gonzalvo, the general of the latter, the
French were in 1503 completely driven out, and the
kingdom of Naples became an appendage of the Spanish
crown.
By the death of Pope Alexander VI., and the accession
of Julius II., the pretensions of Caesar Borgia vanished,
as the new pontilf was more zealous to strengthen the holy
see than to advance the son of his predecessor. With
this view he formed a treaty with the kings of France and
Spain, called the League of Cambray, in 1508, the object of
which was to check the engrossing measures of the Venetian
republic; but it having failed in that respect, by the cun¬
ning of the Venetians, his holiness, in 1509, entered into a
treaty with the Venetians themselves, in which the king
of Spain and the Swiss cantons were comprehended, the
purpose of which was to drive the French out of Italy;
but this project was abandoned by the pope, from the
dread that the council of French and German prelates as¬
sembled at Pisa would be induced to declare his election
to the popedom invalid, and dismiss him from the dignity.
In the mean time Maximilian of Germany and the king
of France had concocted an alliance at Blois, by which it
was agreed to divide between them the whole of the do¬
minions of Venice on the continent; and, in consequence
of it, hostilities commenced in 1509. The cities surren¬
dered to the French, the Germans, or the Spaniards, all of
whom exercised the most abominable cruelties. The pope,
in the midst of the conquests of the great powers, became
alarmed, and, with the cunning of an Italian, attempted to
free Italy from their ravages, by inflaming the emperor
against the French, by forming a league with Venice, and
by calling in the aid of the mercenary Swiss. The pope
raised an army, commanded by the Duke of Urbino ; and
though it was defeated in 1511, he succeeded in terming a
league, to which the prefix of Holy was given, on account
of his being at the head of it, with the kings of Spain
and of England, and which also comprehended the Swiss
and the Venetians.
A powerful Spanish army from Naples, in 1512, advanced
to assist the pope, commanded by Raymond de Cordova.
He was gladly received by the people, but opposed by
the most experienced of the French generals, Gaston de
Foix, with whom he fought a most murderous battle near
Ravenna, on the 11th of April 1512; and though the French
were victorious, yet the loss of Gaston, who fell in the action,
was more than a compensation for the defeat which the
L Y.
Spaniards had sustained. Maximilian suddenly betrayed Hist
his allies, recalled the German troops from the French
service, and gave a passage through his territory to the ^
Swiss to join the Venetian army. Ferdinand of Spain
and Henry VIII. of England simultaneously attacked
France, who was thus obliged to recall her troops from
Italy, and abandon the country to the power of the Holy
League. The liberties of Italy were then annihilated. Flo¬
rence, with Tuscany, a country rich and factious, but not
warlike, after being plundered by the Spaniards without
pity or remorse, was delivered over to the banished but
now restored Medicis, where Giovanni de’ Medici, after¬
wards Pope Leo X., with some other members of that fa¬
mily, reimbursed themselves for their long proscription,
by the abundant wealth they employed their power to ex¬
tort.
Charles of Ghent, commonly called Charles V., already 1512 to
king of Spain, on the death of his grandfather Maximilian, 1792.
was raised to the imperial throne in 1519. Charles, and
Francis the king of France, had abundant subjects of con¬
test ; but Italy w as doomed to become the theatre for their
decision. Francis, in 1523, sent an army under Bonnivet
to invade Lombardy and take possession of Milan. The
city had time to collect stores and complete its defences,
owing to the supineness of the French general, and thus
was preserved from capture till the emperor could fur¬
nish an army of sufficient strength to meet Bonnivet in the
field.
In the next year the imperial army received such re¬
inforcements that Bonnivet thought himself unable to re¬
sist it, and resolved to withdraw his troops. On the re¬
treat he was wounded, and the command devolved on the
Chevalier Bayard, who was killed in the battle; after
which the remnant of the French escaped to their own
country, leaving Lombardy in the power of the imperial¬
ists. Charles was so elated by the success of his arms in
Italy that he resolved on invading the patrimonial domi¬
nions of Francis, and accordingly Pescara led his army
into Provence, and began the siege of Marseilles; but the
attempt proved unsuccessful, and its repulse encouraged
Francis once more to make an attempt to retrieve the re¬
verses he had suffered in Italy. The French passed the
Alps by Mount Cenis, and the rapidity of their movements
enabled them to enter Milan, which was unprepared for
the attack; but the imperial general secured and garri¬
soned the citadel, which in some measure commanded it.
Francis then laid siege to Pavia, which was strongly forti¬
fied, and garrisoned by six thousand veterans. The siege
occupied several months, and thus gave time for Charles
to collect his troops. Francis was resolved to fight, though
urged by his generals to avoid a battle. On the 24th of
February 1525, the two armies engaged ; the contest was
obstinate, and the issue long doubtful; but after dreadful
carnage, the imperialists were victorious, Francis himself
was taken prisoner, and with him Henry king of Navarre,
and a few only of the body guard escaped. The French
in Milan retired, and, in fourteen days after the battle, not
a soldier of the nation remained in Italy.
After this last French attempt on Italy, which had, like
all that preceded, only shown that a temporary ascendency
could be obtained by that nation, but could never be re¬
tained, the preponderating influence was securely held by
the Emperor Charles Y. Most of the reigning houses dis¬
appeared, and their successors were appointed either avow¬
edly or secretly by him. When the male line of the Mar¬
quis of Montserrat became extinct, Charles, in 1536, gave
his dominions to Gonzaga of Mantua; and Maximilian lb
in 1573, created it a dukedom. The Florentines made
an attempt, after murdering the Duke Alexander in 1573,
to regain their independence; but their efforts were un¬
availing, and Cosmo de’ Medici was raised to supreme
1 T A
«• rv power by the influence of Charles. Parma and Placentia
had been seized upon by Pope Julius II. for the holy see;
but Paul III. in 1645 erected those states into a dukedom
for his bastard Peter Aloes Farnese, whose son Octavio, in
1556, was invested by the emperor. Genoa, which, since
1499’ had submitted to France, found a deliverer from
that power in the person of Andreas Doria, who established
a firm aristocracy, which overcame the conspiracy that
Fiesco had projected to destroy it. Charles, in 1553, had
conveyed Milan, and also the kingdom of Naples, to his
son Charles. At the peace of Chateau-Cambresis, in
1559, Philip II., and Henry II. of France, renounced their
pretensions to Piedmont, which was given to the legiti¬
mate heir, the brave Spanish general Emanuel Philip,
duke of Savoy. In 1597, the legitimate line of the house
of Este became extinct, upon which Caesar d’Este, a na¬
tural son of the last prince, obtained Modena and Reggio
by an enfeofment from the empire ; and Ferrara was con¬
veyed to him as a feudatory of the papal throne.
The end of the sixteenth century was a period of peace
in Italy, and of such prosperity as could be expected af¬
ter it had lost the foreign trade which had proVed so lucra¬
tive, and which had been so long enjoyed by the discovery
of the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. In the
next century only some insignificant changes of territory
took place. Some reverses in Germany induced the Em¬
peror Ferdinand II. in 1631, when the family of Gonzaga
became extinct, to grant Mantua and Montserrat to Charles
de Nevers, a protege of France, whose descendants retain¬
ed it till the war of the succession in Spain. In the peace
of Chierasco in 1631, the cunning of Richelieu obtained
Pignerol and Casale, which might serve as means of facili¬
tating an irruption into Italy; but, in 1637, he was ob¬
liged to give up the latter fortress. The peace of Italy
was not disturbed by any of the operations of Louis XIV.
of France, and seems to have been durably secured by
its neutrality being made one of the stipulations of the
treaty of Turin in 1696.
The effects of the war of succession in Spain were ex¬
tended to Italy. Austria conquered Milan and Montser¬
rat, and the Duke of Mantua was expelled on account of
his crimes. Montserrat was ceded to Savoy, and the two
other cities retained by the house of Austria. The peace
of Utrecht, in 1714, conferred Sardinia and Naples on the
emperor, and Sicily on the house of Savoy ; afterwards the
two powers exchanged the islands, and the house of Savoy,
thus gaining Sardinia, assumed the title of kings of that
island.
The family of the Farnese became extinct in 1731, when
the Infant Charles of Spain received the investiture of Par¬
ma and Placentia. In the war respecting the Polish suc¬
cession, which broke out in 1733, Emanuel of Savoy, now
king of Sardinia, formed an alliance with France and Spain.
By this he was enabled to take possession of the duchy of
Milan; but at the peace of Vienna, in 1738, he was com¬
pelled to restore it to Austria, being allowed to retain only
Novara and Tortona. The Spanish infant, who had be¬
come king of the Two Sicilies, delivered up Parma and
Placentia to the house of Austria. The family of the
Medicis had enjoyed the title of Dukes of I uscany with
great tranquillity; but the last member of it dying in 1737,
Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, by the preliminaries of
the Vienna treaty, was invested with the sovereignty ; and,
in 1745, it was settled as the possession of the second son
of the Lorraine-Austrian family. In the war of the Aus¬
trian succession, in 1745, the Spaniards conquered Milan,
but were driven out by Charles Emanuel; for which ser¬
vice Maria Theresa conceded to him the districts of Vige-
vanasco and Bobbia, and some portions of Anghiera and of
Pavia. Massa and Carrara fell by hereditary succession to
the Duke of Modena in 1743. Parma and Placentia were
L Y. 477
taken possession of by the Spanish infant Don Philip, who History,
soon lost it again; but, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1748, he once more received it, and continued to hold it
as an hereditary possession. Thus, at nearly the termination
of the century, in 1792, the houses of Lorraine, Spain,
and Savoy, were the rulers of all Italy except the states
of the church, the duchy of Modena, and the republican
cities, in which the decrepitude of old age was making rapid
advances.
As the narrative of the events by which Italy fell under
the dominion of Bonaparte is communicated in this work
under the head France, it is only necessary to refer the
reader to that article. When quiet possession of the pe¬
ninsula had been gained in 1797, republicanism was in the
ascendant at Paris, and the Cisalpine republic was formed.
Lombardy was extended by adding to it a portion of the
papal territory. Genoa formed another republic, called the
Ligurian; and Venice, which had submitted without oppo-
sitfon, also adopted a republican form, though it was soon
afterwards transferred to Austria by the treaty of Campo-
Formio. Naples also was, in 1799, formed into a republic,
under the denomination of the Parthenopman. Amidst the
greatest oppression and the most wanton cruelty, this state
of affairs continued till their conqueror became first consul,
when the Cisalpine republic was new-modelled after the pat¬
tern of France, and converted into the Italian republic, with
Bonaparte as its president. In 1805, when the military re¬
gime was completed in France, and Bonaparte had become
its emperor, the same kind of monarchy was forced upon
Italy, and he was crowned at Milan on the 26th of May, with
the iron crown of Lombardy. About the same time Naples
was converted into a kingdom for his brother Joseph, who,
however, was soon compelled to abandon it, in 1808, for
the throne of Spain, and was succeeded by General Murat.
For one of his sisters, who had married Paschal Baccio-
chi, Parma and Piombino were formed into a kingdom, to
be called that of Etruria; but it was soon destroyed, and
converted into a province of France. Though Naples
was subdued, the legitimate monarch took refuge in Si¬
cily, and was enabled to maintain himself by the assist¬
ance of the English navy and army. Whilst Murat reign¬
ed as king in Naples, and Eugene Beauharnois as vice¬
roy in Milan, they were both summoned, with all the
forces they could collect, to join the grand army for the
subjugation of Russia. After the retreat from Moscow,
both returned to their dominions with the remnant of their
forces. Eugene maintained the fidelity for which he had
engaged; but Murat, offended with Bonaparte, formed an
alliance with the confederated monarchs of Europe. After
the abdication of the imperial throne, Eugene withdrew,
and the states in the north of Italy soon returned to the
government of their ancient rulers.
On the return of Bonaparte from Elba in 1815, Murat
took up arms, as he affirmed, for the independence of Italy.
With the Neapolitan troops he advanced towards the north,
and entered Bologna; but was soon driven from thence, and
afterwards defeated near Tolentino, upon which there was
an end of his kingdom. The capital was entered by the Aus¬
trian general Nugent, and Murat fled to France, whilst his
wife and family found a refuge in Austria. F erdinand return¬
ed from Sicily to the capital of his continental kingdom, and
was received with delight by the inhabitants. Murat made a
feeble attempt to recover his kingdom ; but having collect¬
ed a small body of troops in Corsica, and landed with them
on the coast of Calabria, he was made prisoner, tried by a
military tribunal, and shot. By the final treaty of Vienna,
the following arrangements regarding Italy were agreed to,
and still remain. The king of Sardinia received back ‘jh
dominions, according to the boundaries existing in J79~,
with some few changes in the limits on the side towards
Geneva. To these were added the city of Genoa, and the
ITALY.
478
History, territory attached to it in former times when it was a
duchy. The emperor of Austria united with his heredi¬
tary monarchy the newly-erected kingdom of Venetian
Lombardy, in which was included the districts of the Val-
teline, Bormio, and Chiavenna, parts of the Swiss canton
of the Grisons. Istria was not included in the Austrian
kingdom of Illyria. As the boundary between the pope¬
dom and Parma, the valley of the Po was fixed upon. The
house of Este was again declared sovereign over Modena,
Reggio, Mirandola, Massa, and Carrara. The Empress Ma¬
ria Louisa received the state of Parma as a sovereignty for
her life, after which it was to fall to the Duchess of Lucca
and her heirs, who were to give up a territory in Bohemia
to the Duke of Reichstadt, the son of Napoleon and Maria
Louisa, who has since died. Prince Ferdinand of Austria
received Tuscany, with the title of Grand Duke, as before
his dismission, and the district of Piombino ; and also the
sovereignty7 of the isle of Elba, but reserving in that
island the rights of Prince Buoncompagni Ludovisi. The
Infanta Maria Louisa received Lucca as a sovereign duke¬
dom, and with it a yearly pension of500,000 francs, till the
decease of the Empress Maria Louisa. The pope was
fully reinstated in all his dominions, with the exception
of a few small portions on the left bank of the Po ; but
Austria reserved the right of recruiting in Ferrara and
Commachio. Ferdinand of Naples was again acknow¬
ledged as king of both Sicilies, and the republic of San
Marino and the Prince of Monaco were guaranteed in
the full enjoyment of their ancient rights.
The restoration of the old governments was not follow¬
ed by the immediate return of tranquillity, and much less
of contentment. A large army had suddenly changed its
colours, and the officers serving in it feared that a change
of masters might be unfavourable to their professional ad¬
vancement. There was, or soon arose, a disposition to spe¬
culate on forms of government, to which Italy had alway'S
a strong tendency ; and though it had been repressed by
the military and inquisitorial power in the hands of Bona¬
parte, it was only stifled, and, when that power was de¬
stroyed, spread with great rapidity. This naturally en¬
gendered republican feelings; and the idea of uniting the
whole of Italy into one large republic, to be administered
solely by natives, was too flattering to the vanity of a
people accustomed to view all foreigners as barbarians,
not to meet with numerous adherents. The proselytes
were chiefly found amongst those least capable of calculat¬
ing the capability or the consequences of their projects.
The spirit of change was deeply imbibed by the active
part of the people, and especially those of immature age ;
the students in the colleges, the inferior officers in the
civil and military departments, and the younger members
of some of the noble families who were reduced to poverty
by the exactions which had been practised by their late
masters. In the recollection of what Italy had been fif¬
teen centuries before, when she ruled the world, they over¬
looked many centuries during which she had since been
subjected to Goths, Lombards, Germans, Normans, and
Spaniards, and at intervals to the French. They never
adverted to the condition of that most numerous class of
all, the peasantry, who had formed the armies of Caesar and
of Pompey, when independent in mind and powerful in
body, but had since become the most ignorant, thought¬
less, superstitious, and degraded of all the serfs of Eu¬
rope. Though there were abundance of revolutionary pro¬
jectors, and extensive conspiracies formed, yet the hands
that were to execute the purposes of such leaders com¬
pletely failed when collected together, if opposed by only
a mere handful of disciplined troops. This had been seen
when Murat led a large army proclaiming the indepen¬
dence of Italy, and promising to deliver it from all its trans¬
alpine intruders. The same spectacle was exhibited in
both the attempts at revolution which were made in Nani pc t,.
and in Piedmont. P
In Austrian Lombardy the same tendencies to revolution
existed as in the other parts of the peninsula; but they were
checked by the vigilance of the police, and by an armed
force, which, as they spoke a different language from the
conspirators, was not to be infected by the general mania
of the natives. In the other parts of Italy, where the army
was composed of natives, the prevalence of revolutionary
views was easily communicated, and perhaps nowhere
prevailed more generally than amongst all ranks of the of¬
ficers. This was especially the case in Naples, where the
army that had been created by Murat, and officered by
him, was placed by the restored king under the command
of the Austrian general Nugent, to the great mortifica¬
tion of all in the service. The French military regime
was exchanged for that of Austria; the taxes upon land
were increased; and, by an agreement with the pope,
many of the abolished monasteries were re-established.
These arrangements gave force to the speculative opi¬
nions which prevailed of a republican kind, and originated
many secret societies, the most extensive of which was
that of the Carbonari, which, if we may trust to the oaths
and declaration as published by their enemies, was of the
most atrociously murderous and diabolical kind.
Although the societies of the Carbonari had been op¬
posed by another society, called the Calderari, adhering
to the royal party, and employed by the police, it was
said that they counted amongst their members, and those
who favoured their proceedings, more than six hundred
thousand individuals, including all the provinces of the
kingdom. This vast combination, though to a certain de¬
gree known to exist, and to be numerous, made no public
demonstrations of its force till a revolution had broken out
in Spain. The excitation produced by that event spread
throughout Italy, but the strongest effect was experienced
at Naples. On the 2d of July 1820, Michael Morelli, a
lieutenant of cavalry, and Luis Minichini, a priest, excited
some troops quartered at Nola, by some violent harangues,
to cry aloud, “God, the King, and the Constitution.” They
were soon joined by an officer of the guards with about
twenty men, and the next day marched to Avellino, the
capital of the province, where one of the conspirators had
already declared the insurrection, and gained over more
troops, when the united bodies advanced to Montefort, and
took up a position, which they surrounded with intrench-
ments. Some troops were sent by the government, under
General Campana, to reduce them to submission; but these
troops discovered no disposition to act. Another general,
Carascosa, with more soldiers, was pushed on; but they
also refused to fight their brothers. On the 5th, Gene¬
ral Pepe, at the head of a regiment of dragoons, proceed¬
ed from Naples and joined the insurgents, and was then
declared their chief. Messengers were sent from the
army to the king with petitions, requesting him to grant a
constitution. He had no troops that could be relied on,
and promised to present them with the plan of a consti¬
tution in eight days, and in the mean time dismissed his
ministers, and replaced them by some of the leaders of the
troops. This did not satisfy the impatient insurgents, and
they demanded that within twenty-four hours the Spa¬
nish constitution should be adopted. The king appointed
his son viceroy, and he assented to the proposition in his
father’s name.
The Spanish constitution thus proclaimed, was that of
the Cortes of 1812 in Cadiz, of which no one in Naples had
any knowledge, nor could even a copy of it be found in the
city at the time of its adoption, as a fundamental law of
the regenerated kingdom. In ten days, without a drop of
blood being shed, a military revolt placed the revolution¬
ists in the possession of the full power of the kingdom. An
C 33
ITALY.
iry. insurrection almost immediately broke out in Sicily, which,
acting on the same principles, required independence ; and
the populace having broken loose, committed many dis¬
orders, such as breaking open the prisons, robbing the rich,
murdering several persons of rank, and amongst these
Prince Catholico, and assassinating others; so that on the
17th of July, three days after the events in Naples were
known, fifteen hundred persons were killed and wounded
in the city of Palermo, and confusion prevailed in every
other part of the island. General Pepe was sent with a
body of troops to restore tranquillity. He found the cities
in a state of horrid confusion, some taking the part of the
Neapolitans, and others insisting on independence. This
state of misery continued till the whole insurrection in
Naples was quelled.
Whilst Sicily was thus suffering the worst of horrors,
the revolution in the continental part of the kingdom pro¬
ceeded with less confusion. An assembly was convened,
and adopted the Spanish constitution with some few trifl¬
ing alterations. Though suggestions were made by some
of the members, that some conditions taken from the Eng¬
lish or French constitutions, or from some of those states
in Germany which had recently received constitutions,
would be desirable, they were scarcely attended to, and
none of them acquiesced in. A great military force was
decreed, to consist of fifty-two thousand- regular troops, two
hundred and nineteen thousand moveable national guards,
and four hundred thousand local national guards, besides
ten thousand gens-d’armes and coast-guards. The spirit
of the regular troops could not be relied on, as many of
the best of the officers had resigned their commissions. In
a very short time the treasury was exhausted, though it
had been left in a prosperous state ; and it became neces¬
sary to borrow money from a Parisian banker, who advan¬
ced 1,500,000 ducats at a high rate of interest. The ex¬
penditure had increased at the rate of 4,084,000 ducats,
whilst the income had diminished at the rate of 2,916,000
ducats, annually.
In these new hands every branch of the administration
had become confounded, and embarrassed each other ; the
courts of justice decided nothing, the number of criminals
increased, and trade was stagnant. These circumstances
existed at Naples when the congress at Troppau, consist¬
ing of the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of
Prussia, with their ministers, and the ambassadors from
the other powers of Europe, had assembled, and m Novem¬
ber had decided on a military interference in the affairs of
Naples. Austria at this time had marched an army of eighty
thousand men into her Italian provinces, under the com¬
mand of General Frimont. Great Britain and France had
each placed a naval squadron in the Bay of Naples, which
were appointed to watch over the safety of the king and
the royal family. These preparations excited the feelings
of the several parties in the capital, producing on one
hand suspicion and distrust, and on the other hope and
joy. The king of France had offered to mediate between
the parties, and suggested that the king should have the
veto, the choice of his ministers, and the power of dissolv¬
ing the assembly; but such propositions received no at¬
tention.
The three combined monarchs had on the 20th of No¬
vember written a letter to Ferdinand, inviting him to meet
them at Laybach; and the king of France had urged him
to take this step. He resolved on doing so, and announced
his resolution to the parliament on the 9th of December,
and required that, during his absence, no changes in the
constitution should be made. This communication pro¬
duced much violent debate, and the answ-er given was
a resolution, “ that any proposition to alter the Spanish
constitution being contrary to the oaths of the king and
the parliament, they consent to his majesty undertaking
479
the journey, on the condition that he will take the proper History,
means to secure the acknowledgment of that constitu-
tion.” To this resolution the royal reply was, that his ma¬
jesty had never entertained any designs to change the con¬
stitution ; but that, to avoid a war, it was advisable, by the
king’s mediation at Laybach, to obtain the sanction of the
congress to what had been done, and that no further
changes should be made during his absence. The parlia¬
ment persisted in their resolution, and the king, on the
10th of December, declared that his mediation should have
no other object than to maintain in its integrity that Spa¬
nish constitution that had been already sworn to, and to
avert a war. The crown prince was then appointed re¬
gent; the king and his consort embarked in an English
ship of the line on the 13th of December, landed at Leg¬
horn on the 19th, and thence proceeded through Florence
to Laybach.
The prince regent seems to have given way to the im
petuosity of the parliament, to have passed some very re¬
volutionary laws against the nobles of Sicily, and prepared
as well as they could to arrange an army, which then was
composed of fifty-four thousand troops of the line, and
sixty thousand militia and volunteers; and they all appear¬
ed very energetic in the cause they had espoused.
When the king arrived at Laybach he was soon made
acquainted with the decision of the congress, not to ac¬
knowledge as legal any transactions which had passed in
Naples since the 5th July; and that the power of suppres¬
sing what was deemed a military revolt should be intrusted
to the emperor of Austria. This resolution w as made known
by the king to his son, who acted as regent in Naples. At
the same time the ambassadors of the combined powers made
known, through the secretary of state for foreign affairs, to
the prince regent, that an Austrian army was ready to enter
the kingdom and to occupy it; and that if that was insuffi¬
cient, a Russian army would also receive orders to join
their force. The regent replied that he should make this
known to the people, from whom he should not separate
himself, because in all that had occurred great moderation
had been showm, and the greatest respect displayed towards
the royal family. The regent replied to the king, that as
he could not believe the communication from his majesty to
be a voluntary act, he should adhere in every way to the
people, and share all dangers with them; upon which the
ambassadors of the allied powrers withdrew from Naples.
Preparations wrere now made for defence, and a propo¬
sal, that for the present the constitution should be sus¬
pended, and the regent declared dictator, wras negatived.
General William Pepe called to arms the whole of the
people, arranged under ancient names, such as the legion
of Brutus, of the Samnites, and others, and added them to
the regulars, thus mustering a hundred and fifty thousand
men, but many badly armed and clothed, and worse discip¬
lined. The plans for defence were well arranged had the
troops been well composed. The Austrians advanced, the
first encounter happened on the 5th of March, and by the
10th a general dispersion of the whole army had taken
place. It is not necessary to relate the several movements
of the two armies. Many of the Neapolitans were killed
in their flight; but the Austrians assert that they lost in
all the combats not more than seventy men. The Nea¬
politan troops of the line soon joined themselves to the Aus¬
trian army, and the volunteers and militia returned to their
homes. The Carbonari talked loudly of carrying on a
guerilla war amongst the mountains, but it produced no
effect. Naples, with the fortresses of Gaeta and Pescara,
capitulated on the 23d of March ; the lodges of the Carbo¬
nari were dissolved, the leaders, including the two gene¬
rals, Pepe and Carascosa, obtained passports to foreign coun¬
tries ; and the last sparks of the revolution were speedily ex¬
tinguished.
480
ITALY.
History. The king had arrived at Florence, whence he arranged
'“■"V''-'' a provisional government, which speedily abolished the
whole of the republican institutions, and restored such
as had previously existed. The troops of the line were
disarmed and disbanded, and the volunteers stripped of
their arms and accoutrements. The police was establish¬
ed on its ancient footing; and some of the leaders of the
revolt were prosecuted, of whom a few were executed af¬
ter trials before the restored tribunals. A detachment of
the Austrian army passed over to Sicily, and in a short
time restored tranquillity in that island, after having disarm¬
ed a few parties of guerillas that infested the mountain¬
ous parts of it, whilst those who had commanded them fled
into Spain. The restored government conducted the prose¬
cutions with great mildness. Forty-three of the most con¬
spicuous persons were brought to trial, of whom thirty
were condemned to death, but only two of them, Morelli
and Gilvati, were executed. On the 22d of September
an amnesty was issued, from which only eleven persons
were excepted, viz. General Pepe, the monk Minichini,
Concilio, Carascosa, Rossarol, and six others, all of whom
had taken refuge in England. Thus, in little more than
fifteen months, the Carbonari insurrection was completely
defeated, and the people returned to their usual habits, oc¬
cupations, and gratifications.
The revolution which broke out in Piedmont whilst
that in Naples was in operation, originated in the same
causes, but varied in its progress, because it was more es¬
pecially of a military character, and headed by persons of
more weight, as well in the civil as in the military depart¬
ments. The chief leaders of the insurrection were the
Marquis Carlo de St Marzano, son of the minister for fo¬
reign affairs, Colonel Provano de Collegno of the artillery,
the Counts St Michael and Santa Rosa, officers of the staff,
Captain Count de Lissio, and some others, forming a con¬
federacy to which they had given the name of the Italian
League. They had resolved to select as their chief Prince
Carignan, the heir apparent, who, they asserted, felt great
zeal since the revolution at Naples, and was the best qua¬
lified to become the prince or king of New Italy. Accord¬
ing to their representation, he had, on the 6th of March,
acted with them, on the 7th he had declined proceeding,
and on the 8th he had again consented to the revolution.
On the 10th of March the revolt began in the regiments at
Fossano, Tortona, and Alessandria, where the officers had
gained over the men by spreading rumours that the Aus¬
trians had resolved to disband the Sardinian army, and to
garrison the fortresses with their own troops. In vain the
king contradicted the rumour; the insurrection increas¬
ed, and a council of the officers, of which Ansalti was pre¬
sident, issued a declaration in the name of the Kingdom
of Italy. From Alessandria the infection spread to Turin,
where the general cry was “ Long live the king and the
Spanish constitution.” The people in the capital remain¬
ed quiet, and a part of the garrison was marched against
the insurgents.
On the 12th of March the king issued a proclamation
commanding tranquillity and obedience, affirming that the
garrisons of foreign troops should never be admitted ; but
on the same day the officers, with some of the students,
seized on the citadel of Turin, by which the populace
became excited, and in crowds exclaimed for the Spanish
constitution and for war with the Austrians. Upon this
the king, who had assented to the resolutions of the con¬
gress of Laybach, could not yield to the popular cry, and
resolved to abdicate the throne; and on the 13th he did
so, appointing, in the absence of his brother Felix, who
was the next in succession, but at Modena, Prince Albert
Carignan as regent. The whole of the ministers were
then dismissed, the state prisoners liberated, and the Car¬
bonari were everywhere triumphant, except at Nice, to
which city the king had removed. The new regent found History
himself compelled to obey those whom he had expected to
lead, and declared for the Spanish constitution, but with a
reserve in behalf of the king’s consenting to it. He then
appointed new ministers, a council or junta, and promis¬
ed to convene a parliament.
In Novara and some other places a dislike of the Spanish
constitution was displayed; and in the whole of Savoy
an aversion to the revolution prevailed. Amongst those
who had favoured the revolution great differences arose.
Many, and those the most thoughtful, preferred the con¬
stitution of France with two legislative bodies, to that of
Spain with a single one. On the other hand, the revolu¬
tion found many partisans in Lombardy; and many of the
young men from Milan and Pavia hastened to join the re- , ,
volted troops at Alessandria, which was the central point.
Prince Felix at Modena refused the crown, declared the
abdication to have been forced, and consequently illegal,
and placed Count Galieri della Torre as commander in
Novara, to take the command of the loyal troops and sup¬
press the rebellion. This event tended greatly to damp
the spirits of the revolutionary party ; they still, however,
remained triumphant in Turin, where the ambassador from
Austria was dismissed, and preparations made to assemble
a force and invade Lombardy under the command of Count
Santa Rosa. But on the night of the 23d of March, on
which the resolution had been taken by the council, the
prince regent fled to Novara, thence to the Austrian head¬
quarters, and then to Modena; but, being refused admit¬
tance to Prince Felix, he took up a short residence at Flo¬
rence, and afterwards served in the French army which
restored royalty in Spain in 1823.
. The revolutionists continued to encourage their party
by assurances of speedy assistance from France, and of
great accessions by the revolting of the Austrian troops;
but the news of the defeat and dispersion of the Neapoli¬
tan insurgents among the Abbruzzi Mountains, which ar¬
rived at this period, inclined the Piedmontese to attempt a
treaty, by which an amnesty should be granted, and stipu¬
lations made against the entry of any foreign troops. This,
however, proved ineffectual, for the troops at Novara, under
Della Torre, outnumbered any the insurgents could collect;
and in Turin many abhorred the new system, and it was their
desire that, without foreign troops, the revolt should be sup¬
pressed ; but Felix at Modena had applied to the Austrian
commander, and Count Bubna at the head of five thou¬
sand men joined forces with Della Torre, at two o’clock in
the morning of the 8th of April at Novara. The troops
of the insurgents appeared before that city at daybreak,
and a battle ensued. They fought bravely, but wrere at
length defeated. The native troops advanced to Turin,
and the insurgent fortresses surrendered to the Austrians.
The junta at Turin dissolved itself, and on the 10th the ci¬
tadel was delivered up to Della Torre. The king renew¬
ed his abdication, and his brother Felix assumed the title
of king. His power w as now as unrestricted as that of his
brother had been, and he instituted a tribunal for the in¬
vestigation of crimes, and punishing the offenders; but
most of them had escaped, many by way of Genoa to
Spain, and others through Switzerland to France. It was
shown before the tribunal that many of those who were
arrested had acted by orders from Prince Carignan at the
time he was the legal regent of the kingdom, and upon
this ground they were unanimously acquitted. The pro¬
perty of sixty-five persons who had escaped was declared
to be in a state of sequestration. Twenty-one others were
declared guilty of high treason and condemned to death;
and the same number were doomed to the gallies, with
the confiscation of their goods. Of all these, only thirteen
were apprehended, amongst whom were two who had been
condemned to death. Only one, however, was executed;
I T A L Y.
story, he was a captain of cavalry, named Garelli. The other, in
y'-' his flight by sea, had been driven on shore and captured;
and showing that he did not return by design, he was only
banished for life.
This mild administration of the judicial tribunal, with a
general amnesty, and rigid decrees to prevent any secret
societies being formed, soon restored tranquillity; and the
absence of so many leaders of revolution seems to have ex¬
tirpated the roots of that spirit which, for a short period,
had threatened a most fearful civil war. As the revolt in
Spain in the year 1821 had been one of the exciting causes
of the insurrections in Naples and Piedmont, so it appear¬
ed that the revolution in France which seated Philip of
Orleans on the throne of that kingdom was the proximate
causes of the disturbances which broke out in Italv in
1831.
The complaints in Italy were general, and the remedy
sought varied according to the opinions in the several
states, but there was one opinion in which all who were
dissatisfied united, namely, that, the only cure for the evils
they complained of was to be found in a general govern¬
ment, which should unite under one legislative body, com¬
posed wholly of Italians, the interests of all the states into
which the country is at present divided. The feeling to¬
wards the ultramontane barbarians, for such they had
been taught to consider the rest of the European nations,
was by far the strongest and the most universally diffused,
and an appeal to that feeling was a certain way to form
combinations with the avowed object of expelling them.
If some secret societies had existed in Italy before, they
increased in number and became more apparent after the
transactions in Paris; and the most eager hopes were held
out by those who took the lead in such societies, that if
they came to an open rupture with their sovereigns, they
might rely on effectual assistance from the newly-establish¬
ed power in France.
The combinations formed, though watched by the po¬
lice, continued to increase till they were thought by their
leaders to be sufficiently powerful to act with effect. The
first disturbance began at Modena, on the 3d of February
1831. It was led by one Minotti, and consisted chiefly
of young men. The troops were called out, and some
fighting in the streets took place, in which the insur¬
gents had the worst, and retreated to Minotti’s house,
where they were shut up; and cannon being brought,
they surrenoered with their leader, and were made prison¬
ers. I hus all appeared again tranquil; but two days after¬
wards intelligence arrived from Bologna that the insurgents
in that city had been successful, and that its influence ex¬
tended to Reggio. A new and much more formidable
ievolt then broke out. It gained strength, so that the
Puke of Modena deemed it wise to withdraw from his ca¬
pital, escorted by his troops, and accompanied by his pri¬
soners, Minotti and his companions, and to take refuge in
Mantua, where was a strong garrison of Austrian troops.
He left at his departure a council of regency, which the
people soon dissolved, and then nominated a provisional
government, upon which the populace plundered the pa¬
lace, destroyed the custom-houses on the frontiers, and
committed other disorders.
At Bologna, a city of sixty thousand inhabitants, there
was only a small garrison of papal troops, not exceeding six
undred in number. On the 4th of February an insurrec-
lon took place, chiefly composed of young men, many of
em the students of the university. They assembled round
e palace of the cardinal legate, who was absent, and re¬
quired of the pro-legate the resignation of his authority, and
at it should be delivered over to a provisional government.
at i j8.*1 re^use<^> then hesitated, and at length complied,
e soldiers received and obeyed orders from the newly-
aPpointed council; but their commander, wdth the pro-le-
vol. xir. r
481
gate, withdrew to Florence. The temporal power of the pope Historv
Tnd8 fn°nrShedl ^ °f0the Provisional government,
be fnrmPrJ0nTh-gUard ^ ther,French m«del was ordered to
e ormetl. This success at Bologna spread the spirit of re-
volt through all the delegations from that city to Ancona;
and the latter city capitulated, with its citadel, to a slight
force of the insurgents which appeared before it. A great
part of the papal territory was thus under the insurrection¬
ary power. Their force indeed entered the Apennines,
intending to advance to the city of Rome itself; but being
disappointed in the expectations they had formed of some
revolutionary movements in that city, they abstained from
any attempt on it.
In Parma the transactions nearly resembled those in
Modena. The duchess was compelled to withdraw, and,
escorted by her troops, found an asylum at Piacenza, when
her subjects also formed a provisional government.
Strong expectations had been indulged by the insur¬
gents of similar movements in the other parts of Italy, and
especially in Piedmont and Tuscany ; but no symptoms of
it were manifested in them, and the whole of Lombardy
under the Austrian power remained in a state of anxious
tranquillity. Austria had drawn a large force from her he-
reditary dominions, which had reached the Italian provin-
ces, and was said to amount to a hundred thousand men,
well disciplined and well appointed. Had the revolutionary
bodies, who began to assume some regular order, been in
possession of even common prudence, they would have
avoided any step which could have provoked or justified
Austria in interfering in their affairs, which, knowing the
tendency of the Austrian court, they might have been con¬
vinced, would be pleased with a pretext for undertaking
active operations.
Instead of temporising or disguising their views, no
sooner was the provisional government assembled, than, vain
of their newly-acquired power, they issued a proclamation
inviting the Lombards to join them in their federation.
“ Brave patriots of Lombardy,” said they, “ follow the ex¬
ample of France, imitate the example of Italy, burst asun¬
der the chains with which the holy alliance hath fettered you.
You are the slaves of foreigners, who enrich themselves by
despoiling you, and by rendering you daily more miserable.
On the day of your rising, forty thousand of our patriots will
march to assist you in crushing the Austrians. Let there
be no delay, for there is danger in hesitation. Display your
courage, fellow-countrymen, and despotism will flee from
our lands.” Similar addresses were issued to the subjects
of the king of Naples and of the king of Sardinia; but
they had suffered too much by the transactions of the year
1821 to be easily excited; and besides, those who might
have proved the most active leaders had been banished, and
were dispersed in various countries. Under the mild and pa¬
ternal government of the Duke of Tuscany, whatever dis¬
positions might exist, or whatever sympathy might be felt
for the neighbouring insurgents, no manifestations were
displayed, but tranquillity was universally enjoyed.
France, at the period when Philip was hardly seated on
the throne, had declared that she would not permit Aus¬
tria to interfere in Italy ; but at a subsequent period, when
the new monarch had become firmly fixed in power, an
explanation was given, stating, that the declaration did not
bind him to take any measures to prevent such interfer¬
ence. The Italians who had revolted were, however,
buoyed up with the expectation of assistance from France,
and the provisional governments spread the delusion long
after it was known that the expectation was vain.
France was not at that time in a condition to take any
effectual part. Her army was not formed, nor her finan¬
cial credit established, till after the fate of Italy was de¬
cided. She could only come in contact with the insurgents
by forcing a passage through Switzerland; and, having suc-
3 p
482
History.
ITALY.
ceeded in that, she would have to encounter the well-ap¬
pointed armies of the emperor of Austria or of the king
of Sardinia, or of both united. The negotiation between
Austria and France seems to have terminated in an under¬
standing that the former power might make use of its
troops to suppress the several insurrectionary parties in
Italy, but not permanently to occupy the several countries
in which they prevailed.
The troops of Austria did not suspend their operations
on account of the negotiations with France. The Po was
passed immediately after the promulgation of the address
inviting the Lombards to insurrection. One division of
the army advanced to Modena without opposition. The
duke returned to his capital, and was reinstated in his
power. His conduct towards the insurgents was mild ;
some of them were brought to trial, and a few convicted,
but Minotti was the only one who suffered death. Ano¬
ther division marched to Parma; the inhabitants submit¬
ted ; the duchess returned to her palace, and granted a free
pardon to all persons connected with the revolt, excepting
those who had occupied seats in the civic congress ; and
they suffered no infliction except that of being declared
incapable of filling any office in the public service during
the next three years.
In Bologna, to which the Austrians advanced, some ef¬
forts were made for the defence of that place, the seat of
the provisional government; but they were so inadequate
that the army entered without any opposition, and speedi¬
ly all the other cities and towns surrendered except Anco¬
na, where the members of the temporary government had
fled for refuge. In their flight they had taken Cardinal
Benvenuto, and carried him with them as a hostage or a
prisoner. As the Austrians advanced towards Ancona, and
no prospect of escape for the revolutionary leaders present¬
ed itself, the leaders of the insurgents pressed the cardi¬
nal to enter into a treaty, by which an indemnity should
be given to all political offenders on condition of surren¬
dering the city and the citadel. He at first refused to en¬
ter into any negotiation; but at length, under a protest
that he had no power to do so, he signed a treaty to the
effect proposed, and the city immediately submitted to its
former sovereign. The same submission must have been
made in twenty-four hours to the Austrians, and the pope
refused to ratify the cardinal’s stipulations.
Legal proceedings were then instituted against all such
of the insurgents as had signed the act of the provisional
government which had declared the abolition of the tem¬
poral power of the pope, broken their oaths of military
obedience, or published irreligious or seditious writings.
Several were tried and condemned to different degrees
of punishment, but not a single life was sacrificed. It
was said that this mitigation of punishment was adopted
at the suggestion of the French ambassador at the court
of Rome. That minister could not, however, feel much
satisfaction at an apologetical paper put forth by the pro¬
visional government immediately before its dissolution at
Ancona. In that manifesto they stated, “ that a prin¬
ciple proclaimed by a great nation, which had solemnly
promised not to permit its violation by any European
power, and the declaration of guarantee given by a mi¬
nister of that nation, had induced them to give their as¬
sistance to the movements of the people in the several pro¬
vinces.”
Within six weeks from their commencement, all the dis¬
turbances in Italy were quieted, and the Austrian troops had
been withdrawn to their own territory. In the papal do¬
minions, however, there was much confusion, owing prin¬
cipally to the undefined limits of the power of different
constituted authorities. These had caused partial revolts,
and the miserable papal troops were incapable of suppress¬
ing them. His holiness applied to Austria for some troops,
which entered his aominions, and enforced submission. Physical
This movement had been notified to the French ambassa- Condition
dor, whose answer left no apprehension on the part of that
power ; and therefore great surprise was excited when,
about a month after, a French fleet, with an army on board,
appeared before Ancona, and by a fraudulent attempt suc¬
ceeded in seizing upon that city with its citadel, driving out
the pope’s troops, and exercising many excesses towards
the inhabitants. This transaction occurred in February
1831. It led to some detailed negotiations, which at last were
settled by a treaty on the 16th of April. By it the French
were to remain in Ancona, but no reinforcements were to
be sent to them. The general who had made the capture
was to be recalled. The troops were not to go beyond
the walls of the city, they were to be maintained wholly
at the expense of France, they were to interfere in no in¬
ternal affairs, and were to depart as soon as the pope should
have no longer occasion for the assistance of any Austrian
forces. In this equivocal situation, the French troops at
present occupy one of the best ports in the Adriatic Sea.
It is not the business of a work of this kind to enter into
speculations on the motives which for the last four years
have influenced the king of the French in his conduct re¬
garding Italy.
Having thus sketched, with as much detail as the limits
of this work will allow, the history of Italy from the tinm
when the dissolution of the Roman empire took place to*
the present period, we must remark, that in compressing
the events of fourteen centuries into a few sheets, it has
been scarcely possible to do more than produce a chronicle
rather than a complete history, and therefore the dates of
the greater events only have been given, so as to be useful
for the purpose of reference. The causes which led to
these events, the characters of the great actors in them,
and the effects produced by them, would have opened a
wide field, which might have been explored with delight,
but which would have encroached too much on the sub¬
jects required to be treated in this work.
We have, however, here pointed out the origin of the
several states which now compose the land of Italy, and at
what time and by what means they had attained their rank
as sovereignties. The actual condition of these sovereign¬
ties will be found in their alphabetical order in this work;
but the notices of the preceding pages on the history of
Italy will be found sufficient to enable us to dispense with
the minute historical details of each of the states that now
exist.
We now proceed, therefore, to take a view of Italy as a
whole, and to describe those physical circumstances com¬
mon to it in that view.
Italy is bounded on the north-east by the Austrian pro¬
vinces of Illyria and Tyrol, on the north-west by the can¬
tons of Switzerland, and on the west, in a small part,
by the kingdom of France. The southern part, however,
which in shape resembles a boot, is surrounded by the sea,
having on the north-east the Adriatic, on the south-east
the Ionian Sea, and on the south and west the Mediterra¬
nean. Its sea-coasts are for the most part protected by
lofty acclivities. On the north-east shore, however, an es¬
tuary is created by the mouths of the river Po, which form
a kind of delta of swampy and marshy land, whose insalu¬
brious atmosphere acts as a powerful protection against
any maritime attacks. . ,
The extent and population of the several states whicti
compose the whole of Italy is shown by the following
table, which includes the great islands of Sardinia an
Sicily, and the smaller islands on the coast, but does not
comprehend Corsica, which, though inhabited by an ta-
lian race, forms at present a portion of the kingdom o
France.
sical
tion.
ITALY.
Name of the State.
Kingdom of Naples 
Kingdom of Sardinia 
Austrian Lombardy 
Territory of the Church...
Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
Duchy of Parma  
Duchy of Modena 
Duchy of Lucca 
Republic of San Marino...
Extent in
Square Miles.
43,052
29,534
18,450
17,572
8,759
2,253
2,145
434
44
122,243
Population,
7,434,300
4,123,000
4,278,902
2,592,329
1,275,000
437,400
379,000
145,000
8,400
20,673,331
Capital Cities.
Naples.
Turin.
Milan.
Rome.
Florence.
Parma.
Modena.
Lucca.
San Marino.
483
Physical
Condition.
Thus Italy may be considered about the extent of Great
Britain and Ireland, but as containing nearly three mil¬
lions fewer inhabitants.
The face of the country is much diversified by lofty
mountains. The most stupendous mass of these eleva¬
tions, which forms the northern boundary, has been most
fully described in this work in its proper place, under the
article Alps. The second range of mountains, the Apen¬
nines, runs nearly through the whole of Italy. These
commence in the maritime Alps with Mount Appio, be¬
tween Tende and Coni, at the southern point of Piedmont,
in latitude 44. 12. north, where the pass of the Bochetta
is formed. At first they take a direction to the north¬
east, and then trend to the south-east, and at length to the
south-west, when they are lost in the Mediterranean Sea
at Cape Passaro in Sicily, in latitude 36. 35. In Upper
Italy the Apennines run along near the shore, and the
foot of them is washed by the waves of the sea in the
territory of Lucca, where they form the Gulf of Genoa.
In Tuscany also they nearly touch the coast till they enter
the papal dominions, when they run along the centre of
the peninsula, and encompass the Abbruzzis and Molise,
and pass through Basilicata and the two Calabrias, to the
most southern part of Continental Italy. They pass under
the straits to Sicily, where they spread over the eastern
coast of that island, and are joined with the gigantic
Mount iEtna, after which they vanish under the sea. The
Apennines are covered with woods quite to their summits.
Amongst the trees chestnuts especially abound, and the
fruit of them is used by the natives as a most valuable
substitute for corn during a great part of the year.
The Apennines in no case attain the elevation of the
Alps, and have only a few very lofty rocky points, the
highest of which are Gran Sasso, near Aquila, in the pro¬
vince of Abbruzzo, which is 8255 feet above the level of
the sea; and Velino, which is 7870 feet. In winter the
range is covered with snow, and it is somewhat late, espe¬
cially on the northern sides, before it melts. The moun¬
tains thus furnish to the inhabitants an abundant supply
of that indispensable luxury in a warm climate, ice.
A great uniformity is observable in the composition
of these mountains, which consists chiefly of calcareous
stones, though in the extreme north and south parts there
are many variations, but in the centre there are no rocks
of primary formation. They in many parts abound in
tuffa; but the main range exhibits no specimens of vol¬
canic matter, which are only to be seen on the south-east¬
ern coastof Italy; Vesuvius, the extinct volcanoes of Nemi
and of Albano, and the lava stream of Borghetto, not be-
longing to the Apennine range.
In their long progress through the greater portion of
Italy these mountains send forth some remarkable shoots
or sPurs- To those on the west belong the Montagnolo
and Montagnata, in the neighbourhood of Siena; the
mountain Lora, near to Rome ; and the rocky chain of Sor¬
rento, which extends to Capri, in the Terra di Lavoro.
On the east are the inferior ranges of the march of An¬
cona and of the district of Urbino, and especially the
branch which projects between Acerenza and Venosa, and
proceeds to Leccese, where it is lost in the sea, under
which it probably proceeds, till it emerges from the wa-
tei, and then continues to proceed through the Grecian
ranges of Corfu and Arnauth.
besides the Apennines, there are other mountains,
which, though not far removed from them, yet manifestly
do not belong to, and have no apparent connection with
them. The most remarkable of these are the mountains
of Sorriano and of Fogliano, near Viterbo ; Sante Oreste,
neai Civita. Castellana; Monte Cavo, between Frascati
and Velletii; and the Volture in Puglia; all on the west¬
ern side of the main range. Besides these, are the vol¬
canoes, either active or now extinct, viz. Vesuvius. Capo
de Monte, San Elmo, Camaldoli, Pausilippo, Solfatara,
and Monte Nuovo. The most remarkable capes or pro¬
montories which surround the shores of the peninsula are,
Martini delle Melle, Manara, and Mesco, on the coast of
Genoa ; Piombino and San Stefano, on the shore of Tus¬
cany ; Linara, Anzo, and Circello, in the territory of the
church ; Licosa, Palinuro, Felta, Surero, Zambrone, Vati-
cano, Armi, Sarta, Spartevento, Stilo, Nizzuto, Colonne,
Saracino, Roseto, \ olta, San Vito, Turco, Assinella, and
Acquabella, on the shores of Naples. To these may be
added the following in the island of Sicily, which are of
great importance to all the navigators of the Mediterra¬
nean Sea, viz. Peloro, San Croce, Passaro, Scaramis, Gra-
nitula, Fero Voco, St Vito, Dell’ Ursa, Gallo, Zassarano,
Orlando, Carara, and Melazzo.
I he northern division of Italy is copiously supplied with
streams of water from those capacious reservoirs formed
at the foot of the mountain ranges of the Alps. Those
lakes are composed of water, partly arising from springs,
but chiefly from the melted snow and ice of the lofty sum¬
mits around them. These lakes are never frozen in the
winter, but run in continual streams, and thus serve the
constant purpose of irrigation as well as of internal navi¬
gation, till they disappear in the rivers which proceed to
the sea.
Ihe largest of these lakes, called Lago di Maggiore,
or Lago di Lucarno, begins in the Swiss canton of Ticino,
but soon enters Italy, and then, between the dominions
of Sardinia and Austria, extends to Sesto. It is nearly fifty
miles in length, and varies in breadth from five to eight
miles. It is shallower than most of the other lakes, be¬
ing in the middle not more than twenty-five feet deep.
It is 750 feet above the level of the sea, and is fed by the
river licino and twenty-six brooks. It contains in it the
celebrated Borromean Islands, for a description of which
see this work (vol. v. p. 16). Its water issues forth by the
river, which retains the same name as at its entrance till
it joins the Po. The Lago di Lugano is partly also in
484
ITALY.
Physical the Swiss territorj', and is of less considerable extent, but
Condition, of great depth. It is about twenty-four miles in length,
and from two and a half to six in breadth. Its surface is
870 feet above the level of the Mediterranean Sea. It
receives the water of forty-three brooks or rivulets, and
discharges it partly by the river Tresa into Lago Maggi-
ore, and partly by means of an artificial canal into the
small lake of Piano, a little to the eastward.
The lake of Como, celebrated for the romantic beauty
of its borders, is wholly in Italy. It is about thirty-five
miles in length, and in no part exceeds three miles in
breadth, but it is of very great depth. It is formed by the
river Adda and 195 smaller streams. It issues forth by the
river, which bears the same name as at its entrance, but
with an increased volume of water, and serves to fructify
a great extent of land. At Bellagio it divides into two
branches, one of which terminates at the city of its own
name, and the other at Lecco. Lago d’Iseo is about twenty
miles long and six broad ; it is chiefly supplied by the
streams of the Oglio, which issues from it again and runs to
the Po. Lago dTdro is small, being only seven miles in
length, and through it the river Chiese passes before it joins
the Oglio. Lago di Garda is the most extensive of all
the lakes of Italy, covering a space of 315 square miles,
or 201,600 English acres. It receives the water of the
Sarta, and its only issue is at Peschiera, into the Mincio.
It is of sufficient depth to carry vessels of the greatest
draft of water. These vast reservoirs are of unspeakable
advantage, both to the internal connection of one part of
the country with the other, and to the several occupa¬
tions of agriculture. As the slope of the land is regu¬
lar and gentle from these lakes to the river Po, nature
has thereby formed the means of distributing, with com¬
paratively little cost of labour, the water over an extensive
portion of the land, and in that due proportion which the
nature of the soil or the description of the crop may re¬
quire. In many parts streams of water are made to pass
rapidly over the fields that require it, and what is not ab¬
sorbed by the earth is received again into canals, and, at
lower elevations, again passed in a similar manner over
other fields, till the surplus fluid at length reaches the
river Po.
As these modes of disposing water to the greatest ad¬
vantage are almost peculiar to Upper Italy, and by their
extension have been productive of the most beneficial ef¬
fects on the fruitfulness of the soil, as well as on the inter¬
nal communication, a sketch of their commencement and
early progress can scarcely be destitute of interest.
After the decline of the power of the German empe¬
rors of the Saxon race, who had succeeded to Charlemagne,
several free states were formed, of which Milan became
one of the most flourishing; but war having been kindled
amongst these states, most of the others combined with
the Emperor Frederick I. against Milan, and, in 1162,
captured and almost destroyed the city, laying waste the
fields ; but, during the continuance of hostilities, a change
of fortune favourable to Milan, and the gaining of a bat¬
tle, led to a peace in 1176. The energy and industry
which this free state had displayed in war became equal¬
ly manifest in peace. The canal then, as now, called Na-
viglio Grande, was begun to be constructed in 1178, or
rather perhaps restored, for it is probable that the citizens
of Pavia, eighty years before, had dug the canal, which
had been partly filled up and rendered altogether useless
during the continuance of hostilities.
The canal was at first only carried to Abbiategrasso,
but the benefit was found to be so great, that, in the year
1220, the canal of Muzza was added to it. In 1269 the
canal of Vettabbia was extended and lengthened. It had
been originally constructed in 1037, but, as is stated by
Giuleni ( Storia di Milano, vol. iv.), was long neglected. In
1350 the canal of Treviglio, or Fosso Bergamasco, was be- Phvsica
gun ; and, in 1460, the Duke Francesco Sforza first planned Conditioi
that of Artesana. These, though in some degree designed
for the purposes of navigation, were chiefly planned and re¬
gulated to administer to irrigation. Navigation was only
permitted two days in the week, and the other five days the
water was used to enrich the land. It seems very probable
that advantage to the soil from irrigation was known prior
to any of the dates here stated as the commencement of
these canals. That some progress was made as early as
the year 1138, appears from a contract made in that year
by the monks of Chiaravalle and Vicoboldone, in which
are the following conditions : “ Ut monasterium possit ex
Vectabia trahere ledum (a canal) ubi ipsum monasterium
valuer it, et si fuerit opus liceat facere eidem monasterio fos-
sata super terram ipsius Johannis (the vender), ab ana
parte vice et ab alia, fc. possit jirmare et habere clausum
(sluice) in prata ipsius Johannis? A similar contract of
the following year, and several of subsequent dates, are
still in existence. The whole water of the Vettabbia be¬
longed to those monks, having been granted to them by
a charter of the Emperor Frederick II.; and the fame of
their skill in the management of water was so great, that
the chief of Milan, Napoleone della Torre, intrusted to
their care the construction of works for draining the
environs of that city, whilst Rinaldo, archbishop of Co-
logene, employed them in improving the marshes in his
dominions. These ecclesiastics confined their attention
and labours exclusively to irrigation, and did nothing for
navigation ; but they were the first to introduce the prac¬
tice, since become so extensive, of selling their water by
the hour, the day, or the week, and are said to have gain¬
ed to their convent 60,000 partiche, or about 10,000 acres,
of the best meadow-land in Italy.
Progress in the conducting of water must have been
made in Italy centuries before the subject had attracted
attention in the other parts of Europe. The learned Frisi,
in his work (Nuova Raccolta d’autori che trattono del moto
della aqua), speaking of the canal of Muzza already noti¬
ced, says that it was planned with the most perfect skill,
and formed a masterpiece of art. The canal of Marte-
sana is still seen with surprise. It receives its water from
the Vaprio and the Adda; is carried between stone walls
five Italian miles, on a level twenty-five feet above the
bed of the Adda, parallel to it, in order to preserve the
level; and distributes its water to the fields, which it could
not otherwise reach without great labour and expense.
The subsequent progress of the management of water,
and its beneficial application to agriculture, belongs more
properly to the description of Lombardy, where it will, un¬
der that head, be found, than to the more general subject
of Italy ; but the early state of that art belongs to the his¬
tory of the first dawn of a useful practice in the peninsula
taken as a whole.
The north of Italy, as may be gathered from the descrip¬
tion of the lakes, abounds in rivers. The principal of
these is the Po, which conveys to the sea the water of
most of the other streams. It originates in Mount Piso,
in the Alps, and takes an eastern direction through the
great valley of Lombardy, till it enters the Adriatic.
The whole length of its course is about 330 miles, but
for the first eighty miles it is scarcely more than a brook.
The rich plain that is watered by it and by its tributary
streams is 330 miles in length and 170 in breadth, and
consists of the greatest extent of highly fertile land that
exists in Europe. The course of the stream is very rapid,
the water running at the rate of more than four miles an
hour. A vast quantity of mud and other substances is
brought down by this great force of the water to the low¬
er part of the river, and being there deposited, tends to
raise the bottom ; and though the effect is in some degree
] rskal mitigated by throwing up the substances on the banks, and
t, ition. thereby forming strong dykes or embankments, the bot-
i, y-W tom of the river has in many parts become higher than the
land on both sides of it.
Though much labour and expense are applied to pre¬
serve the embankments, yet, when the snow and ice on
the Alps melt suddenly, great inundations are experien¬
ced. The chief tributary streams which contribute to form
the mass of water of the Po fall into it on the left bank.
These are the Agogna in the dominions of Sardinia; the
Ticino, the boundary between Sardinia and Austria; and
the Adda, the Oglio, and the Mincio, in Austrian Lom¬
bardy. The water which increases the Po by its right banks
are the streams of the Tanaro, the Trebbia, the Oreglio,
the Arda, the Taro, the Parma, the Ena, and the Secchia.
The next considerable river of northern Italy is the Adige
or Etsch, which comes out of the Tyrol, passes Trent and
Verona, and enters the Adriatic a little to the north of the
mouths of the Po. It does not in summer discharge much
water, and is only navigable a short distance higher than
Verona.
Central Italy does not abound in rivers, and most of
them are of short courses. The most considerable is the
Arno, which rises in the Apennines, at the foot of Mount
Falterone, runs through Tuscany, and enters the sea near
Pisa. It is navigable for small craft, but the chief inte¬
rest it excites arises from the rich and beautiful valley
which is watered by it in its passage to the sea. The rivers
which rise in the Apennines and run to the eastward, are
for the most part mountain streams or torrents, occasionally
dry, and, except when the ice and snow melt, contributing
but in a small degree to augment the waters of the Ad¬
riatic.
The south of Italy contains few rivers deserving the
notice they have received. The Tiber, in the papal state,
descends from the Apennines, not far from the source of
the Arno, and continues a course of nearly 150 miles, in
which it passes Rome, and enters the sea about fifteen
below that city. It is turbid, rapid, and deep; but at
Rome does not exceed a hundred yards in breadth, and
is only navigable from the sea to that city. The only
other river in that territory is the Pescara, which runs
into the Adriatic.
The Neapolitan dominions, though abounding in brooks
and rivulets, which are valuable to the agriculturist, and
with mountain streams, sometimes swelled into torrents,
and at other times nearly destitute of water, has few
streams of any length. The most important of them is
the Ofanto, running eastward to the Gulf of Manfredo-
nia, the Basiento, the Salandretto, the Agri, and some
others; all of which empty themselves into the Gulf of
Taranto. Those which run to the westward are the Ga-
rigliano, emptying itself into the Bay of Gaeta, the Volur-
no, and the Silaro. None of these are navigable, and
their mouths are for the most part surrounded with swamps,
which generate malaria, and are highly injurious to human
life.
In a country extending from north to south through
ten degrees of latitude, there must be a great difference
of climate from the position alone; but besides that, the
climate of Italy is influenced by the proximity of lofty
mountains in some of its divisions, and by the influence of
the air from the sea, which almost surrounds the other
parts. If we follow the classification of Saussure, we may di¬
vide the climate of Italy into four regions. The first ex¬
tends from latitude 46. 28. to 43. 30., and thus compre¬
hends the whole of the Austrian and Sardinian dominions,
and the other territories to the north of the Apennines,
with the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna. In
this region the quicksilver in Reaumur’s thermometer de¬
scends to 10 degrees below zero; the lagunes at the mouths
485
of the rivers are frozen ; and sometimes in January and Fe- Physical
bruary the snow remains from ten to fourteen days on the Condition,
ground. Delicate plants do not grow except in sheltered
situations ; but the mulberry trees flourish, and rice is
grown. The slight night-frosts appear in November, and
some years as late as April. Even in summer a benumb¬
ing cold is brought down from the Alps, by a violent storm
of northerly wind. The second region extends from 43.30.
to 41. 30. comprehending Tuscany, Lucca, the papal states,
the Abbruzzis, and the whole of the western shore to the
south of the Apennines, though some part of the latter does
extend as far north as 44., but, from being sheltered by the
mountains, has a climate similar to the southern part. This
is the appropriate climate for the growth of the orange, the
lemon, and the olive; but, even in this region, the snow is
occasionally to be seen on the fields. The third region ex¬
tends from 41. 30. to 39., and comprehends the greater
part of the continental dominions of the kingdom of Naples.
Here snow is rarely seen, and never remains; and the quick¬
silver seldom falls below three degrees, and all plants of the
agrumenous tribe flourish in the open air. The fourth re¬
gion extends from 39. to 35. 50., and comprehends the
southern part of Calabria, and the island of Sicily. The
quicksilver rarely falls below zero, and snow and ice are un¬
known except on the summits of the mountains of Aitna and
Sila. The tropical fruits come to perfection in the open
air, the sugar-cane flourishes, the cotton plant ripens, the
date trees are seen in the gardens, and the enclosures of the
fields are formed by aloes. It will be obvious that this
classification cannot be universally applied, and principally
attaches to the flat land of Italy. Thus the positions on
the sides of high mountains, the vicinity of the sea, and the
volcanic nature of the soil, all have an influence which must
cause many local variations in any classifications, and form
exceptions to what is generally correct. The tops of the
Alps in Savoy and Piedmont are covered with perpetual
snow. The Apennines are commonly clothed with it from
the middle of October till the beginning of April; and on
the highest mountains of Abbruzzo, the Majella and the
Velino, it remains from September till May. The northern
part of Italy, including Tuscany and the papal states, does
not generally present that charming aspect which people
from the north picture to themselves of the garden of Eu¬
rope; and they are only introduced into that region on
proceeding to the east from Manfredonia, or to the west
from Terracina. There the winter is scarcely colder than
our September; vegetation proceeds without interruption ;
and the air is filled with the most aromatic odours.
The climate of Italy, represented, as it frequently is, in
the most glowing colours, is not without great and seri¬
ous annoyances and inconveniences. There prevails from
May to September a burning heat; the sun, with its per¬
pendicular rays, threatens to destroy every vegetable ; this
burning atmosphere produces a brown landscape, unre¬
freshed by a drop of rain; when the air of the cooling sea
breezes is scarcely perceptible, or is so changed as to bring
with it from the shores of Africa only a thick, damp steam,
whilst a subterranean heat glows perpetually under the
volcanic soil, and periodically sends forth noxious vapours
injurious to the health of men and of beasts, and which have
tended to produce depopulation in many extensive dis¬
tricts. To these evils may be added the annoyance pro¬
duced by numerous swarms of insects, which fill the air,
visit the dwellings, and are a constant source of vexation.
The vast lagunes at the mouths of the great river, the
Pontine Marshes, with similar swamps on the sea-coast,
and in many other parts, tend to generate miasmata, that
shorten human life, and are among the causes that the
proportion of deaths to the whole number of inhabitants
is greater in Italy than in any other division of Europe.
The inhabitants of Italy are a mixture of races, compos-
ITALY.
ITALY.
486
Religion ed of Gauls, Germans, and Arabians, who at various but
ant! distant periods have immigrated into the peninsula, and
Learning. mjpgie(j wiji1 few aborigines, whose language they
have expelled; and from it has been framed a speech,
which by cultivation has attained a peculiar character, and
become, notwithstanding its variety of dialects, a common
bond of union. The language used by the best writers is
nearly the same in every part of Italy ; but that of the
lower classes is so very different in the several divisions of
the country, that those born in one can scarcely under¬
stand the conversation of the natives of the other. All the
educated classes can comprehend and enjoy the writings of
Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Tasso, and Ariosto composed in
the Tuscan dialect.
In Italy the inhabitants universally adhere to the Roman
Catholic church ; or, if any differ from it, the number must
be very inconsiderable, as there are no public celebrations
of any other religious rites but such as are prescribed by
that communion, except that the Jews in Venetian Lom¬
bardy, in Leghorn, in Rome, and in Ancona, have per¬
mission, but under some rigid restrictions, to establish sy¬
nagogues. The foreign Protestants also may celebrate
their rites in their own language, under the sanction of the
ambassador or consul of their nation. The established
clergy are very numerous, and said to amount to 500,000
persons, or one in forty of the whole population. The
number of sees, which formerly exceeded that of the bishop¬
rics in the rest of Christendom, has been greatly re¬
duced, as well as the greater part of the monasteries,
which once deluged the cities and large towns. The
churches, however, still possess great riches, and are every¬
where sumptuous in their decorations and ornaments, con¬
taining much of what is most magnificent and glorious in
art, or most refined in taste, elegance, and beauty. The
exterior of the churches is very imposing, and the cere¬
monies are performed with the greatest degree of pomp
and solemnity.
The higher clergy possess great power, and all of them en¬
joy immunity for their persons and goods, and in most cases
are freed from taxation. The secular priests are under the
superintendence of the bishops, and the monasteries un¬
der the chiefs of their several orders. Though the extent
of the influence and power of the church, and its univer¬
sality, are the same as in Spain and in Portugal, its exciting
cause and its associations are very different. In those
countries the religion is a species of chivalry, originating
in the idea of the conquests achieved over the Moorish Ma-
hommedans, and combined with all the traditions on that
subject; but in Italy it is chiefly to be traced to the pro¬
gress made in the fine arts. It is associated with painting
and statuary, with music and with architecture, and, as in
Spain, has little connection with the moral feelings of in¬
tegrity, chastity, temperance, industry, and the domestic
relations. These virtues, where they exist, owe but little
to the institutions of the church, of which they are unshak¬
en though but feeble adherents. Confession and absolu¬
tion are the substitutes for those virtues, and little beyond
the value of those substitutes is inculcated in religious in¬
struction.
In no part of Europe is the education of the humbler
classes so neglected as in Italy, taken as a whole ; for
though some advances have recently been made in Lom¬
bardy and in Tuscany, and will probably continue, yet no¬
thing is thought of or projected in the other territories, on
the subject. The instruction of the poor is wholly in the
hands of the ecclesiastics, and nothing can be worse conduct¬
ed. It is a wonder to find a countryman that can read, and
a handicraft workman in the towns that can write his own
name is equally singular. The institutions for the higher
kinds of education are also far behind those in the other
countries of Europe. Amongst these are the colleges and
lyceums, where the instruction is partial, and neither calcu- Relit
lated to impress with taste, nor to excite freedom and ex- ail
tension of thought. The studies are directed to logic and bean ,
some classics ; but the sciences are neglected, as are the W‘N
languages of other countries, their customs, their intelli¬
gence, and their modes of thinking and reasoning. Ma¬
thematics are scarcely known, but casuistry is sedulously
inculcated. The Collegia Ambrosiana and the Collegia
JBrera in Milan form exceptions to the description here
given, but in everything but classical literature they are
far from being well conducted.
The universities where education is completed are suffi¬
ciently numerous, and mostly of ancient date in their
foundation. They are, Salerno, founded in the year 1100;
Bologna, in 1119; Naples, in 1224; Padua, in 1228;
Rome, in 1248 ; Perugia, in 1307; Pisa, in 1329; Siena,
in 1330 ; Pavia, in 1361; Turin, in 1400 ; Parma, in 1422;
Florence, in 1443; Catania, in 1445; Cagliari, in 1764;
and Genoa, renewed and extended in 1783 ; to which may
be added that of Modena, which, after long neglect, has
recently been re-established.
The dates of these institutions may serve to show the
probable course of study originally introduced, when the
works of the schoolmen and the casuists entirely engrossed
the public mind. Some few improvements may have been
ingrafted on these foundations, but they have been of lit¬
tle efficacy in exciting to study, or in forming a consider¬
able proportion of enlightened scholars.
In almost every one of the cities of Italy there have been
long-established literary and scientific societies, which have
cherished and encouraged learning among their respective
members. These were begun in the fifteenth century, and
have multiplied and increased ever since. They have con¬
tributed, since the restoration of learning, to its preserva¬
tion, and have been in a great degree the means of bring¬
ing the talents and industry of the scholars into public no¬
tice. They are too numerous to be even named here.
One of the earliest, as well as the most celebrated, is the
Academia della Crusca of Florence, which still exists,
and had for its object the perfecting of the language, by
which great renown has been gained. The most flour¬
ishing of these societies in the present day are the Impe¬
rial Institution of Milan, and the Academy of Sciences at
Turin. The institutions for the promotion of the fine arts
are numerous; they are in connection with schools, in
which painting, sculpture, and architecture, are taught by
competent masters. The most useful of these are at
Florence, at Rome, and at Bologna.
Italy abounds in collections of books, and especially of
manuscripts of great antiquity, and of high value. The
libraries in general are, however, very deficient in works
of modern literature and of science. The most distin¬
guished of the libraries are that of the Vatican in Rome,
the Ambrosian at Milan, that of St Mark in Venice,
and those of the Magliabechi and the Medici at Florence.
There are in every part of Italy museums of great value,
and most of them are arranged in the most perfect man¬
ner. All of them are with the greatest liberality thrown
open to the public, and are thereby made the common pro¬
perty of all nations. Each palace of the men of eminent
rank, and each public building, is a cabinet of art; and
each city boasts of its antiques or of its modern works of
art. The most distinguished of the museums are those
of Florence and of Naples. Picture galleries are to be
found everywhere, and present to the inspector of them
many of the finest specimens of that delightful art. Ihe
churches, too, are most abundantly graced, as well by
their architecture as by the exquisite pieces which exhi¬
bit the skill of the painters or the sculptors. The great¬
est loss that Italy had to lament was the removal of the
best works of art by the French invaders ; but, fortunate-
ITALY.
] .ional ly for the country, the events of 1814 and 1815 led to
C acter. being again restored to the several places which had
v been robbed of them. There are botanic gardens at¬
tached to most of the universities, and several in the vi¬
cinity of the larger cities; and there are astronomical
observatories in Bologna, in Padua, in Milan, in Florence,
and in Palermo.
t The clergy have already been noticed; and in viewing
the inhabitants of Italy generally, it is proper to advert
to the class next to that body in rank, but superior to
them in number. The nobility consists of a vast num¬
ber of families, each member of which continues through
all their generations to retain their titles, even though they
may be destitute of wealth. In most of the dominions
they have little or no influence as a body on the measures
of the governments. In the papal states, in Sicily, in
Sardinia, some patrician power exists, and some feudal
rights are exercised, and in Genoa a shadow of their an¬
cient dignity is retained; but in the other parts not even
a shadow of power is to be found amongst them. They
have the barren titles of prince, duke, viscount, marquis,
or count. Many of them possess extensive landed estates,
which are for the most part majorats, or strictly entailed
on the eldest son, and many of these are said to be at
present deeply mortgaged. As no provision is thus made
for the junior members of such families, they commonly
enter the church or the army, and sometimes, though
rarely, obtain offices in the civil service of the govern¬
ment. Of late some of the nobility have directed their
attention to agriculture ; but none of them, except in
Venice and in Genoa, have applied themselves to com¬
merce. From the condition of this class, it is usual to find
amongst them the whole of the family residing in the pa¬
lace of the head of it, with their wives and children, if
they have any. As money rent is not commonly paid
for the estates, but the produce of these divided between
the proprietors and their occupiers, the necessaries for
the support of such families reach them directly ; and, ex¬
cept for purposes ol show or of luxury, very little money is
necessary. Although some members of the noble families
have devoted themselves to the promotion of literature,
of science, or of the fine arts, yet the great body live in
the silent enjoyment of their rank and property, or, when
mixing in society, do so in those crowded but economical
assemblies, where they can, with little interruption from
plebeian intruders, enjoy the patrician feeling of their dig¬
nity. In such families, the foreigners that may be intro¬
duced to them do not receive, or in general expect to re¬
ceive, any hospitable attentions ; nor indeed is hospitality
one of those good qualities by which Italians are distin¬
guished in any of the ranks of life.
It is generally reported that the morals of this class
have been gradually improving of late years, and that
the practice of each married lady having her favourite
lover or cicisbeo, after the birth of her first child, is ra¬
pidly disappearing. In regard also to gambling, it is said
to have been practised to a less ruinous extent of late
years than in former periods. One of the greatest, or at
least most usual, gratifications of the people of this rank,
is a box at the opera, where they most commonly attend
m the evening, and where, enclosed by curtains, they can
receive the visits of their friends, without interrupting
the pleasures they derive from the representation and the
music.
The burghers in the cities have now none of the power
which they enjoyed in the many cities which were once
denominated free. The municipal power is concentrat¬
ed in the hands of the several governments; and, where
corporations do still exist, they have no other right than
hat of presenting humble representations or suggestions
on inferior and local subjects. The more affluent inhabi-
487
tants of the cities, comprehending those of the legal pro- National
fession, the bankers, the merchants, and the superior art- Character,
ists, amongst whom may be included the possessors of the
smallest landed estates, are not numerous; but they mix
more with strangers than the nobles, and have fewer na¬
tional prejudices. They appear to know that all born
beyond the Alps are not necessarily barbarians or semi¬
barbarians, and amongst them foreigners may find the best
associates.
The lower class of the town population are in bad re¬
pute, both as to morals and instruction. They are re¬
presented as more acute than honest, and are reported to
be only capable of being restrained from violations of life
and property by the activity of a very vigilant police.
Whatever may be the faults of the Italian nation, one
good quality is obvious ; their ready assistance to suffering
humanity. All the cities are filled with charitable insti¬
tutions, wherein infants, the helpless aged, the diseased,
and the destitute, find refuge and relief; but it must be
acknowledged, that no country has more need of such in¬
stitutions, for in none are there to be found so great a
number of beggars, nor so numerous a body as, in all the
cities, take little care for any thing beyond the nassino-
day or even hour. * »
The greater part of the population of Italy is, how¬
ever, to be seen in the country, devoted to the pursuits of
agriculture. A few, a very few of them, are in circum¬
stances of moderate affluence ; a few more may be repre¬
sented as in a state of comparative ease, enjoying a bare
sufficiency to support life; but the great body, to whom
all others bear a slight proportion, are in the most wretch¬
ed condition. They are the occupiers of small portions
of land, some of them not exceeding an acre in extent,
and most of them less than four acres, where, in miser¬
able hovels, barely sheltered, they labour in the fields,
and subsist themselves and their families on half the pro¬
duce of the land, the other half being delivered to the
proprietor at the time of harvest as his rent. Their food,
simple as it is, is far from being sufficient to keep them in
a healthy state. They taste neither bread nor animal food.
Their chief subsistence is called polenta, made from In¬
dian corn, which is merely pounded and then boiled,
no expense on account of the miller or the baker being
incurred. This kind of meal, made to the consistence of
hasty pudding, would certainly be an aliment sufficient
to support life when the quantity could be adequately
supplied; but, with the utmost parsimony during the whole
year, the termination of it, as the next harvest approach¬
es, often finds them utterly destitute, and with no other
resource but beggary or starvation. This is the condition
of the larger class of human beings in the north and
middle of Italy; whilst in the south the lazzaroni of Na¬
ples are living proofs of the wretched condition of great
numbers in that more fertile soil and more temperate cli¬
mate.
The Italians as a nation, excepting, however, those of
the lowest class, are a fine race of men. The men are
well formed, rather slim than stout, but strong and agile,
with a complexion, either from nature or from exposure to
the sun, of a dark hue, with expressive countenances and
dark sparkling eyes, and for the most part with black
hair. Their gait is grave but not solemn, and their whole
appearance is expressive of self-respect. The women
have mostly narrow foreheads, black or dark-brown hair,
large, brilliant, and expressive eyes, a beautiful nose,
which, with the forehead, forms the elegant Roman pro¬
file; a small mouth, with lips rather swelling; a clear,
white complexion, with slight red tinges showing through
it, and a delicate but well-formed figure. But the
lower classes, owing to their early marriages, their sub¬
sisting wholly on vegetable food, and the hard labour they
ITALY.
488
Agricul- endure, exposed to a burning sun, have their beauty check-
ture, &c. ed before it has attained maturity, and rarely display any
attractions.
A hasty or an unobservant traveller, in passing through
Italy, may well be charmed with the scenery of the coun¬
try, the magnificence of the cities, the clearness of the
sky, and the mildness of the climate. He wi 11 see only
what is admirable and exciting. The prospects on de¬
scending from the Alps, adorned as they are by lofty pre¬
cipices, with their tops buried in snow, and their sides
discovering waterfalls descending into the beautiful lakes
below, are all of a kind to gratify the sense, as are also the
odours exhaled from flowers; and the fruit-trees regale
another sense at the bottom. On the plains, too, the
beauty of the fields, surrounded with mulberry trees, hay¬
ing vines in elegant festoons, with their pendant fruit,
trained from one tree to the next, the centre of the en¬
closure exhibiting heavy crops of corn, pulse, or culinary
vegetables, all conspire to increase the delight. The ex¬
cellence of the roads, the post-horses, and the inns, contri¬
bute their share to heighten the enjoyment. The appear¬
ance, too, of the cities, with their magnificent public edi¬
fices and their spacious private dwellings, though the
streets may be narrow and crooked, presents a picture
eminently calculated to convey to the beholder that feel¬
ing of pleasure which novelty usually creates in the mind.
We have enjoyed these gratifications to the fullest extent;
but, in the description here given, we have felt it a duty
to look beyond the delightful surface, to view the interior
of the land, the state of the several classes of society that
inhabit it, and to communicate to the reader the most ac¬
curate view that could be produced after much careful
investigation. If it be more dark and gloomy than it has
been commonly drawn, it will not be found, by those who,
like the writer, have examined and discriminated, to be
unfaithful in the delineation.
In every country agriculture is the chief branch of in¬
dustry, and this is eminently the case in Italy; but, from
the formation of the land, and still more from its extending
through ten degrees of latitude, it becomes difficult to
take a general view of the state of cultivation. The culti¬
vation of Savoy or Lombardy differs from that of Calabria
as much as that of Massachusetts does from that of Caro¬
lina. In this work, therefore, the details of rural econo¬
my will be found under the heads of the several domi¬
nions into which Italy is divided ; and in this place will
only be noticed those results of agriculture which yield
food, drink, or clothing to its inhabitants, or which form
the basis of manufacturing industry, or the rudiments of
foreign commerce. The cerealia form, as elsewhere in
Europe, the chief aliment of the inhabitants; in Italy,
however, the lower classes, who are the most numerous,
subsist much on maize, which requires little preparation
to render it fit for food. In some of the southern parts
wheat is made use of by the same class, not in the form
of bread, but in that of macaroni, which is manipulated
with greater facility. It is made from a hard wheat com¬
monly produced from the soil, or, in times of scarcity, im¬
ported from the countries on the Black Sea or the Sea
of Azoph. Wheat and maize are, on the average of years,
about equal to the consumption, but little or none can be
spared for exportation; and in many of the ports are de¬
pots of foreign wheat kept to meet the variations of sea¬
sons, or to be used as articles of commerce with other
countries.
As Italy produces abundance of wine, and consequent¬
ly needs neither beer nor corn-spirits, no barley is needed
for these drinks, and scarcely any is cultivated. Oats are
but little grown, but abundance of beans of various kinds
is produced. Rye, the common bread-corn of the far great¬
er portion of Europe, is only raised in a few spots in the
very northernmost parts of Italy, where it is made into Agricu!
bread for the poor; whilst those of the higher classes there, ture, &<
as well as throughout the whole peninsula in the cities,
make use of wheaten bread. Rice grows in many parts, in
fact wherever there is a sufficiency of water to insure a
good produce, at such a distance from towns as not to be
injurious to the health of the inhabitants. It is a part of
almost every meal in families in easy circumstances, but is
scarcely used by the families who are in circumstances
that require the practice of great parsimony. A great va¬
riety of lupines are used as food, especially in the soups.
In some parts of the mountainous regions chestnuts are a
substitute for corn as long as they last. Fruits are plen¬
tifully used, particularly melons and cucumbers, as food;
whilst the cheapness of onions, garlic, tomatos or love-
apples, and capsicums, render them valuable as condi¬
ments. It is singular that that useful vegetable the po¬
tato, which in the other parts of Europe has been so much
extended of late years, has been but partially introduced
into Italy ; and, where it is cultivated, it occupies a very
small proportion of the soil. Lettuces, asparagus, endive,
artichokes, and several kinds of turnips and of carrots,
are everywhere grown.
Animal food is far from being extensively used. The
oxen yield in some parts excellent, in others very indiffer¬
ent, meat. The mutton is neither good nor abundant.
Swine furnish a plentiful supply during the winter months,
but are chiefly to be seen as bacon or hams, and above all
prepared as sausages, the fame of which latter has reach¬
ed unto England under the name of the city Bologna,
where they were early and extensively prepared. The
large dairy farms in Lombardy, in which the cheese
known by the nante of Parmesan is made, furnish the
most and the best swine’s flesh.
The fisheries contribute largely to the supply of food
in Italy, though, from the number of fasts still counte¬
nanced by the Catholic church, not sufficient for the con¬
sumption ; and the deficiency is procured by commerce
with the English, French, and Americans, who convey to
the sea-ports the salted cod-fish from the banks of New¬
foundland. Their own fisheries on the coast give much
occupation ; the most considerable are those for the tun¬
ny, a very large fish, and for the anchovy, a very small
one. These are conducted upon a large scale by joint-
stock companies, composed of almost the whole of the in¬
habitants of the parts of the coast where they are carried
on. The lakes and the rivers also yield some, though not
a great proportion, of that kind of food which ecclesiasti¬
cal restrictions render indispensable.
The sugar-cane is cultivated in the south of Italy, and
some is grown spontaneously ; but it is found, that in
point of strength, as well as of cost, the sugar made
from it does not succeed in a competition with that sub¬
stance when imported from the West Indies.
The products of agriculture are sufficient for the cloth¬
ing of all its inhabitants ; for though wool is neither good
nor plentiful, yet hemp and flax are grown everywhere, are
manufactured at home, and, from the nature of the climate,
linen can be substituted for woollen dress during most of
the months of the year. Some raw wool is, however, im¬
ported to supply the manufactures, and some cloths both
from England and France, together with (in Lombardy)
those from the other Austrian provinces, especially from
Bohemia. Some cotton is grown on the southern divisions
of Italy, but not sufficient to furnish materials for their very
insignificant institutions of that manufacture.
The chief product of Italian agriculture is the silk. It i»
produced in every part, and much of it is converted into
articles of dress or of furniture, where it is collected; but
the chief production of it is in the dominions of the king of
Sardinia, or of the emperor of Austria, whence the looms
I T H
•h of England, Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Germany, are sup¬
plied. The value of this commodity exceeds that of all
1 the other productions of Italy which are exported to foreign
^ countries. It is still making, as it has made during the
last eighteen years, a rapid advance ; and the great in¬
crease which has taken place in the propagation of mul¬
berry trees promises, as they arrive at maturity, to increase
the quantity of raw silk to an extent which could not have
been calculated upon twenty years ago. An enlargement
on this important article of commerce would be out of place
in this general account of Italy; and for further informa¬
tion on the subject the reader is referred to the articles
Lombardy and Piedmont in this work.
An article of great importance, produced from the soil
of Italy, which is used partly as food, partly employed in
home manufactures, and extensively exported as an article
of foreign commerce, is the oil of the olive tree. It is
used as a substitute for butter in the south, is much ap¬
propriated to the manufacture of many kinds of soap, and
is exported to England for the use of our various fabrics,
chiefly those of wool, and as a luxury at our tables. The
planting and watching costs but little labour or expense,
and in a few years the income more than recompenses for
the labour. The best olive oil is produced near Genoa,
in Lucca, in Tuscany, and in Calabria; but it is plentiful
throughout the whole of Italy, except in Lombardy and in
Piedmont.
The wines of Italy are not very highly valued in other
countries, and almost the whole that is produced is consumed
at home. In the northern parts there is a degree of acidi-
ITCH, a cutaneous disease, appearing in small watery
pustules on the skin, and commonly of a mild nature,
though sometimes attended with obstinate and danger¬
ous symptoms. See Medicine, Index.
Itch-Insect. See Acarus, Entomology, Index.
In speaking of the manner of finding these insects in
the itch, Fabricius observes, that the failure of many who
have sought for them has been owing to their having ex¬
pected to meet with them in the larger vesicles, contain¬
ing a yellowish fluid like pus: in these he informs us he
never found them, but only in those pustules which were
recent, and contained merely a watery fluid. We must
therefore, he observes, not expect to find them in the
same proportional number in patients who for many months
have been afflicted with the disease, as in those in whom
its appearance is recent, and where Jt is confined to the
fingers or wrists. The cause of this difference with re¬
spect to the pustules may, he conjectures, be owing to
the death of the insect after it has deposited its eggs.
A small transparent vesicle being found, a very minute
white point, distinct from the surrounding fluid, may be
discovered, and very often even without the assistance of
a glass. This is the insect, which may be easily taken
out on the point of a needle or penknife, and when placed
on a green cloth may be seen much more distinctly, and
observed to move. But all this, we may observe, proba¬
bly depends on some optical deception.
ITCHAPOUR, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern
Circars, thirty miles south-west from Ganjam.
ITEA, a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria
class. See Botany, Index.
ITHACA, in Ancient Geography, an island in the
Ionian Sea, on the coast of Epirus, the country of Ulysses,
with a town and port situated at the foot of Mount Neius.
According to Pliny, it is about twenty-five miles in com¬
pass, and according to Artemidorus only ten ; but it is
now found to be seventeen miles long and four broad.
See article Ionian Isles.
vol. XII.
I T Z 489
ty unfavourable to the taste, and scarcely any of them are Itinerary
or can be preserved beyond one year. The vines are not II
so much grown in vineyards, as in the hedge-rows ; and this, Rzeeuinte-
it is thought, injures the quality of the wine. In the south- P°jzolil-
ern parts the wines are of a more fiery quality, but are not
much esteemed by foreigners. The names of them will be
found under the articles Tuscany, Naples, Sicily, and
Papal Dominions. The grapes are in some of the
southern states dried into raisins, as an article of foreign
commerce; but the whole is an insignificant branch of
trade.
The minerals of Italy are of small amount; and though
mines of gold, silver, and copper were once wrought, all of
them are now extinct. It yields at present some alum in
the Papal Dominions and the Neapolitan territory, some
vitriol and antimony in Parma, and sulphur in the kingdom
of Naples. In many parts marble is extracted, but the
best is near Verona and Carrara; and alabaster is found in
many of the mountains. The salt is furnished on the sea- -
shore, and some of it from saline springs, and is adequate
to the consumption.
The foreign commerce of Italy, and the internal trade,
as well as the manufacturing industry, are various in the
different states, and are or will be noticed in their appro¬
priate places in this wwk. It need only be said here, that
the roads being good in Italy, the intercourse between the
several states is kept up with great facility; and that the
interchange of the commodities of one district with those
of another is profitable to those trading classes generally
who devote themselves to the occupation. (g.)
ITINERARY, Itinerarium, a journal of travels, or
an account of the distances of places. The most remark¬
able itinerary is that which goes under the names of An¬
toninus and JEthicus, or, as Barthius found in his copy,
Antoninus JBthicus ; a Christian writer, posterior to the
times of Constantine. There is another itinerary, called
Hierosolymitanum, from Bordeaux to Jerusalem, and from
Heraclea through Aulona and Rome to Milan, under
Constantine. The word Itinerarium denotes a day’s
march.
ITIUS Portus, in Ancient Geography, the crux geo-
graphorum, so called from the difficulty of ascertaining
its position. It would be endless to recite the different
opinions concerning it, with the various reasons advanced
in support of them. Three ports are mentioned by Cae¬
sar, two of them without any particular name, viz. the
higher and the lower with respect to the Portus Itius.
Calais, Boulogne, St Omer, and Whitsand, have each in
its turn had its several advocates. Caesar gives two dis¬
tinctive characters or marks which seem to apply equally
to Boulogne and Whitsand, namely, the shortness of the
passage, and the situation between two other ports ; there¬
fore nothing can be determined with certainty respect¬
ing the situation of the Partus Itius.
ITURUP, one of the Kurile Islands, on which the Ja¬
panese some years since made a settlement. The Russians
attacked them in 1807, and returned with considerable
booty to Kamtschatka, whence they had sailed with two
vessels.
ITYS,in fabulous history, ason of Tereus king ofThrace,
by Procne, daughter of Pandion king of Athens. He was
killed by his mother when he w7as about six years old, and
served up before his father. He was changed into a
pheasant, his mother into a swallow, and his father into
an owl.
ITZECUINTEPOTZOTLI, or Hunch-backed Dog,
a Mexican quadruped similar to a dog. It is as large as a
Maltese dog, the skin of which is varied with white, tawny,
3 Q
490 I V I
Itzehoe and black. The characteristic mark is a great hunch
II which it bears from its neck to its rump. This animal
Ivinghoe. a^oun(js most in the kingdom of Michuacan.
ITZEHOE, a town of Denmark, in the province of Hol¬
stein, situated on the navigable river Stor, in a pleasant
valley. It contains 513 houses, and about 4000 inhabitants,
who carry on an extensive trade in corn, and fit out many
ships for the Greenland whale-fishery. Long. 9. 26. E.
Lat. 53. 56. N.
IULUS, a son of Ascanius, born in Lavinium. In the
succession to the kingdom of Alba, iEneas Sylvius, the
son of ^Eneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him. But
he was, by way of compensation, made chief priest.
Iulus, a genus of insects of the order aptera. See En¬
tomology, Index.
IVA, a genus of plants belonging to the-monoecia class,
and in the natural method ranking under the fourth order,
Compositce. See Botany, Index.
IVA HAH, the name of a canoe employed by the South
Sea islanders for making short excursions to sea. It is
wall-sided, flat bottomed, and of different sizes, varying
from seventy-two feet to ten; but its breadth is by no
means in proportion ; for canoes of ten feet are about a
foot wide, and those of more than seventy are scarcely two.
The fighting ivahah is the longest, and has its head and
stern considerably raised. The fishing ivahahs are from
ten to forty feet in length ; those of twenty-five feet and up¬
wards occasionally carry sail. The travelling ivahah is al¬
ways double, and furnished with a small neat house.
IYER, a town of the county of Buckingham, in the hun¬
dred of Stoke, eighteen miles from London. It stands on
the river Colme, which turns several corn and some spin¬
ning mills. The population amounted in 1801 to 1377,
in 1811 to 1635, in 1821 to 1663, and in 1831 to 1870.
IVES, St, a borough and market-town of the county
of Cornwall, in the hundred of Penwith, 276 miles from
London. It is a sea-port, on the west side of the bay of
that name, on the Bristol Channel. The government is
in a mayor, twelve capital and twenty-four inferior bur¬
gesses. It returns two members to the House of Com¬
mons, cbosen by the householders. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 2714, in 1811 to 3281, in 1821 to
3526, and in 1831 to 4776.
Ives, St, a market-town of the county of Huntingdon,
in the hundred of Hurstingstone, sixty miles from London.
It is in a rich plain, through which the navigable river
Ouse flows, and is a well-built town, with a good market
on Monday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2099,
in 1811 to 2426, in 1821 to 2777, and in 1831 to 3314.
IVISA, or IVICA, one of the Balearic Islands, in the
Mediterranean Sea, belonging to the crown of Spain. Its
inhabitants amount to 15,200, It is about sixteen leagues
to the eastward of Cape St Antonia, on the coast of Va¬
lencia. Its figure is an irregular polygon, stretching from
north-west to south-east twenty-eight miles, and being in
breadth fourteen miles. Its capital, of the same name, forms
a good port, and is very well fortified. It is well built,
and contains, including the suburb called Marina, about
3500 inhabitants. It yields wheat, oil, wine, flax, hemp,
figs, almonds, raisins, oranges, lemons, cotton, and espar¬
to, which are exported ; but its principal commerce is in
salt, which is most copiously formed in the various salt la-
gunes which surround the coast of the island. There are
yearly produced from 130,000 to 170,000 cwts. The in¬
habitants are more attached to fishing than to agricul¬
ture, and the greater portion of the men follow that em¬
ployment, leaving the care of cultivation to the females,
who are robust and industrious. The capital is situated
in north latitude 38. 53. 16. and east longitude from
London 1. 57. 56.
IVINGHOE, a market-town of the county of Bucking-
I V o
ham, in the hundred of Cotslow, thirty-six miles from Ivoi
London. The town is pleasantly situated on the side ofv—
a hill, with an extensive prospect over a rich valley. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 452, in 1811 to 508, in
1821 to 551, and in 1831 to 573.
IVORY is the name given to the tusks of the elephant,
and of the walrus or sea-horse. Each male elephant ar¬
rived at maturity has two tusks. These are extremely di¬
versified in size, which depends principally on the age of
the animal; they are hollow at their insertion into the jaw
and for a considerable space therefrom, and always taper to
an obtuse extremity. The colour externally is yellowish,
brownish, and sometimes dark, but internally it is a cream
white. The best tusks are large, straight, and light co¬
loured, without flaws ; not very hollow in the stump, but,
on the contrary, solid and thick. The most esteemed are
obtained from Africa, being of a closer texture, and less
liable to become yellow, than those imported from the East
Indies. The tusks of the sea-horse afford the hardest and
whitest of all ivory. They are usually short, and very
much curved; the thick end is hollow, as in the tusk of the
elephant; a glossy enamel of extreme hardness covers the
cortical part; and they vary in weight from three or four
pounds to thirty. The horn or tooth of the narwhal, one
of the cetaceous tribe, also consists of ivory, which is as
hard as that of the elephant, and susceptible of a fine po¬
lish. The largest size is ten feet in length, and some
inches thick at the lower extremity, forming a slender cone
of a twisted or spiral figure. But its texture is in several
respects different from that of other ivory; and there is a
prejudice against the ordinary use of it amongst those who
work in that material.
From the earliest times, the people of all the Asiatic
countries, where the elephant is found, have had the art of
taming the animal, and applying it to useful purposes;
but no such art has ever been possessed by any African
nation. Nor has this apparently been owing to any dif¬
ference between the Asiatic and African elephant in point
of docility; the real cause is probably to be found in the
inferior intelligence and sagacity of the African people.
Alexander the Great is believed to have been the first
European who employed elephants in war. With regard
to those made use of by the Carthaginians, it has been sup¬
posed, though with little probability, that they were most¬
ly, if not wholly, imported from India, and that they were
managed by Indian conductors, some of whom were cap¬
tured by the Romans in the great victory gained by Me-
tellus over Asdrubal. But, in the first place, the name of
Indian, as used by the Romans, was so extremely vague,
that no safe conclusion can be drawn from it; nor, even
if the conductors were of that people, does it follow that
the elephants had been brought from India. And, second¬
ly, it is not reasonable to suppose that an active and en¬
terprising people, like the Carthaginians, would have im¬
ported from a distant country, and at an enormous expense,
an animal which, they must have known, was to be found
in equal vigour and perfection in their own. On this sub¬
ject. however, we beg to refer the reader to some learned
and valuable notes in the Ancient Universal History (vol.
xvii. p. 529, 8vo) ; and also to Buffon’s article on the ele¬
phant, one of the most masterly pieces of composition to
be found in his admirable work.
Ivory is applied to a variety of purposes in the arts.
In England, the chief consumption of that commodity is in
the manufacture of handles for knives; but it is also ex¬
tensively used in the manufacture of musical and mathe¬
matical instruments, chess-pieces, billiard-balls, thin plates
for miniatures, toys, and small works of vertu. Articles in
ivory, however, are said to be manufactured to agreater ex¬
tent, and with much more success, at Dieppe, than at any
other place in Europe. But the art of working in this
I X I
I X w
491
beautiful material is far better understood by the Chinese
rV than by any other nation. No European artist has
()llt hitherto succeeded in cutting concentric balls after the
/ manner of this people ; nor have their boxes, chess-pieces,
and other articles manufactured in ivory, been approach¬
ed, far less rivalled, by any similar productions that are to
be met with in other countries.
Ivory, in the rough state, is a very considerable article
of commerce. The importation of elephants’ tusks into
Great Britain, for twelve years from 1788 to 1799 in¬
clusively, amounted to 18,914 cwts. or, on an average, to
1576 cwts. annually. Since that period, however, the trade
has much increased. The imports in 1831 and 1832
were, at an average, 4130 cwts., of which 2950 cw ts. were
retained for home consumption. But as the medium
weight of a tusk is about sixty lbs. it follows that the
yearly imports of 1831 and 1832 must be taken at 7709
tusks, and that, to obtain these, 3854 male elephants must
have been destroyed. But, supposing the tusks could only
be obtained by killing the animal, the destruction would
really be a good deal greater, and must probably have
amounted to 4500 or 5000 elephants. Occasionally, how¬
ever, tusks are accidentally broken, one lost in this way Ixora
being replaced by a new one; and a good many are also II
obtained from elephants which have died a natural death. Ixworth.
Still it is obvious that the supply from these sources can-
not be very large ; and if to the quantity of ivory re¬
quired for Great Britain be added that required for the
other countries of Europe, as well as for America and
Asia, the slaughter of elephants must, after every deduc¬
tion, be immense; nor can it fail to excite surprise that
the breed of this magnificent animal, and consequently
the supply of tusks, has not been more diminished. The
western and eastern coasts of Africa, the Cape of Good
Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the eastward of
the Straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence sup¬
plies of ivory are obtained. The imports into Great Bri¬
tain from Western Africa in 1831 amounted to 2575
cwts. whilst the Cape of Good Hope only furnished 198
cwts. During the same year, the imports from India, Cey¬
lon, and other eastern countries, amounted to 2173 cwts.
The price per cwt. duty (L.l per cvvt.) included, of ele¬
phants’ tusks in the London market, in December 1833,
was as follows :—
1st sort, w eighing from 79 to 90 lbs. per tusk L.29 0 0 to L.31 0 0
2d do 56 to 60 25 0 0 to 23 0 0
3d do. 38 to 55 23 0 0 to 26 0 0
4th do 28 to 37 20 0 0 to 24 0 0
5th do 18 to 27 18 0 0 to 21 0 0
Scrivelloes  14 0 0 to 35 0 0
Sea-horse teeth   5 0 0
(A.)
IVRY, a market-town of the arrondissement of Eve-
reux, in the department of the Eure, in France, remark¬
able for the victory gained there by Henry IV. over the
Duke of Mayenne in 1590. It is situated on the banks
of the Eure, and contains about 1250 inhabitants, who are
occupied in tanneries, and in twfist spinning.
IVY. See Hedera, Botany, Index.
IXIA, a genus of plants belonging to the triandria class,
and in the natural method ranking under the sixth order,
Ensatce. See Botany, Index.
IXIONjin fabulous history, the kingof theLapithae, who,
having married Dia, the daughter of Deionius, refused to
give her the customary nuptial presents. Deionius in re¬
venge took from him his horses ; when Ixion, dissembling
his resentment, invited his father-in-law to a feast, and
contrived that the latter should fall through a trap-door
into a burning furnace, in which he was immediately con¬
sumed. Ixion being afterwards stung with remorse for
his cruelty, ran mad; upon which Jupiter, in compassion,
not only forgave him, but took him up into heaven, where
he had the impiety to endeavour to seduce Juno. Jupiter,
to be assured of his guilt, formed a cloud in the resem¬
blance of the goddess, upon which Ixion begat the cen¬
taurs ; but having boasted of his happiness, Jove hurled
him down to Tartarus, where he remains fixed on an ever-
revolving wdieel encompassed with serpents.
IXORA, a genus of plants belonging to the tetrandria
class, and in the natural method ranking under the forty-
seventh order, Stellatce. See Botany, Index.
IXWORTH, a market-town of the county of Suffolk,
in the hundred of Blackburn, seventy-seven miles from
London. It is a neat town, with a market on Friday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 827, in 1811 to 846, in
1821 to 952, and in 1831 to 1061.
492
J.
JAB
Jabesh TABESH, or Jabesh Gilead, was the name of a city in
II the half tribe of Manasseh, beyond Jordan. The
.^,-°n_s_1; Scripture calls it generally Jabesh Gilead, because it lay
in Gilead, at the foot of the mountains which go by this
name. Eusebius places it six miles from Pella, towards
Gerasa ; and hence it must have been to the eastward of
the Sea of Tiberias.
JABLONKA, a town of-the circle of Trentsin, in the
Austrian kingdom of Hungary, celebrated for an exten¬
sive linen manufactory, containing 3580 inhabitants.
JABLONSKI, Daniel-Ernest, a learned Polish pro-
testant divine, was born at Dantzig, on the 20th of Novem¬
ber 1660. He commenced his studies at the gymnasium
of Lissa, then attended the academical course of the uni¬
versity of Frankfort, and, after taking his degrees, visited
Holland and England, in which last country he remained a
year to hear the prelections of the Oxford professors. On
his return he became successively minister of Magdeburg,
Lissa, Kbningsberg, and Berlin ; and was at length ap¬
pointed ecclesiastical counsellor, and president of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Berlin. He took great pains to effect
an union between the Lutherans and Calvinists, and wrote
some works which are esteemed. He died in 1741. His
works consist of, 1. A German and Hebrew Catechism,
ITtlS, in 4to ; 2. Sermons in German, 1718, in 4to ; 3.
The History of the Consensus of Sendomir, in Latin, 1730 ;
4. Different writings, in Latin and German, in favour of
the Protestants of Poland, amongst which may be men¬
tioned, Afflicted Thorn, or a Relation of what passed in
that City since the 16th of July 1724, of which there is a
French translation by Beausobre, Amsterdam, 1726, in
12mo, now very rare.
Jablonski, Paul-Ernest, was the son of Daniel-Er¬
nest, and, like his father, entered the clerical profession,
but distinguished himself much more in that of instruc¬
tion, and particularly in the study of the oriental litera¬
ture and antiquities. Born at Berlin in the year 1695, he
received his academical education at the university of
Frankfort-on-the-Oder ; and such was his progress in the
study of the Coptic, that he even surpassed his master, the
celebrated Lacroze. In 1714, being then only twenty-one
years of age, he obtained permission to travel, at the king’s
expense, throughout the greater part of Europe, in order
to extend his knowledge of that language. He visited
the rich libraries of Oxford, Leyden, and Paris, and made
ample extracts from all the Coptic manuscripts which were
then contained in these collections. On his return to his
own country, he was appointed pastor of Liebenberg, in
the Middle March, in 1720; professor of philosophy in
1721 ; ordinary professor of theology at Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, and pastor of the Reformed or Calvinistic congre¬
gation of the same city, in 1722 ; and, not long afterwards,
member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. This
learned antiquary and orientalist died on the 13th of Sep¬
tember 1757, after having published more than fifty works,
of which a list maybe found in the Dictionary of Meusel.
Of these the principal are, 1. Disquisitio de Lingua Ly-
caonica, Berlin, 1714, in 4to ; 2. Thirty-nine Letters full
of erudition, in the Thesaurus Epistolic. Lacrozianus, tom.
i. p. 163 et seqq.; 3. Exercitatio Historico-theologica de
Nestorianismo, Berlin, 1724, in 8vo ; 4. Remphah Egyp-
tiorum Deus ab Israelitis in deserto cultus, Frankfort,
1731, in 8vo ; 5. Dissertationes Academicoe viii. de terra
JAB
Gosen, ibid. 1735, 1736, in 4to ; 6. De ultimis Pauli Apos-Jablonj
toli laboribus a B. Luca prsetermissis, ibid. 1746, in 4to; s-’y|
7. Pantheon iEgyptiorum, sive de Diis eorum Commen-
tarius, cum Prolegomenis de Religione et Theologia
TEgyptiorum, ibid. 1750, 1752, in 3 vols. 8vo; 8. De Mem-
none Graecorum et TEgyptiorum, hujusque celeberrima in
Theba'ide statua, ibid. 1753, in 4to, with figures; 9. In-
stitutiones Historiae Christianae antiquioris, ibid. 1754, in
8vo; 10. Institutiones Historiae Christianae recentioris,
ibid. 1756, in 8vo ; 11. Remarks on the Canon of the
Kings of Thebes, by Eratosthenes, inserted in the Chro¬
nology of Devignoles ; 12. Different Memoirs or Extracts
in the Miscellanea Berolinensia, the Nova Miscellanea
Lipsiensia, and other periodical collections; and, 13.
Opuscula quibus Lingua et Antiquitas iEgyptiorum, diffi-
cilia Librorum Sacrorum loca, et Historiae Ecclesiasticae
capita illustrantur, magnam partem nunc primum in lucem
protracta, edidit Jan. Gulielm. Te-Water, Leyden, 1804,
1813, in 4 vols. 8vo.
Of all the works of Jablonski, undoubtedly the most
important is his Pantheon TEgyptiorum, and it is also the
most complete treatise we possess on the subject to which
it relates. For, although subsequent investigations, and
monuments recently discovered, may have shed new light
on different matters of detail, the estimation in which the
work as a whole is held by the learned has noton that ac¬
count been diminished. But, to peruse it with advantage,
the reader should begin with the Prolegomena, which are
commonly annexed to the second or third volume. Jab¬
lonski had commenced this work as early as the year
1720 ; and he is sometimes censured for having made no
use of what appeared on the same subject in the interval
between that year and the date of its completion. His
own resources, however, were great; and although the
general table at the end of the third volume occupies
twenty-nine pages, some critics have found it of too li¬
mited extent in proportion to the variety of materials
and the vast erudition displayed in the work. Jablonski
is merely the translator into Latin of what relates to the
worship of the sacred animals ; he acknowledges, indeed,
that this piece had been furnished to him by a lady of
high rank, “ matrona peril! ustris, non natalium magis et
dignitatis splendore quam virtute incomparabili et rane
doctrinae inclyta but he gives no information which can
enable us to ascertain who this distinguished female really
was. His treatise on the Memnon of the Greeks and
Egyptians, and on the celebrated statue in the Thebaid,
is a sort of sequel to the Pantheon, and, like it, is full of
erudition. In his dissertation on the Egyptian god Rem¬
phah, worshipped by the Israelites in the desert, he proves,
from Egyptian and Coptic monuments, what the very
name of the god might have led him to infer, that Rem¬
phah is the same with the Sun, which, in Egyptian, is de¬
nominated Ra, Re, and Phre. To the student of Egyp¬
tian antiquities, and particularly of Coptic, the Opuscula
present many recommendations, not only as being a col¬
lection of valuable pieces, some of which had been pub¬
lished separately, whilst others had remained in manu¬
script, and all equally inaccessible to scholars generally,
but also as containing the fruits of the author’s mature
labours, especially a valuable glossary of Egyptian words,
whether found in the Bible or in the ancient Greek and
Latin authors. The treatise on the Statue of Memnou
J A C
nski has been translated into French by M. Langles, who has
inserted it, with several additions, in the second volume
of his translation of the Travels of Norden. (a.)
^ Jablonski, Theodore, counsellor of the court of Prussia,
and secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin,
was also a man of distinguished merit. He loved the sci¬
ences, and did them honour, without that ambition which
is generally observable in men of learning; and it was
owing to this modesty that the greatest part of his works
were published without his name. He published, in 1711,
a French and German Dictionary; in 1713, a Course of
Morality; a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences in 1721 ; and
translated Tacitus de Moribics Germanorurn into High
Dutch in 1724.
JACA, a city of Spain, in the province of Aragon. It
is situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, near the river Ara¬
gon, from which the province has derived its name. The
situation is on a plain of fertile land, between two lofty
sierras. There are in it considerable manufactures of
cloths and baizes. It is a place of great antiquity, and of
considerable strength; the w^alls, of ancient date, are flank¬
ed with towers, and the citadel attached to it is capable
of considerable resistance. It contains 4000 inhabitants,
and is in longitude 0. 41. W. and latitude 42. 29. N.
JACATRA, a district of the island of Java, formerly a
kingdom, governed by its own sovereigns. It was sub¬
dued by the Dutch East India Company’s troops in the
year 1619, who have ever since retained possession of it
as sovereigns by right of conquest. Since that period Ba¬
tavia has been constituted the capital. The country is
watered by several rivers, which, however, are little bet¬
ter than rivulets in the dry season.
JACK, in Mechanics, a. v/eW-known instrument, of com¬
mon use for raising great weights of any kind. The com¬
mon kitchen-jack is a compound engine, where weight is
the power applied to overcome the friction of the parts and
the weight with which the spit is charged ; and a steady
and uniform motion is obtained by means of the fly.
Jack, in nautical language, a sort of flag or colours,
displayed from a mast erected on the outer end of a ship’s
boltsprit. In the British navy the jack is nothing more
than a small union flag, composed of the intersection of
the red and white crosses ; but in merchant ships this
union is bordered with a red field.
Jack is also used for a horse or wooden frame to saw
timber upon ; for an instrument to pull off a pair of boots;
for a great leathern pitcher to carry drink in; for a small
bowl that serves as a mark at the exercise of bowling ;
and for a young pike.
Jack-Dow, the English name of a species of corvus.
See Ornithology.
JACKAL, in Zoology. See Mammalia.
JACOB, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, was born in
the year of the world 2168, and before Jesus Christ 1836.
The history of this patriarch is given at large in the book
of Genesis. He died in Egypt in the 147th year of his
age. Joseph directed that the body should be embalm¬
ed, after the manner of the Egyptians ; and there was a
general mourning for him throughout Egypt for seventy
days. After this, Joseph and his brethren, accompanied
by the principal men of Egypt, carried him, with the king
°1 Egypt’s permission, to the burying-place of his fathers,
near Hebron, where his wife Leah had been interred.
When they had reached the land of Canaan, they mourn¬
ed for him again seven days; upon which occasion the
place where they staid was called Abelmisraim, or the
mourning of the Egyptians.
Jacob, Ben Hajim, a rabbi famous for the collection of
the Masorah in 1525, together with the text of the Bible,
the Chaldaic paraphrase, and the Rabbinical commen¬
taries.
J A E 493
Jacob, Ben Naphtali, a famous rabbi of the fifth cen- Jacob
tury. He was one of the principal masorets, and bred (!
at the school of liberias in Palestine, with Ben Aser, an- Jaen.
other masoret. I he invention of points in Hebrew to 'v
serve for vowels, and of accents to facilitate the reading
of the language, are ascribed by some to these two rabbin”;
and said to be introduced in an assembly of the Jews held
at Tiberias, a. d. 476.
JACOBIN Monks, the same with Dominicans.
Jacobins, the name assumed by a party or club at the
beginning of the French revolution, composed of mem¬
bers of the National Assembly. The club held its meet¬
ings in the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars, and from
the place of assemblage derived its name.
JACOBITES, a term of reproach, in England, bestow¬
ed on the persons who, vindicating the doctrines of pas¬
sive obedience and non-resistance with respect to the ar¬
bitrary proceedings of princes, disavowed the revolution
in 1688, and asserted the supposed rights of Kino' James
and his family.
Jacobites, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of Chris¬
tians in Syria and Mesopotamia, and so called, either from
Jacob a Syrian, who lived in the reign of the Emperor
Mauritius, or from one Jacob, a monk, who flourished in
the year 550. The Jacobites were of two sects, some fol¬
lowing the rites of the Latin church, and others continu¬
ing separated from that church. There is also a division
amongst the latter, who have two rival patriarchs. As to
their belief, they hold but one nature in Jesus Christ; with
respect to purgatory and prayers for the dead, they are
of the same opinion with the Greeks and other eastern
Christians; they consecrate unleavened bread at the eu-
charist, and are against confession, believing that it is
not of divine institution.
JACOBSTADT, a town of Russian Finland, and capital
of the circle of Korsholm, stands on the sea-shore, and
contains 218 houses, with 1250 inhabitants. Long. 22.
27. E. Lat. 63. 31. 8. N.
JACOBUS, a gold coin, worth twenty-five shillings,
and so called from King James I. of England, in whose
reign it was struck. There are two kinds of Jacobus, the
old and the new ; the former valued at twenty-five shil¬
lings, weighing six pennyweights ten grains ; the latter,
called also Carolus, valued at twenty-three shillings, and
in weight five pennyweights twenty grains.
JACOTTA, a small town on the sea-coast of the pro¬
vince of Cochin. It is a fortified place, with a small har¬
bour, wdiere it is said St Thomas the apostle first landed
from Africa. Long. 76. 1. E. Lat. 0. 14. S.
JACTALI, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
nizam, in the province of Hyderabad. Long. 79. 32. E.
Lat. 18. 48. N.
JAEN, an ancient kingdom of the south of Spain, now
forming one of the four portions into which the province
of Andalusia is divided. The extent of this province is
268 square leagues, and its population amounts to 206,807
souls. La Mancha bounds it on the north, Cordova on
the west, and Granada on the east and south. It is sur¬
rounded on every side by lofty mountains, which almost
exclude it from intercourse with the surrounding pro¬
vinces. Its surface is a constant alternation of hills and
valleys ; and as from the surrounding mountains innumer¬
able rivulets issue, its lower levels of land are abundant¬
ly irrigated, and therefore highly productive, whilst the
hills, from want of moisture, are barren, or yield little ex¬
cept some sheep pasture in the winter season, when the
merino flocks, driven from the north, seek food in the
southern provinces. It produces wheat and barley, but
not sufficient for its consumption. It has abundance of
oil, and a full supply of wine, and its fruits are exquisite
and plentiful.
494 J A F
Jaen The principal river is the Guadalquivir, which runs
I! through the centre of the province, and receives additions
Jafna- t0 }j.s C0pi0US stream from the junction of the Guadali-
^atani^ mar, the Jandula, the Jaen, and the Escobar. There are
some mines of lead in this province, in which sometimes
considerable quantities of silver are found. These mines
were of some celebrity whilst the Romans governed Spain ;
and though the silver has been less sought for since the
discovery of the mines of America, yet, for the sake of
the lead, they are now carried on by the government, and
furnish sheet lead, shot, and musket balls, to the southern
part of the kingdom. The manufacture of earthen jars,
called alcarrazas, for keeping liquors in a cool state in the
warmest weather, is the most considerable production
of Jaen that is sent out of the province ; and they are
much esteemed in every part of Andalusia. The cele¬
brated university of Alcala la Real, founded by Cardinal
Ximenes, still exists in this province, and is attended by a
number of students in divinity. Ihe biblical scholar re¬
cognises it as having been the scene of the labours of the
editors of the Complutensian edition of the Old Testa¬
ment. In this province is the celebrated field, called the
Plain of Tolosa, on which, six centuries ago, the most san¬
guinary battle was fought that the history of Spain has
recorded.
Jaen, a city of Spain, capital of the ancient kingdom
of the same name, in latitude 37. 48. and now forming
one of the divisions of Andalusia, is situated on the de¬
clivity of a mountain, between some lofty sierras, in a
fertile and productive country, which yields some wine
and abundance of oil, for which there are twenty-seven
mills. It stands on the left bank of a small river, now of
the same name, but called by the Moors Guadalbullon,
which, after proceeding about six leagues beyond this city,
falls into the Guadalquivir below Mengibar. The city
is deemed very healthy. The situation being elevated
about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, renders it tem¬
perate ; and the sierras which surround it, by the breezes
that descend from them, tend to refresh the air in the
most sultry seasons. The inhabitants amount to about
9000, who are not distinguished by their industry; and
the only manufactures that are carried on are those of
leather and soap. It is a bishop’s see ; and the cathedral,
of great antiquity, has no peculiar beauty to render it de¬
serving of notice.
JAFFIERABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Berar, twenty-four miles north from Jalnapoor. Long.
76. 36. E. Lat. 20. 17. N.
JAFFRABAT, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-coast
of the Gujerat peninsula, on the banks of a shallow river.
It was formerly a place of considerable commerce, but is
now possessed by native chiefs. Long. 71. 31. E. Lat.
20. 53. N.
JAFNA, the capital of the district of Jafnapatam. It
stands at some distance from the sea, but communicates
with it by a river navigable for large boats, and which
falls into the sea near Point Pedro. The town is forti¬
fied, and possesses a good citadel, which, though small,
is exceedingly well built; but it was given up in 1795,
after a short resistance, to the British troops. The situ¬
ation is salubrious, and living is cheap; on which account
many families have removed to this place from Colum-
bo. The greater part of the inhabitants are of Mahom-
medan extraction, and are divided into several tribes,
known by the names of Lubbahs, Moplays, Chittees, and
Cholias. The foreign settlers are more numerous than
the native inhabitants. There are manufactures of coarse
cotton cloths, calicoes, handkerchiefs, shawls, stockings,
&x.; and there are also many artificers, such as gold¬
smiths, jewellers, joiners, and cabinet-makers.
JAFNAPATAM is the name of a district in the north-
J A G
ern extremity of Ceylon. It is considered as the most Jagep0
healthy and populous part of the island, as it escapes, )j
owing to its maritime situation, the intensely hot winds
which prevail on the continent. It is clear of vroods, pro- 'S*’Y>
duces a variety of fruit and vegetables, and abounds also
in poultry and game; wdiilst the tract that lies between
Point Pedro and Jafna is favourable to the breeding of
sheep. In the islands dependent on this district, namely,
Delft, Harlem, Leyden, and Amsterdam, so named by the
Dutch from their native cities, government has an esta¬
blishment for breeding horses and cattle, for which the
islands afford excellent pasture. The wmods towards the
interior, separating the district from the Candian pro¬
vinces, are inhabited by a savage race of people known
by the name of the Vadahs or Bedahs, who are supposed
to be the ancient inhabitants of the country.
JAGEPOOR, a large straggling town of Hindustan, in
the province of Cuttack, situated on the south side of the
Byturnee River, which is here nearly half a mile broad. It
is the chief town of a principality of the same name, and
has a manufacture of cotton cloths. Here formerly resided
an independent rajah, who, in the year 1243, repelled the
Afghans from his territory, and, pursuing them into Bengal,
laid siege to Gour, the ancient capital of that country.
They were again totally defeated in the year 1263. We
have no certain account of the time when this country fell
into the power of the Mahommedans, by whom it was pos¬
sessed until it was conquered by the Mahrattas. During
the period of the Mogul government it was a place of some
consequence, and the remains of several Mahommedan
mosques and other edifices are still visible. In the year
1751 it was ceded to the Mahrattas, under whose govern¬
ment it has declined; but it will probably recover, since
the province has been subjected to the authority of Britain.
Long. 86. 35. E. Lat. 20. 50. N.
JAGERNDORF, or, in the Sclavonic, Karnou, a city
of the Austrian province of Moravia, situated on the river
Oppa. It is surrounded with high walls, contains two
colleges, the castle of the Lobenstein family, and 538
houses, with 4590 inhabitants, who are occupied in manu¬
facturing linen and woollen goods of various descriptions.
JAGERON, a river of Persia, which rises nearly 120
miles north-east of Casbin, and loses itself in a sandy de¬
sert after a course of 150 miles.
JAGGERNAUT. See Juggernaut.
JAGHIRE, a district of the Carnatic, now included in
the collectorship of Chingleput. It extends northwards
from Madras to the Pullicat Lake, southwards to Allum-
parva, and westwards beyond Conjeveram. It is about
108 miles along shore, and forty-seven inland in the
widest part, containing altogether 2440 square miles.
This territory was obtained in the years 1750 and 1763,
from the nabob of Arcot, in return for services rendered
to him and his father by the Company; and was rented
to the nabob on renewed leases until 1780, when it was
taken under the management of the presidency of St
George. This territory was dreadfully ravaged by Hy-
der Ali in 1768, and in the war of 1780; and was left in
a state almost desolate, with nothing to mark its former
state but the bones of those who had been massacred, or
the naked walls of houses, temples, &c. A destructive fa¬
mine, which succeeded, completed the ruin of the country.
Jaghire, an assignment made in Bengal by an impe¬
rial grant upon the revenue of any district, to defray civil
or military charges, pensions, gratuities, and the like.
JAGHIREDAR, the holder of a jaghire.
JAGO, Richard, an ingenious poet, was vicar of Smt-
terfield in Warwickshire, and rector of Kimcote in Lei¬
cestershire. He was the intimate friend and correspon¬
dent of Shenstone, who was his contemporary at Oxford,
and also, it is believed, his school-fellow; he belonged to
J A I
J A M
495
Ja,
J IS.
University College, and took the degree of master of arts
in 1739 ; and he was author of several poems in th fourth
and fifth volumes of Dodsley’s collection. He died on
the 28th of May 1781.
JAGO, St. See Santiago.
Jago, St, the name of several provinces, towns, and
rivers of South America, which will be described under
the heads of the several countries in which they occur.
Jago, St, one of the Cape de Verde Islands. See
Verde Islands, Cape de.
JAGRAAM, a town of Hindustan, in Delhi, belong¬
ing to the Seiks. Long. 75. E. Lat. 30. 47. N.
JAGUEER. See Jaghire.
JAGUEERDAR. See Jaghiredar.
JAHDE, a town of the circle of Neuenburg,in the duchy
of Oldenburg, in Germany, on a navigable river of the same
name, which empties itself into the sea about two miles
below the town. It contains 307 houses, with 2160 inhabi¬
tants. Long. 8. 12. 43. E. Lat. 53. 20. 45. N.
JAHIL, a town of Hindustan, in the Rajpoot territo¬
ries, in the province of Ajmeer, sixty-five miles west-north¬
west from Jyanagur. Long. 74. 38. E. Lat. 27. 9. N.
JAHJOW, a village of Hindustan, in the province of
Agra, remarkable for two great battles fought near it; the
first on the 8th of June 1658, in which Aurungzebe was
totally defeated; and the last on the 19th of June 1707,
between the son and grandson of Aurungzebe, in which
the latter was slain.
JAILLIEU, a town of the arrondissement of La Tour du
Pin, in the department of the Isere, in France, on the river
Bourbre. It contains 420 houses, and 1620 inhabitants,
who are employed in paper-making and in calico-printing.
JAINS, called by some Joinus, a sect or rather race of
Hindus, found in considerable numbers in different parts
of India, particularly in the southern peninsula. They
form a class of dissenters from the established faith of Brah-
minism, so generally considered throughout India as alone
founded on an orthodox basis. They deny altogether the
authority of the Vedas, regarded by the genuine Hindu as
the holiest of books. They either disown, or sink into a
subordinate station, all the grand objects of Hindu vene¬
ration. In their hypothesis concerning the origin of the
world, they have adopted opinions which seem to partake
of the character of atheism. They do not, like the followr-
ers of the Vedas, acknowledge any spiritual and eternal
Being, from whom the universe derived its origin. The
material world, as well as the minds of all men and animals,
are held by them to be eternal. They refuse to acknow¬
ledge anything which is not, or has not been, the object of
the senses. Upon this principle they deny the existence
ol any beings superior to man, and admit no objects of
worship except men who have raised themselves by their
merits to the rank of divinities. As, however, they set no
bounds to the perfection which the human soul may arrive
at, their most eminent saints and pontiffs (amongst whom
they particularly celebrate Gomat Iswara Swami) partake
almost of the attributes of supreme divinity. To this sta¬
tion, however, they are exalted, not in consequence of a
virtuous life, or of benefits rendered to mankind, but of
those excesses of absurd and extravagant penance to which,
throughout all India, such sovereign merit is attached.
They have three ranks of ascetics, whom they call Yatis.
I he first, called Anuvrata, can be attained only by him who
forsakes his family, entirely cuts oft’ his hair, holds always
in his hand a bundle of peacock’s feathers and an earthen
pot, and wears only clothes of a tawny colour. The second
rank, Mahavrata, requires that all dress should be abandon¬
ed except a mere rag to cover nakedness, and that the
hair instead of being shaven off, should be pulled out by
the roots. He who aspires still higher, and seeks to at¬
tain the third degree, or Nirvana, throws aside even rags,
and remains entirely naked; he eats nothing but rice, and Jaiver
that only once in two days. The name is nearly synony- l|
mous with that of Deity, and he is held in nearly equal Jamadar.
veneration with the priests and rajahs, whose images are
worshipped in the temples. At Billicull, or Belligola, the
residence of their high priest, they have a gigantic image
of Gomat Iswara Swami, the foot of which is nine feet in
length, so that the height of the entire statue cannot be less
than fifty-four feet; and there is a similar one at Kurcul,
near Mangalore. This worship of gigantic images is com¬
mon to them with the followers of Buddha, whom they also
closely resemble in their theological tenets; nay, Samana
and Gaudma, the main objects of Buddh veneration, are
enumerated by the Jains amongst the earliest and most
venerated of their priests. On the other hand, they dif¬
fer from them entirely in being divided into four castes, dis¬
tinguished from each other by the same privileges and man¬
ners as amongst other Hindus. The Jains observe also si¬
milar penances, carrying them only to a greater extreme.
They are also scrupulous to a still greater degree as to
causing the death of any living thing, even the minutest
insect. The strictest Jains, to guard against this danger,
do not eat after sunset; they have always a small broom to
swreep the ground before them, and never drink water un¬
less strained through a cloth. The orthodox Hindus have
ceremonies by which any involuntary offence of this kind
may be expiated; but the Jains, not allowing the efficacy
of these, have no means of relieving their soul from the
burden of such a trespass. Like the other Hindus, they
consider it as unlawful for the widow to marry again, but
discourage the barbarous practice of sacrificing herself on
the body of the husband. On the whole, it would appear,
that whilst their doctrines and belief closely coincide with
those of the Buddhists, their civil and social life is discri¬
minated only by minute shades from that of the Hindus.
They have a system of their own with regard to history,
chronology, and physics, of which we need only observe,
that its tenets are still more extravagant and absurd than
those contained in the orthodox pages of the Vedas and
Puranas. (See Asiatic Annual Register, vol. ix.; Dubois
on the Manners of the People of India, Lond. 1817 ; Ward
on the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindus,
Lond. 1817.)
JAIVER, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Del¬
hi, situated on the east side of the Jumna, forty-three miles
south by east from Delhi. Long. 78. 28. E. Lat. 28. 9. N.
JAJARGOTE, a town of Hindustan, tributary to the
Goorkhali rajah of Nepaul. Long. 81.30. E. Lat. 29.39. N.
JAJGHUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Ajmeer, and capital of a district of the same name. It
formerly belonged to the rajah of Odeypoor, from whom it
was taken by Zalim Singh, chief of Kotah, about the year
1803. The surrounding district comprehends eighty-four
villages and towns, twenty-two of which are inhabited by a
race of plunderers called Meenas, who give only personal
service for their lands. The fort of Jajghur is built on the
top of an oblong hill, and consists of two walls with ruined
bastions, each having a ditch, and the outer wall lying a
considerable way down the hill. The town is large, well
built, and fortified.
JALEMUS, in Antiquity, a kind of mournful song, used
upon occasion of death, or any other affecting occurrence.
Hence originated the Greek proverbs, /ccXs/aou 6/z.gortgos,
or sj/uxgorsgog, sadder or colder than a jalemus ; sig rovg iaXt-
yovg syrta-Tmog, worthy to he ranked among jalemuses.
JALOFFS, or Yalloffs, a warlike people inhabiting
that part of Africa lying between Senegal and the Man-
dingo states on the Gambia. See Africa.
JAMADAR, an officer of horse or foot, in Hindustan ;
also the head or superintendent of the peons in the se-
waury or train of any great man.
490
JAMAICA.
Jamaica. Jamaica, called Xaymaca by the Indians, and St Jago
   by the Spaniards, is the largest and most valuable island in
the British West Indies. It is situated between the paral¬
lels of 17° 35' and 18° 30' north latitude, and of 76° and 78°
40' west longitude, being one hundred and sixty miles in
length by forty-five in breadth, and containing 4,000,000
acres of land. It lies ninety miles west of St Domingo,
the same distance south of Cuba, four hundred and thirty-
five miles north of Carthagena on the South American
continent, and four thousand miles south-west of England.
Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3d of May
1494, whilst coasting along the southern side of the island
of Cuba, during his second voyage to the western world.
It was found to be densely peopled by Indians, who op¬
posed the landing of the Spaniards ; but a discharge of ar-
balets put them to flight, and the discoverer formally took
possession of the island in the name of his sovereign. His
stay, however, was short, and for eight years the natives
were allowed to remain in tranquil possession of their own
territory. . In 1503 was effected the first European settle¬
ment in Jamaica, and this was the result of necessity rather
than of choice. During his fourth voyage, Columbus was
forced, by stress of weather, to seek shelter on the northern
side of the island, where he saved the lives of his exhausted
comrades at the expense of the vessels, by running the latter
ashore at a point called St Ann’s Bay. Here for twelve
months he endured great hardships and privations. He
despatched a small squadron to Hispaniola, or Cuba as it is
now called, for succours ; but the governor of that island
was his mortal enemy, and mocked his sufferings instead of
alleviating them. A body of Spaniards also threw olf their
allegiance to their commander, and seizing on ten canoes
which he had been preparing, put to sea in them, with the
intention of crossing over to Hispaniola ; but a storm for¬
ced them back to Jamaica, where they committed ravages
on the unoffending Indians, and made attacks on Columbus
and his few but faithful followers. At length, however, the
renegades, after suffering some loss in a battle, were per¬
mitted to return to their allegiance ; and, on the 28th of
June 1504, Columbus bade a final adieu to the shores of
Jamaica, in vessels prepared for his relief. In 1509, three
years after the death of the discoverer, Jamaica became
the theatre of rapine, bloodshed, and every species of
cruelty. It was placed at the disposal of the two go¬
vernors of the Darien government, to make what use of
it they thought fit, as an empoi'ium whence provisions
might be obtained, or a market from which slaves could be
taken at pleasure to work in the mines. The rival gover¬
nors vied with each other in making the most of the island
and its unhappy inhabitants. A detail of the enormities
committed would sicken humanity. It is sufficient to say,
that they were not less aggravated than those perpetrated
in other parts of the New World, at a period when crime
was uniformly worked on a gigantic scale. The sanguinary
reign of the two governors was put a stop to by Diego
Columbus, the son of the great navigator, who appeared
to assert his prior claim to rule in the island, which the
council of the Indies adjudged to be his right. He des¬
patched Don Juan d’Esquimel with seventy men, who
formed a settlement at Santa Gloria. The seat of go¬
vernment was fixed on the banks of a small rivulet called
Seville Nueva, where a splendid city arose, but of which
no memorial now remains except the name. At first it
received its designation from the stream on which it stood,
but was afterwards called Seville d’Oro. The peaceably-
inclined Indians sank unresistingly down to the condition
of serfs and slaves to the white superiors, who now usurped jama'
the sole occupancy of the soil. The government of Don
Juan d’Esquimel appears to have been as mild as it was
unfortunately brief. During its continuance, however,
the agriculture of the island was materially advanced.
The sugar-cane, the vine, and European cattle, were in¬
troduced ; and from the wool of the cotton tree, which
was celebrated in commerce, fabrics were manufactured
of a quality so fine as to prove a source of wealth to the
Spaniards. But, in their avaricious search for the precious
metals, this means of Aggrandisement was comparatively
neglected. The colony, however, continued to increase
rapidly in wealth and importance, and was enabled to
send off branches from the parent stock to other parts of
the island. But improvement for a time suffered a re¬
tardation by the death of Diego Columbus in 1526. He
was succeeded by Don Pedro d’Esquimel, who has been
singled out from amongst other tyrants as a most uncom¬
promising destroyer of the Indians ; and his cruelties, add¬
ed to those inflicted by French corsairs, called flibus-
tiers, had nearly put a period to the prosperity of Ja¬
maica. The Spaniards fled from these plundering attacks
across the mountain range, on the further side of which
they founded St Jago de la Vega, which soon rose to be
a flourishing city. Meanwhile, the French flibustiers re¬
duced Seville d’Oro to ruins in their attacks upon the Spa¬
niards ; for the wars between Henry of France and Charles
V. were in part transferred from the Old to the New World.
The native Indians, thus placed as it were between two
fires, continued to suffer severely; and it is stated that in
1558 they had been entirely extirpated. By the junction of
the crowns of Spain and Portugal in 1580, Jamaica came
into the possession of the latter, and new energy was in¬
fused into the colony by the Portuguese who emigrated
thither. The cultivation of sugar and other articles was
prosecuted with energy ; and the breeds of live stock which
had been originally imported from Hispaniola increased
so rapidly, that a considerable trade arose in provisions,
land, and hides. Passing over tw’o predatory inroads made
by the English in 1605 and 1644, we come to the period
when the British made a conquest of the island in 1655. By
order of Cromwell, a considerable armament was fitted out
for the conquest of Hispaniola, at the moment that hostilities
were declared against Spain in Europe. The expedition
was despatched under the command of General Venables
and Admiral Penn ; but the intentions of the English were
frustrated by the vigilance of the Spaniards. To make
amends, however, for the discomfiture, Jamaica was captur¬
ed in May 1655, after having remained in the possession of
Spain for a period of 146 years. For some time little progress
was made, many of the Spaniards still retaining possession
of the mountains, and causing annoyance to those in the
plains. But after some years they were gradually reduced,
notwithstanding occasional assistance obtained from Cuba.
A more formidable attempt to recover the island was made
by the Spaniards in 1658, but without success. Under its
first governors, Jamaica became the head-quarters of bucca¬
neers, who infested these seas, and derived untold wealth
from the plunder of the Spanish colonies, and vessels laden
with the spoils of the New World. A considerable propor¬
tion of the population consisted of outlaws, and soldiers and
negro slaves likewise began to be imported by the British,
whilst emigration from England on a small scale com¬
menced. Charles at his restoration adopted various leni¬
ent and wholesome measures to stifle the feuds which ex¬
isted between the republican and royalist parties, and held
JAMAICA.
ica. out every encouragement to new settlers. In 1662, on
the accession of Lord Windsor to the chief authority, a
municipal government was constituted, and other means
adopted to secure subordination, peace, and justice to all.
In 1664, a popular legislative assembly was established,
and for sixty-four years it continued to check the en¬
croachments of the crown, as well as to regulate the inter¬
nal affairs of the island. In about fourteen years after
Jamaica came into the possession of Britain, it exhibited
a remarkable progress in commercial prosperity. Fifty-
seven sugar works, forty-nine indigo works, forty-seven
cocoa walks, and several salt pans, attested the enterprise
and industry of the colonists. Cattle, sheep, goats, and
tame hogs, were reared in great numbers ; and attention
had been turned to the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, ar-
notta, and other articles. The white population at this
time exceeded 15,000. In 1684, the impolicy of slave
labour became apparent, in a serious revolt of the blacks,
which, however, was speedily suppressed; but the ma¬
roons or runaway negroes became exceedingly trouble¬
some to the planters. Two serious calamities overtook
Jamaica within the space of two years. The first was
the destruction of Port Royal, by one of those sudden con¬
vulsions to which this region of the globe is so liable.
With the exception of about two hundred houses of the
fort, the whole town, with its vast wealth, was submerged
by the overflow of the sea. The greater number of the in¬
habitants perished, and their dead bodies, floating in shoals
in a putrid state about the harbour, occasioned an epide¬
mic, to which three thousand individuals fell victims. This
earthquake took place in June 1692; and, exactly two years
afterwards, a formidable descent was made on the island
by the French ; but the militia gallantly repulsed the in¬
vaders. During the remaining years of the seventeenth
century, no memorable events occurred in the annals of
Jamaica. The earlier part of that which followed was
marked by various attempts made to bring the supplies
raised by the representatives of the people under the con¬
trol of the crown ; but without success. In 1727, the re¬
venue bill passed through the House of Assembly, the re¬
quired fund being L.8000 per annum ; and that which has
been termed the magna charta of Jamaica was passed, name¬
ly, that the laws and statutes of England, which had been
introduced and acted upon, should be considered as part of
the legislative code of the island for ever. Matters being
thus arranged, the prosperity of the colony continued to
increase, notwithstanding the annoyance given to the
planters by the negro marauders. In 1760, there took
place a desperate revolt of the Indians, which ended in
the destruction of the greater number of the rebel slaves.
Ihe contest was characterised by acts of cruelty and
barbarity, which rivalled the early atrocities of the Spa¬
niards. Some were burned, and others, gibbeted alive,
were allowed to be broiled to death by a tropical sun. The
slaughter or transportation of about one thousand slaves
made little impression upon the population, which rapidly
increased. The energies of Jamaica wrere called forth on
the occasion of the meditated attack of the combined fleets
of France and Spain in 1782. But the victory gained by
Admiral Rodney, on the 12th of April of that year, over the
French squadron, preserved the island to the British crown.
The Jamaicans showed their gratitude by erecting a hand¬
some marble statue in memory of the hero who triumph¬
ed on that day. Along with the other colonies of Great
Britain, both in the East and West Indies, Jamaica suf¬
fered by the imposition of heavy duties on the produce of
the island when imported into England. In 1795, ano¬
ther alarming insurrection of the maroons took place, on
account of the intemperate policy of Earl Balcarras, then
governor of the island. This rebellion continued upwards
of seven months, the war being carried on with savage
VOL. XII.
497
cruelty on both sides ; indeed excesses were committed by Jamaica,
the whites, and means employed to subjugate the maroons,
which tended more to exasperate than to bring them
under control. Into the particulars of this intestine com¬
motion it were superfluous to enter. The savages exhi¬
bited their deep hatred of the whites by all those me¬
thods of retaliation common to barbarous tribes. Without
openly facing the military forces which were sent against
them, they lay in covert, and, whenever an opportunity
presented itself, surprised them by unexpected sallies. In
the fastnesses of the mountains they found a secure re¬
treat ; and as the ordinary means of civilized warfare ap¬
peared inadequate to bring the contest to a speedy issue,
the governor resolved to call to his aid the bloodhounds
of Cuba. This bears the aspect of a harsh, but it finally
turned out to be a merciful expedient; for it paralyzed
the energies of the Indians, and terrified them into a
general capitulation. Their lives were spared, but they
were transported, at the expense of the island, first to
Nova Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra Leone in Africa.
The only other slave insurrection which threatened the
well-being of the colony, was that which took place in
1831-32; and with this it is hoped that the servile or
predial war which the island has so often been doomed to
witness will for ever cease. By the slave emancipation bill
the principal ground for dissatisfaction on the part of the
black population has been removed; but a discussion of
this subject, with the results of the measure, belongs to
another part of the present work. Besides the destruc¬
tive visitation already noticed, Jamaica has repeatedly
been visited by earthquakes, although only on one occa¬
sion was serious injury sustained. The hurricane, that
scourge of the western archipelago, has not passed inno¬
cuously over this island. One of these, which occurred
in 1780, was particularly destructive, the loss of life and
property being both very great on that occasion. Besides
these evils, the diseases of this country are occasionally
malignant; the yellow fever, in particular, has long been
proverbially fatal.
Jamaica is somewhat of an oval shape, and its surface is
more beautifully diversified by hills and valleys than that
of any other island in the West Indies. An elevated ridge,
called in the eastern and highest part the Blue Mountains,
runs longitudinally from east to west through the centre
of the island, and occasionally rises to nearly 8000 feet
above the level of the ocean. Other high ridges running
from north to south occasionally intersect this chain. On
the south they approach to the sea in gigantic spines, dif¬
ficult of access, and covered with dense forests. On the
opposite side the aspect of the country is very different.
Instead of being rugged and abrupt, the hills are remark¬
able rather for their beauty than their boldness. They are
of a gentle acclivity, uniformly rounded at the top with
singular felicity, and commonly separated from each other
by spacious vales and romantic inequalities. This gently-
undulating surface is diversified with groves of pimento,
luxuriant pastures, and all the exquisite verdure of the
tropics. Viewed from a lofty eminence, the country pre¬
sents an aspect of grandeur united with beauty, which
can scarcely be surpassed. A splendid panorama of
mountains appears towering up to the clouds, whilst, low¬
er down, vast savannahs or plains clothed with various ve¬
getation, vales, ravines, majestic woods, rivers, cascades,
and mountain torrents, appear spread out before the eye
of the spectator in all the beautiful irregularity of na¬
ture. The view of the island from the sea has also been
celebrated by voyagers for its splendour. At Point Mo-
rant, the eastern cape of Jamaica, the scenery is mag¬
nificent. The Blue Mountains appear embosomed in a
stratum of clouds, the rugged hills below being furrow¬
ed with ravines, and descending abruptly to the sea.
3 R
498
JAMAICA,
Jamaica.
Upon a nearer approach, they are found to have their
sides covered with black forests ; whilst patches of bright
green, and white houses, are descried on running along
the south coast towards Port Royal. From Fort Nugent,
which is conspicuous under a steep hill, to Port Royal,
there is a narrow bit of land called the Palisades, com¬
posed of sand overgrown with mangroves, and studded
with grave-stones. Behind this is the harbour of the ca¬
pital ; and Kingston is seen stretching over an extended
level, and encircled by the loftiest ridge of the Blue
Mountain chain. The heights of the principal mountains
have been computed as follows : Blue Mountain Peak,
7770 feet; ridge of the same, 7163 feet; Portland Gap
ridge, 6501 feet; Portland Gap, 5640 feet; Catherine’s
Peak, 4970 feet; with others of a lower elevation. It is
stated, however, by some authorities, that the three very
remarkable peaks on the grand ridge of the Blue Moun¬
tains, called Coldridge, have their respective summits
8184, 7656, and 7576 feet above the level of the sea,
whilst other mountains of the same chain exceed a mile
in height. The greater number of the mountains present
a conical form, with steep but forest-clad declivities, ap¬
proaching very near the shore on the north coast, and
leaving plains of about twelve miles wide on the south.
The dark and deep ravines between the lofty mountains,
denominated cockpits, are closed in by dense woods, and
present a striking contrast to the lower mountains, wdiere
coffee, pimento, cotton, capsicums, and other tropical ve¬
getables, flourish luxuriantly.
Jamaica is abundantly supplied with water. Upwards
of two hundred rivers have been enumerated ; but, owing
to the irregularity of the surface of the country, few of
these are navigable for vessels of any burden. Black
River, the largest and least rapid of these, flows through
a level country, and is navigable by small craft for about
thirty miles. The other chief rivers on the south side
are Rio Cobre and Rio Minho ; and on the north Mar-
thabrae, White, Ginger, and Great Rivers. It is a striking
fact, that in an island of such limited extent as Jamaica,
there are no less than forty rivers varying from twenty to
an hundred feet or more in breadth. They are all of
great value, turning the mills and irrigating the planta¬
tions through which they flow, besides adding a beautiful
feature to the landscape. The springs and rivulets are
very numerous, but are unequally distributed. In some
parts of the island seven or eight may be enumerated
within the circuit of as many miles; whilst other districts
are so far removed from water, that, for supplying their
necessities, the inhabitants are obliged to have recourse
to tanks and ponds. Several of the springs possess me¬
dicinal virtues. Two of a sulphureous nature, in particu¬
lar, one hot, and the other cold, are celebrated as exceed¬
ingly beneficial in cutaneous diseases. With regard to
harbours, the Jamaica shore has sixteen secure havens,
besides thirty bays, roads, or shipping stations, which af¬
ford good anchorage.
The soil of this island is in most places deep and fer¬
tile. On the north side there is a species of red soil, the
shades of which vary from a deep chocolate to a rich
scarlet, and in some places approach to a bright yellow.
What is denominated the brick mould is a deep, warm,
yellow, hazel mould, reposing on a retentive under stra¬
tum. This is reckoned one of the best soils in the West
Indies for the cultivation of sugar-cane. It is of great
depth, easily laboured, and so inexhaustible as to require
no manure. The black shell mould is the next in fertili¬
ty, and this it owes to the mineral salts and exuviae which
are intermingled with it. The principal soils on the in-,
terior hills and mountains of Jamaica have been thus enu¬
merated : A red clay, on a white marl; a red clay, on a
grit; a reddish-brown clay, on marl; a yellowish clay,
mixed with common mould ; a red grit; a loose concha- jamai
ceous mould ; a black mould, on a clay or other substratum; 'w-v!^
a loose black vegetable mould, on rock; a fine sand; and
the varieties of all the foregoing soils. The mountain land in
general, when first cleared of its wood, possesses more or
less a deep surface of rich black mould mixed with shells,
a soil which will grow anything. Different parts of the
island are characterised by peculiarities of soil, which are
either those enumerated, or their varieties intermixed with
different mineral or earthy substances. Silver and golden mi¬
ca are frequently met with, and sometimes mistaken for the
genuine metal. Amongst other mineral substances found,
are mixed and purplish schistus, and the hard Ifimellated
amianthus, which occurs in large detached masses, hav¬
ing all the appearance of petrified wood. White free¬
stone, quartz of different species, and limestone, are abun¬
dant. Subcrystalline spar is found in small detached
masses, and rock spar in blocks of great magnitude. A
species of bastard marble, having a smooth even grain, is
frequently used for limestone. There is a species of
smooth clammy marl found, which is sometimes eaten by
the negroes when they are diseased, to the detriment of
their health. Lead ore, rich, and heavily impregnated
with silver, striated antimony, varieties of copper ore,
and iron-stone, which is attracted by the magnet, are
found ; but neither gold nor silver ore has yet been dis¬
covered, although the natives possessed these metals in
abundance when the island was first visited by the Spa¬
niards.
The climate of Jamaica is conformable to the latitude
in which it is placed, but the heat is by no means so
fearful as is usually represented. The highest tem¬
perature of course prevails in the low situations, those
more elevated being colder, in conformity with nature’s
universal law. The climate of the island since its cultiva¬
tion has undergone very considerable change. The me¬
dium heat at Kingston throughout the year is 80°, and
the minimum 70°, of Fahrenheit. The latter is the maxi¬
mum at eight miles from Kingston ; and at an elevation of
from 4000 to 5000 feet, the average range is from 55° to
65°, the minimum in winter being 44°, of Fahrenheit. The
alternation of temperature is from eight to ten degrees on
the south side of the mountains, and it is more so on the
north; but the transitions are not so sudden and detri¬
mental as in many parts of the continent of North Ame¬
rica. The grand compensation for excess of temperature
is afforded by the breezes which regularly every morning
set in from the sea to the land, and every evening flow
from the land towards the sea, as it were by a wise pro¬
vision of nature, to preserve the equilibrium which the
intense heat of the noon-day sun has disturbed. Dur¬
ing the most sultry months, also, a succession of light,
fleecv clouds continually cross the sun’s disc, and thus,
by intercepting his rays, mitigate their general arden¬
cy. It is cooler and more salubrious on the north side
of the island than on the south, and the dwellers on
the mountains enjoy a purer and more wholesome air
than those resident on the low grounds. There is no
striking variation of season, excepting what is occasioned
by the alternation of dry and rainy weather. Thunder
and lightning are prevalent, without being mischievous;
and although the hurricane season ranges from July to
October, severe storms at the windward Caribbee Islands
are not experienced at Jamaica. The rains do not always
take place in the same months ; and in different parts of
the island there is a considerable variation in the time ot
their commencement. In the mountains they are earlier,
more frequent, and more heavy, than in the low country.
In the latter, one district will have rain a month or six
weeks sooner or later than another not twenty miles dis-
tant from it. What are called the spring rains sometimes
JAMAICA.
ja ica* do not set in till June, and even later; but occasionally
^ ^ they commence as early as March or April, which is al¬
ways a great impediment to agricultural operations, this
being the time for getting in the sugar crops on the north
side of the island. The seasons vary much on either side.
On the south, spring may be said to range from Novem¬
ber to April, summer from May to August, and winter
from September to October. On the north, however, win¬
ter ranges from October to March, and on this side there
is a more plentiful supply of rain than on the other, but
distributed in smaller and more frequent showers. It is,
moreover, cooler, and has a vegetation of greater bulk and
height. The spring rains are the most violent, and the
atmosphere is then exceedingly sultry, and, being much
charged with electricity, thunder storms are of frequent
occurrence. The distribution of rain is sometimes very
capricious, some parts being favoured with plenteous
showers, whilst plantations divided from them only by a
ridge of hills suffer from drought; and it often happens
that, whilst the mountainous regions are visited by daily
torrents, the low country is parched for want of rain.
During droughts, however, vegetation is much assisted by
the fall of dews. The climate of Jamaica is by no means
so inimical to the human constitution as is generally re¬
presented, that is, provided those resident on the island
live temperately. Fevers of various kinds are not uncom¬
mon ; but the malignant epidemic, the yellow fever, has of
late years almost, if not quite, disappeared from Jamaica
and the other West India islands. Generally the climate
has improved, and the high lands of this beautiful isle are
well adapted to the European constitution, and they will
be more especially so when they become cleared and cul¬
tivated. There are, besides, many districts in the interior
where climate and soil are nearly as favourable to health
as in any part of Britain ; districts which are crown pro¬
perty, and at present lying waste.
Besides the vegetable productions indigenous to Jamai¬
ca, the island has been enriched with numerous exotics,
the whole forming a vast and interesting catalogue of
plants and trees, which our limits will not admit of our
enumerating or describing in systematic detail. The forests
abound with woods fit for various purposes, as building,
mill-work, wheel-making, cabinet-making, dyeing, and so
on. There are several species which, from their extreme
hardness, cannot be used in cabinet-making, but are valu¬
able for building and other purposes in which durability
is principally required. Of these, the black and nees-
berry bully trees, the green heart, the rose-wood, and fid¬
dle-wood, grow to a great height. The iron-wood, the
nature of which tree corresponds with its name, does not
grow to a great size, and is principally used for rough
posts for the negroes’ houses. There are various beauti¬
ful woods for ornamental cabinet work, of which the ma¬
hogany, the bread-nut-heart, and the satin-wood, are most
highly esteemed. The mahogany tree is one of the most
elegant in the island, and grows to from forty to fifty feet
in height; but having been found a profitable article of
exportation, the greater part has been cut down for that
purpose, and there are not many trees now remaining on
the island. The bread-nut tree is pretty abundant in
most parts of Jamaica. Its wood is beautifully variegat¬
ed, and takes a fine polish. The leaves are a nutritious
food for horses and other animals; and the negroes
find a substantial article of diet in the kernels of the
fruit. The cedar grows to a great size, sometimes mea¬
suring thirty feet in girth near the root, and it is of pro¬
portionable height. The cotton-tree is the largest of all
the trees on the island, but it is only used for making
canoes, which are hollowed out from the trunks. The
pimento is a highly valuable tree, and it flourishes spon¬
taneously in great abundance on the north side of the
499
island. This tree is celebrated for its beauty, and the Jamaica,
leaves, when bruised, emit a fine aromatic odour, nearly
as powerful as that of the spice itself. A single tree will
produce one hundred and fifty of the raw, or one hundred
pounds of the dried fruit. One of the most useful trees
in the island is the bamboo, which is applied to numerous
important purposes. The trumpet tree, which grows from
thirty to forty feet in height, produces an agreeable fruit si¬
milar to our strawberry ; its strong and fibrous bark is used
for cordage, and its light trunk for bark logs, and the like
purposes. One of the most curious trees is the mangrove,
which takes root in the sands, and grows within the mar¬
gin of the ocean. The coffee-tree is a handsome plant,
and its fecundity is much improved by regular pruning.
The coffee-bean is covered writh a pulp, which when ripe
assumes a fine crimson red. The cocoa-tree grows to the
height of from fifteen to twenty feet, and bears its nuts in
pods. The cultivation of this article is now neglected,
not much more being raised than is necessary for the con¬
sumption of the inhabitants. The oil-nut tree (ricinus),
which produces the castor oil, grows to the height of
twelve or fifteen feet, and has a large indented leaf. It
bears the fruit, which produces the oil, in clusters. There
are two species of the cabbage-tree, the Barbadoes and
the native cabbage-tree, the former being the most stately
and beautiful. The cocoa-nut tree grows in great luxu¬
riance, and abounds in every part of the island. Besides
the above trees, Jamaica is plentifully provided with black
and green ebony, yellow sanders, lignum vita;, fustic, log¬
wood, bitter wood, the valuable palmetto (sometimes one
hundred and forty feet in height), and others. There is an
abundant supply of the most delicious fruits, every month
presenting a fresh collation. Amongst these may be men¬
tioned the pine-apple or anana, orange, shaddock, pome¬
granate, fig, granedillo, neesberry, cashew-apple, kennip,
spadillo, banana, mamee (a w ild fruit), star-apple, sweet
sop, musk-melon, wrater-melon, sweet melon, citron, ava-
gato pear, several varieties of the mango, the chirimoya,
akee, jack-fruit, bread-fruit, very fine grapes, plantain,
plum, tamarind, olive, date, mulberry, as well as other
delicious fruits. Amongst vegetables, potatoes, yams,
cassava, peas and beans of every variety, artichokes, beet¬
root, carrots, parsnips, cucumbers, tomatoes, radishes,
celery, choco, ochro, Lima bean, Indian kale, calalue,
and various salads, flourish in abundance. Both maize
and Guinea corn grow in great luxuriance in this island;
and rice is capable of being raised in certain situations,
but it is not an object of attention. Maize or Indian
corn is universally cultivated, and it yields an almost in¬
credible return ; on an average, it is said, one thousand
fold. Guinea grass, which abounds, is considered as of great
importance, as the cattle that supply manure to the sugar
plantations are fed by it. The various drugs, dye-stuffs,
and spices, are of excellent quality. Aloes, cochineal, spike¬
nard, canella, liquorice root, the castor-oil nut already
noticed, vanilla, peppers, arrow-root, ginger, ipecacuanha,
scammony, jalap, cassia, euphorbia, senna, and others, at¬
test the fruitfulness and capabilities of the soil and cli¬
mate.
But it is now time to advert to the grand staple plant
of the island, the sugar-cane. The question which has
divided inquirers into this subject, namely, whether the
sugar-cane w^as indigenous to the Antilles, does not re¬
quire to be discussed in this place. It seems certain that
at an early period this valuable plant wras extensively cul¬
tivated by the Spaniards in Jamaica ; and in 1671 a writer
speaks of the complicated sugar works scattered over the
island as resembling towns or villages. There are several
varieties of the sugar-cane, viz. the common cane of the
island, the Bourbon cane (so called from its being brought
last from the island of that name, though originally a na-
500 JAMAICA.
Jamaica, tive of the Society Islands), the transparent cane, the rib-
bon cane, the Batavian or purple cane, and the green stripe
cane. Those chiefly cultivated are the Bourbon and trans¬
parent cane. The ribbon cane is also sometimes planted,
on account of its hardy nature, though it yields much less
juice than the other two. It is the most beautiful of all the
species, being finely variegated with alternate stripes of
crimson and pale yellow, whence it takes its name. The
Batavian cane is in no estimation, being unproductive, and
is only preserved as a variety. An idea of the extent of
ground appropriated to the cultivation of the sugar-cane
may be obtained from the fact, that for some years the
importations into Great Britain have averaged, in hundred¬
weights, 1,400,000, which, rated so low as a guinea per
hundredweight, would give nearly one million and a half
sterling. It is of very fine quality, and, by the improved
systems of culture and manufacture which are coming
into operation, there seems little doubt but that both the
quantity and quality may yet be more extended. The
quantity of rum made from the sugar is likewise very
great. The average imports made annually into England
may be taken at 3,500,000 gallons, which may be estimat¬
ed in value at one million sterling. The next grand
staple plant of the island is coffee. It was introduced
into Jamaica in 1728, from which period the cultivation
of it was extended, until about the beginning of this cen¬
tury, when it appears to have reached its maximum. This
plant thrives in almost every soil about the mountains of
Jamaica, and in the very driest spots has frequently
produced abundant crops. The importation into Great
Britain averages about 20,000,000 pounds yearly, which,
estimated at the low rate of one shilling per pound, is an¬
other million sterling. Cotton, indigo, and cocoa, are not
now so extensively cultivated as formerly, having given
way to the foregoing staples of the island. The attention
of the planters has recently been turned to other vege¬
table productions, particularly to the sun-flower, which, it
is said, may be rendered valuable in a pecuniary point of
view. Its fecundity in this climate gives it an advantage
over corn for the common purposes of food for poultry,
and when mixed with corn it constitutes a nutritious food
for horses. The seeds also yield an oil, which, in the opi¬
nion of some, is preferable to olive oil. With respect to
the other vegetable productions of Jamaica, such as flowers
and flowering shrubs, there is little to demand particular
attention. A few European flowers thrive, and there are
a variety of others indigenous to the island, which flourish
wild in the wmods and mountain recesses. Here, even in
winter, may be seen, what is often witnessed in the torrid
zone, fruits and blossoms suspended at once from the same
bough, the rivalship of Pomona and Flora.
Jamaica, like the rest of the islands appertaining to the
new continent, when discovered, contained but few species
of animals. Only eight varieties of quadrupeds are enu¬
merated as belonging to it, viz. the agouti, peccari, arma¬
dillo, opossum, racoon, musk rat, alco, and monkey. The
wild hog, the rat, and the mouse, seem now to be the only
wild quadrupeds in the island. The wild hogs, which are
larger and more fierce than the common kind, frequent
the remote woods, and subsist on the fruits and roots with
which these abound. The rats are most destructive ani¬
mals, and their numbers and ravages are almost inconceiv¬
able. The island abounds with the feathered tribes re¬
markable for the brilliancy of their plumage, but there
are only a few of them birds of song. Of these the most
remarkable is what is termed the nightingale, a species of
mock bird, possessing great variety, compass, and sweet¬
ness of tone. There are numerous species of the wild
pigeon, and also of the parrot; and a variety of aquatic
birds, as ducks, teal, coots, divers, and the like. In Oc¬
tober the crane and the white galding (one of the heron
family), come over in flocks from the island of Cuba. The jatBa'
plover, snipe, and ortolan, are also migratory. Within Wy,
the last half century the quail has become a very common
bird. But the most valuable of the winged inhabitants
of the island is the black vulture or carrion crow, which
is very useful in devouring all putrid matter.
The sea around this island, and the rivers by which it
is watered, abound in excellent fish. There are also salt
ponds, which, if properly attended to, might render the
planters in a great measure independent of supplies of
salt fish from Europe. The sprat, herring, dolphin, an¬
chovy or silver fish, the flying, sword, sun, parrot, rock,
king, and gar fishes, the flounder, sole, eel, bream, snapper,
mullet, perch, boneeto, Spanish mackerel, sea-devil (weigh¬
ing from 100 to 300 pounds), old wife, shark, porpoise,
sting ray, thrasher, as well as many others, may be caught
in abundance. Sea and land turtle are likewise plentiful,
and of good eating. Some of the largest rivers contain
alligators, but the chief harm which they usually do i?
the destroying of the fish, and devouring the poultry and
pigs which come in their way. There are three species
of snake in Jamaica, the yellow, black, and brown snake,
the last being the smallest and least numerous of the three.
None of these are venomous in their bite, at least to a
serious degree. Several species of the lizai’d abound here,
and scorpions and centipedes are common. There is a
very troublesome insect called the cockroach, swarms of
which infest every house ; but the most annoying of these
animals is the mosquito. There are numerous fire-flies,
which display their harmless but vivid coruscations dur¬
ing the night. Bees are very numerous in the woods,
and the honey which they produce is of an exquisitely
fine flavour.
Amongst the animals usefdl to man, the ox may be
placed first. Oxen, though generally smaller than those
of England, are capable of performing a great deal of la¬
bour ; and they are chiefly employed in those operations
for which horses are used in Britain. The horses bred in
the island are middle sized, hardy, and active, well fitted
for the saddle or the harness, but not for the cart or plough,
to which they are never yoked. The mules in Jamaica
are far more hardy than the horses, and are consequently
more valuable to the planter in assisting him in his ope¬
rations. The sheep are very good, and the mutton is ex¬
cellent, but high priced. Goats thrive and increase with
little care, and the milk they yield is much superior to
that of cows. For the most part the foregoing animals
feed on the Guinea grass, and occasionally on the leaves
of the bread-nut tree. Hogs are very plentiful, and their
flesh is sweet and delicious. All kinds of poultry are
raised here in great abundance, excepting geese and the
common duck. But the Muscovy duck, the turkey, the
Guinea fowl, and the common dunghill fowl, thrive and
multiply wonderfully well.
Jamaica is divided into three counties, viz. Surrey, Corn¬
wall, and Middlesex ; and these are subdivided into twen¬
ty-one parishes. Surrey comprises seven parishes, has an
area of 1,522,149 acres, and contains two towns and eight
villages ; Cornwall comprises five parishes, has an area
of 1,305,235 acres, and contains three towns and eight
villages; and Middlesex comprises nine parishes,has an
area of 672,616 acres, and contains one town and thirteen
villages. Kingston, the most considerable town in the
island, and in reality, though not nominally, the capital,
is situated on a gentle slope of about one mile in length,
which is bounded on the south by a spacious basin,
through which all vessels must advance beneath the com¬
manding guns of Port Royal. The extended inclined
plane, on the verge of which Kingston stands, is enclosed
on the north by the loftiest ridge of the Blue Mountain
chain, termed Liguana, which forms a semicircle, and
JAMAICA. 501
terni'nates on the east at the narrow defile of Rock Fort.
‘,ftr From this a long neck of land stretches to Port Royal, and
forms the south barrier of a beautiful haven. On the west
the semicircle terminates at a contracted pass, upon the
edge of an impracticable lagoon, from which the main
land sweeps round to Port Henderson, which, together
with the projecting salt ponds, forms a natural harbour,
where all the navies of Europe might anchor at once. The
entrance is defended in such a manner as to render it al¬
together unassailable by sea. For nine miles around
Kington stretches an alluvial plain, surrounded by a se¬
ries of irregular mountains, some of which have a consi¬
derable elevation. Kingston is principally built of wood ;
and the houses, which are generally two stories in height,
have piazzas fitted up all round with Venetian blinds, or
«jalousies,” as they are termed. The streets, which are
long, straight, and regular, incline gradually to the har¬
bour, being intersected at right angles by some cross ones.
There are several handsome private buildings in the West
India style ; the public offices are in some instances ele¬
gant ; and the English and Scotch churches are spacious
structures, particularly the former, which is built on a
picturesque spot, commanding a splendid view of the city,
the plains around it, the amphitheatre of mountains, and
the spacious harbour of Port Royal. There are some
good institutions here for charitable purposes, particu¬
larly the free school, the hospital, the lunatic asylum, and
the asylum for deserted negroes. There are excellent
stores for all descriptions of goods, and during crop time
the wharfs present a busy spectacle, being crowded with
buyers and sellers of all kinds of goods here trafficked in.
Kingston contains about 30,000 inhabitants, and lies in
longitude 76. 33. west, latitude 18. north. On a plain at
the top of the declivity on which Kingston is built, are
the fine barracks called Up-Park Camp. The camp co¬
vers an irregular square of between two and three hun¬
dred acres, sloping towards Kingston. The barracks con¬
sist of two long parallel lines of buildings, extending from
east to west, two stories high, having a six feet basement,
an excellent hospital, and a splendid bath. The whole
cantonment is surrounded by a wall six feet in height,
and surmounted by an iron palisading. Twelve hundred
and eighty-four European soldiers are here comfortably
encamped; and the attached offices are spacious, lofty,
and commodious. A description of the other military
stations may also be introduced here. Port Royal is si¬
tuated nearly at the extremity of a tongue of land which
forms the boundary of the harbours of Kingston and of
Port Royal. A great part of the town of Port Royal
is only a few feet above the level of the ocean, and the
tongue of land towards the sea is frequently inundated.
The royal naval yard lies to the north, the naval hospital
to the south-west, and the works of Fort Charles and the
soldiers’ barracks to the southward. The fortifications are
very strong, and the situation, though low, is healthy,
from its exposure to the sea breeze. The harbour is
capable of containing a thousand large ships with con¬
venience. It was upon this spot that the former Port
Royal stood when it was overwhelmed by the earthquake in
1692, and, with two thousand houses, was buried eight
fathoms under water. On the shore opposite to Port
Royal is Apostle’s Battery, a small fort erected on a rock,
hort Augusta is a strong fortress, built upon a low neck
or land or peninsula, joined to the hills at Port Hender¬
son by a narrow isthmus of sand, having a coal formation
for its base. The buildings of the fort occupy the whole
area of the point of the peninsula. The barracks are two
stories high, well ventilated, healthy, and generally con¬
tain four service companies. Stony Hill garrison is situ¬
ated nine miles north of Kingston, on a ridge of moun¬
tains, about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. The
barracks, which, generally speaking, are placed on small de- Jamaica,
tached eminences, are capable of containing five hundred
men; and as this post commands the grand pass which
intersects the island from north to south, it is justly con¬
sidered as of great importance. Port Antonio, situated at
the extremity of the island, eighty miles from Kingston,
is nearly insulated. The fort is a half-moon battery, with
a magazine in the rear. The barracks are new, elevated,
and commodious, but not capable of containing a great
force. Marson Town is situated in the interior, between
the parishes of Westmoreland and St James, on a very
high mountain. The station is excellent, both in a mili¬
tary and a sanatory point of view; and the barracks can
accommodate upwards of two hundred men. Lucea, or
Fort Charlotte, is built on the north-eastern extremity of
a peninsula, being bounded on one side by the bay and
harbour of Lucea, and on the other by the sea. Majestic
mountains rise immediately behind the town, about one
mile from the garrison.
St lago de la Vega, or Spanish Town as it is usually
called, the capital of Jamaica, is situated at the extremi¬
ty of an extensive plain, extending far to the south, south¬
east, and west, but with the mountains closely approach¬
ing the towrn on the north and north-west, and distant
from the sea at Port Royal harbour six miles. At about
a quarter of a mile to the north-east of the city runs the
Cobre, a river of considerable depth. The town is small,
but the buildings are in the magnificent style of Spanish
architecture. The government residence, termed the
King’s House, is a large building occupying one whole
side of a quadrangle. On either side are a variety of
public edifices appropriated to government purposes; and
the buildings fronting it comprehend the court-house,
grand and petty jury, and a variety of other apartments
above, whilst the lower part is occupied by a number of
public offices. There are many splendid edifices in the
town and neighbourhood, possessed for the most part by
gentlemen of the legal or medical professions, and in some
cases by government officers or country proprietors. Spa¬
nish Town has a free school, poor-house, a charity for the
support of widows, and another for the support of poor
maidens and distressed strangers; and the population
amounts to about 5000.
Montego Bay is the chief town and sea-port of St
James. It is situated at the foot of a range of mountains,
which nearly surround it, except on the sea side, and is,
in consequence of its trade, a thriving and pretty populous
place. It is not, however, equal to what it once was,
having twice suffered severely from fire. There is here
a neat church, a school, a jail, and other public buildings,
including barracks, which are commodious and comfort¬
able. Falmouth, or Marthabrae, which is fifteen miles
east of Montego Bay, is the principal town and sea-port
of Trelawny. From being an inconsiderable village, this
place has become larger and more populous than Montego
Bay. It has derived its advantages from its harbour,
where a greater quantity of produce is shipped than from
any other part of the island, with the exception of Kings¬
ton. There is a good church here, a handsome and spa¬
cious court-house, a marine hospital, a neat jail, substan¬
tial and commodious barracks, with an hospital, stores,
and quarters, and a free school. Savannah-le-Mar is a
fine military station, in the midst of a highly-cultivated
country. The town is situated on the beach, from which
a low alluvial flat extends for several miles. In this plain,
about one mile from the town, is an excellent range of
barracks. In the other towns there is nothing that claims
particular attention ; each of them having its church, its
court-house, its free school, its jail, and its workhouse.
Jamaica is ruled by a governor or captain-general, aid¬
ed by a council of twelve, and a house of assembly. The
502
JAMAICA.
Jamaica, governor is always, and the council generally, appointed
by the king, through his secretary for the colonies, from
amongst the ex officio justices of the peace. The governor,
who bears the title of his excellency, is invested with the
chief civil and military authority, and has the disposal of
such appointments as his majesty does not reserve to him¬
self or his ministers. The council of twelve are appointed by
mandamus from the king, and hold their offices during plea¬
sure. The members of this body stand in the same relation
to the governor as the privy council in England does to his
majesty, giving advice to the superior when necessary.
They also constitute a part of the legislature of the colo¬
ny, and occasionally sit as judges. The lieutenant-gover¬
nor, chief-justice, attorney-general, and the bishop, are
all ex officio members of the council. The assembly con¬
sists of forty-five members, each of the parishes sending
two representatives, and Spanish Town, Kingston, and
Port-Royal, one additional member each. The qualifica¬
tion for a representative is a freehold of L.300 per an¬
num, or a personal estate of L.3000. An elector must be
of age, and possessed of a freehold of L.10 per annum in
the parish for which he votes. The governor and council
may, as occasion requires, summon the assembly together;
and the former, of his own authority, can adjourn, pro¬
rogue, and dissolve them. They have the sole power
of levying taxes, and the distribution thereof, with the
exception of an annual permanent revenue to the crown
of L. 10,000. The council and assembly, with the con¬
sent of the king or the governor, may make laws, sta¬
tutes, and ordinances for the public peace, welfare, and
good government of the colony, provided these be not
repugnant, but, as near as may be, agreeable, to the laws
and statutes of Great Britain. The English common
law is in force in Jamaica, but many of the statute laws
are not; for example, the game-laws, poor-laws, bankrupt-
laws, and most of those relating to the revenue. An Eng¬
lish statute, to have force in Jamaica, must be re-en¬
acted by the colonial legislature. With regard to the im¬
position of any duty payable in the colonies, Jamaica is
placed in the same situation as the other colonies of
Great Britain. By the 18th Geo. III. cap. 12, the king and
parliament declared, that thenceforth they would not im¬
pose any duty payable in the colonies, except for the re¬
gulation of commerce, the produce whereof should al¬
ways be applied to the use of the colony in which it is le¬
vied. The English bankruptcy laws are not in force here ;
but there is in force the insolvent debtor’s act, by which
a debtor, on making oath that he is possessed of no pro¬
perty above bare necessaries, and delivering his books, if
he has any, into the hands of the deputy-marshal or
sheriff’s deputy, is, after remaining three months in jail,
exonerated from all demands against him. Any person
proposing to leave the island must give three weeks’ no¬
tice of his intention, on account of creditors.
The supreme court of judicature holds its sittings in
Spanish lown, three times a year, for three weeks each
time. Ihe chief justice, a nominee of government, pre¬
sides in it, and with him are associated several assistant- jam •,
judges, who hold their offices during pleasure. Thejuris-
diction of the supreme court is co-extensive with those of
the courts of king's bench, common pleas, exchequer, and
insolvent debtors in England, taken collectively. It also
decides on questions relative to trade and navigation, the
laying on of duties or customs on the import and export
of goods, on informations for land under the quit-rent
acts, and all escheats ; and is likewise a court of appeal
from the inferior courts of common pleas. There are
two assize-courts, one for the county of Surrey, and the
other for the county of Cornwall. Their sittings are si¬
milar to those of the supreme court, but at different pe¬
riods. For each of these there are eight assistant judges
appointed, two or three of whom sit in turns with the
chief justice. They receive no salaries, and, like the
judges of the supreme court, they hold office only du¬
ring his majesty’s pleasure. The several inferior courts
of common pleas have jurisdiction over all causes (ex¬
cept those in which a freehold is concerned) to the value
of L.20 with costs ; but, by the aid of ajusticias from the
chancellor, who is the governor, they may hold pleas to
any amount, except in actions where the title to land or
negroes is concerned. These courts are held at the same
time, and in the same place of the respective precincts,
as the justices of the peace hold the quarter-sessions,
once in every three months ; but some of them have the
privilege of sitting oftener.
The parishes are under the government of a chief ma¬
gistrate, termed the custos rotulorum, and bench of jus¬
tices, who hold sessions of the peace every month, and
courts of common pleas, for trying actions to the extent
of L.20; debts not exceeding 40s. being determined by
a single justice. Each parish has a rector and church
officers, according to the number of churches or chapels
therein; the vestries consist of the custos, two magis¬
trates, ten vestrymen, and the rector; the vestries have
the power of assessing and appropriating local taxes, al-
loting labourers for repairing the highways, appointing
way-wardens, nominating collectors of public and paro¬
chial rates, and regulating the police of their several pa¬
rishes.
In the court of chancery the governor sits as chancel¬
lor, with powers similar to those of the lord high chancel¬
lor in England, and the proceedings are the same as those
of the English court of chancery. There is also a court
of error, where appeals lie from the courts of law, and
of which the governor and council are the judges ; a court
of ordinary, for determining ecclesiastical matters, of
which the governor isjudge; and a court of vice-admiral¬
ty, the judge of which is appointed by the crown.
The commerce of this important island consists of the
trade with the mother country, the trade with British
North America, and the trade with the island of Cuba and
other Spanish islands, the Spanish Main, and other terri¬
tories on the American continent formerly belonging to
Spain. Its extent will be seen by the following return.
1828
Shipping Inwards.
From Great
Britain.
No. Tons.
240 75,541
From British
Colonies.
No.
165
Tons.
22,974
From Foreign
States.
No.
269
Tons.
25,687
Total
Inwards.
No.
674
Tons.
124,202
Shipping Outwards.
To Great
Britain.
No.
287
Tons.
87,729
To British
Colonies.
No.
145
Tons.
18,205
To Foreign
States.
No.
256
Tons.
24,454
Total
Outwards.
No-
ess
Tons.
130,388
tllG t0tal ®lliPP1”Sinwards was> number, 715 ; tons, ther about 15,000 seamen. The extent of the commerce
120, / 21: outwards, 690; tons, 130,747: employing altoge- of this island will be perceived from the following table :
A General Return of Imports and Exports to and from the Island of Jamaica, between the 2\)th September 1828 and 2$th September 1829.
JAMAICA.
503
J amaka.
504
• JAMAICA.
Jamaica. It is always a difficult matter to form a definite idea of
—v'-'—' the amount of property in any place; but that in Ja¬
maica, moveable and immoveable, is not over-estimated at
L.50,000,000 sterling money.
The annual income, or ways and means, of the island,
on an average of ten years, has been estimated at about
L,490,000. The returns, however, are far from being
explicit, for it is nearly impossible to ascertain the actual
state of taxes in the island, and the nature of their bear¬
ing and operation on commerce. The expenditure for
1831, according to a return laid before parliament,
amounted to L.370,000, the items being as follows :—
Governor L.5,500
Chief justice 4,000
Assistant judges 3,400
Speaker of assembly 1,400
Governor’s secretary 3,000
Officers of his majesty’s customs 23,390
Clergy of established church 23,393
Ditto Presbyterian 1,201
Ditto Roman Catholic 200
Charitable institutions 14,656
Army expenses 137,032
Clerk of supreme court and provost
marshal 1,160
Secretary of commissioners of public
accounts 1,000
Secretary of ditto correspondents 300
Clerk of board of works   400
Commissioners of stamps 1,550
Deputy receiver-general and secretary
at the outports 1,560
Marshals of militia regiments 1,050
Alien and bonding office 600
Island agent 2,542
Captains of forts   669
Officers of assembly 6,146
Island botanist 560
Engineer and surveyor of public works 740
Storekeeper 500
Receiver general 7,000
Law expenses and jails 14,874
Roads, bridges, and public buildings 25,850
Printing 7,159
Militia arms, and gunpowder 8,594
Board of works 8,890
Premium on increase slaves 8,120
Registry and vestry returns 5,378
Maroons, and superintendent of ma¬
roon towns 2,030
Miscellaneous  10,000
Interest on public loans 16,900
L.370,000
According to the Jamaica budget for 1832, the income
of the island was as follows:—Taxes and internal duties,
L.207,367 ; duties on vessels and cargoes, L.95,970;
certificates in circulation, L.399,205; and loan certifi¬
cates, including L.64,415 loan deposits, L.250,035. Of
the expenditure, the military amounts to L.184,143, be¬
sides L.222,729 for the general defence of the island, of
which L.176,691 was incurred for martial law in 1832.
The civil expenditure was L.85,078, of which L.15,544
was for interest. “ On a general view,” says Montgo¬
mery Martin, “ it may be stated that the annual public
revenue of Jamaica is L.300,000 ; and the vestry or pa¬
rish, or local taxation of the different counties, a nearly
similar sum.” Jamaica thus contributes a very consider¬
able sum to the national exchequer.
The want of an established currency in the West India
islands has long been felt as an evil. In no two islands
is the currency alike; and in these again it varies in pro- jauia
portion to sterling money, thus ; ,
Sterling.
Jamaica L.100
Barbadoes 100
Windward ^
isles, except [-100
Barbadoes... j
Leeward isles 100
Currency. Dollar. Currency.
L. 140 1 zz 6s. 8d.
135 1 = 6s. 3d.
175
200
1 = 8s. 3d.
1 = 9s.
The metallic currency of the island is estimated at
L. 100,000. The paper currency consists entirely of the
island checks issued by the receiver-general, under the
orders of the board of accounts, and upon the security
of the island and its revenue. The coins in circulation
in this island are chiefly Spanish. There are also some
Portuguese gold pieces, and guineas and sovereigns. The
Spanish gold coins are doubloons, value sixteen dollars;
half doubloons, pistoles, value four dollars; and half pis¬
toles.
In time of war the naval establishment of Jamaica is
considerable, but the peace establishment consists only
of a few vessels. The military establishment of the
island generally includes the head-quarters of four Euro¬
pean regiments of the line, one West India regiment com¬
posed of Caffres or West Coast African negroes, and astrong
detachment of artillery, making altogether an army of
about 3000 men ; and of colonial militia from 16,000 to
18,000 men at arms, infantry and cavalry, distributed
throughout the several counties. All white males from
the age of fifteen to sixty are obliged by law to provide
themselves with suitable clothing, and to enlist in either
the cavalry or militia. Substitutes are not allowed.
The general post-office and packets next claim our
attention. This department comprises a deputy post-
master-general, a principal, and numerous other clerks,
in Kingston, and deputy-postmasters stationed at proper
and convenient distances along the post-roads in every
direction. Mails for all parts of the island are despatch¬
ed every Saturday evening, and an extra one for Spanish
Town every Friday morning. Two packets are despatch¬
ed monthly from Great Britain for this island. The first
touches at the Windward Islands, and arrives at Jamaica
about the 20th of every month. The second takes a
more direct route, and arrives at her destination about a
week after the former.
The press, education, and religion, being intimately
blended with one another, may be connected together.
The press is unshackled by stamp-duties, and on the in¬
crease. There are two daily and four weekly newspapers
in the island, all conducted with considerable talent, and
with little display of party feeling or faction. Education is
rapidly spreading under the aid of the local government, as
well as by private means. In the budget of the island
there is nearly L.10,000 allotted for free schools. The
Jamaica free school at Walton Penn, in the parish of St
Ann, has L.1620; Woolmer’s free school, in the parish
of Kingston, has L.1500; Yere free school, L.1120; the
Titchfield free school about a similar sum, and so on. There
may be about thirty public or free schools, attended by
nearly 4000 scholars. Besides these, there are a num¬
ber of most respectable schools, where classical as well as
ordinary education may be obtained. Great efforts have
been made for the extension of religion, but whether with a
success commensurate to the exertions bestowed it is dif¬
ficult to say. The outlay by the colonial government for
1831 was nearly L.25,000, of which the curates’ stipends
amounted to L.8000 ; rectoi's’ditto, to L.11,718 ; expenses
of building of chapels, L.1400 ; annuities of widows and
orphans of the clergy, L.2000; salaries of the registrar and
appositar of the diocese, L.475 ; Presbyterian institutions,
J A M
jB licus. L.301; support of kirk in Kingston, L.700 ; Presbyterian
w charity schools, L.200. The bishop of Jamaica, whose
see extends over the Bahamas and Honduras, has L.4000,
and the archdeacon L.2000, per annum. There are fifty-
seven clergymen of the established church, twenty-one
of whom are rectors ; four of the Scotch Presbyterian
church, twenty-four of the Wesleyan Methodist persua¬
sion, sixteen of the Baptist, and eight of the Moravian.
The crown livings are nowin the gift of the bishop. The
established clergy are paid partly by stipend and partly
by fees. With regard to the expenditure of Jamaica for
her ecclesiastical establishments, the Rev. Mr Bridges in¬
forms us, that of late years it has not fallen far short of
L.30,000 annually. Pluralities are not permitted; and
the negro apprentices, as they are now called, are enti¬
tled to demand the gratuitous services of the clergy.
Owing to some mistaken feelings, the census of Jamai¬
ca has not been taken, so that it is impossible to state
with accuracy the actual population of the island. By
some it is said to be half a million, which would give se¬
venty-eight persons to the square mile. The following
is a summary for 1833, of the returns of the number of
slaves, now apprentices, in the island, the number of stock
or horned cattle, and the quantity of land in cultivation
and pasture. The returns are given in upon oath.
JAM
505
Slaves.
Middlesex 121,194
Surrey  74,286
Cornwall 107,152
Stock.
65,416
16,455
83,373
302,632 165,244
Acres of Land.
1,026,486
390,386
818,852
2,235,724
By some the number of whites is estimated at 35,000 ;
and of maroons there are about 1200 in Jamaica. The
number of what are denominated free people of colour has
not been ascertained, but the total population of the island
is not over-estimated at between 400,000 and 500,000.
Before concluding the account of Jamaica, it is neces¬
sary to refer to a dependency called the Cayman Isles.
These are three small isles, in latitude 19. 20. north, and
from thirty to forty leagues north-north-west from Point James, St.
JNegrili, to the westward of Jamaica, the Grand Cayman
being the most remote. Cayman-braque, and Little
Cayman, lie within five miles of each other, and about
thirty-four miles north from the Grand Cayman. These
islands were discovered by Columbus, but they were ne¬
ver permanently settled until after the conquest of Ja¬
maica by Great Britain. Grand Cayman, the only one
of them occupied, is about one mile and a half long, one
mile broad, and contains about 1000 acres. It is very
low, but towards the middle of the island vegetation is
abundant. These islands are favourite breeding places
for turtles, immense shoals of which animals cross the
ocean from the Bay of Honduras, to deposit their eggs
on the low, sandy shore of the Caymans. The present
race of inhabitants, of whose numbers accurate accounts
have not been given, are said to be descended from the
English Buccaneers, and, from being inured to the sea,
form excellent pilots and seamen. The bishop of Jamai¬
ca estimated their numbers in 1827 at 1600. They are
very healthy, and attain to a great age. Justices of the
peace are sent from Jamaica, but in no way are the inha¬
bitants interfered with by the chief settle*ment to which
they belong. They have a chief or government officer
of their own choosing, and they frame their own regula¬
tions.
With regard to the working of the emancipation bill, by
which, from the 1st of August 1834, the slaves aged six and
upwards became apprenticed labourers, without any for¬
mal indentures, nothing as yet can be said with certainty.
Any disturbances which have broken out were anticipat¬
ed, even by those who were most sanguine as to the suc¬
cess of the measure ; but when the negroes shall have
become familiar with their change of condition, their tran¬
sition from a state of slavery to that of freedom, every
thing will probably go on prosperously. At all events,
from the accounts received, we are entitled to indulge
in a less gloomy augury for the future, than has been
but too generally entertained by those who investigated
the subject, or were interested in the change, (a. n. r.)
JAMBLICUS, the name of two celebrated Platonic
philosophers, one of whom was a native of Chalcis, and the
other of Apamea in Syria. The first, whom Julian com¬
pares to Plato, was the disciple of Anatolius and Porphyry,
and died under the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The
second also enjoyed great reputation. Julian wrote seve¬
ral letters to him ; and it is said he was poisoned under
the reign of Yalens. It is not known to which of the two
we ought to attribute the works which have reached us in
Greek under the name of Jamblicus. These are, 1. Pro-
trepticus, seu adhortatio ad philosophiam, Leipsig, 1813, in
8vo; 2. De Vita Pythagorae, Amsterdam, 1707, in 4to,
Greek and Latin, with the corrections and notes of Ludolf
Kuster; 3. In Nicomachi Geraseni Arithmeticam Intro-
ductionem et De Fato liber, nunc primum editus Graece,
in Latinum Sermonem conversus, notis illustratus a Sam.
Tennulio, Arnheim, 1688, in 4to ; 4. De Mysteriis iEgyp-
tiorum, Venet. Aldus, 1497, in folio, a work filled with the-
nrgic and extravagant notions. Hebenstreit has publish¬
ed a learned dissertation De Jamblichi philosophi Syri
doctrina, Christina religioni quam imitari studet, noxia,
Leipsig, 1764, in 4to. The system of the Neo-Platonists
was built on the doctrine of emanation, according to which
all beings are destined, after undergoing several degrees
of purification, to return to the Deity, whence they ema¬
nated. By this system, the sage may, even in this life,
attain to the intuition of the divinity, the most sublime end
or aim of philosophy. This school admitted the existence
VOL. XII.
of a class of demons, or spirits of an inferior order, media¬
tors between God and man. To enter into communica¬
tion with them required great purity of maimers, and a ho¬
liness which disengaged man from every thing terrestrial.
Fallen souls inhabit bodies which serve as their prison ;
and if, during their lives, they have not laboured to divest
themselves of their vices, they are, after death, sent back
to other bodies still more vile, until they be entirely puri¬
fied ; a doctrine which approximates closely to metempsy¬
chosis. The Neo-Platonists also admitted a species of
trinity ; the soul, according to them, emanated from the
intelligence, or second divine essence (wus), which again
emanates from the infinite and perfect being. In order to
oppose the progress of Christianity, which began to ruin
all established religions, it was believed necessary to en¬
velope in obscurity this doctrine of emanations ; and hence
they affected to regard as the authors of this system Zoro¬
aster in Persia, Orpheus in Thrace, and Hermes in Egypt.
(Schoell, Hist. Abreg. de la Litter. Grecque, tom. i. p. 203.)
JAMES, St, called the Greater, the son of Zebedee,
and the brother of John the Evangelist, was born at Beth-
saida in Galilee. He was called to be an apostle, together
with St John, as they were mending their nets with their
father Zebedee, who was a fisherman; when Christ gave
each of them the name of Boanerges, or Son of Thunder.
They then followed Christ, were witnesses, with St Peter,
of the transfiguration on Mount Tabor, and accompanied
our Lord in the garden of olives. It is believed thaf St
3 s
506
JAM
James, St James first preached the gospel to the dispersed Jews; and
II afterwards returned to Judaea, where he preached at Jeru-
James I. saiemj when the Jews raised up against him Herod Agrip-
' pa? who put him to a cruel death, about the year 44.
Thus St James was the first of the apostles who suffered
martyrdom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his
accuser was so struck with his constancy, that he became
converted, and suffered with him.
James, St, called the Less, an apostle, the brother of
Jude, and the son of Cleophas, and Mary the sister of the
mother of our Lord, is called in Scripture the Just, and
the brother of Jesus, who appeared to him in particulai
after his resurrection. He was the first bishop of Jerusa¬
lem, when Annanias II. high priest of the Jews, caused
him to be condemned and delivered into the hands or the
people and the Pharisees, who threw him down from the
steps of the temple, when a fuller dashed out his brains
with a club, about the year 62. His life was so holy, that
Josephus considers the ruin of Jerusalem as a punishment
inflicted on that city for his death. He was the author
of the epistle which bears his name.
St James of the Sivord {San Jago del Espada), a mi¬
litary order in Spain, instituted in 1170, under the reign
of Ferdinand II. king of Leon and Gallicia. Its object
was to put a stop to the incursions of the Moors, these
knights obliging themselves by a vow to secure the roads.
An union was proposed and agreed to in 11/0, between
these and the canons of St Eloy ; and the order was con¬
firmed by the pope in 1175. the highest dignity in that
order is that of grand-master, which has been united to
the crown of Spain, ihe knights were obliged to give
proof of their descent from families that had been noble
for four generations on both sides ; they also were re¬
quired to make it appear that their ancestors were neither
Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called in
question by the inquisition.
James, the name of several kings of Scotland and of
Great Britain.
James I. king of Scotland in 1423, the first of the house
of Stuart, was not only the most learned king, but one of
the most learned men, of the age in which he flourished.
This ingenious and amiable prince fell into the hands of
the enemies of his country in his tender youth, when he
was flying from the snares of his unnatural and ambitious
uncle, who governed his dominions, and was suspected of
designs against his life. Having secretly embarked for
France, the ship was taken by an English privateer off
Flamborough Head; and the prince and his attendants
were confined in a neighbouring castle until they were
sent to London. The prince was conducted to the Tower
immediately after he was seized, on the 14th of April 1405
(in the thirteenth year of his age), and there kept a close
prisoner till the 10th of June 1407, when he was removed
to the castle of Nottingham, from which he was brought
back to the Tower on the 1st of March 1414, and there con¬
fined till the 3d of August in the same year, when he was
conveyed to the castle of Windsor, where he was detained
till the summer of 1417, when Henry V., for political rea¬
sons, carried him with him into France in his second expe¬
dition. In this melancholy situation, so unsuitable to his
age and rank, books were his chief companions, and study
his greatest pleasure. That he wrote as well as read much
we have his own testimony, and that of all our historians
who lived near his time. Bowmaker, the continuator of
Fordun, who was his contemporary, and personally ac¬
quainted with him, spends ten chapters in his praise, and
in lamentations for his death ; and, amongst other things,
states that his knowledge of the Scriptures, of law, and
JAM
philosophy, was incredible. Hector Boyce tells us that James V,
Henry IV. and Henry V. furnished their royal prisoner ||
with the best teachers in all the arts and sciences; that, James,
by their assistance, he made great proficiency in every
part of learning and the fine arts ; and that he became a
perfect master in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, music, and
all the secrets of natural philosophy, and was inferior to
none in divinity and law. This prince’s skill in music was
remarkable. Walter Bower, abbot of Inchcolm, who was
intimately acquainted with him, assures us that he played
on eight different instruments, which he names, and es¬
pecially on the harp, with such exquisite skill, that he
seemed to be inspired.1 Above a century after his death
he was celebrated in Italy as the inventor of a new and
pleasing kind of melody, wdiich had been admired and imi¬
tated in that country. This appears from the following
testimony of Tassoni, a writer who was well informed, and
of undoubted credit. “ We may reckon amongst us mo¬
derns, James king of Scotland, who not only composed
many sacred pieces of vocal music, but also of himself
invented a new kind of music, plaintive and melancholy,
different from all other; in which he had been imitated
by Carlo Gesualdo, prince of Venosa, who, in our age, has
improved music with new and admirable inventions.”2
After spending almost twenty years in captivity, and en¬
countering many difficulties on his return into his native
kingdom, he was murdered by barbarous assassins in the
prime of life. Many of the productions of his pen have
perished, for only three poems that have been ascribed
to him are now extant, viz. Christ’s Kirk on the Green;
Peebles at the Play ; and the King’s Quair. But slender
as these remains are, they afford sufficient evidence that
the genius of this royal poet was not inferior to that of
any of his contemporaries, and that it was equally fitted
for the gayest or the gravest strains. (See Poetical Re¬
mains of James I. Edinburgh, 1783 ; and Warton s His¬
tory of Poetry, vol. ii. p. 12.)
James V. king of Scotland, was but eighteen months
old when his father fell in the battle of Flodden Field in
1513. When of age he assisted Francis I. king of France
against the Emperor Charles V.; a service for which, in
1535, Francis gave him his eldest daughter in marriage.
This princess died in two years ; and James married Mary
of Lorraine, daughter of Claude duke of Guise, and widow
of Louis d'Orleans, by whom he had only one child, Mary
queen of Scots, born only eight dayrs before his death,
which happened on the 13th of December 1542, in the
thirty-fifth year of his age. This was the first prince of his
family who died a natural death since its elevation to the
throne. He is said to have been the author of a humo¬
rous composition called the Gaberlunzie Man.
James VI. king of Scotland in 1567, and of England in
1603, was son of Mary queen of Scots, whom he succeed¬
ed in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in England. He va¬
lued himself much upon his polemical writings, and was
so fond of theological disputations, that, to keep them
alive, he founded Chelsea College for the express purpose
of attaining this object; but it was converted to a much
better use by Charles II. His Basilican Boron, his Com¬
mentary on the Revelation, his writings against Bellar-
mine, and his Dcemonologia, or doctrine of witchcraft, aie
sufficiently known. A collection of his writings an
speeches was published in one folio volume. He died m
1625, in the fifty-ninth year of .his age and twenty-thir
of his reign. .
James, Thomas, a learned English critic and divine,
was born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, about the year
1571. Having completed his preliminary studies at West-
1 Scotichronicon, lib. xvi. c. 18.
2 Alessandro Tassoni Pensieri Diversi, lib- s-
JAM
oes minster School, he entered New College, Oxford, of which
he became a fellow in 1593 ; took his degree as master of
json. arts in 1599; and having collated several manuscripts of
the Philobiblion of Richard of Durham, which he pub¬
lished in 4to, dedicated to Sir Thomas Bodley, he recom¬
mended himself to the favour of that munificent patron of
learning, and through his influence was in 1602 appoint¬
ed keeper of the public library, an office which he held dur¬
ing eighteen years. In 1614 he was created doctor in divi¬
nity, promoted to the archdeaconry of Wells, and about
the same time presented to the rectory of Mongeham in
Kent, not to mention other spiritual preferments. In
1620 he resigned his situation as librarian, and applied
himself chiefly to the readings of old manuscripts, in
which he assures Archbishop Usher that he had restored
three hundred citations, or rescued them from corruptions.
Having been chosen a member of the convocation held
with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, he there moved
to have commissioners appointed to collate the manu¬
scripts of the fathers in all the libraries of England, with
the Roman Catholic editions ; but as this project did not
meet with the desired encouragement, he himself under¬
took the arduous task, and continued to prosecute it until
his death, which took place in August 1629. He left be¬
hind him a great number of learned works, the principal
of which are, 1. Philobiblion Ricardi Dunelmensis, 1599;
2. Cyprianus Redivivus, London, 1600 ; 3. Catalogus Li-
brorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, Oxford, 1605, in 4to ; 4.
Concordantise SS. Patrum, Oxford, 1607, in 4to ; 5. Apo¬
logy for John Wickliffe, Oxford, 1608, in 4to; 6. Speci¬
men Corruptelarum Pontificiorum in Cypriano, Ambrosio,
Gregorio Magno, &c. London, 1626 ; 7. Index librorum
prohibitorum a pontificibus, Oxford, 1627, in 8vo; and, 8,
some pieces in manuscript. (a.)
James, Dr Robert, an English physician, particularly
distinguished by the preparation of a fever powder, was
born at Kinverston, in Staffordshire, in 1703; his father was
a major in the army, his mother a sister of Sir Robert
Clarke. He was of St John’s College in Oxford, where
he took the degree of bachelor of arts; and afterwards
practised physic at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birmingham
successively. He then removed to London, and became
a licentiate in the college of physicians ; but in what year
is not knowm. At London he applied himself to writing,
as well as practising physic; and in 1743 published a
Medical Dictionary, in three vols. folio. Soon afterwards
he published an English translation, with a supplement
by himself, of Ramazzini de morbis artijicum ; to which
he also prefixed a piece of Frederic Hoffman upon En-
demical Distempers, 8vo. He also published, in 1746,
The Practice of Physic, 2 vols. 8vo ; in 1760, On Canine
Madness, 8vo ; in 1764, A Dispensatory, 8vo. In June
1755, when the king was at Cambridge, James was ad¬
mitted by mandamus to the doctorship of physic. In
1788 were published, A Dissertation upon Fevers, and
A Vindication of the Fever Powder, 8vo ; with A Short
Treatise on the Disorders of Children. This was the
eighth edition of the Dissertation, the first of which had
been printed in 1751; and the purpose of it was to set
forth the success of this powder, as well as to describe
more particularly the manner of administering it. The
Vindication was posthumous and unfinished; for he died
in March 1776, whilst he was employed upon it.
James, St, a town of the arrondissement of Avranches,
in the department of the Channel, or, as it is sometimes
called, of La Manche, in France. It is situated on the
river Beuvron, and has a castle, 406 houses, and 2696
inhabitants. *
JAMESON, George, an eminent artist, the Vandj'ck
of Scotland, was the son of Andrew Jameson, an archi¬
tect, and born at Aberdeen in 1586. He studied under
JAM 507
Rubens at Antwerp; and, after his return, applied with Jampol
indefatigable industry to portraits in oil, though he some- II
times practised in miniature, and also in history and land- Jamyn.
scape. His largest portraits were generally somewhat
less than life. His earliest works are chiefly on boards,
but he afterwards painted on a fine linen cloth, smoothly
primed with a proper tone, to help the harmony of his
shadows. His excellence is said to consist in delicacy
and softness, with a clear and beautiful colouring; his
shades are not charged, but helped by varnish, with little
appearance of the pencil. When King Charles I. visited
Scotland in 1633, the magistrates of Edinburgh, knowing
his majesty’s taste, employed Jameson to make drawings
of the Scottish monarchs, with which the king was so
pleased, that he sat to him for a full-length picture, and
rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger.
Jameson always drew himself with his hat on, either in
imitation of his master Rubens, or from having been in¬
dulged in that liberty by the king when his majesty sat
to him. Some of Jameson’s works are in the colleges of
Aberdeen; and the Sibyls there he is said to have drawn
from living beauties in that city. But the greatest col¬
lection is that at Taymouth, the seat of the Marquis of
Breadalbane; Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, ancestor
of the noble marquis, having been the chief patron of
Jameson, who, in fact, attended him in his travels. This
artist died at Edinburgh, and was interred in the Greyfriars
church-yard, but without a monument. Jameson was
but little known in England, and has not been noticed by
any English writer on the fine arts, except Lord Orford.
But he was much esteemed in his own country; and Ar¬
thur Johnston, the poet, addressed to him an elegant
Latin epigram'on his portrait of the Marchioness of
Huntley.
JAMPOL, a town of the province of Podolia, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of the same name, and situated
on the river Dnieper. It is the frontier town towards the
Turkish dominions, and has a quarantine and custom¬
house. Long. 28. 24. E. Lat. 48. 15. N.
JAMTLAND, a province in the north of Sweden, ex¬
tending over 17,732 square miles, and bounded on the west
by Norway, and on the other sides by Swedish provinces.
It is mountainous, as there are five chains of alpine ele¬
vations that cross it from west to east, several of whose
points are 7000 feet in height. Through some of these
ranges routes have been opened, which are still passed
with difficulty, from their steepness and ruggedness. Be¬
tween the ranges are some valleys, which would be fruit¬
ful but for the severity of the climate, which is an impe¬
diment to the growth of any corn besides oats, with which
the inhabitants often mix the bark of the pine-trees to
make their bread. The chief nourishment of the inhabi¬
tants is supplied by the dairy and the fisheries, but chiefly
by the latter. The province yields abundance of timber,
and some supplies of copper, lead, iron, and alum. It has
but two towns, both small; Ostersund is the capital, with
only 200 inhabitants. The whole population is about
32,000 persons. It is between latitude 61. 39. and 65. 6.
north.
JAMYN, Amadis, a French poet of the sixteenth cen¬
tury, was born at Chaource, in Champagne, about the year
1540. His parents, who were respectable, neglected no
means calculated to promote his education. He received
instructions from Dorat, Turnebus, and other learned
men, who early inspired him with a taste for letters ; and
he also studied philosophy and the mathematics with some
success ; but an invincible predilection led him to poetry,
in the cultivation of which he appears to have received
marked encouragement from Ronsard, who was then re¬
garded as the greatest man in France. From a passage in
one of his elegies, it has been conjectured that in his youth
508 JAN
Janiculum he travelled through part of Greece and of Asia Minor; it
, ii . is more certain that he visited Dauphine, Provence, and
omzanes. p0jt0U} since he cites the names of the cities where he had
sojourned, and complains of the reception which he had met
with at Poitiers. Ronsard procured him the situation of
secretary and reader to the king, Charles IX.; but after
the death of his benefactor, he quitted the court, and re¬
tired to his native city, where he died about the year
1585, at comparatively an early age. The (Euvres Poe-
tiques of Jamyn were published at Paris in 1575, and
again in 1577, in 4to. This collection is divided into
five books, the first of which contains the pieces address¬
ed to Charles IX. and the great lords of the court, and
the four following, sonnets, eclogues, elegies, and other
amatory pieces. Jamyn completed, in Alexandrine verses,
the translation of the Iliad of Homer, which Hugues de
Salel had commenced in decasyllabic measure, and which
stopped at the twelfth book; and he had also the merit
of perceiving that Homer could only be translated into
stately and majestic verses. After having given a first
edition of the thirteen last books of the Iliad (Paris, 1574,
in 4to), he revised and corrected the work of Salel, which
he published along with his own (Paris, 1580 and 1584) ;
and this addition is augmented by a translation of the first
three books of the Odyssey. In these translations by
Jamyn, there are beautiful verses, and passages rendered
in a manner truly poetical; but he has thrown ridicule
on his own performance by assigning modern titles to the
heroes of the Iliad, and thus giving it the air and appear¬
ance of a travesty. (a.)
JANEIRO. See Rio Janeiro.
JANICULUM, a hill on the opposite side of the river
Tiber from Rome, said to have derived its name from the
city built on its summit by Janus. (Virgil, JEn. viii. 354.)
At the foot Numa was buried, and many centuries after¬
wards his tomb is said to have been found here. (Liv. xl.
29.) This part of Rome was at first peopled by the inha¬
bitants of certain Latin cities transferred thither by An-
cus Martius. (i. 33.)
JANIZARIES, or Janissaries, an irregular infantry,
which, until the year 1826, formed the principal strength
of the Turkish army. Vossius derives the word from geni-
zers, which in the Turkish language signifies novi homines
or milites. But D’Herbelot tells us jenitcheri signifies
a new band or troop, and that the name was first given by
Amurath I. called the Conqueror, who, having selected one
fifth of the Christian prisoners whom he had taken from
the Greeks, and instructed them in the discipline of war
and the doctrines of Islamism, sent them to Hagi Bek-
tasche, a person whose pretended piety rendered him ex¬
tremely revered amongst the Turks, that he might con¬
fer his blessing on them, and at the same time give them
some mark to distinguish them from the rest of the troops.
Bektasche, after blessing them in his manner, cut off one
of the sleeves of the fur gown which he had on, and put
it on the head of the leader of this new militia; and from
that time, namely, the year 1361, they retained the name
of jenitcheri, and the fur cap.
At the time when the janissaries were thus instituted,
there was not a single power in Europe which maintained
a regular body of troops in its pay. The Christian armies
were raised at the will of the nobility, who brooked no
superior, and seized the first pretext to leave the armies
of their sovereign, and return with their vassals to their
strongholds. The advantage of union against a common
enemy was not felt or appreciated; and victory declared
in favour of those troops who to courage and enthusiasm
united some degree of discipline, and a blind obedience
to the will of their leaders. Such were the janissaries
originally. They swept all before them ; and, whilst the
suture of Christians furnished slaves to supply the va-
J A N
cancies in their ranks, fortune smiled on their prowess J
and daring. But when this body ceased to form a class se- T"
parate from the nation; when they were allowed to marry Jat]senibts
and enrol their children, and the odas (companies or re-
giments) were encumbered with men who preferred an
inglorious life in the retirement of their families to the
fatigues and dangers of the field; then the janissaries
ceased to be formidable to their enemies, and, like the
praetorian guards of Rome, were only dreaded by the sul¬
tans. Yet on this class did the Porte, until recently, de¬
pend for defence against its enemies; and although their
inefficiency became daily more apparent, no reform could
be effected in the system. In vain did Selim attempt to
remodel them; his life paid the forfeit of his temerity.
In vain did Mahmoud, upon his accession to the throne,
wish to enforce the regulations of Suleiman the Magnifi¬
cent. The consequence was an insurrection, which, dur¬
ing three days, inundated his capital with blood, and
obliged him, in self-defence, to command the execution of
his own brother. But the stern disposition of Mahmoud
was in no degree daunted by this failure. He now saw
that nothing less than the entire destruction of the janis¬
saries would enable him to improve the condition of his em¬
pire ; and he waited patiently until he could strike a blow
with the certainty of success. In 1826, the janissaries
again mutinied; but this time they found the sultan pre¬
pared, and they gave but the signal for their own destruc¬
tion. The artillery-men and other troops faithful to the
sultan surrounded them in the Etmeidan. They attempt¬
ed to defend themselves, but without success, and about
twenty thousand perished in the hopeless conflict. The
suppression of this body, which immediately followed,
left Mahmoud at liberty to remodel his army in such a
manner as appeared best suited to the times ; and, accord-
he lost no time in taking measures to supply the
void occasioned by the destruction of the only military
force in the empire. See Turkey.
JANSEN, Cornelius, bishop of Ypres, one of the most
learned divines of the seventeenth century, and principal
of the sect called from his name Jansenists. He was born
in Holland, of Catholic parents, and studied at Louvain.
Being sent into Spain to transact some business of conse¬
quence relating to the university, the Catholic king, view¬
ing with a jealous eye the intriguing policy of France, en¬
gaged him to write a book to expose the French as doubtful
Catholics, since they made no scruple of forming alliances
with Protestant states. Jansen performed this task in his
Mars Gallicus, and was rewarded with a mitre, being pro¬
moted to the see of Ypres in 1635. Before this he had
maintained a controversy against the Protestants, upon the
points of grace and predestination; but his Augustinus
was the principal labour of his life, upon w hich, it is said,
he spent above twenty years.
JANSENISTS, a sect of Roman Catholics in France,
who followed the opinions of Jansen or Jansenius in rela¬
tion to grace and predestination.
In the year 1640, the universities of Louvain and Douay,
and particularly Father Molina and Father Leonard Cel-
sus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Jesuits on
grace and free will. This having set the controversy on
foot, Jansenius opposed to the doctrines of the Jesuits the
sentiments of St Augustin, and wrote a treatise on grace,
which he entitled Augustinus. This treatise was attack¬
ed by the Jesuits, who accused Jansenius of maintaining
dangerous and heretical opinions, and afterwards, in 1642,
obtained of Pope Urban VIII. a formal condemnation of
the treatise ; but the partisans of Jansenius gave out that
this bull was spurious, or, in other words, composed by
a person entirely devoted to the Jesuits. After the deatti
of Urban VIII. the affair of Jansenism began to be more
warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infinite num-
JAN
j sen ber of polemical writings concerning grace. And what
j| occasioned no little mirth was the titles which each
Ja lens. party gave to their writings ; one writer published The
^ Torch of St Augustin, another found Snuffers for St Au¬
gustin’s Torch, and Father Vernon formed A Gag for the
Jansenists. In the year 1650, sixty-eight bishops of
France subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X. to obtain
an inquiry into, and condemnation of, the following pro¬
positions, extracted from Jansenius’s Augustinus: 1. Some
of God’s commandments are impossible to be observed by
the righteous, even though they endeavour with all their
power to accomplish them. 2. In the state of corrupted
nature, we are incapable of resisting inward grace. 3.
Merit and demerit, in a state of corrupted nature, do not
depend on a liberty which excludes necessity, but on a
liberty which excludes constraint. 4. The Semi-Pelagians
admitted the necessity of an inward preventing grace for
the performance of each particular act, even for the be¬
ginning of faith ; but they were heretics in maintaining
that this grace was of such a nature that the will of man
was able either to resist or obey it. 5. It is Semi-Pela-
gianism to say that Jesus Christ died or shed his blood
for all mankind in general.
In the year 1652, the Pope appointed a congregation
for examining into the dispute in relation to grace. In
this congregation Jansenius was condemned ; and the bull
of condemnation, published in May 1653, filled all the
pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and alarms against
the heresy of the Jansenists. In the year 1656, Pope
Alexander VII. issued another bull, in which he con¬
demned the five propositions of Jansenius. However, the
Jansenists affirm that these propositions are not to be
found in his book ; but that some of his enemies, having
caused them to be printed on a sheet, inserted them in
the book, and thereby deceived the pope. At last Cle¬
ment XI. put an end to the dispute by his constitution
of the 17th July 1705, in which, after having recited
the constitutions of his predecessors in relation to this
affair, he declares, “ That in order to pay a proper obe¬
dience to the papal constitutions concerning the pre¬
sent question, it is necessary to receive them with a re¬
spectful silence.” The clergy of Paris, in the same year,
approved and accepted of this bull, and none dared to op¬
pose it. This is the famous bull Unigenitus, so denomi¬
nated from its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei
Filius.
JANSSEN, Cornelius, called Johnson, an eminent
painter of portraits, was born at Amsterdam, though, in the
Chronological Tables, and in Sandrart, it is asserted that
he was born in London ; but he resided for several years
in England, where he was engaged in the service of King
t James I. and painted several excellent portraits of that
monarch, as also of his children, and of the principal no¬
bility of his court. He had not the freedom of hand, nor
the grace, of Vandyck ; but in other respects he was ac¬
counted his equal, and in the finishing of his pictures su¬
perior. His paintings are easily distinguished by their
smooth, clear, and delicate tints, and by that character of
truth and nature with which they are strongly marked.
He generally painted on boards j and his draperies are for
the most part black, probably because the opposition of
that tint made his flesh colours appear more beautifully
bright, especially in his female figures. He frequently
painted in a small size in oil, and often copied his own
works in that manner. His fame began to be somewhat
obscured on the arrival of Vandyck in England ; and the
civil war breaking out some time afterwards, induced him
to return to his own country, where his paintings were
held in the highest esteem. He died in 1685.
Janssens, Abraham, an historical painter, was born at
Antwerp in 1569. He was contemporary with Rubens,
JAN 509
and also his competitor, and in many of the finest parts Janssens
of the art was accounted not inferior to that celebrated H
master. It is reported, that having wasted his substance January-
by a life of dissipation and pleasure, and falling in conse-
quence into necessitous circumstances, which, however,
he imputed to ill fortune rather than to his own neglect
of his business, he grew envious of the grandeur in which
Rubens appeared, and, impatient of his merit and suc¬
cess, challenged him to paint a picture with him for fame
alone. But Rubens rejected the proposal, answering with
modesty, that he freely submitted to him, and the world
would certainly do justice to them both. Sandrart, who
had seen several of his works, assures us, that he not only
gave a fine roundness and relief to his figures, but also
such a warmth and clearness to the carnations, that they
had all the appearance of real flesh ; and his colouring
was as durable as it was beautiful, retaining its original
lustre for a number of years. His capital performance
is said to have been the resurrection of Lazarus, which
was in the cabinet of the elector-palatine, and an object
of admiration to all who beheld it.
Janssens, Victor Honorius, an historical painter, was
born at Brussels in 1664. He was a disciple of Volders,
under whose direction he continued for seven years, dur¬
ing which time he gave many proofs of a superior genius.
He afterwards went to Rome, where he studied particu¬
larly the works of Raffaelle. He designed after the an¬
tiques, and sketched the beautiful scenes around that city.
In a short time his paintings rose in esteem, and the
principal nobility of Rome were desirous to employ him.
He associated for several years with Tempesta, the cele¬
brated landscape painter, and painted the figures in the
works of that great master as long as they resided to¬
gether. Janssens composed historical subjects, both in a
small and a large size ; but he found the demand for his
small pictures so considerable, that he was induced to paint
most frequently in that size. He continued at Rome dur¬
ing eleven years, which barely sufficed for his finishing
those pictures which he was engaged to paint; nor would
he have even then been at liberty, had he not limited
himself to a number, and determined not to undertake
more. On his return to Brussels, his performances were
as much admired there as they had before been in Italy ;
but having married, and become the father of eleven *
children, he was compelled to change his manner of paint¬
ing in small, and to undertake only those of the large
kind, as being more lucrative, more expeditious, and also
more agreeable to his genius and inclination. He adorn¬
ed with his compositions most of the churches and palaces
of his own country.
JANUARIUS, St, the patron saint of Naples, where
his head is occasionally carried in procession, in order to
stay the eruption of Vesuvius. The liquefaction of his
blood is a famous miracle, or rather juggle, at Naples.
The saint suffered martyrdom about the end of the third
century. When he was beheaded, a pious lady of Na¬
ples caught about an ounce of his blood, which has ever
since been carefully preserved in a bottle, without having
lost a single grain of its weight. This of itself were it
equally demonstrable, might be considered as a greater
miracle than the circumstance on which the Neapolitans
lay the whole stress, namely, that the blood, which has
congealed, and acquired a solid form by age, is no sooner
brought near the head of the saint, than, as a mark of
veneration, it immediately liquefies.
JANUARY, the name of the first month of the year,
according to the computation now used in the West. The
word is derived from the Latin Januarius, a name given
to it by the Romans from Janus, one of their divinities, to
whom they attributed twm faces, because on the one side
the first day of January looked towards the new year,
510 JAP
Janus and on the other towards the old one. The word Janu-
II arius may also be derived from janua, a gate ; because this
Japan. month being the first, is, as it were, the gate of the year.
January and February were introduced into the year by
Numa Pompilius, the year of Romulus having commen¬
ced in the month of March. The kalends of this month
were under the protection of Juno, and in a peculiar man¬
ner consecrated to Janus by an offering of a cake made of
new meal and new salt, with new frankincense and new
wine. On the first day of January a beginning was made
of every intended work ; the consuls elect tookjpossession
of their office, and, with the flamens, offered sacrifices
and prayers for the prosperity of the empire. On this
day all animosities were suspended, and friends gave and
received new year’s gifts, called Strerus.
JANUS, in the heathen worship, the first king of Italy,
who, it is said, received Saturn into his dominions, after
he was driven from Arcadia by Jupiter. He tempered
the manners of his subjects, and taught them civility ;
and from him they learned to improve the vine, to sow
corn, and to make bread. After his death he was adored
as a god. This deity was thought to preside over new
JAP
undertakings. Hence, in all sacrifices, the first libations Templet
of wine and wheat were offered to Janus; all prayers Janus°
were prefaced with a short address to him ; and the first H
month of the year was dedicated to and named from him., JaPai1-
Janus was represented with two faces, either to denote
his prudence, or that he views at once the past and ap¬
proaching years. He had a sceptre in his right hand, and
a key in his left, to signify his extensive authority, and his
invention of locks. Though this is properly a Roman deitv,
the Abbe la Pluche represents it as derived from the Egyp¬
tians, who made known the rising of the dog-star, which
opened their solar year, with an image having a key in its
hand, and twro faces, the one old and the other young, to
typify the old and new year.
Temple of Janus, in ancient history, a square building
at Rome, erected by Romulus, and so large as to contain
a statue of Janus five feet high, with brazen gates on each
side, which were always kept open in time of war, and shut
in time of peace. But the Romans were so much engaged
in war, that this temple w as shut only twice from the foun¬
dation of Rome till the reign of Augustus, and six times
afterwards.
JAPAN.
The extensive and powerful empire of Japan consists their surface, intersected by ranges of lofty mountains, jhecoun.
of several large islands on the eastern coast of Asia, which are frequently steep and broken into precipices, try, cli-
which extend in a direction north-east and east-north- Some of the mountains rise to a great elevation, as the mate,and
east, from the 30th to the 41st degrees of north lati- mountain of Fusi, in the southern part of Niphon, which
tude, and from the 129th to the 143d of east longitude, is considered to be the most elevated, and is covered with
The largest of these islands is called Niphon, which name perpetual snow. In the northern part of the same island
is also sometimes applied to the whole empire. It is are also extensive and lofty mountains. The narrow val-
about 700 miles in length, though not more than eighty leys between these mountains are generally fertile and
in breadth, and runs lengthwise from east to west in a well cultivated ; but the greater part of the country is
winding form. It is separated by a narrow channel full rocky and barren, and it is only by the indefatigable
of rocks and islands, several of them uninhabited, from care and industry of the natives that it has been render-
Sikokf, next to it in size, and which is ninety miles long ed productive, and that it yields an abundant supply of
and fifty broad. The third island, Kiusiu, of a square food. The great staple of agriculture is rice, of which
figure, and divided into four provinces, lies between the there are several varieties : the best sort is perfectly white
other two, and is 200 miles long by 140 broad. These like snow', very nutritive, and when boiled is used at meals
islands are surrounded with numerous others, generally instead of bread. A certain sort of bean, of which they
small, rocky, and barren; some of them, however, large, make a mealy pap, and use in the dressing of victuals as
rich, and fruitful, and governed by petty princes. There butter is used in Europe, is held in much esteem. Bar-
are several other islands which are subject to the autho- ley, which they call great corn, is cultivated, though not
rity of Japan, though they form no integral part of the in great quantities : they use it in the feeding of cattle
empire. Among these is the large island of Jesso, which and horses, whilst others dress their victuals with the
has been colonized by the Japanese, and is the most flour, or make cakes of it. One sort of barley, which
northerly island they have beyond their own empire. The grows in Japan with purple-coloured ears, gives a very
coasts are rocky and mountainous, and they are wrashed pleasing aspect to the fields. Wheat, which is called small
by a tempestuous sea, which, by reason of its shallow- corn, is extremely cheap, and is baked into a particular
ness, admits none but small vessels, and even these not sort of cakes, though it is but little used. Peas, beans,
without imminent danger, the depth of most of its gulfs and Indian corn, are cultivated; and almost all the varieties
and harbours being not yet known, and others that have of nutritious grains and pulse. Turnips grow' plentifully
been sounded being too shallow for ships of any bulk, in the country, and to a large size. Horse-radish, carrots,
Several dangerous whirlpools also occur amongst the rocks gourds, melons, cucumbers, parsnips, fennel, and some
and shallows, by which vessels are frequently drawn in sorts of lettuce, grow wild ; and parsley and other vege-
and dashed to pieces. It is remarked by Kaempfer, in his tables, which are cultivated by the Dutch, thrive well,
ample and accurate account of Japan, that nature seems There are numerous other plants, which grow in the fields,
purposely to have designed these islands to be a sort of the woods, and forests, and in marshy grounds, of which
little world, separate and independent of the rest, by the leaves, roots, or the flow'ers and fruits, afford suste-
making them difficult of access, and by endowing them nance for the common people, and even luxuries for the
plentifully with all that is necessary both for luxury and great.
comfort, and thus enabling them to subsist without any The Japanese excel in agriculture. Being cut off from
commerce wdth other nations. The Japanese policy, of all intercourse with other nations, they rely on their own
rigidly forbidding all intercourse with strangers, which, resources ; and this, with the extreme populousness of the
in other circumstances, might have been difficult, if not country, gives a stimulus to cultivation, as well as to every
impracticable, has been greatly facilitated by these natu- other branch of industry. Not only are the fields and flat
ral advantages of the country. country laid out in the cultivation of rice, being seldom
These islands are in general rugged and irregular in convertedintopasture, but likewise the hills and mountains
J A P A N.'
i j an. afford corn, rice, peas, pulse, and numerous other edible
^ plants. Every inch of ground is improved to the utmost;
and it is mentioned by Ksempfer, that he beheld, in his
journeys to and from court, hills and mountains, many of
them inaccessible to cattle, which would lie wholly ne¬
glected in other countries, cultivated to their tops. The
law on this subject is strict and severe, enforcing on all
the cultivation of the ground as a sacred duty, and punish¬
ing the neglect of it by the forfeiture of the land. The
flat grounds are ploughed with oxen, the steep and high
ones by men ; and, where they have the command of water,
the rice-grounds are intersected by canals. The rent of
the landlord is reckoned at six tenths of the gross pro¬
duce ; and, with the view of accurately estimating the
amount, surveyors are appointed, who, before the harvest,
compute the probable returns with surprising accuracy,
with a view to a just division of the produce.
From the laborious culture to which they are subject¬
ed, the Japanese islands abound in a great variety of use¬
ful and beautiful trees and plants. Amongst the most
curious and finest trees is the varnish tree. It affords a
milky juice, with which the inhabitants varnish, or, as we
call it, japan, all their dishes and plates of wood, from the
emperor to the meanest peasant; for, even at court, servi¬
ces of lackered ware are preferred to those of gold and
silver. The mulberry tree grows in most parts of Japan,
especially in the northern provinces, where many cities
and villages depend almost wholly on the silk manufac¬
tures, though the silk which they weave is not the finest,
nor equal to the Chinese silk. The tea shrub is one of
the most useful plants growing in Japan ; it is planted
round the borders of rice and corn fields, and in barren
places unfit for the culture of other things. All ranks
drink of an infusion from this shrub ; and it is the custom
of the country to present it when friends come to visit,
both when they come and when they depart. The com¬
mon people use the coarser leaves, the young and tender
leaves being used by the higher classes. The laurel tree
is common in Japan. That which bears red berries re¬
sembles the cinnamon tree in shape, and in the figure and
substance of its leaves; but the bark wants the peculiar
sweetness of the true cinnamon tree, an imperfection
which Kaempfer ascribes to the quality of the soil. The
camphor tree is found in Japan; and the sansio, the leaves of
which are eaten on account of their pleasant aromatic taste.
Firs and cypress trees are common in the woods. They
are planted in barren and sandy places which will produce
nothing else, or along the roads, which makes travelling
very pleasant. The wood is used in the construction of
houses, ships, and household articles, and the branches for
fuel. There are other hard woods, such as the oak, which
is different from the European oak, and of which there
are two varieties ; and the iron tree, of which houses are
generally built; and others that have a fine grain, and are
used for cabinets, chests of drawers, &c. The baraban is
common, and is of great use here, as also in India. Fruits
in great variety and abundance are found in Japan ; figs of
different sorts, oranges, lemons, citrons, grapes, chestnuts,
walnuts, nuts of different kinds, peaches, apricots, plums,
brambleberries, strawberries, raspberries, &c. Cherry
trees, apricot trees, and plum trees, are valued for the
sake of their flowers, which, under proper culture, be¬
come large and luxuriant, and when they are in full blos¬
som form a fine ornament around their temples, in their
gardens, and in their walks, the trees being thickly co¬
vered with flowers, as with snow.
Japan is distinguished above all other countries for the
great variety of beautiful plants and flowers which adorn
511
its fields, hills, woods, and forests, and which, when they Japan,
are transplanted into gardens, and improved by assiduity
and culture, attain to a surprising degree of perfection.
They mostly resemble either the rose or the lily. There
is a large shrub, called tsubacki, which grows in woods and
hedges, of which there are many beautiful varieties, and
for which there are about 900 names in the Japanese lan¬
guage. Of the shrub called satsuki, with lily flowers, which
is to be met with in the gardens, there are a hundred varie¬
ties. Sakanandsio, another shrub with lily flowers, of which
there are only three varieties, is much larger than the for¬
mer. There are numberless other flowers, some forming
the chief ornament of houses and gardens, others of desert
and uncultivated places. But of all these flowers, it is ob¬
served by Kaempfer,1 that as they exceed those in other
countries in the show and exquisite beauty of their colours,
they are greatly inferior to them in scent and fragrance.
The same is also true of the fruits in Japan, which are far
from equalling the pleasant aromatic taste of those which
grow in China and other eastern countries.
The country is plentifully supplied with fresh water
from the many fountains, lakes, and rivers which are
scattered throughout the empire. There is no space in
the country for the formation of great or navigable streams;
but some of the rivers are so large and rapid, from the
mountainous and rocky channels through which they make
their way, and from the profuse showers of rain which fre¬
quently fall in the upper regions, that they are not to be
passed without danger, arising from the impetuosity of
their currents.
The climate of Japan, though it is upon the whole salu¬
brious, is subject to frequent changes. The country lies
without the range of the monsoons and the periodical rains ;
and accordingly it rains frequently throughout the whole
year, but with the greatest profusion in the months of June
and July, which are for this reason called the water-months.
During the winter the ground is covered with snow, and
there are often sharp frosts, whilst in the summer it is
intolerably hot. At Nagasaki the thermometer ranges
from 98° to 35°. Thunder and lightning are very frequent.
Earthquakes are common, and happen so frequently that
the inhabitants are familiarized to those dreadful pheno¬
mena when they are not uncommonly violent. Some¬
times, however, the earth is shaken with so violent a com¬
motion, which lasts so long, that whole cities are thereby
destroyed, and many thousands of the inhabitants buried in
the ruins. A great earthquake happened in the year 1586,
when the earth yawned, and swallowed up one half of Na-
gafama, a small town containing 1000 houses ; and the sea,
violently breaking over its usual boundary, overflowed the
rich and populous town called also Nagafama, and drowned
all the inhabitants, besides destroying other smaller towns.
Another occurred in 1703, by which, and by a great fire
which happened at the same time, the whole city of Jedo
was destroyed and laid in ashes, and about 200,000 inhabi¬
tants perished in the ruins. Some parts of these islands are
entirely free from these concussions. Volcanoes are found
in different parts of Japan, indicating the presence of those
combustible materials which are imprisoned in the bowels of
the earth, and which, suddenly bursting forth, and forcing an
outlet, occasion earthquakes. Not far from Firando, where
the Dutch had their factories before they removed to Na¬
gasaki, lies a small rocky island, which has been burning
and trembling for many centuries. Many mountains emit
a perpetual flame. From the famous mountain of Fusi,
which, Kaempfer observes, is only surpassed in height by
the Peak of Teneriffe, but “ in shade and beauty hath not
its equal,” and which is covered with everlasting snow, a
1 Vol. i. chap. ix. p. 119.
512 JAPAN.
Japan, black stench and smoke is observed to issue, the remains
of its half-extinguished volcano, which formerly burned
with a brighter flame. In many places the soil is burn¬
ing hot, and is besides so loose and spongy, that it makes
a cracking and hollow noise under the foot. Hot and sul¬
phureous springs abound in the vicinity of these burning
mountains, and are prescribed as specifics in many com¬
plaints.
Jlinerals. Japan abounds in mineral wealth; in all the metals, be¬
sides various useful minerals. Gold is found in several pro¬
vinces of the empire, and is smelted from its own ore. It
is gathered from the sands of several of the rivers, and is
also found combined with copper. The richest mine, which
also yields the finest gold, is situated in one of the northern
provinces in the great island of Niphon; and here also
is a very rich gold sand, which the prince of the district
causes to be washed for his own benefit. Next to these
the gold mines of Surunga are esteemed the richest; and
here gold is found in all the copper that is dug up. There
are other mines, affording ore which is productive, and
would repay the labour of working; but some of them are
filled with water, and the uninstructed natives know of no
process for drawing it off. Silver is found in different parts,
particularly at Kattami, in one of the northern provinces ;
but it is not so abundant as gold. The metal which is most
important to the trade of Japan, and is also most abundant,
is copper. There are very rich copper mines in different
rovinces of the empire; in Surunga, Atsingo, and Kijno-
uni. The copper found in the mines of the latter place is
the finest, most malleable, and fittest for work, of any in the
world ; and in some cases, as already mentioned, it contains
a considerable quantity of gold, in the refining of which
the Japanese have greatly improved. All the copper is
brought to Saccai, one of the five imperial towns, where
it is refined and cast into small cylinders. These are
packed up in square boxes, and sold at a high price to
the Dutch, copper being one of the staple articles of ex¬
port from Japan. There is besides a coarser sort of cop¬
per, which can be bought at a lower price than the other,
being much inferior in quality and appearance. Brass is
very scarce in Japan, and brings a much higher price than
copper. A small quantity of tin is found, but so exceed¬
ingly white and fine that it is almost equal to silver.
This metal, however, is little used in the country. Iron
is found in very large quantities on the confines of three
provinces. It is refined on the spot, and is cast into cylin¬
ders two spans in length. It is fully as dear as copper;
and household articles, hooks, and cramp-irons in build¬
ings or in ships, which in other countries are made of iron,
are in Japan made of copper or brass. In dressing their
victuals they use a particular sort of kettles or pans, made
of a composition of iron. The art of making this compo¬
sition has been lost, so that the old articles of this sort
bring a high price.
Of mineral substances, sulphur is found in great abun¬
dance. It is dug up in a neighbouring island, which, from
the great plenty it affords of this substance, is called Sul¬
phur Island. This island was formerly considered as in¬
accessible, by reason of the thick smoke which was observ¬
ed continually to arise from it. But this fear having been
overcome, its produce now yields a revenue to the prince of
Satzuma, of about twenty chests of silver per annum. Coal
abounds in the northern and several other provinces. Salt is
made of sea-water; and it does not appear that they have
any mineral salt. Agates of several sorts, some of them
extremely fine, of a bluish colour not unlike sapphires, as
also cornelians and jaspers, are brought from the northern
extremities of the great province of Osju, opposite to the
country of Jedo. Naphtha is found in one of the rivers,
and is taken up where the water has little or no run, by
the natives, who burn it in lamps instead of oil. Some am¬
bergris is obtained upon the coasts of Satzuma, and of the Jan.
Riuku islands. It is found chiefly in the intestines of a '-^>1
whale which is caught frequently on the Japanese coasts,
or floating on the surface of the sea, being torn up from
the bottom by the violence of the waves. Pearls are found
throughout almost the whole circuit of the island, in oys¬
ters and several other kinds of shell-fish ; and every one
is at liberty to fish for them. The largest and finest pearls
are found in a small sort of oyster, called akoja, which is
not unlike the Persian pearl shell, about a hand broad, ex¬
ceedingly thin and brittle, and shining on the outside, but
within of a whitish colour, and glittering like mother-of-
pearl. All sorts of submarine plants, shrubs, corals, stones,
mushrooms, sea-fans, corallines, fuci, algae, and the like,
as also shells of all kinds, are found plentifully in the Ja¬
panese seas, and nowise inferior in beauty to those found
about Amboyna and the Spice Islands. These are, how¬
ever, very little valued by the inhabitants.
Japan does not abound in animals, either wild or tame.Animals.
This may be accounted for from the extent of cultivation,
which leaves little room, and no great cover, for the wild
animals ; and the tame animals, not being used as food by
the inhabitants, are not multiplied beyond the necessary
uses for which they are designed. The horse serves for
purposes of state, for riding, for carriage, and for ploughing.
The breed is small; but some of them are not inferior in
shape, swiftness, and dexterity to the Persian breed.
A certain breed of little horses is very much esteemed.
Oxen and cows are only used in ploughing and carriage.
The people care nothing for milk or butter, which are
not used as articles of food. They make use of a sort
of large buffaloes, of an extraordinary size, with hunches
on their backs like camels, for carriage and transport of
goods. Of asses, mules, camels, and elephants, they know
nothing. Sheep and goats were formerly kept at Firando
by the Dutch and Portuguese, and might be bred in the
country to great advantage if the natives were permit¬
ted to eat their flesh, or knew how to manage or manufac¬
ture their wool. They have few swine, and these few
are brought from China, and bred for the use of the
Chinese, who make an annual resort to these islands, and
amongst whom they are in great demand. It is mentioned
by Kaempfer, that whilst he was in Japan, dogs had mul¬
tiplied in an extraordinary degree, owing to the partiality
of the reigning emperor for that animal, in consequence
of his being born in the sign of the dog. Greyhounds and
spaniels are not known. The wild animals are deer, bears,
wild boars, hares, foxes (which the natives hold in abhor¬
rence, supposing them to be animated by demons), mon¬
keys, wild dogs, a small animal called itutz, of a reddish
colour, another called tin, both living in houses, and
lodging themselves under the roofs, and so tame that
they may be ranked amongst the domestic animals. The
whole country swarms with rats and mice; the former
animal is frequently tamed, and taught to perform several
tricks for the amusement of the inhabitants.
All the varieties of the feathered race are met with in
these islands. The falcon species are found in great num¬
bers in the northern provinces, and are kept more for state
than sport. Ravens, cranes, herons, wild geese, ducks,
pheasants, wood-cocks, wild pigeons, storks, snipes, spar¬
rows, swallows, larks, nightingales, &c. are common. The
crane is protected by the particular order of the emperor,
and can only be shot by his express commands, and for his
own especial use. There is a singular species of duck,
which is distinguished by the most surprising beauty of
plumage. The pheasants are also of uncommon beauty.
Neither the common European crow nor the parrot is to
be met with in Japan. Snakes are seen, some of them of
an enormous size ; and insects are numerous and trouble¬
some, especially the white ant, which is known for its de-
j n. structive qualities; also scorpions and other noxious rep-
^ ^ tiles.
The Japanese have invented, or borrowed from their
neighbours the Chinese, a great many fictitious animals,
which are either allegorical or connected with their my¬
thology. The kirin is a winged quadruped of incredible
swiftness, with two horns standing before the breast; its
good nature and holiness are such that it takes care, even
in walking, not to trample on any the least plant, nor to
injure the most inconsiderable worm or insect. Besides
this animal there are other chimerical creatures of the
quadruped kind, to which the Japanese ascribe various
imaginary qualities. Of these the dragon is the most
remarkable, and the chronicles and histories of their gods
and heroes abound in fabulous stories of this animal,
which is also employed in the armorial bearings of the
emperor. Foo is a beautiful large bird of paradise, some¬
what resembling the phoenix of the ancients. It dwells
in the higher regions of the air, and never descends, as
the Japanese believe, to honour the earth with its blessed
presence, except at the birth of an emperor, or at that
of some such distinguished personage.
Gov i- All our knowledge of the Japanese government and
raer aws,]aws is derived from Kaempfer and Thunberg, who ac-
amijp- companied the Dutch in their annual commercial visit to
tutlT these islands, the one in the year 1690, and the other in
1775. The account of Kaempfer is exceedingly full and
accurate, and its accuracy is attested by Dr Ainslie, one of
the British commissioners, who, in 1810, when the island
of Java was in possession of the British, had been sent
by Sir S. Raffles to accompany the Dutch ships on their
annual visit to Japan. They were, however, strangers,
ignorant of the language, and hence were but imperfectly
qualified to describe with accuracy the political institutions
of this state. Throughout all Asia pure despotism is the
prevailing form of government, and to this Japan forms no
exception ; but, according to the accounts of Kaempfer
and Thunberg, it is subjected to the double rule of a spi¬
ritual and a political sovereign, the respective limits of
whose jurisdiction and duties do not appear to be very
distinctly marked. Kubo is the name of the secular, and
Dairi of the ecclesiastical emperor. To the latter are paid
almost divine honours ; but the real power of the state
appears to be vested in his political competitor. The
power of the sovereign is supreme ; it is restrained by no
positive law, though, as in all despotic countries, it may
be tacitly modified by custom and immemorial usage. The
emperor, according to Kaempfer, inherits, along with the
crown, an absolute and unlimited power over all his sub¬
jects, from the meanest peasant to princes of the highest
rank. As in all the eastern countries, where the art of
government is in its infancy, the country is divided into
large tracts of land, which are again subdivided into sixty-
eight considerable provinces, and these again into 604
smaller districts or counties. The provinces are ruled by
governors or princes appointed by the emperor. These
governors are amenable, for the exercise of their dele¬
gated authority, to the supreme head of the empire, who
may dismiss or banish them, and even inflict on them capital
punishment. They are entitled to the revenues of their
provinces, with which they maintain their rank and state,
besides a military force for the maintenance of order, and
out of which they also keep the roads in repair, and carry on
all other necessary improvements. They are also bound
to repair once in the year to the court, with all due splen¬
dour, and a great retinue, and to bring with them consi¬
derable presents, and, according to the jealous maxims of
despotic countries, to leave their families constantly at
the court as hostages for their allegiance. The residence
ot these princes is mostly in the large and maritime towns,
or those situated on rivers; which are surrounded by
VOL. XII.
513
walls and ditches, the prince’s castle standing most fre- Japan,
quently at the extremity of the town, defended by strong
gates and high towers.
The ecclesiastical was at first the only ruler that go¬
verned the kingdom. But his generals, to whom he was
obliged to confide the command of his armies, gradually
usurped the real power, leaving to the high priest only the
empty splendour of the throne. Syn Mu, the founder of
the monarchy, flourished 660 years before the Christian
era. He improved both the government and the laws of the
country. The emperors of his race were usually denomi¬
nated Dairi; and a hundred and nineteen Dairis have as¬
cended the throne in succession from that period down to
the year 1775, when Thunberg resided in Japan. For
more than 250 years the authority of the Dairi, the old and
lawful potentate of the country, has been confined chiefly
to ecclesiastical matters, though he is still held in the same
veneration as ever. His person is considered as too sacred
to be exposed to the air and the rays of the sun, and still
less to the view of any human creature, and he is conse¬
quently confined within doors ; and when he goes out of his
palace, he is generally carried on men’s shoulders, that he
may not come in contact with the earth. His person is ac¬
counted so sacred, that his hair, nails, and beard, are never
suffered to be cleansed or cut by daylight, an opportunity
being taken to perform these operations when he is asleep.
He never eats twice from the same plate, nor uses any vessel
a second time. They are invariably broken to pieces, lest
they should fall into unhallowed hands. The right of be¬
stowing titles of honour is to this day vested in the person
of the ecclesiastical emperor, and is a source of revenue.
Even Kubo, the name of the political emperor, is honoured
by the titles which he receives from this sovereign pontift’
of Japan. Those who have spiritual titles are distinguish¬
ed, both at court and in the churches, by a particular dress,
conformable to their rank and dignity. So august and holy
is Dairi considered, that Kubo, though possessing the real
power, is bound, either in person or by his ambassador, to
pay him an annual visit, and to bring presents in acknow¬
ledgment of his title to rule in the state. At the court of
Dairi literature is cultivated. It is the only university in
the country where students are maintained and instructed.
Poetry, history, and mathematics are here cultivated ; and
music is a favourite study, especially with the fair sex. Here
it is that all almanacs are compiled. The secular emperor
derives his revenues from a tax on the produce of the land.
These have been estimated, though on no very certain data,
to amount to a sum equal to L.28,000,000. But this is
probably a gross exaggeration. The military force is esti¬
mated at about 100,000 foot and 20,000 horse, whilst the
different governors of provinces maintain each a large force
w ithin his respective territory. There seems little occasion
for so large an establishment of troops, as Japan, being se¬
parated from all other countries by a stormy sea, is in no
danger of attack from ambitious neighbours. The de¬
scendants of Genghis Khan, wTho conquered China, also in¬
vaded Japan w ith a great army; but they were completely
repulsed by the valour of the inhabitants. Since this pe¬
riod the Japanese have been engaged in war with the Co-
reans, but wdth little effect. The domestic peace of the
country has, however, been occasionally interrupted by the
rebellion of the provincial governors, or by a disputed suc¬
cession.
The laws, as among all the half-civilized states of Asia, Laws and
are implacable and severe. Death is the appointed pu-police,
nishment for almost every crime, sometimes by decapita¬
tion in prison, and, for higher offences, by impaling on the
cross. Fines they consider as unequal and unjust, be¬
cause they are less severe on the rich than on the poor;
and from this absurd notion they confound in one common
punishment all the different shades of crime. Where a
JAPAN.
JAPAN.
514
Japan, murder is committed in a town or in the open street, not
on]y the criminal, but his relations and dependents, and
even neighbours or spectators, according as they have
been more or less cognisant of the crime, or have not
interfered to prevent it, are rendered amenable to justice.
The master of a house is in like manner held responsible
for his domestics, and parents for their children ; and this
cruel and bloody spirit pervades the whole system of their
criminal justice. If one man draws his sword on another, it
is a capital offence ; and smuggling of all kinds is invaria-
' bly punished with death, buyers and sellers being involv¬
ed in the same penalty. Some offences are punished by
perpetual banishment and confiscation of goods. Every
criminal has a fair trial before the proper tribunal, and
by a careful examination of witnesses. The prisons are
gloomy and horrid abodes ; they contain an apartment for
trial by torture, another for private executions, a kitchen,
a dining-room, and a bath. The towns are subjected to
a very strict police, in which the same rigour prevails as
in the administration of justice; and the consequence is,
that, through the influence of terror, the most exact order
prevails, each petty delinquent still incurring the penalty
of death. Four officers are appointed in every town, of
which number one presides every year. A commissioner
is besides appointed for every street, who keeps an ac¬
count of deaths, births, and marriages, and makes his re¬
port to the head officer. He has the power of casting of¬
fenders into prison, and of even putting them in irons ; and
he employs spies, who bring them accurate intelligence of
all that takes place.
Religion. There are two leading religious sects in Japan, namely,
the Sintos and the Budsdos; though there are numerous
other sectaries who hold the most opposite tenets, and yet
live together in the greatest harmony. The religion of
the Sintos is the more ancient of the two, and seems to
be a system of polytheism, which, along with one Supreme
Being, acknowledges a crowd of inferior deities, and often
of deified heroes, who are supposed to exercise dominion
over the earth, the water, the air, and over particular dis¬
tricts, and to have the power of making men either happy
or miserable. They believe in a state of future rewards
and punishments. The souls of the virtuous, according to
their creed, dwell immediately under heaven ; whilst those
of the wicked are doomed to wander on the earth for a
certain period, in expiation of their sins. The chief points
of the Sinto religion are inward purity of heart, abstinence
from whatever makes a man impure, and a diligent observ¬
ance of solemn holidays, and of pilgrimages to holy places
at certain seasons of the year. They abstain from animal
food, and from the uncleanness of a dead body, and are
loath to shed blood. Their system of divinity, according
to Kaempfer, is such a tissue of monstrous and absurd fa¬
bles, that their priests are ashamed of it, even in the pre¬
sence of their own adherents. Their notions of the crea¬
tion of the world resemble the wild extravagances of the
Hindus. Kaempfer heard a sermon by one of their priests,
which he describes as a confused composition of ridiculous
stories and fables about their gods and spirits. The devils,
they imagine, reside in the bodies of foxes ; and this animal
is accordingly held in general abhorrence by them. They
have churches, in which they attend for worship on stated
holidays. In these temples they have no visible idols, nor
any image to represent the Supreme Being. But in the
centre is generally placed a large polished mirror of cast
metal, the purpose of which is to impress on those who
worship, that as the mirror reflects a faithful image of their
person, so the secret faults and impurities of the heart lie
open to the all-searching eyes of the immortal gods. They
never approach those temples unless they are perfectly
clean ; and accordingly they wash themselves with water,
and, putting on their best apparel, they bow respectfully
to the ground, preferring their prayers, and presenting japan
their offerings. Kubo, the emperor, belongs to this sect,
and is bound to pay a visit every year, either in person
or by his ambassador, to one of their temples, and to
make presents of great value, which is accounted the
essence of piety by the priests of Japan, as by all other
priests in every age and country. The doctrine of Buds-
do, identical with Buddha, whose votaries are spread
over the East, was brought from Continental India into
China, and thence introduced into Corea and Japan, and,
being mixed with the existing doctrines and practices ot'
Sinto, gave rise to the most monstrous superstitions. The
Japanese follow Buddha’s doctrine of the immortality of
the souls of men and of beasts, of a future state of re¬
wards and punishments, and of the transmigration of the
souls of men into animals. The churches of all the dif¬
ferent sects are adorned with alleys of cypress trees,
and handsome gates ; and most of them have a sepa¬
rate chamber for their idol, where he is exhibited sitting
on an altar surrounded with incense, flowers, and other
decorations. The churches are open every day, but
there are festival days throughout the empire, which are
more especially appropriated to religious worship by both
Sintos and Budsdos. These are the first and last days
of every month, the new moon, and the first day of the
year, which last is spent in eating and drinking, visiting
the temples, and making merry. There is, besides these
priests, a holy order of men called Jammabos, or Monks of
the Mountain, devoted to religious exercises and holy
contemplation ; and an order of blind monks, who are dis¬
persed all over the empire. Religious vows are frequent¬
ly made by devotees ; and in this, as in many other points,
the Japanese superstition resembles that of Hindustan and
other eastern countries. It is related of one of these per¬
sons by Thunberg, that having made a vow never to make
use of shoes, he actually accompanied the Dutch embassy
to the imperial court, walking on his bare feet, though it
was the depth of winter. Kaempfer also mentions, that
sometimes persons are met with in the streets running
about quite naked, according to vows which they have
made to visit in that state certain temples, provided they
obtain by the mercy of the gods deliverance from some
fatal distemper they themselves or their relatives have
been subject to, or from other great misfortunes with
which they are threatened. Multitudes of religious beg¬
gars, with their heads shaved, also crowd the streets ; and
to this tribe belong a singular religious order of young
girls, who, if they be handsome and agreeable, easily ob¬
tain the privilege of begging in the habit of nuns. They
watch particularly people of fashion, and accost them by
singing a rural song; and if they prove liberal, they will
accompany them for hours. Their voice, gestures, and
apparent behaviour, are neither too bold nor daring; but
free, comely, and seemingly modest. Kaempfer, however,
intimates his idea of their true character, under whatever
specious appearances it may be disguised. Nunneries have
been established in the country upwards of a thousand
years. Besides these idolatrous devotees, there is a sect
of philosophers, who deride the popular worship, and mere¬
ly inculcate the duty of leading a holy and virtuous life,
and the belief of one great first cause, the divine author
of all things.
The Dairi is the spiritual head of the Sinto religion;
and since the retrenchment of his power the secular em¬
peror has granted for the maintenance of his state and
dignity the whole revenue arising from the city ot Miaco
and the adjacent districts. He has likewise an allowance
from the imperial treasury, besides immense sums which
he derives from his privilege of conferring titles of ho¬
nour. But these allowances are not nearly so great as
when the Dairi possessed the secular as well as the eccle-
J A P A N. 515
j; n. siastical power, and they fall short of the necessary ex-
^ penses of his court. Hence many of his retainers are
compelled to work at menial employments to procure a
livelihood ; and Kaempfer describes his court as being only
remarkable for its splendid poverty.
j[ev jes. The public revenue is derived, as far as we can gather
from the necessarily imperfect accounts of those who have
visited Japan, from a land-tax, and a tax on houses. The
land is rated according to its produce, consisting for the
most part of rice. The arable land is divided into three
classes, according to its fertility; and the public tax
amounts to more than one half, or even to two thirds of
the produce. The land belongs to the crown, whose
rights or claims none dare dispute; and unless the farmer
cultivate it with care and attention, it is taken from him.
In the towns each proprietor of a house is assessed in
proportion to the breadth of his house towards the street,
besides presents which are exacted from him by the
civil officers, and taxes for the support of the temples
and idols. The land-tax is collected by the receiver-
Nat al general.
chai er The national character of the Japanese, as described by
and in- ggempfer, Thunberg, and others, has been corroborated
nei by Dr Ainslie, who, by order of Sir Stamford Raffles, ac¬
companied the Dutch in their annual visit to these islands
in 1812. He describes them as a nervous, vigorous peo¬
ple, assimilated by their bodily and mental powers much
nearer to Europeans than to Asiatics. The traits of a vi¬
gorous intellect are displayed in the greater progress they
have made in the sciences and in the arts, which are car¬
ried to a much higher degree of perfection among them
than among the Chinese, with whom they are frequently
confounded, but to whom they consider it as a great dis¬
grace to be compared; and the only occasion in which
Dr Ainslie saw a Japanese surprised into a passion, and,
relinquishing his habitual politeness, lay his hand on
his sword, was on an unguarded comparison being made
between the two nations. Thunberg represents the Ja¬
panese as frugal, ingenious, sober, just, and friendly; yet
distrustful, superstitious, proud, and implacable in their
resentments ; never forgiving an injury, but carefully con¬
cealing their hatred, and patiently waiting the favourable
moment for striking their victim to the heart. This deep-
rooted malignity is a common feature in the character
of all barbarous nations; and hence the feuds that we
hear of among them are handed down from generation to
generation. This spirit of revenge arises from pride, and
that lofty sense of honour by which the Japanese are dis¬
tinguished. Thunberg, in depicting the character of this
singular people, appears to ascribe to them qualities which
are scarcely consistent with their state of improvement.
He speaks of a love of liberty, not that liberty, he adds,
which degenerates into licentiousness, as being the pas¬
sion of the Japanese, who nevertheless enjoy no free¬
dom, but are subjected to cruel law's and to the caprice
of a tyrant, at whose mercy they hold both their lives and
properties. The love of freedom can scarcely exist in a
community so degraded; it can only flourish amongst a
refined people, guarded by equal laws against the violence
of power. Ceremonious manners, another feature of a com¬
paratively rude and ignorant people, are much cultivated
by the Japanese. In courtesy and submission to their su¬
periors, few can be compared to them. Inferiors are ac¬
customed to bow to the class above them, lowly and reve¬
rently; a consequence, probably, of severe laws, and of the
habitual bondage in which the lower classes are held by
their superiors. But the intercourse between equals in rank
is also encumbered with a variety of troublesome cere¬
monies ; a sure mark that true refinement has made little Japan,
progress, seeing that, as mankind gradually improve, they in-
sensibly relinquish these impediments to social intercourse,
as inconvenient and absurd. The Japanese are extreme¬
ly curious and inquisitive concerning the manners and ha¬
bits of strangers; they are continually asking the Dutch
for information, and w'earying them with questions. It is
related by Thunberg, that during the audience they had of
the emperor, they were surveyed from head to foot by privy
councillors and others, the higher officers of the state.
Their hats, swmrds, clothes, buttons, lace, watches, and
other articles of dress, were duly examined ; and they were
requested to write in the presence of the courtiers, that they
might see the European characters and mode of writing.
They are of friendly dispositions, of frugal and industrious
habits, and honest in their dealings. Highway robberies
are unknown, and thefts are seldom heard of, which per¬
haps may be partly ascribed to the severity and unrelent¬
ing vengeance of their laws. Dr Ainslie agrees with for¬
mer waiters in his representation of the Japanese as exhi¬
biting an apparent, coldness, like the stillness of the Spa¬
nish character, <! eager of novelty, and warm in their at¬
tachments, open to strangers, and, bating the restric¬
tions of their political institutions, a people who seemed
inclined to throw themselves into the hands of any nation
of superior intelligence. They have at the same time a
great contempt and disregard of everything below their
own standard of morals and habits, as instanced in the
case of the Chinese.” Nor, according to Dr Ainslie, is
that uniformity observable amongst them which prevails
amongst the Chinese, where the heavj'hand of the govern¬
ment may be said to have broken down all individuality,
and left one Chinese the counterpart of another. Unlike
the Chinese, also, and unlike all other eastern nations,
women are not immured at home ; they go abroad like the
ladies in Europe, and mix freely in society. Whilst Dr
Ainslie resided at Nagasaki with the Dutch, frequent in¬
vitations and entertainments were given ; and at one of
these entertainments a Japanese lady from the court of
Jedois represented to have done the honours of the table
with “ an elegance and address that would have graced a
Parisian.”1 In many important points they appear to have
been misrepresented by the Dutch, for their own interest¬
ed purposes. That their illiberality in religious matters,
and their hatred and intolerance of Christianity, have been
greatly exaggerated, is fully proved by the mission of Dr
Ainslie. The story told of the annual ceremony of tram¬
pling on the crucifix as a test of their abhorrence of the
Christian faith, was derided as a fable when it was men¬
tioned to the priesthood. The Japanese were formerly ad¬
venturous navigators; they served as mercenaries through¬
out all Polynesia, and traded with all nations. They un¬
dertook voyages in their own vessels to Corea, China, Java,
Formosa, and other places. They have since adopted an
entirely different policj', and have rigidly forbidden all inter¬
course with other nations; andbeingin thismanner confined
within the limits of their own territory, their voyages are
all along the coast, in trading vessels of different sizes, and
in fishing smacks. The art of navigation has accordingly
declined ; and though they are provided with a mariner’s
compass, they seldom venture to lose sight of land. The
natives are prohibited, on pain of death, from leaving their
country, or from encouraging the visits of foreigners. The
reasons of state which have induced the government to
act upon these illiberal maxims are not well understood.
Certain it is that the people do not participate in this
jealousy of foreigners ; they would willingly trade with
them, and on all occasions evince the most frank and so-
1 life of Sir Stamford Raffles, p. 182, 4toedit. chap. vii.
JAPAN.
516
Japan, cial dispositions. There is every reason to believe that
this aversion of the Japanese government to all intercourse
with strangers has been aggravated by the interested mis¬
representations of the Dutch, anxious to monopolize the
lucrative trade of Japan, and to banish all competition, by
instilling into the rulers of the country a jealousy and a
dread of all other Europeans. The ill treatment expe¬
rienced by the mission from Russia in 1814, under Count
Kreusenstern, is ascribed to the exclusive influence of the
Dutch factory, who continued to “ rain upon them,” says
Dr Ainslie, “ through the medium of an interested and
avaricious factor, who dreaded competition, every possi¬
ble ignominy which can be supposed to have flowed from
the despotism of Japan.” They were lodged in a ware¬
house, which was pointed out to Dr Ainslie, who ob¬
serves, that as “ the rats were let out, the count and his
suite were let in, where they remained for six long months,
with scarce room to turn, the mark of obloquy to the Ja¬
panese, and the laughing-stock to the European factory.”
So deep an impression did the degrading treatment of the
Russian embassy, and their meanness in submitting to it,
make on the Japanese, that the chief officer asked the
English commissioner if he would condescend to play the
part of the Russian count; and, answering his own ques¬
tion, said, “ No, I trust not.” The insolence of the semi-
barbarous nations of the East, such as the Japanese and
the Chinese, which naturally leads them to trample on
their European visitors, is best opposed by a spirited con¬
duct, which inspires respect. Mean submissions, far from
conciliating, only provoke fresh aggressions; as has been
often proved in the intercourse of the Europeans with
both Japan and China.
The Japanese are a proud, a brave, and a warlike people.
Their arms consist of bows and arrows, scimitars, and guns.
Their bows are very large, and their arrows long; and
in discharging them the troops always drop down on one
knee. Guns are not their usual weapons; and Thun-
berg mentions, that during all the time he was in Japan
he never saw one discharged. They have cannon, but
these are only fired every seven years ; and so inexpert
are the gunners, that they provide themselves with a long
pole, and stand with averted eyes when they are firing
off the gun. The scimitar, which is constantly worn by
every one but the peasants, is their trusty weapon; it is
a yard in length, of an incomparably good temper, and
far surpassing the Spanish blades, which are so much
renowned in Europe. With this weapon a Japanese will
cleave his adversary asunder at a blow. In sciences and
the useful arts the Japanese are far behind the Euro¬
peans. They study astronomy, but are unable, with¬
out the aid of the Chinese and Dutch almanacs, to com¬
pute a perfect calendar. They have made little or no
progress in natural philosophy and chemistry, and even
the scanty knowledge which they have acquired is bor¬
rowed from Europe. They appear to have studied bo¬
tany and zoology with more success; and they have ex¬
tensive works on these sciences, in which all the indige¬
nous plants and animals are described, and exhibited in
well-coloured plates. They have studied surveying, and
possess maps of their own country, and of its towns, which
are sufficiently accurate in topography, but without the
divisions of longitude or latitude. When Dr Ainslie was
at Nagasaki, a large detachment of officers of rank had
just arrived, with a numerous and splendid retinue, who
had been four years engaged in making a practical survey
of every part of the empire and its dependent isles. “ The
survey,” says Dr Ainslie, “ appeared to be conducted on
a scientific plan, to be most minute and accurate in its exe¬
cution, and to have for its object a regular geographical Jai
and statistical survey of the country.”1
Nor are their literary acquirements inconsiderable. They
study the history of their own country, and their annals
are said to be more authentic than those of most other
eastern nations. They have also translated several Eu¬
ropean works, and appear to be familiar with the account
which Kaempfer gives of Japan, as they observed to the
English commissioner, Dr Ainslie, that he was the very
apostle of their faith, from whose works they knew even
their own country. They have a college for interpreters,
who study foreign languages; and it is an extraordinary
fact, that, notwithstanding the determination of the em¬
pire not to enter into foreign commerce, an edict of the
emperor has been issued, enjoining on the college of in¬
terpreters the study of the English language ; and it has
accordingly been cultivated with success by the younger
members of the college, who are extremely anxious in
their inquiries after English books. Amongst other works
in the English, they showed to Golownin, Benyowsky’s
Conspiracy and Escape from Kamtschatka ; an Ac¬
count of the Expedition of the Russians and English to
Holland in 1799 ; and a Geographical Description of the
Russian Empire. The art of printing has long been known
amongst the Japanese. They have also some knowledge
of engraving; but in the art of drawing they are greatly
inferior to Europeans. Poetry is employed by them chiefly
to perpetuate the memory of their gods and heroes; and
though music is held in high estimation amongst them,
they have neither brought their musical instruments to
any degree of perfection, nor do they understand musical
science or harmony.
Although the Japanese in general are grave in their
demeanour and manners, yet they frequently indulge in
sports, festivities, and theatrical amusements. They have
stated religious festivals, sometimes in honour of a par¬
ticular god, which they celebrate not merely with devo¬
tional exercises, such as sermons and prayers, but with
games, processions, public dances, and dramatic represen¬
tations. These last are of the lowest description, consist¬
ing of exhibitions calculated rather to terrify than to en¬
tertain the audience. Artificial contortions of the body,
and uncouth and extravagant dresses, seem to make up
the whole amusement on these occasions. The story is
generally some heroic exploit, or some adventure of their
idols and heroes, composed in verse, and accompanied
with music; diversified with low juggling tricks, which
appear to be well adapted to the capacity of the audience.
There are no decorations or machinery, nor any thing in
these exhibitions which can put them on a level with the
theatrical amusements of Europe. Weddings and funerals
are celebrated with great pomp and many ceremonies,
though the ceremony by which the married pair are unit¬
ed is short and simple. The bridegroom and bride ad¬
vance together to an altar erected for the purpose, each
holding a torch; and whilst the priest recites a form of
prayer, the bride lights her torch from a burning lamp, and
holds it to the bridegroom, who lights his torch from hers;
upon which the guests congratulate the new married
couple. Their manners are far from being pure. Many
of the women live for a time with Europeans and others,
receiving the wages of prostitution; and afterwards, in
the full knowledge of their character, they are well mar¬
ried. The Japanese either bury their dead in the earth,
or burn the body to ashes. The latter method is not so
common as formerly, but is still practised by persons oi
distinction.
Public schools are established, in which children are in-
1 See IJJ'c of Sir Stamford Raf/les, p. 104.
JAPAN.
je n. structed in reading and writing, and are educated without
^ chastisement or blows.
In many arts and manufactures they have made great
progress, and some they have brought to such perfection
as even to surpass those of Europe. They excel in the
manufacture of copper, iron, and steel, of which the tem¬
per of their swords affords the best proof; and their silk
and cotton manufactures are greatly superior to those of
the other eastern countries. Their lackering of wood, es¬
pecially the ancient workmanship in this line, and which
derives its name from their country, surpasses every at¬
tempt at imitation by any other nation. Their lackered
ware consists of the finest sort of firs and cedars, which
they cover with the very best varnish, prepared from the
r/ms vernix, a tree that grows abundantly in many parts
of the country. This varnish, which oozes out from the
tree on its being wounded, is of so transparent a nature
that every vein of the wood may be distinctly seen through
it. In general a dark ground is spread under it, which
causes it to reflect like a looking-glass ; or it is mixed with
some darker substance, and sometimes with gold leaf
ground very fine, and is embellished with gold and silver
flowers, and figures laid on upon the varnish. All articles
made of wood, drawers, chests, boxes, scimitars, fans,
tea-cups, and soup-dishes, the posts of their doors and
windows, and most articles of household furniture, are
covered with this varnish. They are acquainted with the
art of making glass, coloured as well as uncoloured; they
also grind glass for telescopes, for which purpose they
purchase mirror-glass of the Dutch. Paper of all sorts
is manufactured abundantly in the country, both for writ¬
ing and printing, as well as for tapestry ; and all coarser
qualities for the packing of goods. It is prepared from the
bark of a species of mulberry tree, which, by an ingenious
process, is reduced to the consistence of a fine pulp, from
which the sheets of paper are obtained. Japanese porce¬
lain or china ware is manufactured out of a whitish fat
clay, which is found there in great plenty. This clay re¬
quires a great deal of kneading, washing, and cleaning,
before it acquires that degree of transparency which is
the perfection of china ware ; and the manufacture is alto¬
gether so laborious and troublesome, as to have given rise
to the saying, “ that human bones are an ingredient of
China ware.”
The temperature of the Japanese islands is in general
salubrious. The most common diseases are colic, occa¬
sioned by the immoderate use of rice beer, which occa¬
sions violent pains, and often leaves behind it swellings in
different parts of the body, and is especially productive of
the hydrocele; red and watery eyes, occasioned amongst
the poorer classes by the smoke in their confined apart¬
ments; and indurated glands, which frequently turn to
cancers, dysenteries, small pox, measles, rheumatism, gout,
pleurisy, water in the head, and certain eruptions on the
skin. The physicians have no great knowledge of medi¬
cine, and their remedies consist generally of decoctions,
diuretic or sudorific. Some profess only medicine, others
the cure of internal disorders ; and others, again, practise
surgery, though they have no knowledge of anatomy.
There is a class of persons for puncturing with needles, or
for burning with a powder made from the dried leaves of
a particular tree called moxa, which, being laid on the
body, is set on fire, and burns the skin, leaving a scar be¬
hind it. Those who perform the operation of puncturing
with needles may be heard in the evening patrolling the
streets, and making a tender of their services with great
noise and vociferation. The burning with moxa and punc¬
turing with needles are supposed to be efficacious both for
the prevention and cure of diseases ; and they are resorted
to by all classes, by rich and poor, old and young, especially
in cases of pleurisy, gout, rheumatism, and toothach.
517
The Japanese, in selecting their food, range over the Japan,
whole of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, using not
only what is wholesome and nutritive, but some articles
also which are poisonous, though, by their mode of pre¬
paration, they contrive to render these not only harmless,
but useful. Their meat is always cut into small pieces,
thoroughly boiled and stewed, and mixed with agreeable
sauces. They sit at meals on soft floor mats, with a small
square table before each guest; and the meat is served
up in the neatest vessels, either of porcelain or japanned
wood, furnished with a lid. The servant who attends
kneels down as he places the dishes on the table and
takes them away after dinner. They drink the soup out
of the cup in which it is served ; and they eat the solid
parts of the meat with two lackered pegs, which they
hold so dexterously between the fingers of the right hand,
that they can with the greatest nicety take up the small¬
est grain of rice, these pegs serving them as both fork and
spoon. The company, before beginning to eat, salute
each other with a low bow ; and the ladies, says Thun-
berg, eat separately from the men, though this scarcely
agrees with Dr Ainslie’s account of the lady whom he
commends for doing the honours of the table at an en¬
tertainment where he was present, with all the grace
of a Parisian. Tea and rice beer are the only liquors
used by the Japanese. Wines or distilled liquors are
never seen amongst them; and they can hardly be per¬
suaded to taste them, even when they are offered by the
Dutch. Their only inebriating drink is sacki, which,
being warmed in a common tea-kettle, is poured out into
flat tea-cups made of lackered wood, and is in this man¬
ner drunk quite warm. Tea is drunk at all times of the
day.
The dwelling-houses of the Japanese, whether public or
private, are by no means to be compared to those in Eu¬
rope, either for size or magnificence, being commonly low,
generally consisting of one story, and built of wood, owing
to the danger of earthquakes. Their apartments are small,
but uncommonly neat and clean, and for the most part care¬
fully and curiously furnished; the windows, doors, posts,
and passages, are finely painted and varnished; and the
ceilings neatly covered with gilt or silver-coloured paper,
and embellished with flowers. They have few partition walls
to divide the rooms from one another ; but instead of these
they use folding screens made of coloured or gilt paper,
lard into wooden frames, which they can put on or remove
at pleasure ; and by this means they enlarge their rooms or
make them narrower as best suits their fancy or convenience.
These houses are built of cedar wood, of which there is great
abundance in the country. The castles of the Japanese no¬
bility are built either on great rivers or upon hills and ris¬
ing grounds, and occupy a large space, consisting of three
different fortresses or enclosures, which either cover or
defend, or, if possible, encompass one another. Every en¬
closure is surrounded by a deep ditch, kept clean, and a
thick strong wall built of stone or earth, with strong gates.
The towns are mostly populous and well built; and the
streets run straight forward, crossing at right angles.
They have no fortifications. The two chief gates are shut
every night. The villages along the highways are but
thinly inhabited. The houses of the country people and
husbandmen are small and poor, consisting of four low
walls, covered with a thatched or shingled roof. “ They
have,” says Kaempfer, “ many children and great poverty,
and yet, with some small provision of rice, plants, and
roots, they live content and happy.” The temples dedi¬
cated to Buddha, or to other foreign idols, are far superior
to all other buildings, for their great height, curious roofs,
and numberless other beautiful ornaments. They are built
of the best cedars and firs, and adorned with carved images
of their idols. A fine altar stands in the middle of the
518 . JAP
Japan, temple, with one or more gilt idols on it, and a beautiful
candlestick with sweet-scented candles burning before it.
The best situations in the country are chosen for these
temples ; those which afford a fine view of the adjacent
country, or are in the vicinity of a spring, a rivulet of clear
water, or a wood with pleasant walks.
There are excellent roads throughout Japan, so broad
and large, that two companies, however numerous, can pass
each other with ease. The country is divided into seven
large provinces, every one of which is bounded by a high¬
way ; and all the smaller provinces into which the country
has been subdivided are in like manner bounded by high¬
ways, which all lead into the greater, as a common cen¬
tre, and unite at Jedo, the capital of the kingdom and the
residence of the emperor. These highways are divided
into measured miles, so that a traveller, in whatever part
of the empire he may be, can ascertain at a glance his ex¬
act distance from the imperial residence. Bridges are laid
over all the large rivers after they emerge into the plains;
but they have no means of crossing the mountainous streams,
which roll with too rapid a current to admit the building of
arches, except by fording them. They have not the art of
throwing across a bridge from bank to bank, or of even
constructing rope bridges, which is the'common resource
in such cases in all mountainous countries, in the South
American Andes, and amongst the Himalaya Mountains.
The number of travellers on the roads, according to
Kaempfer, is scarcely credible, owing chiefly, as he supposes,
to the populousness of the country, and to the frequent
journeys undertaken by the natives. The princes and
lords, who are bound to go once a year to pay their court to
the emperor, commonly travel with great pomp and magnifi¬
cence, and with a train which fills up the road for some days,
consisting, for the first order of princes, of twenty thousand
men ; of ten thousand for one of the second order ; and
thus diminishing according to the quality or revenues of
the nobles. This retinue is made up of numerous troops
of forerunners, harbingers, clerks, cooks, and other inferior
officers, whose duty it is to provide lodgings and victuals
for the approaching train. The prince’s heavy baggage
follows, suitably attended, and carried in small trunks pack¬
ed on horses, each bearing a banner with the coat of arms
and name of the possessor. Then follow the chief officers
and noblemen attending the prince, with pikes, scimitars,
bows and arrows, umbrellas, palanquins, led horses, and
other marks of grandeur. The prince himself is carried
in a palanquin by six or eight men clad in rich liveries,
sixteen pages, who are persons of the first rank, and richly
clad, walking before, and others by his side; whilst the
rear of the procession is brought iq> by numerous domes¬
tics, grooms, footmen, pike-bearers, all in liveries, and by
numbers of led horses. The whole train are clad in black
silk; and they march in order, in profound silence, with¬
out any noise except what is occasioned by the trampling
of horses and men. On the other hand, the etiquette is,
that the pike-bearers, and the carriers of the palanquin, have
their clothes tucked up above the waist; and thus their
naked bodies are exposed to view, with only a small piece
of cloth for the sake of decency. What appears still more
odd and whimsical to a European is, that the pages, pike-
bearers, umbrella and hat-bearers, chest-bearers, and foot¬
men, affect a strange mimic march or dance when they pass
through any remarkable town or borough, or by the train
of another prince or lord. Every step they make they
draw one foot up behind them as high as their back,
and stretch out the arm on the opposite side as far
as they can, “ putting themselves in such a posture,” says
Kaempfer, “ as if they had a mind to swim through the
air.” The roads are besides crowded with numerous tra¬
vellers, with pilgrims going on their annual visit to some
holy temple, and with multitudes of beggars, in which
A N.
character, indeed, many of the pilgrims travel. There are Japan
on all the roads idols of stone erected in honour of their w-y-J
gods, and other monstrous images and idols which occur
on the highways in several places, at the turning in of
sideways, near bridges, convents, temples, and other build¬
ings. Coarse figures of these idols are also printed on en¬
tire or half sheets of paper, and pasted upon the gates of
cities and villages, on wooden posts near bridges, and in
other places on the highway most exposed to the traveller’s
viewr. But strangers are not expected to pay these idols
any sort of homage. The Japanese are, contrary to the
representations given of them, tolerant and liberal in mat¬
ters of religion. The mission which was sent to Japan
by Sir Stamford Raffles, and which Dr Ainslie accompa¬
nied, experienced this liberality in a manner that they by no
means expected from the representations previously made
to them. The English commissioner visited the great
temple on the hills of Nagasaki, and was received with
marked regard by the venerable patriarch, who entertain¬
ed him sumptuously. On Jmwing him round the courts
of the temple, one of the English officers present, as men¬
tioned by Dr Ainslie, heedlessly exclaimed in surprise,
“ Jesus Christus.” The patriarch turning half round with
a placid smile, bowed significantly, as if intimating that he
was perfectly aware of the difference of their respective
creeds; and they parted mutual friends, with a hearty shake
of the hands.
For the accommodation of travellers, there is in all the
chief villages and hamlets a post-house belonging to the
lord of the place, where are procured horses, porters, foot¬
men, or w hatever else may be wanting for their journey,
at settled prices. Travellers of all ranks and qualities re¬
sort to these post-houses, which lie at about one and a half
to four miles distance from each other. They appear to
have no carriages, but either travel on foot or on horse¬
back, or along the coast by sea. At these post-houses
messengers are walking day and night, in order to carry
the letters, edicts, and proclamations of the emperor and
the princes of the empire, w'hich they convey from one
post-house to another with all speed. Two messengers
are always employed on these occasions, that in case any
accident should befal the one, the other may forward the
despatches, which are kept in a varnished box bearing the
arms of the emperor, to the next stage; and all travellers,
and even princes of the empire and their retinues, must re¬
tire out of the way in order to give a free passage to these
messengers.
The Japanese are represented as a vigorous people,
both in their bodily and mental habits. They are well
made, active, free, and easy in their motions. The men
are of the middling size, and in general not very cor¬
pulent. They are, says Thunberg, of a yellowish co¬
lour all over, sometimes bordering on brown, and some¬
times inclining to white. The labouring classes, who, in
summer, when they are at work, lay bare the upper part
of their bodies, are sun-burnt, and consequently brown.
Their features are masculine and perfectly European,
with the exception of the small lengthened Tartar eye,
which almost universally prevails, and is the only feature
of resemblance between them and the Chinese. Dr
Ainslie gives rather a different account of their complex¬
ion from Thunberg. He represents them as perfectly
fair, and indeed blooming; though this seems to apply
chiefly to the women, who, he says, are equally fair with
Europeans, and have the bloom of health more generally
prevalent amongst them than is usually found in Europe.
Thunberg also mentions that ladies of distinction, who
seldom go out in the open air without being covered, are
perfectly white. Their eyes are generally dark-brown, or
rather black ; and the deep furrow which the eyelids form
in the great angle of the eye discriminates the Japanese
JAPAN.
ja from other nations. They have generally large heads
\^- and short necks, with black, thick, and shining hair, from
the oil which they put upon it. Their noses are rather
thick and short, though by no means flat.
The dress of the Japanese is a complete uniform, from
the monarch down to the lowest of his subjects ; it is the
same in both sexes, and has been unchanged for the space
of more than two thousand years. It consists everywhere
of long and wide gowns, one or more of which is worn by
all ranks. The dress of the poor is distinguished from
that of the rich only in the materials being made of cot¬
ton instead of the finest silken stuffs, which are frequently
flowered, and sometimes interwoven with figures in gold.
They reach down to the feet, and are frequently worn by
women of quality with a train. Travellers, soldiers, and
labouring people, either tuck them up, or wear them so
short that they only reach to the knees. These gowns
are fastened about the waist with a belt, which is of such
a length as to go twice round the body with a large knot
and rose, which is worn by the married women before,
and by the single behind. To this belt the men fasten
their sabre, fan, tobacco-pipe and pouch, and medicine-
box. The gowns are rounded off about the neck; they
are open before, and display the bare bosom. The sleeves
are ill shaped and wide, and sewed together in front so
as to form a bag at the bottom, in which they put their
hands in cold weather, or use it as a pocket to hold their
papers and other things. They wear, besides, breeches,
which are more like a petticoat than breeches, being
sewed between the legs, and left open at the sides for
about two thirds of their length. There is, besides, a
dress of ceremony, which is worn on the outside, over
the gowns. It consists of two pieces; the undermost
the above-described breeches, which are generally made
of a blue stuff, printed with white flowers ; the upper¬
most is a frock, not unlike a half gown. Besides silk and
cotton, they use a kind of linen, which is manufactur¬
ed from a certain species of nettles. The silk worn by
the richer classes far exceeds in tenuity and fineness the
silks either of India or Europe. The shoes are the most
indifferent part of the Japanese dress.
Of the population of Japan no accurate account has
ever been obtained, and all our information on this sub¬
ject is merely conjectural. Every spot is cultivated even
to the mountain tops ; and all Europeans who have ever
visited Japan concur in representing it as extensively po¬
pulous. On these grounds, and taking into account also
the area of the country, it is supposed that the population
cannot be less than fifteen or twenty millions. Sir Stam¬
ford Baffles’ estimate, from the accounts brought to him
by Dr Ainslie, is twenty-five millions.
1 ‘.v. It was from the Portuguese that the nations of Europe
received the earliest accounts of the Japanese islands.
The mariners of Portugal first adventured on the Indian
Ocean in the year 1497, and they long carried on a lu¬
crative commerce in the ports of the East. The con¬
quest of Goa by Albuquerque, in the year 1510, laid the
foundation of their future power ; and from that time
they pursued with success their conquests and discoveries
in the East, and carried on an extensive trade. In 1542
one of their ships was forced by a storm on the yet un¬
known islands of Japan ; and afterwards a ship, richly
freighted, sailed every two years for one of their ports.
In 1549, a young Japanese, who had fled to Goa, and there
embraced the Christian faith and was baptized, held out
to the Portuguese the most sanguine prospects of gain
from a trade to Japan, and even gave hopes to the Je¬
suits of converting the people to the Christian faith.
These pious fathers were not slow to profit by the hints
of their new proselyte ; and, with a view to a permanent
establishment in Japan, the young Japanese was sent
519
back to his own country on board a Portuguese ship, ac- Japan,
companied by several of the Jesuits, and by St Francis
Xavier, the head of the mission. At that" time no re¬
straint was imposed on the intercourse of the Japanese
with foreign states ; the Portuguese were therefore allow¬
ed to trade with whatever parts of the empire they thought
fit, and were much caressed by several of the princes, and
invited to settle w ithin their territories. The princes and
nobles of the country vied with each other to obtain the
favour of the strangers, and a most lucrative trade was car¬
ried on in European and Indian commodities, such as raw
silk, fine silk stuffs, drugs, wines, medicines, and a great
variety of other productions, both natural and artificial,
which were exchanged for gold and other produce or ma¬
nufactures of the country. By this traffic the merchants
were enriched, and in a few years carried off a large amount
of treasure, though not perhaps three hundred tons of
gold every year, as Kaempfer says, with a boldness of as¬
sertion not very consistent with his usual caution and ac¬
curacy. The Jesuit missionaries on their part were not
idle. They laboured diligently in their vocation, and
they commended the doctrines of the gospel by their
modest and virtuous life, and by their disinterested be¬
nevolence to the sick and the poor; whilst the pomp and
majesty of the Catholic service arrested the attention and
affected the senses of the Japanese. The first difficulties
being surmounted, converts began to flow from all quar¬
ters ; and many of the princes and nobles, being converted
to the new doctrines, were baptized, and agreed to send
an embassy to Pope Gregory XIII. with letters and pre¬
sents, assuring him of their devotion to the Christian
faith. In this manner the Portuguese prospered in all
their concerns, both spiritual and temporal; and fresh
supplies of missionaries and merchants from Manilla, Ma¬
cao, and Goa, daily flocked to this profitable mart of re¬
ligion as well as of trade. But the fair prospect was at
last overcast by the darkest clouds of bigotry and perse¬
cution ; the Christian faith, which had been so successful¬
ly planted and propagated, was rooted up and completely
extirpated ; and, instead of the free intercourse formerly
allowed with all nations, commerce was placed under the
most severe restraints, and was finally restricted to one
part, that of Nagasaki, and to two nations, the Chinese
and the Dutch.
This great revolution originated in various causes.
The great prosperity of the Portuguese appears to have
filled' them with insolence and pride; the priests and
others no longer walked on foot, but, being carried about
in stately chairs, mimicked in this and other matters the
pomp of the pope and cardinals at Rome; whilst the Ja¬
panese priests, and others who profited by the prevailing
religion, were displeased at the alterations which had
been introduced, being fearful of the injurious consequen¬
ces to their interest, and contrived to instil into the em¬
peror a jealousy of the new sect. It is related of one of
the Portuguese priests, that having met on the road one
of the counsellors of state, the haughty prelate would not
allow his chair to stop, according to the fashion of the coun¬
try, in order to pay respects to the great man, but com¬
manded his men to pass on without even showing him
common marks of civility. This neglect inspired the no¬
bleman with an unconquerable hatred of the Portuguese ;
and, in an interview with the emperor, he gave such an
odious picture of the insolence, pride, and vanity of the
whole nation, as raised the emperor’s, indignation to the
highest pitch. In 1586 a proclamation was issued by the
emperor, forbidding any of his subjects, under pain of
death, to embrace the Christian religion ; and the same
year began the persecution, which is the most sanguinary
every recorded in any age or country. Several converts
were executed for disobeying the imperial commands ; and,
JAPAN.
520
Japan, according to the letters of the Jesuits, more than twenty
v—thousand persons suffered death in the year 1590. Still
the converts increased, for in 1591 and 1592, after all the
churches had been shut up, twelve thousand new converts
were made. In 1597 a new persecution was raised against
the Christians, and twenty-six persons, including Jesuits,
and several of the Franciscan fathers, were executed on the
cross. It happened that the crown was about this period
usurped by an adventurer of the name of Ijejas, whose
doubtful title conspired with his fears and jealousy of the
Christians to render him a cruel persecutor. He issued
a proclamation, strictly forbidding the Portuguese mis¬
sionaries any longer to preach the Christian faith ; and
directing all the governors, princes, and lords in the seve¬
ral provinces of the empire, to induce their subjects, either
by force or persuasion, to renounce the Christian and
adopt their former faith. The monks and priests already
in the country were banished, and the Portuguese were
strictly forbidden to bring any more of them to Japan.
These orders, however, were not at first rigidly enforced.
The Jesuits could not be persuaded to quit a country
where their labours had been so successful in gaining both
wealth and proselytes ; and fresh supplies of ecclesiastics
were still brought from the Portuguese settlements. But
the rashness of the Franciscan friars, who were ambassa¬
dors at the imperial court, and who insisted on openly
preaching in the streets of Miaco, and built a chapel, in
direct opposition to the edict that had been published,
hastened the total ruin of the Portuguese interests in
Japan. Many were also disgusted by their ambition and
covetousness, when they saw that these spiritual fathers
aimed fully as much at the possession of money and lands
as the salvation of souls. From all these various causes a
dreadful persecution was commenced against the Chris¬
tians, who were put to death without mercy wherever they
were found. This persecution lasted forty years, and, after
the cruel butchery of thousands, ended at last in the total
extirpation of the Christian faith, the ruin of the trade,
and the final expulsion of the Portuguese and Castillians
from Japan. It was long before this last severe measure
was resolved on, as the Japanese, however intolerant in
matters of religion, were still anxious to obtain the com¬
modities of Europe ; and they appointed the island of De-
sima, in the harbour of Nagasaki, as the residence of the
Portuguese merchants. But the Dutch, who some time prior
to the year 1600 had extended their navigation to these seas,
were now the zealous competitors of the Portuguese and
Spaniards for the eastern trade ; and the two nations being
at this time at war, wTere not scrupulous in using the most
unworthy arts to supplant each other in the good opinion
of the Japanese. It is asserted by Kaempfer that the Por¬
tuguese invented the most malicious stories in order to
blacken the character of the Dutch, representing them as
rebels and pirates, and altogether unworthy of trust. The
Dutch on their part resorted to the same artifices, and with
some success. It is stated, that in a Portuguese ship which
was taken by the Dutch, they found letters to the king of
Portugal, written by one Captain Moro, a Japanese by
birth, and a Christian proselyte, containing the scheme of
a conspiracy for overthrowing the existing government.
The Dutch were not slow to profit by this precious disco¬
very. They immediately communicated the letters to the
Japanese authorities. Captain Moro was arrested, and,
notwithstanding the most earnest protestations of inno¬
cence, was burned alive. In proof of the Portuguese trea¬
son, intercepted letters were shown, disclosing, as was al¬
leged, the whole plot against the emperor’s life and throne;
the want the conspirators stood in of ships and soldiers,
which were expected from Portugal; the names of the Ja¬
panese princes concerned in the conspiracy; and various
other particulars, which were received as convincing evi¬
dence of this extensive treason. On this discovery the jan
edict was forthwith issued, in 1637, forbidding, on pain of
death, all intercourse with foreigners; prohibiting, under
severe penalties, the propagation of the Christian religion,
and the purchase of any article by a native of Japan
from a stranger ; banishing all the Portuguese to Macao,
and shutting out forever all other nations from the Japan¬
ese islands.
The Portuguese and Spaniards still lingered, in hopes of
mitigation of this severe decree ; but the Japanese court,
being assured by the Dutch that they would supply them
with European goods, proceeded to a rigorous execution of
the edict, and from this period the trade of Japan has been
entirely confined to the Dutch. An attempt to renew the
trade, by sending an embassy from Macao, entirely failed,
the ship being seized, and the crew executed, with the
exception of twelve, who were sent back to their coun¬
trymen with an account of this tragical result, but who
perished on their way home. It appears to have been
chiefly by the intrigues of the Dutch that this great re¬
volution was brought about. The persecutions to which
the Portuguese w'ere exposed might naturally enough have
engaged them in plots against the Japanese government;
but the whole story rests on the evidence of the Dutch,
the rivals of the Portuguese, whom they were anxious to
ruin, without much scrupling at the means of attaining
their end; and in revealing the plot which produced
an edict for the extirpation of the Christian faith, and the
massacre and banishment of thousands of Europeans, it
is plain that they were actuated by the basest motives.
By the ruin and expulsion of the Castillians and Portu¬
guese from Japan, the Dutch acquired the monopoly of the
trade, which they were so intent on securing that they cul¬
tivated the favour of the Japanese monarch by the most ser¬
vile and criminal compliances. Their conduct was indeed
most degrading. They made presents to the imperial
court, of all the rare animals they could collect from the
most remote quarters of the world ; and they complied with
all the commands of the emperor, however despotic or
unjust. They were obliged, in 1638, to abolish their fac¬
tory on the island of Firando, for no other reason but
because it was built of hewn stones, and finer than the
other buildings of the country, and because the Christian
era was engraved on the front; and the part which they
acted in the massacre of the Japanese Christians at Sima-
bara leaves a deep stain on the national character, proving
as it does that the love of gain had extinguished every sen¬
timent of humanity in the breasts of these traders. The Ja¬
panese Christians, by the unparalleled cruelties and torments
to which they were exposed, were driven to despair ; and
they had retired, to the number of forty thousand, to a for¬
tified place in the neighbourhood of Simabara, where they
were resolved to defend themselves to the last extremity.
The emperor requested the aid of the Dutch in the siege
of this last stronghold, in the massacre of these Chris¬
tians, and in the utter extirpation of the Christian name in
Japan. This aid was at once afforded. A Dutch vessel of
war was sent to batter the town, and a breach was made
in the defences of these unfortunate refugees, through
which their enemies entered and perpetrated a massacre
unparalleled for enormity even in the blood-stained annals
of the East. According to the information received by
Dr Ainslie from the Japanese, they were prompted to this
massacre by European intrigue; and the alacrity of the
Dutch in lending their aid, joined to their hatred of the
Portuguese, concurs to fix on them a deep share in this
shocking atrocity. But they were far from recommending
themselves to the Japanese by their treacherous conduct.
“ By this submissive readiness,” says Kaempfer, “.to as¬
sist the emperor in the execution of his designs with re¬
gard to the final destruction of Christianity in his domi-
J A P A N.
nions, ’tis true indeed that we stood our ground so far as
> to maintain ourselves in the country, and to be permitted
to carry on our trade, although the court had then some
thoughts of a total exclusion of all foreigners whatever.
But many generous and noble persons, at court and in the
empire, judged quite otherwise of our conduct, and not
too favourably for the credit we had thereby endeavoured
to gain. It seemed to them inconsistent with reason that
the Dutch should ever be expected to be sincerely faith¬
ful to a foreign monarch, and one, too, whom they looked
upon as a heathen prince, whilst they showed so much
forwardness to assist him in the destruction of a people
with whom they otherwise agreed in the most essential parts
of their faith, as the Japanese had been informed by the
Portuguese and Manilhese fathers, and to sacrifice to their
own worldly interest those who followed Christ the very
same way, and entered the kingdom of heaven through the
same gate; expressions which I have often heard the na¬
tives make use of when the conversation happened to turn
upon this subject. In short, our humble, complaisant,
and obliging conduct notwithstanding, we were so far
from bringing this proud and jealous nation to any great¬
er confidence, or more intimate friendship, that, on the
contrary, their jealousy and mistrust seemed to increase
in proportion to the many convincing proofs of sincerity
and faithfulness we gave them ; and that the better we
deserved of them, the more they seemed to hate and de¬
spise us, till at last, in the year 1641, soon after the total
expulsion of the Portuguese, orders were sent us to quit
our old factory at Firando, to exchange the protection of
a good and indulgent prince for the severe and strict go¬
vernment of Nagasaki, and under a very narrow inspec¬
tion to confine ourselves within that small island, I should
rather say prison, which was built for the Portuguese.”
In this island or prison, 600 feet long by 240 broad, the
Dutch continue to carry on their trade, where they are
guarded like thieves or pirates, and placed under the
most degrading restrictions. Kmrnpfer gives a minute
account of the guards that are placed over them, of the
vigilance with which they are watched, of the daily mus¬
ters that are made to see that none is amissing, of the
extraordinary precautions employed to prevent the intro¬
duction of contraband goods, and of the sure penalty of
death that follows the violation of the law. He gives an
account of the punishment of two men, Japanese, who were
detected with camphor concealed about their persons,
which they had purchased from the Dutch, and who for
this crime had their heads struck off by the common exe¬
cutioner ; a deputy from the Dutch establishment being
expected to attend at the execution, and to witness, for
the instruction of himself and his companions, this whole¬
some example of severity. On one occasion, also, he
relates that a Dutch sailor had thrown himself over board,
and that when he did not appear at the daily muster the
Japanese were all in despair, being terrified that it might
be a Roman Catholic priest, and that he might have
escaped into the country. “ All the officers,” he observes,
“ ran about scratching their heads, and behaving them¬
selves as if they had lost their senses; and some of the
soldiers in the guard-ships were already preparing to
rip open their bellies, before superior orders could com¬
pel them to answer for their carelessness and neglect of
their duty.” It was not till the man’s body was got up
from the bottom of the sea that this alarm began to sub¬
side.
The moment the Dutch vessels are seen steering for the
harbour by the spy-guards with their glasses, the system
of vigilance begins. The ship is boarded by three persons
from the Dutch factory, and the public interpreter, and
the deputies from the governor, demand forthwith the list
of the cargo and crew, also the letters on board, which are
VOL. xn.
carried to Nagasaki, where they are examined by the go- Jap
vernors. On entering the harbour, two guard-boats, with
a number of soldiers on board, are placed on each side of
her, and continued in their position, the guards being re¬
gularly changed till her departure. All arms, namely,
guns, cutlasses, swords, and also the ship’s stock of gunpow¬
der, are given into the custody of the proper officers. The
persons and trunks of the sailors are all searched with the
utmost strictness, also every corner of the vessel; and
the different packages are rigidly examined. All the ap¬
proaches to the island in which the Dutch are settled
are strictly guarded, both day and night, by officers ap¬
pointed for the purpose. There is a company or corpo¬
ration of interpreters, amounting to one hundred and sixty,
who also do the duty of spies ; and during the time of
the annual sale the vigilance of ail these functionaries is
redoubled. Those who come to trade with the Dutch must
submit to a strict search of their persons before they are
admitted within the gates leading to their residence. No
letters can either be sent or received unless they are pre¬
viously entered in a register book, and a copy left with
the governors.
The Chinese, who are admitted to trade along with the
Dutch, are subjected to similar restrictions. They former¬
ly carried on a free intercourse with Japan ; but it was in¬
timated to the Japanese that the Jesuits, after their expul¬
sion from the country, had experienced a most friendly re¬
ception in China, and it wras discovered that several of their
books had been brought over by the Chinese and privately
sold. This, together with the vast influx of the Chinese
into Japan, raised the jealousy of the emperor and the
court, and the Chinese were finally laid under the same
restraints as the Dutch.
The goods chiefly imported into Japan are raw silk from
China, all sorts of silk and wmollen stuffs, coarse cotton
stuffs, woollen cloth from Europe, hides raw and tanned,
sugar, coffee, spices of all kinds, quicksilver, cinnabar,
saffron, lead, saltpetre, borax, musk, gums, coral, amber,
various articles of glass, and iron, lead, tin.. The returns
are chiefly made in copper, and along with it camphor,
lackered ware, painted paper, and other articles of com¬
paratively little moment. The trade of the Dutch and
the Chinese with Japan was formerly very extensive. From
the year 1611 to the year 1671 the speculations of the for¬
mer were unrestricted, and their profits were enormous.
According to the account of Kaempfer, the Dutch gradu¬
ally fell into discredit with the Japanese ; their commerce
was curtailed, they were subjected to ignominious treat¬
ment, their profits were diminished, and the trade is now
confined to two annual ships, which sail from the port of
Batavia. The Chinese send annually ten junks to the
port of Nagasaki, the only port which is open to foreigners.
In 1814, when the island of Java was in possession of
the British, Sir Stamford Raffles, the governor, distinguish¬
ed on all occasions by his enlightened zeal for the interests
of science and of social improvement, was deeply impressed
with the importance of opening a commercial intercourse
with the Japanese, and of acquiring for Britain a partici¬
pation in the trade hitherto monopolised by the Dutch.
The Japanese islands, containing, according to his estimate,
about twenty-five millions of inhabitants, who require
woollens, hardware, iron manufactures, and glass, besides
many other articles, might, he justly conceived, afford a
very extensive market for British goods. With this view,
when the time arrived for the annual visit of the Dutch to
Japan, he joined two other gentlemen in the mission, one
of whom was Dr Ainslie, for the purpose of obtaining ac¬
curate information respecting the Japanese, and the Dutch
establishment in Japan. He confirms ail the previous ac¬
counts that had been received of the narrow and exclusive
policy of the government, in consequence of which few op-
522 JAP
Japanning, portunities were afforded of a free communication with the
natives. The commissioners, however, who were sent to Ja¬
pan by Sir Stamford Raffles, state that the character of the
Japanese had been greatly misrepresented by the Dutch
for their own selfish purposes, and through fear of being
interfered with by any other of the European states. So
far from being a bigoted and intolerant race, as they are
represented, they appeared to be remarkable for frankness
of manner and disposition, for intelligence and the spirit of
inquiry ; and, in regard to religion or superstitious pre¬
judices, to be perfectly inoffensive, The British com¬
missioners wTere strongly of opinion that the commercial
restrictions did not so much arise from the limitations or
from the laws of the Japanese, as from the constitution
of the Dutch factory. It is the interest of the resident
and other functionaries to narrow the trade, that they
may secure a larger profit for themselves ; and, living at a
distance from control, with a limited salary, they are com¬
pelled to scramble for every petty advantage to them¬
selves, to the neglect of the general interests and prospe¬
rity of trade. From the degraded state of the Dutch fac¬
tory, and the corruptions which prevail, the national cha¬
racter of this commercial people is lowered in the eyes of
the Japanese, at wdiose hands they endure every species of
humiliation. They prostrate themselves not only to the
emperor, but also to the inferior chiefs, for which they are
despised by the Japanese, as well as for all the other mean
compliances which they submit to, rather than run the risk
of sacrificing the trade. It w?as indeed intimated by the Ja¬
panese interpreters to Dr Ainslie, that the Dutch were the
secret instigators of the massacre of the Christians at Si-
mabara, and it is certain that they lent their active aid in
that bloody transaction. The English commissioners were
most courteously received in Japan ; the people evinced
the most earnest desire to communicate w ith them; their
presents were even graciously received by the emperor ;
and, from this auspicious commencement, the most favour¬
able hopes were entertained of a closer and more friendly
intercourse with this singular people. But the surrender
of Java to the Dutch put an end to all these expectations
of extended trade ; and the intercourse with Japan has since
been continued on its former footing, all competitors having
been, as heretofore, rigidly excluded.
Various attempts have been made by the Russians to
open an intercourse with these islands, from their esta¬
blishments along the eastern coast of Asia. But all
friendly overtures with a view to a commercial intercourse
have been decidedly rejected. In 1792 a deputation ar-
JAPANNING, the art of varnishing and drawing figures
on wood, after the manner of the Japanese, from whom
it takes its name. The substances which admit of being
japanned are almost every kind that are dry and rigid,
or not too flexible ; as wood, metals, leather, and prepared
paper. The practice of japanning gdods has varied from
time to time. The following are some of the methods
practised at present.
Japanning Mix up some vegetable black with naphtha or spirit of
of cast and turpentine, and let it sour for a night; then add as much
sheet iron japan as will not take away the body of the black. After
black. ^jie art;c]e ]ias been freed from rust, coat it with this, and
put it into the stove. When dry, let it be coated with
japan ; two coats are sufficient if the japan be rich or old.
If the article is intended to be polished, another coat or
two may be given, according to the surface of the article ;
Polishing, and let it be gently cooled between each coat. To polish the
above, take a piece of close-grained pumice-stone, ground
down to a smooth and perfectly level surface, and with
this slightly rub down all the knots. When this is effect-
J A P
rived from Japan at Okhotzk, requesting,the aid of theJapanniiu J
Russians to extricate some unfortunate Japanese who had ''
been thrown upon the desolate island of Oonalaska. The J
Russians were extremely ready in lending their aid in the
cause of humanity, and the Japanese expressed the utmost
gratitude for the services which they rendered them. The
opportunity was deemed favourable for renewing the offer
of commercial intercourse, and Captain Laxmann was
sent, by orders of the empress, to that part of the coast of 1
Jesso or Matsmai which is occupied by the Japanese. He ti
was kindly received, and loaded with presents ; hut all com¬
mercial intercourse was steadily rejected. In 1814. Count
Kreusenstern, despatched to Japan on a similar errand, met
with no better success. He was peremptorily told, by or¬
ders of the emperor, that his subjects traded only with
the Dutch and the Chinese; and from the moment that
he and his attendants arrived, they were exposed, as has l
already been related, to every possible ignominy, through »
the influence of the Dutch factory, jealous of competition; b
and they were finally requested to return to their own
country, as they valued their lives, and never to come back.
Since this time Captain Golownin, who was enticed on
shore and detained in a severe captivity by the Japanese,
reports that they are extremely jealous of the ascendency
both of the Russians and of the English in the East, from
the establishments of the Russians along the northern,
and of the English along the southern coasts of Asia.
These jealousies, there is every reason to suppose, are fos¬
tered by the Dutch, who alone have access to the Japan¬
ese, and who have even persuaded them that the Euro- J
peans are intent on adding Japan to the other extensive "
conquests which they have acquired in the East. At
present, therefore, there is no prospect of any change in
the exclusive policy of this singular people. They are
even more rigid in their maxims of exclusion than the
Chinese, who, through the free port of Canton, trade in¬
discriminately with all nations. But the Japanese con¬
fine the privilege of commerce to one port and to two na¬
tions, who either cannot or do not find it their interest to
supply them with foreign produce to the extent which
would be required if the existing restrictions were abo¬
lished. The cession of Java to the Dutch at the peace
of 1814 is deeply to be regretted on this account, that it
closed the door against all further communication of the
British with Japan, and for ever frustrated the judicious
and enlightened plans of Sir Stamford Raffles for promot¬
ing a free intercourse and a more extended trade with
these islands. (F0
ed, put the article into the stove till the parts which have
been rubbed are hardened. Then take a piece of wool¬
len cloth, stuffed with something of the same description,
to the size of a small hand mallet, which japanners call a
polishing bob; wet it through with water, then dip it
amongst pumice-stone which has been sifted through mus¬
lin, and rub the whole surface till it is smooth. Sponge
it clean with water when dry. The surface is then made
perfectly smooth and fine by being rubbed with a piece
of cloth similar to that just mentioned, and ground rot¬
ten-stone moistened with water. It is then wiped clean
with soft silk ; and, when dry, hard powdered rotten-stone
is rubbed upon it with the points of the fingers, length¬
ways, when it receives a beautiful gloss. To preserve
the lustre, sprinkle a small quantity of sweet oil and wa¬
ter over the whole, then smartly with both hands clean
off the oil and water. This will produce a permanent
and brilliant glossy black. If the cast or sheet iron is not
ground, there is no use for the first coat of black, as the
same coats of japan answer the purpose perfectly well.
:,Tapa
tin g
'black
Toji
tin t
!parei
brow
m 0]
'brow
Japa
wow
Japa
■table
Japa
row;
■Ktrei
JAP
ng. In japanning tin, care must be taken to deprive the ar-
tide of any rosin or grease. It then receives one coat of
‘ng black and two coats of japan, as in the case of cast or sheet
k iron. If it has to be polished previously to being coated,
it is rubbed smooth lengthways with a piece of wool-comb¬
er’s card, or coarse sand-paper. This will greatly aid the
polisher, and in some instances may save a coat of japan.
The article is then polished and oiled as before described,
n Clean the tin as before mentioned, and give it one
s- coat of japan. Let it then be put into the stove, and
when dry give it another. If a dark brown is required,
it is subjected to a strong heat; and if a light brown, a
coating and a gentle heat only is necessary. Care must
be taken that each coat is well settled or stiffened in the
air, by turning it upside down to keep it from flowing all
one way, before putting it in the stove,
uce Grind some Venetian red in spirit of turpentine very
ue fine, to which add three parts of mixing varnish with one
part of japan, that is, as much as will not take away the
body of the red. Coat the article, and put it into the
stove till it dry. Then give it one coat of japan pretty
fluid, and let it settle in the air, as mentioned above. Put
it again into the stove, and when dry it will appear of a
fine brown colour. All metals may be japanned in this
way, especially old tin ware. If a polish is required, use
common vermilion instead of Venetian red, as it will re¬
quire more coats. Another brown, commonly called cho¬
colate, may be produced by using purple browm in the
same way.
ing In japanning wood in the same way as metal, it ought
to be dried or seasoned well in the stove before coating.
A black is obtained by using the same black as that already
mentioned. After the article has been dried in the stove
and taken out, it is coated with japan ; and this is repeat¬
ed until the surface becomes smooth. Care must be ta¬
ken not to let the article cool between the periods of each
successive application of the japan, else the air may insi¬
nuate itself into the pores of the wood, and cause it to
blister when put into the stove again. The article made
or turned must be in one piece,
ing In japanning table tops, the best Spanish mahogany,
ps. plained and smoothed with sand-paper, must be used.
First put it in the stove between two plates of iron, with
a sufficient weight on it to keep it from casting or warping,
till it be properly seasoned. Take it out and coat it with
black as above mentioned. Afterwards put it into the
stove to dry. Then coat it with japan until it has a flowr-
ing appearance. Should it blister between the coatings,
rub the blisters down with fine sand or glass-paper. Af¬
ter the last coat has been applied, allow it to become per¬
fectly hardened, and then polish it in the same way as
metal is polished. This method is not generally known
or practised, a prejudice existing that it w ill not stand
the heat; but Spanish mahogany, three fourths of an
inch thick, will stand the same heat as tin.
ing Small fire-screens made of plain-tree and other kinds of
lire-wood may be japanned in the same manner; but as they
are done on both sides, it requires a frame made of tin,
tapered inwards, so that the screen may rest gently on
the edges of it. Flat articles, which cannot stand the
necessary temperature, are japanned in the following man¬
ner. Grind fine some ivory-black with turpentine, then
add two parts of japan and two parts of drying copal var¬
nish ; and after the wood has been well dried, coat it over
three times. When it is dry, smooth it down with wretrag
and ground pumice-stone. The smoothing being finished,
take extra quick copal varnish, tinged with ivory-black,
and give the article two coats. When these are harden¬
ed it may be polished. If great care be taken in laying
on the varnish, polishing may not be necessary.
lo a white lead ground in turpentine add one part of
JAP
523
drying copal varnish, and mix them together. Coat the Japanning,
wood till the pores be filled up, and then rub it down as
before described. Then take flake-white ground in turpen-Coloured
tine, and add to it three parts of fine dial varnish ; strain itgrounds on
through fine muslin, and let it stand for five or six hours; w,od'
after which, coat the wood over twice, and let the first lute’
coat be properly hard before the other is applied. When
sufficiently hardened, take a piece of fine flannel dipped
in rotten-stone ground in water, and rub it till smooth,
when it is rendered fit for working on. But if it is to be
finished in the white, let it be rubbed all over with a mix¬
ture of sweet oil and flour, and then dusted with dry flour,
which is afterwards wiped clean off with both hands, leav¬
ing a fine glossy surface.
The yellow ground may be filled up in the same way Yellow,
as the above with the lead. When it is filled up, take
chrome-yellow ground in turpentine, and add three parts
of fine drying copal varnish ; strain this, and coat the
article with it, as in the above case, and varnish and polish
it in a similar manner.
Take common vermilion ground in turpentine, to which Red.
add one part of quick-mixing varnish. Fill up the ground
with this, and then take Chinese vermilion ground in
fine drying oil, thick, adding to it a small quantity of fine
mixing varnish, to make it free in working. With this
preparation the article is twice thinly coated, which me¬
thod is preferable to laying on only one thick coat. When
dry, it will be fit for working on. But if it is intended to
be polished, give it two coats of fine quick-polishing var¬
nish, and let the first coat be very hard before it receives
the second. After it is properly hardened, take a woollen
rag dipped in ground pumice-stone and water, and rub
the ground all over. When it is smooth, take a flannel
rag dipped in ground rotten-stone, and finish it, as in the
case of the white.
Fill up the blue ground in the same manner as the Blue,
white is filled up ; and a little Prussian blue may be added
to it. When filled up, Prussian blue and white lead are
ground by themselves upon the same stone, and after¬
wards mixed together in proportions varying according to
the shade required. The after-process for polishing is the
same as that already described.
Fill the green ground as in the case of the white, add-Green,
ing lamp-black to make it of a lead colour, the quantity em¬
ployed being in proportion to the shade required. When
filled up and smoothed, take emerald-green ground in
turpentine, and add a small quantity of mixing varnish to
it, so that the green may be flat, for it will require three
coats, as the green has a very little body. It is then smooth¬
ed and rendered fit for working on. If a dark hue is
wanted, take Brunswick green, which may be made light¬
er by adding a little chrome-yellow ; or darker, by adding
Prussian blue and black. This green is more easily pro¬
duced than any other. Varnish and polish the article as
before described.
Take white lead ground in turpentine, and add crim-Purple,
son-lake and Prussian blue, according to the shade want¬
ed. The article is then coated, varnished, and polished,
in the same way as the red. All the above grounds may
be enriched by giving each a coat of thin primitive colours
ground in turpentine, and mixed up with fine clear mix¬
ing varnish. These are crimson-lake for red, yellow-lake
for yellow, Prussian blue for blue, verdigris for green, and
lake and blue for purple.
To produce damask grounds for white, when the ground
is fit for working on, take fine dial varnish for size, so
that it may not discolour the ground, and size the device.
Let it stand till it slightly attaches itself to the finger;
then take a piece of shamoy leather, dip it in silver powder,
and shade the device with it, when it will appear like
damask.
524 JAP
Japanning. For obtaining red or crimson, after the ground has been
smoothed with the common vermilion, take japanners’gold
Ked and sjze) thin, and size the device; when it adheres to the fin-
damask ^er’ ta^e orange‘^ronze an^ shade it as above. This
being dry, coat it with crimson-lake ground in turpentine
and mixed with fine polishing varnish ; polish it as usual,
and a rich damask ground will appear.
Yellow This ground must be a very light yellow. Use size and
damask, silver powder, the same as in the case of the white; coat
it with yellow-lake ground in turpentine and mixed with
polishing varnish; coating, varnishing, and polishing it as
usual.
Blue. Make the ground a very light blue, almost approaching
to white ; use the size and silver as in the above case;
take Prussian blue ground in turpentine and mixed with
polishing varnish, and coat it to the shade required, then
varnish and polish it as usual.
Green. Make a light bluish-green with verdigris and white
lead ground, use size and silver as in the case of the
white, then take verdigris ground in terpentine, and mix
it with slow-drying varnish, to prevent it from cracking,
as the verdigris is very brittle; coat it to the shade
wanted, and varnish and polish it as usual.
Purple. Make a ground of crimson lake and Prussian blue mix¬
ed with white lead, very light; then take lake and blue
ground in turpentine and mixed with polishing varnish;
coat it to the shade required, size and silver it as in the
case of white, and varnish and polish it as usual.
Beautiful grounds are produced with the silver powder ;
and devices on black grounds with either of the above co¬
lours, which greatly enrich the appearance of the deep or
pale gold ornaments that are wrought upon then.
All the above coloured grounds may be produced on
metals in the same way, with the exception of the white.
In filling up metals, take Venetian red ground in turpen¬
tine or tar spirits, add as much japan as will give it body
enough, so as not to crack, and afterwards coat the article
till it is filled up; then smooth it down with lump pumice-
stone. Put it into the stove till dry every time it is
coated, then lay on the ground colour as before mentioned.
With regard to sizing and gilding on japan grounds,
take the gloss off the part that is to be worked on, by
which means the size will be better seen. In ornament¬
ing any article, as, for instance, a tea-tray, with various
golds, bronze, and colour, proceed thus: After tracing or
drawing out the ornaments, size the parts for your deep
gold first, and then gild them, the parts for the pale gold
being also gilt; and care must be taken that the size has
but a slight adhesive feel before the gold is put on. If
bronze shaded is introduced, size the part first, and then
take a hair pencil and dip it into the bronze or gold pow¬
der gently"; then rub the sized part, and it will produce
a soft shade. If it is to be solid bronze, let it be nearly
dry; rub the sized part gently over with a piece of sha-
moy leather dipped in bronze, then warm the tray, and
rub the part over smartly, when it will appear solid with
a metallic lustre. After all is gilt and bronzed, take a
common pen and etch up all the finer parts of the orna¬
ment with it; but for the stronger parts take a fine camel-
hair pencil dipped in black, to open up the ornament.
'The gold may be shaded with terre senna, and then put
into the stove till dry, when it may be varnished and polish¬
ed in the usual way.
In putting on raised work, take Chinese vermilion two
parts, and white lead two parts; mix them thick together
with turpentine, adding a small quantity of japan so as to
make it adhere to the ground. Then take a long hair pen¬
cil and dip it amongst the raising, keeping the pencil up¬
right so as to feed the point. Although the raising ap¬
pear flat or dull, it will take a bright polish by rubbing
it with the finger, after which it is sized and gilt.
JAP
In imitating Japanese or Chinese, this must be done on JapetU5
gloss or polished ground. As this kind of work is not ||
varnished, a little oil-colour may be mixed with the gold ^pheth.
size, such as white lead or chrome-yellow, which will en-
able the fine lines to be better seen, and make the work
more closely resemble gilding.
In painting on japan work, either oil or varnish colour
may be used. The varnish colour looks clearest, and is
most showy, but it requires great practice to blend the
colours so as to appear soft; oil-colour is at present that
most frequently used.
In varnishing white wood-work, or work covered with
paper, take sheep-skin size in a liquid state, dip into it
a camel-hair flat brush, and come over the work swiftly
with it, so as not to wash up the painting. When this is
dry, take hard white spirit varnish and a camel-hair flat
brush, and coat the work over smartly. It will appear whit¬
ish at first, but it will become clear as it dries. After it
has received four coats, let it stand for a day, until small
cracks appear all over it. Rub the gloss off the work, or
any knots, with the dry fingers, and then wipe it clean;
after which give three or four coats more, when the var¬
nish will appear full and flowing. Allow it to stand for
a day or two, then take a piece of woollen cloth wet
with water, dip it in ground pumice-stone, and smooth
down the work with it, and then wipe it clean. After
this take a piece of woollen cloth and dip it in rotten-
stone ground in sweet oil, wdth which rub the work till a
gloss appears. After wiping it, dip a piece of fine flannel
in sweet oil mixed with flour, and rub the work smartly;
powder it with dry flour, then rub it quickly off with the
palms of the hands, and a brilliant gloss will appear.
In japanning paper after it comes out of the dip-stove,
it must be coated till a full flowing body of japan is pro¬
duced. In polishing the above, care must be taken that
the ground is not overheated in the rubbing. If it be
brought up with amber varnish, it must stand till it be
thoroughly cool, otherwise the attraction of the ground
will draw the size out of the pencil before the work can
be executed. As black japan is generally the colour that
paper-grounds are filled up with, it greatly depends on
the japan or varnish being rich or old, as either will pro¬
duce a good gloss to the number of coats given. For any
other colour that is required, rub down the above ground
smooth ; for the first coat let it be white, but tinged a
little with the colour wanted, unless it be marone. The
first coat must be a light-olive colour smoothed down, thin¬
ly coated with crimson lake ; if a dark marone, purple-lake
is the pigment employed. The best polishing varnish ought
to be used in the finishing. Paper trays are brought
up in boards, sheet above sheet, with paste, to the thick¬
ness required, with the exception of the edges, which are
done upon iron moulds, and then taken off, planed, glued,
and nailed together, like a piece of wood. With regard
to Bristol board, or any other paper, it is japanned in the
usual manner, with a first coat of sheep-skin size to make
it bear out.
JAPETUS, a son of Ccelus and Terra, who married
Asia, Asope, Theonis, or Clymene, and had four sons,
Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. He was
thus considered as the author of the Hellenic race. (Apol-
lodor. i. 1, 2 ; Diodor. v. 66, 67; Hesiod, Theog. 134. la-
petionides, a son of Japetus ; Atlas, Ovid. Met. iv. 631).
He is supposed to be the same as Japheth, the son of
Noah.
JAPHETH, the son of Noah. Elis descendants pos¬
sessed all Europe and the islands in the Mediterranean, as
well those which belong to Europe, as those which de¬
pend on Asia. They had all Asia Minor, and the north¬
ern parts of Asia above the sources of the Tigris and Eu¬
phrates. Noah, when he blessed Japheth, said to him,
JAR
, es “ God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents
of Shera ; and Canaan shall be his servant.” This bless-
Jar sC ing of Noah is supposed to have been accomplished when
^ “^the Greeks, and after them the Romans, carried their con¬
quests into Asia and Africa, where were the dwellings
and dominions of Shem and Canaan.
JAPYDES, or Iapodes, a people who stretched along
the coast of the Adriatic, from the Gulf of Quarnero, as far
as Zara, the ancient Jadera, for a distance of 1000 stadia.
They occupied the valleys of Mons Albius, which form the
extreme point of the Alps to the east, extending in the
interior to the Pannonii and the Ister or Danube. They
were finally subdued by Augustus after they had twice de¬
feated the Romans within twenty years, attacked Aquileia,
and plundered Tergestum or Trieste. Their towns were
Metulum, Arupenum, Monettium, and Veudum. They
were in the habit of tatooing their bodies. (Strab. vii. 315 ;
Appian. Illyr. 18, 19.)
JAdUELOT, Isaac, a learned French Protestant di¬
vine, was born on the 16th December 1647, at Vassy in
Champagne, of which place his father was minister. The
revocation of the edict of Nantes having obliged him to quit
France, he took refuge first at Heidelberg, and then at the
Hague, where he procured an appointment in the Walloon
church. Here he continued till that capital was taken by
the king of Prussia, who, having heard him preach, ap¬
pointed him his French minister in ordinary at Berlin, to
which city he removed in 1702. During his residence at
Berlin he entered into a warm controversy with M. Bayle
on the doctrine advanced by him in his dictionary concern¬
ing Manichaeism, which dispute continued until death im¬
posed silence on both parties. It was in this controversy
that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the Remon¬
strants. His reputation as a writer rests principally on
the following works, viz. 1. Dissertation sur 1’Existence de
Dieu, Hague, 1697, in 4to; 2. Dissertation sur la Messe,
ou 1’on prouve aux Juifs que Jesus-Christ est le Messie
promis, et predit dans FAncien Testament, Hague, 1699,
in 8vo; 3. Traite de la Verite et de ITnspiration des
Livres du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam,
1715, in 8vo; 4. Select Sermons, Geneva, 1721, in two
vols. 12mo.
JAR, an earthen pot or pitcher, writh a big belly and
two handles. The word comes from the Spanish jarra or
jarro, which signifies the same thing.
JARCHI, Solomon, otherw iseSolomon, a famous
rabbi, born at Troyes, in Champagne, w?ho flourished in the
twelfth century. He was a perfect master of the Talmud
and Gemara; and he filled the postils of the Bible with so
many Talmudical reveries, as totally extinguished both the
literal and the moral sense of it. The greater part of his
commentaries are printed in Hebrew, and some have been
translated into Latin by the Christians. They are gene¬
rally esteemed by the Jews, who have bestowed on the
author the title oi'prince of commentators.
JARDYN, or Jardin, Karel du, a painter of conver¬
sations, landscapes, and such like subjects, was born at
Amsterdam in 1640, and became a disciple of Nicholas
Berchem. This painter, in colouring and touch, resembled
his master Berchem; but he added to that manner a force
which distinguishes the great masters of Italy ; and it is
observed, that most of his pictures seem to express the
warmth of the sun, and the light of mid day. However,
some of his subjects are often more extensive, containing
a greater number of objects, and a larger design. His
works are as much sought after as they are difficult to be
met with. He died at the age of thirty-eight.
JARENSK, a town of the Russian province of Wologda,
the capital of a circle of its own name, extending over
23,936 square miles, but containing no more than 31,500
inhabitants. It is generally a neglected district, covered
J A S 525
with woods, marshes, and lakes. The town is situated on Jaraeau
the river Wytscheda, which is usually closed by frost from ||
the beginning of November to the middle of April. It Jasher.
contains 200 houses, and from 1000 to 1100 inhabitants.
Long. 47. 33. E. Lat. 61. 20. N.
JARGEAU, a tow n of the arrondissement of Orleans,
in the department of the Loiret, in France. It stands on
the left bank of the river Loire, over which is a fine bridge.
It contains 428 houses, and 2690 inhabitants. Long. 2
1. E. Lat. 47. 50. N.
JARMERITZ, a town of the circle of Znaym, in the
Austrian province of Moravia, and situated on the river
Rokitna. It has near it a magnificent palace and park be¬
longing to the family of Questenburg, with a very exten¬
sive library. The town contains 272 houses, with 1650 in¬
habitants.
JARNAC, a tow n of the arrondissement of Cognac, in
the department of the Charente. in France, on the right
bank of the river. It contains 1560 inhabitants, amongst
whom are merchants dealing very extensively in brandy
for foreign countries. It is celebrated for the great battle
fought there in 1569, between the Huguenots and the Ca¬
tholics, in which the Prince of Conde was taken prisoner.
JAROSLAW, a government of European Russia, for¬
merly in the province of Moscow, to the eastward of Twer,
extending over 15,202 square miles. It comprehends
twelve cities or towns, 554 parishes, 7705 villages, and
1,022,900 inhabitants. It is an elevated level district.
The soil is generally marshy, but mixed with portions of
sandy or clayey land. It is miserably cultivated, and
though all the population are chiefly occupied in agricul¬
ture, it scarcely produces sufficient corn (chiefly rye and
barley) for their subsistence. Both hemp and flax succeed
tolerably w ell; and the conversion of these into the various
kinds of linen is a means of affording to the inhabitants of
the towns occupation and subsistence. The hides of their
cattle also form a branch of employment to the people, as
does the fishery on the rivers and lakes. The river Wolga
enters the province from Twer, and receives the waters of
numerous streams that flow through it. There is a lake of
eight miles in length and three in breadth, called Rostow,
out of which the Kotorosla runs to the Wolga; and thirty-
six smaller lakes, all, like the streams, abounding in fish.
The Wolga is navigable in its whole progress through the
province, as are also the Mologa and the Scheksna, which
run into it. The province is divided into ten circles. The
capital, Jaroslaw, is also that of the circle of the same
name. It stands at the junction of the Kotorosla with the
Wolga. It has no other fortification than palisades, but is
defended by a fortress. It contains forty-four churches,
several convents and hospitals, 2754 houses, and 24,200
inhabitants, whose chief subsistence arises from the linen
trade, and Russia leather. Long. 30. 4. 55. E. Lat. 57. 57.
30. N.
Jaroslaw, a city in the circle of Przemysl, in the Aus¬
trian kingdom of Gallicia, and situated on the river San.
It contains a minster and six other churches, for Catholics,
Greeks, and Protestants, with 1400 houses, and 6975 in¬
habitants, occupied in linen and woollen manufactures, and
in distilleries. It was a part of the ancient kingdom of
Poland, and is still the property of Prince Adam Czar-
toryski, a nobleman of the country. Long. 22. 47. E. Lat.
49. 59. N.
JASHER, The Book of. This book is mentioned by
Joshua, and referred to in the following passage: “ And
the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people
had avenged themselves upon their enemies : is not this
written in the book of Jasher?” It is difficult to deter¬
mine what this book of Jasher, or “ the upright,” is.
St Jerome and the Jews believed it to be Genesis, or
some other book of the Pentateuch, in which God had
526 J A S J A U
Jasio foretold that he would do wonderful things in favour
II of his people. Huetius supposes it to have been a
.Jason. |j001j 0f morality, in which it was said that God would
subvert the course of nature in favour of those who put
their trust in him. Others pretend that it was public
annals, or records, which were styled just, or upright,
because they contained a faithful account of the history
of the Israelites. Grotius believes that this book was
nothing else than a song, composed to celebrate the mi¬
racle, and victory therewith connected. This seems the
more probable opinion, because the words cited by Joshua
as taken from the work, “ Sun, stand thou still upon Gi-
beon, and thou moon in the valley of Ajalon, are such
poetical expressions as do not accord with historical me¬
moirs ; besides that, in the second book of Samuel (i. 18),
mention is made of a book under the same title, on account
of a song composed on the death of Saul and Jonathan.
JASLO, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Gallicia,
extending over 1354) square miles. It contains five cities,
eleven market-towns, and 366 villages, inhabited by
195,200 individuals, occupying 28,562 houses. It con¬
sists of part of the Carpathian Mountains, and the soil is
for the most part poor and stony ; but it produces corn
equal, with the aid of potatoes, to the consumption. The
capital is the city of the same name, situated at the junc¬
tion of the rivers Jastel and Wisloka, and containing 224
houses, and 1463 inhabitants. K
JASON, chief of the Argonautic expedition, was son
of iEson, king of lolcos, and of Alcimede or Polymede.
His father w^as obliged to yield to the superior power of
his brother Pelias, and was driven from his kingdom.
Jason wras secretly carried by his mother to the valleys
of Mount Pelion, and there delivered into the hands of
Chiron the centaur. By him he was trained to the arts
of war, and began his adventurous career by joining in
pursuit of the Calydonian boar. Then, in obedience to
the orders of an oracle in Magnesia, he presented himself
at lolcos to reclaim the kingdom, covered with the skin of
a leopard, and armed with two javelins. Pelias had been
warned by an oracle to beware of a man who should ap¬
pear with one foot shod and the other uncovered. Jason,
by some accident, entered lolcos in this manner, and the
suspicions of Pelias were of course immediately excited.
He boldly demanded the kingdom, to which he was the
rightful heir; but Pelias prevailed on him to proceed to
Colchis to get possession of the golden fleece, promising
on his return to resign the crown. He was accompanied in
this expedition by all the bravest of the Greeks (see Ar¬
gonauts) ; and, after many curious adventures, they all
arrived in safety in Colchis. Jason proceeded to present
himself at the court of Tletes, and explained to him the ob¬
ject of his voyage. The king agreed to restore the golden
fleece, provided he submitted to certain conditions the for¬
mer would impose on him. He must tame brazen-footed
bulls, whose nostrils breathed flames, and plough with
them a field sacred to Mars. He must then kill a dragon
which kept watch day and night over the golden fleece,
and sow in the field which he had tilled the teeth of this
serpent, from which armed men would spring, ready to
attack him. The destruction of Jason seemed inevitable,
but he was extricated from his difficulties by Medea, the
king’s daughter. His lofty bearing, and the intrepid na¬
ture of the enterprise, had captivated the heart of Medea,
and she determined to deliver her lover from all his dan¬
gers, if he promised her eternal fidelity. By her magic
herbs, he performed the conditions, to the astonishment of
Aietes and his subjects ; and, having obtained possession of
the golden fleece, returned to his native country, accom¬
panied by Medea, whom he afterwax-ds married. Medea,
however, carried along with her Absyrtus, her brother;
and when she heard that her father was in pursuit, she
tore him to pieces, and scattered his limbs in different
places, that she might escape whilst her father was era- ||
ployed in collecting the mangled body of his son. They ’huts,
arrived in safety in lolcos, where they were received with
the greatest joy. iEson was restored to youth again by
the magic power of Medea ; and Pelias, the usurper of the
crown, wishing to be restored to the flower of youth, al¬
lowed himself to be cut up by his daughter at the per¬
suasion of Medea, and thrown into a boiling caldron.
Thus Pelias perished by a miserable death. But Jason
was obliged to fly with Medea, and proceed to Corinth,
where they lived in great harmony for four years. At
the end of that time, having divorced Medea, he married
Glauce, or Creusa, daughter of Creon, son of Sisyphus,
king of Corinth ; but his inconstancy was severely avenged.
Medea slewr his sons in his presence, and burnt Creusa,
together with Creon and Jason. Another tradition states
that they returned to Colchis, and reinstated on his throne
iEetes, whom a faction had expelled.
JASPER, a species of mineral belonging to the sili¬
ceous genus of stones, and of which there are many varie¬
ties, some of them extremely beautiful, which are much
sought after, and employed as trinkets and ornaments. See
Mineralogy.
JASPONYX, an obsolete term in mineralogy, importing,
as appears from the name, a compound of jasper and onyx.
JASSY, a city, the capital of Moldavia, the residence of
the prince, of a Greek archbishop, and of many of the way-
wodes or nobles. It stands on a lofty situation, but is sur¬
rounded with hills still higher. It is watered by brooks
forming a stream ending in the Pruth. The town is com¬
posed chiefly of wooden houses, and is said to be exces¬
sively filthy, and by no means healthy. The palace of the
prince is plain, small, and badly situated. The city contains
no less than forty-three churches, with tw7enty-six convents
and nunneries of the Greek religion. It has also a Catho¬
lic and a Lutheran chapel. The houses are stated to be
six thousand in numbei’, and the inhabitants from twenty-
five to thirty thousand. It is not a place of any other
trade than such as arises from providing for the luxuries
of a voluptuous nobility and a petty sovereign. Long.
27. 24. 55. E. Lat. 47. 8. 30. N.
JASTROW, a city of the chxle of Deutschkrone, in
the province of East Prussia, situated on a brook running
to the river Kuddow. It contains 296 houses, and 2380
inhabitants, of whom more than 400 are Jews. There is a
manufactory for arms and military clothing.
JAUER, a city, the capital of a district of the same
name, in the circle of Herschberg, of the Prussian province
of Silesia. It stands on the river Neisse, is surrounded
with walls and ditches, and contains one Lutheran and five
Catholic churches, 604 houses, and 5230 inhabitants, chief¬
ly occupied in the several branches of the linen manufac¬
ture.
JAULNAY, a town of the arrondissement of Poitiers,
in the department of the Yienne, in France, on the river
Elain, with 245 houses and 1476 inhabitants. Close to
this town wras fought, in 1356, the battle usually called that
of Poitiers, and sometimes Maupertuis, in which Edward
the Black Prince defeated the French army, and made King
John a prisoner.
JAUNDICE (deidved from the French jaunisse, yellow¬
ness, of jaune, yellow), a disease consisting in a suffusion
of the bile, and a rejection thereof to the surface of the
body, whereby the whole exterior habit is discoloured.
JAUTS, a people of Hindustan, who have at different
times made some figure in its annals. The fii’st historical
mention of them occurs at the beginning of the eleventh
century, on the invasion of India by Mahmoud the Gazne-
vide. That conqueror found them established on the east¬
ern bank of the Indus, prepared to oppose his passage. For
JAY
i jft, this purpose they had mustered a large fleet of boats, to
^ the number, according to some accounts, of eight thousand.
They were completely defeated, however, and driven into
the mountainous districts in the interior of India.
From this time the Jauts remained in obscurity, till the
reign of Aurungzebe. Churamana, a Jaut of some distinc¬
tion, collected then some troops of banditti, with whom he
began to commit depredations on travellers. Popular and
enterprising, he gradually rose from a captain of robbers
to be a powerful chieftain ; and, availing himself of Au-
rungzebe’s absence in the Deccan, became the terror of the
country round. He had even the audacity, on one occa¬
sion, to plunder the rear of that monarch’s army ; and,
when pursued, took refuge among the mountains of Nar-
war, where he eluded all attempts to extirpate his force.
Under the growing imbecility of Aurungzebe’s successors,
the Jauts continually extended their power, till at length,
during the weak reign of Mahommed Shah, and under their
enterprising head, Sooraje Mull, it rose to its utmost height.
That chief wrested continually new concessions from the
weak emperor, till he was able almost to dictate the coun¬
sels of the Mogul court. A reverse, however, took place on
the invasion of Northern India by Ahmed Shah, the so¬
vereign of Caubul. Sooraje Mull, having opposed that in¬
vader, saw his territory overrun, and was obliged to seek
aid from the Mahratta power. When the Mahrattas, how¬
ever, invaded Delhi, the Jaut chief went over to Ahmed
Shah, and otfered to atone for former hostility by his ser¬
vices on that critical occasion. The battle of Panniput
followed, in which the Mahrattas were totally routed, and
their power for the time entirely broken. Ahmed Shah
J A
This large and fertile island belongs to the group which
modern geographers denominate the Sunda Islands. It
extends eastward, with a slight deviation on the south,
from 105. 11. to 114. 33. of east longitude from Green¬
wich, and lies between the latitudes of 5. 52. and 8. 46.
south. It is in length, between Java Head and the
south-east point of the island, 666 statute miles; and its
breadth varies from 135^ miles, between the south-west
point of Pachitan Bay and the north point of Japara,
to fifty-six miles, between the mouth of the Serayu River
and the Marabaya. Its area is estimated at 50,000
miles. On the south and west it is washed by the Indian
Ocean; to the north-west by a strait called the Straits of
Sunda, which separates it from the island of Sumatra at
a distance, at the narrowest point, of only fourteen miles ;
and on the south-east by the Straits of Bali, only two
miles wide, which divide it from the island of that name.
These islands, and others stretching eastward, form with
Java a gentle curve of more than 2000 geographical miles.
From the eastern peninsula of India, Java is distant 140
leagues, from Borneo about fifty-six leagues, and from
New Holland 200.
ispe of The island of Java is of a rectangular form, so that if
ij!c :1* d were divided into five or six parts, each would form
a parallelogram. It is extremely diversified on its sur¬
face. An uninterrupted range of lofty mountains, varying
in elevation from 5000 to 11,000 and even 12,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and exhibiting in their round
bases or pointed tops their volcanic origin, extends almost
cast and west through the whole length of the island.
They rise to their greatest elevations towards the centre,
which is much broken. The tops of these mountains
were formerly the craters of volcanoes, which are now ex-
J A V
rewarded the services rendered by his new ally in this
hour of need, by the important cession of Agra and its dis¬
trict. Sooraje Mull, and his son Jowalier Sing, made re¬
peated attempts to obtain possession of Delhi, but were
always baffled by untoward circumstances. Jowalier Sing
was assassinated by an impostor, who had undertaken to
initiate him in the secret of the philosopher’s stone. He
left his son an infant; a circumstance which, affording an
open field to the dissensions of the chiefs, weakened the
Jaut power, and rendered it unable to contend with the
other fierce competitors for the spoils of the Mogul. In
their contests, particularly with Nujeeph Khan, they were
gradually stripped of all their possessions, and at length
reduced to the fortress of Bhurtpore, with a small surround¬
ing district. When the British power became predomi¬
nant in this part of India, Runjeet Sing, rajah of the Jauts,
sought security by concluding a treaty with Lord Lake,
by which, on engaging to assist Britain against all enemies,
he not only retained the internal government of his terri¬
tories, but was even exempted from paying any tribute.
Yet, in 1805, after the defeat of Holkar, he received that
chief, with his discomfited army, into Bhurtpore. The
place sustained a most desperate siege, and cost the Bri¬
tish army an immense number of lives. At length the
rajah, despairing of effectual resistance, agreed to compel
Holkar to quit the place, and to give it up to the British,
on condition of retaining the government of his territories,
and the fortress of Deeg. He was obliged, however, to
pay twenty lacs of rupees, and to give ample security
for a more faithful observance of this treaty than of the
former.
Y A.
tinguished, though many of them emit smoke after heavy
rains. From this great chain other innumerable ranges of
hills of inferior height run in various directions, and serve
to form and confine plains and valleys of different eleva¬
tions and extent. These mountainous regions present
all the most romantic and highly diversified scenery which
is to be found amid waving forests, never-failing streams,
and constant verdure, heightened by a pure atmosphere,
and the glowing tints of a tropical sun. The aspect of
the northern coast is low, in many places swampy, and
overgrown with mangrove trees and bushes, particularly
towards the west. But in advancing five miles inland a
sensible improvement is experienced in the atmosphere
and climate. Every step in advance leads to a purer air
and a brighter scene. Here, amid the mountains, are
found elevated and fertile plains, the seat of industry and
skilful cultivation. “ Here,” says Sir Stamford Raffles,
“ stupendous mountains are clothed with abundant har¬
vests, impetuous cataracts tamed to the peasant’s will.
Here is perpetual verdure ; here are tints of the bright¬
est hue. In the hottest season the air retains its fresh¬
ness, in the driest the innumerable rills and rivulets pre¬
serve much of their water. This the mountain farmer
directs in endless conduits and canals, to irrigate the
land, which he has laid out in terraces for its reception ;
it then descends to the plains, and spreads fertility wher¬
ever it flows, till at last, by numerous outlets, it discharg¬
es itself into the sea.”1 The principal harbour is that of
Sourabaya, in the eastern districts, formed by the ap¬
proaching extremities of Java and Madura, which is
broad and spacious, and secure against the violence of
the sea and the wind. The next in importance is that
of Batavia, more properly the roads of Batavia, which
1 See History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, vol. i. p. 24.
528 J A
Java, are sheltered by several islands lying in the outer part
of the bay. There are other positions along the northern
coast which might be improved into convenient harbours,
though the whole coast affords excellent anchorage at
moderate depths during nearly all seasons of the year.
In the smooth sea and moderate weather which usually
prevail, the native vessels and small craft always find suf¬
ficient shelter at the change of the monsoon, when it is
dangerous to anchor on the coast, by running for shelter
under some of the islands which are scattered in thos-e
seas, or passing up the rivers, which, though presenting
a difficult entrance, from the mud banks, that forma bar
at their mouth, are mostly navigable for small vessels as
far up as the maritime capitals through which they run.
The south coast, which rises into high and rugged cliff's,
is inaccessible, with the exception of a few bays, on ac¬
count of its exposure to the open sea, and the violent
surf which in consequence dashes against it.
From the mountains of Java numerous streams pour
down into the plains. There is no space, indeed, for the
formation of large rivers. But there are probably no
less than fifty which in the wet season bear down rafts
of timber and other rough produce of the country, and not
less than five or six at all times navigable to the distance
of some miles from the coast; and those which are useful
to the agriculturist for the irrigation of the lands cannot be
numbered. The principal rivers are the Solo, the largest
in the island, which discharges itself on the north side by
two principal outlets into the sea near Gressek, and by which
the produce of an extensive country is carried down in flat-
bottomed boats to the sea. The river of Sourabaya, which
is the second in magnitude, falls into the sea by five out¬
lets near Sourabaya. There are several smaller rivers in
these eastern districts, wffiich fall into the ocean on the
northern shore, and which are highly useful for the con¬
veyance of teak timber from the interior forests to the
coast; or which, being directed into canals, tend to im¬
prove the inland navigation of the country. Towards the
west, the principal rivers which fall into the sea on the
northern coast are the Chikandi, the Chidani, the Chi-
taram, and the Chimanok. Those which discharge them¬
selves by the south coast are the Chimandiri, which falls
into the sea at Wyn-Coop’s Bay, the Chitandui, the Se-
rayu, and others. Along the northern coast almost every
district has its principal river, but they have all the dis¬
advantage of being blocked up at their entrance by the
accumulation of mud banks, an evil which is increasing
with the extension of agriculture, from the quantity of
soil necessarily washed down in the process of irrigating
the land for the cultivation of rice. Java contains no
lakes of any considerable size, though there are several
very beautiful lakes of small dimensions among the hills,
many of which are the craters of extinguished volcanoes.
There are also extensive swamps, which, though they are
filled with water during the wet season, are for the rest of
the year dried up or choked by vegetation.
Soil and Java possesses a soil that is extremely rich, and remark-
climate. able for its depth, owing, as Sir Stamford Raffles conjec¬
tures, to the exclusively volcanic constitution of the coun¬
try, and the quantity of new mould that is constantly
washed dowm the sides of its mountains. The best soil
resembles the richest garden mould in Europe. The
seasons, as in all tropical countries, are distinguished into
wet and dry, and depend on the periodical winds, or the
monsoons. Ihe west monsoon, which brings on the an¬
nual rains, begins in October, and becomes more steady
in November and December ; it continues till the latter
end of February or the beginning of March. It often
V A.
blows with great violence, and is accompanied with heavy Javi.
rains, w hich renders this the most unhealthy season. The
month of April ushers in the easterly winds and fair wea- /
ther, which continue for the remaining half year. But
the rains, though they often fall in torrents, are not so
constant nor so violent as on the continent of India. Dur¬
ing the rainyseason therearedays free from showers; while,
again, in July and August, occasional rains refresh the
atmosphere, and preserve the brightest verdure of the land¬
scape throughout the year. Thunder-storms are frequent, and
the lightning very vivid. The thermometer on the northern
coast, at Batavia, Semarang, and Sourabaya, occasionally
rises, about three in the afternoon, to 90°, which it rarely
exceeds; but in general it has been found to range between
70° and 74° in the evenings, and 83° at noon, or at Sema¬
rang 87°. At thirty or forty miles inland from Batavia, on
the mountains, it ranges between 60° and 70°, above which
it seldom rises. On the hills of Semarang, where Euro¬
peans frequently reside during the dry season, at an elevation
of about 4000 feet, it is frequently, in the mornings, as low
as 45°, and ranges between 50° and 62° ; and on the sum¬
mit of one of the highest mountains, Sindoro, it has been
seen as lo w as 270.1 From its insular situation, Java en¬
joys the benefit of the land and sea breeze ; and its diver¬
sified surface affords the choice of climate, and a regular
diminution of temperature, in proportion to the elevation.
With the exception of the city of Batavia, where the cli¬
mate is the most baneful in the world, and the low marshy
flats on the northern shore, the island of Java is, in point
of salubrity, equal to the healthiest parts of British India,
or of any tropical country in the world. This fact is at¬
tested by the medical registers of the different British re¬
giments stationed in this island. From the 1st November
1813 to the 1st November 1814, the deaths among 7470
British troops, who were exposed to many disadvantages
and privations, did not exceed 504, which was only in the
proportion of 1 to 14. From November 1814 to Novem¬
ber 1815, out of 7487 troops, 252 died, 63 by fever, 123
by dysentery, and 65 by other diseases, which is only in
the proportion of 1 in 30 in a year; a low estimate for
climates that have borne a better character for salubrity
than that of Java.
This island abounds in the number and extraordinary va- Vegetable
viety of its vegetable productions. Between the tops of the produce,
mountains and the sea-shore is comprised almost every de¬
gree of temperature, and hence the produce of every region
finds here some congenial spot. Rice, of which there are
a hundred varieties, is cultivated on all the low grounds
and ravines along the sea-coast, and in other situations
commanding a supply of water. It is the great staple of
agriculture in Java, to which every other species of hus¬
bandry is subordinate; and this island is the granary of
the eastern archipelago, from which all the other adjacent
islands and states of Sumatra, Molucca, Borneo, Celebes,
and the Moluccas, have been long supplied; while every
year about six or eight thousand tons were formerly sent
by the Dutch to Ceylon, Coromandel, the Cape, and their
other settlements. Notwithstanding this abundant produce,
it is calculated that about seven eighths of the island are ei¬
ther neglected or badly cultivated; and such is the fertili¬
ty of the soil, that it is from the remaining one eighth that
these great supplies are derived. Maize or Indian corn
ranks next in importance to rice, and is principally cul¬
tivated in the higher regions, and in those tracts where
there are no mountain streams for the irrigation of the soil.
Its cultivation has of late been extended in Java, and is
becoming more and more a favourite article of food.
Wheat has been introduced by the Europeans, and cul-
See Raffles History of Java, vol. i. p. 3S; Batavian Transactions, vol. viii. Introductory Discourse.
JAVA.
tivated with success to an extent required by the Eu-
ropean inhabitants. It thrives well in the interior of the
country. Oats and other grain thrive in those parts of
the island, and would be produced in great abundance were
due attention given to their culture. Potatoes have been
cultivated during the last forty years, in elevated situations,
near all the principal European establishments, and are
found of a good quality; also most of the common culi¬
nary vegetables of Europe, though their quality is apt to
degenerate unless fresh supplies of seed be procured from
Europe. Other species of grain, and leguminous vegeta¬
bles, and a variety of pulses, are raised as green crops in
intervals between those of rice ; and in times of scarcity
the natives make use of various kinds of the plantain, also
the yam and the sweet potato. But in general Indian corn
is the only article used by some as a substitute for rice.
Cotton of an inferior quality to the Indian cotton is culti¬
vated in almost every part of the island, and its cheapness
occasions a considerable exportation. The coffee plant
thrives luxuriantly in Java. It was first introduced about
the year 1723 by the Dutch, who established a monopoly of
the article, and forced the natives to cultivate it, and deliver
it into the government stores at a reduced price. Du¬
ring the French administration of Marshal Daendels this
cruel oppression was carried still further, and in certain
districts every family was forced to take care of a thou¬
sand plants, and deliver the produce into the government
stores. Under the more humane rule of the British gover¬
nor, Sir Stamford Raffles, the free cultivation of coffee was
permitted to the inhabitants, and all compulsory labour was
abolished. The quality of the Java coffee is reckoned supe-
riortothatof the Westlndies, and ranks with that of Bourbon
in the European markets; its cultivation, for which many
parts of the island are eminently adapted, has therefore
been greatly extended ; and it is exported to the amount of
twenty-six millions of pounds, which is about two sevenths of
the produce of the West Indies. The soil is very favourable
to the growth of tobacco, which was introduced by Euro¬
peans, and is now extensively raised for exportation in the
central districts of the island, about five millions of pounds
being sent to the rest of the archipelago. In some parts it
forms, after rice, the most important article of cultivation.
Pepper was at one time the principal export from Java;
but it was strictly monopolized by the government, and the
most oppressive modes were resorted to in order to en*
hance its price. For some time past it has ceased to be
cultivated to any extent. Indigo is raised in most parts
of the island ; and both the climate and soil of Java offer
peculiar advantages for the extensive cultivation of this
plant. The natives prepare the indigo very unskilfully,
and hence it is of very indifferent quality. But if it were
more carefully manufactured, it might form a most valuable
and important export for the European market.
Notwithstanding the extent to which cultivation has
been carried in many districts of the island, large portions
of the surface are covered with primeval forests, affording
excellent timber for almost every purpose. Extensive fo¬
rests of teak are found in almost all the eastern provinces,
but especially in the central districts of the island. There
are great varieties of other kinds of timber, as the suren
(the tuna of Bengal), of which the wood is light, strong,
and durable, having something of the smell of cedar, and
which, as the grain is not fine, is used for making chests,
trunks, and carriages. The wungu is often used instead of
teak. It is of a somewhat finer grain, and, when in full
blossom, is the most beautiful tree existing. The wadang
or bayur, a light wood, is well adapted for the masts and
spars of small vessels. There are several other similar woods,
of which are formed the handles of spears and pikes.
There is a close and ponderous wood, the nangka, which
is used for beams and rafters in the construction of houses,
VOL. XIX.
and sometimes for household furniture. There are other
woods, heavy, hard, and close in the grain, which are used
for the anchors of small vessels, for ships' blocks, for naves
of wheels, for handles of tools for carpenters and other
artificers, for cart-wheels, for machinery, and such like
purposes. Ihere are other light woods, which are useful
for canoes, for the handles of axes and other like tools,
and which are manufactured into planks. There are
various descriptions of woods that are well adapted for
household furniture, cabinet ware, &c. of a deep-brown or
black colour, and which take a fine polish ; others of a
lighter colour, and finely grained, that are used for inlaying.
There are other kinds of woods of various colours, varie¬
gated, white, and black, or of yellowish or brown colours,
and very heavy, which are employed for canes, handles,
and spears. The bamboo flourishes in great luxuriance
and variety. The rattans of Java are, however, inferior
to those of Sumatra and Borneo. Many woods afford
excellent fuel; and amongst the useful trees may be reck¬
oned the soap tree, of which the fruit is very commonly
used in the washing of linen ; the kasemak, from the bark
of which is made a varnish for umbrellas ; the oampang,
from the resin of which the natives prepare a shining var¬
nish for the wooden sheaths of krises; the cotton-tree,
from which a silky wool is obtained for stuffing pillows and
beds ; the wax-tree, from the kernel of which an oil is ex¬
pressed, which some time after becomes hard, and bears
a resemblance to wax, and may be burnt in lamps or con¬
verted into candles, affording when burning an agreeable
odour; the shrub is also produced which yields the elas¬
tic gum from which the India rubber is prepared. This
substance is converted into torches, which are employed
in searching for edible bird-nests in the caves of the
rocks. Few of the trees in Java exude the odoriferous
resins which abound in Sumatra, Borneo, and the eastern
islands. The camphor tree is unknown. None of the
finer kinds of spices, such as the nutmeg, the clove, or the
cinnamon, are indigenous to Java; but the few trees planted
by Europeans in gardens have thriven well, and there is
little doubt that the nutmeg and the clove might be ex¬
tensively cultivated throughout the island. The vine
would also thrive well in some of the eastern provinces;
but its growth was always discouraged by the narrow po¬
licy of the Dutch, who were afraid lest it should interfere
with the wine trade of the Cape of Good Hope. The
cottage of every peasant is surrounded with plantations of
cocoa-nut trees, which constitute an inheritance that is
transmitted from father to son, and which it is reckoned
a sacred duty to transmit, and to augment by new plan¬
tations. The various species of the palm-tree are found
in Java; and, besides the cocoa-nut, there are many trees
growing spontaneously, of which the seeds and kernels
are used as food. The true sago of Amboyna and the
eastern islands is found in a fair, low, and marshy situa¬
tion, though the preparation of it from the pith of the tree
is not known to the inhabitants of Java; but from the
aren or sagurus rumpnii, which abounds in all parts, and,
from its various and extensive uses, ranks next in importance
to the cocoa-nut, a substance is prepared similar in all re¬
spects to the true sago of the eastern islands. Other trees
exude gums and balsamic oils. The kubab yields a bal¬
samic oil or jelly, which is much esteemed, which has
the smell and taste of camphor, and is taken inwardly for
violent coughs, or disorders in the stomach. The ben¬
zoin-tree produces an odoriferous gum, of an orange co¬
lour, which is a valuable article of commerce. The upas
or famous poison-tree of Java has long attracted the cu¬
riosity of naturalists, and has been the subject of many
wonderful, and, as now appears, fabulous tales. It is one
of the largest trees in the forests of Java, and rises with
a completely naked stem to the perpendicular height of
3 x
JAVA.
sixty, seventy, and eighty feet, when it sends off a few
stout branches. The bark, which in old trees is almost
half an inch thick, on being cut yields a milky juice, from
which a poison is prepared equal in fatality to the strongest
animal poisons hitherto known. The inner bark resembles
a coarse piece of linen which is worked into ropes, and
which, after much bruising, washing, and immersion in
water, is worn by the lower classes when working in the
fields. But it is remarkable, that after being exposed to
a shower of rain, this dress produces an intolerable itching,
the effect of a small portion of the poison still adhering to
the bark. The story of the tree poisoning the surround¬
ing atmosphere is altogether a fable. It is extremely dif¬
ficult to penetrate into the forests of Java, from the quan¬
tity of underwood and creeping plants with which they are
entangled.
“ No region of the earth,” says Marsden, “ can boast of
a greater abundance and variety of indigenous fruits than
Java. The mangustin, pre-eminent for delicacy of fla¬
vour amongst all the fruits of the East, of a round form
and a purple colour, is found in great abundance. The
dorian, a large fruit, like the bread fruit in appearance,
of a disgusting smell, and of a flavour like a custard, is
said, when seasoned with garlic, to become by frequent
use extremely fascinating. The rambutan, a cool and
agreeable fruit, of a delicate sub-acid flavour, grows on a
showy and elegant tree. The lanseh or lanseb, much re¬
lished by the lower classes, grows in clusters like grapes,
and has a pulpy substance, with a delicate sub-acid flavour.
The pumplemoos, the Batavian lembu or vine of Bengal,
and the shaddock of the West Indies, is in Java of an
exquisite flavour ; as also the pine-apple, which is much
superior to that of Hindustan. There are besides exten¬
sive varieties of the atrocarpus or jack-fruit, which grows
wild in abundance; of the mango, of which no less than
forty varieties are enumerated ; the plantain, the guava,
the rose-apple, the custard-apple, the papaw, besides dates,
pomegranates, tamarinds, figs, annanas, oranges, lemons,
citrons, melons, pumpkins. In some of the mountainous
tracts are to be found peaches, Chinese pears, and other
fruits imported from Japan, the Cape of Good Hope, and
China. Of the oil-giving plants there are many. From
the palma christi is obtained most of the oil that is burned
in lamps. There are numerous trees, plants, and shrubs,
which supply, from the bark or the leaves, fibres that are
converted into ropes, threads, lines used for fishing,
thread, and finally cloth, or spun into a kind of stuff re¬
sembling silk, gauze, &c. Mats are made from a kind of
grass, and from the leaves of various palms; and the pa¬
per in common use amongst the Javans is manufactured
from the morns papyrifera.
The plants and herbs, and the innumerable flowers
which bloom in perpetual succession in Java throughout
the year, and impregnate the air with their fragrance,
present an inexhaustible field for the researches of the
botanist. Many of the flowers are used by the natives in
adorning their persons, and are remarkable for their frag¬
rance. From the fula majori, of which whole fields are
cultivated, a water is distilled superior to rose-water;
and from the eglantine tree, originally imported from Per¬
sia, a rose-water is distilled which is in great repute. The
coral trees, of different species, are all elegant and showy;
and amongst the trees and shrubs there are some that are
rare and curious, such as the casuarina equisetifolia, whose
pendent branches resemble the hair of the cassowary. The
bombax bears a long pod, which contains a silky substance
that is used for stuffing cushions. Many varieties of
flowers and plants are cultivated in gardens on account of
their beauty and fragrance, such as the elastic gum-tree,
the convolvulus jalappa, the styrax liquida, and the moun¬
tain cabbage-tree of the West Indies. The pitcher-plant
(nepenthes distillatoria) is found in the most arid situa- jav
tions, and is provided with a curious contrivance for re- ''-'vx/
taining the rains or the dews which refresh the parched
ground. To the stalk which bears the leaves, a small tube
in the form of a pitcher, and covered with a lid, is attached.
By means of a hinge or strong fibre passing over the
handle, and connected v/ith the leaf, which is contracted
when the weather is showery, or when the dews fall, the
lid is opened for the reception of the moisture ; and when
it is filled it closes again, so firmly as to prevent evapora¬
tion, and thus water is secured for the sustenance of the
plant. Java produces a variety of medicinal plants, many
of which are little known in Europe, though several,
whose properties have been investigated, are likely to be¬
come valuable articles in medicinal practice. It yields
also a great variety of culinary vegetables, such as the
kurkum, a favourite plant used by the Malays in cook¬
ing their fish and flesh, to which it gives the colour and
taste of saffron ; the pattatas, reckoned a very wholesome
root, and eaten either raw or roasted, in which state it
has the taste of a chestnut; the foki-foki, which, when
boiled in wine with pepper, tastes like an artichoke. All
other garden plants, such as endives, cauliflowers, beans,
cabbages, pompions, water-melons, yams, potatoes, &c.
are produced in great abundance throughout the island.
Neither the camel nor the elephant is found in Java, Animal;,
nor have they either the ass or the mule. But they have
a male breed of fine horses, strong, fleet, and well made;
and a still finer breed is imported from Buna, or the neigh¬
bouring island of Sumbawa, which much resembles the
Arabian horse in all qualities excepting size. The bull
and the cow are common, and the breed has been im¬
proved by a species brought from the continent of India.
But the animal of most essential use in agriculture is the
buffalo, which is a large and fierce animal, heavier than
our largest oxen, and well qualified for a beast of burden.
Goats of a small size are numerous; sheep are scarce and
small. The hog is principally reared by the Chinese.
Wild animals abound in the forests. The royal tiger is
here as powerful and as large as in Bengal. There is a
smaller species of a black kind which is very ferocious, and
in size and shape resembles a leopard; there is also the
leopard and the tiger-cat. The rhinoceros is amongst the
largest quadrupeds found in Java. It is principally met
with in the western parts, lying in the deep jungles of the
high grass, remote from observation. Deer and antelopes
abound in the woods ; also hares and rabbits, as well as all
the varieties of the wild hog, which are extremely destruc¬
tive to the plantations. Other smaller quadrupeds, such as
the weasel and squirrel, are common. Amongst the fea¬
thered tribes are found the cassowary, called emeu by the
Indians, a very large and powerful bird ; the white eagle,
and several varieties of the falcon; also the carrion-crow
and the owl, the peacock, two species of parrots, one of
which is very beautiful, and sells at a high price. Birds
of paradise sometimes visit the island. Pigeons of the
most beautiful plumage are found ; also pheasants, jingle
and pea-fowl, quail, snipes; wild ducks and geese are
not so common. The Java sparrow is a very handsome
bird. Amongst the most interesting subjects for the study
of the naturalist is the small swallow, which forms edible
nests, of which large quantities are annually export¬
ed to the Chinese market, where they are considered as
a very great luxury. The aquatic tribe are numerous.
At the mouths of the rivers the cayman or alligator,
more resembling the crocodile of Egypt than that of
the Ganges, is found lurking for its prey. The water-
guana, in length about six or seven feet, infests the rivers
and ponds, where it is very destructive. There are va¬
rious kinds of lizards ; amongst others a small one, which
is not above eighteen or twenty inches in length. Two spe*
su
J A
cies of the turtle are found in the surrounding seas, which
»■'' abound also in a variety of excellent fish not known in
Europe; and in soles and carp, as well as in oysters and
shell-fish of every kind. There are thirty-four species of
river-fish, many of which are excellent. In the several
bays on the shores of the island are numerous sharks,
which are often seen swimming around the ships.
The serpent brood are numerous, and of various kinds.
It is uncertain whether the boa constrictor be found in
Java. There are several which attain to a very large size,
from twenty-five to thirty feet in length. One of these,
the ular lalang, is much dreaded by the natives, and is
said to be poisonous. Scorpions and musquitoes abound
in marshes; and there are various sorts of dangerous and
disgusting vermin, such as ants, spiders, fire-flies, which
swarm in the roads, houses, and even bed-chambers of the
inhabitants. In the woods is found a venomous spider,
the body of which is nearly two inches in diameter, the
fore legs and claws nearly four inches in length, and the
webs spun by it so strong as frequently to entangle and
catch the smaller birds.
c- Manufacturing industry can scarcely be said to exist
in Java. Weaving is exclusively practised by the wo¬
men, who make coarse cloths of cotton, and sometimes
of silk, for the use of their families. These they dye of
various colours; but, with the exception of blue and scar¬
let, all their dyes are apt to fade. Tanning is carried on
in some districts with tolerable success; also saddlery ;
and there are manufactures in iron, brass, and tin. Salt
is manufactured in Java to a great extent, both for the
home supply and also for exportation. Under the Dutch
government, the manufacture of salt was farmed out to
the Chinese as an exclusive privilege ; a system liable to
much abuse, and which left the price in a great measure
at the discretion of the farmer. The farming of salt was
abolished under the British regime in 1813. Saltpetre is
obtained in many parts of the island, and whilst the French
possessed the island, saltpetre works were established un¬
der European superintendents ; powder-mills, founderies for
shells, shot, anvils, &c. and manufactories of swords and
small arms. From the resources and industry of this island
alone the French were enabled to equip an army of 15,000
men, besides a numerous militia in every district; a proof
of the progress of manufacturing industry amongst the na¬
tives. The trade of a blacksmith is held in high estimation,
and considered almost as a liberal profession; chiefly, it is
probable, on account of the value attached to the manu¬
facture of arms. Their small boats and barks are made
of various and convenient shapes ; but they fail whenever
they attempt to construct vessels of any magnitude.
ce. < The commerce of Java was very extensive at the pe¬
riod of the Dutch establishment in the Eastern Seas.
“ But,” says Sir Stamford Raffles, “ it would be painful to
point out how far, or to show in what manner, that com¬
merce was interfered with, checked, changed in its cha¬
racter, and reduced in its importance, by the influence of
a withering monopoly, the rapacity of avarice armed with
power, and the short-sighted tyranny of a mercantile ad¬
ministration.” The Javans were, prior to this time, plen¬
tifully supplied both with gold and jewels, and with other
valuable articles, in exchange for the produce of their
tranquil industry and their fertile soil. Constant re¬
quisitions were made by the government for the services
of native vessels, at rates far below a just compensa¬
tion ; and native traders were forbidden to trade in any
of the articles of the Dutch monopoly. This traffic was
almost entirely annihilated, or diverted from its course,
by the restrictive policy of the Dutch, and by their mo¬
nopolies. The commerce of the country revived under
the more liberal administration of the British governor
Sir Stamford Raffles, one of those great and enlightened
V A.
men who seemed to value the possession of power only as
it enabled him to benefit mankind. This extension of
trade appears from the increasing amount of tonnage em¬
ployed to carryiton. Fheshippingthatclearedoutfromthe
port of Batavia in 1812, was 52,375 tons ; in 1813, 64,306 ;
in 1814, 72,718. By an official return in March 1816, it
appeals that the total quantity of tonnage in vessels
boarded in their passage through the Straits of Sunda,
amounted, in 1812, to 45,000 tons ; in 1813, to 56,000
tons; in 1814, to 64,000 tons; and in 1815, to 130,000
tons ; and, adding vessels not boarded, the whole tonnage
for four years would amount to 390,000. Java has great
advantages for its internal trade, from its navigable rivers,
by which the produce of the interior is conveyed to the
coast, and from its excellent roads. A high post-road,
passable for carriages at all seasons of the year, runs
nearly the whole length of the island east and west, a dis¬
tance of 800 English miles ; and a high military one, equal¬
ly well made, crosses the island from north to south;
cross roads branching off from these main roads, so that
there is easy access to all parts of the island. The inter¬
nal trade of the island was, however, heavily oppressed by
local duties, rendered still more oppressive in the hands
of the Chinese, to whom they were farmed out; and by
market duties. From this oppression it was only par¬
tially relieved by the British. The coasting and foreign
trade of Java is carried on in vessels belonging chiefly to
Chinese, Arabs, Bugis, natives of Celebes, and in smaller
Malayan craft. The island is a great entrepot for the
produce of the whole eastern archipelago ; and its mer¬
chants, a great proportion of them Chinese, are very rich,
and remarkable for honourable dealing and persevering
industry. Java exports for the use of the other islands,
including the Malayan ports on the peninsula, rice, a va¬
riety of vetches, salt, oil, tobacco, timber, Java cloths,
brass-wire, edible bird-nests to the value of L.40,000 or
L.50,000, a variety of minor articles, the produce of her ag¬
riculture and manufactures, besides a considerable quan¬
tity of European, Indian, and Chinese goods. The fol¬
lowing articles, the exclusive produce of the eastern
islands, are collected at its principal ports for re-exporta¬
tion to India, China, and Europe ; tin from Banca ; gold-
dust, diamonds, camphor, benjamin, and other drugs,
edible bird-nests, biche de mer, rattans, bees’ wax, tor¬
toise-shell, and dyeing woods, from Borneo and Sumatra ;
sandal and other fine woods, nutmegs, cloves, and mace,
coarse, wild, and damaged spices, kayu-puti, and other
pungent oils, from the Moluccas ; horses and sapan wood
from Sumbawa; Bugis cloths, and many collections for
the Chinese market, from Celebes. A very extensive
trade is carried on with China in Chinese junks, about
eight or ten of which annually arrive from Canton or
Amoi with cargoes of teas, raw silk, silk piece goods, var¬
nished umbrellas, iron pots, coarse China ware, sweet¬
meats, nankeen paper, and numerous other minor articles,
for the use of the Chinese settlers, many of whom come
annually to Java, where they employ themselves as la¬
bourers on their first arrival; but, by frugal habits and
persevering industry, they soon acquire property, and be¬
come extensive merchants. European vessels carry out
from Java to China, tin, pepper, spices, rattans, and betel-
nut ; and bring back Chinese produce for the European
market, a balance of cash, and manufactures for Batavia.
Whilst Java was in possession of the English, all kinds of
piece goods, opium, and other articles, were imported from
Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and bills, gold-dust, bees’
wax, tin, Japan camphor, sago, and teak-timber, were taken
away in return. Under the English rule the trade was
free, and great quantities of teak were imported into the
markets of Bengal. But since the island was ceded to the
Dutch, the old system has been revived, and the teak of
532 J A
Java. Java has been artificially raised in price two hundred per
''-"Y'—' cent. The latter is of a superior quality to that of Pegu or
the Malabar coast; and, notwithstanding that it was mo¬
nopolized by the Dutch government, it was exported to
the Moluccas, to Malacca, and to the Cape of Good Hope,
where all the public buildings are constructed of Javan
teak. Large quantities of Javan sugar, which is of a su¬
perior quality, were exported to Bombay, and also by
Arab vessels to the Red Sea, and particularly to Mocha.
But Arab traders of capital have since been driven out
of the market by the monopolies of the Dutch. Java,
since the partial opening of the Indian trade in 1810, has
largely imported European manufactures.
It appears from Mr Crawford’s statement that there
does not exist here the same inveterate prejudice against
European manufactures as in India and China. Since the
opening of the free trade, the fine cottons of Britain have,
from their cheapness, in a great measure superseded those
of Hindustan. Chintzes are the favourite article, in which
the pattern is of much consequence. The taste of the Ja¬
vanese is for bright colours, red and green in preference
to all others, and next to these yellow and brown; whilst
black is unsaleable. The pattern should be small, filling
the ground without crowding it. White calicoes and cot¬
ton cambrics are also purchased by the natives, to be paint¬
ed by themselves. Although Java lies under the tropics,
its mountainous and maritime situation produces a demand
for light woollens. These should be cheap Yorkshire
cloths, such as cost at Leeds 5s. to 6s. 6d. per yard. Iron,
to the extent of 28,000 cwt., and to the value of L.22,500,
is annually imported into Java, which is destitute of that
important metal. The Swedish is preferred, though Bri¬
tish iron has of late been introduced to a considerable extent.
Fire-arms and ammunition are the most saleable articles,
but their export has hitherto been prohibited by European
governments. There has been recently a great extension
of demand for our glass and earthen ware. A constant de¬
mand, limited only by the means of the purchaser, is also
daily increasing for gold lace, and the other European ma¬
nufactures used as dress, furniture, saddlery, &c.
Manners Amongst the two races of people who inhabit the ori-
ofthe Ja- ental islands, distinguished into the brown coloured race,
vanese. anc[ j]ie Papuas or oriental negroes, the natives of Java
belong to the former. They are under the middle size,
the standard for men being five feet two inches, and for
women four feet eleven inches. Their complexion is a
yellowish brown, generally without any tincture of red.
Of this colour they admire the fair specimens, and their
standard beauty is a virgin gold; but they consider the
European white as a sickly tint. They have a round face,
little black eyes, a small nose, and a large mouth, with
thick lips. On the head, beard, and other parts of the
body, there is a remarkable deficiency of hair. Compared
with the Europeans and southern Asiatics, they are con¬
sidered by Mr Crawfurd as an ill-looking race; but the opi¬
nion of Sir Stamford Raffles is, in this respect, more favour¬
able. Their constitution is healthy, and they seem to at¬
tain a longevity equal to that of Europeans. Early mar¬
riages are as universal as amongst other Asiatics, a man
being scarcely ever known single at twenty-five, whilst an
unmarried female at eighteen is considered as an old maid.
The lot of the female sex differs considerably from what
it usually is among Asiatics. They are by no means im¬
mured with the same jealousy ; British gentlemen have
even been admitted to visit the harems of the sultans and
chiefs, where they were received by the ladies with all
the dignified propriety of persons accustomed to mix in
general society. To women the commercial and pecu¬
niary affairs of the family are almost wholly intrusted.
Of these privileges and advantages, however, they are said
not always to make the very best use. The right of divorce,
V A.
with which they are indulged equally with the other java if
sex, is carried by them beyond all excusable limits. It ^ ^
is very common for a woman, before the age of thirty,
to have divorced three or four husbands; and Mr Craw-
furd had one pointed out to him who was living with her
twelfth. No difficulty occurs in regard to the disposal of
the children, who, in Java, are never viewed in the light
of a burden. Besides being easily supported, they are
usually few in number, a circumstance ascribed to the
hard labour which the mothers undergo, and the conse¬
quent frequency of abortion. Besides the management
of the household, they weave all the cloths worn in the
family, and perform various other offices which in Eu¬
rope devolve on the other sex. Polygamy is permitted
by law, but it is known only amongst the great; and, even
with them, the first wife alone is of their own rank, and
mistress of the family ; the others occupy a place decid¬
edly inferior. The natives of Java were drawn by their
Dutch masters in very dark colours ; but the English resi¬
dents, after careful observation, have described them much
more favourably. They are generous, warm-hearted, and
susceptible of strong attachments. Their affections of kin¬
dred are peculiarly forcible ; so that, even in civil contests,
those fraternal enmities, so conspicuous in other Asiatic
states, are scarcely ever observable. The English, who
placed confidence in them, found them honest in the inter¬
course of common life ; and they share only in a slight de¬
gree those habits of piracy for which the Malay tribes are so
notorious. In society they are uncommonly good humour¬
ed, courteous, and polite, and are scarcely ever seen in a
passion, unless on those occasions when they are hurried to
the last extreme of violence. These unhappily too often
occur under the impulse of that violent jealousy and re¬
venge which form their ruling passions. The disregard
of human life seems to proceed to an excess amongst them
scarcely known in any other quarter of the globe. It is
stated that, in any part of Java, an assassin may be hired
for the moderate sum of fifteen or twenty shillings; but,
in general, the injured party conceives it more honourable
to decline this cheap mode of redress, and to seek ven¬
geance with his own hand. Some, driven to the extreme
of desperation, run furiously into the streets, and kill in¬
discriminately all whom they meet, till they are them¬
selves overpowered and cut down. This dreadful atrocity,
which, by a corruption of the native term, is called “ run¬
ning a muck,” is said, however, to prevail, not amongst the
native Javanese, but amongst the other Malay tribes resi¬
dent in the capital.
In the ancient religion of the Javanese, which wras un- Religion,
doubtedly derived from Hindustan, Siva, with his family,
and Buddha, were the chief objects of adoration. Their
temples appear, from the late inquiries of our country¬
men, to have rivalled in splendour those erected in the
native seats of their religion. In the course of the fif¬
teenth century, the whole island of Java was, by Arab
traders and settlers, converted to Mahommedanism. This
faith, however, which is generally observed with so much
strictness, is professed here in a very loose and imperfect
manner. It need only be observed, that wine and spirits
are not only used without scruple on ordinary occasions,
but are even sometimes produced at religious festivals.
An extreme indifference prevails as to all its outward ob¬
servances. In return, superstitious credulity is common
to a degree almost unparalleled. A belief in sorcery is uni¬
versal. If a person write the name of another on a skull,
bone, or leg, and suspend it from a tree on haunted ground,
where two roads meet, the laws doom to death, himself,
his friends, his children, and his children’s children. Avail¬
ing themselves of this credulity, various persons usually
start up, in troubled times, as saints, prophets, or as the
descendants of one of the ancient kings of Java, and at-
JAY
Jav
II
Jr
’Jovt
2 nen t
n tract a multitude of followers. Christianity has not ob¬
tained any footing in Java ; and Mr Crawfurd doubts if it
ever will, till the conduct of its Indian professors becomes
more conformable to its precepts.
The Javanese language is the most copious and improv¬
ed of any used in the Indian islands. It has Sanscrit for
its basis, but with considerable variations. In the beauty
of its written characters it is not surpassed by any of the
languages of Asia. It is distinguished by its vast copious¬
ness as to particular, and barrenness as to general terms.
Thus there are five names for a dog, and seven for a horse,
but no general word for an animal. The abstract terms
nature, space, and others of that kind, are entirely want¬
ing. All their literature, as is usual among rude nations, is
metrical, and may be divided into lyrical compositions or
songs; romances founded on Hindu legends ; romances
founded on modern story ; histories of modern transac¬
tions ; with legal and ethical tracts, chiefly in prose. Of
these compositions, the songs, in which feeling and passion
are simply expressed, appear to be the most pleasing. The
romances consist chiefly of abridged translations of the
Mahabarat and Ramayana, from the Hindu original into
a now dead. Javanese language called the Kawi. These
versions, being free from the endless prolixity of the ori¬
ginals, may be read with greater pleasure. Java had no
history previous to the Mahommedan invasion ; and even
now, its annals consist merely of metrical legends, which,
being written under the eye of the prince whose deeds
they relate, cannot be suspected of very strict impartiali¬
ty. Besides the rudeness of these compositions, there is
an absence of that energy, ardour, and sublimity, which
have often characterised the poetry of far ruder nations.
This seems justly ascribed to the despotic form of the go¬
vernment, which represses all the nobler sentiments na¬
tural to independent man, when individual character is
permitted to unfold itself.
The government of Java is more absolute than that of
any other part of the archipelago, and differs little in this
respect from the great monarchies of Asia. There is no
rank but what emanates from the sovereign ; and no bounds
are set to the marks of respect shown by inferiors to the
JAY 533
higher classes. No individual, of whatever rank, can stand Jay.
in the presence of a superior, not even the heir-apparent
in that of the sovereign. Whenever a chief appears in
public, all his inferiors must throw themselves into the pos¬
ture called dodok, which may be rendered by the English
term “ squatting,” in which they remain till he disappears.
Sir Stamford Raffles describes himself as much annoyed at
seeing, in one of his progresses, the whole population of the
country quitting their work, and remaining fixed in this un¬
easy posture as long as he remained in sight. They have a
language, or at least a modification of the language, which
must be used by the inferior in addressing those of high¬
er rank. The revenue of the sovereign, as is usual in
Asiatic despotisms, arises from the rent of all the culti¬
vated lands in the country, levied in kind, and in the enor¬
mous proportion of one half of the entire produce. This,
however, by the allowance of one sixth for reaping, is re¬
duced to about two fifths. It is paid, not into the trea¬
sury, but by the king assigning to each of his officers and
servants a certain number of cultivators, whose rents he is
to receive. The Javan farmer is supposed, on the whole,
to be more mildly treated than the Hindoo.
The population of Java, including the small contiguous Population,
island of Madura, was found, by a census taken in 1815, to
amount to 4,600,000. Of these, three millions are in the
provinces immediately subject to European authority ; the
rest is subject to the native princes. The principal Euro¬
pean capitals, Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya, contain
respectively 60,000, 25,000, and 20,000 inhabitants;
the chief native capitals, Surakerta and Yug Yukerta,
about 105,000 each. The Chinese, amounting to 94,000,
form the most active and industrious part of the popula¬
tion ; the manufactures of salt, sugar, and arrack, are sole¬
ly in their hands. Slavery in Java prevails to a much less
extent than in the other islands. The slaves do not ex¬
ceed 30,000 ; and none of them, are native Javans, but ob¬
tained by purchase or capture from Celebes or Borneo.
The philanthropic measures adopted by Sir Stamford
Raffles, with a view to the abolition of the trade, were se¬
conded by the chiefs, and productive, to a considerable ex¬
tent, of the desired effect. (f.)
JAVELIN, in Antiquity, a sort of spear five feet and
a half long, the shaft of which was of wood, with a steel
point. Every soldier in the Roman armies had seven of
these, which were very light and slender.
JAXT, one of the circles into which the kingdom of
Wirtemberg is divided. It is 2112 square miles in ex¬
tent, and comprehends thirty-one cities, thirty-five market-
towns, and 1608 small villages and hamlets, with 336,000
inhabitants, who are chiefly Lutherans, but intermixed
with some Catholics and Jews. It is subdivided into
fourteen bailiwicks. It is a mountainous district, but none
of the elevations exceed 2200 feet. It is the source of
several rivers, some of which run to the Rhine, and others
to the Danube. It is a fruitful province, and better cul¬
tivated than most parts of Germany ; and it yields abun¬
dant crops of wheat, summer and winter barley, rye, oats,
potatoes, hemp, flax, and rape-seed. Vineyards are nu¬
merous, and produce excellent wine. Its mineral pro¬
ducts are iron, vitriol, marble, and alum, and abundance
of salt is prepared from natural saline springs. The breed
of cattle is good, and forms a part of its exports to France.
There are manufactories, chiefly of linen. On the whole,
this is the most prosperous circle of the whole kingdom.
JAY, Gui Michel le, distinguished by the Polyglott
which bears his name, was born at Paris in 1588. He
studied the ancient languages, in which, however, he was
but moderately skilled. In 1615, three men of rare me¬
rit, Cardinal Duperron, Jacques de Thou, and Francois
de Breves, had conceived the project of publishing a Po¬
lyglott ; but, from some circumstances, the design was not
carried into effect. Lejay, however, resolved to revive
the scheme, and conduct it to a conclusion. He had for¬
tune, he was laborious, and he was not wanting in re¬
sources. He associated with himself in the undertaking
some of the most learned men of his time. The elder
Morin of the Oratory, Philippe d’Aquin, a converted Jew,
Godefroy Hermant, a canon of Beauvais, and three Ma-
ronites of Lebanon, were charged with revising the differ¬
ent books of the Holy Scriptures, each in the language
which he understood; whilst Jacques Sanlecque, a
famous artist, cast the characters, and Antoine Vitre.
or Vitray, printer to the king, undertook the impression.
It commenced in 1628, and, after encountering a variety
of difficulties and obstacles, was completed in 1645, under
the title of Biblia Hebraica, Samaritana, Chaldaica, Gtcb-
ca, Latina, Arabica, quibus textus originales totius Scrip-
turce sacrcB, quorum pars in editions Complutensi, deinde
Antuerpiensi regiis sumptibus extat, nunc integri ex manu-
scriptis toto fere orbe qucesitis, exemplaribus exhibentur, in
ten volumes. The execution of this work is magnificent;
it is indeed a masterpiece of typography; but it literally
swarms with blunders, editorial as well as typographical ;
whilst, by reason of the enormous size of the volumes, the
use of them is attended with much inconvenience. Lejay
534 JED
Jayes ruined himself by the impression, first, because he would
II not suffer it to appear under the name of Cardinal Riche-
Jedburgh. ]jeU) who, after the example of Cardinal Ximenes, was
s-^' ambitious of immortalising his name by such an under¬
taking ; and next, because he made it too dear for the
English market, upon which Dr Walton undertook his Poly-
glott Bible, which, being more commodious, reduced the
price of Lejay’s. After the death of his wife, Lejay, hav¬
ing taken orders, was made dean of Vezelay, in the Ni-
vernois ; and Louis XIV. gave him the post of council¬
lor of state.
JAYES, a town of Hindustan, in the nabob of Oude’s
territories, fifty-five miles south-east from Lucknow.
Long. 81. 30. E. Lat. 26. 15. N.
JAYNAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bahar, 122 miles south-south-west from Patna. Long.
84. 25. E. Lat. 24. 1. N.
JEALOUSY is that peculiar passion which arises in the
mind from fear that some rival may rob us of the affection
of one whom we greatly love, or suspicion that he has al¬
ready done so. The first sort of jealousy is inseparable
from love, before it is in possession of its object; the latter
is often unjust, generally mischievous, and always trouble¬
some.
JEAN d’Angely, an arrondissement in the department
of La Vendee, in France, extending over 334 square
miles, divided into seven cantons, and these into 128 com¬
munes, with a population of 70,261 persons. The capital,
which gives its name to the arrondissement, is a city situated
on the river Boutonne, containing 5460 inhabitants, who
are partly employed in the manufacture of serges, drug¬
gets, and other kinds of woollen goods, and carry on a
considerable trade in wine and brandy. There is also an
establishment for making gunpowder. It is in long. 0.
40. 5. W. and lat. 45. 55. N.
JEAN DE LUZ, St, a town of the arrondissement of
Bayonne, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, in
France. It is situated on the sea-shore, on the river Ni-
velle, and is defended by a fort at the mouth of that stream.
It contains about 600 houses, with 2830 inhabitants, and
is a place of considerable traffic, being the last town of
France on the road to Spain ; and it carries on extensive
fisheries. Long. 2. 15. 7. W. Lat. 40. 23. 15. N.
JEARS, or Geers, in nautical language, an assemblage
of tackles, by which the lower yards of a ship are hoisted
along the mast to their usual station, or lowered from
thence, as occasion requires; the former of which opera¬
tions is called swaying, and the latter striking.
JERNA, a town of Palestine, on the site of the ancient
city of Gath, containing the remains of a fortress built
during the crusades by Foulques, king of Jerusalem; ten
miles south of Jaffa.
JEBUSiEI, one of the seven ancient peoples of Ca¬
naan, descendants of Jebusi, Canaan’s son ; so warlike and
brave as to have stood their ground, especially in debus,
afterwards called Jerusalem, down to the time of David.
(Judges, i. 21 ; 1 Sam. v. 6.)
JEDBURGH, a royal burgh, the seat of a presbytery,
and the capital of a parish of the same name, as well as the
county town of Roxburghshire in Scotland. It is beauti¬
fully situated in the romantic valley of the Jed, on the left
bank of that stream, environed with sylvan banks, and em¬
bosomed in venerable orchards. This town is of very an¬
cient date, and the name appears to have been at a former
period indiscriminately written Gedworde, Jedworth, Jed-
wood, Jeddart (still in use amongst the common people), and
Jedburgh. The name of the river being anciently written
Ged, and perhaps Gad, has afforded an opportunity for an¬
tiquaries conjecturing that this parish was the principal seat
of the Gadeni, a tribe who inhabited the district between
the river Teviot and Northumberland. In the twelfth cen-
J E D
tury David I. founded a monastery here, which greatly en- Jedb
hanced the importance of the town. From the antique v-"yv It
choir which remains, in a dilapidated state, some have been
led to suppose that a sacred edifice existed on the same
site prior to the time of David I., and that the venerable
ruin, which still attracts much attention, was not founded,
but only rebuilt, by that munificent monarch. He also gave
to the canons the chapel of Scarsburgh, lying in a recess
of the forest, to the east of the Jed ; and at a later period
the dependencies of Restennet in Angus, and Cannoby in
Dumfriesshire, came into the possession of the monastery.
The importance of the town was still further secured by
the erection of a castle; but by whom it was founded is not
known. It was a royal residence, and for ages continued
a place of great strength, the object of eager dispute to the
contending kingdoms. It was frequently honoured with
the presence of the Scottish monarchs, and was the scene
of the royal festivities of Alexander III. on the occasion of
his second marriage. After the fifteenth century, the town
is frequently mentioned in the history of the wars between
the Scotch and English. It was burned by the Earl of
Surrey in 1523, at which period it appears to have been a
very considerable town; for Surrey, in his despatches to
Henry VIII. says, that “ there was two times more houses
therein than in Berwick, and well budded, with many ho¬
nest and fair houses in garrison, and six good towers there¬
in.” The same writer also extols, in no measured terms,
the warlike character and bravery of the men of Jedburgh.
Their favourite weapon was the Jedwood axe; and their
war-cry or slogan, “ Jed worth’s here.” But an account of
the various battles and skirmishes in which they distinguish¬
ed themselves belongs rather to the history of the county,
than to a description of the town. At the present day, Jed¬
burgh has four principal streets, crossing each other at right
angles, and terminating in a square or market-place. They
are wide and clean, and the houses are well built. In re¬
cent times the town has been generally improved, and many
elegant, if not spacious buildings have been erected. It
contains numerous handsome shops, in which all the neces¬
saries and most of the luxuries of life can be readily obtained.
It is celebrated for the production of excellent bread, which
is exported in great quantities to the north of England, as
well as to the surrounding villages of the county. It is en¬
titled to hold two markets every week, on Tuesday and
Saturday. The Tuesday’s market is well attended, and
grain is then sold by sample to a considerable extent.
There are two banks in Jedburgh, branches of the British
Linen Company and of the National Bank. Besides the
established church, Jedburgh contains several meeting
houses for dissenters, who are here a numerous body.
The principal manufactures are blankets, flannels, tartans,
shawls, shepherds’ plaidings, hosiery, lamb’s-wool yarn, and
carpets ; and the town also derives part of its income from
fruit, which is produced in considerable quantities in pri¬
vate gardens. There is here an excellent grammar and
English school, united in 1804, several subscription libra¬
ries, a savings bank for the district, a dispensary, one or
two religious societies, and there are letter-press printers
in the town. An establishment for making printing presses,
on a new principle of construction, has likewise been ot
considerable benefit to Jedburgh. It is governed by a
council, consisting of a provost, four bailies, a dean of guild,
and eighteen ordinary councillors. There are eight incor
porated trades, who annually elect their own deacons and
office-bearers, and four of these deacons are admitted into
the council to represent the trades for the year. Jedburgh
unites with Haddington, North Berwick, Lauder, and Dun¬
bar, in sending a member to parliament. The revenue ot
the burgh amounts at present to L.573 per annum, being
chiefly derived from the rent of the mills. Jedburgh is
forty-six miles south of Edinburgh, ten west of Kelso, and
JED
je twelve north of the borders of England. The population
^ ^ of the burgh amounted in 1821 to 2500, and in 1831 to
3709.
JEDO, or Jeddo, a large city of Japan, the residence of
the emperor, and the capital of the country, as it is by
much the largest city of the empire, from the resort of
princes and lords, who, with their numerous families and
servants, swell the train of the imperial court. It is situ¬
ated in the province of Musasi, in 35. 32. of north lati¬
tude, on a large plain at the end of the gulf, which is so
shallow, with a muddy clay at the bottom, that no ships
of any considerable size can come up to the city, but
must be unladen a league or two below it. According to
the Japanese accounts, the city is seven miles long, five
broad, and twenty in circumference. It is not enclosed
with a wall, but is intersected by many broad ditches and
canals, with high ramparts raised on both sides, on the top
of which are planted rows of trees. A large river, rising
to the west of the city, runs through it, and loses itself in
the harbour. It sends off a branch, which divides itself
into five channels, over each of which is a stately bridge.
Jedo is not so regularly built as most other cities of Ja¬
pan, though in some parts, which have been burnt down
and rebuilt, the streets cross each other at right angles.
The houses are small and low, being built of wood, with thin
clayed walls, divided within into rooms by paper screens,
the floors covered with fine mats, the roofs with shavings
of wood. They consist entirely of combustible materials,
so that we need not wonder at the havoc which fires fre¬
quently occasion. In this city are many stately palaces, the
residences of the nobles and princes, who are obliged to
reside six months of the year at the imperial court. They
are distinguished from other houses by large court-yards
and stately gates; fine varnished staircases, of a few steps,
lead up to the door of the house, which is divided into se¬
veral magnificent apartments, all on one floor, only one
story high, and not adorned with towers, as the castles and
palaces are where the. princes and lords of the empire re¬
side in their hereditary dominions. There are, besides,
numerous temples, monasteries, and other religious build¬
ings. The castle and residence of the emperor, which is
a magnificent structure, is situated about the middle of the
city. It is of an irregular figure, inclining to the circular, and
is five Japanese miles in circumference. It consists of two
enclosures; the innermost and third castle, which is proper¬
ly the residence of the emperor; two other strong, well-
fortified, but smaller castles at the sides; and some large
gardens behind the imperial palace. The first and outer¬
most castle takes in a large space of ground, which en¬
compasses the second and half the imperial residence, and
is enclosed with walls and ditches, and strong, well-guard¬
ed gates. This is the residence of the princes of the em¬
pire, with their families, who live in commodious and state¬
ly palaces, built in streets, with spacious courts shut up
with strong and heavy gates. The second castle takes in
a much smaller space of ground. It fronts the third, the
residence of the emperor, and is enclosed by the first, but
separated from both by walls, ditches, &c. Here are the
stately palaces of some of the most powerful princes of
the empire, the councillors of state, the prime ministers,
chief officers of the crown, and such other persons as give
immediate attendance on the emperor. The castle where
the emperor himself resides is enclosed with a thick, strong
wall of freestone, having bastions standing out, much after
the manner of the European fortifications. On the top of
this wall are erected several long buildings and square
guard-houses, built in the form of towers, and several stories
m height. Those on the side where the imperial residence
is are all of freestone of an extraordinary size. It is adorn¬
ed with a square tower, raised many stories high, adorned
with beautiful bended roofs, gilt dragons at the top and
J E F
535
corners, and many other fantastical ornaments. The second Jefremow
castle is very small, and more like a citadel; and the third ||
lies on the side of the second, and is of much the same Jefferson,
structure. In these two castles are bred the imperial
princes and princesses. The rising ground behind the im¬
pel ial residence is beautified with gardens and magnificent
orchards. The palace itself is only of one story, but it is
of great height, and contains many long galleries and spa¬
cious rooms, which, on removing the screens, may be nar¬
rowed or enlarged as occasion requires. The structure of
all the interior apartments is fine, according to the fashion
of the country; the ceilings, beams, and pillars are of ce¬
dar, or camphire, or a peculiar sort of wood, which runs
into flowers and other curious figures, and is in some apart¬
ments covered only with a thin transparent layer of var¬
nish, in others japanned, or curiously carved with birds
and branched work neatly gilt. The floor is covered w ith
the finest w hite mats, bordered with gold fringes or bands ;
and this is all the furniture to be seen in the emperor’s
palace. There are twro strong rooms, in which are kept
the imperial treasures. Resides being the residence of the
court, and the seat of luxury, Jedo contains flourishing
manufactures, and carries on an extensive commerce.
Fiom the combustible materials of which the houses are
formed, it is liable to dreadful conflagrations. One that
occurred in 1703 is supposed to have consumed 100,000
houses. Long. 140. E. Lat. 36. 30. N.
JEFREMOW, a city of the province of Tula, in Rus¬
sia, the capital of a circle of the same name, on the river
Metscha. It contains six wooden churches, and one of
stone, 399 houses of different structure, and 2600 inha¬
bitants. Long. 38. 54. E. Lat. 53. 40. N.
JEFFERSON, Thomas, one of the founders of Ame¬
rican independence, and president of the United States,
was born at Shadwell, in Albemarle county, Virginia, on
the 2d of April 1743. His ancestors had at an early
period emigrated to that province, and his father had been
one of the commissioners for determining the boundary
between Virginia and North Carolina. Having complet¬
ed his education at William-and-Mary College, Williams¬
burg, he became a student of law under George Wythe,
afterwards chancellor of the state of Virginia; and upon
coming of age, he was admitted to the bar, appointed a
justice of peace for the county in which he lived, and
soon afterwards returned as one of its representatives in
the provincial legislature.
But the position of public affairs early led him to con¬
template questions far more comprehensive and im¬
portant than any of those connected with the adminis¬
tration of his native state. As early as the year 1763
a spirit of opposition to the British government had mani¬
fested itself in the province, and continued gradually to in¬
crease, until, in 1769, it assumed the shape of a substan¬
tive determination not to import articles from the mother
country. This resolution Mr Jefferson not only signed,
but used all his influence to promote. In the beginning of
1773, a general system of resistance was first organized, by
the formation of committees of correspondence in the dif¬
ferent provinces. This plan, devised and matured by Jeffer¬
son, was eagerly adopted ; and, when the measures of the
British government in 1774 showed the increased necessi¬
ty of opposing to them a united and resolute resistance,
its benefits became strikingly apparent. The passing of
the Boston port act, and the bills which immediately fol¬
lowed that measure, had, in the opinion of the colonists, fill¬
ed up the measure of oppression and insult. The breach
with the mother country daily became wider; and, as a
crisis was evidently approaching, Jefferson’s plan served not
only to concentrate the general spirit of resistance, but
also to give it a suitable direction. About this time he
published a Summary View of the Rights of British Ame-
536
JEFFERSON.
Jefferson, rica, which he intended as an exposition, to be laid before
the sovereign, of the wrongs that country had suffered,
and the sort of redress she was prepared to demand. For
this publication, Lord Dunmore, the governor, threaten¬
ed to prosecute him, on a charge of high treason, and also
dissolved the legislature, which by its resolutions had sanc¬
tioned similar doctrines. In the following year, when
the legislature was again assembled to consider the con¬
ciliatory propositions which had been sent out by the Bri¬
tish ministry, Jefferson was appointed a member of the
committee to whom these were referred, and he drew up
the reply which was presented by that body ; a document
of great importance with reference to the history of the
period to which it refers. But he had scarcely completed
this task when he was called to perform a part on a wider
field of action. The colonies having resolved to unite to¬
gether, and send delegates to a general congress, Mr
Jefferson took his seat as a member of that body, then as¬
sembled at Philadelphia, on the 21st of June 1775, and
immediately became one of its most prominent members.
In the following summer, when, from the tone of the de¬
bates in congress, and the general expression of public
opinion, it appeared that the time had arrived for an en¬
tire and final separation from Great Britain, a committee
was appointed to draw up a declaration to that effect. Of
this committee Mr Jefferson was chairman, and, in con¬
formity to the instructions of congress, he prepared the
declaration of independence, which, after a few alterations,
was adopted on the 4th of July 1776. This is by far the
most memorable event in his life.
During the summer of this year, Mr Jefferson took an
active part in the public business ; but being obliged in the
autumn to return to Virginia, he was, in his absence, ap¬
pointed, in conjunction with Dr Franklin and Mr Deane,
a commissioner to the court of France, for the purpose of
arranging with the government of that country, treaties of
alliance and commerce. Owing to ill health, and other
causes, however, he declined the appointment, and shortly
afterwards resigned his seat in congress ; but being elect¬
ed to the first legislature assembled under the new con¬
stitution of Virginia, he applied himself to introduce va¬
rious changes and amendments into the laws and institu¬
tions of that state, particularly enactments for preventing
the importation of slaves, destroying entails, abolishing
the right of primogeniture, overthrowing the church esta¬
blishment, and remodelling the whole of the statutory law.
In June 1779 he was elected governor of Virginia, and re¬
elected the following year. This was a season of immi¬
nent peril. The state, invaded on the north and the
south, was ravaged by the troops of Tarleton and Arnold,
and he himself was the object of especial pursuit. But
amidst all the difficulties with which he was surrounded,
Jefferson conducted the affairs of the state with so much
prudence and energy, that, after the expiration of his
term of service, the legislature passed an unanimous reso¬
lution, expressive at once of their gratitude, and of the high
sense they entertained of his prudence, ability, and in¬
tegrity. In June 1783, Mr Jefferson was again sent to
congress as the delegate of Virginia, and, as a leading
ports on the southern and western coasts of France. He also Jefferso
crossed over to England, and, in concert with Mr Adams, S""Y>
endeavoured to negociate a commercial treaty with the
British government; but their efforts were unavailing, and,
after a fruitless visit of seven weeks, he returned to Paris.
Whilst Mr Jefferson resided in France, he was not only
engaged in various diplomatic negociations of importance
to his own country, but was received with marked kind¬
ness by men of letters, science, and political distinction.
He was likewise an eye-witness of the extraordinary oc¬
currences in public affairs which took place in rapid suc¬
cession towards the close of his sojourn in the French capi¬
tal ; he had become acquainted with many of the leading
men of the national assembly, who were disposed to seek his
advice, and place confidence in his opinions ; and, as the
representative of a free nation, he was an object of in¬
terest and attention to the principal actors in the new
scenes which had opened upon France.
But his stay was not protracted till that fatal period which
was darkened by the sanguinary excesses of popular fren¬
zy; and the interest which he took in the French revolution
was consequently warmed by the hope that a great people
were about to shake off their fetters, and, by a peaceful but
decisive effort, to establish rational liberty upon the solid
foundation of improved institutions. In November 1789
he returned on leave of absence to the United States, and
there accepted the office of secretary of state offered him
by General Washington, instead of resuming his post as
minister at the court of France. Whilst in the depart¬
ment of the state, Mr Jefferson laid down those general
maxims relative to foreign intercourse, which have ever
since been regarded wdth approbation by the American
people, and developed those principles which, in his esti¬
mation, ought to govern the conduct of a neutral nation.
He understood the true interests of his country: hefeltthat
she required time to consolidate her new institutions, and
to strengthen the foundations of the freedom she had con¬
quered ; and he laboured assiduously to impress his con¬
victions on the .minds of his countrymen. In December
1793, Mr Jefferson resigned his office, and having retired
to private life, devoted himself to the education of his fa¬
mily, the cultivation of his estate, and the pursuit ot those
studies which he had long abandoned, but now resumed
with fresh ardour. But he was not long permitted to enjoy
the tranquillity of retirement. In September 1796, Gene¬
ral Washington having made known to the people his
wish not again to be a candidate for the presidency; and
the two parties which had gradually grown up in the re¬
public finding it impossible to unite, as in the case of
Washington, in the choice of one individual to whom the
administration of public affairs might by common consent
be committed ; Mr Adams was selected by the federalists,
and Mr Jefferson by the democratic party, as their re¬
spective candidates ; and, upon counting the votes, the
former, in whose favour there appeared the higher num¬
ber, was declared president, and the latter vice-president.
At the next election, however, when again put forward
as the popular candidate, he proved successful in his oppo¬
sition to Mr Adams ; and, although an accidental equa-
member of that body, was intrusted with the preparation lity of votes between him and the person simultaneously
chosen as vice-president raised a question which had not
been provided for by the constitution, and thus gave his
opponents an opportunity of contesting the validity of his
election, yet, after a severe struggle, he was declared duly
elected, and, on the 4th of March 1801, entered upon his
first presidential term. The administration of Mr Jefferson
embraced a long and interesting period in the history ol
the United States, and was distinguished by important
measures, which contributed, in no inconsiderable de¬
gree, to promote the prosperity and increase the hap¬
piness of the free nation at the head of which he "as
of the address made by congress to General Washington,
when he resigned his commission, and withdrew from
public life. In May 1784, congress having decided that,
in addition to Mr Adams and Dr Franklin, another minis¬
ter plenipotentiary should be appointed, for the purpose of
negociating treaties of commerce with the French govern¬
ment, Mr Jefferson was immediately elected to this of¬
fice, and in the month of July sailed for France, where he
arrived on the 6th of August. He remained in Europe
until the 23d of November 1789, and, during his stay,
visited Holland, the north of Italy, and the principal sea-
JEFFERSON.
537
fferson. placed. Under it various aggressions were promptly
chastised; the attempt made by the agents of the Spa¬
nish government to obstruct the free navigation of the
Mississippi was repelled ; and the vast territory of Loui¬
siana, affording an independent outlet for the western
states, was purchased, and placed under the republican
institutions of America. During the same period, the in¬
ternal policy of the United States underwent important
changes. Measures were adopted for liquidating the pub¬
lic debt; the judicial system was improved; a rigid eco¬
nomy controlled and regulated the public expenditure ; all
useless offices were abolished; and the president himself
set the example of voluntarily relinquishing unnecessary
power and patronage. The public approbation formed the
best reward of these sacrifices; and hence, when Mr Jef¬
ferson’s term of service had expired, he was again elected
by a majority which had increased from eight votes to
one hundred and forty-eight. In his inaugural address,
delivered on the 4th of March 1805, he declared his firm
determination to continue to act upon those principles on
which he believed it to be his duty to administer the af¬
fairs of the commonwealth, and which had already been
sanctioned by the unequivocal approbation of the coun¬
try. But he had scarcely entered upon office when an
event occurred which seemed calculated to disturb the do¬
mestic tranquillity of the United States, if not to endan¬
ger the stability of the union itself. This was the con¬
spiracy of Colonel Burr, a man of an ardent and ambi¬
tious character, who, disappointed formerly in attaining
the first office of the government when it seemed within
his grasp, and afterwards superseded in the second by the
election of Mr Clinton, now sought, by desperate means,
either to establish a new republic in the Spanish provin¬
ces of the west, or to break up the federal union in his
own country. But his scheme was discovered, and al¬
though, when apprehended and brought to trial on a
charge of treason, he obtained a verdict of acquittal, yet
enough came out in evidence to show the government the
extent of its danger, and to indicate the measures neces¬
sary to prevent its recurrence. At this period, too, the
foreign relations of the United States became greatly em¬
barrassed, in consequence of the war which raged in Eu¬
rope. Nearly the whole of their revenue depended on
commerce ; and on this serious aggressions had been made
by both the belligerent powers, France and Britain;
whilst the right of search claimed by the latter was re¬
sented, as at once contrary to the public law of nations,
insulting to the American flag, and inconsistent with free
navigation. In this view, the natural and obvious remedy
was a declaration of war. But, as it was conceived that
the interests and situation of America required the pre¬
vious trial and failure of all other means of obtaining
justice, an embargo was resorted to, and a measure for
establishing one passed congress on the 22d of December
1807, in consequence of the recommendation of the presi¬
dent. After this embargo had existed a year, however,
overtures were made by the British government, indicat¬
ing a disposition to abate somewhat of its pretensions ;
and as these had been preceded by the recall of some of
those orders in council to which the Americans most
strongly objected, an accommodation was effected without
difficulty, because in fact the non-intercourse system had
proved more prejudicial to the commercial interests of
the United States than to those of Great Britain.
Affairs were in this situation when, on the 3d of March
1809, Mr Jefferson’s second term of office expired, and
with it also terminated his political career. He had now
attained the sixty-fifth year of his age, and had for forty
years been almost without interruption engaged in the most
arduous public duties. He had passed with honour and cre¬
dit through the various stations to which the service of his
VOL. XII.
country had called him, and he now resolved to quit the scene Jefferson,
where he had so long acted a prominent part, whilst yet un- ‘—'-v'-'*-''
oppressed by the infirmities of age, and to pass the even¬
ing of a busy life in the calmness of domestic retirement.
From this time until his death, which took place on the
4th of July 1826, he resided chiefly at his favourite re¬
treat, Monticello ; sometimes occupying his time with pub¬
lications of his private correspondence, and at others con¬
necting himself with rising institutions formed to pro¬
mote the advancement of science, literature, or taste. He
was sought out in his retirement by strangers of all nations
who visited America, and also by the natives of every
part of his own country, who regarded him as “ their guide,
philosopher, and friend.” His residence was the abode of
dignified ease and unostentatious hospitality ; in the calm
enjoyments of Monticello, he forgot both the toils and the
dangers of his long political career; he took the deepest
interest in everything which seemed calculated to advance
the improvement or increase the happiness of mankind ;
at once practical and benevolent, he was constantly study¬
ing the welfare of his fellow-creatures, and endeavouring to
promote every plan which tended to produce or increase
it. Amongst his labours of this kind, the most prominent
consisted in the exertions he made for the improvement of
education in Virginia, by the establishment of an univer¬
sity at Charlottesville, a town at the foot of the mountain
where he resided. This institution, commenced by his own
private donations, and those which he succeeded in obtain¬
ing from his friends, received the sanction of the legislature;
Mr Jefferson’s plans, having for their object to combine ele¬
gant learning with strictly useful knowledge, were approv¬
ed of; he himself was appointed rector of the new univer¬
sity ; and from this time forward he devoted himself to
consolidate the establishment which he had founded. In¬
deed all his thoughts and means were employed to insure
its success.
“ Thus,” says an American biographer, “ glided on the
evening of Mr Jefferson’s patriotic and benevolent life ; as
age wore gradually away the energies of his body, his mind
shone with intelligence undiminished ; and his efforts and
desires for the progress of human happiness and knowledge
knew no change. Years, however, had crowded upon him ;
and when the increase of infirmities at length prevented
him leaving his chamber, he remarked to the physician
who sought to assist him by the aid of his art, that ‘ the
machine had worn out, and could go on no longer.’ Dur¬
ing the spring of 1826, he had suffered from increasing de¬
bility ; but it was not until the 26th of June that he was
obliged to confine himself to his bed. The strength of his
constitution, and freedom from bodily pain, for a short time
encouraged the hope that this confinement would be only
temporary; but his own conversation showed that he did
not himself so regard it. ‘ Do not imagine,’ he said to
those around him, ‘ that I feel the smallest solicitude as to
the result. I do not indeed wish to die, but I do not fear
to die.’ His temper retained all its usual cheerfulness and
equanimity ; his only anxiety seemed to be for the prospe¬
rity of the university, and he expressed strongly his hopes
that the state would not abandon it: he declared that if he
could see that child of his old age fairly flourishing, he was
ready to depart, to say ‘ nunc dimittis domine,’ a favou¬
rite quotation with him. On the 2d of July he appeared
free from disease, but his weakness was such that his phy¬
sicians expressed a doubt whether his strength would prove
sufficient to restore him. Conscious himself that he could
not recover, and without any bodily or apparently mental
pain, he calmly gave directions relative to his interment,
which he requested might be at Monticello, without parade
or pomp; he then called his family around him, and conversed
separately with each of them ; to his beloved daughter, Mrs
Randolph, he presented a small morocco case, which he re-
3 Y
538 J E F J E F
Jeffreys, quested her not to open till after his death. When the sad
v—limitation had expired, it was found to contain an affection¬
ate poetical tribute to the virtues of her from whom he was
thus torn away. He desired, if any inscription were placed
on his tomb, he should be described only as ‘ the author
of the declaration of independence, of the statutes of Vir¬
ginia for religious freedom, and the father of the univer¬
sity.’ On Monday, the following day, he inquired of those
around him with much solicitude what was the day of the
month ; they told him it was the 3d of July. He then eager¬
ly expressed his desire that he might be permitted to live
to another day, to breathe the air of the fiftieth anniversary
of the declaration of independence. His wish was granted :
the morning of the 4th of July 1826 found him still living ;
and after declaring himself gratified by the affectionate so¬
licitude of his family and servants, and having distinctly
articulated these words, ‘ I resign myself to my God, and
my child to my country,’ he gradually expired without a
murmur or a groan.”
At the time of his death Mr Jefferson had just entered
the eighty-fourth year of his age. In person he was above
six feet in height, and, though thin, erect and well formed.
His complexion was fair, his forehead broad, and his face of a
square form, with a thoughtful expression. His address was
cordial, and his manner simple, cheerful, and unassuming,
yet mingled with a certain degree of native dignity ; in his
(disposition he was full of liberality and benevolence ; in his
temper he displayed the greatest equanimity, never being
known to give way to passion, nor, even during tbe excite¬
ment of political contentions, to indulge in angry or vin¬
dictive feelings. His attachment to his personal friends was
warm and stedfast; to them he communicated without reserve
all that he thought or felt; in regard to them he exercised no
diplomatic caution, nor entertained any ungenerous distrust;
and he had his reward in that unflinching support which he
received from them on every emergency. His application
was constant and severe ; and his habits were so exact,
that in a cabinet abounding with papers, all were arranged
in such a manner that any one might be instantly found.
Considered intellectually, however, Mr Jefferson does not
appear to us to occupy the distinguished rank which has
been generally assigned to him by his countrymen, parti¬
cularly by his eloquent eulogist Mr Webster. On the con¬
trary, he seems to have been one of those men of plain,
practical good sense, calm temperament, methodical habits,
and persevering application, who make the most of their
faculties, and are, upon the whole, much better fitted to
excel in the conduct of business than to obtain distinction
in pursuits of a higher order, or to stamp the impression of
their genius upon the science, the literature, the philosophy,
or the legislation of their time. Jefferson was perhaps at
the head of the class to which he belonged, but that class
was not a high one ; and, in truth, he had always been
more remarkable for the share which he took in the early
formation of the American republic, than for any very pre¬
dominant superiority of understanding. {American National
Portrait Gallery, part xxiii.; Jefferson’s Memoirs, vol. i.;
Edinburgh Review, vol. xxxi. p. 139 ; North American lie-
view, No. 86.)
JEtFREYS, Sir George, Baron Wem, commonly cail-
ed Judge Jeffreys, was the sixth son of Mr John Jef-
freys, ot Acton, in Denbighshire ; and was educated at
Westminster School, whence he removed to the Inner
Temple, where he applied himself to the study of the law.
Alderman Jeffreys, who was probably related to him, in¬
troduced him among the citizens of London ; and being a
merry bottle companion, he soon came into great business,
and was chosen their recorder. Fie was afterwards cho¬
sen solicitor to the Duke of York; and in 1680 he was
knighted, and made chief justice of Chester. At length,
resigning the recordership, he obtained the post of chief
justice of the king’s bench, and, soon after the accession Jeffrc
of James II. the great seal. During the reign of King /
Charles II. he showed himself a bitter enemy to those
dissenting ministers who, in that time of persecution,
were tried by him. He was one of the principal advisers
and promoters of all the oppressions and arbitrary mea¬
sures carried on in the reign of James II.; and his san¬
guinary and inhuman proceedings against Monmouth's un¬
happy adherents in the west will for ever render his name
infamous. Whenever the prisoner was of a different party,
or whenever he could please the court by condemning him,
instead of appearing, according to the duty of his office,
as his counsel, he would scarcely allow him to speak for
himself, but would load him with the grossest and most
vulgar abuse, browbeat, insult, and turn to ridicule the
witnesses that spoke in his behalf, and even threaten the
jury with fines and imprisonment if they made the least
hesitation about bringing in the prisoner guilty. Yet it is
said, that when he was in temper, and matters perfectly
indifferent came before him, no one became a seat of jus¬
tice better. Nay, it even appears, that when he was un¬
der no state influence, he was sometimes inclined to pro¬
tect the natural and civil rights of mankind, of which the
following instance has been recorded. The mayor and al¬
dermen of Bristol had been used to transport convicted
criminals to the American plantations,and sell them byway
of trade. This turning to good account, when any pilfer¬
ers or petty rogues were brought before them, they threat¬
ened them with hanging, and then some officers who at¬
tended earnestly persuaded the ignorant, intimidated crea¬
tures to beg for transportation, as the only way to save
their lives ; and in general the advice was followed. Then,
without more form, each alderman in course took one,
and sold him for his own benefit; and sometimes warm
disputes arose between them about the next turn. This
infamous trade, which had been carried on for many years,
coming to the knowledge of the lord chief justice, he made
the mayor descend from the bench, and stand at the bar
in his scarlet and fur, with his guilty brethren the aider-
men, and plead as common criminals. He then obliged
them to give securities to answer informations; but the
proceedings wrere stopped by the Revolution. However,the
brutality which Jeffreys commonly showed on the bench,
where his voice and visage were equally terrible, at length
exposed him to a severe mortification. A scrivener of
Wapping having a cause before him, one of the opponent’s
council said he was a strange fellow, and sometimes went
to church, and sometimes to conventicles, and it was
thought he was a trimmer. At this the chancellor fired.
“ A trimmer !” said he ; “ I have heard much of that mon¬
ster, but never saw one. Come forth, Mr Trimmer, and
let me see your shape.” He then treated the poor fellow
so roughly, that, on his leaving the hall, he declared he
would not undergo the terrors of that man’s face again to
save his life, and that he should certainly retain the frightful
impressions of it as long as he lived. Soon afterwards, when
the Prince of Orange landed, the lord chancellor, dreading
the public resentment, disguised himself in a seaman’s
dress in order to leave the kingdom, and was drinking in
a cellar, when this scrivener, coming into the cellar, and
seeing again the face which had filled him with such hor¬
ror, started ; upon which Jeffreys, fearing he was known,
feigned a cough, and turned to the wall with his pot of beer
in his hand. But Mr Trimmer going out, gave notice that
he was there ; and the mob rushing in, seized him, and car¬
ried him before the lord mayor, who sent him with a strong
guard to the lords of the council, by whom he was commit¬
ted to the Tower, where he died in 1689. It is remarkable,
that the late Countess of Pomfret met with very rude in¬
sults from the populace on the western road, solely because
she was grand-daughter to the inhuman Jeffreys.
J E L
ieder- JEGHEDERPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the pro-
ioor vince of Gundwana, twenty miles south from Bustar.
II Long. 82. 21. E. Eat. 19. 26. N.
isawet- JEHANABAD, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
;nui^ ]viahrattas, in the province of Khandesh, three miles
‘ south from Boorhanpoor. Long. 76. 21. E. Lat. 21.
18. N.
JEHENABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Bahar, thirty-three miles south by west from Patna.
Long. 82. 5. E. Lat. 25. 13. N.
JEHOVAH, one of the scriptural names of God, sig¬
nifying the Being who is self-existent and gives existence
to others. So great a veneration had the Jews for this
name, that they discontinued the custom of uttering it,
and hence its true pronunciation was forgotten. They
called it tetragrammaton, or the name of four letters;
and believed that whoever knew the true pronunciation
of it could not fail to be heard by God.
JEHUNGSEAL, a small town of the Afghan territo¬
ries, in the province of Mooltan, thirty miles north-east
from the city of Mooltan. Long. 71. 40. E. Lat. 30.
54. N.
JEJUNUM, the second of the small guts, so called
from the Latin jejunus, hungry; because it was always
found empty. See Anatomy.
JEJURRY, a Mahratta town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Bejapoor. This place is noted for a fine Hindu
temple, built of hewn stone, and dedicated to an incarna¬
tion of Mahadeva or Siva, under the form of Khandeh Row,
which he assumed to destroy an enormous giant named
Manimal. The temple has very ample revenues, about
L.6000 annually being expended on account of the idol,
for whom horses and elephants are maintained ; and who,
with his spouse, is washed every day in rose and Ganges
water, which has to be brought a distance of 1000 miles.
About 250 dancing girls are attached to the establishment,
with many Brahmins, and beggars innumerable. The reve¬
nues are derived from the donations of the pious, consisting
of houses, lands, and money. This is a noted place for pe¬
nance ; and, at a particular season of the year, a number of
persons, in order to expiate their sins, undergo the penance
of swinging on a kind of gibbet, suspended by hooks passed
through the fleshy part of the back. Twenty-eight miles
south-east from Poonah. Long. 74. 17. E. Lat. 18. 16. N.
JELASIR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Agra,
twenty-eight miles north-east from the city of Agra. Long.
78. 15. E. Lat. 27. 30. N.
JELATMA, a city of the Russian province of Tambow,
the capital of a circle of the same name, on the river Oka.
It is an ancient and large place, containing eight stone and
two wooden churches, several public buildings, and 778
houses, with 5800 inhabitants. It has considerable manu¬
factures of linen and sail-cloth. Long. 42. 28. E. Lat. 55.
5. N.
JELEZ, a town of the province of Orel, in Russia, the
capital of a circle of the same name, on the river Alt. It
is a very ancient city, containing twelve stone and two
wooden churches, 1290 houses, and 7950 inhabitants.
Long. 38. 33. E. Lat. 52. 38. N.
JELEZENKA, a small river in the government of Ir-
koutsk, in Asiatic Russia, which falls into the Irtysch.
JELEZENSKAIA-Crepost, a port of Asiatic Russia,
on the right bank of the Irtysch, in the government of
Tobolsk. It contains a church and 130 houses, and is
surrounded by a fertile country very carefully cultivated.
It was formerly built of wood, but has since been construct¬
ed more regularly of earth. Lat. 53. 51. N.
JELISAWETGRAD, a city of Russia, in the province
of Cherson, the capital of a circle of the same name. It
stands on a beautiful plain on the banks of the river Ingul.
It is fortified, and defended by a strong citadel. It con-
JEM 539
tains 1500 houses, and 12,000 inhabitants, consisting of Jellalabad
various tribes and countries, attracted by large fairs held II
there in the autumn. Long. 32. 22. E. Lat, 48. 30. N. Jemmap-
JELLALABAD, a town of Hindustan, in the province ■
of Delhi, and district of Bareilly, forty-four miles south by
east from Barielly. Long. 79. 37. E. Lat. 27. 45. N.
Jellalabad, a town of Afghanistan, in the province
of Cabul, situated in the rich plain of Jellalabad. It was
formerly of great note, and is still of considerable import¬
ance. It has a public market, and the adjacent district
produces a coarse sugar. Seventy-three miles east-south¬
east from the city of Cabul. Long. 69. 46. E. Lat. 34. 6. N.
JELLALZEAN, or Gelaljen Calendar, Epoch, and
Year. See Calendar and Chronology.
JELLY, a form of food or medicine, prepared from the
juices of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper consistence with
sugar ; or the strong decoctions of the horns, bones, or
extremities of animals, boiled to such a degree as to be
stiff and firm when cold, without the addition of any sugar.
JELPESH, a town of the province of Bengal, and district
of Ringpoor, sixty-five miles north-north-west from Ring-
poor. Long. 88. 25. E. Lat. 26. 30. N.
JEMAULABAD, a town and fortress in the south of
India, province of Canara, v/hich was originally called
Narasingha Augady. The first, which was built by Tip-
poo, stands on the summit of an immense rock, which may
be deemed impregnable, as it is wholly inaccessible ex¬
cept by one narrow way. The nature of the access to it,
however, renders the approach to it in the face of an ene¬
my nearly as difficult as the ascent; so that a very small
body of men with artillery are adequate to blockade a
strong garrison, which renders the place of little use, ex¬
cepting as a safeguard for treasure or records. After
the fort was built by Tippoo, he placed in it a khiladar or
commandant, with a garrison of 400 men ; and the town
at that time contained 1000 houses, and carried on a con¬
siderable trade. On the invasion of Mysore, the Coorg
rajah destroyed the town, and carried away half the inhabi¬
tants ; the remainder made their escape into the woods, and
only about twenty houses have since been rebuilt. After
the fall of Seringapatam, it sustained a siege of six weeks
from the British, when, being bombarded, it was taken,
and, the commander having poisoned himself, his princi¬
pal officers were hanged. It was afterwards surprised and
taken by a band of insurgents or plunderers, when it was
reduced, after a blockade of three months, and all that
did not escape were summarily executed. The surround¬
ing country is woody. Long. 75. 24. E. Lat. 13. N.
JEMAULNAIG, a town of Hindustan, in the Bala-
ghaut ceded territories, situated on the north side of the
Pennar River, forty-one miles north-west from Cuddapah.
Long. 78. 28. E. Lat. 14. 48. N.
JEMLAH, a small district of Hindustan, situated be¬
tween the thirtieth and thirty-first degrees df north lati¬
tude. It was formerly an independent state, but is now tri¬
butary to the rajah of Nepaul. It is said to be nearly of the
same extent as that of Nepaul, but to be more contiguous
to the great Himalaya ridge of mountains, and more
chequered with low hills. It produces a species of rice
which is adapted to the climate of northern countries.
Its capital is called Chinnochin, but has not been visited
by Europeans.
JEMMAPPES, a large village of the Netherlands, in the
province of Henegau, and circle of Mons. It stands on the
river Haine, and contains 2838 inhabitants, who are busily
occupied in the numerous coal-mines and the mill-stone
quarries with which it abounds. It is remarkable for the
decisive battle fought there in 1792, when the French, com¬
manded by Dumouriez, defeated the Austrian army under
Clairfayt, which led to the subjugation of Brussels and the
rest of Flanders.
540 JEN
Jena JENA, a city of the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar, in
II Germany, the capital of a circle of the same name. It
Jenyns. stan(js jn a beautiful valley, through which the river Saale
runs, and is surrounded with hills, whose sides are covered
with vineyards. It contains three Lutheran and one Ca¬
tholic church, three hospitals, and 795 houses, with about
5500 inhabitants. It is the seat of the higher courts of
law of the duchy, and of some of the revenue boards.
Its chief celebrity has arisen from its university, founded
in 1558. The number of professors is very great, and
among them have always been some of the highest literary
characters in Germany. It possesses institutions for edu¬
cation in physic, in mathematics, in medicine, in mid¬
wifery, in anatomy, mineralogy, surgery, veterinary prac¬
tice, and a public library of more than 30,000 volumes. In
consequence of a suspicion of the pi-opagation of revolu¬
tionary principles, the number of students have, since IS 18,
been diminished, and now amount only to about 550.
Jena is celebrated for the battle fought near it in Octo¬
ber 1806, when Bonaparte vanquished and dispersed the
Prussian army commanded by the Duke of Brunswick.
JENEAHGUR, called also Jagneh, a town, and also a
strong and celebrated fortress, of Hindustan, province of
Bejapoor, situated upon a rock with an extensive table¬
land. It was built about the year 1443, by Mulik al Ta-
jur, generalissimo of the Bhamenee sultan. It afterwards
came into the possession of the Bejapoor dynasty, from
whom it was taken by the Moguls, and was the chief sta¬
tion of Aurungzebe’s army during his war against the
Mahratta chief Seraje. It now belongs to the Mahrattas.
Long. 73. 45. E. Lat. 20. 15. N.
JENIDSCHE-Bardar, a town of European Turkey,
in the circle of Salonica. It is an open place, on the ri¬
ver Bardar, with several mosques and Greek churches,
and charitable institutions. It contains 6000 inhabitants,
who manufacture cotton goods extensively.
JENJAPOOR, a town of Hindustan, province of Ba-
har, and district of Tyrhoot. eighty miles north-east from
Patna. Long. 86. 15. E. Lat. 26. 14. N.
JENKINS, Sir Leoline, a civilian and statesman of
considerable note, born in Glamorganshire about the year
1623. Having become obnoxious to the parliament during
the civil war, by adhering to the king’s cause, he consulted
his safety by flight; but he returned at the restoration, was
admitted an advocate in the court of arches, and succeed¬
ed Dr Exton as judge. When the queen-mother Henrietta
died at Paris in 1669, her whole estate, real and personal,
was claimed by her nephew Louis XIV.; upon which Dr
Jenkins’ opinion being called for and approved, he pro¬
ceeded to Paris, accompanied by three others who were
joined with him in a commission, and recovered her ef¬
fects ; a service for which he received the honour of knight¬
hood. He officiated as one of the mediators at the treaty
of Nimeguen, and was afterwards made a privy councillor
and secretary of state. He died in 1685, and bequeathed
his whole estate to charitable uses. Dr Jenkins was so
great a benefactor to Jesus College, Oxford, that he is
generally looked upon as the second founder. All his let¬
ters and papers were collected and printed in 1724, in
two vols. folio.
JENTACULUM, among the Romans, a morning re¬
freshment like our breakfast. It was exceedingly simple,
consisting, for the most part, of bread alone; but labour¬
ing people had something more substantial, to enable them
to support the fatigues of their employment. The Greeks
distinguished this morning meal by the several names of
agifirov, axganiffioc,, or axgar/C/ia, though dg/ffroi/ is general¬
ly applied to dinner.
JENYNS, Soame, a distinguished English writer, was
born in Great Ormond Street, London, in the year 1704.
Sir Roger Jenyns, his father, was descended from the
JEN
family of the Jenyns of Churchill in Somersetshire. The Jen'
country residence of Sir Roger was at Ely, in the isle of
the same name, where he turned his attention to such
kinds of business as rendered him most beneficial to his
neighbours, and for his amiable deportment had the ho¬
nour of knighthood conferred upon him by William III.
His mother, a lady of rank, learning, and piety, superin¬
tended his education till it became necessary to place him
under a tutor, by whom he was instructed in the rudi¬
ments of language, and such other branches of knowledge
as were suited to his years.
In the year 1722, he was admitted into St John’s Col¬
lege, Cambridge, under Dr Edmondson, who was at that
time one of the leading tutors of the college. Here his
diligence and regular deportment did him great honour,
and the strict discipline observed in the college was per¬
fectly agreeable to his natural inclinations. After quitting
the college, he fixed his winter residence in London, but
lived in the country during the summer season, being
chiefly employed in the prosecution of studies of a literary
kind. His first publication, a poetical essay on the art of
dancing, appeared without his name in 1727; but he was
soon discovered, and it was considered as a presage of his
future eminence. Soon after the death of his father, he
was, in 1742, chosen one of the members of parliament
for the county of Cambridge; and from this period he re¬
tained his seat in the House of Commons until the year
1780. The high opinion entertained by his constituents,
of his parliamentary conduct, may be learned from the
unanimity of their choice; for he never experienced op¬
position but on one occasion. He was chosen one of the
commissioners of the Board of Trade and Plantations in
1755, an office which he retained until an alteration was
made in the constitution of it by authority of parliament.
He was married, first, to the only daughter of Coionel
Soame, of Dereham in Norfolk, who died without issue;
and afterwards to the daughter of Mr Henry Gray, of
Hackney, who survived him. He died of a fever, after a
few days’ illness, on the 18th of December 1787, leaving
no issue. His temper was mild and gentle, and it was
his earnest wish to avoid giving offence to any; yet he
made such liberal allowances for diversities of temper,
that he was very rarely offended with others. He was
punctual in the discharge of the duties of religion, both in
public and private; professing to be better pleased with
the government and discipline of the church of England
than of any other in Christendom, but at the same time
considering these as capable of important alterations and
amendments. He possessed a vein of lively and genuine
wit, which he never made use of to wound the feelings ot
others, but was rather offended with those who did. He
felt most sensibly for the miseries of others, and used
every means in his power to relieve them. His indigent
neighbours in the country he viewed as part of his family,
and in this light he considered them as entitled to his
care and protection. As an author, Soame Jenyns de¬
serves a place amongst those wdio have excelled; and, as
a writer of prose, he ranks with the purest and most cor¬
rect of the English language. His first publication was
his Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil, on
account of which he was severely censured; but, in a pre¬
face to the second edition, he vindicated it against all the
strictures which had been made upon it, with that tem¬
per and moderation which so eminently distinguished him.
His view of the Internal Evidences of the Christian Re¬
ligion was published without his name in the year 1776;
it gave delight and satisfaction to many eminent judges,
and made converts of many who had previously been
infidels. His works were published at London in 1790,
in four vols. 8vo, with an account of his life by Mr
Cole.
J E R
jeofaile JEOFAILE (compounded of three French words, J'ay
|| faille, I have failed), a term in law, used to indicate an
jerboa. oversight in pleading or other proceeding at law.
The showing of these defects or oversights was often
practised by the counsel formerly; and when the jury
came into court in order to try the issue, they said, This
inquest you ought not to take ; and after verdict they
would say to the court, To judgment you ought not to
go. But several statutes have been made to avoid the
delays occasioned by such suggestions ; and a judgment
is not now to be stayed after verdict for a mistake in the
Christian or surname of either of the parties, or in a sum
of money, or in the day, month, year, &c. where the same
are rightly named in any preceding record.
JEPHTHAH, judge of Israel, and successor to Jair in
the government of the people, was a native of Mizpeh,
and the son of one Gilead by a woman of indifferent re¬
putation. This Gilead having married a lawful wife, and
had children by her, drove Jephthah from his father’s
house, saying that he should not be heir with them.
Jephthah retired into the land of Tob, and there became
captain of a band of thieves. At that time the Israelites
beyond Jordan, seeing themselves pressed by the Am-
' monites, came to desire assistance from Jephthah, and to
request that he would take upon him the command. Jeph¬
thah at first reproached them with the injustice which they
had done him, or at least which they had not prevented,
when he was forced from his father’s house. But as these
people were earnest and pressing in their request, he told
them that he would succour them, provided at the end of
the war they would acknowledge him as their prince.
This they consented to, and promised with an oath. Jeph¬
thah having thus been acknowledged prince of the Israe¬
lites in an assembly of the people, was filled with the spiiit
of God, and began to get his troops together ; and for this
purpose he travelled over all the land which the children
of Israel possessed beyond Jordan. At the same time he
made a vow to the Lord, that if he were successful against
the Ammonites, he would offer up as a burnt-offering what¬
ever should first come out of his house to meet him. The
battle being fought, Jephthah proved victorious, and ravag¬
ed all the land of Ammon. But as he returned to his house,
his only daughter came out to meet him, with timbrels and
with dances; whereupon Jephthah tore his clothes, say¬
ing, “ Alas, my daughter, thou hast brought me very low,
for I have made a vow unto the Lord, and cannot fail in
the performance of it.” His daughter answered, “ My fa¬
ther, if thou hast made a vow unto the Lord, do with me
as thou hast promised ; grant me only the favour that I
may be at liberty to go up to the mountains, and there
for two months bewail my virginity with my companions.”
Jephthah granted her this liberty; and at the expiration
of two months he offered up his daughter as a burnt-offer-
ing, agreeably to his vow. Meanwhile, the Ephraimites,
jealous of the victory obtained by Jephthah over the Am¬
monites, passed the river Jordan in a tumultuous manner,
and complaining to Jephthah that he had not invited them
to this war, threatened to set fire to his house. Jephthah
answered them, that he had sent to desire their assistance ;
but observing that they did not come, he put his life in
the hands of God, and hazarded a battle. The Ephrai-
mites not being satisfied with these reasons, Jephthah as¬
sembled the people of Gilead, gave them battle, and de¬
bated them; so that of the tribe of Ephraim there were
forty-two thousand men killed on that day. We know
nothing more concerning the life of Jephthah, except that
he judged Israel during six years, and was buried in a
city of Gilead.
JERBOA, a species of quadruped belonging to the
genus dipus, and resembling, in some of its characters, the
mouse tribe. See Mammalia.
J E R 541
JEREMIAH {the Prophecy of), a canonical book of Jeremiah
the Old Testament. This divine writer was of the race II
of the priests, the son of Hilkiah of Anathoth, of the tribe Jerome> St-
of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic office when
very young, about the thirteenth year of Josiah, and con¬
tinued in the discharge of it for about forty years. He was
not carried captive to Babylon wdth the other Jews, but
remained in Judaea to lament the desolation of his coun-
trJ- He was afterwards a prisoner in Egypt, with his
disciple Baruch, where it is supposed he died at a very
advanced age. Some of the Christian fathers tell us he
was stoned to death by the Jews for preaching against
their idolatry ; and others say he was put to death by
Pharaoh Hophrah, because of his prophecy against him.
Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah relates to the time after
the captivity of Israel and before that of Judah, and part
of it was written in the time of the latter captivity. The
prophet lays open the sins of Judah with great freedom
and boldness, and reminds them of the severe judgments
which had befallen the ten tribes for the same offences.
He warmly laments their misfortune, and recommends to
them a speedy reformation. Afterwards he predicts the
grievous calamities which were approaching, particularly
the seventy years captivity in Chaldaea. He also foretells
their deliverance and happy return, and the recompense
which Babylon, Moab, and other enemies of the Jews,
should in due time meet with. There are likewise seve¬
ral intimations in this prophecy concerning the kingdom
of the Messiah, and several remarkable visions, and types,
and historical passages, relating to those times. St Jerome
has observed respecting this prophet, that his style is
more easy than that of Isaiah and Hosea; that he retains
something of the rusticity of the place where he was born ;
but that he is very learned and majestic, and equal to those
two prophets in the sense of his prophecy.
JERICHO, or Hierichus, in Ancient Geography, a
city of Judaea, situated between Jordan and Jerusalem, at
the distance of 150 stadia from the latter, and sixty from
the former. Josephus says, “ The whole space from Je¬
rusalem is desert and rocky, and equally barren and un¬
cultivated from Jericho to the Lake Asphaltites; yet the
places near the town and above it are extremely fertile
and delicious, so that it may justly be called a divine plain,
surpassing the rest of the land of Canaan, no unfruitful
country, and surrounded by hills in the manner of an am¬
phitheatre. The place is now called Raha, and, accord¬
ing to Volney, is situated “ in a plain six or seven leagues
long by three wide, around which are a number of barren
mountains, which render it extremely hot.” Here was for¬
merly cultivated the balm of Mecca. From the descrip¬
tion of the Hadjis, this is a shrub similar to the pome¬
granate tree, with leaves like those of rue ; it bears a pul¬
py nut, in which is contained a kernel that yields the resi¬
nous juice which we call balm or balsam. At present there
is not a plant of it remaining at Raha ; but another species
is to be found there, called zakkoun, which produces a
sweet oil, also celebrated for healing wounds. This zak¬
koun resembles a plum-tree ; it has thorns four inches
long, witii leaves like those of the olive-tree, but greener,
and more narrow, as well as prickly at the end ; its fruit
is a kind ot acorn, without a calyx, under the bark of
which is a pulp, and then a nut, the kernel of which gives
out an oil that the Arabs sell very dear. This constitutes
the sole commerce of Raha, which is no more than a
ruinous village.
JEROME, St, in Latin Hieronymus, a celebrated doc¬
tor of the church, and the most learned of all the Latin
fathers, was the son of Eusebius, and was born at Stridon,
a city of the ancient Pannonia, about the year 340. He
studied at Rome under Donatus, the learned grammarian.
After having received baptism, he proceeded into Gaul,
542 J E R
Jerome of and there transcribed St Hilary’s book De Synodis. He
Prague then went into Aquileia, where he contracted a inendsnip
li with Heliodorus, who prevailed on him to travel with him
Jersey. into Thracej pontUS, Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia.
In 372 St Jerome retired into a desert in Syria, where he
was persecuted by the orthodox of Melitius’s party for be¬
ing a Sabellian, because he made use ol the word hyposta¬
sis, which had been employed by the council of Home in
369. This obliged him to go to Jerusalem, where he ap¬
plied himself to the study of the Hebrew language, in or¬
der to acquire a more perfect knowledge ol the Holy Scrip¬
tures ; and about this time he consented to be ordained,
on condition that he should not be confined to any parti¬
cular church. In 381, he went to Constantinople to hear
Gregory Nazianzen, and the following year returned to
Rome, where he was made secretary to Pope Damasus.
He then instructed many Roman ladies in piety and the
knowledge of the sciences, which exposed him to the ca¬
lumnies of those whom he zealously reproved for their ir¬
regularities ; and Pope Siricius not haying all the esteem
for him to which his learning and virtue justly entitled him,
this learned doctor left Rome, and returned to the monas¬
tery of Bethlehem, where he employed himself in writing
against those whom he called heretics, especially Vigilan-
tius and Jovinian. He had a quarrel with John of Jeru¬
salem and Rufinus about the Origenists. St Jerome was
the first who wrote against Pelagius. He died on the 30th
of September 420, at about eighty years of age. There
have been several editions of his works ; the last, which is
that of Verona, is in eleven vols. folio. His principal works
are, 1. A Latin version of the Holy Scriptures, distinguish¬
ed by the name of the Vulgate ; 2. Commentaries on the
Prophets, Ecclesiastes, St Matthew’s Gospel, and the Epis¬
tles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Titus, and Philemon; 3.
Polemical treatises against Montanus, Helvidius, Jovinian,
Vigilantius, and Pelagius ; 4. Letters ; 5. A treatise on the
lives and writings of the ecclesiastical authors who had
flourished before his time. The style of St Jerome is live¬
ly and animated, sometimes rising to the sublime.
Jerome of Prague, so called from the place of his birth
in Bohemia. He was neither a monk nor a clergyman, but
had received a learned education. Having embraced the
opinions of John Huss, he began to propagate them in the
year 1480. In the mean time the council of Nice kept a
watchful eye over him, and, considering him as a dangerous
person, cited him to appear before them and give an ac¬
count of his faith. In obedience to this citation, he went
to Constance; but on his arrival, in 1415, finding Huss in
prison, he set out for his own country. Being seized on
the way, imprisoned, and examined, however, he was so
intimidated that he retracted, and pretended to approve of
the condemnation of the opinions of Wickliff and Huss.
But he recanted his retractation, which, on the 26th of
. May 1416, he condemned in these terms : “ I am not
ashamed to confess here publicly my weakness. Yes, with
horror I confess my base cowardice. It was only the dread
of the punishment by lire which drew me to consent, against
my conscience, to the condemnation of the doctrine of Wick¬
liff and Huss.” Accordingly sentence was passed on him,
in pursuance of which he was delivered to the secular arm,
and burned, in 1416. He was a person of great parts,
learning, and elocution.
JERONYMITES, IIiERONYMiTES,adenomination given
to various orders or congregations of religious persons, other¬
wise called Hermits of St Jerome.
JERSEY, one of a group of islands, forming part of
the ancient duchy of Normandy, but now considered as
a portion of the county of Hampshire in England, for some
few legal purposes. It is about six leagues from the
French, and twenty-three from the English coast. It is
nearly twelve miles in length from east to west, and in no
J E R
part more than seven miles in breadth. The square ex- Jerse’
tent is sixty-three miles, or about 40,000 English acres. New'
The shore is indented with numerous bays; but they are '"''Y'
very difficult of access, from the rapidity of the tide, which,
among the rocks that surround the island, causes eddies
of great but variable velocity. The island is protected
by appropriate fortifications, and in time of war is com¬
monly provided with a sufficient military force, besides
a well-disciplined militia, to defend it from sudden attacks.
The face of the island is rather hilly, with rich, well-wa¬
tered valleys between the respective ranges ; the slope is
towards the south ; and, though the tops of the hills are
almost barren, yet the soil in the lower parts is a rich and
well-cultivated alluvium. The climate is mild and uni¬
form, frosts being rare in winter, and the air being tem¬
pered by the sea-breezes in the summer. Though fer¬
tile, the island does not grow sufficient corn for the sus¬
tenance of the dense population ; but it yields a surplus
of fruit, of cider, and of potatoes ; and, besides, sends year¬
ly to England some hundreds of the peculiar race of cows
which, like those of Guernsey and Alderney, are esteem¬
ed for the great quantity rather than the good quality of
the milk which they yield. The chief trade of the island
is the Newfoundland fishery, for which several ships are
equipped and annually despatched. Formerly a great con¬
traband trade vras carried on ; and in time of war the
business of privateering was extensively followed. The
island is governed by a local legislature and a distinct
judicature, under the ultimate control of the king in
council. The ancient Norman laws are still in force, and
the greater part of the inhabitants retain, and among them¬
selves use, the language of the country from which they
originated. The church of England is the established
religion, and is under the ecclesiastical direction of the
Bishop of Winchester. There are several of the other
protestant sects, who support their own religious institu¬
tions. Though easily defended as long as England has
a superior naval force to succour it, Jersey has always
been deemed a. desirable possession by France. Several
attacks have been projected, and one actually made in
1781, which was at first successful, but ultimately re¬
pelled by a body of troops under the brave Major Pier¬
son, who was unfortunately killed in the action. In an
attempt two years before, the French were intercepted
by an English squadron, and destroyed before they could
land any troops. The chief town is St Hilliers ; another
town, St Aubins, is smaller ; both the harbours are dry at
low water. The population amounts to upwards of 29,000,
being the most dense of any in the British dominions.
JERSEY, New, one of the thirteen original states of
the American union, is bounded on the north and north¬
east by New York, on the east and south-east by the At¬
lantic Ocean, on the south-west by Delaware Bay, and on
the west by Pennsylvania. The extreme length directly
from north to south is one hundred and seventy miles, the
mean breadth is about forty-six miles, and the whole state
contains an area of 7820 square miles.
The surface of the country presents every variety, but
three marked divisions may be particularised ; first, a sandy
or marine section ; secondly, a hilly or middle section;
and, thirdly, a mountainous section. The first occupies
nearly one half of the area of the state. A line from the
mouth of Shrewsbury River to Bordentown will very near¬
ly separate the alluvial from the hilly region. Between
this limit and the continuation of the blue ridge, the state
is beautifully variegated by rich and bold scenery. From
the north to the south a succession of mountains, and lesser
hills and heights, interspersed with plains, stretch out, each
occupying a distinct and well-defined region. The moun¬
tainous portion of New Jersey is the extreme northern
part of the state, composed of the counties of Warren and
J E R
J E R
'ersey
New.
Sussex. The elevation of die different sections has not
been very accurately determined, hut the higher valleys
J of the latter county must be from 800 to 1000 feet above
the level of the sea. The descent from the mountain to
the hilly region is abrupt, as by the steps of a stair. A re¬
markable difference of temperature is experienced in the
space of less than two and a half degrees of latitude. The
alluvial plains of the southern section have a mild or rather
tropical climate, resembling the eastern part of Virginia,
and admit of the cultivation of cotton ; whilst in the coun¬
ties of Sussex and Warren it is more various, and, though
salubrious enough, is in general less mild.
The principal internal waters are Second River, Hackin-
sack, Passaic, Raritan, Musconetcong, Rancocus, Salem,
Shrewsbury, Tom’s River, Great Eggharbor, Cohanzey,
and Maurice River. None of these rivers are of any great
length, though every part of the state abounds in rapid mill-
streams. A connexion, by means of a canal, between the
Hudson and Delaware basins was completed in 1831, at an
expense of about 2,000,000 of dollars. The line leaves the
Delaware at Phillipsburgh, opposite Easton in Pennsylvania,
and is carried over Warren county, New Jersey, 'to its ex¬
treme north-east angle, about thirty miles ; thence eastward
through Morris and Essex counties, to the Passaic River,
and along the valley of the latter to Newark. From that
city it proceeds across Passaic and Hackinsack, and winds
through the Bergen Marshes to Jersey city, opposite New
York. Inclined planes are used on this canal instead of
locks. During the year 1834 the Delaware and Raritan
Rivers were connected by means of a canal from Bruns¬
wick to Bordentown, a distance of above thirty miles. This
canal is calculated for sloop navigation ; and has been con¬
structed at an expense, with its feeder, of 2,500,000 dollars.
The principal railroad is the Camden and Amboy, which
unites the cities of New York and Philadelphia, crossing
the state of New Jersey. It is sixty-one miles in length,
and is connected with the Raritan and Delaware Canal.
There is likewise a road from the manufacturing village of
Patterson to New York, a distance of about sixteen miles;
and another in progress (1835) from Jersey city, through
Newark and Elizabethtown, to Brunswick.
New Jersey abounds in staples, composed of every pro¬
duct of its fields, woods, mines, fisheries, and manufacto¬
ries. Some parts of the state are not well adapted to culti¬
vation, being either sandy and barren, or rocky and moun¬
tainous; but large portions have a soil of great fertility,
well suited to the cultivation of grain, and fitted for grazing ;
and accordingly vast numbers of cattle are raised for the
markets of New York and Philadelphia. Large quantities
of butter and cheese, of superior quality, are made ; and
apples, peaches, and fruits of all kinds, are raised in abun¬
dance. 1 he manufactories of New Jersey are extensive
and thriving. Iron is probably the most important. Bog
ore is found in Burlington and Monmouth, and the mines
of the northern counties are exceedingly rich. There are
a number of forges and furnaces in active operation in se¬
veral of the counties, and chain-cables are made at the
town of Dover. The towns most engaged in manufactures
are Newark and Patterson. The former is noted for the
manufacture of leather, and the exercise of various occu¬
pations in which it is employed ; also for the making of
carnages, cabinet ware, and fancy chairs. Patterson is
c nefly noted for its manufactures of cotton, hemp, and
machinery. Glass of various kinds, and in large quanti¬
ties, is made in different counties; and paper and gunpowder
are manufactured to some extent. This state is rich in
mineral productions. Besides the iron already mentioned,
^ ich is abundant, limestone prevails extensively. Marble
an zinc are found, and ores of gold and silver have been
.covered. Copper mines in Somerset and Bergen coun-
les were wrought previously to the revolution, and extensive
veins are believed to cross the state in a south-westerly di¬
rection, from Schuyler mine, near Belleville, to the river
Delaware. Marl, well adapted for manuring the arenace¬
ous districts, is found in their vicinage. Clay of superior
quality for the arts is obtained in great abundance near South
Amboy ; and sand, adapted for the manufacture of the
finest glass, is found in the county of Cumberland, from
which it is conveyed to the principal manufactories of the
union.
New Jersey is divided into fourteen counties, Bergen,
Morris, Sussex, Warren, Essex, Somerset, Henderson,
Middlesex, Burlington, Monmouth, Gloucester, Salem,
Cumberland, and Cape May ; and these are subdivided into
townships. Trenton, the seat of government, is on the
Delaware River, at the falls, on the great route between
New York and Philadelphia, sixty miles south-west of the
former, and thirty north-east of the latter. At the foot of
the falls there is ah elegant bridge over the Delaware,
and that river is navigable for sloops and steam-boats to
this place. I he latter ply regularly between Trenton and
Philadelphia. It is a handsome town, and contains a
number of public buildings, amongst which the most con¬
spicuous is the state-house. I renton contains several re¬
spectable manufactories; and, in 1830, the population
amounted to 3925. Newark is pleasantly situated on the
western bank of the Passaic River, a few miles from its
mouth. This is the handsomest town in the state, and
contains several public buildings and religious edifices, to¬
gether with extensive manufactories of different kinds.
In this and the adjoining town of Orange there are va¬
luable quarries of stone for building, and numerous tan¬
neries. The population in 1830 amounted to 10,953.
New Brunswick is situated on the western bank of the Rari¬
tan, thirty-three miles south-west of New York; and
steam-boats regularly ply between the two cities. The
buildings of New Brunswick, which has a city incor¬
poration, are thinly distributed over a considerable ex¬
tent of ground. Besides several public buildings and
churches, there is a college and theological seminary. The
former was established by the ministers of the Dutch re¬
formed church, for the education of their clergy, and in¬
corporated in 1770. I he exercises, which were suspended
for several years, were revived ‘ in 1825, under very fa¬
vourable auspices. I he theological seminary was esta¬
blished in the city in 1810, by the general synod of the
Dutch reformed churches, and is to a certain extent con¬
nected with the college. In 1830, the population of New
Brunswick amounted to 7831, half of whom are of Dutch
extraction. Princeton is a pleasant village, eleven miles
north-east of Trenton, and sixteen south-west of Bruns¬
wick. Here is the college of New Jersey, founded in 1738,
and which has always been one of the most respectable and
flourishing literary institutions in the country. The college
edifice is designated Nassau Hall, and it contains a cha¬
pel, with sixty rooms for students. There are also build¬
ings for the library, philosophical apparatus, museum, and
other purposes. I here are ten instructors, and above one
hundred students. Ihere is also a theological seminary
ai Piinceton, connected with which are two professors,
one of didactic and polemic theology, and another of ecclesi¬
astical history. Ihe edifice for the accommodation of the
institution is an elegant stone building, containing rooms
for one hundred students. Elizabethtown is pleasantly si¬
tuated on Elizabethtown Creek, which empties itself into
Staten Island Sound. Vessels of twenty or thirty tons
come up to the town, and those of two or three hundred
tons to within two miles of the town. A steam-boat plies
between the city of New York and Elizabethtown Point.
Patterson is situated on the Passaic, near the great falls,
in a position much admired for the romantic scenery which
surrounds it. It is the chief manufacturing town in the
543
J ersey,
New.
544 J JE H
Jerusalem.state, and in 1830 contained a population of 7731. The
other towns are not of sufficient importance to demand
individual description. They have all, according to their
size, the usual number of public edifices and ot religious
houses.
Great attention to the cause of public education has
recently been evinced throughout this state, and measures
adopted which promise important results to the cause ot
universal enlightenment. Previously to the inquiry which
was instituted in 1828, the system of instruction nas very
defective ; but efforts have since been made to change this
state of things. A school fund, exceeding 250,000 dollars,
is managed by trustees under the authority of the legisla¬
ture, and is steadily increasing ; whilst a large portion of
its annual income is distributed amongst the several town¬
ships, and is applied, augmented by moneys voluntarily
raised by the townships, to the support of common schools,
and otherwise to extend the means of education over the
whole community. With regard to religion, almost every
Christian denomination is represented in this state. The
Presbyterians have eighty-five churches, eighty-eight mini¬
sters, twenty licentiates, and 12,519 communicants; the me-
thodists 10,730 members; the Dutch reformed churches
are twenty-eight in number, with as many ministers ; the
Baptists have thirty-four churches, twenty-one ministers,
and 2324 communicants ; the Episcopalians twenty minis¬
ters ; the Friends are numerous ; and there are some Con-
gregationalists.
The legislature is composed of two bodies; the legisla¬
tive council and the general assembly. The former is
composed of fourteen members, one being returned from
each county ; and the latter of fifty members, the coun¬
ties being represented by different numbers, from one to
five. The governor is annually appointed, and, like most
of the executive, judicial, and military officers, by the two
houses in joint meeting. The judicial powers are, a court
of chancery, modelled after that in England, the governor
being chancellor; a supreme court of common law jurisdic¬
tion over the whole state, with a circuit court for the trial
of issues of fact in civil cases in each county; courts of
common pleas in the several counties, for the trial of civil
causes ; orphans’ courts, for matters of testament, adminis¬
tration, and guardianship; and courts with presiding jus¬
tices of peace, for the trial of small causes. The courts of
J E R
criminal jurisdiction are, courts of general sessions of the Jerus;
peace, of oyer and terminer and general jail delivery, the w-C
supreme court, and the governor and council for the trial
of impeachments exhibited by the house of assembly.
According to the official documents of 1830, the military
force of the state consists of 30,456 infantry, 1810 cavalry,
1886 artillery, 1115 riflemen, and 93 general, brigade, and
staff officers, forming in all a body of 35,360 men.
The counties of Salem and Bergen in this state were
respectively very early settled by the Swedes and Dutch,
the latter people having emigrated from the neighbouring
settlement of New York. By a charter dated in 1664,
Charles II. granted this province to his brother James duke
of York, who, having shortly afterwards granted it to sub¬
ordinate agents, the English were not tardy in extending
the settlement. In 1676, it was separated into two great
divisions, East Jersey and West Jersey. Each owned a se¬
parate proprietor, who held both the rights of the soil and the
powers of government; governors being appointed by them
for the exercise of the latter, whilst the people wrere al¬
lowed to elect their own representatives. In 1702, the
powers of government passed from the hands of the pro¬
prietors into those of Queen Anne, and the colony re¬
mained attached to the British crown until the declara¬
tion of American independence. During this period the
governors were nominated by the crown, and the legisla¬
ture, as before, chosen by the people, but afterwards re¬
presenting the whole community, and sitting alternately
at Burlington and Perth Amboy, then the principal towns
of the respective divisions. From the earliest period of its
history, New Jersey displayed much zeal and firmness in
the cause of civil and religious liberty, and wras amongst
the earliest to resolve on independence. During the revo¬
lutionary conflict, it suffered much from having been the
arena where the belligerent hosts frequently contended ; and
some of the most interesting scenes and the most arduous
conflicts took place within its limits. This state has the
two large and increasing cities of New York and Philadel¬
phia on its borders ; and, viewed in every light, although
much smaller than many others in the union, it may be
doubted whether it is not the most advantageously situ¬
ated of any political subdivision in the republic. The po¬
pulation in 1820 was 277,575, and in 1830, 320,779; of
these, 2446 were slaves. (k. r. R.)
JERUSALEM.
Jerusalem, one of the most ancient and renowned
cities of which we have any account, formerly the capital
of the Jewish empire, and now that of modern Pales¬
tine. It is situated on unequal ground, on a range of high
hills, some few eminences of which overtop those on which
the city stands, and the adjacent country is remarkably rocky
and barren. The city, which is surrounded with a wall fifty
feet in height, occupies an irregular square, facing the four
cardinal points, and is about two and a half miles in circum¬
ference. The eastern wall, which is not quite so long as the
other sides, runs straight along the brow of Mount Moriah,
with the deep valley of Jehoshaphat below. The south¬
ern side is extremely irregular, taking a zigzag direction;
the south-west extreme being terminated by a mosque
built over the supposed sepulchre of David, on the sum¬
mit of Mount Zion. The southern wall is quite straight and
regular, and runs over slightly-declining ground. The
side facing the west is the longest of the whole. The wall
appears to be a modern work, all executed at the same time.
It is flanked at irregular distances by square towers, and is
guarded by battlements all around, with loop-holes for ar¬
rows or musketry. On the north the citv is bounded by
a level and apparently fertile space, covered with olive
trees, particularly near the north-eastern angle. On the
south is seen the steep acclivity of Mount Zion, and the
Valley of Hinnom, on which are some cultivated spots and
small garden enclosures. On the west the sterile sum¬
mits of the hills scarcely rise above the dwellings; whilst
eastward, the deep valley of Jehoshaphat, at the foot of
the Mount of Olives, though partially relieved by spots
with trees, presents, in general, a forbidding and barren
appearance. The first aspect of Jerusalem has been va¬
riously described by different writers, and the city appears
to be seen to more or less advantage according to the quar¬
ter from which it is approached. Dr Clarke was impressed
with its grandeur when he first obtained a distant prospect
of it. “ Instead,” he observes, “ of a wretched and ruined
town, by some described as the desolated remnant of Je¬
rusalem, we beheld as it were a flourishing and stately
metropolis, presenting a magnificent assemblage of domes,
towers, palaces, churches, and monasteries, all of which,
glittering in the sun’s rays, shone with inconceivable splen¬
dour.” “ I can now account,” says Chateaubriand, “ for
the surprise expressed by the crusaders and pilgrims at
J E R U S A L E M.
rusalem. the first sight of Jerusalem, according to the reports of
historians and travellers. I can affirm, that whoever has,
like me, had the patience to read nearly two hundred mo¬
dern accounts of the Holy Land, the rabbinical compila¬
tions, and the passages in the ancient writers, respecting
Judaea, still knows nothing at all about it. I paused with
my eyes fixed on Jerusalem, measuring the height of its
walls, reviewing at once all the recollections of history
from the patriarch Abraham to Godfrey of Bouillon, re¬
flecting on the total change accomplished in the world
by the mission of the Son of Man, and in vain seeking
that temple, not one stone of which is left upon ano¬
ther. Were I to live a thousand years, never should I for¬
get that desert, which yet seems to be pervaded by
the greatness of Jehovah, and the terrors of death.”1 Dr
Clarke, however, observes that there is another point from
which Jerusalem is not seen to so much advantage ; and ac¬
cordingly Mr Browne, who approached it by the road from
Jaffa, observes, that the first aspect of Jerusalem did not
gratify his expectation ; and Buckingham declares, that,
independently of the feelings and recollections which the
approach to this city cannot fail to awaken, its appearance
disappointed his expectations, and “ had certainly nothing
of grandeur or beauty, of stateliness or magnificence, about
it. It appeared like a walled town of the third or fourth
class, having neither towers, nor domes, nor minarets
within it; but strong, large, flat-roofed buildings, of the
most unornamented kind, seated amid rugged hills, on a
stony and forbidding soil, with scarcely a picturesque ob¬
ject in the whole compass of the surrounding view.”2
In like manner Sir Frederick Henniker asks, “ Is this the
city that men call the perfection of beauty and the joy of
the whole earth ? The town, which appears to me not
worth possession, even without the trouble of conquest, is
walled entirely round, is about a mile in length and half a
mile in width, so that its circumference may be estimated
at three miles. In three quarters of an hour I performed
the circuit. It would be difficult to conceive how it could
ever have been larger than it now is ; for, independent of
the ravines, the four outsides of the city are marked by
the brook of Siloam, by a burial-place at either end, and
by the hill of Calvary; and the hill of Calvary is now
within the town, so that it was formerly smaller than it is
at present. The best view of it is from the Mount of
Olives; it commands the exact shape, and nearly every
particular, namely, the church of the Holy Sepulchre,
the Armenian convent, the mosque of Omar, St Stephen’s
Gate, the round topped houses, and the barren vacancies
of the city. The mosque of Omar is the St Peter’s of
Turkey. The building itself has a light pagoda appear¬
ance ; the garden in which it stands occupies a consider¬
able part of the city, and, contrasted with the surrounding
desert, is beautiful; but it is forbidden ground, and Jew
or Christian entering within its precincts must, if discover¬
ed, forfeit either his religion or his life.”3 The diversity of
opinion, nay, even the apparent contradiction, which pre¬
vails in the accounts of different travellers respecting Je¬
rusalem, will be still further illustrated by M. de Lamar¬
tine’s description of the exterior aspects of the holy city.
“ This city,” says he, “ is not, as it has been represent¬
ed, an unshapely and confused mass of ruins and ashes,
over which a few Arab cottages are thrown, or a few Be¬
douin tents pitched ; neither is it, like Athens, a chaos of
dust and crumbling walls, where the traveller seeks in vain
the shadow of edifices, the trace of streets, the phantom
of a city ; but it is a city shining in light and colour, pre¬
senting nobly to view her intact and battlemented walls,
her blue mosque with its white colonnades, her thousand
545
resplendent domes, from which the rays of the autumnal Jerusalem,
sun are reflected in a dazzling vapour; the facades of her
houses, tinted by time and heat, of the yellow and golden
hue of the edifices of Paestum or of Rome ; her old towers
the guardians of her walls, to which neither one stone, one
loop-hole, nor one battlement is wanting ; and, above all,
amidst that ocean of houses, that cloud of little domes
which cover them, is a dark elliptical dome, larger than
the others, overlooked by another and a white one. These
are the churches of the Holy Sepulchre and of Calvary;
from hence they are confounded, and appear drowned in
the immense labyrinth of domes, edifices, and streets,
which encompass them ; and one finds it difficult to credit
such a situation for Calvary and the Sepulchre, which,
according to the ideas we derive from the gospel history,
should be placed on a separate hill without the walls, and
not in the centre of Jerusalem. The city, confined on the
side of Mount Sion, has no doubt enlarged herself on the
north, to embrace within her circuit those two sites which
make her shame and glory, that of the murder of the just
man, and the resurrection of the incarnate Deity.
“ Such is the city from the height of the Mount of
Olives. She has no horizon behind her to the west nor
to the north. The line of her walls and her towers, the
points of her numerous minarets, the arches of her shin¬
ing domes, stand out in bold relief against the deep blue
of an orient sky ; and the town, thus exhibited on its broad
and elevated platform, seems again to shine in all the an¬
tique splendour of its prophecies, or to be only waiting the
word to rise in dazzling glory from its seventeen succes¬
sive ruins, and to be transformed into that New Jerusalem
which is to come out of the bosom of the desert radiant
with brightness.
“ The view is the most splendid that can be presented
to the eye, of a city that is no more ; for she still seems to
exist as one full of life and youth : but on contemplating
the scene with more attention, we feel that it is really no
more than a fair vision of the city of David and Solomon.
No noise arises from her squares and streets, no roads lead
to her gates from the east or from the west, from the north
or from the south, except a few paths winding among the
rocks, on which you may meet only half-naked Arabs, some
camel drivers from Damascus, or women from Bethlehem
or Jericho, carrying on their heads a basket of raisins from
Engaddi, or a cage of doves, to be sold on the morrow
under the trebinthuses beyond the city gates. No one
passed in or out; no mendicant even was seated against
her curbstones ; no sentinel showed himself at her thresh¬
old ; we saw, indeed, no living object, heard no living
sound ; we found the same void, the same silence, at the
entrance of a city containing 30,000 souls, during the twelve
hours of the day, as we should have expected before the
gates of Pompeii or Herculaneum.
“We saw nothing pass the gate of Damascus, except
four funeral processions, silently winding their way along
the walls to the Turkish cemetery; nor the gate of Sion,
while we were within view, except a poor Christian, who
had died in the moiming of the plague, and was carried by
four grave-diggers to the Grecian burial-place. They pass¬
ed close by us, stretched the infectious corpse upon the
ground, wrapped in its own garments, and in silence com¬
menced digging its last bed under our horses’ feet. The
earth all around the city was freshly disturbed by similar
sepultures, which the plague multiplied daily ; and the only
sensible noise outside the walls of Jerusalem was the mono¬
tonous plaints of the Turkish women bewailing their dead.
I know not whether the plague was the only cause of the
emptiness of the roads and the profound silence that reign-
3 Notes on Egypt, <%c.
3 z
1 Itintraire de Paris d Jerusalem, tom. xxii. p. 385.
VOL. XII.
3 Travels through Palestine, p. 174.
JERUSALEM.
546
Jerusalem, ed within and around Jerusalem, but I think not; for the
Turks and Arabs turn not away from the inflictions of Om¬
nipotence, which they are convinced may everywhere reach
them, and that there is no road by which to escape ; a
sublime idea, but which often leads to the most fatal con¬
sequences.
“ To the left of the platform, the temple, and the walls
of Jerusalem, the hill which supports the city suddenly
sinks, stretches itself, and descends in gentle slopes, some¬
times broken by terraces of falling stones. On its summit,
at some hundred paces from Jerusalem, stand a mosque,
and a group of Turkish edifices, not unlike a European
hamlet, crowned with its church and steeple. This is
Sion, the palace, the tomb of David ; the seat of his inspi¬
ration and of his joys, of his life and his repose. A spot
doubly sacred to me, who have so often felt my heart
touched and my thoughts rapt by the sweet singer of
Israel,—the first poet of sentiment,—the king of lyrics.
Never have human fibres vibrated to harmonies so deep,
so penetrating, so solemn. Never has the imagination of
poet been set so high, never has its expression been so true.
Never has the soul of man expanded itself before man, and
before God, in tones and sentiments so tender, so sympa¬
thetic, and so heartfelt. All the most secret murmurs of
the human heart found their voice and their note on the
lips and the harp of this minstrel. And if we revert to the
remote period when such chaunts were first echoed on the
earth ; if we consider that at the same period the lyric
poetry of the most cultivated nations sang only of wine,
love, war, and the victories of the muses, or of the coursers
at the Eleian games ; we dwell with profound astonishment
on the mystic accents of the prophet king, who addresses
God the Creator as friend talks to friend ; comprehends and
adores His wonders, admires His judgments, implores His
mercies, and seems to be an anticipatory echo of the evan¬
gelic poetry, repeating the mild accents of Christ before
they had been heard. Prophet or not, as he is contemplat¬
ed by the philosopher or the Christian, neither of them can
deny the poet king an inspiration bestowed on no other
man. Read Horace or Pindar after a psalm! For my part
I cannot.
“ I, the feeble poet of an age of silence and decay, had
I domesticated at Jerusalem, should have selected for my
residence and abiding place precisely the spot which David
chose for his at Sion. Here is the most beautiful view in
all Judaea, Palestine, or Galilee. To the left lies Jerusalem
with its temple and its edifices, over which the eyes of the
king or of the poet might rove at large without his being
seen from thence. Before him, fertile gardens, descending
in steep declivities, lead to the bed of that torrent, in the
roar and foam of which he delights. Lower down, the val¬
ley opens and extends itself; fig-trees, pomegranates, and
olives, overshadowing it. On one of these rocks, suspend¬
ed over the rolling tide; in one of these sonorous grottoes,
refreshed by the breeze and by the murmur of the waters ;
or at the foot of a trebinthus, ancestor of that which shel¬
ters me; the divine poet doubtless awaited those inspira¬
tions which he so melodiously poured forth. And why will
they not here also visit me, that I might recount in song
the griefs of my heart, and of the hearts of all men, in these
days of perplexity, even as he sang of his hopes in an era
of youth and of faith ? Song, alas, no longer survives in
the heart of man, for despair sings not. And until some
new beam shall descend upon the obscurity of our times,
terrestrial lyres will remain mute, and mankind will pass in
silence from one abyss of doubt to another, having neither
loved, nor prayed, nor sang.
“ But to return to the palace of David. Here the eye
rests upon the once verdant and watered valley of Jehosha-Jems
phat; a large opening in the eastern hills conducts it from m
steep to steep, from height to height, from undulation to
undulation, even to the bason of the Dead Sea, which, in
the far distance, reflects the evening sun-beams in its dull
and heavy waters, giving, like the thick Venetian crystal,
an unpolished and leaden tint to the light which gleams
upon it. This sea is not, however, what the imagination
may picture it, a petrified lake, amidst a dull and colourless
horizon. It resembles one of the most beautiful lakes of
Switzerland or Italy as it is seen from hence, reposing its
tranquil waters beneath the shadow of the lofty mountains
of Arabia (which stretch like the Alps as far as the eye can
reach behind its w aves), and amidst the projecting, pyrami-
dical, conical, unequal, jagged, and sparkling ridges of the
most distant mountains of Judaea. Such is the view from
Sion. We will now proceed.
“ There is another feature in the landscape of Jerusalem,
which I could wish to have indelibly engraven on my me¬
mory, although I neither draw nor paint. It is the valley
of Jehoshaphat. That valley, celebrated in the traditions
of three religions, in which Jews, Christians, and Mahom-
medans unite to place the terrible arena of Supreme judg¬
ment. That valley which has already witnessed on its con¬
fines the grandest scene of the evangelical drama ; the tears,
the groans, and the death of Christ. That valley which all
the prophets have successively visited, sending forth a cry
of bitterness and horror, with which it seems still to vibrate.
That valley through which shall one day pour the awful
sound of a torrent of souls about to present themselves be¬
fore their God for final judgment.”1
What follows is part of an interior view' of the holy city
by the same gifted writer, and it appears to us to be in¬
stinct with devout feeling and high genius.
Having walked down some other streets similar to
those I have already described, we found ourselves in a
little square, open at the north to a point of the heavens
and to the Mount of Olives. A descent of a few steps to the
left brought us to an open court, in which \he facade of the
church of the Holy Sepulchre was displayed. This church
has been so often and so well described, that it is needless
for me to enter upon the subject anew. It forms, espe¬
cially in its exterior, a vast and beautiful monument of the
Byzantine age ; its architecture is severe, solemn, grand,
and rich, for the period in which it was built; and it is a
temple worthy of being erected, by the piety of man, over
the tomb of the Son of Man. In comparing this church
with others wrhich the same epoch produced, it will be
found superior to them all. St Sophia, much more colos¬
sal, is also much ruder in its structure ; outwardly it is but
a mountain of stone, flanked by little hills of stone. The
Holy Sepulchre, on the contrary, presents an aerial and
carved cupola; its scientific and graceful figure, with its
doors, its windows, its capitals and cornices, displays, in
addition to its massiveness, the incalculable cost of that in¬
genious fret-work, by which stone seems converted into
lace, to render it worthy of a place in this monument erect¬
ed to the grandest of human conceptions ; and it bears im¬
pressed, no less on its details than on its aggregate effect,
the idea to which it is dedicated. It is no longer, indeed,
that church of the Holy Sepulchre constructed by Saint
Helena, the mother of Constantine ; the kings of Jerusa¬
lem successively retouched it, and embellished it with ar¬
chitectural ornaments in that half western, half Moorish
style, of which the East furnished them both with the taste
and with the models. But, such as it now stands, the ex¬
terior, in its Byzantine mass, its Greek, Gothic, and Ara¬
besque decorations—even its fractures, the impress of time
Pilgrimage to the Holy I,and, vol. ii. p. 15-20, English translation, London, 1835.
JERUSALEM.
rusalem. and barbarism upon \ts, facade—ofFers no revolting contrast
to the thoughts we bring to it, the thoughts it expresses.
Its aspect excites no painful perception of a grand idea in¬
adequately represented ; of an exalting reminiscence pro¬
faned by the hand of man : on the contrary, the involun¬
tary feeling inspired by it equals what I expected ; man has
done his best. The monument is not worthy of the tomb,
but it is worthy of the human agents whose wish has been
to do honour to this illustrious sepulchre; and we enter
the vaulted and sombre vestibule of the nave under the in¬
fluence of this first and serious impression.
“ On the left of the entrance to the vestibule, which
opens upon the same court as the nave, in a large deeply-
hollowed niche, the Turks, the present guardians of the
Holy Sepulchre, to whom belongs exclusively the privilege
of opening or closing it, have established their divan, which
is covered with rich Aleppo carpets ; and there, when I
passed, were squatted five or six venerable Turkish figures,
with long white beards, their coffee-cups and pipes placed
before them on the carpet. They saluted us with dignity
and grace, and ordered one of the superintendents to ac¬
company us to all parts of the church. I saw no trace in
their countenances, their discourse, or their gestures, of the
irreverence of which they are accused. They do not enter
the church, but content themselves outside its doors, and
address Christians with a seriousness and respect becoming
the place and the object of visiting it. Possessors, by the
vicissitude of war, of the sacred monument of the Chris¬
tians, they do not destroy it and cast its ashes to the winds ;
they preserve it, they maintain around it an order, a police,
a reverential silence, which the Christian communities, who
contend for it, are far from observing themselves. They
watch over the preservation of a relic common to all who
bear the name of Christians, for the benefit of all, that
every communion may enjoy in its turn the worship which
all would gladly offer at the holy tomb. But for the Turks,
that tomb, disputed by the Greeks, the Catholics, and the
innumerable ramifications of the Christian world, would al¬
ready have been a hundred times an object of strife be¬
tween those rival and hostile communities; would have
passed alternately into the exclusive possession of either
party, and have been interdicted doubtless by each, during
their hour of triumph, to all professors of the common faith
who come not within their own pale. I see no justice in
the calumnies heaped upon the Turks ; the pretended bru¬
tal intolerance with which they are charged was manifest¬
ed to my observation only in respect for what other men
venerate and adore. Wherever a Mussulman sees the
image of God in the opinions of his fellow-creatures, he
bows down and he respects, persuaded that the intention
sanctifies the form. They are the only tolerant people.
Let Christians examine themselves, and ask in sincerity
how they would have acted if the fortune of war had placed
Mecca and Kaaba in their hands. Would the Turks then re¬
sort thither from all parts of Europe and of Asia, to revere,
in peace, the carefully preserved monuments of Islamism?
“ At the end of the vestibule we stood under the large cu¬
pola of the church, the centre of which, deemed by local
tradition the centre of the earth, is occupied by a small
monument enclosed within a larger, as a precious stone is
enchased in other minerals. It is an oblong square, adorn¬
ed with pilasters, a cornice, and a cupola, all of marble;
the whole of a laboured and eccentric design, and execut¬
ed in bad taste. It was rebuilt in 1817, by an European
architect, at the expense of the Greek church, now in pos¬
session of it. All around this interior pavilion of the se¬
pulchre extends the space of the external cupola, within
which we walk freely, and find in the intervals between the
piers chapels of great depth, each assigned to one of the
mysteries of Christ’s passion, and all containing some tes¬
timonies, real or supposed, of the scenes of the redemption.
547
That part of the church which is not under the cupola is Jerusalem,
divided from it by a partition of painted wood, hung with v>—'“y-’***'
pictures of the Greek school, and is exclusively reserved
for the schismatic Greeks. In spite of the singular profu¬
sion of bad paintings and ornaments of every description,
with which the walls and altars are overloaded, the gene¬
ral effect is solemn and religious, conveying the assurance
that prayer under every form has taken possession of this
sanctuary, and that pious zeal has accumulated within it
every object which generations of superstitious but sin¬
cere worshippers have deemed precious in the sight of
God. From hence a flight of steps, cut in the rock, con¬
ducts to the summit of Calvary, where the three crosses
were posted; so that Calvary, the tomb, and several other
sites of the drama of redemption, are united under the roof
of a single edifice of moderate dimensions ; a circumstance
that appears but ill to accord with the gospel histories.
We are not prepared by them to find the tomb of Joseph
of Arimathea, wrhich was cut in the rock, outside the walls
of Sion, fifty paces from Calvary, the scene of executions,
and enclosed within the circumference of the modern walls ;
but such is tradition, and it has prevailed. The mind can¬
not dispute over a scene like this the difference of a few
paces between historical probability and tradition. Whe¬
ther it were here or there, it is certain the events occurred
at no great distance from the points marked out. After a
few moments of deep and silent meditation devoted in each
of these sacred spots to the remembrances awakened, we
re-descended to the body of the church, and penetrated
within the interior monument, which serves as a sort of
stone curtain or envelope to the sepulchre itself. This is
divided into two small sanctuaries ; the first containing the
stone on which the angels were seated when they answer¬
ed the holy women, “ He is not here, he is risen the se¬
cond and last sanctuary enclosing the sepulchre itself, but
covered with a sort of sarcophagus of white marble, which
surrounds and entirely conceals from the eye the actual
substance of the primitive rock in which the sepulchre was
cut. This sacred chapel is lighted by lamps of gold and
silver, perpetually maintained; and perfumed incense is
burnt there night and day, warming and embalming the
air. We suffered none of the temple officials to penetrate
it with us, but entered one by one, separated by a curtain
of crimson silk from the first sanctuary; we chose that no
witness should disturb the solemnity of the place, and the
privacy of the impressions each might experience accord¬
ing to his individual notions, and the measure and nature
of his faith in the great event which the tomb commemo¬
rates. We staid each about a quarter of an hour, and
none of us left it with dry eyes. Whatever form religious
sentiments may have assumed in the soul of man ; whether
influenced by private meditation, by the study of history,
by years, or the vicissitudes of the heart and mind; whe¬
ther he have retained Christianity in its literal interpreta¬
tion, and in the doctrines imbibed from his parents, or is
only a philosophical and spiritual Christian ; whether Christ
be to him a crucified God, or no more than a holy man
deified by virtue, inspired by supreme truth, and dying to
bear testimony to his father ; whether Jesus be in his eyes
the Son of God or the Son of Man, divinity incarnate or
humanity deified ; Christianity is still the religion of his
memory, of his heart, and of his imagination ; and will not
have so wholly evaporated before the winds of time and
life as that the soul on which it was shed shall preserve no
vestige of its primitive odour, or that its fading impressions
can resist the revivifying and awfully affecting influence of
its birth-place, and of the visible monuments of its ear¬
liest profession. To the Christian or to the philosopher, to
the moralist or to the historian, this tomb is the boundary
of two worlds, the ancient and the modern. From this
point issued a truth that has renewed the universe; a
548 J E R U S
Jerusalem.civilization that has transformed all things; a woid which
has echoed over the whole globe. This tomb is the sepul¬
chre of the old world, the cradle of the new ; never was
earthly stone the foundation of so vast an edifice ; never
was tomb so prolific ; never did doctrine, inhumed for three
days or three centuries, so victoriously rend the rock which
man had sealed over it, and give the lie to death by so
transcendent, so perpetual a resurrection.
“ In my turn, and the last, I entered the Holy Sepulchre,
my mind filled with these stupendous reflections, my heart
touched by impressions yet more sacred, which remain a
mystery between man and his soul, between the leasoning
insect and his Creator. Such impressions admit not of
words ; they exhale with the smoke of the holy lamps,
with the perfume of the censers, with the vague and con¬
fused murmur of sighs ; they fall with those tears that
spring to the eyes from remembrance of the first names
we have lisped 'in infancy—of the father and the mother
who inculcated them—of the brothers, the sisteis, the
friends with whom we have whispered them. All the pious
emotions which have affected our souls in every period of
life ; all the prayers that have been breathed from our hearts
and our lips in the name of him who taught us to pray to
his Father and to ours; all the joys and griefs of which
those prayers were the interpreters; are awakened in the
depths of the soul, and produce, by their echoes, by their
very confusion, a bewildering of the understanding, and a
melting of the heart, which seek not language, but tran¬
spire in moistened eyes, a heaving breast, a prostrate fore¬
head, and lips glued in silence to the sepulchral stone.
Long did I remain in this posture, supplicating the Father
of heaven, in that very spot from whence the most pathe¬
tic and comprehensive of prayers ascended for the first
time to his throne ; praying for my father here below, for
my mother in another world, for all those who live or are
no more, but our invisible link with whom is never dissolv¬
ed : the communion of love always exists : the names of all
the beings I have known and loved, or by whom I have
been beloved, passed my lips on the stones of the Holy Se¬
pulchre. I prayed last for myself, but ardently and de¬
voutly. Before the tomb of him who brought the greatest
portion of truth into the world, and died with the greatest
self-devotion for that truth of which God has made him
the word, I prayed for truth and courage. Never can I
forget the words which I murmured in that hour, so criti¬
cal to my moral life. Perhaps my prayer w as heard; a
bright ray of reason and conviction diffused itself through
my understanding, giving me more clearly to distinguish
light from darkness, error from truth. There are moments
in the life of man, in which his thoughts, long fluctuating
like the waves of a bottomless sea in vague uncertainty,
touch at length upon a shore against which they break,
and roll back upon themselves with new forms, and a cur¬
rent contrary to that which has hitherto impelled them.
Was such a moment then mine ? He who sounds all
thoughts knows, and the time will perhaps come when I
shall comprehend it. It was a mystery in my life which
will hereafter be made plain.”1
The ancient city of Jerusalem, with the splendid struc¬
tures by which it was adorned during the brilliant period
of the Jewish empire, has entirely disappeared in the
course of successive conquests; and although many an¬
cient monuments, the scenes of Scripture history, are
shown to travellers, it is certain that no traces remain of
Jerusalem excepting the surrounding scenery, those na¬
tural features which triumph alike over time and the rage
of war. One of the most splendid edifices in the modern
A L E M.
city is the mosque of Omar already alluded to, which is saidJerusak
to stand on the site of Solomon’s temple. It was erected in
the seventh century, by the caliph whose name it bears. It
is an octagonal building, with numerous windows, sur¬
mounted by a dome in form resembling that of St Paul’s in
London, and about half the size. It is by far the most splen¬
did and richest monument of architectural art in Jerusa¬
lem, or, according to Dr Clarke, in the Turkish empire,
and, “ considered externally,” he adds, “ far superior to
the mosque of St Sophia in Constantinople. It has an
imposing effect when seen from a distance, from the com¬
manding situation which it occupies; and it relieves in a
great degree the dull, monotonous aspect of the other
streets and buildings.”2 It is crowned with a cupola, which
is also octagonal, having a round window of coloured glass
in each of its sides; and is surmounted by a dome, for¬
merly of gilded copper, but now of lead.3 “ The lofty Sa¬
racenic pomp,” says Dr Clarke, “ so nobly displayed in the
style of the building, its numerous arcades, its capacious
dome, with all the stately decorations of the place ; its ex¬
tensive area paved and variegated with the choicest mar¬
bles, the extreme neatness observed in every avenue to¬
wards it; and, lastly, the sumptuous costume observable in
the dresses of all the eastern devotees, passing to and from
the sanctuary, make it altogether one of the finest sights
the Mahommedans have to boast.”4 No access into the
interior is allowed to Christians, under pain of death ; and
when Dr Clarke urged his attendant to permit his en¬
trance, he replied that his life would be the price of his
compliance. In earlier times, however, when Jerusalem
was in possession of the Crusaders, the interior of the
mosque was visited by Europeans, who have described
its architecture and decorations. It is entered by four
large gates, richly ornamented, facing the four cardinal
points, with six columns of marble and porphyry. The
interior is of white marble, and the pavement inlaid with
marble of different colours. Thirty-two columns of gray
marble, in two rows, support the arched roof and the dome;
around these columns are chandeliers gilded or of bronze,
on which are seven thousand lamps which burn from
Thursday at sun-set to Friday at mid-day, and constantly
during the feast of Ramadan. The church of the Holy
Sepulchre is another of the remarkable monuments of
Jerusalem. It is said to be the scene of the crucifixion,
entombment, and resurrection of our Saviour, though no
evidence appears to identify the spot. Buckingham, who
visited it in 1816, mentions that it was burned down in
the year 1806, and has since been rebuilt in a style of
architecture and decoration greatly inferior to the origi¬
nal. The general plan of the whole building, however,
says Buckingham, and the arrangement of the holy sta¬
tion which it contains, are so exactly preserved, that the
descriptions of the earliest visitors apply as correctly
to its present state as to its former. In its appear¬
ance it resembles, according to Dr Clarke, who saw the
original edifice, an ordinary Roman Catholic church. It
presents in form a singular mixture of eastern and west¬
ern architecture ; a combination which, though it offends
against the critical rules of taste, produces, according to
this traveller, an agi'eeable effect. It is 300 feet long
and nearly 200 broad, and was built by Helena, the mo¬
ther of Constantine. Over the door there was in the first
edifice a bas-relief, representing the entrance of Christ
into Jerusalem, and the multitude strewing palm branches
in the way. On entering the church, Dr Clarke was
shown a slab of white marble in the pavement, surrounded
by a rail, which he was told was the spot where our Sa-
1 Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, vol. ii. p. 27-35.
* Travels through Palestine, p. 205.
3 Chateaubriand, Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem, vol. ii. p- 3/®'
4 Travels in Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land, vol. ii. p. 002.
JERUSALEM.
jsalem.viour’s body had been anointed by Joseph of Arimathea.
There is not the slightest proof of the identity of any of
these holy places ; but the authority of these legends is still
kept up as a device forexacting money from the travellers
and pilgrims who visit this celebrated city. The interior
of this strange fabric is divided into two parts. The first
is a kind of ante-chapel, on entering which, the visitors
are shown, before the mouth of the sepulchre, a block of
white marble, on which it is affirmed that the angel sat
after the Saviour was laid in the tomb. The sepulchre
itself is composed of thick slabs of that beautiful breccia
commonly called verd-antique marble ; and the entrance
is rugged and broken, owing to so many fragments being
carried off as relics. The interior of the original edifice
was adorned with Corinthian columns of fine marble ; but
these being destroyed by the fire, the dome is now sup¬
ported by tall and slender square pillars of masonry, plas¬
tered on the outside, and placed so thickly together as to
produce the worst effect. The mean architecture of the
central dome, and of the whole rotunda which surrounds
the sepulchre itself, can only, says Buckingham, be ex¬
ceeded by the wretched taste of its painted decorations.
The attention of this last traveller was attracted by the
capitals of two very large pillars, evidently very ancient.
They were placed on two short, thick shafts, and serve to
support the roof of a grotto in which the holy cross is said
to have been found by St Helena. For every incident in
the history of the Saviour’s death and resurrection there
is in this church a suitable locality. The place is pointed
out where Christ was derided by the soldiers; where the
soldiers divided his garments; where he was nailed to the
cross, &c.; to all which miserable inventions implicit credit
is attached by the credulous multitude who seek admission to
the Holy Sepulchre. This place is the scene of the most im¬
pious extravagancies and absurdities, in which the Greek and
Latin Christians equally participate during their festivals
at Easter; and they frequently contend with each other,
even to the shedding of their blood, for the privilege of
first entering in to celebrate mass. In the galleries round
the church are small buildings, containing apartments for
the reception of friars and pilgrims; and almost every
Christian nation maintained here a society of monks. But
these, owing to the severe extortions of the Turks, have many
of them deserted the holy city, though the Greeks and
Latins, and also some Armenians, Copts, and Abyssinians
still remain. Lamps are continually kept burning in the
sepulchre. The last and most important monument wdiich
is showm is the tomb itself where Christ’s body is said to
have lain, another of those delusions which seem to form
the staple manufacture of the holy city. Vast crowds
nevertheless resort to visit the sepulchre; and Buckingham
observes that his stay there was very short. “ The crowds,”
he says, “ pressing at the door ; the smallness of the aper¬
ture at the entrance ; the confined space within, hung
round with crimson damask, and ornamented with silver
lamps and painting ; the hurry and bustle occasioned by
the worshippers searching for their shoes left at the door,
as every one went in barefooted ; the struggles to be the
first to get near enough to kiss the marble; and sometimes
the forcibly putting off the turbans of those who might
have forgotten to uncover their heads; presented altogether
a scene of such confusion, that, added to the risk of suffo¬
cation in so impure an atmosphere, it drove us by rapidly
to make room for others.” The Holy Sepulchre, after hav¬
ing been for some time the most honoured sanctuary of
the Christians, became a heathen altar, where pagan rites
were celebrated. The Turks, who now possess it, suffer
the tomb of the Messiah to remain unmolested, in consider¬
ation of the money paid to them by the Christian pilgrims
for the privilege of visiting it. About forty paces from the
sepulchre, beneath the roof of the same church, and on the
549
same level, are shown two rooms, one above another. Close Jerusalem,
by the entrance into the lower chamber or chapel, were
formerly the tombs of Godfrey of Bouillon, and of Baldwin,
kings of Jerusalem. But these, we are informed by Buck¬
ingham, have been spitefully destroyed by the rival sect of
the Greeks, so that not a vestige of them remains to mark
even the spot on which they stood. At the extremity of
the chapel is a fissure or cleft in the natural rock, said to
have taken place in consequence of the earthquake that oc¬
curred at the crucifixion. This spot is narrated as Mount
Calvary, the place of our Saviour’s passion ; and here, upon
a contracted piece of masonry, are shown the marks of the
three crosses on which Christ suffered, along with the two
thieves. “ After this,” says Dr Clarke, “ the traveller may
be conducted through such a farrago of absurdities, that it
is wonderful the learned men who have described Jerusa¬
lem should have filled their pages with any serious detail
of them.”
There is no evidence, however, to prove the identity of
these holy places with the events of which they are sup¬
posed to have been the scene. It cannot, as is said, be
Mount Calvary, for there is no mount; and in order to ex¬
plain away this glaring inconsistency, it is affirmed that
Mount Calvary was levelled to make way for the founda¬
tions of a church; that the sepulchre of Christ alone re¬
mained after the levelling had taken place, in the centre
of the area ; and that this was encased with marble; “ not
a syllable of which,” says Dr Clarke, “ is supported by any
existing evidence offered in the contemplation of what is now
called the tomb.” Dr Clarke, denying that the places describ¬
ed to be Mount Calvary and the scene of the crucifixion had
any claim to be so considered, was of opinion that he had
discovered the real site where these great events took place.
Having quitted the city of Jerusalem by the seven gates,
and descended into a dingle or trench called Tophet or
Gehinnom, he discovered, as he reached the bottom of the
narrow dale, upon the sides of the opposite mountains, a
number of excavations in the rock, w hich exhibited a series
of subterranean chambers hewn with marvellous art, and
containing repositories for the dead carved upon the sides
of the solid rock. The doors were so low that it was ne¬
cessary to stoop in order to procure an entrance, and to
creep, in some instances, on the hands and knees; the
doors were also grooved for the reception of immense
stones, once squared and fitted for the grooves, by way
of closing the entrances. These cemeteries are works of
such labour and magnificence, that they might justly be con¬
sidered as the sepulchres of kings. One, however, appears
to have been constructed for a single individual; and from
this circumstance, and from their being situated without
the city, Dr Clarke concludes that here was the sepul¬
chre of Joseph of Arimathea, and the place where our
Lord was crucified ; which was, according to the concur¬
ring testimony of all the evangelists, “ the place of a skull,”
or a public cemetry, in the Hebrew, Golgotha. There are
Greek inscriptions over the doors of these sepulchres, one
of which is “ of the Holy Sion.” Continuing his research¬
es further eastward along this dingle, and in the place
called Aceldama, other ancient sepulchres were discover¬
ed by Dr Clarke, containing inscriptions and ancient
paintings, executed after the manner of those found on
the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii; excepting that
the figures represented were those of the apostles, the
virgin, &c. with circular lines as symbols of glory encom¬
passing their heads. These paintings were on the sides and
on the roof of each sepulchral chamber; and although much
injured by the Arabs or Turks, they still preserved a
wonderful freshness of colour. These tombs are not nearly
so ancient as those that were first noticed, being evidently
constructed by Christians, after the dispersion, as Dr
Clarke conjectures, of the Jews during the reign of Had-
550 J E R U S
Jerusalem, rian. At the foot of the Mount of Olives, on the east
side of the brook Kedron, are the “ sepulchre of the vir¬
gin,” and those of the “ patriarchs.” The first is a cave
hewn out with surprising skill and labour, in a rock of
hard limestone, and is of great antiquity. The descent
into this receptacle for the dead is by a flight of fifty
marble steps, each of them twenty feet wide ; within is a
lofty and spacious vault, the largest of the cryptcB near
Jerusalem, containing the tombs, real or imaginary, of the
Virgin, of Joseph, of Anna, and of Caiaphas, with appro¬
priate chapels to each. History throws no light upon the
origin of this monument of human labour ; and Dr Clarke,
after the most careful examination, confesses himself un¬
able to assign any probable era for its construction. The
“ sepulchres of the patriarchs” face that part of Jerusalem
where the temple of Solomon was formerly erected. No
representation has ever been given of these remarkable mo¬
numents that conveys an adequate idea of their grandeur.
Their massive structure, the boldness of their design, and
their sombre hue, as well as that of the surrounding rocks,
impart to them a certain air of grandeur and sublimity,
which is lost in the representation. In order to form two
of these sepulchres, namely, those which are called the se¬
pulchres of Absalom and Zechariah, the solid substance
of the mountain has been cut away, and a sufficient area
having in this manner been excavated, two monuments
of prodigious size appear in the midst, cut out of an en¬
tire block of stone, and adorned with columns that appear
to support the edifice. These columns are in the ancient
style of the Doric order. The date of them has never
yet been determined, nor by what people they have been
erected. They are a continuation of one vast cemetery,
extending along the base of all the mountainous elevations
which surround Jerusalem on its southern and eastern
sides; and whilst they are monuments of prodigious la¬
bour, such as were erected in those times by despotic
kings, who could command labour to any extent, they also
evince great progress in the arts, and, according to Dr
Clarke, must have been the work of a powerful and flou¬
rishing people. There are other sepulchres to the north¬
west of Jerusalem, by the Damascus gate, which are mi¬
nutely described by Maundrell.1 An entrance cut out of
the natural rock leads into an open court of about forty
paces square; at the end of this court is a portico nine paces
long and four broad, hewn out of the natural rock. An
architrave running along its front, and sculptured with
fruits and flowers in a light and airy style, is still discern¬
ible, though much defaced. At the end of the portico
is the passage into the'sepulchres, which consist of seven
chambers cut out of the natural rock, and about seven or
eight yards square, and exactly regular and just. In one
ot these was found the lid of a white marble coffin, exqui¬
sitely sculptured. It is mentioned by Maundrell, that he
found one of the doors of the chambers of ash and of stone,
and about six inches thick, still hanging; and it turned up¬
on its hinges, which were also of stone. All knowledge of
the origin of these singular structures is lost in remote
antiquity, and the conjectures of travellers on the subject
seem to be futile and vain.
Chateaubriand endeavours to prove that this was the
tomb of Herod the tetrarch. Buckingham, however, con¬
siders his reasons as being far from conclusive ; and, object¬
ing also to the theories of Pococke and Clarke, he observes,
“ that, consideringMie changes of masters which Jerusalem
has suffered, and the consequent variation in the taste of
its possessors^it is at this momenta matter of extreme dif-
ficulty.ro separate the monuments of high antiquity from
tho.se'of a more modern age, or to decide what parts of
A L E M.
their remains preserve their original form, and what parts Jerusal.
have been subsequently altered or ornamented by later
hands.” Such are the different impressions made by the
same objects, that the last traveller, in reference to the ob¬
servations of Dr Clarke, remarks, “ that though this is the
largest, the most extensive, and the most interesting of the
monuments he had visited, there is not one which can be call¬
ed either ‘ enormous’ or ‘ splendid,’ without the strangest
abuse of terms.” “ The Jews,” says M. de Lamartine,
“ had no architecture of their own; they borrowed from
Egypt, from Greece, but more particularly, I think, from
India. The key of every thing is in India ; the generation of
ideas and arts appears to me to go back there ; they creat¬
ed Assyria, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Syria; the great cities
of the desert, as Balbec; then Egypt, then the islands of
Crete and Cyprus; then Etruria, then Rome ; then night
came on, and Christianity, cradled at first by the Platonic
philosophy, and afterwards by the barbarous ignorance of
the middle ages, gave birth to our civilization and our
modern arts.”2 Such is a specimen of the theories in
which not only imaginative poets, but even sober, matter-
of-fact travellers, are sometimes prone to indulge.
The ancient city of Jerusalem was so entirely destroyed
that nothing remained by which the original plan could be
traced, and hence the controversies still maintained among
the learned respecting its localities. The more durable
features of nature, however, still remain. From history
we learn that the ancient city stood upon four eminences,
with one very deep valley and two smaller ones dividing
them. The most conspicuous of these eminences was that
of Sion, called the Holy Hill, and the citadel of David to
the south of the city. To the north of Sion wus the hill
of Acra; and on the east the third eminence, Mount Mo¬
riah, upon which w'as built the temple. It wras bounded by
the sepulchral caves on the north, by Mount Sion on the
south, by the brook Kedron, which runs through the valley
of Jehoshaphat, on the east, beyond which was the Mount
of Olives, and by the hill of Acra on the west. There seems
to be considerable uncertainty about the identity of these
hills, though the Mount of Olives, covered with olive trees,
still vindicates its origin ; and the brook Kedron, receiving
from its fountains, which yet abound in excellent water,
the rivulet, or the dirty little brook, as Buckingham calls
it, of Siloam, flows through the valley of Jehoshaphat; and
the valley of Hinnom divides Mount Sion from Mount Mo¬
riah.
Jerusalem has long been celebrated as one of the holy
places of the Christians, and has not only been the resort
of numerous pilgrims, but the permanent residence of monks
and Christians from various countries, such as the Latins,
Greeks, Armenians, and Copts, who each of them have here
a monastery and a church. The Latin convent of St Sal¬
vador is a large, irregular building, like a fortress, with
courts and galleries within, and some small spaces of gar¬
den-land without, forming a safe retreat in time of intes¬
tine trouble. It is entered from a hilly street, by a large
iron-cased door, beneath an overhanging building, which
darkens the passage, and gives an air of gloom to the whole.
Beyond this is a small open paved court below, with other
still darker passages leading to the first flight of stairs.
These being ascended, a range of galleries, winding in va¬
rious directions, leads to the private apartments and domes¬
tic offices of the convent; and courts beyond, and terraces
above, afford sufficient space for walks both morning and
evening, with a commanding view of all Jerusalem and the
surrounding country. In this edifice, Dr Clarke mentions
that he was received by a body of the most corpulent friars
he had ever beheld, who resembled the figures brought in
1 Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 76, 7.7
Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, vol. ii. p. 80.
JERUSALEM.
usalem. this country upon the stage by way of burlesquing the
monkish character.
The friars are of the Franciscan order, who are under a
vow of perpetual poverty, and live by alms. They are fur¬
nished with a bed and bedding, a table, wash-hand basin
and jug, a lamp, a crucifix, and a chair, at the expense of
the church, to which they may add other conveniences from
their own funds. This convent of Jerusalem is called, by
way of distinction, “ II Convento della Terra Santa,” and
is at the head of all the Catholic establishments through¬
out the Holy Land. It is recruited with monks from
Naples, Sicily, and from the south of Spain, who, accord¬
ing to the account of Buckingham, are extremely discon¬
tented, and complain much of their banishment to this re¬
mote spot. The superior is immediately dependent on the
pope ; and the funds of the institution are supplied chiefly
from Rome, aided by donations from other Catholic coun¬
tries. The liberality of herdinand, king of Spain, was par¬
ticularly extolled ; and even the prince regent of England,
afterwards George IV., had sent a gift of L.1500. The
establishment of the convent consists of eighty-eight per¬
sons, who all mess together. The fast-days of the church
are regularly observed; and the daily services of prayers
and of masses, which are frequent and tedious. The morn¬
ing hour of service is five; coffee is made at this hour, of
which they all partake; they dine at ten, and sleep till
past noon. There is no restriction at any time in the al¬
lowance of bread, wine, and vegetables, all of which are
excellent. The monks are clothed once in two years,
with an under garment, and outer cloak of dark-brown
cloth, with the white knitted cord of St Francis, with
which it is understood that they are to flagellate themselves
for their sins. Strangers properly recommended, and es¬
pecially if it is thought they can protect the convent,
by their influence, from the exactions of the Turks, which
are often heavy, are hospitably entertained in a room allot¬
ted for them. The monastery possesses considerable funds
and stores. Dr Clarke was regaled with coffee, lemonade,
and excellent tea, which was served profusely in bowls.
The apartments are all paved with stone ; and there are
no less than twenty-two wells of excellent water within
the walls. The discipline is strict, and implicit obedience
is exacted by the superior, under pain of excommunication.
All the inferior convents in Palestine and Syria are subject
to this metropolitan convent: they are supplied from its
funds when voluntary contributions fail; and all appoint¬
ments are made by the superior. The church of the con¬
vent is not remarkable for size or beauty, though it is
gaudily furnished with gilded candlesticks, censers, images,
&c. and has a fine altar and an organ. The Greek mo¬
nastery consists of many small establishments, which are
said to be well supported. The church is partly sub¬
terranean, and is small and mean, the Greeks bestow¬
ing all their wealth on the decoration of the Holy Sepul¬
chre. The Armenian convent is distinguished above all
others for neatness and comfort, and for the cheerful aspect
of the place. This edifice, with its church and gardens,
occupies that point of the supposed Mount Zion that is
within the city. The establishment is well provided with
every comfort; its funds, contributed entirely by rich in¬
dividuals, are superior to those of the other convents ; and
all Armenian worshippers and pilgrims are maintained here
during their stay in the holy city. The church, which is
supposed, according to the traditions current in Jerusalem,
to be built on the spot where James the brother of John
was killed with the sword, has a gorgeous and imposing
appearance. Though small, it is lofty ; the walls are every¬
where covered with pictures, executed in the worst taste,
yet, from their profusion and gay colouring, producing an
agreeable effect. The pillars, as well as the portals of the
door and the inner walls, are all cased with porcelain tiles,
551
painted blue, with crosses and other devices; and the mosaic Jerusalem,
pavement is the most beautiful of its kind. The whole is
carefully covered with rich Turkey carpets, excepting only
a small space before the altar. To the left is a small recess,
the pretended spot where St James was beheaded. It is
ornamented with white marble sculpture, massy silver
lamps, gilding and painting, which produces a surprising
richness of effect. The door is even more beautiful, being
composed entirely of tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, gold*
and silver, all so exquisitely inlaid, that the skill of the
workman seems to vie with the costliness and beauty of
the materials. The altars, which front the door of the en¬
trance, are all splendid; and the massy vessels, crosses,
mitres, and candlesticks, of gold and silver, flowers, gems,
and precious stones, have an appearance of splendour and
richness which cannot be excelled. The Jews have a
synagogue in a low and obscure street near the centre of
the town, which is a large suit of subterranean rooms light¬
ed by small windows. Here Mr Buckingham and Mr
Bankes saw worship performed on the Jewish sabbath.
Ihe population of Jerusalem is estimated, though not
upon any accurate data, at between 20,000 and 30,000.
The Mahommedans are the most numerous ; and these con¬
sist of nearly equal portions of Osmanlee Turks from Asia
Minor, descendants of pure Turks by blood, but Arabians
by birth; a mixture of Turkish and Arab blood by inter¬
marriages ; and pure Syrian Arabs of an unmixed race.
The few Europeans in Jerusalem consist only of the monks
of the Catholic convent, and the still fewer Latin pilgrims
who visit them. The Greeks are the most numerous. The
Armenians are the next in order; and the inferior sects of
Copts, Abyssinians, Syrians, Nestorians, Maronites, Chal¬
deans, &c. are scarcely perceptible in the crowd. The
Jews amount to 1000 males and 3000 females; a great
number of widows resorting to the holy city, where they
are maintained by their own community. Their great
happiness is to die at Jerusalem, and to be buried in the
valley of Jehoshaphat. Though the Jews come from the
most distant parts, they are easily distinguished by their
dress and their physiognomy, which, says Buckingham, is
“ strikingly natural.” The city is most populous from
Christmas to Easter, and at the latter festival it is crowd¬
ed, and exhibits a singular variety of costumes and lan¬
guages. The only manufacture which flourishes at Jeru¬
salem is that of crucifixes, chaplets, beads, crosses, shells,
and relics, of which whole cargoes are shipped off for Italy,
Portugal, and Spain. From the general sterility of the sur¬
rounding country, during the parching droughts of summer,
every article of food is dear, and wages are high. The
force usually maintained here consists of a thousand troops,
Turks, Arabs, and Albanians.
Jerusalem is said to have been founded in the year of
the world 2023, and at that time to have occupied only the
two hills of Moriah and Aera. Fifty years after its foun¬
dation, it was taken by the Jebusites, descendants of Jebus,
the son of Canaan, who built a fortress on Mount Zion,
and gave to it the name of their father. Joshua made him¬
self master of the lower town of Jerusalem, wdiilst the Je¬
busites remained masters of the citadel, from which they
were dislodged by David, 824 years after the building of the
city. David enlarged the citadel, and built a palace near
it; and during the prosperous reign of Solomon the city
was embellished by the celebrated temple. Palestine was
afterwards invaded by the kings of Egypt, of Assyria, and,
finally, by the king of Babylon; and by the latter, after
having been previously plundered, it was utterly destroyed,
and the Jews were carried away captive to Babylon. This
happened in the year of the world 3513, about 600 years be¬
fore the_ Christian era, 4661 years after the foundation of the
temple by Solomon. After the conquest of Babylon by
Cyrus, permission was given to the Jews to return to their
552 J E S
Jesi own country. The work of rebuilding the city and temple
!| of Jerusalem was begun, after seventy years of captivity, by
Jesuits. Zerubbabel, and finished by Nehemiah. After the conquest
0f Persia by Alexander, and the division of his empire
among his generals, the Jews endeavoured to regain their
independence, which they with difficulty maintained against
powerful neighbours. Jerusalem was taken by Ptolemy,
and afterwards by Antiochus Epiphanes, who sacked the city,
and placed an idol of Jupiter in the temple. The country
was afterwards invaded by the kings of Asia, the successors
of Alexander, who attempted to subjugate the country, and
to impose on the Jews the idol worship of the Greeks. The
patriotism and bravery of the Maccabees enabled the Jews
successfully to resist these invaders. Jerusalem was at last
subdued by the Romans, after which Jesus Christ appeared,
and suffered in the city. The Jews rebelling against the
tyranny of the Roman pro-consuls in the reign of Nero,
the city was taken by Titus after a long siege, and given
up to pillage, and the inhabitants were mostly taken and
carried into slavery. A remnant was left till the reign of
Adrian, who, incensed by repeated disturbances, razed the
city completely to the ground, and on its ruins erected the
Roman town of .Elia Capitolina. Jerusalem retained this
name till the end of the seventh century, when Christia¬
nity, having been embraced by Constantine, became the
established religion of the empire. The name of Jerusa¬
lem was then resumed, and the Empress Helena, the mo¬
ther of Constantine, overthrew the idols that had been
J E S
placed on the tomb of the Saviour, and caused to be erect- jesuj|
ed the church which still remains, and which has been al-
ready described. Thirty years afterwards, in the year
363, the Emperor Julian, with a view of disproving the
Christian prophecies, attempted to rebuild the temple, which
attempt was, however, frustrated, according to the tradi¬
tions of that age, by a miraculous interposition. During
the progress and establishment of Christianity in the Ro¬
man empire, Jerusalem was enlarged and embellished, and
became the resort of numerous pilgrims from all countries.
About the year 636 the city was taken by the Caliph Omar,
after a siege of four months, and was still a pious resort of
numerous pilgrims, who were encouraged by the Turks to
visit the Holy Sepulchre, as they derived a considerable
profit from the tax which they imposed on them. Pales¬
tine was overrun by an inroad of the Turks in the year
1076, after which the defenceless pilgrims were exposed to
continual outrage and violence from this barbarous people.
The intelligence of their sufferings being carried to Eu¬
rope, inflamed the zeal of the Christian world, and gave
rise to those remarkable expeditions, the Crusades, for the
deliverance of the Holy Land. Jerusalem was re-captured
by the army under Godfrey of Bouillon, who was created
king of Jerusalem, which city was held upwards of sixty
years by five Latin kings, when it was again conquered by
the Turks under Saladin, and was finally annexed to the
Ottoman empire in 1517. Long. 35. 20. E. Lat. 31. 47.
47. N. (f.)
JESI, a city of Italy, in the province of Ancona, in the
papal dominions, ft is the see of a bishop, and contains
a cathedral, five churches, seven monasteries, and five
nunneries, and has 5000 inhabitants, whose chief occupa¬
tion is making woollen and silk stockings. It is situated
on the river Esino, about five miles from the Adriatic
Sea, in a district rich in olives, wine, and mulberries.
JESSES, ribbons which hang down from garlands or
crowns in falconry ; also short straps of leather fastened
to the hawk’s legs, and so to vervels.
JESTING, or concise wit, as distinguished from conti¬
nued wit or humour, lies either in the thought or the lan¬
guage, or both. In the first case it does not depend upon
any particular words or turn of the expression. But the
greatest fund of jests lies in the language, that is, in tropes
or verbal figures; those afforded by tropes consist in the
metaphorical sense of the words, and those of verbal figures
principally turn upon a double sense of the same word, or
a similitude of sound in different words. The third kind
of jokes, which lie both in the sense and language, arise
from figures of sentences, where the figure itself consists
in the sense, but the wit turns upon the choice of the
words.
JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, a famous religious
order of the Roman Catholic church, founded by Inigo de
Loyola, called also Ignatius Loyola. The plan which this
fanatic formed of its constitution and laws was suggested,
as he gave out, and as his followers still teach, by the im¬
mediate inspiration of heaven. But, notwithstanding this
high pretension, his design met at first with violent oppo¬
sition. The pope, to whom Loyola had applied for the
sanction of his authority to confirm the institution, refer¬
red his petition to a committee of cardinals; and as they
represented the establishment as not only unnecessary,
but dangerous, Paul refused to grant his approbation. At
last, however, Loyola removed all his scruples by an offer
which it was impossible for any pope to resist. He pro¬
posed, that besides the three vows of poverty, chastity,
and monastic obedience, which are common to all the or¬
ders of regulars, the members of his society should take a
fourth vow of obedience to the pope, binding themselves to
go whithersoever he should command them for the service
of religion, and without requiring any thing from the holy
see for their support. At a time when the papal authority
had received a severe shock by the revolt of so many na¬
tions from the Romish church ; at a time when every part
of the popish system was attacked with so much violence
and success ; the acquisition of a body of men thus pecu¬
liarly devoted to the see of Rome, and whom it might set
in opposition to all its enemies, was an object of the high¬
est consequence. Paul instantly perceiving this, confirm¬
ed the institution of the Jesuits by his bull, granted the
most ample privileges to the members of the society, and
appointed Loyola to be the first general of the order.
The event fully justified Paul’s discernment, in expecting
such beneficial consequences to the see of Rome from
this institution. In less than half a century, the society
obtained establishments in every country that adhered to
the Roman Catholic church ; its power and wealth in¬
creased amazingly; the number of its members became
great ; their character as well as accomplishments were
still greater; and the Jesuits were celebrated by the
friends and dreaded by the enemies of the Catholic faith,
as the most able and enterprising order in the church.
The constitution and laws of the society were perfect¬
ed by Laines and Aquaviva, the two generals who suc¬
ceeded Loyola ; men far superior to their master in abili¬
ties and in the science of government. They framed
that system of profound and artful policy which distin¬
guishes the order. The large infusion of fanaticism min¬
gled with its regulations should be imputed to Loyola its
founder. Many circumstances concurred in giving a pecu¬
liarity of character to the order of Jesuits, and in forming
the members of it not only to take a greater share in the
affairs of the world than any other body of monks, but also
to acquire superior influence in the conduct of them.
The primary object of almost all the monastic orders is
to separate men from the world, and from any concern in
its affairs. In the solitude and silence of the cloister, the
monk is called to work out his own salvation by extraor-
JESUITS.
mits. dinary acts of mortification and piety. He is dead to the
v -v world, and ought not to mingle in its transactions. He
can be of no benefit to mankind but by his example and
by his prayers. The Jesuits, on the contrary, were taught
to consider themselves as formed for action. They were
chosen soldiers, bound to exert themselves continually in
the service of God, and of the pope his vicar upon earth.
Whatever tended to instruct the ignorant, whatever could
be of use to reclaim or to oppose the enemies of the holy
see, was their proper object. That they might have full
leisure for this active service, they were totally exempted
from those functions the performance of which forms the
chief business of other monks. They appeared in no pro¬
cessions ; they practised no rigorous austerities ; they did
not consume one half of their time in the repetition of te¬
dious offices. But they were required to attend to all
the transactions of the world, on account of the influence
which these might have upon religion; they were direct¬
ed to study the dispositions of persons in high rank, and
to cultivate their friendship ; and, by the very constitu¬
tion as well as genius of the order, a spirit of action and
intrigue was infused into all its members.
As the object of the society of Jesuits differed from
that of the other monastic orders, the diversity was no
less in the form of its government. The other orders
might be considered as voluntary associations, in which
whatever affected the whole body was regulated by the
common suffrage of all its members. The executive
power was vested in the persons placed at the head of
each house or of the whole society; but the legislative
authority resided in the community. Affairs of moment,
relating to particular houses, were determined in con¬
ventual chapters ; but such as respected the whole order
were considered in general congregations. But Loyola,
full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which he had de¬
rived from his military profession, provided that the go¬
vernment of his order should be purely monarchical. A
general, chosen for life by deputies from the several pro¬
vinces, possessed power which was supreme and indepen¬
dent, extending to every person and to every case. He,
by his sole authority, nominated provincials, rectors, and
every other officer employed in the government of the
society, and he could remove them at pleasure. In him
was vested the sovereign administration of the revenues
and funds of the order. Every member belonging to it
was at his disposal; and by his uncontrollable mandate
he could impose upon them any task, or employ them in
whatsoever service he pleased. To his commands they
were required to yield not only outward obedience, but
even to resign to him the inclinations of their own wills
and the sentiments of their own understandings. They
were to listen to his injunctions as if these had been ut¬
tered by Christ himself. Under his direction they were
to be mere passive instruments, like clay in the hands of
the potter, or like dead carcasses incapable of resistance.
Such a singular form of policy could not fail to impress its
character upon all the members of the order, and to give
a peculiar force to all its operations. There is not in the
annals of mankind any example of such a perfect des¬
potism, exercised not over monks shut up in the cells
of a monastery, but over men dispersed amongst all the
nations of the earth.
As the constitutions of the order vested in the general
absolute dominion over all its members, they carefully
provided for his being perfectly informed with respect to
the character and abilities of his subjects. Every novice
who offered himself as a candidate for entering into the
order was obliged to manifest his conscience to the supe¬
rior, or a person appointed by him ; and required to con-
less not only his sins and defects, but to discover the in¬
clinations, the passions, and the bent of his soul. This ma-
„ VOL. XII.
553
nifestation they were required to renew every six months. Jesuits.
The society, not satisfied with penetrating in this manner
into the innermost recesses of the heart, directed each
member to observe the words and actions of the novices.
They were constituted spies upon their conduct, and
were bound to disclose every thing of importance con¬
cerning them to the superior. In order that this scrutiny
into their character might be as complete as possible,
they served a long noviciate, during which they passed
through the several gradations of ranks in the society ;
and they must have attained the full age of thirty-three
years before they could be admitted to take the final vows,
by which they became professed members. By these
various methods, the superiors, under whose immediate
inspection the novices were placed, acquired a thorough
knowledge of their dispositions and talents. In order that
the general, who was the soul which animated and moved
the whole society, might have under his eye every thing
necessary to inform or direct him, the provincials and
heads of the several houses were obliged to transmit to
him regular and frequent reports concerning the members
under their inspection. In these they descended into
minute details respecting the character of each person,
his abilities natural or acquired, his temper, his expe¬
rience in affairs, and the particular department for which
he was best fitted. These reports, when digested and ar¬
ranged, were entered into registers kept on purpose, that
the general might at one comprehensive view survey the
state of the society in every corner of the earth ; observe
the qualifications and talents of its members ; and thus
choose, with perfect information, the instruments which
his absolute power could employ in ^any service for which
he thought fit to destine them.
As it was the professed intention of the order of Jesuits
to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting the salvation
of men, this engaged them of course in many active func¬
tions. From their first institution, they considered the
education of youth as their peculiar province; they aimed
at being spiritual guides and confessors ; they preached fre¬
quently in order to instruct the people; and they set out as
missionaries to convert unbelieving nations. The novelty of
the institution, as well as the singularity of its objects, procur¬
ed the order many admirers and patrons. The governors of
the society had the address to avail themselves of every
circumstance in its favour; and in a short time the num¬
ber as well as influence of its members increased pro¬
digiously. Before the expiration of the sixteenth century,
the Jesuits had obtained the chief direction of the educa¬
tion of youth in every catholic country of Europe. They
had become the confessors of almost all its monarchs; an
office of no small importance in any reign, but, under a weak
prince, superior even to that of the minister himself. They
were the spiritual guides of almost every person eminent for
rank or power. They possessed the highest degree of con¬
fidence and interest with the papal court, as the most zeal¬
ous and able champions of its authority. The advantages
which an active and enterprising body of men might de¬
rive from all these circumstances are obvious. They form¬
ed the minds of men in their youth, and they retained an
ascendant over them in their advanced years. They possess¬
ed, at different periods, the direction of the most consider¬
able courts in Europe. They mingled in all affairs ; they
took part in every intrigue and revolution. The general,
by means of the extensive intelligence which he received,
could regulate the operations of the order with the most
perfect discernment; and, by means of his absolute power,
could carry them on with the utmost vigour and effect.
Along with the power of the order, its wealth con¬
tinued to increase. Various expedients were devised for
eluding the obligation of the vow of poverty. The order
acquired ample possessions in every catholic country; and,
4 A
JESUITS.
554
Jesuits, by the number as well as magnificence of its public build-
ings, together with the value of its property, moveable or
real, it vied with the most opulent of the monastic frater¬
nities. Besides the sources of wealth common to all the
regular clergy, the Jesuits possessed one which was pecu¬
liar to themselves. Under pretext of promoting the suc¬
cess of their missions, and of facilitating the support of their
missionaries, they obtained a special license from the court
of Rome to trade with the nations which they laboured to
convert. In consequence of this, they engaged in an ex¬
tensive and lucrative commerce both in the Bast and \\ est
Indies. They opened warehouses in different parts of Eu¬
rope, in which they vended their commodities. Not satis¬
fied with trade alone, they imitated the example of other
commercial societies, and aimed at obtaining settlements.
They accordingly acquired possession of a large and fertile
province in the southern continent of America, and reign¬
ed as sovereigns over some hundred thousand subjects.
Unhappily for mankind, the vast influence which the or¬
der of Jesuits acquired by all these different means was of¬
ten exerted with the most pernicious effect. Such was the
tendency of that discipline observed by the society in form¬
ing its members, and such were the fundamental maxims in
its constitution, that every Jesuit was taught to regard the
interest of the order as the capital object to which every
consideration was to be sacrificed. This spirit of attach¬
ment to their order, the most ardent perhaps that ever influ¬
enced any body of men, is the characteristic principle of the
Jesuits, and serves as a key to the genius of their policy as
well as the peculiarities in their sentiments and conduct.
As it was for the honour and advantage of the society,
that its members should possess an ascendancy over persons
in high rank or of great power, the desire of acquiring
and preserving such a direction of their conduct with greater
facility led the Jesuits to propagate a system of relaxed and
pliant morality, which accommodates itself to the passions
of men, justifies their vices, tolerates their imperfections,
and authorizes almost every action that the most auda¬
cious or crafty politician would wish to perpetrate.
As the prosperity of the order was intimately connected
with the preservation of the papal authority, the Jesuits,
influenced by the same principle of attachment to the in¬
terests of their society, were the most zealous patrons of
those doctrines which tend to exalt ecclesiastical power
upon the ruins of civil government. They attributed to
the court of Rome a jurisdiction as extensive and absolute
as was -claimed by the most presumptuous pontiffs in the
dark ages. They contended for the entire independence of
ecclesiastics on the civil magistrates. They published such
tenets concerning the duty of opposing princes who were
enemies of the catholic faith, as countenanced the most
atrocious crimes, and tended to dissolve all the ties which
connect subjects with their rulers.
As the order derived both reputation and authority from
the zeal with which it stood forth in defence of the Ro¬
mish church against the attacks of the Reformers, its mem¬
bers, proud of this distinction, considered it as their pe¬
culiar function to combat the opinions and to check the
progress of the Protestants. They made use of every art,
and employed every weapon against them. They set them¬
selves in opposition to every gentle or tolerating measure
in their favour; and they incessantly stirred up against
them all the rage of ecclesiastical and civil persecution.
Monks of other denominations have indeed ventured to
teach the same pernicious doctrines, and have held opi¬
nions equally inconsistent with the order and happiness
of civil society. But, from reasons which are obvious,
they either delivered such opinions with greater reserve,
or propagated them with less success. Whoever recol¬
lects the events which have happened in Europe during
two centuries, will find that the Jesuits may justly be con¬
sidered as responsible for most of the pernicious effects Jesuii
arising from that corrupt and dangerous casuistry, from
those extravagant tenets concerning ecclesiastical power,
and from that intolerant spirit, which have been the dis¬
grace of the church of Rome throughout that period, and
which have brought so many calamities upon civil society.
But, amidst many bad consequences flowing from the
institution of this order, mankind, it must be acknowledged,
have derived from it some considerable advantages. As
the Jesuits made the education of youth one of their ca¬
pital objects, and as their first attempts to establish colleges
for the reception of students were violently opposed by the
universities in different countries, it became necessary for
them, as the most effectual method of acquiring the public
favour, to surpass their rivals in science and industry. This
prompted them to cultivate with extraordinary ardour the
study of ancient literature. It put them upon various
methods for facilitating the instruction of youth; and, by
the improvements which they made in education, they con¬
tributed so much towards the progress of polite learning,
that upon this account they have merited well of society.
Nor has the order of Jesuits been successful only in teach¬
ing the elements of literature; it has likewise produced
eminent masters in many branches in science, and can
alone boast of a greater number of ingenious authors than
all the other religious fraternities taken together.
But it is in the new world that the Jesuits exhibited the
most wonderful display of their abilities, and contributed
most effectually to the benefit of the human species. The
conquerors of that unfortunate portion of the globe had
nothing in view but to plunder, to enslave, and to ex¬
terminate its inhabitants. The Jesuits alone made hu¬
manity the object of their settling there. About the be¬
ginning of the seventeenth century, they obtained ad¬
mission into the fertile province of Paraguay, which
stretches across the southern continent of America, hom
the bottom of the mountains of Potosi to the confines of
the Spanish and Portuguese settlements on the banks of
the river La Plata. They found the inhabitants in a state
very little different from that which takes place amongst
men when they first begin to unite together ; strangers to
the arts, subsisting precariously by hunting or fishing, and
hardly acquainted with the first principles of subordination
and government. The Jesuits set themselves to instruct
and to civilize these savages. They taught them to culti¬
vate the ground, to rear tame animals, and to build houses.
They brought them to live together in villages. They
trained them to arts and manufactures. They made them
taste the sweets of society, and accustomed them to the
blessings of security and order. These people became the
subjects of their benefactors, who governed them with a
tender attention, resembling that with which a father di¬
rects his children. Respected and beloved almost to ado¬
ration, a few Jesuits presided over some hundred thousand
Indians. They maintained a perfect equality amongst all
the members of the community. Each of them was obliged
to labour, not for himself alone, but for the public. The
produce of their fields, together with the fruits of their in¬
dustry of every species, were deposited in common store¬
houses, from which each individual received every thing
necessary for the supply of his wants. By this institution,
almost all the passions which disturb the peace of society,
and render the members of it unhappy, were extinguished.
A few magistrates, chosen for the most part by the In¬
dians themselves, watched over the public tranquillity, and
secured obedience to the laws. The sanguinary punish¬
ments frequent under other governments were unknown.
An admonition from a Jesuit, a slight mark of infamy, or,
upon some singular occasion, a few lashes with a whip,
were sufficient to maintain good order amongst these in¬
nocent and happy people.
JESUITS.
iUits. But even in this meritorious effort of the Jesuits for the
Ngood of mankind, the genius and spirit of their order min¬
gled and were discernible. They plainly aimed at esta¬
blishing in Paraguay an independent empire, subject to the
society alone, and which, by the superior excellence of its
constitution and police, could scarcely have failed to extend
its dominion over all the southern continent of America.
With this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Por¬
tuguese in the adjacent settlements, from acquiring any
dangerous influence over the people within the limits of
the province subject to the society, the Jesuits endeavour¬
ed to inspire the Indians with hatred and contempt of these
nations. They cut off all intercourse between their sub¬
jects and the Spanish or Portuguese settlements. They
prohibited any private trader of either nation from enter¬
ing their territories. When they were obliged to admit
any person in a public character from the neighbouring
governments, they did not permit him to have any conver¬
sation with their subjects ; and no Indian was allowed even
to enter the house where these strangers resided, unless in
the presence of a Jesuit. In order to render any commu¬
nication between them as difficult as possible, they indus¬
triously avoided giving the Indians any knowledge of the
Spanish or of any other European language; but encou¬
raged the different tribes which they had civilized to ac¬
quire a certain dialect of the Indian tongue, and laboured
to make that the universal language throughout their
dominions. As all these precautions, without military
force, would have been insufficient to render their em¬
pire secure and permanent, they instructed their subjects
in the European arts of war. They formed them into bo¬
dies of cavalry and infantry, completely armed and regu¬
larly disciplined. They provided a great train of artillery,
as well as magazines stored with all the implements of war.
Thus they established an army so numerous and well ap¬
pointed, as to be formidable in a country where a few sick¬
ly and ill-disciplined battalions composed all the military
force kept on foot by the Spaniards or Portuguese.
Such were the laws, the policy, and the genius of this
formidable order, of which, however, a perfect knowledge
has only been of late attainable. Europe had observed, for
two centuries, the ambition and power of the order. But
whilst it felt many fatal effects of these, it could not fully
discern the causes to which they were to be imputed. It
was unacquainted with many of the singular regulations in
the political constitution or government of the Jesuits,
which formed the enterprising spirit of intrigue that dis¬
tinguished its members, and elevated the body itself to
such a height of power. It was a fundamental maxim with
the Jesuits, from their first institution, not to publish the
rules of their order. These they kept concealed as an im¬
penetrable mystery. They never communicated them to
strangers, nor even to the greater part of their own mem¬
bers. They refused to produce them when required by
courts of justice ; and, by a strange solecism in policy, the
civil power in different countries authorized or connived at
the establishment of an order of men, whose constitution
and laws were concealed with a solicitude which alone was
a good reason for excluding them. During the prosecutions
carried on against them in Portugal and France, the Je¬
suits were so inconsiderate as to produce the mysterious
volumes of their institute. By the aid of these authentic
records, the principles of their government may be deline¬
ated, and the sources of their power investigated, with a de¬
gree of certainty and precision which, previously to that
event, it was impossible to attain. The pernicious effects,
however, of the spirit and constitution of this order ren¬
dered it early obnoxious to some of the principal powers
F ^uroPe; and gradually brought on its downfall. The
Emperor Charles V. saw it expedient to check its progress
in his dominions ; it was expelled from England by a pro¬
clamation of James I. in 1604, from Venice in 1606, from
Portugal in 1759, from France in 1764, from Spain and Si¬
cily in 1767, and it was totally suppressed and abolished
by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773. In 1801, Pius VII. re¬
established the society of Jesuits, but only for Russia;
and in 1814, the same pope re-established it throughout the
whole earth. The following judicious and discriminating
character of the order is from the masterly pen of Sir
James Mackintosh, and forms the conclusion of the eighth
chapter of his Historical View of the Reign of James^II.
“ The party which had now the undisputed ascendant
was denominated Jesuits, as a term of reproach, by the
enemies of that famous society in the church of Rome, as
well as among the Protestant communions. A short ac¬
count of their origin and character may facilitate a faint
conception of the admiration, jealousy, fear, and hatred,
the profound submission or fierce resistance, which that
formidable name once inspired. Their institution origi¬
nated in pure zeal for religion, glowing in the breast of
Loyola, a Spanish soldier; a man full of imagination and
sensibility, in a country where wars, rather civil than fo¬
reign, waged against unbelievers for ages, had rendered a
passion for spreading the catholic faith a national point
of honour, and blended it with the pursuit of glory as well
as with the memory of past renown. The legislative fore¬
thought of his successors gave form and order to the pro¬
duct of enthusiasm, and bestowed laws and institutions
on their society which were admirably fitted to its various
ends. Having arisen in the age of the reformation, they
naturally became the champions of the church against her
new enemies. Being established in the period of the re¬
vival of letters, instead of following the example of the
unlettered monks, who decried knowledge as the mother
of heresy, they joined in the general movement of man¬
kind ; they cultivated polite literature with splendid suc¬
cess ; they were the earliest, and, perhaps, the most ex¬
tensive reformers of European education, which, in their
schools, made a larger stride than it has at any succeed¬
ing moment; and, by the just reputation of their learning,
as well as by the weapons with which it armed them, they
were enabled to carry on a vigorous contest against the
most learned impugners of the authority of the church.
Peculiarly subjected to the see of Rome by their consti¬
tution, they became ardently devoted to its highest pre¬
tensions, in order to maintain a monarchical power, of
which they felt the necessity for concert, discipline, and
energy in their theological warfare.
“ While the nations of the Spanish peninsula hastened
with barbaric chivalry to spread religion by the sword in
the newly explored regions of the East and the West, the
Jesuits alone, the great missionaries of that age, either re¬
paired or atoned for the evils caused by the misguided zeal
of their countrymen. In India they suffered martyrdom
with heroic constancy. They penetrated through the
barrier which Chinese policy opposed to the entrance of
stiangeis; they cultivated the most difficult of languages
with such success as to compose hundreds of volumes in
it; and, by the public utility of their scientific acquire¬
ments, they obtained toleration, patronage, and personal
honours, from that jealous government: and the natives
of America, who generally felt the superiority of the Eu¬
ropean race only in a more rapid or a more gradual de¬
struction, and to whom even the excellent Quakers dealt
out little more than penurious justice, were, under the pa¬
ternal rule of the Jesuits, reclaimed from savage man¬
ners, and instructed in the arts and duties of civil life.
At the opposite point of society they were fitted, by their
release from conventual life, and their allowed intercourse
with the world, for the perilous office of secretly guiding
the conscience of princes. They maintain the highest
station as a religious body in the literature of catholic
countries. No other association ever sent forth so many
disciples who reached such eminence in departments so
555
Jesuits.
JESUITS.
various and unlike. While some of their number ruled
the royal penitents at Versailles or the Escurial, others
were teaching the use of the spade and the shuttle to the
naked savages of Paraguay ; a third body daily endanger¬
ed their lives in an attempt to convert the Hindus to
Christianity; a fourth carried on the controversy against
the reformers ; a portion were at liberty to cultivate polite
literature, and the greater part continued to be employed
either in carrying on the education of catholic Europe,
of which they were the first improvers, or in the govern¬
ment of their society, in ascertaining the ability and dis¬
position of the junior members, so that well-qualified men
might be selected for the extraordinary variety of offices in
their immense commonwealth. 1 he roost famous constitu¬
tionalists, the most skilful casuists, the ablest schoolmasters,
the most celebrated professors, the best teachers of the hum¬
blest mechanical arts, the missionaries who could most
bravely encounter martyrdom, or who with most patient
skill could infuse the rudiments of religion into the minds
of ignorant tribes or prejudiced nations, were the growth
of their fertile schools. The prosperous administration of
such a society for two centuries is probably the strongest
proof afforded from authentic history that an artificially
formed system of government and education is capable,
under some circumstances, of accomplishing greater things
than the general experience of it would warrant us in ex¬
pecting from it. Even here, however, the materials were
supplied and the first impulse given by enthusiasm; and
in this memorable instance the defects of such a system
are discoverable. The whole ability of the members be¬
ing constantly, exclusively, and intensely directed to the
various purposes of the order, the mind of the Jesuits had
not the leisure or liberty necessary for works of genius, or
even for discoveries in science, to say nothing of original
speculations in philosophy, which are interdicted by im¬
plicit faith. That great society, which covered the world
for two hundred years, has no names which can be oppos¬
ed to those of Pascal and Racine, produced by the single
community of Port Royal, which was in a state of perse¬
cution during the greater part of its short existence. But
this remarkable peculiarity amounts perhaps to little more
than that they were more eminent in active than in con¬
templative life. A far more serious objection is the mani¬
fest tendency of such a system, while it produces the pre¬
cise excellences aimed at by its mode of cultivation, to
raise up all the neighbouring evils with a certainty and
abundance, a size and malignity, unknown to the freer
growth of nature. The mind is narrowed by the constant
concentration of the understanding; those who are habi¬
tually intent on one object, learn at last to pursue it at the
expense of others equally or more important. The Je¬
suits, the reformers of education, sought to engross it, as
well as to stop it at their own point. Placed in the front
of the battle against the Protestants, they caught a more
than ordinary portion of that theological hatred against
their opponents which so naturally springs up where the
greatness of the community, the fame of the controversi¬
alist, and the salvation of mankind, seem to be at stake.
Affecting more independence in their missions than other
religious orders, they were the formidable enemies of epis¬
copal jurisdiction ; and thus armed against themselves the
secular clergy, especially in Great Britain, where they were
the chief missionaries. Intrusted with the irresponsible
guidance of kings, they were too often betrayed into a com¬
pliant morality; excused probably to themselves by the
great public benefits which they might thus obtain by the
numerous temptations which seemed to palliate royal vices,
and by the real difficulties of determining, in many instan¬
ces, whether there was more danger of deterring such per¬
sons from virtue by unreasonable austerity, or of alluring
them into vice by unbecoming relaxation. This difficulty
is indeed so great, that casuistry has, in general, vibrated Jesu
between these extremes, rather than rested near the centre.
To exalt the papal power, they revived the scholastic doc¬
trine of the popular origin of government, that rulers might
be subject to the people, while the people themselves, on
all questions so difficult as those which relate to the limits
of obedience, were to listen with reverential submission
to the judgment of the sovereign pontiff, the common pas¬
tor of sovereigns and subjects, the unerring oracle of humble
Christians in all cases of perplexed conscience. The an¬
cient practice of excommunication, which, in its original
principle, was no more than the expulsion from a commu¬
nity of an individual who did not observe its rules, being
stretched so far as to interdict intercourse with offenders,
and, by consequence, to suspend duty towards them, be¬
came, in the middle age, the means of absolving nations
from obedience to excommunicated sovereigns. Under
these specious colours both popes and councils had been
guilty of alarming encroachments on the civil authority.
The church had indeed never solemnly adopted the prin¬
ciple of these usurpations into her rule of faith or of life,
though many famous doctors gave them a dangerous con¬
tinuance. She had not condemned, or even disavowed,
those equally celebrated divines who resisted them; and
though the court of Rome undoubtedly patronized opi¬
nions so favourable to its power, the catholic church, which
had never pronounced a collective judgment on them, was
still at liberty to disclaim them, without abandoning her
haughty claim of exemption from fundamental error. On
the Jesuits, as the most staunch of the polemics who strug¬
gled to exalt the church above the state, and who ascribed
to the supreme pontiff' an absolute power over the church,
the odium of these doctrines principally fell. Among re¬
formed nations, and especially in Great Britain, the great¬
est of them, the whole order was regarded as incendiaries,
perpetually plotting the overthrow of protestant govern¬
ments, and as immoral sophists, who employed their subtle
casuistry to silence the remains of conscience in tyrants of
their own persuasion. Nor was the detestation of Protes¬
tants rewarded by general popularity in catholic countries.
All other regulars envied their greatness; the universities
dreaded their acquiring a monopoly of education. Mo-
narchs, the most zealously catholic, though they often fa¬
voured individual Jesuits, often also looked with fear and
hatred on a society who would reduce them to the condition
of vassals of the priesthood; and in France, the magistrates,
who preserved their integrity and dignity in the midst of ge¬
neral servility, maintained a more constant conflict with
these formidable adversaries of the independence of the
state and the church. The kings of Spain and Portugal en¬
vied their well-earned authority, in the missions of Paraguay
and California, over districts which they had conquered
from the wilderness. The impenetrable mystery in which
a part of their constitution was enveloped, though it
strengthened their association, and secured the obedience
of its members, was an irresistible temptation to abuse
power, and justified the apprehensions of temporal sove¬
reigns, while it opened an unbounded scope for heinous
accusations. Even in the eighteenth century, when many
of their peculiarities had become faint, and they were per¬
haps little more than the most accomplished, opulent, and
powerful of religious orders, they were charged with spread¬
ing secret confraternities over France. Their greatness
became early so invidious as to be an obstacle to the ad¬
vancement of their members ; and it w as generally be¬
lieved that if Bellarmine had belonged to any other than
the most powerful order in Christendom, he would have
been raised to the chair of Peter. The court of Rome it¬
self, for wdiom they had sacrificed all, dreaded auxiliaries
who were so potent that they might easily become masters.
These champions of the papal monarchy were regarded with
J E S
esus. jealousy by popes whose policy they aspired to dictate or
control. Temporary circumstances at this time created a
more than ordinary alienation between the Jesuits and the
Roman court. They, in their original character of a force
raised for the defence of the church against the Lutherans,
always devoted themselves to the temporal sovereign who
was at the head of the catholic party ; they were attached
to Philip II. at the time when Sextus V. dreaded his suc¬
cess ; and they now placed their hopes on Louis XIV., in
spite of his patronage, for a time, of the independent
maxims of the Gallican church. On the other hand,
Odeschalchi, who governed the church under the name of
Innocent XL, feared the growing power of France, resent¬
ed the independence of the Gallican church, and was, to
the last degree, exasperated by the insults offered to him
in his capital by the command of Louis. He was born in
the Spanish province of Lombardy, and, as an Italian so¬
vereign, he could not be indifferent to the bombardment
J E S 557
of Genoa, and to the humiliation of that respectable re- Jesus,
public, by requiring a public submission from the doge at
Versailles. As soon, then, as James became the pensioner
and creature of Louis, the resentments of Odeschalchi pre¬
vailed over his zeal for the extension of the church.
“ The Jesuits had treated himself, and those of his prede¬
cessors who hesitated between them and their opponents,
with offensive liberty. While they bore sway at Ver¬
sailles and St James’s, they were on that account less ob¬
noxious to the Roman court. Men of wit remarked at
Paris, that things wrould never go well till the pope be¬
came a Catholic, and King James a Huguenot. Such
were the intricate and dark combinations of opinions, pas¬
sions, and interests, which placed the nuncio in opposition
to the most potent order of the church, and completed the
alienation of the British nation from James, by bringing
on the party which now ruled his councils the odious and
terrible name of Jesuits.”
JESUS.
JESUS, the Divine Author of the Christian religion, was
born at Bethlehem, a city of the tribe of Judah, about six
miles south-east from Jerusalem. His mother was a Jew¬
ish virgin named Mary, the betrothed wife of Joseph, both
in the humblest rank of life, though both of the royal race
of David. The date of his birth is not mentioned in the
sacred record ; and there has been a difference of opinion
among the learned who have engaged in the inquiry, re¬
specting the precise period when it took place. It is now,
however, generally agreed upon, that it must be fixed a few
years earlier than is indicated by the epoch of our era,
which, according to the common computation, corresponds
with a. u. 754. We know that Jesus was born before the
death of Herod the Great;1 and it appears from Josephus,2
that Herod died before the Jewish passover a. u. 750. From
calculations founded on other parts of the gospel history,
and particularly on a comparison between Luke, iii. 1 and
23, many have supposed that the nativity was in a. u. 747 ;
and in this opinion some have been confirmed by the con¬
jecture of Kepler, that the conjunction between Jupiter
and Saturn, which took place in that year, was the star
seen by the wise men; though it may be justly questioned
how far the principles of scriptural interpretation admit of
the supposition that the phenomenon referred to corre¬
sponds with the particulars mentioned by St Matthew.3
In regard to the day or month in which the Saviour w as
born, a subject to which the devotion of a large propor¬
tion of the Christian world has attached much importance,
we have no means of accurate knowledge. The descrip¬
tion given4 of shepherds watching their flocks by night, is
inconsistent with the idea that it could have been in De¬
cember or January, or during the heat of the summer
months ; as we know that in these periods the herds were
no longer left in the fields.5 At other times of the year
the flocks might be turned out to pasture day and night in
the south of Palestine; but there is no circumstance re¬
ferred to by any of the evangelists to determine whether
it was in spring or in autumn that Jesus was born.6
The chronological error in the vulgar era, and in the
season for celebrating the festival of Christmas, does not
in any w-ay affect the truth of the gospel history ; and can¬
not indeed appear strange, when it is considered that seve¬
ral centuries elapsed before the method of computing time
by the birth of Christ was introduced, and that the festival
of the nativity wras not observed in the primitive church.
During the first three centuries, the Christians adopted the
ordinary modes of reckoning time, which prevailed among
the heathen around them. Different methods were after¬
wards employed ; and it was not till the sixth century that a
Roman abbot named Dionysius the Less was induced, by
motives of religion, to have recourse to the expedient of de¬
termining dates by the number of years from the period
when the Son of God was born of a woman. The comme¬
moration of the day of the nativity was not generally observ¬
ed throughout the Christian world till the fourth century.
At that time the western church fixed upon the 25th of De¬
cember, and their example was generally followed.7 Dif¬
ferent causes have been assigned for the choice of this day.
Sir Isaac Newton, in his work on Daniel, supposes that it
was agreeably to the principle by which the chief feasts
were fixed at the cardinal points, without regard to histori¬
cal accuracy; as the annunciation at the vernal equinox,
and St John the Baptist’s day at the summer solstice.
Hospinian and others have been of opinion that the festi¬
vities connected with the celebration of Christmas were
intended to make up for the Saturnalia, conformably to the
practice which had been acted upon from an earlier period,
of smoothing the way for the conversion of the heathen, by
1 Matt. ii. 1, 16. 2 Antiq. 17, 18, 1; Comp. 14, 14, 5, and 17, 9, 3.
3 Matt. ii. 2, 7, 9. A list of the opinions which have been entertained respecting the year of our Saviour’s birth is to be found in
the liibliographia Antiquaria by Fabricius, and in Miinter’s Stern der IVeisen. Untersuchunyen uber das Geburtsjo.hr Christi. See also
Hales’ Chronology, vol. i. 4 Luke, ii. 8.
5 “ Pluvia prima descendit, die 17, M. Marchevan (Novem.), tunc armenta redibant domum nec pastores in tuguriis amplius habi-
tabant in agris,” &c. (Gemar. Nedar. 63.) Again, we read in Jerome, that in summer, “ juxta ritum Palestine et multarum orientis pro-
vinciarum quae ob pratorum et foeni penuriam paleas prseparant usui animantium.” {Comm. Is. lib. viii.)
6 Various attempts have been made to connect the birth of Jesus with the feast of the Passover and the feast of Tabernacles ;
but the conclusions have been generally drawn from vague and fanciful analogies, and do not rest on historical grounds. See Hales’
Chronology, vol. i. ; and Greswell’s Dissertations on the Harmony of the Gospels, diss. x.
7 Clemens Alexandrinus mentions (Strom, i.), that some celebrated the natvity on the 20th of May, others on the 20th of April.
The 6th of January was celebrated by the Basilidian Gnostics as the day of the nativity and of the baptism. This custom afterwards
became general for a time throughout the East. And when the birth-day was fixed by the western church on the 25th of December,
the 6th of January continued to be observed as the Epiphany.
558
JESUS.
Jesus, presenting their idolatrous ceremonies under a new form.
—And there is not wanting reason to suppose, that from the
winter solstice being observed as the birth-day of the sun,
when that luminary, returning from the south, seemed to
be restored to the world, the transition was suggested to
the celebration of the birth of him wrho was the life and
light of the world.1
The circumstances connected with the birth of Jesus
corresponded in a remarkable degree with the predictions
of the Jewish prophets respecting the Messias. He be¬
longed to the tribe of Judah, and was of the house of
David. Events, over which .his earthly kindred had no
control, fixed his birth at Bethlehem, from which place
the promised Deliverer was to spring. The seventy
prophetic wreeks of Daniel were approaching to their ter¬
mination. And so determinate were these and other pre¬
dictions, that a general opinion prevailed, even in heathen
countries, that the tide of time was bringing our race to a
mighty epoch, and that a prince was to aiise in the East
who was to obtain the empire of the world.2 The wisdom
of Divine Providence w'as also shown in the appointed
scene and season of the birth of Jesus. From the geogra¬
phical situation of Palestine, forming a part of Asia, touch¬
ing upon Africa, and connected by the Mediterranean
with the whole of Europe, the Jews enjoyed the best op¬
portunities of diffusing the knowledge of their principles.
And the intercourse between remote nations, occasioned
by the conquests of Alexander and the progress of the
Roman arms, afforded increased facilities for propagating
new opinions, while it forced upon men’s notice the differ¬
ent forms of national worship, and led to an examination
of the great principles of religious belief.
Soon after the birth of Jesus, his parents fled with him
to Egypt, to save him from the'fury of Herod, whose sus¬
picions were awakened by the idea of a rival to his throne.3
An uncertain tradition fixes the spot of the residence of
the holy family at Matarea, near the ancient Eleliopolis;
and one of the apocryphal gospels contains various idle
accounts of miracles which marked the presence of a su¬
perior being. From such traditions the Jews took occa¬
sion to circulate many ridiculous tales of magical arts learn¬
ed by Jesus while in Egypt, which were frequently referred
to by some of the early philosophic opponents of the Chris¬
tian faith. The malignant insinuations of Celsus, how¬
ever, and the absurd legends which long found currency
among the Jews, are wholly inconsistent with the authentic
narrative of the return from Egypt upon the death of He¬
rod, when Jesus might still be said to be in infancy.
Upon their arrival in Palestine, Joseph was led to take
up his residence in Nazareth, in Galilee. Here the open¬
ing character of Jesus engaged the love and excited the
admiration of all who knew him.4 And, even before his
childhood was ended, in his twelfth year, when his parents
carried him up to one of the annual Jewish feasts, we find
him attracting the notice of the learned Rabbis, entering
into discussion with them, and filling them with astonish¬
ment at his extraordinary knowledge and sagacity. It
would appear that, according to the custom of his coun¬
trymen, he followed the trade of his foster-father. In
Mark, vi. 3, he is spoken of familiarly as “ the carpenter.”5
And Justin Martyr tells us, that while he sojourned on
earth, he was employed in the ordinary occupations of a
carpenter.6 7
In this lowly situation, and in the midst ot these ser- JesU
vile employments, a character was silently maturing, such v
as the world had never before witnessed ; and those lofty
designs were conceived, the accomplishment of which was
to give a new impress to the condition of society, and to
alter the destiny of our race. Frequent attempts have
been made to explain by the operation of natural causes,
how, in circumstances so unfavourable, a character like
that of our Saviour’s could have arisen ; and various theo¬
ries have been framed respecting the manner in which
the plan to which he devoted himself was suggested to
his mind. The insufficiency of these attempts we shall
afterwards consider. In the mean time, however, it may
be remarked, that, though no explanation can be given,
from circumstances merely external, of the growth of
such a mind as that of Jesus, which must be sought only
in the seed of the immortal plant itself, it is by no means
inconsistent with the highest ideas that can be entertain¬
ed of the divinity of his nature, to suppose a progression
in the development of his humanity. External influences
must to a certain extent modify the character of every
man. We are told, accordingly, that “ he grew in wis¬
dom' as well as “ stature.” And the commanding situation
and romantic beauty of the city of his dwelling, the in¬
structions of his mother, intercourse with the heathen,
which, from the proximity of Nazareth to Galilee of the
Gentiles, must have been frequent, may have proved
among the subordinate aids for awakening that sense of
the loveliness and majesty of external nature to which we
find so many references in his discourses, and that sus¬
ceptibility of every tender emotion which his whole his¬
tory manifested, and that enlarged philanthropy which
looked beyond the distinctions of Jew and Gentile, of
sect and class, of rank and station, and considered the
whole human race as members of one great family, as
children of the same heavenly parent. Such influences,
however, are matter of conjecture rather than of positive
knowledge ; for no reference is made to them by any of
the Evangelists. The piety of his mother and of Jo¬
seph renders it certain that he wmuld from infancy be
made acquainted with the Old Testament Scriptures ; and
these not only contain the germ of all that is pure and ele¬
vating in religious sentiment, but also are, more than any
other study, calculated to awaken the curiosity and sti¬
mulate the powers of the opening mind. His conversa¬
tion and discourses everywhere show that he must have
made a constant study of the sacred records. It appears
that he never attended any rabbinical school, nor did he
receive a learned education.?
From the time when he appeared disputing with the
Jewish doctors in the temple, we have no direct infor¬
mation respecting him till his thirtieth year, when we
find him among those wdio presented themselves to John
upon the banks of the Jordan to be baptized. The inter¬
vening period was no doubt employed in maturing the
plan for the arduous undertaking to which he was prompt¬
ed by the stirrings of the Divinity within him. The con¬
sciousness of his high vocation, however, to a career that
was to attract the notice of the wTorld, did not interfere
with the pious observance of his filial duties, or the labo¬
rious discharge of the common offices of his early situa¬
tion.8 The baptism of John served as a consecration to
his new office. The heavens were opened, the Holy Spirit
1 Schroekh’s Kirchengesehicte, i. 403. 3 Matt. ii. 13.
2 Tac. Hist. v. 13; Suet, in Vesp. cap. iv. ; Virg. Poll. 4 Luke, ii. 52.
5 ’Ot/js ovros i/rn o T£*Ta)v o Litis Marlas- This passage seems to have been tampered with as early as the time of Origen, probably from
a wish to do away the prejudice that existed in many minds against the idea of a Saviour in such a state of humiliation. There is
another reading, o too nxrovos Lias xeu tAa^las; but the weight of evidence is decidedly in favour of the former.
6 Tvironx.u igya iv uvUgusrois uv, agorott kui ^vya. Trvph. 88. See also Theod. 3, 23; and Soz. 6, 2.
7 Matt. xiii. 54 ; John, vii. 15. ‘ » Luke, ii. 51 ; and Just. Mart, ut sup.
JESUS.
resus. descended upon him, and a voice was heard from heaven
declaring him to be the Son of God, and claiming for him
the attention of mankind. Immediately after his initia¬
tion, he was impelled to retire into the solitudes of a wil¬
derness, with a view, probably, of meditating on the work
before him ; and, by fasting and prayer, after the example
of former prophets, to prepare himself for his great under¬
taking. A higher purpose was also accomplished during
this retirement, an opportunity being afforded him for
proving the purity and sinlessness of his nature, and esta¬
blishing his fitness for the office upon which he had en¬
tered, by baffling the temptations of Satan.
After this mysterious conflict, Jesus returned to Beth-
abara, a place near to that part of the river Jordan over
which the Israelites had passed under Joshua. It was
here that disciples first began to gather around him ; and
few passages in history are more interesting than that1
which tells of the individuals who first attached themselves
to his cause; of their curiosity, their doubts, their con¬
ferences with him, the influence he gained over their
minds, and their eagerness to communicate to others the
wondrous tidings, that they had found the promised Mes-
sias in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. The first two
individuals who joined themselves to him were disciples
of John the Baptist, who pointed out Jesus when walking
at a little distance, as the “ Lamb of God who taketh
away the sins of the world.” Upon this they introduced
themselves to his notice, and on his invitation accompa¬
nied him to the house where he lodged. What took place
at this memorable interview, or how a solitary and almost
unknown stranger attached to his cause the first two dis¬
ciples, we are not informed; whether by some token of
supernatural knowledge or power, or by the natural in¬
fluence of a superior mind; the conviction was produ¬
ced ; and with it was imparted the spirit, which was at the
foundation of the indefinite extension of the new cause,
viz. the desire of imparting their own impressions of the
new doctrines to others. One of the two individuals was
Andrew, brother of Simon, who afterwards became so
eminent in the primitive history of Christianity. “ Andrew
firstfindethhisown brother, and saith, we have found the
Messias; and he brought him to Jesus." These three were
the converts of the first day ; and in a short time, without
any advantages of birth or station, or human learning, with¬
out the aid of powerful relations or influential patrons,
he had a considerable number of attached followers, who
listened to his teaching, and accompanied him from place
to place. At the feast of the Passover, along with the rest
of his countrymen, Jesus went up to Jerusalem, where
he increased the number of his disciples by his doctrines
and miracles. He seems to have continued in the land of
Judea about six or seven months; when the success of
his preaching, exciting the attention and envy of the
Scribes and Pharisees, led him to withdraw into Galilee,
where the power of the Jewish Sanhedrim was less to be
dreaded. In passing through Samaria, where the politi-
cal circumstances of the inhabitants freed them from some
of the prejudices of the Jews2 respecting the character of
t e Messias, he first openly and publicly proclaimed the
great truth, that all distinctions of Jews and Gentiles and
Samaritans were to be at an end; and that, without refer¬
ence to time or place, or outward ceremony, the Deity
was to be worshipped in purity of spirit, and in faith on
e promised Messias.3 He then visited the whole of Ga-
dee, everywhere accompanying the instruction he gave,
in synagogues, or in private houses, or in the open fields,
with miraculous proofs of his divine character and com¬
mission. In Nazareth he was first subjected to personal
violence, his townsmen taking offence at his lowly origin.
To avoid their malice, he passed on to Capernaum, which
henceforth became the place of his general residence, and
from which, as from a centre, he visited the whole sur¬
rounding country. The first year of his ministry seems
to have been attended with almost universal success. He
met with no outward obstruction in his work, except in
Nazareth; his approach was everywhere welcomed, and
increasing multitudes followed him in his progress.
During the second year of his ministry, his followers be¬
came so numerous that he chose twelve persons who might
assist him in his work, and be prepared to propagate his re¬
ligion when he should leave the world. These he named
Apostles, an appellation which was appropriated at that
time among the Jews to certain public officers who were
the ministers of the high priests, and who were occasion¬
ally despatched on missions of importance to foreign parts.4
The number twelve had probably a reference to the twelve
tribes, as the seventy whom he afterwards chose might
be from the number of the Jewish Sanhedrim. The in¬
creasing success of Jesus raised up against him a host of
enemies, and from this time he was continually subjected
to the cavils of the Sadducees, and still more of the Scribes
and I harisees, whose objections were of such a nature as
might be expected from unprincipled and hypocritical
men, who witnessed with jealousy any proceeding likely
to diminish their influence among the people, and who
were inflamed with resentment at the exposure which was
made of their true character.
It has already been observed that Galilee was the chief
scene of our Saviour’s ministerial labours. He did not,
however, confine himself wholly to that province, but
occasionally visited other parts. We find him at one
time on the coasts of lyre and Sidon ; at another beyond
or dan ; and at the passover he uniformly went up to Je¬
rusalem. As the Evangelists do not relate events in chro¬
nological order, we are without any precise information as
to the exact degree of success that from this period at¬
tended his labours; it seems probable that his follow¬
ers continued to increase, and that a deep and general
impression was made upon the public mind. His proceed¬
ings at last excited the attention of all classes in Judea.
Herod Antipas was haunted with the idea that he must
be John the Baptist restored to life, and was desirous to
have a personal interview with him; and there is not
wanting reason to suppose that he received the homage
of princes more remote. The eyes of the chief men of
J udea were now upon him. The subject of his miracles was
discussed in the Sanhedrim, and frequent attempts were
maoe to seize and bring him before the council, though
without any settled purpose, perhaps, how they were to
proceed against him. At last, after the restoration of La¬
zarus to life, which led to the conversion of a multitude of
the Jews, a meeting of the Pharisaic party was held, when
it was finally determined that he should be put to death.
-Lie result is well known. In the dead of the night he
was suipiised in the midst of his secret devotions, hur-
i iea befoi e the Sanhedrim, and, after the mockery of a trial,
in w Inch even his judge acknowledged his entire innocence,
he was adjudged to suffer death. He was then carried
to the usual place of execution, on a small hill named Cal¬
vary, on the west of Jerusalem, a little without the walls,
559
Jesus.
v-'-Y '
^ OuMnformtt^as to H°rale/a SeJm?ns’ ,vol-.ii: P‘ 243- See also Neander’s Geschichtc dcr PJlanzung, u. s. w. i. 72.
confine themsSves to hU nreLhlf yeal0tr?m' S‘d.TUl8 numstl7 18 deyived almost exclusively from John. The other Evangelists
cifixion. ng m a ilee, with the exception of what took place at Jerusalem immediately preceding the cru-
4 Mosheim De Rebus Christiatiis, See. L 6.
JESUS.
560
Jesus, and there he was crucified. This dreadful scene was ac-
companied with signs and wonders which proclaimed the
dignityof the sufferer. A supernatural darkness overspread
the land of Judea, “ and behold the veil of the temple
was rent in twain, and the earth did quake, and the rocks
rent, and the graves were opened.’’ After his death his
body was taken down from the cross, and laid in a tomb
hewn out of a rock, after the manner of the Jewish se¬
pulchres. Every precaution was used to prevent the re¬
moval of the body by the disciples. A great stone was
rolled upon the door of the tomb, and a watch of Roman
soldiers, consisting of sixty men, was appointed to guard it.
This was on our Friday. The following day was the Jewish
Sabbath; the stone remained in its place fixed and se¬
cure, and the soldiers continued their watch undisturbed.
But on the morning of the third day, amidst a display of
supernatural agency that mocked the precautions of the
Jewish rulers, Jesus arose from the dead. After this he
continued some time on earth, affording the most indubi¬
table evidence of his identity, and of the reality of his re¬
surrection from the dead, and instructing his disciples in
the nature of the doctrine they were to teach mankind.
At last, at the end of forty days, he led forth his disciples
to Bethany, and there, while giving them his blessing,
“ he was parted from them, and carried up into hea¬
ven.”1
The year of our Saviour’s death cannot be exactly ascer¬
tained. Two extreme points, howevei*, can be mentioned,
within which that event must have taken place. The one is
the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius,2 in which John the
Baptist began his ministry, and the other, the year in which
that emperor died, when Pilate had left the province of Ju¬
dea. As Jesus entered upon his ministry soon after the pub¬
lic appearance of John,3 it would bring us to a near approx¬
imation to the date sought for, could we say how many pass-
overs were celebrated by our Saviour. Even this, however,
cannot be determined with certainty. The most probable
opinion seems that of those who fix the number at three,
and this would bring us to a. u. 783. Irenaeus states that
Jesus was forty or fifty years of age when he was put to
death ;4 but it is generally agreed upon that his opinion
was founded, not on authentic records, but to suit a fan¬
ciful theory.5 Most of the Christian fathers assign only a
single year to the ministry of Christ, and fix his death in
a. u. 782. Their conclusions are drawn from an erroneous
view of Isaiah, Ixi. 1, and Luke, iv. I9.6
We have little authentic information respecting the cha¬
racter or history of Jesus additional to what is contained in
the New Testament. The name Chrestus is mentioned
by Suetonius; but it has been disputed whether he re¬
ferred to Jesus.7 Tacitus alludes to the fact of his death,
and speaks of him as the founder of the sect of the Chris¬
tians.8 The chief notices of him by the fathers have been
embodied in the preceding narrative. There is a passage
in Josephus,9 where his life and character are referred to in
the following terms: “ At that time lived Jesus, a wise
man [if he may be called a man], for he performed many
v/onderful works. He was a teacher of such men as re¬
ceived the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him manv
Jews and Gentiles. [This was the Christ.] And when
Pilate, at the instigation of the chief men among us, had con¬
demned him to the cross, they who before had conceived
an affection for him did not cease to adhere to him [for on Jesus
the third day he appeared to them alive again, the divine
prophets having foretold these and many wonderful things
concerning him]. And the sect of the Christians, so called
from him, subsists to this time.” This remarkable passage
is referred to by Eusebius,10 and its genuineness was never
called in question from his time till the sixteenth century,
when Gifanius and Osiander refused to receive it. Since
that period it has afforded matter for much controversy
among the learned. In favour of the genuineness of the
passage, it has been argued, that we have the undisputed
fact that it is found in all the copies of the works of Jose¬
phus from the time of Eusebius. It also exists in a He¬
brew translation in the Vatican; and there is an Arabic
version preserved by the Maronites of Mount Libanus. In
addition to this external evidence, it is urged that the num¬
ber of Christians in the time of Josephus was too great to
admit of the supposition that he should pass them over al¬
together unnoticed, an improbability which is increased by
the fact that he makes mention of John the Baptist,11 and
of the death of “ James, the brother of Jesus, called the
Christ.”12 On the other hand, it is certain that Josephus
was not himself a Christian ; and yet the passage, as it
stands in his writings, involves the profession of belief
in the divine mission of Jesus. It is farther to be remark¬
ed, that this testimony in favour of Christ is not quoted by
any of the apologists of Christianity who preceded Euse¬
bius ; and in particular, Origen,13 while he refers to the allu¬
sion made by Josephus to the death of James, and to his
account of John the Baptist, passes over in silence the pas¬
sage in question, though it would have afforded a more de¬
cisive answer had it been contained in the copies of the
Jewish historian then in circulation. The arguments on
both sides appear plausible, and the difficulties upon either
supposition cannot perhaps be removed but by the conjec¬
ture, that Josephus did introduce into his work a notice of
Jesus, though without admitting him to be the Messias,
and that some over-zealous Christian about the time of Eu¬
sebius had inserted some additional clauses. This opinion
is now generally gone into by the continental critics. Those
parts which are usually looked upon as interpolations are
marked within brackets in the preceding extract.
It was scarcely possible that the appearance of so remark¬
able a character as that of our Saviour should not have in¬
ducted many individuals, from various motives, to commit
an account of him to writing. Accordingly, it appears,14
that from the earliest period many histories of his life were
in circulation. The words of St Luke seem to imply that
these narratives were.defective or erroneous ; but there is
nothing to prevent us from supposing that some of them
might be the productions of men of good intentions, though
deficient in the talents or information requisite for so im¬
portant an undertaking. It was otherwise, however, in
succeeding times. After the four gospels had been writ¬
ten by the Evangelists, and had been generally received as
of divine authority in the Christian church, heretics and
others, who departed from the true faith, had recourse to
the expedient of forging gospels, epistles, &c. under the
name of some of the apostles, or that of our Lord himself,
to which they might refer in support of their tenets. These
works were frequently formed out of the genuine gospels,
with such additions and omissions as the purposes of the
3 John, i. 19, 29, 35; ii. 1.
Pisanski de errore Irensei in determinanda setate Christi, 1778.
I Luke, xxiv. 51. 2 ^uke, iii. i.
4 Iren. ii. 22, 5 ; John, viii. 57-
6 Tertul. ; Lact. Instit. ; Aug. ; Clem. Alex. i.
In his Life of Claudius, c. xxv. Judaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuant.es Ttoma expulit.
8 Auctor nominis ejus Christus, qui Tiberio imperante per procuratorem Pontium Pilatum supplicio affectus erat
44.)
9 Antiq. xviii. 3, 3. 10 Eccles. i. ii. ; Demonstr. Evangel, iii. 5.
II Antiq. xviii. 5. 12 Antiq. xx. 9, 1. 13 C. Cels. 14 Luke, i. 1.
(Ann.
1. xv.
12 Antiq. xx. 9, 1.
JESUS.
<aiu. writers required. There were not wanting members of
the true church who followed the same practice, with the
mistaken idea that the piety of the faithful might thus be
promoted, or that an answer might be afforded to some of
the objections of Jews and Heathens. In the second cen¬
tury, Irenasus1 tells us that the Gnostics had an innumerable
multitude of spurious and apocryphal books ; and in the fol¬
lowing age they were greatly increased. The greater part
of these writings perished in the course of ages. Of such
of them as remained, a collection was published by Fabri-
cius, about the beginning of last century, in his Codex Apo-
cryphus Novi Testamenti. A full account of them is given,
with translations, in Jones’well-known work on the Canon.
Several of them were republished in London some years
ago, in a work entitled The Apocryphal New Testament.
That these works are not to be received as genuine, may
be proved by their vast inferiority to the canonical gospels,
and still more decidedly by the fact, that they were not re¬
cognised by the Fathers. In The Gospel of our Saviour s
Infancy, there are some passages which are referred to by
Eusebius, Athanasius, and Chrysostom, as containing some
trifling particulars of true history connected with the life
of Christ, but it is not ranked by them among the inspired
writings. It is worthy of remark, that it was from this pro¬
duction, and from The Gospel of the Birth of Mary, and the
Protevangelion of St James, that Mahommed derived all
his knowledge of our Saviour’s life. Indeed he does not
seem to have been at all acquainted with the canonical
gospels; and the legends of the East in general concern¬
ing our Lord are all from apocryphal sources.2
There is an account in Eusebius,3 of a message having
been sent by Agbarus, king of Edessa, who had heard of
the miracles of Jesus, and who requested him to come and
cure him of a malady with which he was afflicted. It is
added, that our Saviour wrote to him a letter, in which he
promised to send one of his disciples to heal him. A trans¬
lation of this correspondence from the Syriac original, con¬
tained in the archives of the church of Edessa, is given by
Eusebius. Additions were afterwards made to the story,—
as that Thaddeus, one of the seventy, was deputed by
Thomas, after the resurrection, to fulfil the promise of the
Saviour ; and Evagrius4 mentions, that our Lord not only
wrote a letter, but that he sent a handkerchief also, with
his picture drawn upon it. There can be no doubt that the
letters mentioned by Eusebius actually existed among the
records of Edessa, and that they were seen by that histo¬
rian. But, in addition to the external evidence from the
letters themselves, the fact that they are taken notice of by
no preceding Christian writer affords demonstration that
they are forgeries, which owe their existence probably to
the national vanity of some of the early Christians of Edes¬
sa. We are not informed that our Saviour ever committed
anything to writing, and we may be assured that if he
had, it would not have passed unnoticed by his first fol¬
lowers.
There is another statement contained in Eusebius, de¬
serving of more attention. He mentions that Pontius Pilate,
after the crucifixion of our Lord, wrote such an account of
his character and miracles to the Emperor Tiberius, as in¬
duced that prince to propose to the senate that a place
should be assigned to Jesus among the deities worshipped
by the Romans, but that the senate opposed the wishes
of the emperor. It was certainly the custom of the go¬
vernors of provinces to write memoirs of the remarkable
occurrences of the places where they presided ; and there
is nothing improbable in the idea that Pilate, who was con-
561
vinced of the innocence of Christ, should send an account of Jesus,
him to liberius. It is certain also that Justin Martyr,6 in his
Apology for the Christians, presented to the Emperor Anto¬
ninus Pius, refers to the acts of Pilate, as containing an ac¬
count of the circumstances connected with the crucifixion ;
and lertullian,0 towards the end of the century, appeals to
the same records. Still, however, we conceive that the
evidence for the existence of these acts is defective ; and
the proposal alluded to by Tiberius to the Roman senate,
though mentioned by Tertullian, and repeated by writers
who succeeded him, is irreconcilable with the character of
Tiberius, and the state of the Roman empire at that period.
At a later period, a spurious work, entitled The Acts of Pi¬
late,7 w as circulated by the Jews, containing many slanders
against Jesus; and it appears that acts of a contrary nature
were fabricated by certain Christians, to do away the im¬
pression.8
from the time that the Jews returned from the Baby¬
lonian captivity, a belief in magic formed a borrowed part
of the national character; and at an early period the na¬
tural expedient was resorted to by the enemies of Jesus, of
disparaging his character, by representing him as a magician.
It wTas believed among them that there was a mystic word
which enabled those who had learned it to direct at will the
current of events ; and a foolish story was circulated as
early as the second century,9 respecting the means by w hich
Jesus discovered and remembered this potent sign. Upon
this fable a life of Jesus was ultimately constructed, en¬
titled Toldoth Jeschu. The substance of this abominable
fabrication is, that Jesus was born in adultery, the particu¬
lars of which are detailed with revolting minuteness ; that
he contrived to steal the sacred word, by pronouncing
which he performed miracles at will, healed the sick,
opened the eyes of the blind, raised the dead; by means
of such works he gained over many converts, and would
have been still more successful had not another Jew dis¬
abused the minds of his countrymen by learning the
same word, and disclosing to the people how the same
miracles could be performed. The work terminates with
an account of the death of Jesus, and of his body being
stolen away by his disciples. It was published, with a
Latin translation and learned notes, by Wagenseil, in his
Tela Ignea Satance, h. e. Arcani et horribiles Judceorurn
adversus Christum Deum et Christianum religionem libri
ANEKAOTOI, 1681. It can scarcely be believed that
the more learned among the Jews gave credit to its men¬
dacious absurdities; though they long encouraged its cir¬
culation, to inspire their brethren with a deeper contempt
for Christianity and its followers.
The determination of the questions relative to the per¬
son and character and history of Jesus involves all the es¬
sential particulars connected w ith the evidences and doc¬
trines of the Christian faith. Butin an article like the pre¬
sent, we cannot enter fully upon the consideration of any of
these important subjects. We shall merely offer a few re¬
marks upon such particulars as depend upon elements of
•a historical nature, leaving the discussion of matters of
doctrine for other departments of this wwk.
The existence of such a person as Jesus Christ has scarce¬
ly ever been seriously denied ; and the general tenor of the
narrative of the Evangelists, with the omission of the mira¬
culous parts, has been received as substantially correct by
many who refuse to acknowledge the truth of our reli¬
gion. The evidences for the genuineness and authen¬
ticity of the four Gospels will be stated under the proper
7 nnV-' C' 1 ^ 2 Jones, vol. i. 3 Hist. Eccles. i. 13. * Evas. iv. 26.
s r, • VVas < urin£ tiie Persecution of Maximin. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. ix. 6.
tspiphan. Haer. 1. i.
VOL. XII.
5 Apol. i. 6 Tertul. Apolog. c. v. 21.
9 Orig. Contr. Cch.
4 B
JESUS.
.562
Jesus, heads, from which it will appear that no history whatever
is supported by stronger external proof; and that were it
not from internal grounds as to the nature of the facts
recorded, and the consequences which flow from them,
the truth of the narrative would never have been called in
question. Even the miracles were admitted by the earliest
opponents of Christianity, Celsus, Philostratus, and Hie-
rocles. These individuals did not deny the reality of the
works performed by Jesus; they only, upon internal evi¬
dence, objected to the idea that a person in circumstances
so lowly should be supposed to be divine, or explained
away the supernatural appearances by the supposition of
the exercise of magical arts,1 or maintained that the few
miracles which were performed did not warrant the idea
of a divine character.2
Different ground has been taken up by infidels in mo¬
dern times, who, while they have been constrained to ad¬
mit the truth of the general statements of the Evangelists,
have rejected altogether the supernatural machinery. In
setting aside the miraculous part of the gospel history, the
chief difficulty has been found in giving a consistent view
of the character of Jesus. If the miracles performed by
Christ were not real, the conclusion seems irresistible that he
must have been either a deliberate impostor, or a self-de¬
ceived enthusiast. By some writers, accordingly, Jesus
has been held up to ridicule and contempt, as exhibiting
many weaknesses, and even vices—as a pretended miracle-
worker and false prophet. Several of the deistical writers
of our own country took up this position, and were follow¬
ed by Voltaire and other French authors. The anti-Chris¬
tian view's of Voltaire were adopted by Frederick the
Great,3 whose example and encouragement gave rise to the
spirit which has unfortunately led so many of the theolo¬
gians of Germany to exclude from Christianity every trace
of supernatural agency.
The notices of the English deists of the last century, re¬
specting the miracles and character of Jesus, in many in¬
stances at least, were little more than incidental, and formed
merely a part of their general argument against the truth of
our religion. In Germany the work has been more syste-
matieally pursued. With the characteristic industry of that
learned people, the writings of the Evangelists have been
considered in every possible form. Different theories have
been framed as to the secret views of Jesus, as to the real
causes of his success, and as to the true character of the
alleged miracles which were performed. Voltaire, after
our English authors, had endeavoured to account for the
exalted morality taught by Jesus, by supposing that it w?as
borrowed from the self-denying tenets of the sect of the
Essenes.4 The idea w'as followed out by various German
authors; while the lofty theology of the Alexandrian Pla-
tonists, and the liberal spirit of JSadduceism, were referred
to by others as sufficient to originate in an enthusiastic jesu,
mind the system taught by Jesus. Some, like Edelmann,
while they have not disputed that a virtuous Jew named
Jesus actually existed, have refused to acknowledge the
genuineness and authenticity of the Gospels. Reirnarus,
in a posthumous tract5 on the object of Jesus and his dis¬
ciples, while he acknowledges the excellence of the morals,
and even of the doctrines, of the Gospel, accuses Jesus of
not observing the rules which he prescribed, and of making
use of his system as a means for promoting his political
views ; and while he does justice to many of the high quali¬
ties of Jesus, he represents him, upon the whole, as actuated
by ambition, and as aiming at the establishment of his own
power under the character of the triumphant conqueror
to whom the Jews looked forward in their promised Mes-
sias. His arguments are chiefly founded upon the acknow¬
ledged ideas of the Jewish people respecting the Messias,
upon the caution exhibited by Jesus in arrogating that cha¬
racter, and upon his entering Jerusalem in royal state,
when he conceived that his caxrse was sufficiently advanced
to insure his success; while the grief he exhibited in the
garden of Gethsemane, and his exclamation on the cross,
“ My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me ?” are con¬
sidered as tokens of his disappointed hopes. This view has
been taken by other writers, with various minor modifica¬
tions, and with different degrees of learning and presump¬
tion. Others have represented Jesus as the dupe of his own
imagination,—as one who, by the dreams of a fond mother,
and the workings of an unrestrained fancy, was led to be¬
lieve himself to be the Messias; and who, partly by his
superior knowledge of the occult qualities of matter, and
partly by the sympathetic influence of a highly-wrought
enthusiasm, favoured occasionally by accidental circumstan¬
ces, performed many works that seemed to exceed the li¬
mits of natural causes, which were afterwards exaggerated
into real miracles. Another class of the neologian school
describe Christ as a pure and exalted character, who was
animated with the desire of raising the condition of his
degraded countrymen, and of promoting the general in¬
terests of humanity; and who, in the lowly situation in
which he was placed, found no other means of accom¬
plishing this end but by personating the character of the
Jewish Messias. As the Jews expected miracles to be
performed by their long-looked-for Saviour, Jesus accom¬
modated himself to their views in this respect. Accord¬
ing to this class of writers, he is supposed sometimes to
have availed himself of fortunate contingencies, repre¬
senting the restoration from a faint as a resurrection from
the dead, as in the case of the daughter of Jairus, and of
Lazarus, and sometimes to have succeeded, perhaps be¬
yond his own expectations, by the aids of animal magne¬
tism.6 His appearance to his disciples after his burial has
1 Celsus. 2 Hierocles.
3 Frederick, while he treated with contempt the doctrines of the Gospel, acknowledged the excellence of its morality, which he
considered (it is unnecessary to remark how erroneously) as essentially the same with that of the Stoics.
-C/dh art. Esseues. The untenableness of the theory had Jong before been well exposed by Prideaux, Connections, vol. ii.
•' Phis tract was published in 1788, by the celebrated I.essing, Smong his “ Wolfenbiittel Fragments by an anonymous person. ’ It
is entitled Fragment von dem Zweckc Jesu and seiner junger. It is now universally ascribed to lieimarus, well known as an able cri¬
tic, and the author of a work on natural religion. Pie was born at Hamburg in 1694, and died in 1765. He published nothing re¬
specting his views as to the subject of revealed religion during his life, but he left various manuscripts of an anti-christian charac¬
ter, some of which falling into the hands of Lessing, who at that time had the superintendence of the ducal library at Wolfenbiittel,
were published by him in the licilr'dge zur Geschichte und IMeratur, aus den Schdtzen der Hczoglichen Bibliothek zu Wolfenhuttel. I hey
excited great attention ; and, more perhaps than any other work, led to the neologian spirit that has since so much prevailed in
Germany. Various answers were called forth. Of these, by far the ablest was that by lieinhard, a celebrated German preacher,
in a woik entitled Versuch uber den Flan den der Slifter dev Christ, religion zum besten der Menschen entwarf. The main object ot the
author is to show that the mere plan for effecting the happiness of the species; a plan which he pu.posed to carry into effect, not
by violence or force of arms (in opposition to the theory of lieimarus), nor hy the influence of a secret society (in opposition to the
wilu imagination of Bahrdt), but by means of moral suasion alone, a plan which no great man of antiquity had ever conceived,
and w hich entered into no other religious system ; proves Jesus to have been a messenger sent by God. This work by lieinhard is
one of the most valuable contributions to the evidences of the truth of Christianity. It has been translated into French; and a
translation of it into English has been published in America, though it. seems little known in this country.
A Lst of the writers who hold these opinions is given in Winer’s liiblishct liealwdrterbuch, s. 671.
JESUS.
eeus. been also explained away, as if it had been the result of na-
tural causes ; it being argued that the suspension from the
cross for a few hours was insufficient to occasion death,
though in a worn-out frame it might occasion a temporary
swoon, from which he might be restored by the myrrh and
aloes and odoriferous substances which his disciples brought
to embalm him.1
In regard to the theory which is founded on the idea
that Jesus was actuated by selfish or worldly or ambitious
motives, it may safely be affirmed that it is altogether incon¬
sistent with the facts connected with every part of his his¬
tory. The whole tenor of his proceedings showed that
his views were above this world. He used none of the
arts necessary for gaining a party among his countrymen.
He did not flatter one sect at the expense of another.
He neither courted the favour of his countrymen, by in¬
flaming their prejudices against the Romans, on the one
hand ; nor did he, on the other hand, artfully conciliate the
favour of the Romans to be employed as a means towards
attaining the sovereignty of Judea. He openly denounced
the vices of the reigning sects ; and though his benevo¬
lence led him to such a course of conduct as could not but
excite the admiration of many among the lower orders, he
made no attempt to render his popularity subservient to his
personal interests ; he shunned the demonstrations of popu¬
lar favour, and unsparingly exposed the unworthy motives
that led many to pay court to him. Not a single instance
can be mentioned in which he had recourse to any means
for establishing a temporal authority. His whole con¬
duct showed that he was animated with more exalted
aims. From the commencement of his ministry he assert¬
ed his divine commission, and spoke with undoubting con¬
fidence of the success of his cause. But the success of
which he spoke was not in schemes of worldly greatness,
but in the diffusion of truth and righteousness. He availed
himself of every suitable opportunity for correcting the er¬
roneous impressions that were entertained respecting the
character of the Messias. And so far was he from enter¬
taining views of personal aggrandisement in the character
he assumed, that from the very first he intimated that the
good he was to render to mankind was to be procured by
laying down his life for them. And the tenor of the evan¬
gelical history proves, that in proportion to the increasing
clearness with which he communicated to his chosen follow¬
ers the information as to his divine character, was the ex¬
pressness of his declaration that his death was at hand.
There is only a single instance that can be adduced in
which there was any appearance on the part of Jesus, of
the assumption of temporal authority, viz. in the case of his
last entrance into Jerusalem. This has been represented
by Reimarus as an unsuccessful attempt made by him,
counting upon the support of the populace, to take pos¬
session of the temple and of the city. But such a view
is inconsistent, not only with the proceedings of Jesus upon
former occasions, but also with his conduct in Jerusalem
at that very period. There was no concert between the
people and Jesus or his apostles. The city of Jerusalem
was filled with strangers from all parts, who had come up
to attend the passover; the report of the resurrection
of Lazarus had been widely circulated; when Jesus ap¬
proached, curiosity assembled multitudes to behold him,
and, in the enthusiasm of the moment, they rendered ho-
5G3
mage to him as a king. But Jesus did not avail himself Jesus,
of the feeling that was excited. He addressed to the mul-
titude nothing calculated to rouse their passions. The
jealousy of the Roman governor, sufficiently awake to the
danger of an insurrection,2 took no alarm at the approach
of the procession to the temple, and Pilate made no al¬
lusion to it when Jesus was brought before his tribunal.
The same day that Jesus entered into the temple he vo¬
luntarily left it for Bethany, though it is obvious, that if
he had entertained the views ascribed to him, he would
have availed himself of the advantages it presented to
him, as the citadel that commanded the whole of Jerusa¬
lem.3 After this he openly returned to the temple on the
following days; he made no appeal to the passions of the
people, but continued to address to the chief priests such
denunciations as could not fail to rouse those vengeful feel¬
ings of which he had foretold that he was to be the un¬
resisting victim.
The attempt to prove that Jesus was merely an ambi¬
tious adventurer is now generally abandoned. But many",
while they admit the excellence of the personal character
of Christ, endeavour to account for the supernatural parts
of the gospel history on what is called the principle of ac¬
commodation, supposing that Jesus suited his proceedings
to the expectations of the Jews respecting the miraculous
{Dower of their Messias. But to act upon such a principle
is surely inconsistent with the simplicity and integrity of a
spotless character. It is admitted by the defenders of the
hypothesis referred to, that we have in Jesus Christ a cha¬
racter which stands single and alone in the history of man¬
kind, free from any defect, and combining every species of
excellence. We have this same Jesus, without advantage
of education or outward condition, introducing a system of
religion and morals such as the world had never witnessed ;
the only system of positive religion that does notbear on its
face evidence of its falseness ; a system to which the most
enlightened men in every age since its first propagation have
yielded their homage ; and a system of rporals so pure in its
nature, and so comprehensive in its requirements, that while
the most extraordinary progress has been made in every
other subject, it might easily be proved that all that ethi¬
cal inquirers have attempted is an analysis of the princi¬
ples of our nature, on which the rules of the New Testa¬
ment are founded, or an application of these rules to the
circumstances of mankind in new conditions of society.
If such a system had been originated by an individual
who made no claim to supernatural assistance, we would
have been presented with a moral phenomenon altogether
inexplicable. But this is not the state in which we find
the question. Jesus declares that he received from God
all that he reveals to man. Had he offered no proof
of this assertion, his moral qualities, even supposing him
to have been in error, might have remained unimpeached,
and he might have moved our compassionate respect, as the
self-deceived enthusiast of virtue or religion. But our Sa¬
viour not only demands credence on his own authority ; he
makes an appeal4 to the miracles which he wrought, in proof
of his divine mission. Now, the miracles which our Saviour
refers to are of such a nature, that either they must have
been performed or he must have lent himself to a deceit.
There is no other alternative. He could not but know
whether they were actually wrought, or whether they
See, in particular, the Lelen Jesn by Dr Paulus of Heidelberg, who conceives that his opinion is strengthened by an attempt to
prove (which he has endeavoured to do in a separate tract upon the subject) that only the hands of Jesus were nailed to the cross,
his feet being merely bound to it by a strong cord. But even supposing this to have been the case, which we consider as by no
means established, the evidence of actual dissolution is decisive. AVe have in the first place the testimony of the Evangelists, "then
the proceedings of the soldiers in general (John, xix. 33), and then the wound inflicted by one of them with a spear, which, from
the account given of it, must have entered the heart itself (v. 34.)
1 In proof of this, see Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 3, 2. * Michaelis. 4 John xiv. 11.
564
JESUS.
Jesus, were only seeming and illusory. And if the miracles
^■v'^^'were not truly performed, then we have the individual
whose moral character stands in all other respects higher
than that of any other of the children of men, and who
was made the instrument of conferring the greatest boon
that ever was made to mankind,—we have that individual
guilty of an artful and criminal imposture.
In regard to the theory that the apostles filled up the
picture of the character of Jesus from what they read in
the Old Testament Scriptures respecting the Messias, it
may be remarked, that the conception of such a character
in such circumstances is a phenomenon as inexplicable
upon ordinary principles as the actual existence of the
prototype. And that four different writers, or that even
two different writers, without having a common subject,
should have given so many points of resemblance of such
an extraordinary nature, and in so many varied circum¬
stances, is altogether incredible.
Among those who admit the divine commission of Je¬
sus, different opinions have been entertained as to the
rank he holds in the scale of being. The general doctrine
of the Christian church, as expressed in ancient creeds
and in the confessions of reformed churches, is, that Christ
exhibited in his person a union of the divine and human
nature ; that the second person in the Trinity was united
to the man Jesus, who was God and man in one person.
To avoid the difficulties which have been supposed to be
involved in this mysterious doctrine, it has been maintain¬
ed by some that the Son is not equal with the Father, and
did not exist from eternity, but that the first created be¬
ing, the highest angelic nature, was made flesh and dwelt
on earth. The essence of this theory is, that the Son of
God was a creature, but that he existed in a separate state
previously to his manifestation in the form of man. It is vari¬
ously modified according to the higher or lower character
that is given to the Son of God ; and is distinguished by the
name of Arianism, from the individual who in the early
part of the fourth century first brought the question into
general discussion. According to a third class, Jesus
Christ was a mere man, distinguished from other men
only by being employed by God in making a revelation
of his will to mankind, and superior in no respect to the
prophets who appeared among the Jewish people, except
in superior virtue, and in a more enlarged measure of
divine countenance and assistance. This view, in its es¬
sential features, was embraced by the Ebionites, and also
by Artemon and others during the second and third cen¬
turies; by Socinus in the sixteenth century, from whose
name those who adopt this opinion are frequently named
Socinians, though they assume to themselves the name of
Unitarians ; a title which is sometimes conceded by Trini¬
tarians for the sake of distinction, though they equally
hold the doctrine of the unity of the Deity. In America
the name Unitarian is applied to all those who reject the
doctrine of the Trinity. The differences of opinion re¬
specting the person of Christ are connected with different
views as to the object and nature of his commission. Tri¬
nitarians consider him as not only teaching a purer sys¬
tem of morality than the world had before known, but
also as making an atonement for human guilt by his death ;
while Socinians and many Arians deny the doctrine of
the atonement, and look upon Jesus merely as a teacher
of religion and virtue.
The character of Christ, as exhibited in the Gospels,
presents to us the only example, anywhere to be found,
of the perfection of humanity ; and the contemplation of jesu,
it has ever been considered by his followers as one of the
most edifying and delightful exercises of piety.1 A con¬
stant regard to the will of God, and a delight in doing it,
form the distinguishing features of his character. With
this was connected the absence of all sordid, or selfish,
or ambitious aims, and an enlarged and enlightened phi¬
lanthropy. There is perhaps nothing more remarkable in
the life of Jesus than the apparently inconsistent qualities
which are blended together in one harmonious whole.
We see in him the most unbending constancy united with
great tenderness of feeling—hatred of sin, and compassion
for the offender—a heart superior to all the allurements
of pleasure, with a condescending indulgence for the inno¬
cent relaxations of life—a mind of universal philanthropy,
alive to all the domestic charities—views that extended
to the whole human race, and a generous compliance with
national and individual peculiarities. It is difficult to
conceive that the portraiture presented to us in the sa¬
cred history can be contemplated without benefit; but
the chief benefit will be lost if it is forgotten that he whose
life was the model of every virtue laid down that life for
the sins of the world.
Those who hold the highest ideas of the divinity of
Christ, admit to the fullest extent that he was also man;
and the curiosity is not unnatural as to the personal ap¬
pearance assumed by the Son of God. Upon this subject
no direct information is given in the New Testament. From
incidental notices, it has been conjectured that he was of
a robust frame, and that there was nothing particularly
marked in his appearance ;2 but it may be doubted how
far the passages referred to bear out these conclusions.
There is better evidence that the mixture of divine be¬
nignity and commanding authority which he everywhere
displayed in his character, were conspicuous also in his
voice and aspect.3
The most judicious of the fathers agree that nothing
was known of the personal appearance of Christ, though
inquiry upon the subject was not prohibited. During the
first ages of Christianity, the church, under persecution,
required a model of patient endurance; and the general
opinion of the fathers4 during that time seems to have been,
that the personal appearance of Christ corresponded lite¬
rally with the description in Isaiah, liii. 2, 3. There was
at the same time a prohibition, founded on the second
commandment, against attempting to frame any pictorial
likeness of the Son of God. We read, however, of pic¬
tures of Christ in the hands of one of the Gnostic sects/’
Alexander Severus had his bust in the chamber set apart
for his devotional exercises ;6 and Eusebius relates, that
many among the heathens had pictures of Christ and of his
apostles, which he himself had seen.7 At a somewhat later
period, when paintings began to be admitted into churches,
the attempt to present a likeness of Christ was no longer
considered as unlawful; and full scope being given to the
imagination of the artist, attempts were made to embody
the purity, and elevation, and loveliness of the Saviour’s
character, in lineaments of extraordinary beauty. Certain
theologians justified the attempt by explaining the descrip¬
tion in Psalm xlv. as literally applicable to Jesus. I here
is a minute description of the personal appearance of
Christ by the Greek ecclesiastical historian Nicephoros,
who flourished about the year 1330; and another in a let¬
ter purporting to be addressed by Publius Lentulus, go¬
vernor of Judea, to the Roman senate. Both of these,
1 A catalogue of some of the most important treatises upon this subject in English is given by Bishop Newcombe, in the preface
to his work on our Lord’s conduct and character.
2 John, xx. 15, and xxi. 4. s j0ini? xviii. 6; Matt. vii. 29; John, vii. 46, &c.
4 Tertull. De Game Christi, 9; adv. Jud. 14 ; Clem. Alex. Paed. iii. 1 ; Orig. Contr. Cels. li.
5 Iren. i. 25. 6 Lamprid. c. 29.
7 L. vii. c. 18.
J E S
jesug however, are altogether without value. As the prosopo-
|| graphia in the pretended letter of Publius is from time to
essore. time brought before the public in various forms, without
any hint as to its real origin, it may be proper to state,
that there is most decisive evidence of its being a mere
fabrication. No trace of it is to be found before the four¬
teenth century. No such person as Publius Lentulus
was ever governor of Judea. From the style, it is pro¬
bable that it was written by some monk in the middle
ages.1
In regard to pictures which tradition has represented as
having been made while our Saviour was on earth, in ad¬
dition to that already mentioned as having been sent to
the king of Edessa, there was another supposed to have
been imprinted upon a handkerchief belonging to Veroni¬
ca. The legend is, that when Christ was led to cruci¬
fixion, Veronica, who followed him, put a handkerchief to
his face, on which Christ impressed his likeness. This
holy relic is still exhibited at Rome on certain festivals.2
Eusebius speaks of a statue of Christ erected by the wo-
J E V 565
man who was cured of the issue of blood, and mentions Jet
that he saw it himself at Caesarea Philippi.3 Julian the II
Apostate is said4 to have taken it down, and erected his '^ev^1';
own statue in its place. From the representations on some
ancient coins, it has been conjectured that the pillar refer¬
red to was originally erected in honour of Hadrian.5 In
the Romish church it is believed that there existed a pic¬
ture of Christ by St Luke, and that there was an image of
him cut out by Nicodemus in cedar wood ; but these tra¬
ditions are without support from antiquity, and inconsis¬
tent with many passages in the writings of the fathers.
A general resemblance is to be observed in all the pictures
of the Saviour; but though this has probably arisen from
admiration of one traditional model, there is no evidence
whatever of its genuineness. After all our inquiries, while
we are warranted in supposing that the benignant majes¬
ty which distinguished his character beamed forth in his
countenance, yet, in regard to any thing more definite, we
must rest in the conclusion of St Austin, “ qua fuerit file
facie penitus ignoramus.”6 (d. d. d. d.)
JESUS, the Soti of Sirach, a native of Jerusalem, com¬
posed, about 200 b. c. the Book of Ecclesiasticus, called
by the Greeks Uavaeirog, “ replenished with virtue.” They
also quote it under the title of the Wisdom of Jesus the son
of Sirah. His grandson, who was also of the same name,
and a native of Jerusalem, translated it from the Hebrew
into Greek about 121 b. c. We have the Greek version,
but the Hebrew text is lost.
JESROTCH, a town belonging to the Sikhs, in the
province of Lahore, fifty-three miles east from Lahore.
Long. 74. 19. E. Lat. 32. 28. N.
JESSELMERE, a large district of Hindustan, in the
province of Ajmeer, situated about the twenty-eighth
degree of north latitude, and extending to the sandy de¬
sert, which constitutes the western boundary of that pro¬
vince. It is a barren country, being for the most part an
uninterrupted tract of sand, without rivers, and the wells
being of very great depth under ground. Its complete
sterility is, however, in some degree owing to the govern¬
ment, as the whole tract is within the limits of the pe¬
riodical rains, and, if duly cultivated, would be productive.
But it is an almost constant scene of hostility, from the
number of petty chiefs among whom it is divided. The
original inhabitants, in whose possession it still remains,
are of the Hindu Brahminical religion, but few in num¬
ber. The capital is of the same name, and is governed by
an independent chief. Long. 72. 16. E. Lat. 27. 44. N.
JESSORE, a district of the province of Bengal, to the
north-east of Calcutta, bounded on the north by the
Ganges, and on the west by Dacca, Jelalpoor, and Bucker-
gunge ; on the south by the sea, and on the east by Kish-
enagur. In the Ayeen Akberry it is called Khalafabad.
The northern part of this district is very fertile ; but the
southern division is in the Sunderbunds, and composed of
salt marshy islands covered with trees. Some parts lie so
low that embankments are found necessary to protect
them against inundation. The land is fertile, and would
produce rice in any quantity. At present, though so near
Calcutta, these low-lying tracts are neglected and waste;
and being covered with jungle, they are only resorted
to by salt-makers and river-pirates, the latter of whom
sally out on vessels as they pass any of the innumerable
branches ot the Ganges by which this marshy country is
intersected. The principal towns are Jessore or Moorley,
Culna, and Mahmudpoor. In reply to certain queries
circulated in 1801 by the Marquis Wellesley, the inhabi¬
tants were stated at 1,200,000, in the proportion of nine
Mahommedans to seven Hindus. Jessore was formerly
the name of the capital ; it is now called Moorley.
JET, a black, inflammable substance of the bituminous
kind, harder than asphaltum, and susceptible of a good
polish. It becomes electrical by rubbing, attracting light
bodies like yellow amber. It swims on water, so that its
specific gravity must be less than 1000; notwithstanding
which it has been frequently confounded with the lapis oh-
sidianus, the specific gravity of which, according to Kir-
wan, is no less than 1744. It also resembles cannel coal
in its hardness, receiving a polish, and not soiling the fin¬
gers, &c. so that it has also been confounded with this sub¬
stance. The distinction, however, is easily made between
the two ; for cannel coal wants the electrical properties of
jet, and is likewise so heavy as to sink in water, its specific
gravity being no less than 1273, whereas that of jet, as
has already been said, is less than 1000.
Jet d’Eau, a French term, used to signify a fountain
which casts up water to a considerable height in the air.
JETTEE', the border made round the stilts under a pier,
in certain old bridges, being the same with starling ; con¬
sisting of a strong framing of timber filled with stones,
chalk, or other materials, to preserve the foundations of
the piers from injury.
*JE TTY-HEAD, a name usually given in the royal dock¬
yards to that part of a wharf which projects beyond the
rest; but more particularly the front of a wharf, the side
of which forms one of the cheeks of a dry or wet dock.
JEVER, a circle of the grand duchy of Oldenburg, in
Germany, extending over 165 square miles, and contain¬
ing, in twenty-four parishes, 4140 houses and 20,105 in¬
habitants. It is a level country, on the sea shore, and pre¬
served from inundation by powerful dykes and sluices.
One of these was
matter of much im-
• . , . , i   Itomanum de Jesu Christ.
scnptse uenuo mquirit J. P. Gables, 1819, in which the whole question is fully discussed. An exposure of the fabrication is also
to be found in the American Biblical Repository, vol. ii. p. 867.
2 Boland, ad d. 4 Feb.
3 Hist. Eccles. vii. 18.
4 Soz. v. 21; Philoslorg. vii. 3.
Giesler’s Kirchengeschichtc, i. p. 79-
De Trin. 4, 5.
566 J E W
Jewel Tlie capital, of the same name, is a fortified city, contain-
II ing two churches, 650 houses, and 3460 inhabitants.
Jewel, There is a gymnasium, and the boards for the civil and
Jolin* ecclesiastical affairs of the circle are held here. It has
some foreign trade, consisting chiefly in the exportation of
corn. Long. 7. 47. 36. E. Lat. 53. 34. 30. N.
JEWEL, any precious stone, or ornament set with pre¬
cious stones.
Jewels formed part of the ornaments with which the
Jews, Greeks, and Romans, especially their ladies of dis¬
tinction, adorned themselves. So great was the extrava¬
gance of the Roman ladies in this respect, that Pliny the
Elder says he saw Lollia Paulina with an equipage of this
kind, amounting, according to Dr Arbuthnot’s calculation,
to L.322,916. 13s. 4d. of our money. It is worthy of ob¬
servation, that precious stones amongst the Romans, and all
the ancients, were much scarcer, dearer, and consequently
in higher estimation, than amongst us, since a commerce
was opened with the Indies. The ancients did not know
how to cut and polish them to much perfection ; but co¬
loured stones were not scarce, and they cut them very
well either hollow or in relief. When luxury had gained
ground amongst them, the Romans hung pendants and
pearls in their ears; and for this purpose the ears of both
sexes were frequently bored. See Ears.
Jewel, John, a learned English divine, was born in the
year 1522, and educated at Oxford. In 1540, having been
created bachelor of arts, he became a noted tutor, and was
soon afterwards chosen rhetorical lecturer in his college.
In February 1544, he took his degree as master of arts.
Having early imbibed protestant principles, he inculcated
the same on his pupils; but this was carried on privately
till the accession of Edward VI. in 1546, when he made a
public declaration of his faith, and entered into a close
friendship with Peter Martyr, then professor of divinity at
Oxford. In 1550, he took the degree of bachelor of divi¬
nity, and frequently preached with great applause before
the university. At the same time he preached and cate¬
chised every alternate Sunday, at Sunningwell in Berkshire,
of which place he was rector. Upon the accession of
Queen Mary in 1553, he was one of the first who felt the
effects of the storm then raised against the Reformation;
for, before any law was made, or order given by the queen,
he was expelled from Corpus Christ! College by the fellows,
of their own private authority ; but he continued in Ox¬
ford till he was called upon, under the severest penalties,
to subscribe to some of the Catholic doctrines, a call which
he submitted to. However, this did not secure his safety,
for he was obliged to fly ; and, after encountering many dif¬
ficulties, he arrived, in the second year of Mary’s reign, at
Frankfort, where he made a public recantation of his sub¬
scription to the Catholic doctrines. He then went to
Strasburg, and afterwards to Zurich, where he attended
Peter Martyr, in whose house he resided. He returned to
England in 1558, after Queen Mary’s death ; and, in 1559,
was consecrated Bishop of Salisbury. This promotion was
conferred upon him as a reward for his great merit and learn¬
ing ; and another attestation was given him by the university
of Oxford, which, in 1565, conferred upon him in his ab¬
sence the degree of doctor in divinity. In this character
he attended the queen to Oxford the following year, and
presided at the theological disputations held before her ma¬
jesty on that occasion. He had before distinguished him¬
self by a sermon preached at St Paul’s cross, in which he
gave a public challenge to all the Roman Catholics in the
world to produce but one clear and evident testimony, out
JEW
of any father or famous winter who flourished within six Je*e
centuries after Christ, for any one of the articles which the hlocki
Romanists maintain against the church of England; and, two
years afterwards, he published his famous Apology for this
church. In the mean time, he paid particular attention to
his diocese, where, in his visitations, he began, and at length
perfected, such a reformation, not only in his cathedral and
parochial churches, but in all the churches within his ju¬
risdiction, as procured him and the whole order of bishops
due reverence and esteem. He was a careful and strict
observer, not only of all the flocks, but also of the pastors,
in his diocese; and he watched so narrowly the proceed¬
ings of his chancellor and archdeacons, and of his stewards
and receivers, that they had no opportunities of committing
oppression, injustice, or extortion, nor of being a burden
to the people, or a scandal to himself. Amidst these em¬
ployments, however, he neglected the care of his health, to
which, indeed, his general course of life was unfavourable.
He rose at four o’clock in the morning ; and, after prayers
with his family at five, and in the cathedral about six, he ap¬
plied so intensely to his studies all the morning, that he
could not without difficulty be drawn from them. After
dinner his doors and ears were open to all suitors ; and it
was observed of him, as of Titus, that he never sent any
away sorrowful. About nine at night he called all his ser¬
vants to an account of howr they had spent the day, and he
went to prayers with them. From the chapel he withdrew
again to his study till near midnight, and thence retired to
bed, when the gentleman of his bed-chamber read to him
till he fell asleep. This w atchful and laborious life, without
any recreation at all, except what his necessary refresh¬
ment at meals and a very few hours of rest afforded him,
soon wasted his life. He died at Monkton-Farley, in 1571,
in the fiftieth year of his age. He was the author of, LA
View of a Seditious Bull sent into England by Pope Pius
V. in 1569; 2. A Treatise on the Holy Scriptures; 3. An
Exposition of St Paul’s two Epistles to the Thessalonians ;
4. A Treatise on the Sacrament; 5. An Apology for the Na¬
tional Church ; 6. Several sermons, controversial treatises,
and other works. Bishop Jewel was one of the great cham¬
pions of the reformed religion, and was to the church of
England what Bellarmine wras to that of Rome. His Apo¬
logy was translated by Anne, the second of the four learn¬
ed daughters of Sir Anthony Coke, and mother of Sir
Francis Bacon. It was published, as it came from her pen,
in 1564, with the approbation of the queen and the pre¬
lates. The same Apology was printed in Greek at Con¬
stantinople, under the direction of St Cyril the patriarch.
His defence of his Apology, against Harding and other
Catholic divines, was held in such esteem, that Queen
Elizabeth, King James I. King Charles I. and four succes¬
sive archbishops,-ordered it to be kept chained in all parish
churches for public use.
Jewel Blocks, in nautical language, a name given to
two small blocks suspended at the extremities of the main
and fore top-sail yards, by means of an eye-bolt driven
from without into the middle of the yard-arm, parallel to
its axis. The use of these blocks is to retain the upper
part of the top-mast studding-sails beyond the skirts of the
top-sails, so that each of those sails may have its full force
of action, which would be diminished by the encroachment
of the other over its surface. The halyards, by which these
studding-sails are hoisted, are accordingly passed through
the jewel-blocks, whence, communicating with a block on
the top-mast head, they lead downwards to the top or decks,
where they may be conveniently hoisted.
567
J E
iws. Tiie character and fate of this singular people, in their
relation to the Christian faith, belong to other departments
of this work. In the present article we shall confine our¬
selves to a brief outline of the leading events in their
annals, as a part of general history. They derive their
origin from Abraham, a native of Chaldea, who flourish¬
ed about 2000 years before the Christian era. At that
period the whole world was sunk in idolatry, and Abra¬
ham was chosen by the Almighty, that by him and his
posterity the knowledge of the essential principles of true
religion might be preserved on the earth, and the way
prepared for the revelation of a more comprehensive sys¬
tem to mankind. Under the divine direction, Abraham,
at an early period of his life, withdrew from his country and
kindred, and from the infectious influence of their super¬
stitions ; taking up his abode in the country now known by
the name of Palestine, a small stripe of land along the
Mediterranean, naturally sterile and rugged, but capable
of extraordinary fertility through attentive culture, and
commanding advantages, by its local situation, for securing
an easy intercourse with the whole habitable world. In
the days of Abraham, part of it was altogether unoccupied,
and the rest was inhabited by different small tribes of the
Canaanites, who seem to have migrated from Arabia.
Among these, Abraham lived as an Emir or chief of a no¬
madic tribe, moving from place to place, as the increase of
his flocks and the condition of his dependents required. A
similar course of life was pursued by his immediate de¬
scendants, who, amidst their increasing numbers and en¬
larged possessions, did not depart from the habits of pastoral
simplicity ; so that during the period of 215 years, from the
time of the arrival of Abraham till the departure of Jacob
into Egypt, little progress seems to have been made in the
arts of civilized life. The migration referred to, of all the de¬
scendants of Abraham, was occasioned by the well-known
promotion of Joseph in the court of the king of Egypt. The
Egyptians at this period were living under a regular form
of government, and had made considerable advances in the
arts and sciences. Policy as well as habit led them to look
upon the nomadic life with an unfavourable eye; and from
this circumstance, as well as from the hereditary character
of ofnces among the Egyptians, the two races were kept
entirely distinct. A separate district of the country was
assigned to the Israelites, where they retained to a consi¬
derable extent the character of a pastoral tribe; the Egyptian
deserts, and the neighbouring country of Arabia Petreea,
affording ample opportunities for indulging in their primi¬
tive customs. The ordinary influence, however, of a more
civilized and powerful people upon their dependents or
allies, by degrees became perceptible ; and we find the Is¬
raelites beginning to practise some of the arts of the Egyp¬
tians, and falling gradually into their idolatry. Gratitude
or contempt secured the descendants of Jacob from the jea¬
lousy that their increasing numbers was calculated to awaken,
till the founder of a new dynasty perceived the full extent
of the danger to which his usurped dominion was exposed,
and, regardless of national obligations, formed a plan for
the extermination of the dangerous visitors. The rigour
with which his savage plan was carried into execution,
ed to events by which it was frustrated, and proved the
occasion of the establishment of the Israelites as a separate
and independent people. Under the visible interposition of
the Most High, Moses, who had been marvellously preserv¬
ed from becoming the victim of the royal mandate, gaveanew
aspect to the destinies of the race. He led forth his coun¬
trymen from the house of their bondage, delivering to them
W S.
a body of laws and institutions, which not only gave an in- Jews,
delible stamp to the Jewish character, but exerted an in-
fluence that continues to be experienced throughout the
Christian and Mahommedan world. Like other lawgivers, he
appointed religious ceremonies to be mingled with political
institutions, but with this remarkable difference, that while
under other systems religion is used as a means for civil
security, the institutions of political society were employed
by Moses to give permanency to the doctrines and prac¬
tices of a pure theology.
The plan which had been entered upon by Moses for the
introduction of the descendants of Abraham into the land
promised to their progenitor, was carried into effect by
Joshua, who succeeded to Moses; and who proceeded
against the tribes which now inhabited that country, with
a severity that can be condemned only by those who forget
or deny the authority under which he acted, or the atroci¬
ous wickedness which warranted or called for the extremest
manifestations of the divine displeasure. The command for
tne total destruction of the Canaanites, however, was only
partially' executed ; and many' of the evils which afterwards
befell the Jewish people arose from the example of the
lamilies which had been spared with an ill-judged and pre¬
sumptuous clemency. Many of the tribes also seem to
have saved themselves by a timely flight, which it does not
appear that the Israelites were called upon to interfere w ith.
Procopius mentions that the peopling of Northern Africa by'
the Phoenicians took place in consequence of the flight of
that people before the victorious Joshua.
Possession being taken of the land of Canaan, it wms
parcelled out among the twelve Israelitish tribes, which
were to a certain extent independent of each other, though,
descended from the same stock, and worshipping at the
same shrine, and united by certain general interests, they
formed but one nation. Their government was strictly
theocratical, without, however, excluding the ordinary
forms of earthly rule. During the life of Joshua, the su¬
preme power was exercised by that individual, as it had been
by Moses, under the sanction of divine appointment, with the
assistance of certain ordinary magistrates. From the death
of Joshua, during a period of 450 years, in the absence of
a regular succession of recognised rulers, the civil consti¬
tution of the confederated tribes was fluctuating and un¬
certain. Their common origin and religion, the chief
bonds of their union, often proved too feeble to withstand
the influence of local interests and jealousies. Single tribes
followed their own views, to the neglect of the"common
wishes or the common weal; leagues formed between two
or more tribes for special purposes awakened the suspicions
of their neighbours ; these circumstances were aggravated
by hereditary rivalries ; and the government was preserved
from dismemberment only by the rulers or Judges whom
Providence upon great emergencies raised up to under¬
take the cause of the people, defending them from their
enemies, or preserving them from intestine commotions.
At last the people, impatient of the uncertain government
whicn seemed to be exerted over them, resolved upon the
establishment of a monarchy, which might unite all in one
peaceful kingdom. A member of the tribe of Benjamin,
named Saul, was raised by common suffrage to the sovereign¬
ty, and held the sway over all the tribes of Israel about forty
years. His reign \vas far from being either prosperous or
happy; and though his bravery preserved the Israelites
from external adversaries, he was deficient in that political
sagacity which was necessary to consolidate the principles
of the new monarchy. Upon his death, the tribes of Ju-
568 ^ ^
Jews, dah and Benjamin refused to acknowledge the authority of
his son) and elected as his successor a youth named David,
who had been marked out by the prophet Samuel as des¬
tined to kingly honours, and whose adventurous exploits,
generous enthusiasm, and princely bearing, had endear¬
ed him to his tribe. His prudence proved equal to his
valour and his piety; and in a short time he succeeded in
uniting all the tribes in one kingdom, fixing his capital at
Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his son Solomon, under
whose reign the kingdom of Israel was carried to its highest
degree of prosperity. The descendants of Abraham now
formed the principal monarchy in Western Asia. From
the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates, from the river
of Egypt to Berytus, and towards the east to the Hagarenes
on the Persian Gulf, all were subject to the sway of Solo-
mon, under whose wise and peaceful rule trade flourished,
commerce was extended, and the arts and sciences found
patronage and protection. It often happens, that when a
prince like David has settled a kingdom on solid founda¬
tions, his son is induced to indulge a taste for luxurious
magnificence ; and to this, as well as to his sense of religion,
some have ascribed the building of the temple, the great
event of his reign.
Upon the death of Solomon, the kingdom fell asunder
under the feeble and impolitic sway of his son and succes¬
sor Rehoboam. The causes of disunion lay deep in the
character and situation of the different tribes ; and, though
counteracted for a time, they were ever ready to operate
when occasion was afforded. The jealousy that subsisted
between the twelve sons of Jacob seems to have been inhe¬
rited by their descendants; but it was only among the more
powerful tribes that such jealousies could lead to a dismem¬
berment of the commonwealth. From the beginning a ri¬
valry may be observed between the tribes of Joseph and
Judah. The former inherited a double portion in the al¬
lotments to Ephraim and Manasseh, the two sons of Jo¬
seph ; and their founder had been distinguished from his
brethren by the blessings pronounced upon him. The
tribe of Judah had the right of primogeniture, and the pro¬
mised Messias was to spring from them. In this way the
two tribes regarded each other with ill-concealed senti¬
ments of hostility; and Shechem and Jerusalem, their
respective capitals, were each the focus of a party ready to
engage in active warfare. The impolitic exactions of lle-
hoboam, while they gave dissatisfaction to all his subjects,
inflamed the Ephraimites to open revolt, which, fomented
as it was by the ambition of Jeroboam, terminated in the
establishment of a separate kingdom. This kingdom com¬
prehended all the tribes, with the exception of the two
southernmost(those of Judah and Benjamin), together with
all the tributary nations as far as the Euphrates. The royal
residence in the new kingdom was in Shechem, where the
Mosaic ritual was superseded by a new mode of worship,
and the link that bound Ephraim and Judah together
finally severed.
The kingdom of Israel, as distinguished from that of
Judah, had a distinct existence about 235 years, when it
was invaded by Shalmaneser, who carried away the prin¬
cipal inhabitants into captivity. From that period all
traces of the ten tribes as a distinct people are in a great
measure lost. Colonists from Babylon and other eastern
cities mingled with the Israelites who were left in the land
of Palestine, and the mixed race were afterwards known
by the name of Samaritans.
The kingdom of Judah enjoyed a somewhat longer ex¬
istence than that of Israel. At last, however, about 135
years after the transference of the ten tribes to Media,
the king of Babylon carried away captive the inhabitants
of the land of Judah, which was left for a time wholly
desert, or occupied only by wandering tribes.
During the captivity of Judah, the vanquished people
w s.
seem to have enjoyed a more than usual share of the fa- jews
vour of their conquerors, and were considered more in the
light of colonists than of captives. They were not, as
they had been in Egypt, conflned to a separate territory,
but mingled freely with the Babylonians; being settled
in thinly peopled districts, where, by a moderate degree
of industry, they found an abundant sustenance. Upon
the banks of the Euphrates they met some of the ex¬
patriated Israelites, who attached themselves to the tribes
that had adhered to the pure worship of their fathers ;
and the name of Jews, from the larger tribe, was applied
from this period to all who were recognised as the de¬
scendants of Jacob. The wisdom of many of the insti¬
tutions of Moses now appeared, as they preserved the He¬
brews a distinct people, notwithstanding the most intimate
intercourse with another race, and secured their attach¬
ment to the great principles of monotheism in the midst of
prevailing idolatry.
The captivity of the Jews continued till the year 536,
when Cyrus ascended the Medo-Persian throne. This
great prince had been foretold by the Jewish prophet
Isaiah, as the man from whom deliverance was to come
to the captive people ; and in the first year of his reign he
proclaimed a decree, permitting, or rather inviting, all the
people of the God of Heaven, without exception, to re¬
turn to Judea, and rebuild the temple of Jerusalem.
About 50,000 availed themselves of this permission.
They assembled at an appointed place, according to the
usual mode of collecting a caravan, and proceeded under
the conduct of Zerubbabel, who was nominated leader
of the caravan, and governor of Judea. The return to
Jerusalem took place about the close of the first year of
Cyrus, after seventy years of captivity.
"The building of a new temple, and the rebuilding and
fortifying the city, were the two national objects which
the restored captives had most at heart; and in the
second year of their return the foundation of a new
temple was laid. The jealousies and enmities, however,
of the colonists at Samaria presented obstacles to the ad¬
vancement of the work, and for a time it seems to have
been abandoned. This lukewarmness on the part of the
people called forth the indignant expostulations of the
prophets Haggai and Zechariah, which were attended with
such effect, that, by the joint application of Zerubbabel
the governor, and Jeshua the son of Josedek the priest,
the original decree of Cyrus was renewed by Darius, one
of his successors, and the temple was finished without
farther interruption. The obstacles towards restoring the
city of Jerusalem were not so soon overcome. rihe fears
of the Persian government were wrought upon by the re¬
presentations of the Samaritans, as to the danger of the
defection of the Jews if their city were again fortified ; and
thus, though Ezra was allowed by Artaxerxes Longimanus
to take with him to Jerusalem as many of the Jews of Chal¬
dea as were disposed to return, his powers, though consider¬
able, did not extend to the fortifying of the city. It was not
till the death of Zerubbabel, about twelve years after the
return of Ezra, that Nehemiah was appointed his successor
as governor of Judea, with authority to repair the city
and rebuild the walls. This change in the policy of the
Persians towards the Jews has been ascribed to the hu-
miliating conditions of the peace which Artaxerxes was
obliged to make with the Athenians after the signal defeat
of his forces by Cimon, by which conditions no Persian
army was to approach within three days’ march of the
sea. Being thus excluded from the line of sea-coast,
it became an object to the Persians to have a fortified
town like Jerusalem in their interest, which, without in¬
fringing upon the treaty with the Athenians, might serve
as a pass for keeping open the communication between
Persia and Egypt, which latter country had been reduced
J E
fews. anew under the Persian yoke. The extraordinary rapi-
dity with which Nehemiah executed the important trust
committed to him, the abuses which were introduced
upon his return to Persia, and the steps which he took
in consequence for the restoration of the Mosaic polity,
and which he completed in the reign of Darius Nothus,
are set forth in the book which bears his name, which,
with that of his contemporary Malachi, closes the Old
Testament canon,
From the time of the return from the Babylonian cap¬
tivity, a remarkable change is observable in the cha¬
racter of the Jews, and in the features of their policy,
civil and ecclesiastical. The infliction of the judgments
threatened in their sacred books for their disobedience,
seems to have impressed upon their minds a deeper re¬
verence for the institutes of their Great Lawgiver; while
the fulfilment of the predictions respecting their res¬
toration to their own country led them to direct their
views to the prophecies which spoke of the whole earth
being brought to acknowledge the sovereignty of the
God of Jacob. Of the tendency to idolatry, accord¬
ingly, for which they had hitherto been distinguished, we
find few farther traces ; and it was succeeded by a scrupu¬
lous adherence to the Mosaic ritual, on the observance of
which they built their hopes of the accomplishment of
the divine promises to their nation under the expected
Messias. This change was connected with certain altera¬
tions in their institutions, which exercised a decided influ¬
ence upon the destiny of the Jewish people in succeeding
times. We refer to the establishment of the national
councils known by the name of the Sanhedrims, and to
the introduction of the synagogue worship. The precise
period of their origin cannot be ascertained, but it seems
not improbable that it was almost as early as the time of
the return from Babylon, though a considerable period in¬
tervened before either system was in full operation. It has
been conjectured that Nehemiah, in the conduct of his
government, sought the assistance of a council or senate,
consisting of the most influential individuals in Jerusalem ;
and that, in imitation of this national council, smaller
senates were formed by degrees in each separate dis¬
trict, conducting the affairs of the community under the
authority of the great Sanhedrim. These councils were
intimately connected with the synagogues. As the Mo¬
saic law was made to extend to all the actions of civil
as well as to the duties of religious life, the Scriptures
became of constant reference in each community. The
people assembled to hear it read and explained as a re¬
ligious exercise; and as it was the statute-book of the
magistrate, its true meaning and right application to the
circumstances which occurred became a matter of daily
consideration. This gave rise to a class of men qualified
for the important office of explaining the law. Skill in
this department became the great distinction to which
all paid reverential homage; and the direction of the
worship of the synagogue, and the conduct of the courts
of law, fell under the authority of the learned doctors or
scribes, in whom were united the professions of law and
of divinity. This was followed by a loss of power on
the part of the priests, who became little more than the
ministers of the sanctuary, without any authority as lead¬
ers of the people. Such was the great change effected
m the course of a few centuries after the return from
the captivity. The power of the priests passed into the
hands of the rabbis; and instead of the schools of the
prophets, and worship on high places, we have the Sanhe¬
drims and the synagogues. The Jews who remained be¬
tween the Tigris and the Euphrates, and those also who
from this period began to scatter themselves throughout
Egypb Syria, and Asia Minor, and, at a later period,
over Greece and Italy, and the other parts of the western
vol. xxr.
W 8. 569
world, adopted or carried along with them the synagogue Jews,
service. While their personal interests prompted them to
wander over different lands, a common feeling united
them all to the country promised to their fathers, and
to the hopes connected with its possession. These ex¬
patriated Jews conformed themselves to the regulations
prescribed from time to time by the learned doctors of
Judea ; they contributed to the support of the services of
the temple so long as it remained ; and by these means,
and by avoiding all intercourse by marriage with other
nations, the Jews were distinguished as a separate people
over all the world, and the spirit was confirmed which has
preserved them from being confounded with others even
to the present time.
After the death of Nehemiah, Judea was annexed to
the prefecture of Syria, the administration of Jewish af¬
fairs being left to the high priests, subject to the control,
however, of the provincial rulers. In this condition the
Jews continued till the overthrow of the Persian empire
by Alexander the Great, when Jerusalem became subject
to the power of that mighty conqueror.
Upon the death of Alexander, the peace and security
which the Jews had enjoyed under the Persian dynasty
were changed for scenes of bloodshed and devastation.
In the wars which took place amongst the successors of
Alexander, Judea, from its situation between Syria and
Egypt, became alternately the prey of each. In the
words of Josephus, the Jews resembled a ship tossed by
a hurricane, and buffeted on both sides by the waves,
while they lived in the midst of contending seas. At first
their country was allotted to Laomedon, along with Ccele-
Syria and Phoenicia. But the ambitious views of Ptolemy
Lagus, king of Egypt, being directed to the whole of
Syria, he entered Judea, and choosing the Sabbath day
for the assault of Jerusalem, he met with no resistance
from the inhabitants, 100,000 of whom he carried off as
captives, settling them in Gyrene and Alexandria; thus
laying the foundation of the Jewish colony in Alexandria,
which for 400 years holds a conspicuous place in the
Jewish annals. With the exception of the period when
Judea was overrun by Antigonus, it continued under the
power of Ptolemy, whose policy towards the Jews was
wise and liberal. During the reign of this prince, Simon
the Just was high priest, who, according to Jewish tradi¬
tion, was the last member of the great synagogue, and in
this character completed the sacred canon. Ptolemy Lagus
was succeeded by Ptolemy Philadelphus as king of Egypt.
Under his reign the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures
into the Greek (named the Septuagint, from an idle le¬
gend as to the number of individuals employed in the
work) was probably begun, though not completed till a
later period. During the wars of Antiochus the Great
with the Ptolemies, the inhabitants of Judea were sub¬
jected to severe suffering. Their country was laid waste,
and to which side soever victory inclined, they were equal¬
ly exposed to injury. Though they had received many
favours under the sway of the Ptolemies, the Jews espous¬
ed the cause of Antiochus, who showed his gratitude by
lightening their burdens, by gifts towards defraying the
expenses of their sacrifices, and by securing them in the
peaceable observance of the rites of their religion.
A very different policy was pursued by Antiochus Epi-
phanes, who, in all his dealings with the Jewish people,
was influenced only by his rapacity, and bigotry, and cruel¬
ty. The first act of his reign was to depose the high priest
Onias, that the vacated office might be conferred upon
Joshua, brother of Onias, who had bribed the king to this
injustice by the promise of a large tribute, to enable him
to pay which, certain privileges were conferred on him, to
be employed in introducing Grecian customs among his
countrymen, and in weaning them from their national pe-
570 J E
Jews, culiarities. The new high priest assumed the Grecian
v—-“V'—' name of Jason, allowed the services of the temple to fall
into disuse, and established a gymnasium, where, under the
pretext of practising athletic exercises, the Jews were won
over to heathenism. Jason was soon supplanted in his turn
by his brother Menelaus, who, in like manner, made it his
aim to substitute Grecian for Jewish customs. In the
mean time, the attention of Antiochus was attracted to¬
wards Egypt, which he invaded with a powerful army
that was everywhere victorious. While there, exaggerat¬
ed reports reached him of a revolt of the Jewish people,
and his arms were immediately directed against Judea.
Jerusalem was taken ; 80,000 of the inhabitants were sold
as slaves or put to the sword; and, while he plundered
the temple of all its treasures, he showed his enmity against
the Jewish religion by desecrating with every abomination
all that the Jews esteemed most holy. Alter this, he anew
directed his attempts against Egypt. For a time success
seemed doubtful; but the weaker party made an appeal
to Rome, and the firmness of Popilius Lenas compelled
Antiochus to submission and retreat.
Disappointed in his designs against Egypt, Antiochus
returned to his capital, where he issued a decree com¬
manding all the inhabitants of his empire to worship the
gods of the king, and to acknowledge no religion but his.
It may be doubtful whether in this edict the sovereign
consulted most his rapacity or bigotry. At that time the
temples were not only enriched by the offerings of the vo¬
taries, but, from the security afforded by the character of
their sanctity, were the great banks of deposit; and An¬
tiochus seems to have laid the plan for plundering the
temples throughout his dominions, after suppressing their
worship. Among his heathen subjects, the decree met
with ready obedience. The compliance in Judea, how¬
ever, was not universal, and the partial opposition which
was made led to those measures of frantic severity on the
part of Antiochus that awakened into life the spirit of the
Maccabees, whom God raised up among their degenerate
countrymen to defend his cause, and give an example to
mankind.
A Grecian named Athenams, well acquainted with all
the forms of heathen worship, was sent to Jerusalem to
instruct the Jews in the religion they were henceforth to
observe, with full powers to enforce compliance. He de¬
dicated the temple to Jupiter Olympus ; the statue of Ju¬
piter (the abomination of desolation spoken of by the pro¬
phet Daniel) was set up on the altar of Jehovah; and
throughout all Judea idol altars were erected, upon which,
under penalty of the most barbarous tortures, the Jews
were compelled to offer sacrifice. Circumcision, the keep¬
ing of the Sabbath, and other observances of the ceremo¬
nial law, were made capital offences, and all the copies of
the sacred books that could be found were destroyed.
Groves were planted and idolatrous altars erected in every
city ; and at fixed periods the citizens were required to
offer sacrifice, and to join in the religious processions ; and
officers were sent into all the towns, attended by a mili¬
tary force, to command obedience to the royal edict. At
first they met with no opposition ; but the hour of resistance
was approaching. We learn from the first book of the Mac¬
cabees, that when the officers of King Antiochus, in travers¬
ing Judea, came to the city of Modin to make the people sa¬
crifice, they commanded Mattathias, a priest of the sons of
Joarib, to come first and fulfil the king’s commandment.
Mattathias answered with a loud voice, God forbid that we
should forsake the law and the ordinances : We will not
hearken to the king’s voice to go from our religion, either
to the right or to the left. Now, when he had left speak¬
ing these words, there came one of the Jews, in the sight of
all, to sacrifice on the altar which was at Modin, accord¬
ing to the king’s commandment. Which thing, when
w s.
Mattathias saw, he was inflamed with zeal, and his reins Jei
trembled, neither could he forbear to show his anger ac- j
cording to judgment; wherefore he ran and slew him upon
the altar. Also the king’s commissioner, who compelled
men to sacrifice, he killed at that time, and the altar he
pulled down. Thus dealt he zealously for the law of God,-
as Phineas did unto Zambri the son of Salom. And
Mattathias cried throughout the city with a loud voice,
saying, whosoever is zealous of the law, and maintaineth
the covenant, let him follow me. So he and his sons fled
unto the mountains, and left all that they ever had in the
city.”
Such was the commencement of that noble stand which
Mattathias and his sons made for the religion and liber¬
ties of their country. Mattathias was the son of John,
the son of Simeon, the son of Asmoneus, from whom the
family had the name of Asmonean. Different accounts
have been given of the name of Maccabee, by which
they are more generally known. The common expla¬
nation is, that it was from the four initial letters of the
words which were displayed on their banner (Mi Cha-
moka Baelim Jahoh, who is like unto thee among the gods,
O Lord). Others conceive that it was the surname given
by Mattathias to one of his sons, on account of his valiant
exploits,—the Hammerer.
Having fled to the mountains, Mattathias was soon
joined by associates from all parts of the country, who
needed only a leader to animate them to resistance. Mat¬
tathias lived but a short time to direct the energies of this
devoted band ; but upon his death he left fit successors
in his valiant sons, who, during a period of twenty-six years,
maintained a war with five successive kings of Syria, which
terminated in the establishment of the independence of
their country. Judas Maccabeus, the third son of Mat¬
tathias, was the first who undertook the management of
affairs. His successes were for a time uninterrupted.
From a petty revolt, the contest soon assumed the charac¬
ter of a mighty war ; the chosen generals of Antiochus
were defeated at the head of assembled hosts ; in less than
three years Jerusalem was once more in the hands of the
Jews, its altars repaired, its temple purified, and the sa¬
cred services restored; and, soon after the death of An¬
tiochus, the Syrians were compelled to conclude a peace
with the Maccabee.
Had the Jews been united among themselves, they
might now have defied the power of their enemies. But
there were many elements of disunion in this ill-fated na¬
tion. The zealous attachment to their ceremonial and
traditionary law, which animated the greater part of the
followers of Judas, and which was one great cause of their
success, was offensive to the party which had arisen with
less rigid views, and who were afterwards distinguished
by the name of Sadducees; and there was a numerous
party, who, having conformed to the Grecian worship,
were wholly in the interest of the Syrians. I he Syrians
were not slow in availing themselves of these internal
differences, and war again began to rage. Though de¬
serted by many of his followers, success still attended the
arms of Judas, till he was slain in a furious conflict with
the flower of the army of Demetrius, which with despe¬
rate resolution he had attacked near Azotus with only
eight hundred men.
Judas vras succeeded in command by his brother Jona¬
than. He fought at first with various fortune ; but the
prudence and enterprising valour of which he partook in
common with the whole family were crowned at last with
success. In the contests for the crown of Syria between
Demetrius and Alexander Balas, the alliance of Jonathan
was courted by the rival parties; and he was thus enabled
to make terms most favourable for Judea. But in the
wars that succeeded the death of Balas, he was treacher-
JEWS.
Jews, ously slain by Trypho, who, under professions of friend-
■'Y'-'' ship, had tempted him to enter Ptolemais without a suffi¬
cient force for his protection.
Simon was now the only brother who survived of the
house of Mattathias ; but the fate of his family did not
daunt him, and he at once accepted of the hazardous pre¬
eminence to which the suffrages of his countrymen call¬
ed him. “ Since all my brethren,” said he, “ are slain
for Israel’s sake, and I am left alone, far be it from me to
spare my own life in any time of trouble, for I am no bet¬
ter than my brethren; doubtless, I will avenge my na¬
tion and the sanctuary, and our wives and children.” The
pledge thus given he soon fulfilled. With characteristic
energy, he put the whole country in a posture of defence ;
and entering into a league with Demetrius, the rival of
the perfidious Trypho, he secured such privileges for the
Jews, that from this period, b. c. 143, they date their
freedom from the Syrian yoke. At this time the Jews
elected Simon ethnarch or prince, as well as high priest;
the office to be hereditary in his family. The government
of Simon was marked by vigour and wisdom. But, like
the rest of his family, he was doomed to a violent death,
being assassinated at an entertainment by his own son-in-
law, who had entered into a plot with Antiochus king of
Syria, for the extirpation of the Maccabean race. Two
of his sons were murdered with him ; but a third escaped
to Jerusalem, where he succeeded to his father’s govern¬
ment. This was John Hyrcanus, whose surname was de¬
rived from his valiant exploits in Hyrcania, with Deme¬
trius king of Syria. The reign of Hyrcanus lasted thirty
years, and was eminently prosperous. The kingdom of
Judea was extended on every side. Samaria was reduced,
and the temple on Mount Gerizim destroyed. The Idu-
means were subdued, and became proselytes to the Jew¬
ish religion. A league with the Romans, which had first
been sought by Judas Maccabeus, and was renewed by Si¬
mon, was now confirmed on terms most advantageous to
the Jews in their relations with surrounding states ; and
the glory of the Asmonean princes was raised to its
heights
About the time of Hyrcanus we first find mention made
of the Sanhedrim or Great Council, which for a consider¬
able period exercised a power, partly legislative and partly
judicial, among the Jews. It consisted of-seventy indivi¬
duals, priests and men learned in the law. Some have
conjectured that it owed its origin to the policy of Hyrca¬
nus, who wished to avoid the appearance of exercising an
unlimited authority, by an institution which might pro¬
tect, while it seemed to limit, the new monarchy.
The sons of Hyrcanus were unworthy of the stock from
which they sprung. The short reign of his eldest son
Aristobulus, which lasted only a year, was darkened by
monstrous crimes. By his orders his own mother was im¬
prisoned and starved to death, and his brother Antigonus
was assassinated. An agony of superstitious horror at
the enormity of his guilt, terminated his miserable exis¬
tence. His brother Alexander Jannaeus, who succeeded
him in the government, was a man of enterprising valour,
but cruel, deceitful, and tyrannical. The greater part of
his reign was occupied in quelling revolts among his sub¬
jects, occasioned partly by the turbulent spirit of the Pha¬
risees, but chiefly by the oppressiveness of his own sway.
Immediately before his death, which was hastened by in¬
temperance, he urged his queen Alexandra to unite her¬
self to the Pharisaic party, as the only means to preserve
the kingdom. The policy was wise for the house of the
Asmoneans, and was scrupulously followed by Alexandra.
Her reign, which continued nine years, was conducted
with prudence and vigour, and her kingdom preserved in
tranquillity.
Upon the death of Alexandra, her two sons, Hyrcanus
571
and Aristobulus, were both competitors for the vacant Jews,
throne. Hyrcanus was deficient in all the qualities that
were necessary for command, and would have yielded to
his brother without opposition, had he not been urged by
Antipater or Antipas (father of Herod the Great) to main¬
tain his cause. According to Josephus, Antipas was of a
noble family of Idumeans who had adopted the Jewish re¬
ligion. His father had been governor of Idumea during
the reigns of Alexander Jannaeus and Alexandra. An¬
tipas himself was educated in the Jewish court, where he
attached himself to the interests of the eldest son, whom
he looked upon as the successor to the throne. The arts
of Aristobulus, who, in the prospect of his mother’s death,
had made himself master of several of the strongest fort¬
resses of Judea, presented an unexpected obstacle to the
hopes of the friends of Hyrcanus. The prize, however,
was too important to be lost without a struggle ; and Hyr¬
canus, under the influence of Antipas, engaged in a con¬
test for the throne. It was continued for a considerable
time with doubtful issue. At last the brothers submitted
their claims to the decision of Pompey, now crowned
with all the glories of the Mithridatic war. Pompey
delayed from time to time pronouncing in favour of
either party, till at last Aristobulus, disappointed in his
hopes of the support of the Roman, took up his ground in
Jerusalem, and prepared for wTar. Upon this Pompey
marched against the Jewish capital, which, after a siege
of three months, was taken by assault. Had it not
been for the religious scruples of the Jews as to making
resistance to the progress of the works of the enemy on
the Sabbath, the fortress might have proved impregna¬
ble. The attachment of the Jews to their sacred cere¬
monies was strikingly evinced at this period in another
respect. At the moment when the temple was taken,
the priests were engaged in the daily sacrifices; and,
amidst all the horrors which surrounded them, they pro¬
ceeded in their solemn services unmoved, thinking it bet¬
ter, says Josephus, to suffer whatever came upon them at
their very altars, than to omit any thing that their law
required of them. The curiosity of Pompey led him to
visit the whole of the sacred edifice, and he entered
into the holy of holies. The sacred utensils of the tem¬
ple he left untouched, and even the treasures, which
amounted to two thousand talents of gold. He also gave
orders for the purifying of the temple, and for the continu¬
ance of the divine service as before. He appointed Hyr¬
canus to the office of high priest, giving him at the same
time the government of Judea, tributary to the Romans,
but without the title or ensigns of royalty. The cities of
Phoenicia and Ccele-Syria, which the Jews had conquered,
were separated from Judea and joined to Syria, which was
now made a province of the Roman empire, Judea being
reduced to a subordinate principality, b. c. 63.
Aristobulus, his sons Alexander and Antigonus, and
his two daughters, were carried away by Pompey as pri¬
soners to grace his triumph, Hyrcanus being left as go¬
vernor of Judea. This feeble prince was wholly under
the influence of Antipater the Idumean, by whose insti¬
gation he had made the effort which gave him his present
supremacy. Unfit himself to hold the reins of state, he
intrusted every thing to this crafty and ambitious fa¬
vourite, who appointed his own sons, Phasaelis and Herod,
the one governor of Jerusalem, the other of Galilee,
though both nominally under the control of Hyrcanus.
Herod, at this time only twenty-five years old, commen¬
ced his government with a vigour and severity that be¬
spoke the future tyrant. A band of robbers who infest¬
ed his province were made the first victims of his cruelty ;
and when summoned before the Sanhedrim, who were
jealous of the rising powers of Antipater and his sons, to
answer for his stretch of authority, he entered the coun-
572
JEWS.
Jews, cil in so menacing a form, that all, with the exception of
one individual, were awed into silence. The attack which
the discontented Jews were afraid to commence openly,
they soon after attempted in secret, and the leading men
among them entered into a plot for the destruction of the
family of Antipas. The father was poisoned at an en¬
tertainment given by the high priest; and when Herod
and Phasaelis escaped the snare which was laid for them,
means were used to alienate from them the affections
of Hyrcanus. These arts, however, were baffled by He¬
rod, who contrived to increase his influence with the
prince ny marrying his grand-daughter Miriam or Ma-
riamne. The enemies of Herod now openly espoused
the cause of Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, who had
lately effected his escape from Rome, and who had found
a supporter of his pretensions to the Jewish throne in Pa-
corus, the Parthian leader. In the war which ensued,
Hyrcanus, with the assistance of the sons of Antipas, was
generally successful. But, under the pretence of coming
to an amicable arrangement, Hyrcanus and Phasaelis were
entrapped into the enemy’s camp, where Phasaelis was put
to death, and the barbarous punishment of cutting off the
ears was inflicted upon the aged governor by his unfeeling
nephew Antigonus.
The discovery of this treachery aroused the energies
of the surviving brother to the uttermost. Having pla¬
ced his family, and whatever of value he could collect, in
Massada, a fortress on a mountain near the Dead Sea, he
sailed to Italy to implore the assistance of the Romans.
In all the changes which had taken place at Rome, it had
been the policy of Herod to ingratiate himself with the
successful party. And it is a sufficient proof of the arts
and talents of this extraordinary man, that he enjoyed
the favour of Julius Caesar, and Cassius, and Mark An¬
tony, and that he was ranked as one of the friends of
Augustus and Agrippa. At the present time Antony was
in power at Rome. And when Herod asked merely that
the brother of Mariamne should be placed on the throne
of Judea, as uniting by his descent the claims both of
Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, Antony named Herod him¬
self the king. Before the end of the year Herod was
again in Judea, raised a large body of soldiers, relieved
his friends at Massada, and was in readiness to take
the field against Antigonus. The war continued about
three years, in the course of which Jerusalem again
stood a long siege. When it was at last taken, the Ro¬
mans, exasperated at the obstinacy with which it had
been defended, would have made a general massacre, and
reduced the city to ashes, had they not been restrained
by Herod, who complained that “ they were going to make
him king of a desert.” The pusillanimity of Antigonus
upon his surrender subjected him to the scorn of the Ro¬
man general, who sent him in chains to Antony, under
the contemptuous name of Antigona, as if he were un¬
worthy to bear that of a man. Antony, at the cruel but per¬
haps politic solicitation of Herod, gave order for his execu¬
tion as a common malefactor, by the rods and axe of the lic-
tors. W ith Antigonus ended the Asmonean dynasty, after
it had subsisted 126 years. Josephus expatiates with a
natural pride upon the merits of this illustrious house, as
distinguished by their descent, by the dignity of the pon¬
tificate, and by the great exploits of their ancestors.
Upon the accession of Herod to the Jewish throne, his
character began more fully to develope itself. By one
of the first acts of his reign, the whole of the members of
the Sanhedrim were put to death, with only two excep¬
tions. One exception was in favour of Sameas, the indi¬
vidual formerly referred to as standing alone in arraigning
Herod to his face. If there was any generosity in the con¬
duct of Herod towards Sameas, he forfeits the admiration
it might have excited, by his unworthy jealousy of Aris¬
tobulus, the brother of his wife Mariamne. When the
popular feeling was manifested in their admiration of the
rightful heir of the Asmoneans, Herod saw in him a dan¬
gerous rival to his power, and by his order the youthful
high priest was put to death. The mother of Aris¬
tobulus appealed to the justice of Antony to avenge the
murder of her son. Herod saw his danger, and secured
his safety by the homage of a personal interview. The
battle of Actium put an end to his farther hopes from
Antony, and his crown and even his life were exposed
to a new jeopardy. He resolved therefore once more to
have recourse to the expedient of a personal interview;
he presented himself before Augustus upon his arrival in
E&ypl-» and the arts which had formerly prevailed with
Roman generals were still successful. But the qualities
by Which he was able to attach to himself many illustrious
friends, and the munificent acts and proud and princely
undertakings which shed a barbaric splendour over his
reign, formed no atonement for the many deeds of blood
by which he had arrived at his guilty pre-eminence. His
crimes, however, were not allowed to pass unpunished. He
regarded not how much misery might be endured by
others, that his own passions might be indulged ; and in
those passions his guilt found its avengers.
When he left Judea to plead his cause before Antony,
he gave the extraordinary injunction, that if he were con¬
demned, Mariamne should be put to death, to prevent the
possibility of her ever being the wife of another. And
during his absence at the time when he paid his court to
Augustus, Re gave the same instructions ; his love being
such, that he could not think of Mariamne but as his
own; if the name of love can be applied to that combi¬
nation of tyranny, and pride, and selfishness, and lust,
which filled his guilty bosom. The fatal secret had been
communicated to the queen during his first absence, and
upon his return she upbraided him with his barbarous
cruelty. The jealousy of the tyrant was awakened in a
moment, and, wild with rage, he rushed upon her with
his sword, asking if such a secret could have been reveal¬
ed except by a lover. But the paroxysm passed away,
and his suspicions were forgotten in his efforts to soothe
the resentment of his injured queen. Upon his second
return he found that his secret had again been disclosed;
and, goaded on by the enemies of Mariamne, he issued
orders for her execution. Remorse and despair now took
possession of his mind. He fled from all society, and,
under a complication of mental and corporeal suffering,
he sunk into a state of insanity. The derangement was
temporary, though traces of it were discoverable to the
end of his life.
As the sons of Herod by Mariamne grew up to man¬
hood, attempts were made to poison the mind of their fa¬
ther against them; and the obvious interest with which
they were viewed by the Hebrew nation awakened his
jealousy. After a succession of scenes, in which the ty¬
rant and the father strove for the mastery within him, he
appeared as the accuser of his own sons, first before Au¬
gustus, and then before the deputies Saturninus and Vo-
lumnius ; and the sanction of the Roman authority being
obtained, the unhappy brothers were strangled by the or¬
ders of the unhappier father. Macrobius has preserved
a saying of Augustus upon hearing of the unnatural con¬
duct of Herod, in allusion to the Jewish faith, “ that he
would rather be Herod’s sow than his son'.' Antipater,
his son by a former marriage, who had instigated the pro¬
ceeding against his brothers, was himself found guilty of
a plot to poison Herod. Sentence of death was imme¬
diately pronounced against him, but the tyrant’s own
death prevented it from being carried into effect.
Amidst the dark shades of the character of this ex¬
traordinary man, the splendid acts of his administration
J E
Jews, are not to be forgotten ; the fortresses by which he sought
■'Y'*'' to give security to his kingdom; the harbours he con¬
structed ; the cities he built; the magnificent palace he
reared for the royal residence ; and the temple which he
restored to almost its original greatness. The rebuild¬
ing of the city of Samaria, the building of the city and
harbour of Ceesarea, with the rebuilding of the temple,
must be allowed to be monuments of a princely and pa¬
triotic mind.
Upon the death of Herod, Palestine was divided
amongst his three surviving sons, Archelaus, Antipas,
and Philip. Archelaus was appointed ethnarch or go¬
vernor of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria, which formed the
largest part of the province. Antipas was named te-
trarch of Galilee, and Philip tetrarch of Trachonitis.
Archelaus followed in the footsteps of his father, and
being without his talents or his arts, he was deposed by
Augustus in the tenth year of his reign, in consequence
of repeated complaints from his subjects, and banished
to Vienne in Gaul. The part of Palestine which had
been under Archelaus was now reduced into the form of
a Roman province, being placed under the superinten¬
dence of a Roman governor, subordinate to the prefect of
Syria. No fewer than three of these subordinate gover¬
nors were appointed in succession towards the close of
the reign of Augustus. During the reign of Tiberius
there were only two, Valerius Gratus, A. d. 16, and Pon¬
tius Pilate, a. d. 27. Pilate seems to have been the first
who took up his residence at Jerusalem, those who pre¬
ceded him having dwelt at Caesarea. The condition of
the Jews under the Roman governors was miserable in
the extreme. The extortions of the publicans, whose of¬
fice it was to collect the revenue, were excessive ; and
the whole of their proceeding was vexatious and oppres¬
sive. It was vain to hope for redress from the governors,
whose avarice and injustice were proverbially great. The
very fact of paying tribute to a heathen government was
felt to be an intolerable grievance. And the Roman sol¬
diers quartered over the whole country, though they pre¬
vented a general insurrection, yet, by their very presence,
and by the ensigns of their authority, exasperated the
minds of the Jewish people, and led to many tumults, and
seditions, and murders. A numerous party existed in
Judea, whose religious prejudices were opposed to the idea
of paying taxes to a foreign power, and who cherished the
vain hope of restoring the Jewish kingdom. Attempts
were made by different individuals, and particularly by Ju¬
das the Gaulonite, to instigate the Jews to a general revolt,
which were repressed as they arose. But the fanatical
principles were widely spread, and led to excesses, to
which, in no small degree, may be ascribed the final de¬
struction of Jerusalem. The party was distinguished by
the name of Zealots.
The removal of Archelaus was not connected with any
act on the part of the Romans towards his brothers.
Trachonitis continued under Philip till the time of his
death, when it was annexed to the province of Syria.
Herod Antipas continued tetrarch of Galilee till after
the accession of Caligula, who, upon the discovery that
he had entertained treasonous designs, deprived him of
his tetrarchate, and banished him to Lyons, in Gaul.
The period at which we are now arrived is by far the
most important in the Jewish annals, or rather in the
annals of the world. A short time before the death of
Herod the Great, Jesus Christ, the promised Messias,
was born at Bethlehem, one of the cities of Benjamin.
He commenced his public ministry about the 30th year
of his age, and was put to death by the sentence of the
Roman governor, Pontius Pilate. The circumstances con¬
nected with his life and death and resurrection belong to
Christian rather than to Jewish history.
573
Agrippa, a grandson of Herod the Great, having ingra- Jews,
tiated himself with the Emperor Caligula, was appointed
tetrarch of Trachonitis, upon the death of his uncle
Philip; and upon the banishment of Herod Antipas, the
tetrarchy of Galilee was added to the dominion of Herod,
and ultimately he was named king of the whole territory
that had belonged to his grandfather. This prince, upon
his death, left a son, also named Agrippa. He was re¬
presented to Claudius as too young to be appointed to
such a kingdom, and Palestine was again placed under a
Roman governor. A considerable extent of territory,
however, was ultimately given to young Agrippa; but
Judea and Samaria were reserved as a Roman province.
The policy of the Romans led them to give toleration to
their subject provinces in all matters connected with their
national worship ; and, from Pompey to Tiberius, counte¬
nance was given to the celebration of the Mosaic ritual. It
was otherwise with Caligula, under whose reign was laid the
foundation of those dissensions between the Jews and Ro¬
mans which led to the utter destruction of the Jewish polity.
The insane vanity of Caligula prompted him to enforce di¬
vine honours from all his subjects, which threatened the
worst consequences to the Jewish people in every part of
the empire. The Jews of Alexandria were the first who
suffered. By their refusal to comply with the imperial
edict, a pretext was afforded to the Grecian party in the
city to commence a prosecution against them. The mi¬
serable Jews resolved upon sending a deputation to Rome
to implore the clemency of the emperor. This deputation
was headed by Philo, the greatest of all the uninspired Jew¬
ish writers, who has left an account of his interview with
Caligula, and of the uncertain respite which was granted
to his fellow-citizens. The governor of Syria received or¬
ders to place the statue of the emperor in the temple of
Jerusalem ; but he was induced, by the spirit of calm but
determined resistance threatened by the whole nation, to
delay the execution of the order till he received farther
instructions from the emperor. There is a difference in
the account of the manner in which Caligula acted upon
this occasion, by Philo and Josephus; it is certain, how¬
ever, that the Jewish nation remained in a state of sus¬
pense and fear till the death of the tyrant.
The worst evils, however, endured by the Jews at this pe¬
riod were not directly from the emperors themselves, but
from their provincial governors, who, without exception,
seem to have been men insensible to the claims of justice,
and actuated solely by a spirit of violence and rapacity.
Gessius Florus is represented by Josephus as spoiling
whole cities, and ruining entire bodies of men; as giving
security to robbers and lawless men when made a sharer
in their depredations ; and finally, as aggravating the op¬
pressions of the people, to instigate them to open rebellion,
that he might escape the danger of a representation of
his crimes being made to the emperor. It was natural
for the Jewish historian to represent the revolt which ter¬
minated in the destruction of his country, as originating
in the injustice of their enemies ; and it must be allowed,
when we contemplate the proceedings of the Romans, that
if ever there was a case in which revolt was justifiable, it was
in that of the Jews. It may be doubted, however, whether
they can be looked upon with that generous sympathy which
is always awakened by the history of a people nobly unit¬
ing in the assertion of their rights and liberties. Judea,
at this period, was torn by factions, a spirit of insubordi¬
nation and fanaticism, chiefly connected with views of
their promised Messias, pervaded the great body of the
people; and miserable as was their condition under the
oppressions of the procurators, it is impossible not to per¬
ceive, in perusing the works of their own historian, that
their greatest sufferings were occasioned by the unset¬
tled and violent spirit that reigned among themselves.
w s.
574 J.E
Jews. The commencement of the war was connected with
circumstances which took place in Caesarea. The Syrian
party in that city had been favoured by the Roman em¬
peror, and they abused the advantage which this cir¬
cumstance gave them, in provoking and harassing the
Jews, till at last there was a violent collision, and the
Jews were driven out of the city. The leading men
among them appealed to Florus, who, instead of affording
them redress, cast them into prison. The news of this in¬
dignity kindled a flame in the Jewish capital; and the ex¬
citement among the people was such as to give Florus the
pretext which he had long desired, of letting loose the
soldiery upon the citizens. Great cruelties were inflicted,
and no distinction was made between the innocent and the
guilty. The influence of Berenice, sister of Agrippa,
who was in Jerusalem at the time, and the arrival of
Agrippa himself from Egypt soon after, promised to re¬
store tranquillity. They both seem to have been sin¬
cere in their efforts towards a pacification, and for a time
happy results followed the soothing counsels of Agrip¬
pa. It was, however, but for a time. All over Judea
there were spirits determined not to allow so favourable
- a pretext for war as had been afforded by Florus, to pass
away ; and Agrippa, soon seeing that his attempts at me¬
diation were to be in vain, withdrew to his own kingdom,
and left Jerusalem to its fate. This was in the year 66.
Hitherto the people professed that it was against Florus,
and not against the Romans, that they had taken up arms.
The distinction would not probably have been acknow¬
ledged at Rome, and the Jews did not allow the ques¬
tion to be tried. Eleazar, the son of Ananias the high
priest, persuaded the people to reject the offerings which
were made by the emperor to the temple, and which had
been received since the time of Julius Caesar; and about
the same time the fortress of Massada, near the Dead
Sea, was taken, and the Roman garrison put to the sword.
Allegiance to the Romans was now in effect renounced,
and from this period we may date the commencement of
the war.
Eleazar took possession of Acra and the temple; and
receiving numerous reinforcements of Zealots or Siccarii
from different parts of the country, he not only resisted
the assaults of the Romans and of the soldiers of Agrippa,
but soon sallied out and made himself master of the whole
city. He granted a safe passage to the Jewish soldiers
who were against him, and to the troops of Agrippa; but
a different fate awaited the Roman garrison. They had
capitulated on condition that their lives were to be spared.
But the moment they yielded up their arms, the fol¬
lowers of Eleazar commenced an attack, and, with the
exception of their leader, they were all put to the sword.
This monstrous breach of treaty was on a Sabbath day;
and the minds of all those who had not as yet joined
in the revolt were filled with gloomy forebodings of the
evils which were now inevitable. But the Jews were
not the only guilty parties in the deeds which darken
the annals of these dreadful times. On the same day
of the massacre of the Roman garrison, the Jewish in¬
habitants of Caesarea, amounting to 20,000, were put to
the sword. Upon this the fire spread at once over all
Judea, and an attack was simultaneously made upon the
neighbouring territory of Syria. Cestius Gall us, the pre¬
fect of Syria, took immediate measures for chastising
this presumption. He ordered the twelfth legion into Ga¬
lilee, and soon afterwards he himself entered Judea with
an army of about 10,000 men. He advanced without
opposition to Jerusalem, and, from the state of parties
in the city, there seems little doubt, that if he had shown
common prudence, or common bravery, it would soon
have been in his power. But a severer doom was in
reserve for it. Cestius, to the surprise of all, in a few
w s.
days raised the siege, withdrew his troops, and com- Jew
menced a retreat, which the pursuit of the Jews soonv-<l''v
changed into a general flight, in the course of which he
lost more than half his army. The Jews only lost a few
men.
The news of this defeat was received by Nero with
such alarm, that he immediately appointed Vespasian, who
was considered as the most experienced general in the
empire, to quell the insurrection. Without the loss of
an hour after his appointment, Vespasian despatched his
son Titus to Alexandria, whence, with the sixth and tenth
legions, he was to proceed to Judea. Vespasian himself
advanced to Syria.
-Upon the retreat of Cestius, many Jews departed from
Judea, as from a foundering bark, that was soon to go
down in darkness and death. The Christians, we are in¬
formed by Eusebius, about this time, also remembering
the prophecies of our Lord, retired to the town of Pella
to avoid the approaching calamities.
The Jews who remained in their own land were dili¬
gent in putting all their strong places in a state of de¬
fence.
Vespasian opened his first campaign in Galilee in the
spring of 67. His army consisted of about 60,000 men,
horse and foot, including auxiliaries. On the first assault
he took and burned Gadara. He then presented himself
before Jotapata, which was commanded by Josephus, who
afterwards wrote the history of the war. Alter a siege of
forty days, the town was taken and destroyed. Above
40,000 men were killed during this siege. Josephus sur¬
rendered at discretion, and continued during the remain¬
der of the war a prisoner at large among the Romans.
In his history, accordingly, of this miserable period, we
have the account of an eye-witness. The fact that the
capture of Jotapata was the chief event of the first season,
proves that the Roman had met no unworthy foe.
In the spring of the following year, Vespasian com¬
menced by reducing the whole of Peraea, it not being his
policy to march directly upon Jerusalem. He then ad¬
vanced from Caesarea towards the south, laid waste Ju¬
dea and Idumea, secured Samaria, and then drew back
to Caesarea, to be in readiness to march with all his forces
against the capital itself.
Vespasian had now made all his preparations ; he had
occupied two seasons in clearing the whole territory round
and round, that nothing might interpose to break his onset;
Jerusalem itself stood like an isolated tower, against which
all the engines of destruction were arrayed ; the force of
Rome was drawn back to Caesarea, that it might be sent
off with an irresistible shock; but at that critical mo¬
ment the moving power of this machinery of desolation
took another direction, and a period was given to the Jew¬
ish people to repent,—or to fill up the measure of their ini¬
quities. Upon arriving at Caesarea, Vespasian received
intelligence which fixed his whole attention upon Rome.
Nero w as dead, and the fate of the empire was in balance.
A more important prize than Jerusalem was now presented
to his view, and, called to the purple by the voice of his
soldiers, he set sail for Italy, leaving his son Titus to
conclude the war.
Throughout the protracted period during which Vespa¬
sian had been devastating Judea, Jerusalem, instead of mak¬
ing preparations to withstand the approaching attack, was
the scene of contentions so ferocious, that the advance ol
the Romans was longed for by the great proportion of the
inhabitants, as the only earthly means for their deliverance
from the terrible evils under which they were suffering.
There were three factions within the walls, animated against
each other with sentiments of the deadliest hate, and often
engaging in actual conflict. Eleazar had seized the temple,
and kept himself in strength there with 2400 men. John,
J E
jews, the rival of Josephus, had his position in the inner court
rv-^of the temple. He had a party of 6000. Simon, the son
of Gioras, called Simon the assassin, occupied the upper
city. His force was the largest, consisting of 10,000, and
5000 Idumeans. Such was the position of the three fac¬
tions when Titus took the command, and the miseries of the
siege itself scarcely exceeded what had been endured
amidst the daily encounters of the Jewish soldiery. Death
was become so common a spectacle, that it was viewed
without emotion. The feelings of kindred were dried up ;
a callousness of heart seized upon all; the interest in life
itself seemed to be extinguished.
At last, about the beginning of April of the year 70,
the tide of war took the direction of Jerusalem ; and Titus,
with the Roman host, advanced from Caesarea through
Samaria, and encamped under the walls. The contend¬
ing chiefs, when it was too Jate, entered into negociations
for uniting their forces against the Romans. Their mu¬
tual hatred, however, was never laid aside, nor did they
repose confidence in each other, though they fought with
the valour of desperation against the common enemy.
The city was fortified by three walls of prodigious
strength. The one built by Agrippa was seventeen and
a half feet broad, the stones thirty-five feet long, and
so compacted as not to be easily shaken by the battering
rams. The walls were everywhere guarded by towers, at
intervals of about 350 feet, of solid masonry, and of great
height. The tower Psephina, opposite to which Titus en¬
camped, was 122 feet high ; it is said to have command¬
ed a view of the whole territory of Judea to the border of
Arabia and to the Red Sea ; and there were other towers
of scarcely less imposing appearance, and of equal strength.
Above the whole city stood the temple, the walls of
which were in no place lower than 500 feet. It covered
a square of a furlong each side, and was of such strength
as to be supposed impregnable. Some of the stones em¬
ployed in the work were seventy feet square ;—and not one
of these was to be left upon another.
At first the Jews made some sallies, so vigorous as to
astonish the Romans themselves. Had the parties within
been united, and had the time from the commencement
of the war been employed in putting the city in a state of
complete defence, it might have withstood the whole Ro¬
man power for years. But the day and the hour of its
overthrow had been fixed in the counsels of heaven.
After strenuous fighting for every inch of ground, two
walls were successively abandoned by the Jews. But the
heights of Zion, the Antonia, and the temple, still remain¬
ed, which might be considered the strength of Jerusalem ;
and so hopeless did every attempt seem to take any of
them by storm, and so paralysing were the desperate ef¬
forts of the Jews upon the Roman power, that Titus found
it necessary to blockade and starve the city and garrison.
Ihe inhabitants of Jerusalem now saw their enemies “ cast¬
ing a trench round about them, and compassing them round
and keeping them in on every side.” The wall, which was
nearly five miles in circumference, was completed in three
days. The horrors that ensued are beyond description.
Even before this time the evils of famine had begun to
be experienced. In the extremities of hunger, many
ventured out of the city to gather herbs. Strict orders
were given by Titus that such individuals should be seized
upon, and an example made of them, to the terror of the
besieged. Those who were found with arms were cru¬
cified, sometimes to the number of 500 in a day; and
the soldiers used to expose them in mockery to those
upon the walls, nailed in different postures. At last wood
was awanting to place the bodies upon, and room on
which to erect the crosses. When the wall was com¬
pleted, there was no longer the possibility, at any risk, of
finding sustenance from without, and the ravages of hun-
w s. 575
ger became inconceivably great. Whole families perish- Jews,
ed. Houses were filled with dead women and children,
the streets with aged men. The young had not strength
to bury the dead. Many died in the attempt to give bu¬
rial to others, and many repaired to the tombs to wait for
death. There were no more tears seen, nor cries heard.
They sat with dry eyes, and mouths drawn up into a bit¬
ter smile. A deep silence was spread over the city, form¬
ing a horrible kind of night. The onty noise was from
those who were engaged in the work of plunder, whose
mirth it was to try their swords upon the bodies of the
dead ; but if any one begged them to put an end to their
misery, they would not kill them. The dying turned
their eyes to the temple, as if to complain to God that
these wicked men were suffered to live. Everything was
eaten ; their girdles, the straps of their sandals, the re¬
mains of old hay, the refuse of the dunghill. Scenes still
more horrible discovered the depth of dreadful meaning
in the words of our Saviour : “ Behold the days are com¬
ing in which they shall say, blessed are the barren, and the
wombs that never bare, and the paps that never gave such.”
And the predictions of Moses were fulfilled even to the
letter: “ The tender and delicate, which would not adven¬
ture to set the sole of her foot upon the ground for deli¬
cateness and tenderness, her eye shall be evil towards her
husband, and towards her son, and towards her daughter,
and towards her young one that cometh out from between
her feet, and towards the children that she shall bear; for
she shall eat them for want of all things secretly in the
siege, and straitness ivherewith thine enemy shall distress
thee within thy gates.”
The cup was now full, and “ for the elect’s sake the days
were shortened.” The fortress of Antonia, after many
furious assaults, was taken and destroyed ; and, on the 17t.h
of July, Titus advanced as far as the temple, where the per¬
petual sacrifice ceased for want of a sufficient number to
offer it. Still the Jews refused to surrender, and the works
of the Romans proceeded. On the 8th of August, Titus
attacked the second court of the temple. The walls could
not be beat down, from the size of the stones, and the de¬
fence of the Jews prevented the scaling of the galleries.
Fire was therefore set to the doors, which soon spread
into the temple itself, and reduced the splendid edifice
into a heap of ruins. Still the upper city held out. But
at last a breach was effected, and on the 8th September
the whole of Jerusalem was in the hands of the Romans,
and orders were given by Titus for demolishing the city
and temple.
Th ree forts in Judea still held out against the Romans,
Herodion, Massada, and Machaeras. Two of these made
a long and vigorous defence, but before the end of the year
72 Judea was in a state of entire subjugation. Contrary
to the usual policy of the Romans, the territory was not
shared among military colonists. All the lands were ex¬
posed to sale. In the northren districts the chief pur¬
chasers were Syrians. Individuals among the Jews them¬
selves bought considerable properties in the south; the
proceeds were reserved for the imperial treasury ; and a
capitation tax was imposed upon the Jewish people through¬
out the empire, and exacted with the most galling seve¬
rity, for restoring and adorning the Roman capitol, which
had been destroyed in the civil wars some time before the
fall of Jerusalem.
From the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus,
there is no longer any connecting tie in the history of the
Jewish people, except their imperishable love to the re¬
ligion of their fathers. Scattered abroad in almost every
country of the world, in every variety of outward condi¬
tion, their fate presents matter for a subordinate chapter
in the history of other nations, rather than a separate sub¬
ject of history. We are presented with a mass of materials,
J E
to which the ordinary rules of historical arrangement, by
' epochs and by countries, do not apply. The condition of
the Jews from this date varies in different kingdoms, and
even in different parts of the same kingdom at the same pe¬
riod, and is so intimately connected with the varieties of na¬
tional policy, and with local and temporary causes, that it
cannot perhaps be fully understood in all its parts, except
when viewed as incorporated with universal history. There
are, however, a few general heads, under which the more
important particulars connected with their destiny may
be classed; the classification must indeed be imperfect,
from the discordant and impracticable nature of the ma¬
terials with which we are presented ; still, however, there
is one principle which gives a unity to them all. And
in the absence of the definite lines which limit histo¬
rical narrative in other instances, we must be more for¬
cibly struck with the peculiarities of this singular race,
among whom the want of a native country has formed
a bond of connection more powerful than all the ties
of country to other tribes; while the efforts made to
sever them from their religion has made them cling to
it with an energy that seems to have incorporated it¬
self with the very essence of their being. The circum¬
stances which preserved the Jews as a separate people
after the termination of the temple worship, were simi¬
lar to those which operated during the time of the cap¬
tivity, with the addition of the rabbinical system, which
was now in full operation. In whatever country a few
families of Jews were collected into one place, the wor¬
ship of the synagogue brought them into religious fel¬
lowship ; and pride in their privileges as God’s peculiar
people, a principle of honour in not deserting a persecuted
cause, revenge against a world from which they received
so much injustice, combined with never-abandoned hopes
of blessings yet in store for themselves or their children,
and the magic influence of associations connected with
their ancient ritual, have perpetuated the Jewish name in
every country where cupidity has allured or cruelty ba¬
nished any of the members of the race.
There is little that is interesting in the history of the
Jews for near forty years after the destruction of their
city. The ruins of Jerusalem were occupied by a Ro¬
man garrison, to prevent any attempt to rebuild it; and
the tax imposed by Vespasian continued to be exacted
by his immediate successors, who exhibited considerable
jealousy of the Jews, and often subjected individuals
among them to great hardships and indignities. Upon
the whole, however, the race seems to have enjoyed con¬
siderable security; and though forbidden to approach
Jerusalem, large communities were suffered to be formed
in Palestine.
In the beginning of the reign of Trajan, a spirit of rest¬
lessness and sedition again began to appear among this
unhappy people in all quarters of the world. When the
emperor was engaged in the war with Parthia, the here¬
ditary enmity of the Jews and Greeks in Egypt broke out
in hostilities, in which were shed oceans of blood. No
effective attempt seems to have been made for some time
on the part of the Romans to put an end to these com¬
motions. At last, however, Hadrian interposed, and in¬
flicted on the miserable Jews signal punishment. About
the same period, a. d. 116, the Jews of Mesopotamia,
whom the victories of Trajan had subjected to the Ro¬
man instead of the Parthian sway, rose in unsuccessful
rebellion against their new masters. In the following year
Trajan died, and, under his successor Hadrian, the Me¬
sopotamian Jews were again left to the sway of their an¬
cient monarchs.
The accession of Hadrian was not likely to prove ad¬
vantageous to the Jews in general, as it had accidentally
been to those of Mesopotamia. He had indicated his
w s.
sentiments towards them by his proceedings in Cyprus J£ L
and Egypt before the death of Trajan ; and when he sue- \j r
ceeded to that prince, he issued an edict forbidding cir¬
cumcision, the reading of the law, and the observance of
the Sabbath ; and he announced his purpose of establishing
a Roman colony on the ruins of Jerusalem, and of erecting
a temple to Jupiter on the place where the temple of Jeho¬
vah had stood. To this new city was to be given the name
iElia Capitolina, from his own praenomen, and from the
dedication of the capital to Jupiter. For a time the Jews
submitted, with ill-concealed purpose of resistance, to the
authority of Hadrian. But in the year 129 we find the
whole of Judea once more in a state of rebellion. The
leader of this new revolt was Barchochab, which, in the
Syriac, signifies the son of the star. He assumed the
character of the Messias, pretending that he was the Star
of Jacob foretold by Balaam, who was to deliver the Jews
and subdue the Gentiles. Little is known of his pre¬
vious history. According to report, he had been at one
time a robber; and his conduct shows that he must have
been a man thoroughly conversant with scenes of blood
and rapine ; while the devotedness of his followers, and
the vigorous and for a time successful resistance he made
to the Romans, evince him a man of talent and energy.
The war against Barchochab presents a repetition of the
scenes of that of Titus. Success at last declared wholly
in favour of the Romans, and, about the year 134, Judea
was again made desolate. About a half million fell by
the sword in the course of this war, besides those who
perished by fire, famine, and sickness. Those who escaped
were reduced to slavery by thousands. Such as could
not be thus disposed of were transported into Egypt, and
Palestine was almost wholly depopulated. The Jews were
now forbidden to enter Jerusalem, or even to look upon it
from a distance ; and the city, under the name of iElia,
was inhabited by Gentiles only, or such Christians as re¬
nounced the Jewish ceremonies.
However severe the Romans might be in the wars which
they carried on against the Jews, they seem to have been
ready to lay aside their resentment when the occasion
passed away ; and under Antoninus Pius we find the Jew¬
ish people again restored to their ancient privileges, with
a prohibition merely against proselytizing. They were still
excluded from Jerusalem, but they were permitted to form
and to maintain considerable establishments both in Italy
and in the provinces; and while they were exempted
from many expensive and burdensome offices, they en¬
joyed municipal honours in common with other citizens.
The erection of new synagogues was permitted in the
principal cities; and the Jews were allowed to celebrate
the solemnities of their religion without molestation.
At this period we find the eastern and western Jews di¬
vided under two great spiritual monarchies, viz. the patri¬
archates of Tiberias and Babylon. The origin of both is
involved in considerable obscurity. In regard to the for¬
mer, viz. that of Tiberias, the tradition among the Jews
themselves is, that the Sanhedrim, after moving from Je¬
rusalem, settled at Jamnia, and finally fixed their abode
upon the banks of the Lake Genesareth, where their su¬
premacy was acknowledged as of divine appointment,
their chief or president exercising the authority of a spi¬
ritual head over the Jews in the provinces of the Roman
empire. He was acknowledged as their patriarch or
pontiff. An annual contribution was raised for him by
the dispersed brethren, and his legates or apostles visited
every synagogue, bearing his mandates, and deciding in
all questions that were brought before them. To this
new form of government a legal sanction was given by the
Roman emperors, and it continued in existence till about
the beginning of the fifth century. As the law was still
made to extend to every moment of time, and to every
JEWS.
lews, variety of thought and action, with a burthensome and
perplexing minuteness, and no memory could retain the
multitude of statutes which were prescribed, and difficul¬
ties were constantly arising as to the duty required in
new combinations of circumstances, the Jewish lawyers
continued to possess an unbounded power over the con¬
sciences of the people. And as it was indispensable that
all the rabbis should agree in their decisions, reference was
constantly necessary to the spiritual patriarch, so lono- as
the traditionary law was not committed to writing, and was
to be found only in the living decision of the patriarch and
his senate. The publication of the Talmud, though it ex¬
alted the chaiacter of the special patriarchs by whom the
work was undertaken, was calculated to diminish the in¬
fluence of the patriarchate. It took away the necessity
of appeal from the inferior courts, by affording the means
to eveiy rabbi to give a just decision. This must be con¬
sidered as the chief cause of the fell of the patriarchate of
Tiberias, which took place about the beginning of the
fifth century; though other circumstances contributed.
The exportation of the annual tribute from Rome was
prohibited by the Emperor Honorius ; by a law of Theo¬
dosius the title of prophet was taken from the patriarch
Gamaliel; and upon the death of that individual, though
the office was not abolished, its authority being destroyed,
no successor was found, and the power which had been
exercised by the patriarchs passed into the hands of the
rabbinical aristocracy.
The power of the patriarch of the West was of a spiri¬
tual nature ; but in the East, the office corresponding to
the patriarchate involved a mixture of temporal authority.
The Babylonian Jews are those inhabiting between the
ligris and the Euphrates. During the wars between
the Jews and Hadrian, this colony was greatly increased
by fugitives from the West. In their early history, and
till a considerable time after the introduction of rabbinism,
the Babylonian Jews were less distinguished from the
people among whom they lived than their brethren in the
West. So long as the temple remained, it formed a bond
of union between the two classes, as they all contributed
regulaily to its support. In addition to this religious tax,
they paid another to the kingdom to which they belonged.
A system of taxation was organized for this latter purpose,
which was intrusted to a chief person among themselves,
named the Resell Cxlutha, that is, a chief of the colonists, or,
as he is usually called, Prince of the Captivity. The office
of this individual was at first wholly of a temporal nature,
and all that related to matters of faith and worship was
regulated by the decisions of the Sanhedrim at Jerusalem.
After the destruction of Jerusalem an attempt was made
to throw off the dependence upon the schools of Palestine,
which was frustrated for a time by the arts of the patriarch
and his senate. By degrees, however, the inconvenience
oi a constant reference to a distant country, and the grow-
ing celebrity of the schools of Nisibis and Nahardea, en-
a ed the Resch Glutha to establish his independence.
He formed a court after the model of that at Tibe-
nas; and, under the prevailing belief that he was the
'nea descendant of David, he succeeded in establishing
'■s claim to a spiritual, in addition to his temporal autho¬
rity- He exercised a power almost despotic over the Jew¬
ish people; and, though a vassal of the king of Persia, he
Maintained an almost regal state. The rabbis were in
complete subjection to him ; and from his being able to
ring his power as a temporal prince to bear upon his ec-
c esiastical mandates, his influence over the Jewish com¬
munity was greater than that of the Nasi. From our ig-
nf tf,nCf 0^the state of the East beyond Persia, the extent
0 his dominions cannot be ascertained. His subjects con-
sisted of shepherds, husbandmen, artisans, and merchants ;
the latter many were wealthy. They do not seem
VOL. XII. ^
to have been subjected to persecution, and, in the en¬
joyment of peace, the interests of learning flourished.
Schools rose rapidly in different parts of his dominions-
and to one of these we are indebted for the Talmud of Je¬
rusalem, which has exercised such an influence upon the
Jewish people m all succeeding times. The increasing
number of the schools, and of the learned men proceeding
from them, gradually lessened the influence of the Resch
Glutha, though the office continued in existence till the
middle of the eleventh century, when it was suppressed
by the tyranny of one of the caliphs.
The establishment of Christianity as the religion of the
Roman empire, the irruption of the northern nations, and
the rise and progress of Mahommedanism, had all a mark¬
ed influence upon the condition of the Jews. The first
Christian emperors conducted themselves towards the
Jewish people with a lenity and forbearance that was not
always agreeable to some of their subjects. Under Con¬
stantine the right of the Jews to the privileges of Roman
citizenship was fully recognised, while the rabbis had
the same exemption from civil and military offices as the
Christian clergy. Christians, however, were prohibited
from becoming Jews, while converts from Judaism were
protected from the resentment of their countrymen. Un¬
der Constantius the Jews of Palestine subjected them¬
selves to the severity of the laws by their interference in
the contests between the Arians and Athanasians. Se¬
veral of their cities were destroyed, and the law of Had¬
rian was renewed, by which they were forbidden to ap¬
proach Jerusalem. The hatred of Julian to the Christians
disposed him to view their enemies the Jews with a fa¬
vourable eye. He entered into a correspondence with
the patriarch of Tiberias, and wrote a friendly letter to
the Jewish community, in which he promised to put them
again in possession of Jerusalem, and to restore their
temple. At last an edict was issued for the rebuilding
of the sacred structure, and instructions were given to
Alypius, prefect of Syria, to carry it into effect. Jerusalem
was once more filled with Jews, who assembled from all
sides, emulous to give their aid in an undertaking which
was to prove a new era in their history. Materials for
the vast fabric were collected, and the mountain was
purified from the abominations of idolatry. But when
the workmen proceeded to dig for a foundation, they were
surprised by a subterraneous explosion, in which some pe¬
rished, while the rest took to flight in dismay. Though
a difference of opinion has existed as to the character
of the igneous irruption, the evidence that the work was
in fact suspended is of the strongest nature, and the
truth of the predictions of Scripture was fully maintained.
The death of Julian prevented the renewal of the attempt,
and put an end to all his schemes for the benefit of the
Jewish community. His successors showed in general
a tendency to favour the Jews as useful subjects, and fre¬
quently protected them from the violence of the people,
though in some instances the bigotry of the more power¬
ful prelates prompted to measures of severity. It must
be added, that the blind zeal of the Jews often rendered
them the just objects of the popular indignation.
Upon the division of the Roman world, the condition of
the Jews in the eastern empire became less favourable than
that of their brethren in the West. For a time, indeed,
they continued to enjoy the rights of Roman citizens ac¬
cording to the law; but under Justin I. they were pro¬
nounced as belonging to the same class with heretics, and
consequently disqualified for civil and military offices. The
laws of Justinian were framed for persecuting them into
proselytism. By the imperial edicts the duties of citizens
without the honours were rigorously exacted. In mixed
marriages, the education of the children was confined to
the Christian parent: if the children grew up unbelievers,
4 D
577
Jews.
J E
they were deprived of their inheritance; and in law-suits,
except in cases where both parties were Jews, their testi¬
mony was inadmissible. Another law was passed by this
emperor, in consequence of a division among the Jews
themselves, which, had it been observed, might have been
followed with serious consequences to Judaism. Upon the
suppression of the patriarchate, the power which had been
enjoyed by that spiritual chief was divided among the pri¬
mates or chief rabbis of the separate Jewish communities.
The power of the rabbis arose principally from the respect
in which the Talmud was held, and from the right which
they enjoyed of expounding the sacred volume. From po¬
licy or habit their instructions were conveyed in ancient
Chaldaic; and as this ceased to be understood by many ot
their hearers, who adopted the language of the country in
which they settled, a very general wish prevailed for a
change in this custom, and for a translation ot their Scrip¬
tures? This alarming spirit of innovation was resisted by
the rabbis; and the contending parties resorted to the ex¬
traordinary expedient of referring the cause to the Chris¬
tian emperor. The decision of the emperor was in favour
of the rights of the people. In the edict which was is¬
sued, the fullest license was granted for reading the Scrip¬
tures in the vernacular tongue; the Mischna was declared
to be of human composition merely, and full of such errors
as belong to all the works of men; and the hope of the
emperor was expressed that the perusal of the Scriptures in
a known language might lead to the conversion ot many to
the Christian faith. It is probable that this intimation
awakened the suspicions of the people, who do not appear
tc have availed themselves of the permission that was given
them.
In the western empire, upon the irruption of the bar¬
barous tribes, the Jews suffered less than their Christian
neighbours. Ready to accommodate themselves to every
change of circumstances in the pursuit of gain, we find
them following in the rear of conquering armies, or re¬
treating before advancing hosts, contriving in one form or
other to make their harvest of traffic in both cases, and fre¬
quently growing rich amidst the general ruin. In all the
kingdoms which rose up out of the ruins of ancient Rome,
the Jewish people formed a part; but our information
respecting them for a considerable period is far from
being complete. In the absence of a literature of their
own, we know of them only by ecclesiastical writers, who
take notice of them chiefly as the objects of the con¬
verting zeal of the catholic church. The success of the
Christian priesthood among their barbarous invaders in¬
spired them with hopes of gaining converts among the
Jews. But the circumstances of the two classes were
altogether different. Among the heathen, when a prince
or a successful warrior was converted to the faith, he car¬
ried along with him all his subjects, or his companions
in war. But the Jews moved in masses only in mat¬
ters connected with their own religion ; in every other re¬
spect they were wholly independent of each other. Their
conversion, therefore, could only be the effect of conviction
on the part of each individual. The character of the Chris¬
tian clergy did not fit them for so arduous an undertaking.
Their ignorance and frequent immorality placed them at a
disadvantage in regard to the Jews, who were in posses¬
sion of the Old Testament Scriptures, and had arguments
at command which their opponents could not answer. Be¬
sides, there were no inducements of a worldly nature at this
period to influence the Jews to exchange their religion.
They had no wish for the retreat of the cloister, nor did
they stand in need of protection for deeds of violence and
rapine. Their habits were of a description altogether differ¬
ent from those of the monk or brigand. The attempts of
the clergy, however, were unremitted, and threats and
blandishments were alternately resorted to, and the struggle
w s
was constant between Catholicism and Judaism. In the Jew
political contests between the Arians and the Catholics, the Wy
Jews, as they had done in Asia, took advantage of the di¬
visions, naturally ranging themselves on the side of the
Arians, and they found their advantage in this alliance.
The Gothic tribes, however, were soon brought over to the
orthodox belief, when the Jews stood opposed to the united
body of Christians, till the appearance of a new religion
wrought a diversion in their favour.
The rise and progress of Mahommedanism proved,
upon the whole, highly advantageous to the Jewish peo¬
ple. Equally descendants of Abraham with the followers
of the prophet, they had in so far a common cause against
idolaters, and against the defendants of the Christian doc¬
trine ; and this for a time made them forget the points of
difference. In the new impulse given to trade by the pro¬
gress of the Moslem arms, the Jews, ever awake to their
own interests, took their advantage. In the wide extent of
conquest, new wants were created by the advance of vic¬
torious armies, kingdoms which had long ceased to hold
intercourse with each other were brought into union, and
new channels of commercial intercourse were opened up;
and, leaving the pursuits of agriculture, which were placed
at a disadvantage by the policy of the caliphs, the Jews
became the merchants by whom the business between
the eastern and western world was conducted. In
the court of the caliphs they were favourably received;
and for centuries the whole management of the coinage
was intrusted to them, from the superior accuracy and
elegance with which they could execute it, and Irom
their opportunities, by the extent and variety of their com¬
mercial relations, to give it the widest circulation, and at
the same time to draw in the previous issues of other mints.
Nor did they flourish only in commercial greatness. Not
a few of them distinguished themselves in the walks of
science and literature. They became eminent in astro¬
nomy, astrology, medicine ; the principal translations by
which the Arabians became acquainted with the disco¬
veries and theories of Grecian and Roman authors were
conducted by them, though their chief attention was
directed to the Talmud, and to the literature connected
with it.
Wherever the Moslem arms extended, we see the
Jews for a time in a prosperous condition, though with
various exceptions, in different countries and under dif¬
ferent cffiiphs. In North Africa, in Egypt, in Persia, we
find Judaism in a more favourable state than formerly;
and in Spain, the Jews rose to a height almost as great
as that of the Moors themselves. In that country their
religion enjoyed full toleration, and the Arabico-Jewish
literature forms an important chapter in the history ot
learning from the seventh till the twelfth century.
There is a tradition, that during this period a Jew¬
ish kingdom was established on the shores ot the Cas¬
pian, named Khazar. The inhabitants of the teiritory
consisted indiscriminately of Jews, Christians, and Mos-
lemites, drawn to the spot by the advantages which the
situation of the country presented for trade. A king of
the country (740) was converted to the Jewish faith,
and for some time the affairs of the nation were conduct¬
ed by a Jewish prince, with the assistance ot a council,
whose members were of different religious persuasions. A
period of only a century and a half is fixed for the suc¬
cession of Jewish princes, though at a later date a con¬
siderable part of the population consisted of Jews.
About the same period a combination of circumstances
proved favourable to the condition of the Jews throughout
Christendom. Charlemagne protected their interests.
He is said to have had a Jewish merchant always near his
person, and the correspondence between that great mo¬
narch and Haroun Alraschid was under the care of a Jew.
JEWS.
jews. The immediate successors of Charlemagne followed the
same line of policy. France numbered the sons of Abra¬
ham as the richest of her merchants. Their fame as phy¬
sicians was also widely spread ; and their intelligence and
activity commended some of them to high political offices.
But a time of change was approaching; and we have
now to trace a gradual decline in the Jewish character
and condition, till at last we find that unhappy people tram¬
pled upon, crushed, butchered, proscribed, in almost every
country in Europe. The special causes of the persecu¬
tions to which the Jews were subjected were different in
different countries, and it would far exceed our limits to
trace them minutely. Throughout the greater part of
Europe, however, we witness the advances of a similar
process. We find the Jews abhorred by the superstitious
on account of their religion, envied by the powerful on
account of their riches ; and, amidst the contempt and in¬
justice to which they were subjected, courting, if not me¬
riting their fate, by crouching before and cozening their
hated oppressors. In many parts of Europe they were
not allowed to possess land, and were forbidden to aspire
to offices of trust or honour. The injurious effects of
this exclusion were soon manifest in their character and
habits. Shut out from all the paths which lead to distinc¬
tion, the aspiring aims of honourable ambition, and the
ennobling feelings connected with the love of country be¬
came strangers to their bosoms. Their efforts were limited
to the accumulation of wealth; and in the decay of com¬
merce during the middle ages, their minds were debased by
the petty details of the lower species of traffic, which was
all that was now open to them. Their ambition being thus
fixed upon one subject, they soon mastered all the degrad¬
ing arts of accumulating gain ; and, prohibited from in¬
vesting their gains in the purchase of land, they found a
more profitable employment of it in lending it at usurious
interest to the thoughtless and extravagant. The effect
of this was inevitable. At a time when commercial pur¬
suits were held in contempt, the assistance of the .lews
became indispensable to the nobles, whose hatred rose in
proportion to their obligations ; and, where there was the
power, the temptation to cancel the debt by violence
became often irresistible. The Jews had no means of re¬
sisting such injustice, and their only revenge was in the
exaction of more exorbitant terms when the necessitous
again had recourse to them. The meanness and injustice
of which they were thus unquestionably guilty inflamed
the public feeling against them, till every atrocity was
considered as justifiable when directed against a Jew.
In the Germanic empire the rights which the Jews had
enjoyed under the ancient Roman law were to a certain
extent continued to them; and though they gradually be¬
came the objects of aversion to all classes, the imperial pro¬
tection and the papal ordinances preserved them from gene¬
ral attack till the time of the Crusades. It was at Treves
that the suggestion was first made to the fanatical multitude
proceeding under Peter the Pennyless to take possession of
the Holy Land, that they should fall upon the enemies of the
cross living among themselves. The choice of death or of
conversion was given to the miserable Jews of that city, and
only a few escaped alive from the general massacre. Fathers
presented their breast to the sword after putting their own
children to death, that they might be rescued from the
danger of being trained up as Christians ; and wives and
virgins sought for refuge from the brutality of the soldiers
by throwing themselves into the river with stones fastened
to their bodies (1096). Similar scenes were repeated in
Cologne, Mentz, Worms, and in all the cities on the Rhine ;
snd the progress of the armies was marked by the blood
of the Jewrs till they reached the plains of Hungary. Upon
a moderate computation, not fewer than 17,000 are suppos¬
ed to have perished. The minds of those who escaped
were filled with consternation ; and their synagogues re¬
sounded with their appeals to the justice and mercy of the
God of their fathers, who seemed to have forsaken them
who refused to forsake Him. Many fled to Silesia, Mora¬
via, and Poland, where they laid the foundations of great
communities. A few, however, still continued to cling to the
land that had given them birth ; and we find them again in
sufficient numbers to excite the persecuting zeal of the
second Crusaders (1146). Upon this occasion the greater
part saved themselves by a timely flight. Forty years later,
the Emperor Frederick gave his protection to his Jewish
subjects till the tempest of the third Crusade swept past.
Disastrous as the period of the Crusades was to many of
the Jews in Germany, there w^ere some of them who yet
contrived to reap a golden harvest. A demand for money
was created for the support of so numerous armies. Many
chiefs parted with their estates to enable them to proceed
with their retainers to the Holy Land; and in the transfer
of property which thus took place, as well as in the trade
that was occasioned by the fitting out or march of nume¬
rous hosts, many Jews accumulated great wealth.
From the time of the Crusades, the condition of the
Jews in Germany continued unsettled and degraded. His¬
tory is full of instances of the injustice which they suffer¬
ed from the rapacity of princes, and from the tumultuous
assaults of the people. From certain states and cities they
were inteydicted altogether. In others, however, they had
a right of residence, and a particular quarter of the city
was assigned to them. But the privileges conferred upon
them often proved the occasion of new injuries. They
were frequently expelled from the streets to which they
had a legal right, in order that a sum of money might be
extorted from them for permission to return to their own
dwellings ; the popular fury was ever ready to break out
against them ; and needy princes held out the threat, that
unless their coffers were replenished by contributions from
the Jews, an incensed populace would *be let loose upon
them. Upon other occasions, the necessity of their conver¬
sion was insisted upon, and they were compelled to pay
large sums to avoid the misery of being forcibly baptized.
Reports were continually circulated to their disadvan¬
tage. Stories were told of Christian children having been
found murdered in the house of a Jew, or of their ow n
children being prevented by cruel threats from adopting
the Christian faith, or of their stealing the consecrated
host to crucify afresh the Son of God. And such fabri¬
cations had the effect of subjecting the Jews to the cruelty
of lawless mobs, of circumscribing their rights, and of pla¬
cing their lives and fortunes at a miserable uncertainty.
Enthusiasts arose, who considered themselves commis¬
sioned by Heaven to proclaim war against the unhappy
people. A nobleman named Rhindfleish, in the thirteenth
century, proceeded through many of the most populous
towns in Germany, followed by a multitude, who destroyed
whole communities. A peasant named Armleder follow¬
ed a similar course (1337), till his atrocities awakened the
tardy justice of the emperor, by whom he was put to death.
In 1346, the Flagellants came into a collision with the Jew s
of Frankfort, which terminated in a battle between the other
citizens and their Jewish neighbours. A few years later,
the whole of Europe being desolated by a plague, in Ger¬
many it was believed that the Jews had thrown-poison into
the public wells. The result was terrible. At Basle the
Jews were brought into a vessel on the Rhine, which w'as
set on fire, their children being spared that they might be
educated as Christians. It would be tedious to enume¬
rate the various forms in which the Jewrs met their death
in other cities. But from Switzerland to Silesia the land
was drenched with innocent blood, and even the interfer¬
ence of the emperor and the pope proved long insufficient
to put an end to the atrocities that were perpetrated.
579
Jews.
580 J E
Jews. Feelings of humanity, as well as the interests of his
r"-"' kingdom, led the Emperor Charles IV. to grant to certain
states and cities privileges which they had long in vain pe¬
titioned for ; and in the Golden Bull the condition of the
Jews was determined in such a way as preserved them
from the hazard of the massacre of whole communities,
though it left them still exposed to the evils ot individual
oppression and injustice.
Though thus subjected to every variety of inhumanity
and injustice in the German empire, they were still per¬
mitted to remain in the country ; and in some states and
cities considerable immunities were possessed by them.
It was otherwise in France, Spain, and Britain, from
which countries, after being subjected to the most gal¬
ling persecution, they were ultimately driven into banish¬
ment. In France the condition of the Jews had always
been more precarious than in Germany; and from the
tenth century we see them gradually and rapidly declin¬
ing from a learned, and influential, and powerful class of
the community, to miserable outcasts ; the common prey
of clergy, and nobles, and burghers ; and existing in a
state worse than slavery itself. Even in this wretched si¬
tuation, though deprived of every thing else, and denied
the common rights of humanity, they were still possessed
of gold. This was at once their strength and their weak¬
ness ; though hated by all, all were dependent upon them ;
and, possessed of a large proportion of the wealth of the
kingdom, they had articles of value in pawn from all
classes of the community. They suffered here, as in Ger¬
many, by popular violence ; and the proceedings of the
princes were if possible more arbitrary and tyrannical. The
archives of the kingdom, however, contain evidence of usu¬
rious extortion so monstrous as loudly to call for legal inter¬
ference, though not certainly in the way in which it was ac¬
tually made. The edicts which terminated in their final ex¬
pulsion from the kingdom began with Philip Augustus. He
issued an ordinance for the relief of those who were indebt¬
ed to the Jews. According to it, all the pledges in their
hands were to be restored. Among these a golden crucifix
and a Gospel being found, the popular suspicion was awak¬
ened, and all the Jews of Paris were sent into banishment.
The necessities, or cruelty, or superstition of succeeding
kings varied the modes of Jewish persecution. Louis VIII.
annulled all interest on debts due to the Jews. Under
Louis IX. an edict was promulgated for the destruction of
the Talmud. By other laws, Jews were forbidden to
hold social intercourse with Christians; and no punish¬
ment was to be inflicted upon a Christian who killed a
Jew. As in Germany, monstrous tales were spread abroad,
and believed, of their sacrilege and cruelty. They were
accused of throwing poison into x’ivers, of practising magic,
of holding correspondence with infidel kings. They were
proscribed, hunted down, burnt to death. Yet still they
sought to live in the land that oppressed them, paid a price
to live in it,—and their revenge upon their oppressors was
to drain them of their gold. At last, in the latter part of
the reign of Chaides VI. (1594), they were commanded
to quit the kingdom. This sentence was rigidly put into
execution ; and the greater part of the exiles withdrew to
Germany, Italy, and Poland.
The time of the introduction of the Jews into England
is unknown. Traces of them are discoverable before the
Norman invasion; after which event a considerable addition
was made to their numbers. William II. found in his Jew¬
ish subjects so great a source of profit, that he refused to
allow them to become converts to Christianity. The Jews
flourished accordingly under his reign; they increased in
numbers and in opulence in various cities throughont the
kingdom, and the greater part of Oxford is said to have be¬
longed to them. It is somewhat remarkable, however, that -
their only burial-place was in London, and it was not till
w s.
the time of Henry II. that they were allowed the privilege jew
of interring their dead elsewhere. Though favoured for a
time by the English monarchs, from the advantages they
derived from them, the Jews became the objects of popu¬
lar hatred, partly from motives of superstition, and partly
from the odium that at that time was generally attached
to the practice of lending money upon interest, as well as
from the rigour with which this practice was exercised by
them. The first general display of the public hatred was
in the reign of Richard I. On the day of the coronation
of this prince, some Jews, contrary to an express prohibi¬
tion, were discovered as spectators of the ceremony. An
attack was made upon these individuals, which terminated
in a general assault upon the Jews. Their houses were
plundered, and in many instances committed to the flames.
Richard in vain attempted to repress the tumult, which
continued to rage two days. Similar outrages ensued in
Norwich, Stamford, and in several other towns. Knights
who were proceeding to the Holy Land considered them¬
selves justified in robbing the rich Jews, to aid them
in their pilgrimage. And, in many cases, those w ho had
borrowed money from their Jewish neighbours stirred
up the people to a tumultuous onset, as the easiest way
of cancelling their debts. In York the Jews took refuge
in the castle, and made a vigorous resistance ; but find¬
ing their situation hopeless, they devoted themselves to
a voluntary destruction. They first destroyed everything
of value that belonged to them. After this their chief
with his own hands murdered his wife and five children,
and then submitted to death himself. Their dead bo¬
dies were thrown over the ramparts. The example was
followed by five hundred others. In the mean time, those
who were indebted to the Jews proceeded to the cathe¬
dral, where the bonds were kept, and committed them
to the flames. During the two following reigns, the his¬
tory of England abounds in instances of the oppres¬
sions to which the Jews were subjected, and of the vast
sums extorted from them by the necessities of the mo¬
narchs ; though privileges were occasionally conceded to
them, in such forms as insured a profitable return. The
tyrannical proceedings of King John in reference to the
unhappy race are well known, and in particular the anec¬
dote of his ordering that a rich Jew of Bristol should lose
a tooth daily till he paid 10,000 merks. The Jew lost
seven teeth before he yielded. Their situation was in no
degree improved under Henry III. Though various de¬
crees were issued in their favour, the superstitions of the
clergy and the people, and the necessities of the govern¬
ment, subjected them to every varied form of contumely
and wrong. After the king had repeated his extortions so
frequently that the Jews made the vain threat of leaving
the kingdom, he sold to his brother all the Jews in his
realm for 5000 merks, with full power over their persons
and property. At last, in the succeeding reign (of Edward
L), an edict w as issued (1290), without any known pretext
afforded by their conduct, for their expulsion from the
country altogether; and, after having been deprived of all
their possessions, the wretched race, amidst the mockery
and triumph of the common people, proceeded to the shore,
and finally left the island. The exiles amounted to 15,000,
or, according to others, to upwards of 16,000.
The history of the Jews in the Spanish peninsula forms
one of the most interesting and affecting chapters in the
strange vicissitudes of that ill-fated race. During many
centuries their situation, both in Spain and Portugal, was
more, favourable than in any other European country. The
political influence which they enjoyed with the Moslems
commanded for them the respect of the Christians, if it
increased their hatred ; and after the decay of the Mahom-
medan power, their superior education, their talents for af¬
fairs, their wealth and their industry, in a country where
J E
JewS. the lower orders were sunk in the deepest degradation,
while the nobles were engaged almost wholly in war, ren¬
dered them too important a class of the community to
allow their rights to be rashly interfered with. The pro¬
tection which they enjoyed arose in no small degree from
the policy of the sovereigns, who found their Jewish sub¬
jects invaluable, not only to themselves individually in
various departments, as physicians or ministers of finance,
but also to the country generally, from the life which
their industry gave to trade, and from the unfailing cer¬
tainty with which recourse might always be had to them
upon every occasion when money was required. The
nobles, and even the priesthood, were by no means insen¬
sible to the latter of these advantages ; and when, in some
instances, the sovereigns, forgetting their true interests,
prepared to make the Jews the subjects of their extortion,
we find the clergy overcoming their superstitious feelings,
and interfering in their behalf.
The political or rather legal position of the Jews in
Spain varied in different periods, and even at the same time
in different parts of the country. In the most favourable
circumstances, they were considered as belonging to the
king directly, and indirectly to his greater vassals; and thus
they enjoyed the right of self-defence, and could claim
the protection of their liege lords when unjustly attacked.
In all their greater communities they had their own courts
of law, which enjoyed a certain jurisdiction both in civil
and criminal affairs. They could possess landed property,
though many efforts were made to restrict this right,
which induced them here, as in other countries, to en¬
gage in the practice of lending money upon interest.
The rate of interest was fixed by the law ; and we do not
find charges of chicanery and extortion brought against
them similar to those made against their countrymen in
France, or England, or Germany. Among their other privi¬
leges, they could not be imprisoned on account of debt,
and, with certain limitations, their evidence was received
in courts of justice. In Portugal they enjoyed similar
privileges as in Spain.
The superior character of the peninsular Jews proved
that these advantages were not unworthily conferred.
They held a much higher rank than in the other parts of
Christendom. Not compelled to have recourse to arts
that sunk them in their own esteem, they maintained a ge¬
nerous rivalry in the liberal use they made of the wealth
which they acquired in the walks of honest industry.
Their literature betokens no ordinary progress in civili¬
zation. Their acquaintance with Arabic put them in pos¬
session of all the treasures of that language. Their poets,
grammarians, mathematicians, naturalists, are of no mean
reputation. And their astronomers were in so great re¬
nown, that some of them were employed by Alphonso the
Wise in the construction of his celebrated Tables. The
study of mental science was also cultivated with no ordi¬
nary care, though the pursuits of science, whether natu¬
ral or metaphysical, were ever more or less connected
with their theology. Three epochs have been marked in
the progress of the philosophy of the Jews of Spain. In
the first, we have the endeavour to connect the discove¬
ries of science with the doctrines contained in the Tal¬
mud, and to present the peculiarities of Judaism in a phi¬
losophic form. In the second, we find the spirit of rab-
binism lording it over the efforts of philosophic genius.
In the third, a contest was carried on, sometimes under
the forms of philosophy, between the advocates of Ju¬
daism, and those who endeavoured by the force of argu¬
ment to gain converts to the Christian faith.
The point at which the star of the fortunes of the Spa¬
nish Jews might be said to culminate, was in the thirteenth
century, during the reign of Alphonso X. From that pe¬
riod the superstitions of the people were more bitterly
w S. gal
directed against the unfortunate race, and in the succeed- Jews,
ing reigns constant attempts were made to diminish their
privileges, while local outbreakings of popular dislike
subjected individuals and whole communities to severe
suffering. Alphonso XL though himself favourably dis¬
posed towards them, was compelled (1325) to yield in
various particulars to the feeling that began to be ex¬
pressed against them. In this reign they were enjoined to
confine themselves to particular streets, at the greatest
distance from the churches; and thenceforth particular
districts were known in every city where a community
existed as the Jews’ Quarter. The greatest misery, how¬
ever, to which they were subjected arose from attempts
for their conversion. A proselytizing spirit had mani¬
fested itself in various forms from an early period. An
institution was erected in Aragon in 1250, for the express
purpose of training men to enter into controversy with the
Jews; but, not trusting to the mere force of argument,
the rabbinical writings were frequently subjected to a cen¬
sorship, by which whatever was supposed to be injurious
to the interests or hurtful to the feelings of churchmen
was cancelled. Such instances of intolerance, however,
afforded but feeble presage of the fearful hurricane that
at last arose.
The attack commenced in Seville in 1391, where the
minds of the citizens were inflamed by a sermon which
an archbishop delivered in the cathedral. Individuals
among the Jews were insulted and plundered. The at¬
tempts made by the civil authorities to restrain the po¬
pular fury increased its violence, till at last a general at¬
tack was made upon the Jews’ Quarter, and of 7000 fa¬
milies upwards of one half were put to death, while the
remainder sought for safety by a pretended conversion
to Christianity. The example was followed in Cordova,
Toledo, Valencia, and in all the cities where the greatest
communities of the Jews were to be found. Many thou¬
sands were butchered; not a few left the kingdom, seek¬
ing for refuge in Italy, Turkey, and the states of Barbary;
and it is calculated that 200,000 were forced into a pro¬
fession of Christianity. The condition of these converts,
or pretended converts, was truly deplorable. Subjected
to the suspicions of the Christians, and to the hatred of those
of their countrymen who continued stedfast to their ancient
creed, many of them found their situation altogether in¬
supportable, and became voluntary exiles. Not a few re¬
turned to the profession of Judaism, choosing rather to
brave all the horrors of persecution than to submit to the
odium of a suspicious apostacy.
The government showed its disposition to protect those
who did not depart from the Jewish religion ; several
of the princes were opposed to extreme measures; and
affairs began to wear a more favourable aspect. But
the calm was only temporary. The sincerity of the
whole of the Jewish converts, or, as they were called,
the New Christians, began to be questioned. The honour
of the church was considered as at stake ; and, by the
influence of Alphonso of Godeja, a bull was obtained from
Fope Sixtus IV. for the institution of the inquisition, ef¬
fectually to prevent a return to Judaism. The queen,
the Jews, even the Cortes, resisted the introduction of
this dread tribunal; but the priesthood prevailed. The
tribunal was opened in Seville, and invested with full power
to summon every individual suspected of secret attachment
to Judaism. The unsparing energy with which it was to
proceed was marked by the fact, that in a short time Se¬
ville numbered more prisoners than inhabitants; and in
the course of a single year, in that city and in the imme¬
diately surrounding country, upwards of 2000 were put
to death, several were imprisoned for life, and 17,000
were subjected to corporal punishment. At last a large
stone building was constructed for containing a multitude
582 J E
Jews, of prisoners, combustible materials were placed around
'V''-*' the outside of the walls, while the wretched inmates were
left to perish by a slow death. Four inferior inquisitions
were erected in other quarters, and each tribunal receiv¬
ed the strictest injunctions to use every effort to pre¬
serve the church from the stain of a return to Judaism.
The different signs that were supposed to indicate a se¬
cret attachment to the abjured religion were defined by
law ; and wherever any one of them was observed, the
individual was to he brought to trial. A free pardon
was offered to those who confessed their guilt, if they
evinced the sincerity of their contrition by revealing the
names of such as had shared with them in their de¬
ceit. The rabbis were forced, upon their oath, to de¬
clare if they knew any who secretly adhered to the hated
worship. Death was the punishment of concealment.
The fiercest civil war, the wildest incursion of barba¬
rous hordes, could not have occasioned the deaths of
so many innocent men, or annihilated so many sources
of advantage to the kingdom. The impolicy was not
less infatuated than the injustice and cruelty were mon¬
strous.
Hitherto the persecution had been confined to those who
were suspected of insincerity in their profession of the catho¬
lic faith ; it was now to be extended to wider limits. The
arms of Ferdinand and Isabella had been prosperous against
the Moors, and the soil of Spain was freed from the infidel
race. The inquisition gave the horrid promise of torturing
the new Christians into sincerity, or of destroying them by
death ; and nothing now remained but the expulsion of the
Jews to deliver the kingdom from every taint of heresy.
The ambition of the crowned heads became alive to the glory
and advantage of reigning over a land purified from all ad¬
mixture of error, and in 1492 the order was given, that
within four months every Jew should leave the country.
Upon the issuing of this memorable edict, the minds of the
unhappy people were filled with astonishment and horror.
From the one end of Spain to the other, the voice of la¬
mentation was lifted up. But superstition is inexorable ;
and the appeal to the justice or mercy of Ferdinand or his
queen was alike in vain. The decree was passed, and it was
not to be recalled. The Jews now acted worthy of the
high character which they had sustained in Spain for nearly
a thousand years. The resource of apostacy still remained ;
but the temptation was spurned, and the sincerity of their
attachment to their faith was shown by their preferring it
to everything. Upwards of 300,000 left all that was dear
to them on earth, and went forth in search of lands where
they might be allowed to worship the God of their fathers
in peace. But misfortune continued to follow them on
their path. The account of their sufferings is heart-rending ;
our limits permit us only to mention in general, that the
richer part of them withdrew first to Portugal, where the Jew¬
ish faith had been hitherto tolerated. But the contagious
influence of the proceedings in Spain extended to the sister
kingdom; and the wretched exiles, after being made the
objects of new forms of cruelty and injustice, were at last
expelled from that kingdom also. Others, who directed
their course for the states of Barbary and Morocco, were
subjected to the horrors of shipwreck and pestilence; some
were set ashore on desert islands by the inhuman ship¬
owners, and some were sold as slaves. Some went to Italy,
where the hardest fate of all awaited them, in the cruelty
with which their own countrymen refused to receive them.
Thousands lay perishing for hunger on the shore, till even
the pope (Alexander VI.) interfered by a sentence of ba¬
nishment against the resident Jews. But, notwithstanding
all the sufferings to which they were exposed, and which
so materially diminished their numbers, flourishing com¬
munities were formed by the offspring of the exiles in Bar¬
bary, Turkey, Italy; and this perhaps more than any thing
w s.
else evinces how great multitudes had been sent into ba- Jew
nishment. W-y /
In Spain there were now no professed Jews. There were
still, however, many secret adherents of the proscribed
faith. Of these, many were so dexterous in the concealment
which they practised, as to escape every effort for their
detection ; and some of them w'ere seated as judges in the
very inquisition that had been instituted for their destruc¬
tion. Others, however, were less successful, and against
them horrible cruelties were exercised under the Emperor
Charles V. and by Philip II. and III.
The policy of the Spanish government was extended
also to Naples, from which city the Jews were expelled
by Charles V. The example, however, was not followed
in other parts of Italy. In that country, from the time of
Charlemagne, the legal position of the Jews was nearly the
same as it was in Germany. They were placed under the
protection partly of the popes and partly of the emperors,
to both of whom they were bound to do homage. Here,
as elsewhere, they were chiefly engaged in money-lending
and in petty traffic. Their head-quarters was Rome, but
numbers of them were to be found in all the other prin¬
cipal cities. The conduct of the popes varied in refer¬
ence to the Jews, according to their personal character.
Paul IY. was the first who shut them up in a confined
quarter in Rome, called the Ghetto. By other popes they
were compelled to assemble regularly in a church at stated
periods, w'here sermons wrere preached for their conversion.
They were subjected to many other galling interferences
till the time of Sextus V. who annulled most of the vex¬
atious regulations of his predecessors, and restored them
to some degree of liberty.
The changes effected upon the character and condition
of the Jews by the restoration of letters, and by the
movements occasioned by the reformation, were less than
upon any other portion of European society. There were
indeed individuals among them who made noble use of
the newly-discovered art of printing, and who wrere dis¬
tinguished in the walks of literature and philosophy. But
the great proportion of the people, excluded from all
share in the government of the countries in which they
lived, viewed the mighty changes which were taking
place without interest or advantage. The great events
that were stirring other men’s minds into activity, freeing
them from the shackles of ancient prejudices, and opening
new views of human affairs, were looked upon by the
Jews as a spectacle in which they had no concern. Their
spirit was even more concentrated upon their individual
gains and their national hopes; and in the progress of the
human mind, and in the new views that were continually
opening up, they saw nothing more than the fluctuations
of a wild uncertainty, that wedded them with a deeper
pride to the contracted principles of their unchanging
rabbinism. On the other hand, the benefit of more en¬
larged views that began to be entertained upon the sub¬
ject of liberty, and respecting the rights of citizens, were
not for a long period extended to them ; and it is not till
within the last fifty years that an instance has been af¬
forded of the full concession of the privileges of citizen¬
ship to a Jew.
Still the progress of civilization was silently preparing
the way for greater justice being done to this people ; and
their conduct, in circumstances where they were allowed
scope for the development of their better qualities, tend¬
ed greatly to the removal of the predjudices that exist¬
ed against them. In no history have we more remarkable
illustrations of the great truths, that to enslave is to de¬
grade, and that to render men useful citizens, it is es¬
sential to bestow upon them the rights of citizens.
Upon the revolt of the Netherlands, many of the Por¬
tuguese Jews (a name applied to all the Jews of the Spa-
J E W S. 583
jews, nish peninsula) took refuge from the persecutions of diet of Frederick the Great (1750), for the regulation of Jews.
' Philip II. and III. in that country. The distinctions on his Jewish subjects, was of the most intolerant descrip-
account of religion were to a certain extent removed, and tion. The severest measures were resorted to for pre-
the Jews of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp, vied, venting their increase beyond a fixed number. They
in the highest qualities of commercial greatness, with the were excluded from all civil offices, and from many de¬
citizens of the new republic. They were afterwards joined partments of lucrative and honourable employment, and
by many of their countrymen, but of a lower order, from subjected to an unequal load of taxation. Their condi-
Germany and Poland. Offshoots from the new com- tion in other parts of the empire was not more favourable
rnunity in Holland grew up in circumstances scarcely till towards the end of the last century. Various circum-
less favourable in Denmark and Hamburg. The continu- stances contributed about that period to a decided im-
ed persecution of the new Christians in Spain drove other provement. Among these, the writings and character of
Jews to seek their fortune in the Spanish and other co- Moses Mendelsohn may be mentioned as having had con-
lonies in the New World. They settled in the Brazils, siderable effect in elevating the character of the people in
and in some of the West India islands, with various for- the general opinion. An edict of toleration was published
tunes; but many distinguished themselves by their regu- by the Emperor Joseph II. The most important part of
larity, and enterprise, and wealth, in such a way as to pro- it perhaps consisted in the attention it directed, and the
duce an impression favourable to their European brethren, support which it promised, to elementary education, and to
The recognition of the independence of the United its throwing open the schools and universities of the em-
States in America may be marked as the epoch that se- pire to the Jews. Freedom of residence and of trade was
cured to the Jews the prospect of their being admitted also granted to them. They were no longer excluded
to the full privileges of citizenship, and freed them from from public places of amusement; and they were per-
the disabilities that had been so long considered as inse- mitted to wear certain decorations, and might be creat-
parable from their religious condition. The fundamental ed barons. The influence of Bonaparte was exerted for
principle of the new republic involved the treating of the the advantage of the Jews in many parts of the German
Jews upon the same terms as the other inhabitants. It states; and from 1809 to 1813, we find ordinances issued
was not acted upon, however, throughout all the states, for the melioration of their condition, admitting them to
till the year 1822. They are now distinguished in no civil rights, and abolishing odious distinctions. By an
respect, except their religion, from any other part of the act of the congress of Vienna in 1815, the diet is pledg-
population. They have synagogues in New York, Phila- ed to turn its attention to the melioration of the state of
delphia, Charlestown, Richmond ; and much attention is the Jews; and it may be safely affirmed that their condi-
paid by them to the education of the young. tion has of late years been of progressive advancement.
The movements in America were intimately connected In the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, some restrictions
with the changes which soon afterwards took place in have taken place in their privileges, by disqualifying them
France; and to this may in some degree be traced the for certain civil offices; and, in 1822, their learned men
new policy that was observed in that country in reference were excluded from holding offices in schools or univer-
to the Jews at the beginning of the revolution. Notwith- sities. In the free towns, commercial jealousy more than
standing the edict of exclusion by Charles V., some Pox'- feelings of a religious nature still places the Jews in some
tuguese Jews had been allowed by Henry II. to settle respects at disadvantage.
in Bordeaux and Bayonne ; and at a later period, the In Switzerland, the privileges which the Jews enjoyed
conquest of Alsace, and other changes, added some of during the reign of Bonaparte have been done away. In
their communities to the French dominions. The condi- Italy also their condition is less favourable than formerly,
tion of these communities wTas taken into consideration In the ecclesiastical states they are again shut up in the
in 1789, without any thing, however, being done in that Ghetto, and 300 every Sabbath are obliged to hear a ser-
year. But in 1791 they were admitted to equal rights mon for their conversion ; in 1829 a proposal wras made for
as citizens. In 1806 a sanhedrim was assembled by banishing them from the dominions of the pope, which,
Bonaparte at Paris; and, upon satisfactory answers being however, has not been carried into effect,
returned to certain queries proposed to them respecting The greatest accumulation of the Jews in any one
their civil institutions, and their views as citizens and point is in the countries of ancient Poland, now divided
subjects, a plan for the organization of the Jews through- amongst the empex'ors of Russia and Austria and the king
out the empire was adopted. The abuse made of their of Prussia. Their state has long continued fixed. They
privileges in some of the provinces of the Rhine, led sub- form the middle class between the nobles and the serfs,
sequently to partial restrictions in regard to money lend- occupying all the common branches of traffic. The rab-
ing; and an effort was made to turn their attention to binical spirit exists here in greater severity than in any
agricultural pursuits. The privileges conferred by Bo- other counti'y. The Austrian emperors have shown a
naparte were not interfered with upon the restoration of laudable zeal for the melioration of the condition of their
the Bourbons ; and, since the revolution in 1830, the Jew- Jewish subjects. The Emperor Nicholas of Russia, though
ish rabbis, as well as the clergy of the diffei'ent Christian his attention has been directed to the subject, has shown
sects, receive a stipendiary allowance from the state, a less enlightened spirit.
Though by no means approving of such a measure, we In England the Jews again obtained a legal re-estab-
conceive it to be worthy of remark, that the minister by lishment under the protectoi'ate of Cromwell, and have
whom it was proposed supported it upon the ground that ever since maintained their footing. A bill for their na-
they had shown themselves deserving of the patronage of turalization was passed in the year 1753 ; but the pre-
the state, having, during the preceding quarter of a cen- judices against the measure were so strongly expressed,
tury, acted in such a way as to give the noblest x'efutation as to lead to its x-epeal in the following year. They
to all the slanders of their enemies. are still excluded from civil offices, and are subjected to
At a national assembly held in 1796, they were declared certain restrictions that interfere with some departments
as in every respect citizens of the Batavian republic ; and of their trade ; but their rights have of late years been
' the union of France with Holland led to the removal of made the subject of discussion, with every prospect of a
every disability of the Dutch Jews. favourable issue.
In Germany little change had taken place in the con- The number of Jews at present existing cannot be
dition of the Jewish inhabitants for many centuries. The accurately ascertained, but it is conjectured to amount
584 J H A .1 H Y
Jezides to between five and six millions. In Asia, they are to be
II found on the coast of Malabar, in Persia, in Bokhara, in
Jhansu- Mesopotamia, in Arabia, and in Palestine, and may amount
to about one million. Along the whole of the northern
coast of Africa they are to be met with in considerable
numbers, and they are probably underrated at half a mil¬
lion. In Europe they have been supposed to amount to
two or three millions. The Jews of Poland have been
variously estimated at from a half million to four or five
times that number; in Prussia, there are 200,000 ; in the
Netherlands, 80,000 ; in France, 60,000 ; in Italy, 30,000 ; Jhin,
in Great Britain, 12,000. They are to be found in num- war;
bers gradually decreasing from this to a few hundreds, in II I
Cracow, the Ionian Isles, Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden. '%lu
In America they are estimated at 12,000. Y-
For information as to the different sects of the Jews,
their antiquities, literature, customs, and respecting the
means which have been employed for their conversion
to the Christian faith, we must refer the reader to other
parts of this work. (d. d. d. d.)
JEZIDES, amongst the Mahommedans, a term of similar
import with heretics amongst Christians. The Jezides are
a numerous.sect inhabiting Turkey and Persia, and so call¬
ed from their head, Jezid, an Arabian prince, who slew
the sons of Ali, Mahommed’s father-in-law ; for which
reason he is reckoned a parricide, and his followers here¬
tics. There are in Turkey and Persia many Jezides, who
are of two sorts, black and white. The white are clad
like Turks, and distinguished only by their shirts, which
are not slit at the neck like those of others, but have a
round hole to thrust their heads through. The black
Jezides, though married, are the monks or religious per¬
sons of the order ; and they are called Fakirs.
The Turks exact excessive taxes from the Jezides,
who in their turn hate the Turks as their mortal ene¬
mies ; and when, in their wrath, they curse any creature,
they call it Moslemin. They are extremely ignorant, and
believe both the Bible and the Koran without reading
either. All the adoration they pay to God consists of
some songs in honour of Jesus Christ, the virgin, Moses,
and sometimes Mahommed; and it is a principal point of
their religion never to speak ill of the devil, lest he should
resent the injury if ever he were to come into favour
with God again, which they think possible. They bury
their dead in the first place they come at, rejoicing as at
a festival, and celebrating the entry of the deceased into
heaven. When they get wine, they drink it to excess;
and it is said that they sometimes do this with a religious
purpose, calling it the blood of Christ.
JEZIRA-UL-OMAR, a town of Koordistan, situated on
a low sandy island in the Tigris, about three miles in cir¬
cumference, and environed with mountains. It covers the
greater part of the island, and is defended by a stone wall
now fallen into decay. It occupies the site of the ancient
Roman fortress of Bezabde.
JEZRAEL, or Jezreel, a town in the north of Samaria,
towards Mount Carmel, where stood a palace of the kings
of Israel, and upon the borders of Galilee. It was said to be
one of the towns of Issachar. The valley of Jezreel, situ¬
ated to the north of the town, runs from west to east
for ten miles, between two mountains, the one to the north,
commonly called Herman, near Mount Tabor, the other
Lrilboa ; and it w^as in breadth two miles.
JH ALA WAN, a territory in the western part of Persia,
forming the most southerly province of Beloochistan, and
ordering on Mekran and Sinde. It is a very mountainous
tract, divided into districts, which furnish each its quota of
troops to the chief, Mahommed Khan.
JHANSI, a considerable town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Allahabad, district of Bundelcund. It has a strong
citadel, situated on a hill which commands the town. It
has a manufactory of bows, arrows, and spears, the weapons
still in use among the barbarous tribes of the country. The
surrounding district is valued at L.50,000 per annum, and
belongs to a Hindu chief, one of the British allies. Lons
71.45. E. Lat. 25. 31. N.
JHANSU-JEUNG, a castle in Thibet, standing on a
perpendicular rock, which, from its height, seems to be
nearly impregnable. It is surrounded by a populous and
well-cultivated valley, which is famous for the manufac¬
ture of woollens. Long. 89. 23. E. Lat. 28. 50. N.
JHINGWARA, a Coolee state in the province ofGujerat,
and district of Chalawar, containing between 5000 and 6000
houses. It is chiefly ruled by different branches of the
same family, of which that of Virajee is the most powerful.
The inhabitants are mostly Coolees, who have been de¬
graded from their original rank of rajpoots. It was for¬
merly much larger than it is at present, and was celebrated
for a temple dedicated to the sun. On the banks of the
Run, near this, a large quantity of salt is prepared, which
is also a source of revenue.
JHURJHOORY, a village in the dominions of Nepaul,
to the south of which lies the Jhurjhoory Forest, which is
about ten miles in breadth, and contains all the finest woods.
It is a wretched village, consisting of a few herdsmen’s
huts, scattered on the south bank of the Bukkia, the bed
of which is here of considerable breadth. Long. 85. 20. E.
Lat. 27. 4. N.
JHYLUM, Jelum, Behut, or Vxdusta, the ancient
Hydaspes, a large river of Hindustan, which has its rise in
the south-east corner of the valley of Cashmere, in the great
Himalaya ridge of mountains. It is there called Yidusta, and
passes through two lakes east and west of the town of Cash-
mere. It is joined, ten miles below the town, by the Little
Sinde, and receives many small rivulets in its course through
the valley and hills, which it enters at Baramoola; and, four
miles below Moozufferabad, it receives the Kishungunga
from the north; its course thus far being nearly w^est. From
this it takes a great curve to the south, and near Jelum
it is little known, the country being so excessively moun¬
tainous that few travellers ever pass that way. In its course
through the hills this river is very rapid, and from 100 to
200 yards broad. It is not fordable at any season, though
in many places nearly so, as men and horses cross with
ease, having only fifteen or twenty yards to swim. After
a course ot 450 miles, it joins the Chunab at Trimmoo
Ghat, eighteen miles below Jhung, and ninety-five above
Moultan, in which it loses its name. These joint streams,
called the Chunab or Chun ha, receive the Ravee forty-
eight miles lower down, near Fazilshah and Ahmedpoor,
from the eastward, and pass four miles north of Moultan,
retaining the name of Chunab to within seven miles of
Ooch, where they are joined at Sheeneebukree by the
Gharra, or joint streams of the Beyah and Sutledj, 112
miles below Moultan, and sixty miles below Buhawulpore.
From this point to Mittenda Khot, where they fall into
the Indus, about seventy-six miles, these five streams take
the name ot the Punjab. The Indus, and the Punjab, or
the five rivers, run parallel to each other for this distance,
which is about ten and a half miles. The whole of this
space is one complete sheet of water during the rains and
hot season, and appears as one river. The greatest breadth
between the Jhylum and the Indus appears to be 114
miles from Attock to Jellalapore Ghat. The whole course
ot the Jhylum, including its windings, may be estimated to
exceed 400 miles.
J I D
jjb JIB, the foremost sail of a ship, being a large stay-sail,
|| extended from the outer end of the boltsprit, and prolonged
idda. by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top mast head. See Sail.
Jib-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of the
boltsprit, parallel to its length, and serving to extend the
bottom of the jib, and the stay of the foretop-gallant mast.
This boom, which is nothing more than a continuation of
the boltsprit forward, to which it may be considered as
a top-mast, is usually attached to the boltsprit by means
of two large boom-irons, or by one boom-iron, and a cap
on the outer end of the boltsprit; or, finally, by the cap
without and a strong lashing within, instead of a boom-iron,
which is generally the method of securing it in small mer¬
chant ships.
JIDDA, or DJidda, a considerable commercial town,
the port of Mecca, situated on the eastern shore of the Red
Sea. It is built on a slightly rising ground, the lowest
side of which is washed by the sea, and extends along the
shore, in its greatest length, about 1500 paces, and is about
half that space in breadth. It was encompassed with a
wall in 1540 ; but as this ancient defence has long since
fallen into a state of ruin, a new wall has been construct¬
ed on the land side, by the joint labours of the inha¬
bitants, to guard against the incursions of the Wahabees.
It is in a tolerable state of repair, but is of no strength;
though it is a sufficient barrier against the Arabs, who have
no artillery. Watch-towers, with a few rusty guns, are
erected at the distance of forty or fifty paces ; a nar¬
row ditch is carried round it to increase the means of de¬
fence ; and it enjoys throughout Arabia the reputation of
an impregnable fortress. At the northern extremity stands
the governor’s residence; and on the southern is a small
castle, mounting eight or ten guns. The whole harbour
is commanded by a battery, in which is mounted an im¬
mense old piece of ordnance, which carries a ball of 500
pounds, and, says Burckhardt, “ is so celebrated all over
the Red Sea, that the very fame of it is a protection to
the port.” The approach to the town by the sea is by two
quays, where small boats discharge the cargoes of large
ships; these last being obliged to anchor in the roadstead,
about two miles from the shore. The quays being shut
every evening after sun-set, all communication is prevented
at night between the town and the shipping. On the
land-side Jidda has two gates, the Bab-Mekka on the east
side, and the Bab-el-Medina on the north. Along the area
enclosed by the modern wall, and by the sea on the west,
a broad piece of open ground extends the whole length of
the interior wall; there is also a good deal of waste ground
near the Medina gate, and on the southern extremity.
The suburbs consist of miserable huts of reeds, rushes, and
brushwood, inhabited by Bedouins or poor peasants and
labourers, who live after the Arab fashion. The most re¬
spectable inhabitants reside near the sea, where there is a
long street parallel with the shore, lined with shops, and
containing many khans, exclusively frequented by mer¬
chants. Jidda is well built; the streets, though unpaved,
are spacious and airy; and the houses are high, consisting
mostly of two stories, with many small windows and wooden
shutters, and wholly constructed of stone, mostly brought
from the sea-shore, but consisting of madrepores and other
marine fossils. They have generally a spacious hall at
the entrance, where, at noon, the master, with all his male
attendants and slaves, may be seen enjoying a siesta. No
attention is paid to uniformity of architecture. Some
houses are built with small, others with large square stones ;
sometimes the walls are entirely of stone, whilst at other
times layers of plank are placed at intervals in the wall.
When the walls are plastered, the dazzling white, during
the glare of the sun, is extremely distressing to the eye.
I here are no buildings of ancient date, owing to the rapid
decay of the madrepore, of which they are constructed,
VOL. XII.
J I D 585
when it is exposed to the rain and the moist atmosphere Jidda,
prevalent on the shores of the Red Sea. The town con- '>«««—
tains, besides many small mosques, two of considerable
size. The governor s habitation is a paltry building, as
also that of the collector of the customs. The khans are,
many of them, well built, and have good accommodation
for the foreign merchants, whose residence they are during
their short stay in the town. Water is scarce in Jidda, as
in most of the Arabian towns. Several of the wells are
private property, and yield their owners a considerable in¬
come. Every town of moderate size has its cisterns; but
the rains not falling in sufficient abundance to afford an
adequate supply to the town, the inhabitants are forced to
have recourse to pools formed outside of the town in the
rainy season. This water is not so good as the rain-water,
which is esteemed a delicacy; and though water is everv-
where found at the depth of fifteen feet, it is of a bad qua¬
lity, and scarcely fit for use. There are only two wells
that afford sweet water, which is wholly consumed by the
rich. The poorer classes use the water supplied by the
other wells, to which, being of indifferent quality, their ill
health is ascribed. The town of Jidda is surrounded by a
barren desert, without gardens or vegetation of any kind,
except a few date-trees adjoining one of the mosques, or a
few shrubs and low acacia trees. Beyond the Mecca wall;
and on the road to this place, are huts inhabited by poor
Bedouins, camel-drivers, and negro hadjis or pilgrims,
who gain a livelihood by cutting wood in the mountains.
About a mile beyond these huts, eastward of the town, is
the principal burial-ground, containing the tombs of several
sheiks. There are also several cemeteries within the walls.
The inhabitants of Jidda, like those of Mecca and Me¬
dina, are almost exclusively foreigners, and consist, in many
cases, of rich merchants, who come on their pilgrimage to
Mecca with large adventures of goods, and, not being"able
to settle their accounts immediately, they wait another
year. In the mean time, cohabiting with Abyssinian slaves,
whom they marry, and finding themselves with a family,
they at last settle in the country. Every pilgrimage thus
adds to the population of Jidda, as of the other Arabian
towns, and recruits the waste occasioned by the surplus
of the deaths over the births. The natives of Jidda are
only a few families of Sherifs, who are all of the learned
order, and are attached to the mosques or the . courts of
justice. All the others are foreigners, or their descen¬
dants. Colonies from every town and province of Hadra-
maut and Yemen are settled in Jidda, and maintain an
intercourse with their native places. There are upwards
of a hundred Indian families from Surat, and a few from
Bombay; also Malays, and people from Muskat. The
settlers from Egypt, Syria, Barbary, European Turkey,
and Anatolia, may be still recognised in the features of
their descendants. No Christians are settled in Jidda;
but a few Greeks from the islands of the archipelago oc¬
casionally bring merchandise to this market from Egypt.
Jews were formerly the chief brokers of the town, but
they were all expelled about fifty or sixty years ago by
some of the governors.
Jidda is a great emporium of maritime commerce, and
well merits the Arabian appellation ofDjidda, or rich, being
probably richer than any town of the same size in the
Turkish dominions. The inhabitants are mostly all en¬
gaged in commerce, and pursue no manufactures or trades
but those of immediate necessity. They are all either
sea-faring people, traders by sea, or engaged in trading
with Arabia. Jidda not only derives its riches from being
the port of Mecca, through which numerous bands of pil¬
grims pass in their journey to the holy place, but it is
an entrepot of eastern commerce, through which all the
exports of India and Arabia destined for Egypt first pass.
All bargains are chiefly for ready money, the bad faith of the
4 E
J O A
586 J I L
Jigat.Point eastern merchants not being favourable to credit. Sales
II and purchases are made of entire ships’ cargoes in the
course of half an hour, and the next day the money is
paid down. Its commerce may be divided into two pi’in-
cipal branches, namely, the coffee trade and the Indian
trade. Ships laden with coffee arrive from Yemen all the
year round, and dispose of their cargoes for cloths, linen
stuffs, and beads, but chiefly for dollars, which they take
back to their own country. The demand for Arabian cof¬
fee in European Turkey, Asia Minor, and Syria, has been
in a great degree superseded, since the termination of the
war in Europe, by West India coffee.
The fleets from India, from Calcutta, Surat, and Bom¬
bay, reach Jidda in the beginning of May; their cargoes
of Indian goods are immediately bought up by the mer¬
chants of Jidda, or on account of Cairo merchants, who
send money to Jidda for the purpose. The greater part
of the merchandise is shipped for Suez, and sold at Cairo,
whence it finds its way into the Mediterranean. The re¬
turns are made either in goods or in dollars and sequins,
large quantities of which are carried off annually by the
Indian fleet. There are several rich merchants in Jidda.
Burckhardt, on whose accurate information this account is
chiefly founded, mentions two merchants whose grandfathers
were the original settlers, and who had each a capital of from
L.150,000 to L.250,000. Several Indians, he adds, had ac¬
quired capitals nearly equal; and there were about a dozen
of houses possessing from L.40,000 to L.50,000 sterling.
The vessels belonging to Jidda amount to about 250. It
trades by land only with Mecca and Medina. A caravan, of
from sixty to a hundred camels, departs for Medina every
forty or fifty days, principally with India goods and drugs,
and is always augmented by a crowd of pilgrims, who wish
to visit Mahommed’s tomb. There is another caravan for
Mecca every evening, or at least twice a week, with goods
and provisions. During the pilgrimage these caravans set
out regularly every evening after sun-set from the Mecca
gate; also a caravan of asses, which perform the journey
in fifteen or sixteen hours. It is by this caravan that let¬
ters are conveyed between the two towns. There are
twenty-seven coffee-shops in Jidda, where coffee, as in
most parts of Arabia, is drunk to excess, and various other
shops for the sale of butter, which is a chief article of Ara¬
bian cookery ; honey, oil, vinegar, fruits, dates, beans, &c.;
sweet-meats, sugar-plums, bread, milk ; corn, consisting of
Egyptian wheat, beans, lentils, dhourra, Indian and Egyp¬
tian rice; biscuits, salt, tobacco, soap, drugs, spices, sugar,
perfumery, incense, &c. There are also shops for articles
of Indian manufacture, for the sale of clothes chiefly after
the Turkish fashion, carpets, Indian piece goods. There
are, besides, bankers, bakers, tailors, and one watch-ma¬
ker. The number of inhabitants may be estimated in ge¬
neral at from 12,000 to 15,000; but during the months pre¬
ceding the pilgrimage, and the summer months, when the
Indian fleets arrive with the monsoons, the influx of stran¬
gers swells the population one half above its usual number.
Long. 39. 15. E. Eat. 21. 29. N.
JIGAT Point, a town and promontory at the south-west
extremity of Gujerat, situated on the Goomty, which is an
asylum for pirates, the people of this country being much
i addicted to piracy, in which they are encouraged by their
chiefs. It has a Hindu temple dedicated to Krishna.
Long. 69. 7. E. Lat. 22. 12. N.
JIHON. See Oxus.
JILLIFREY, a town of Africa, situated on the south¬
ern bank of the Gambia, near the mouth of that river.
Although not the capital, it is the chief place of trade of
the flourishing little kingdom of Barra; and the kin«- has
, here a custom-house, by which duties on vessels passino-
up and down the river are levied. Long. 16. 7. W I at*
13. 16. N.
JIN. See Genii. Jioi or
JIONPOOR, or Joanpore, a district of Hindustan, in
the province of Allahabad, included principally between J<.
the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth degrees of north latitude. ^
It is situated between the river Gogra on the east, and the
Ganges on the south ; to the north it is bounded by the
Gogra and part of Oude; and on the west it has the na¬
bob of Oude’s territories. It is well watered, and extreme¬
ly fertile; and the soil is under good cultivation, and well
covered with wood. The inhabitants are Mahommedans
and Hindus, in nearly equal proportions. Of the Hindus
there was one tribe amongst whom the practice of female in¬
fanticide greatly prevailed ; but, by the humane influence
of the British government, it has been in a great measure
abolished. This district came into the possession of the
British in 1775, as forming part of the Benares zemindary.
The principal towns are Jionpoor, Gazypoor, and Azimgar.
Jionpoor, the chief town in the above district, and
formerly the capital of an independent principality. It is
situated upon the banks of the Goomty. The tort, which is
built of solid stone-work, was founded in 1370, by Sultan
Feroze III. of Delhi, and named after his uncle and prede¬
cessor, whose name was Joana. Lie ordered a Hindu temple
to be levelled, and erected the fort around the ruins of it.
After his return to the capital, he collected numerous arti¬
ficers, and persons of every description, and sent them to
inhabit the new city, which was completed in twelve years.
On the subversion of the empire of Delhi by Timour or
Tamerlane, Khuaje Jehan, a governor of the eastern dis¬
tricts, assumed the royal dignity, and he made Jionpoor
his capital. He was succeeded in 1399 by his son Moba-
rik Shah, whose successor was Sultan Ibrahim. During
his prosperous reign of forty years he spared no expense to
strengthen and improve the fortress and city, and Jion¬
poor became one of the most celebrated cities of Hindus¬
tan, famed for religion and learning. Jionpoor was again
annexed to the empire of Delhi in the year 1478, when
the reigning prince was overthrown. Many of the mosques,
and some of the caravanserais and colleges built at that pe¬
riod, are still in existence. The fortress is built upon a high
bank of the river Goomty, so named from its meandering
course. It is built of solid stone, and rises considerably
above the level of the surrounding country. It was fre¬
quently taken in the contests between the Afghans and the
Moguls, and much dilapidated ; but about the year 1570 it
was thoroughly repaired by a nobleman from the court of
Akbar, who was governor of Bengal. It was also during
his time that the celebrated bridge of Jionpoor was built,
which has now stood 250 years, and still remains a monu¬
ment of ancient magnificence and of architectural skill. In
1773, when this bridge was submerged during the rainy
season, a brigade of British troops sailed over it. Such is
the strength and solid construction of this bridge, that it
suffered no damage from the violence of the current. The
town surrounds the fort on three sides, and contains a good
bazar and a number of brick houses. The surrounding
country for several miles is covered with the ruins of tombs
and mosques. Of the latter there are several in a good
state of repair, namely, the Jamai Musjed, which is very
handsome, and is built of stone. The travelling distance
from Benares is forty-two miles, and from Lucknow 147
miles. Long. 82. 39. E. Lat. 25. 45. N.
JOAB, general of the army of King David, who defeated
the Syrians and the other enemies of David, and took from the
Jebusites the fort of Zion, considered by them as impreg¬
nable. He also signalized himself inall David’swars, butwas
guilty of basely murdering Abner and Amasa. He procured a
reconciliation between Absalom and David ; and afterwards
slew Absalom, contrary to the express orders of the king.
He at length joined Adonijah’s party, and was put to death
by the order of Solomon, in the yean before Christ 1014.
J O A
achim- JOACHIMITES, in Ecclesiastical History, the disciples
ites of Joachim, a Cistertian monk, who was abbot of Flora in
II Calabria, and a great pretender to inspiration.
oana- jpg Joachimites were particularly enamoured of certain
ternaries. The Father, they said, operated from the be¬
ginning till the coming of the Son ; the Son, from that time
till their own era, which was the year 1260; and from the
latter epoch the Holy Spirit was to operate in his turn. They
also divided every thing relating to men, to doctrine, and to
the manner of living, into three classes, according to the
three persons in the Trinity. The first ternary consisted
of men, the first class of whom was that of married men,
which had lasted during the whole period of the Father;
the second was that of clerks, which had lasted during the
time of the Son ; and the third was that of the monks, in
which there was to be an uncommon effusion of grace by the
Holy Spirit. The second ternary was that of doctrine,
namely, the Old Testament, the New Testament, and the
everlasting Gospel; the first of which they ascribed to the
Father, the second to the Son, and the third to the Holy
Spirit. A third ternary consisted in the manner of living,
viz. under the Father, men lived according to the flesh ;
under the Son, they lived according to the flesh and the
spirit; and under the Holy Ghost, they were to live accord¬
ing to the spirit only.
JOAG, a town of Western Africa, and capital of the
kingdom of Kajaago. See Kajaago.
JOAL, a sea-port on the western coast of Africa, in the
small kingdom of Bar-Sin. Formerly a considerable slave
trade was carried on here; but cattle, poultry, and other
provisions are what it now chiefly supplies. Very large
vessels, however, cannot enter the port, on account of a
sand-bank which stretches across the mouth of the har¬
bour.
JOAN, Pope, called by Platina, John VIII., a woman
said to have occupied the holy see between Leo IV. who
died in 855, and Benedict III. who died in 858. Marianus
Scotus says that she occupied the pontifical chair two years
five months and four days. Numberless have been the con¬
troversies, fables, and conjectures, respecting this pope. It
is said that a German girl, pretending to be a man, went
to Athens, where she made great progress in the sciences;
and that she afterwards repaired to Home, still indued with
the male habit. As she had a quick genius, and spoke
with a good grace in the public disputations and lectures
of the time, her great learning was admired, and every one
loved her extremely ; so that after the death of Leo, she
was chosen pope, and performed all offices as such. But
whilst she was in possession of this high dignity, she became
pregnant; and as she was going in a solemn procession to
the Lateran church, she was delivered of a child, between
the Coliseum and St Clement’s church, in a public street,
before a crowd of people, and died on the spot, in 857. By
way of embellishing this story, it has been alleged that pre¬
cautions were afterwards taken to prevent the recurrence
of a similar accident.
Joan d’Arc, commonly called the Maid of Orleans,
whose heroic behaviour, in re-animating the expiring valour
of the French nation, deserved a better fate. To accom¬
plish this object, she pretended to be inspired; and, in her
character of prophetess as well as heroine, succeeded in in¬
fusing new energy into her countrymen. But her enemies
were not deceived as to her real character; they regarded
her merely as a bold and successful impostor ; and accord-
ingly, when she fell into their hands, they put her to death.
She was burned by the English as a sorceress in 1421, at
the age of twenty-four. See France.
JO AN A, a town on the northern coast of the island of
Java, formerly fortified. It is situated a few miles inland,
on the river Joana, along which it extends about a mile.
Ihe surrounding country yields rice, timber, and the na-
J O A
587
tives are employed in spinning cotton. The river on which Joanes
tne town is situated is the longest and deepest in the coun- II
try. It flows out of a deep lake, to which it is navigable Joao del
by boats; and it has several branches, one of which com- ^eV
mumcates with Samarang.
JOANES, Dos, a large island of South America, situat¬
ed at the mouth of the river Amazons, in the province of
. la" ^ 18 separated from the mainland west of the
nver Toccantins by the Strait of Tagyparu on the south,
and extends ninety miles from north to south, and one
hundred and twenty from east to west. It is one of the
best peopled districts in the province ; and, from its exten¬
sive grazing farms, Para, the capital, which is opposite to
it, draws its chief supply of meat. The island contains
many small towms and villages, and a considerable popula¬
tion of all castes and shades; but the Indians, who are
very imperfectly civilized, are the most numerous. The
climate is hot, but tempered by the ocean breeze.
JOAO del Rey, a town of Brazil, in the extensive
country of Minas Geraes. It is surrounded by mountains,
and lies partly on the side of an eminence and partly on a
plain, being divided into two by the small river Tijuco.
Ihe town is compact, of a circular form, and has the ge¬
neral appearance of all Portuguese towns of the same class.
I he houses are low, white-wrashed, and furnished with lat¬
ticed windows. The streets are narrow, crooked, far from
uniform, and very slippery, being paved with large, smooth,
blue stones, with a channel in the middle- The site of the
buildings is so irregular, that they overtop each other, the
conspicuous points being selected for public offices and
the best private dwellings. The government-house is a
large, substantial building, well situated for observing what
passes in the town, and for the despatch of public business.
Adjoining to it are the public offices, which form one side
of an unfinished square; on the other stand some plain,
substantial houses; and in the centre, the pillar of public
executions, surmounted by a figure of Minerva, invested
with the insignia of justice. The jail, a large and strong
building, is situated in the principal street. There are
thirteen churches, amongst which is a sort of metropolitan
church, built in taipe or paysan. Its exterior is mean, but
it contains within some very remarkable ornaments. A
brisk trade is carried on between this town and the capi¬
tal, by means of caravans, conveying thither bacon, cheese,
some cottons, woollen hats, horned cattle, mules, and gold
bars, and bringing back in return European goods, chiefly
Portuguese and English, such as calicoes, handkerchiefs,
lace, iron-ware, wine, porter, and liqueurs. Though the
environs are very mountainous and bare, and seem to be
thinly peopled, yet, in the clefts of the mountains and
valleys many haciendas are scattered, which furnish the
necessary supplies of maize, mandioc, beans, oranges, to¬
bacco, a small quantity of sugar and cotton, cheese in
abundance, cattle, swine, and mules; whilst the streams,
which are full of fish, contribute to the supply .of food.
Formerly the chief occupation of the people was search¬
ing for gold. Ihe mine to which the town owes its origin
and celebrity, and whence such masses of mineral wealth
have been extracted, is situated within the town, near the
government-house. It is nothing but a deep pit, having
perpendicular sides, and always full of water during the
rainy season. Ihe labour and expense of procuring the
precious metal under such circumstances, together with the
ignorance of the mechanical arts here, present insuperable
obstacles to the full produce of the mine being obtained,
and the greater part of the gold dust brought to the smelt¬
ing-house comes from other quarters. The lower classes
in this town are idle and profligate; a social condition
which in some measure may be ascribed to the general
want of education amongst the inhabitants. The town is
governed by a desembargador, or supreme judge. It has
588 JOE
Job also an attorney-general, a vicar, and a royal Latin pro-
11 fessor. The population amounts to about 6000, of which
onty one are white people, the rest being negroes
and mulattoes. The colour of the white people consti¬
tutes an exemption from toil; and those who do labour,
occup}' themselves on farms, in superintending shops, or
in filling places of public trust, and in discharging the du¬
ties of religion and justice. Others are employed at wool¬
len manufactories in the neighbourhood, the cloth being
prepared from an article of native produce. Ihis town is
stated to be eighty miles south-west of Villa Rica, about
the same distance south-south-west of Sahara, and up¬
wards of two hundred miles north-west of Rio.
JOB, or Book of Job, a canonical book of the Old Tes¬
tament, containing a narrative of a series ot misfortunes
which happened to a man whose name was Job, as a trial
of his virtue and patience; together with the conferences
which he had with fins friends on the subject of his mis¬
fortunes, and the manner in which he was restored to ease
and happiness. This book is filled with those noble, and
elevated, and figurative expressions, which constitute the
essence of poetry.
Many of the Jewish rabbin pretend that this relation
is altogether fictitious ; and others think it a simple nar¬
rative of a matter of fact just as it happened; whilst a
third class of critics acknowledge that the groundwork of
the story is true, but that it is written in a poetical strain,
and decorated with peculiar circumstances, to render the
narrative more profitable as well as entertaining. The
time in which Job lived is not mentioned. It has been
thought that he was much more ancient than Moses, be¬
cause the law is never cited by Job or his friends, and be¬
cause it is related that Job himself offered sacrifices. Some
imagine that this book was written by himself; others are
of opinion that Job wrrote it originally in Syriac or Arabic,
and that Moses translated it into Hebrew ; but the rabbin
generally held that Moses w as the author of it, and many
Christian writers are of the same opinion.
JOBBER, a person who undertakes jobs, or small pieces
of work. In some statutes, jobber is used to signify a per¬
son who buys and sells for others. See Broker.
JOBBING, the business of a jobber.
Stock-Jobbing denotes the practice of trafficking in the
public funds, or of buying and selling stock with a view
to its rise or fall. The term is commonly applied to the
illegal practice of buying and selling stock for time, or of
accounting for the differences in the rise or fall of any par¬
ticular stock for a stipulated time, whether the buyer or
seller be possessed of any such real stock or not.
JOCKEY, in the management of horses, the person
who grooms or rides them. See, on this subject, Horse
and Horsemanship.
JOEL, or the Prophecy of Joel, a canonical book of
the Old Testament. Joel was the son of Pethuel, and the
second of the twelve lesser prophets. The style of this
prophet is bold, figurative, and expressive. He upbraids
the Israelites for their idolatry, and foretells the calamities
which they should suffer as the punishment of that sin ;
but he endeavours to support them with the comfort that
their miseries would have an end upon their reformation
and repentance. Some writers, inferring the order of time
in which the minor prophets lived from the order in which
they are placed in the Hebrew copies, conclude that Joel
prophecied before Amos, who was contemporary with Uz-
ziah, king of Judah. Archbishop Usher draws this in¬
ference from Joel’s foretelling the drought (chap. iv. 7, 8,
9). But if we consider the main design of Joel’s prophecy,
we shall be apt to conclude that it was uttered after the
captivity of the ten tribes; for he directs his discourse to
Judah alone, and speaks distinctly of the sacrifices and ob¬
lations which were daily offered in the temple.
JOG
JOGHIS, a sect of religious persons in the East Indies,
who never marry, nor hold any private property, but live
on alms, and practise strange severities or mortifications, fff i-
They are subject to a general, who sends them from one
country to another to preach. They are, properly, a kind
of penitent pilgrims, and supposed to be a remnant of the
ancient Gymnosophists. They principally frequent such
places as are consecrated by the devotion of the people,
and pretend to live several days together without either
eating or drinking. After having gone through a course
of discipline for a certain time, they look upon themselves
as impeccable, and privileged to do any thing ; in conse¬
quence of which they give a loose rein to their passions,
and run into all manner of debauchery.
JOGUES, or Yugs, certain ages, eras, or periods of ex¬
traordinary length in the fabulous chronology of the Hin¬
dus. They are (see Halhed’s Preface to the Code of Gen-
too Laivs, p. xxxvi.) four in number, viz.
1. The Suttee Yug, or age of purity, which is said to
have lasted three millions two hundred thousand years;
and they hold that the life of man was extended in that
age to one hundred thousand years, and that his stature
was twenty-one cubits.
2. The Tirtah Yug, in which one third of mankind was
corrupted, they suppose to have consisted of two millions
four hundred thousand years, during which men lived to
the age of ten thousand years.
3. The Dwapaar Yug, in which half of the human race
became depraved, endured one million six hundred thou¬
sand years, during which the life of man was reduced to a
thousand years.
4. The Collee Yug, in wdiich all mankind were corrupt¬
ed, or rather lessened (for that is the true meaning of the
word Collee), is the present era, which they suppose or¬
dained to subsist four hundred thousand years, and of
which nearly five thousand are already past. The life of
man in this period is limited to one hundred years.
Some account has already been given of the Indian
chronology (see articles Chronology and Hindustan),
and it is therefore unnecessary to recur to the subject in
this place. But we may nevertheless subjoin Dr Robert¬
son’s observations on the above periods, from the Notes
to his Historical Disquisition concerning India. “ If,”
says he, “ we suppose the computation of time in the In¬
dian chronology to be made by solar, or even by lunar
years, nothing can be more extravagant in itself, or more
repugnant to our mode of calculating the duration of the
world, founded on sacred and infallible authority. From
one circumstance, however, which merits attention, we
may conclude that the information which we have hi¬
therto received concerning the chronology of the Hindus
is very incorrect. We have, as far as I know, only five
original accounts of the different Jogues or eras of the
Hindus. The first is given by M. Rogers, who received
it from the Brahmins on the Coromandel coast. Accord¬
ing to it, the Suttee Jogue is a period of one million seven
hundred and twenty-eight thousand years; the Tirtah
Jogue is one million two hundred and ninety-six thousand
years ; the Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and sixty-four
thousand. The duration of the Collee Jogue he does not
specify {Porte Ouverte, p. 179). The next is that of M.
Bernier, who received it from the Brahmins of Benares.
According to him, the duration of the Suttee Jogue was
two millions five hundred thousand years; that of the Tir¬
tah Jogue, one million two hundred thousand years; that
of the Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and sixty-four thou¬
sand years. Concerning the period of the Collee Jogue he
is likewise silent ( Voyages, tom. ii. p. 160). The third is
that of Colonel Dow; according to which the Suttee
Jogue is a period of fourteen millions of years, the Tirtah
Jogue one million and eighty thousand, the Dwapaar Jogue
J O H
ohanna seventy-two thousand, and the Collee Jogue thirty-six
° || thousand years {Hist, of Hindost. vol. i. p. 2). The fourth
ohn, St. account is that of M. le Gentil, who received it from the
Brahmins of the Coromandel coast; and as his informa¬
tion was acquired in the same part of India, and derived
from the same source, with that of M. Rogers, it agrees
with his in every particular {Mem. de VAcademic des Sci¬
ences pour 1772, tom. ii. part i. p. 176). The fifth is the
account of Mr Halhed, which has been already given.
From this discrepancy, not only of the total numbers, but
of many of the articles in the different accounts, it is ma¬
nifest that our information concerning Indian chronology is
hitherto as uncertain as the whole system of it is wild and
fabulous. To me it appears highly probable, that when we
understand more thoroughly the principles upon which the
factitious eras or jogues of the Hindus have been formed,
that we may be more able to reconcile their chronology
to the true mode of computing time, founded on the au¬
thority of the Old Testament; and may likewise find rea¬
son to conclude, that the account given by their astrono¬
mers, of the situation of the heavenly bodies at the begin¬
ning of the Collee Jogue, is not established by actual ob¬
servation, but the result of a retrospective calculation.”
JOHANNA, or Anjouan, more properly Hinzouan.
See Hinzouan.
JOHANN-Georgenstadt, a city of the mining district
of the kingdom of Saxony, in the circle of Freyburg, upon
the frontiers of Bohemia. It contains 396 houses, and
3000 inhabitants, who are employed in extracting silver,
tin, vitriol, sulphur, iron, and manganese, from the sur¬
rounding mines.
JOH ANNISBERG, a town of the duchy of Nassau, in
Germany, near the Rhine, containing about 700 inhabi¬
tants. It is celebrated for its wine. The most famous of
the vineyards belonged formerly to the prince-bishop of
Fulda, but now to Prince Metternich, who has a castle at
the town, and is said to derive from his wine an income of
L.4000 per annum. There is much other wine produced
from the neighbourhood, of an excellent quality; but it is
estimated lower than that of the prince,
f JOHN, St, the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus Christ,
was the son of Zacharias and Elizabeth. He retired
into a desert, where he lived on locusts and wild ho¬
ney ; and about the year 29 began to preach repentance,
and to declare the coming of the Messiah. He baptized
his disciples, and the following year Christ himself was
baptized by him in the river Jordan. Some time after¬
wards, having reproved Herod Antipas, who carried on a
criminal correspondence with Herodias, his brother Philip’s
wife, he was cast into prison, where he was beheaded.
His head was brought to Herodias, who, according to St
Jerome, to revenge herself after his death for the freedom
of his reproofs, pierced his tongue with the bodkin with
which she used to fasten her hair.
John, St, the Apostle or Evangelist, was the brother of
St James the Great, and the son of Zebedee. He quitted
the business of fishing to follow Jesus, and became his be¬
loved disciple. He was witness to the actions and mira¬
cles of his Master, was present at his transfiguration on
Mount Tabor, and attended him in the garden of olives.
He was the only apostle who followed him to the. cross,
and to him Jesus left the care of his mother. He w as also
the first apostle who knew him again after his resurrection.
He preached the faith in Asia, and principally resided at
Ephesus, where he maintained the mother of our Lord. He
is believed to have founded the churches of Smyrna, Per-
gamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. He
is also said to have preached the gospel amongst the Par-
thanis, and to have addressed his first epistle to that peo¬
ple. It is related that, when he was at Rome, the Empe¬
ror Domitian caused him to be thrown into a caldron of
JOH 589
boiling oil, but that he came out unhurt; upon which he Gospel of
was banished to the isle of Patmos, where he wrote his St John
Apocalypse. After the death of Domitian he returned to } II
Ephesus, where he composed his Gospel, about the year ^ '^°^n
96 ; and died there, in the reign of Trajan, about the year
100, at the age of 94.
Gospel of St John, a canonical book of the N ew Testa¬
ment, containing a recital of the life, actions, doctrine, and
death, of our Saviour Jesus Christ, written by St John the
apostle and evangelist. At the desire of the Christians of
Asia, St John wrote his Gospel at Ephesus, after his re¬
turn from the isle of Patmos. St Jerome says he would
not undertake it, except upon condition that they should ap¬
point a.public fast to implore the assistance of God ; and
that, the fast being ended, St John, filled with the Holy
Ghost, broke out into the words, “ In the beginning was
the Word,” &c. The ancients assign two reasons for this
undertaking. The first is, because, in the other three
Gospels, there was wanting the history of the beginning of
Jesus Christ’s preaching till the imprisonment of John the
Baptist, which therefore he applied himself particularly to
relate. The second is, that it was written in order to re¬
move the errors of the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and other
sects. But Mr Lampe and Dr Lardner have urged several
reasons to show that St John in his Gospel did not write
against Cerinthus, or any other heretic.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
John, St, the name of several small towns, counties,
rivers, lakes, bays, creeks, and capes of North and South
America, all of which deserving of particular notice will be
found described under the heads of the various states or
provinces where they occur.
John of Salisbury, bishop of Chartres, in France, was
born at Salisbury, in Wiltshire, in the beginning of the
twelfth century. Where he received the rudiments of his
education is unknown ; but we learn, that in the year 1136,
being then a youth, he was sent to Paris, where he studied
under several eminent professors, and acquired considerable
reputation for his application and proficiency in rhetoric,
poetry, divinity, and particularly in the learned languages.
From Paris he travelled into Italy; and, during his resi¬
dence at Rome, he rose into high favour with Pope Euge-
nius III. and his successor Adrian IV. After his return to
England, he became the intimate friend and companion of
the renowned Thomas-a-Becket, archbishop of Canterbury,
whom he attended in his exile ; and he is said to have been
present when that haughty prelate was murdered in his ca¬
thedral. What preferment he obtained in the church dur¬
ing this time does not appear; but in 1176 he was pro¬
moted by King Henry II. to the bishopric of Chartres in
France, where he died in 1182. This John of Salisbury
was one of the first restorers of the Greek and Latin lan¬
guages in Europe, a classical scholar, a philosopher, a learn¬
ed divine, and an elegant Latin poet. He wrote several
books, the principal of which are, his Life of St Thomas
of Canterbury, a collection of Letters, and Polycraticon.
Pope John XII. a native of Cahore, originally called
James d’Euse, was well skilled in the civil and canon law,
and was elected pope after the death of Clement V. on
the 7th of August 1316. He published the constitutions
called Clementine, which were framed by his predecessor ;
and drew up the other constitutions called Extravagantes.
When Louis of Bavaria was a candidate for the imperial
crown, John XIL opposed him in favour of his competitor ;
which made much noise, and was attended with fatal con¬
sequences. That prince, in 1320, caused the antipopePeter
de Corbiero, a Cordelier, to be elected, who took the.name
of Nicolas V. and was supported by Michael de Cesenne, ge¬
neral of his order ; but that antipope was the following year
taken and carried to Avignon, where he begged pardon of
the pope with a rope about his neck, and died in prison some
590 J O H
John of years afterwards. Under this pope arose the celebrated
(raunt question among the Cordeliers, called “ the bread of the
John s St t'ordelierswhich was, whether those monks had the
’ property of the things given them, at the time they were
making use of them ; that is, whether the bread belong¬
ed to them when they were eating it, or to the pope, or
to the Roman church. This frivolous dispute gave great em¬
ployment to the pope, as also did those which turned upon
the colour, form, and stuff, of their habits, whether they
ought to be white, gray, or black; whether the cowl
ought to be pointed or round, large or small; whether
their robes should be full, short, or long; of cloth, or of
serge. The disputes on these minute trifles were carried
so far between the minor brothers, that some of them
were burned upon the occasion. Pope John died at Avig¬
non in 1334, aged ninety.
John of Fordun. See Fordun.
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, a renowned gene¬
ral, father of Henry IV. king of England, died in 1438.
John Sobieski of Poland, one of the greatest warriors
in the seventeenth century, was, in 1665, made grand-
marshal of the crown, and, in 1667, grand-general of the
kingdom. The victories he obtained over the Tartars and
the Turks procured him the crown, to which he was elect¬
ed in 1674. He was an encourager of arts and sciences,
and the protector of learned men. He died in 1696, at
the age of seventy-two.
St John’s Day, the name of two Christian festivals;
one observed on the 24th of June, in commemoration of
the wonderful circumstances attending the birth of St
John the Baptist; and the other on the 27th of Decem¬
ber, in honour of St John the Evangelist.
JOHN’S Island, an island on the southern coastof Caro¬
lina, a little to the south-west of Charleston harbour. It
is thirty miles in circumference, and is divided from James’
Island by Stono River, which forms a convenient and safe
harbour. Long. 80. 10. W. Lat. 32. 42. N.
John’s, St, the capital of the island of Newfoundland.
See Newfoundland.
John’s, St, or Prince Edward Island, a fine island,
situated in the Gulf of St Lawrence, within the longitudes
of 62° and 65° W., and the latitudes of 46° and 47° 10' N.
It is 140 miles in length, and its greatest breadth is
thirty-four miles. From Nova Scotia it is separated by
Noi thumberland Strait, wdiich is nine miles broad between
Cape Traverse and Cape Tormentine. Cape Breton lies
within twenty-seven miles of the east point; and Cape
Ray, the nearest part of Newfoundland, is one hundred
and twenty miles distant.
This island was discovered by Cabot on the 24th of June
1497, beingj St John’s day, and hence derived its name.
The English, however, neglected to avail themselves of
this tight of possession; and the French, who appear at
first to have entertained more correct views of its im-
portance, took possession of it, when they made the con¬
quest of Canada, apparently without any remonstrance on
tne part of Britain. F or a period of two hundred and thirty-
five years it continued attached to the crown of France •
and although it cannot be said to have advanced in pros¬
perity with an average degree of celerity, considering the
value at which such a possession ought to have been rated,
yet the xesouices of the island had not been overlooked
and would probably have been called into activity, had it
not been surrendered to Great Britain in 1758. At that time
the population in the various settlements appears not to
have amounted to more than 6000. At the peace of 1763
this colony and Cape Breton were annexed to the govern¬
ment of Nova Scotia; and a plan of settlement was agreed
to, by which the island was divided into sixty-seven town¬
ships, of about 20,000 acres each, granted to individuals
who were considered as having claims on the government,
J O II
and who were to pay a small sum as quit-rent. A reser-John’^i
vation was set apart for his majesty, and also for the pur- j .
poses of religion and education; and the grantees were
bound to settle each township w ithin a stipulated period,
by a given number of individuals. The plan, however,
was unsuccessful, and many of the proprietors disposed of
their lands to others who had either not the will or not the
power to proceed with the colonization of the island, ac¬
cording to the principle originally fixed upon. In 1768,
St John’s was erected into a separate government from
that of Nova Scotia, at the request of a majority of the
proprietors; and a governor was appointed, who set vigor¬
ously about settling the island in a proper manner, and who
did more in this respect than any other proprietor at that
time. The colony obtained a complete constitution in
1773, when the first house of assembly met. During the
American war, it continued true to the interests of the
mother country, and was resorted to by ships of war, as well
as converted into a military station. About the year 1790,
twro provincial corps were raised for the protection of the
island, and three troops of volunteer cavalry were likewise
formed. Asa mark of respect for the Duke of Kent, com¬
mander of the British army in America in 1799, the island
was then named Prince Edward Island; a very uncalled-
for change from St John’s, its most appropriate designation.
Since that period no event has occurred of such moment
as to require particular mention here.
This island, without being mountainous, or possessed of
romantic scenery, is agreeably diversified by hill and dale;
but the level is, in general, never so far deviated from as
to interfere with the purposes of agriculture. There are
no mountains, properly so called; but a chain of hills
intersects the island breadthwise, about its middle. It
abounds with streams, and springs of the purest water;
and numerous arms of the sea penetrate so far inland that
no part of the country is more than eight miles removed
from the flux and reflux of the tide. When first seen, it
presents the aspect of a flat country, covered with trees to
the margin of the ocean; but, on a nearer approach, the
more inviting prospect discloses itself, of villages and farms
situated in valleys or on green and gentle declivities, with
the other smiling features which result from agricultural
industry or spontaneous fertility. Almost every part pre¬
sents beautiful landscape views, especially in summer and
autumn, when the forests exhibit an exuberance of rich
and splendid foliage. Unlike Cape Breton, Newfoundland,
and other contiguous islands, St John’s is very rarely visited
by fogs; and although the winter be equally severe, the
transitions from one extreme to another are less violent.
The season of cold is likewise less protracted than it is in
Lower Canada, whilst the frost is not so intense, nor the
snow s so deep. Altogether the climate is very salubrious,
and there are few countries where health is enjoyed with
less interruption.
The soil consists of a thin layer of black or browm mould,
composed of decayed vegetables, superimposed upon’a light
loam, occasionally of a sandy, and at other times of a clayey
character. This extends about one foot downwards, and
then a stiff clay, resting upon sand-stone, predominates.
The latter rock is the base of the island, and it appears to
extend under the bed of Northumberland Strait, into the
contiguous islands, and also into the continent. A solitary
block of granite occasionally presents itself; but neither
limestone, gypsum, nor coal, have been discovered, although
their presence was to have been expected from the oc¬
currence of the sandstone formation. Iron has not yet
been found, although the soil and the springs are impreg¬
nated with it. Red clay, of a superior quality, for bricks,
abounds in all parts; and white clay, for potters’ use, is
found in limited quantities. The soil is fertile, and its
quality can be readily ascertained by the nature of the
S T J O H N’S.
591
jin’s, St. wood which grows upon it; the richest being that where and Prince’s .Counties. These are again divided into pa- John’s, St.
the maple, beech, black birch, and a mixture of other trees, rishes, the whole being subdivided into sixty-seven town-
grow; and the less fertile being that where the varieties of ships, containing about 20,000 acres each. The ground for
the fir tribe are most abundant. There are some unpro- a town, containing about 400 building lots, with the same
ductive bogs, swamps, and other tracts called barrens ; but number of pasture lots, are reserved in each county. These
they bear but a small proportion to the whole surface of are, George Town in King’s County, Charlotte Town in
the island, and may, by judicious management, be brought Queen’s County, and Prince Town in Prince’s County,
under cultivation. The marshes, which are overflowed by Queen’s County contains five parishes, namely, Gren-
the tide, rear a strong, nutritious grass, and, when dyked, ville, Charlotte, Bedford, Hillsborough, and St John’s, and
yield heavy crops of wheat or hay. Those swamps also which comprehends an area of 486,400 acres in the centre of the
have been drained form excellent meadows. A very con- island. The north coast of this county possesses few har-
siderable proportion of the island must have formerly been hours, except for smaller vessels ; but it is extremely pic-
covered with pine forests, and some tracts, from which turesque. On the south shore is Hillsborough Bay, at the
these have disappeared, partake of the character of barrens, bottom of which, and at the confluence of the three rivers
Many of these plantations of wood have been destroyed Hillsborough, York, and Elliott, Charlotte Town, the ca-
by fires, which have at different periods raged over the pital of the island, and the seat of government, is situated,
island; and in these places white birches, spruce-firs, pop- Its harbour is considered as one of the best and most secure
lars, and wild cherry-trees, have sprung up. The poplars in the Gulf of St Lawrence, though not more than half a
grow to an immense size, and are very plentiful. There mile wide at the entrance. Within this point it widens
are many other kinds of trees besides, such as beech, ma- into a spacious basin, and then branches into three beauti-
ple, dog-wood, alder, Indian pear tree ; and most of the ful and navigable rivers. The harbour is protected by
shrubs, wild fruits, herbs, and grasses, common to other several batteries, and it could easily be put into such a
parts of British North America. Sarsaparilla, ginseng, and state of defence as to secure the town from any attack
probably many other medicinal plants, are plentiful in all from the seaward. The town is advantageously situated on
parts of the island. Amongst the wild fruits, rasp-berries, ground which rises gradually to a moderate height above
straw-berries, cran-berries, which are very large, blue- the level of the sea. It is regularly laid out, the streets
berries, and whortle-berries, are exceedingly abundant. being broad, and intersecting each other at right angles,
Amongst the quadrupeds native to the island may be five or six vacancies being left for squares. There are about
mentioned bears, once very numerous and destructive, but three hundred and fifty dwelling-houses, many of them
now much reduced; loup-cerviers, a deadly enemy of sheep; handsomely finished. The public buildings are, the court-
foxes and hares, which are both numerous; otters, martens, house, in which the court of chancery, as wrell as the
and musk-rats, now rarely met with, from having been court of judicature, are held, and in which the legislative
long hunted for their skins ; varieties of the squirrel in great assembly likewise sit; the Episcopal church, the new
abundance; and a few weasels and ermines. During Scotch church, and the Catholic and the Methodist cha-
spring, summer, and autumn, seals frequent the shores ; pels. The barracks are pleasantly situated near the water,
and walrusses were at one time annual visitants, but they and a neat parade or square occupies the space between
have now entirely disappeared. Partridges and wild pi- those of the officers and privates. On the west side of the
geons are plentiful, and, as well as hares, are free for any harbour lies the Fort or Warren Farm, the most beauti-
person to kill, no game-laws existing. In spring and au- ful situation on the island. No place could have been
tumn, wild geese, ducks, and other water-fowl, are abun- more judiciously selected as a site for the metropolis, than
dant. Thareptiles and insects do not require particular that which has been chosen for Charlotte Town. It
notice. The rivers abound with excellent fish, such as is situated almost in the centre of the county, and of easy
trout, eel, mackerel, flounders, oysters, lobsters, the two access, either by water, or by the different roads leading
latter being very large and very fine; and the coast with to it from the various other settlements. Indeed there is
cod-fish and herrings in great abundance. a maritime communication with a considerable portion of
Prince Edward Island is essentially an agricultural co- the island by means of the three rivers near the confluence
lony, for which its climate, soil, and the configuration of of which it stands. The population amounts to about 3400.
its surface, admirably adapt it. All kinds of grain and ve- Twenty miles west of Charlotte Town, and nearly opposite
getables raised in England arrive at perfection. Crop to Bai de Verts, or Green Bay, in Nova Scotia, stands Try-
after crop of wheat springs up without manuring; the bar- on village, one of the most populous and pleasant places
ley is excellent, and the oats much superior to any other in the island. A serpentine river winds through it. on the
of American growth. The potatoes and turnips cannot be banks of which are well-cultivated farms. The tide flows
anywhere excelled in quality, and peas and beans are up about two miles; but, from a dangerous bar at its mouth,
equally good. Cabbage, carrots, parsnips, and, indeed, all the harbour will only admit small vessels. On the north
culinary vegetables, thrive as well here as in English gar- coast of this county is New London, in the district of
dens. Various fruits are also cultivated, such as cherries, Grenville Bay. The harbour of New London, though safe
plums, damsons, and the like. Flax, of excellent quality, and convenient, will not admit vessels drawing more than
is raised and wrought into fabrics by private individuals, twelve feet of water. The bar is sheltered during north-
Hemp grows, but not to such perfection as in other places, westerly winds by Cape Tryon, three miles to the north.
The climate is particularly favourable to sheep, and they The lands on the west side of this harbour have long been
are exempt from those diseases common to the animal in cultivated; and there was formerly an extensive fishing
this country. Black cattle are good, but small; swine establishment erected here, but circumstances occurred to
thrive well, as also do horses and milk-cows. The breed of interrupt its prosperity. Harrington, or Grand Rustico
useful animals generally has been much improved of late Bay, has two entrances, and a harbour for small brigs and
years; and agriculture, by the fostering care of the gover- schooners. Here are two villages inhabited by Acadian
nor, has recently made decided advances. Such being the French. The surrounding parts of the bay have been po-
natural resources and advantages of this colony, it appears pulously settled, chiefly by emigrants from Scotland. To
to be admirably adapted for industrious emigrants with the east of Grand Rustico, are Brackly, and Little Rustico,
small capitals. Before adverting to the trade of the island, or Stanhope Cove, esteemed two of the finest settlements
it will be necessary to speak of the principal settlements, on the island. Still further east is Bedford, or 1 racady
and its division into three counties, viz. Queen’s, King’s, Bay, at which there is a small harbour for schooners and
592
ST JO H N’S.
John’s, St. small brigs. On the opposite side of the island is Belfast
w’-1 district, which includes the villages of Great and Little
Belfast, Orwell, and Point Prince, together with various
settlements. The soil here is excellent, and heavy crops
are raised, the surplus of which is exported.
King’s County, on the east side of the island, is divided
into four parishes, viz. East, St Patrick, St George’s, and
St Andrew’s, the whole comprising 412,000 acres. The
first, as its name signifies, occupies the whole eastern
point of the island, and is destitute of a harbour on its
north shore, which is called the District of the Capes.
The inhabitants are principally from the west of Scotland
and the Hebrides, and they have chiefly applied them¬
selves to agriculture. Owing to the abundant supplies
of sea-weed which they possess, they manure the land
well, and raise valuable crops, particularly of barley and
wheat. Colville, Hollo, Fortune, and Broughton Baj's, are
small harbours with thriving settlements. St Patrick’s
parish has a good bay for small vessels on the north shore,
called St Peter’s, about nine miles long. The settlements
on each side are in a flourishing and rapidly improving
condition. St Andrew’s parish has Murray Harbour and
river in it. The former is well sheltered, but of difficult
access. Ship-building is carried on here to some extent,
and the surrounding country is rapidly improving. George
Town, or Three Rivers, is situated in the parish of St
George’s, on the south-east part of the island. It pos¬
sesses an excellent and safe harbour, at the junction of
three fine rivers, and is well calculated for being the cen¬
tre of any trade carried on within the Gulf of St Law¬
rence. Excellent fishing-grounds lie in its vicinity ; and
at certain seasons of the year herrings enter it in large
shoals. The contiguous settlements are rapidly improv¬
ing, the settlers turning their attention more to agricul¬
ture than formerly. Ship-building is carried on here,
and a considerable quantity of timber has been exported
within the last five-and-twenty years.
Prince’s County contains five parishes, namely, North,
Egmont, Halifax, Richmond, and St David’s, and com¬
prises an area of 467,000 acres. This county possesses
several very fine harbours, particularly on the north side,
that of Richmond Bay being the largest. This bay is ten
miles in depth and nine miles in breadth ; and although
the centre part is unsheltered, there are several inlets
perfectly safe from all winds, with from three to four fa¬
thoms of good anchorage.
Six beautiful islands lie within or across the bay, three
of which have an area of 500 acres of good land. Lennox Johr st
Island is the principal rendezvous of the Micmac Indians, - w
once a powerful people, but, like the other aboriginal
tribes of the west, now reduced to a mere handful by
the arts and the arms of their white subjugators. They
profess the Roman Catholic faith, and have here a bury-
ing-ground and chapel, where they assemble for a few
weeks in summer, A number of townships abut on Rich¬
mond Bay, which has a highly advantageous water com¬
munication along the coast. It is well situated for cod
and herring fisheries, and has afforded several cargoes
of timber, as well as vessels built upon the spot, for the
English market. The settlers here are principally Scotch,
and are, generally speaking, a moral and orderly class of
people. To the west of Richmond Bay is Holland Har¬
bour, or Cascumpec, a safe and convenient place of an¬
chorage. The lands around it are well adapted for agri¬
culture ; and this place also, by its advantageous situation,
is well calculated for extensive fishing establishments. It
is the most convenient port in the island for loading tim¬
ber, where there is a very large quantity ; it has also a
saw-mill for cutting plank or board.
The population consists of Acadian French and some
English families. From Holland Bay to the north-west
point (in 47° 7' north latitude) of the island, a distance of
twenty-four miles, the coast is low and sandy, as is like¬
wise the case from North Cape, down towards the West
Cape, on the south coast, which forms the western en¬
trance of Egmont Bay. This bay is sixteen miles broad,
from the west point to Cape Egmont, and about ten deep.
There is no harbour for large vessels within it, and it is by
no means very inviting for strange vessels. The inhabitants
in this part are chiefly Acadian French, who live in three
small thriving villages on the east side of the bay. Far¬
ther to the east lies Halifax, or Bedeque Bay, which has
a well-sheltered harbour. The shores are populously
settled, and there are two or three ship-building estab¬
lishments here.
When this island was in possession of the French, little
commerce was carried on by the inhabitants ; but when it
came into the hands of the British, a small trade com¬
menced in the articles offish, oil, sea-cow skins, and seal¬
skins, which were exported to various parts of the North
American continent. Since that period the trade has
very materially increased. The following tables show
the present state of the commercial and shipping interests
of the island.
Vessels which have cleared Inwards and Oattvards during the Years 1833 and 1834.
Year ended 5th January 1833.
Year ended 5th January 1834.
Inwards.
United Kingdom 
British West Indies, including)
Demerara, Berbice, and Ber- V
muda V
British North America, includ- {
ing Newfoundland J
United J British vessels  |
States, (Foreign ditto J
St Pierre’s 
Total.
No.
19
251
277
Tons- Men.
3880 171
78 7
10522 653
169 12
133! 6
Outwards.
Inwards.
No.
20
287
14782 : 849 318
Tons.
3793
415
14224
130
118
18680
Men.
178
29
770
No.
16
344
990 363
Tons.
3251
35
14214
138
61
17699
Men.
151
850
1016
Outwards.
No.
19
2
368
390
Tons.
3360
178
18069
61
21668
Men-
159
11
1065
1238
ried'imln^he colony^^urLg’the year^l^ss’therf were aggS^
S T J O H N’S. 593
ohn's, St. employed in the foreign and coasting trade belonging to that fisheries have not been more attended to. The her-John’s St.
the island in the same year was, foreign, five vessels, of ring fishery is the most important; immense shoals of these
1169 tons burden, carrying forty-five men; coasting, 124 fish arrive on the coast early in spring, and can be taken
vessels, of 6346 tons burden, carrying 359 men. During in any quantity. Cod, mackerel, and other fish, may like-
the year ending December 1832, there were transfer- wise be caught in abundance. In short, were more atten-
red from the island to other ports, thirty-two vessels, of tion paid to the fisheries, they would add much to the value
3202 tons burden in the aggregate. As the best fish- of property on the island. Agriculture, however, is not
ing banks within the Gulf of St Lawrence are situat- neglected, as will be seen by the following table, show¬
ed in the neighbourhood of this island, it is surprising ing the quantity of
Goods exported in the Year ending bth January 1833.
Articles Exported.
Oats, 65,747| bushels 
Barley, 15,262 ditto  
Wheat, 9585|- ditto 
Flour, 643^ barrels 
Oatmeal, 547 do. 1 pun 
Beef, 57 ditto 
Pork, 290 ditto, and 13 pun 
Dry fish, 1058 quintals 
Pickled fish, 302^ barrels 
Timber, 4601^ tons 
Lathwood, 170 cords 
Spars, 375 do 
Staves, 36| M 
Boards and planks, 1,305,767 feet.
Shingles, 1445 M 
Cattle, 547 head  
Sheep, 813 do 
Hogs, 63 do 
Turnips, 2150 bushels  
Potatoes, 82,720| ditto 
Sundries 
Total.
Great Britain.
L.
236
117
2,367
”42
3500
161
47
77
170
295
British West
Indies.
7,012
L.
360
10
57
263
49
94
British North
American
Colonies.
840
L.
3,586
1,612
199
819
807
137
621
523
255
142
85
28
2,316
351
931
346
33
107
4,100
6,466
23,472
Total Sterling.
L.
4,185
1,849
2,566
819
854
137
621
534
255
3,643
161
133
163
2,749
400
931
346
33
107
4,100
7,144
31,739
The total amount of imports during the same year was
L.70,068. The items were severally thus in the re¬
turn :—
Brandy L.443
Cordage 2,189
Dry goods, consisting of bales, cases, casks,
trunks, boxes, and bundles   19,423
Nails 1,248
Molasses 1,517
Sail-cloth 1,123
Salt. 734
Stationery 181
Soap 659
Sugar 2,164
Rum 8,355
Tea 4,894
Tobacco 1,369
Wine 966
Ron 685
Sundries 24,109
The returns for 1834 show a decided increase in trade,
especially that which is dependent upon the cultivation
of the soil. But of course the commerce of the island is
as yet in its infancy. The following is a statistical view
of the island, according to a return made under the au¬
thority of the act Will. IV. cap. 7, a. d. 1834, viz.
Townships 67
Acres of land occupied   382,301^
Acres of improved land ditto 89,757f
vol. xii. 2
Cows owned 13,185
Oxen ditto 3,267
Other kinds of neat cattle  12,624
Horses .5,866
Sheep 48,076
Hogs 19,864
Bushels of wheat 121,032^
barley 37,300|
oats 246,049
potatoes 1,208,766
Grist mills   44
Saw mills 29
The total annual product of property has been estimated
at the sum of L. 1,146,336 ; the total moveable property
at L.2,056,342; and the total immoveable property at
L.1,305,000.
The constitution of this island, like that of the other
islands in this quarter, is similar to the government of
Britain, and in all civil matters is independent of any ju¬
risdiction in America. The king is represented by a lieu¬
tenant-governor, who is also chancellor of the court of
chancery. There is a council, consisting generally of
twelve members elected by the king’s mandamus, and
which acts in an executive as well as legislative capacity ;
and a house of assembly of eighteen members elected by
the people, and who manage their affairs after the man¬
ner of the British House of Commons. The chief-justice
and attorney-general are appointed by the king, and the
local government annually nominate the high shernT, All
4 F
594 J O H
John’s, St. criminal and civil matters of importance are tried in the
supreme court of judicature, by a jury of twelve men.
Magistrates and justices of peace take cognizance of
smaller matters. The laws by which justice and good
government are dispensed and secured are the same as
those of England.
In financial matters the island is thus situated. When
the soil was originally granted by government to various
proprietors, the conditions of the settlement were, that a
certain sum should be paid as quit-rent, amounting on an
average to about four shillings and sixpence for each hun¬
dred acres. But this sum not being regularly paid, go¬
vernment agreed to accept of a composition; and this ar¬
rangement, by freeing the land from heavy claims, im¬
parted a new stimulus to the island. In 1833 it was
agreed upon by the house of assembly to address his ma¬
jesty, offering to provide the whole civil expenses of the
island, and asking in return that the crown would resign
its claim to the quit-rents, and accept of a substitute of
4s. 6d. for every hundred acres in a township. At the
same time it was stipulated that a civil list should be
granted to the crown, so as to render the governor, judge,
and other functionaries, independent of the annual votes
of the house. The fate of this proposal is as yet unde¬
cided. St John’s is one of those colonial islands which,
from their native resources not having been sufficiently
called forth, is at present of equivocal value to the mother
country, in as far as revenue is concerned. The revenue
has not always kept pace with the expenditure, as in
1833,-when the former amounted to L.7684, and the lat¬
ter to L.13,759 ; yet the deficit is to be accounted for
by additional outlays for erecting public edifices, and for
other useful or necessary purposes. Besides, there was
a considerable balance, the remainder of former years; and
an issue of treasury notes was made to meet the exigen¬
cy, a redemption of these being anticipated from the new
act levying an assessment upon land. Various causes
have contributed to occasion a reduction in the amount of
impost duty, such as the failure of crops, and the advan¬
ced prices of foreign articles; but such interruptions to
prosperity are not likely to remain permanent. With
respect to the monetary system, the weights and mea¬
sures are the same as in England. The dollar is estimat¬
ed at four shillings and sixpence, and thus becomes five
shillings currency; the guinea is L.l. 3s. 4d.; and the
other coins are in proportion. The paper currency at
present in circulation is supposed to be about L.20,000.
There is no banking establishment in the island, which
is a material drawback to its prosperity.
The established religion of the colony is the Episcopa¬
lian, but the members of the church of Scotland and of that
of Rome are supposed to be the most numerous. There
are several missionary establishments, and the inhabitants
generally are very much awake to the interests of religion,
as is shown by the efforts which they have made for its
dissemination, as well as that of its powerful auxiliary,
education. There is at Charlotte Town a very respect¬
able grammar-school, another on the Madras system,
and there are others in most of the settlements for ele¬
mentary instruction, government devoting a sum for their
support. In all, there are seventy-four schools, attended
by 2276 scholars. There are two well-conducted news¬
papers, one of which is published in Charlotte Town,
where there is also a public subscription-library on a re¬
spectable footing.
We have no data by which to form a correct estimate
of the progressive increase of the population. When
taken from the French, the island, as we have seen, was
supposed to contain about 6000 Acadians. By the cen¬
sus of 1833, the males were in number 15,129, and the
females 13,795, making a total population of 28,925 ;
J O H
which is an increase since 1827 of 8274. Natives ofJohn^ t,
Scotland constitute more than one half of the whole po- ffl
pulation ; those from the Hebrides are best suited to the ’•
island. The Acadian French are estimated at about ''
5000 ; but of the Micmac or native Indians, once so nu¬
merous, there remain probably not more than thirty fa¬
milies on the island.
JOHN’S, St, one of the Virgin Islands in the West
Indies, belonging to Denmark. It is five miles in length
by one in breadth, and is situated about thirty-six miles
to the east of Porto Rico, and six miles south of the
island of St Thomas. It is well watered, and possesses
an excellent harbour; but the land in general is of little
value, and the exports are trifling. It contains a popu¬
lation of 2430, of whom only 180 are whites. Long. 64.
32. W. Lat. 18. 7. N.
JOHNSON, or Jonson, Ben, one of the most distin¬
guished dramatic poets of the Elizabethan age, whether
we consider the number or the merit of his productions.
He was born at Westminster in 1574, and was educated
at the public school there, under the great Camden. He
was descended from a Scottish family; but as his father,
who had lost his estate under Queen Mary, died before
our poet was born, and his mother married a brick-layer
for her second husband, Ben was taken from school to
work at his father-in-law’s trade. Not being captivated
with this employment, however, he went into the Low
Countries, and distinguished himself in a military capacity.
On his return to England, he entered himself at St John’s
College, Cambridge ; and having killed a person in a duel,
he was condemned, and narrowly escaped execution. After
this he turned actor; and Shakspeare is said to have
first introduced him to the world, by recommending a
play of his to the stage, after it had been rejected. His
Alchymist gained him such reputation, that in 1619 he
was, at the death of Mr Daniel, made poet-laureate to King
James I. and master of arts at Oxford. As we do not
find Jonson’s economical virtues anywhere recorded, it is
the less to be wondered that, after this, we should find
him petitioning King Charles, on his accession, to enlarge
his father’s allowance of a hundred merks into pounds;
and soon afterwards we learn that, being very poor and
sick, he lodged in an obscure alley. On this occasion it
was that Charles, having been moved in his favour, sent
him ten guineas, upon which Ben remarked, “ His ma¬
jesty sent me ten guineas because I am poor, and live in
an alley ; go and tell him that his soul lives in an alley.”
He died in August 1637, at the age of sixty-three, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most complete
edition of his works was that printed in 1756, in 7 vols. 8vo.
Johnson, Dr Samuel, one of the brightest ornaments
of the eighteenth century, was born in the city of Litch¬
field, in Staffordshire, on the 18th of September 1709.
His father Michael was a bookseller, and must have had
some reputation in the city, as he more than once held
the office of chief magistrate. By what casuistry he re¬
conciled his conscience to the oaths required to be taken
by all who occupy such stations cannot now be known ;
but it is certain that he was zealously attached to the ex¬
iled family of Stuart, and instilled the same principles into
the youthful mind of his son. So earnest was he in this, and
at so early a period did he commence it, that when Dr
Sacheverel, in his memorable tour through England, came
to Litchfield, Mr Johnson carried his son, not then quite
three years of age, to the cathedral, and placed him on his
shoulders, that he might see as well as hear the famous
preacher.
But political prejudices were not the only doubtful qua¬
lities which young Sam inherited from his father. He de¬
rived from the same source a morbid melancholy, which,
though it neither depressed his imagination, nor clouded
JOHNSON.
Johnson, his perceptions, filled him with dreadful apprehensions of
insanity, and rendered him wretched through life. From
his nurse he contracted the scrofula or king’s evil, which
made its appearance at a very early period, disfigured a
face naturally well-formed, and deprived him of the sight
of one of his eyes.
When he had arrived at a proper age for receiving gram¬
matical instruction, he was placed in the free school of
Litchfield, of which Mr Hunter was then master; a man
whom his illustrious pupil thought “ very severe, and
wrongheadedly severe,” because he would beat a boy for
not answering questions which the latter could not expect
to be asked of him. He was, however, a skilful teacher;
and Johnson, when he stood in the very front of learning,
was sensible how much he owed to him ; for upon being
asked how he had acquired so accurate a knowledge of the
Latin tongue, he replied, “ My master beat me very well;
without that, Sir, I should have done nothing.”
At the age of fifteen, Johnson was removed from Litch¬
field to the school of Stourbridge in Worcestershire, at
which he remained little more than a year, and then re¬
turned home, where he staid two years without any set¬
tled plan of life or any regular course of study. But he
read a great deal in a desultory manner, as chance threw
books in his way, and as inclination directed him through
them ; so that when, in his nineteenth year, he was enter¬
ed a commoner of Pembroke College, Oxford, his mind
was stored with a variety of such knowledge as is not
often acquired in universities, where boys seldom read
any books but those which are put into their hands by
their tutors. He had given very early proofs of his poe¬
tical genius, both in his school exercises and in other oc¬
casional compositions ; but what is perhaps more remark¬
able, as evincing that he must have thought a good deal
on a subject on which other boys of that age seldom think
at all, he had, before he wras fourteen, entertained doubts
o( the truth of revelation. From the melancholy of his
temper, these naturally preyed upon his spirits, and gave
him great uneasiness ; but they were happily removed
by a proper course of reading; for his studies being
honest, ended in conviction. He found that religion was
true; and what he had learned by inquiry, he ever after¬
wards endeavoured to teach to mankind.
Concerning his residence at the university, and the
means by which he was there supported, his two princi¬
pal biographers contradict each other; and hence on
these points it is impossible to write with certainty. Ac¬
cording to Sir John Hawkins, the time of his continuance
at Oxford is divisible into two periods; but Mr Boswell
represents it as only one period, with the usual interval
of a long vacation. Sir John says that he was support¬
ed at college by Mr Andrew Corbet, in quality of assist¬
ant to his son. But Mr Boswell assures us, that though
he was promised pecuniary aid by Mr Corbet, that pro¬
mise vvas not in any degree fulfilled. With regard to the
knight s account of this transaction, it seems to be incon¬
sistent with itself. He says, that the two young men
were entered in Pembroke on the same day; that Cor¬
bet continued in the college two years ; but that Johnson
was driven home in little more than one year, because, by
the removal of Corbet, he was deprived of his pension. A
story of which one part contradicts the other cannot be
wholly true. Sir John adds, that “ meeting with another
source, the bounty, as is supposed, of some one or more
or the members of the cathedral of Litchfield, he return¬
ed to college, and made up the whole of his residence in
the university about three years.” Mr Boswell has told
us nothing more than that Johnson, though his father was
unable to support him, continued three years in college,
and that he was then driven from it by extreme poverty.
These gentlemen differ likewise in their accounts of
595
Johnson s tutors. Sir John Hawkins says that he had Johnson
two, Mr Jordan and Dr Adams. Mr Boswell affirms that
Di Adams could not be his tutor, because Jordan did not
quit the college till 1731, the year in the autumn of which
Johnson himself was compelled to leave Oxford. Yet the
same author represents Dr Adams as saying, “ I was
Johnson’s nominal tutor, but he was above my mark a
speech of which it is not easy to discover the meaning, if
it formed no part of Johnson’s duty to attend upon Adams’s
prelections. In most colleges we believe there are two
tutors in different departments of education ; and there¬
fore it is not improbable that Jordan and Adams may have
been at the same time tutors to Johnson, the one in lan¬
guages, and the other in science. Jordan was a man of
such mean abilities, that though his pupil loved him for
the goodness of his heart, he would often risk the payment
of a small fine rather than attend his prelections ; nor was
he studious to conceal the reason of his absence. Upon
occasion of one such imposition, Johnson is reported to
have said, “ Sir, you have sconced me twopence for non-
attendance at a lecture not worth a penny.” For some
transgression or absence his tutor imposed upon him, as a
Christmas exercise, the task of translating into Latin verse
Pope’s Messiah. This Johnson performed, and on his
translation being shown to the author of the original, the
latter, after perusal, returned it with this observation,
“ ^le writer of this poem will leave it a question for pos¬
terity, whether his or mine be the original.” The parti¬
cular course of his reading whilst in college, and during
the vacation which he passed at home, cannot be tracecf.
1 hat at this period he read much, we have his own evi¬
dence in what he afterwards told the king; but his mode
of study was never regular, and at all times he thought
more than he read. He informed Mr Boswell, that what
he read solidly at Oxford was Greek, and that the study
of which he was fondest was that of metaphysics.
In the year 1731 Johnson left the university without a
degree; and as his father, who died in the month of De¬
cember of that year, had suffered great misfortunes in
trade, he was driven out as a commoner of nature, and
excluded from the regular modes of profit and prosperity.
Having therefore not only a profession, but the means of
subsistence, to seek, he, in the month of March 1732, ac¬
cepted an invitation to the office of under-master of a free
school at Market-Bosworth, in Leicestershire; but not
knowing, as he said, whether it was more disagreeable for
him to teach or for the boys to learn the rules of grammar,
and being likewise disgusted at the treatment which he had
received from the patron of the school, he in a few months
relinquished a situation which he ever afterwards recollect¬
ed with horror. Being thus again without any fixed em¬
ployment, and with very little money in his pocket, he
translated Lobo’s Voyage to Abyssinia, for the trifling sum,
it is said, of five guineas, which he received from a book¬
seller in Birmingham. This was the first attempt which
he made to procure pecuniary assistance by means of his
pen ; and it must have held forth very little encouragement
to his commencing author by profession.
In 1735, being then in his twenty-sixth year, he married
Mrs Porter, the widow of a mercer in Birmingham ; a wo¬
man whose age was almost double his, whose external form
had never been captivating, and whose fortune amounted
to scarcely L.800. That she had a superiority of under¬
standing andtalents, is extremely probable, both because she
certainly inspired him with a more than ordinary passion, and
because she was herself so delighted with the charms of
his conversation as to overlook his external disadvantages,
which were many and great. He now set up a private
academy, for which purpose he had hired a large house, well
situated, near his native city ; but his name having then
nothing of that celebrity which afterwards commanded the
596
Johnson.
JOHNSON.
attention and respect of the world, this undertaking did timents adapted to modern topics. Pope, who then filled Johnsor
not succeed. The only pupils who are known to have the poetical throne without a rival, being informed that ''•'"Y'*
been placed under his care, were the celebrated David the authors name was Johnson, and that he was an ob-
Garrick, his brother George Garrick, and a young gentle- scure person, replied, “ He will soon be deterre. The
man of fortune, of the name of Offely. He kept this aca- two pamphlets, which were published in 1739, are filled
demy only a year and a half; and it was during the pe- with keen satire on the government. Sir John Hawkins
riod in question that he constructed the plan and wrote has thought fit to declare that they display neither learn-
the greater part of his tragedy of Irene. ing nor wit; but Pope was of a different opinion; for in a
The respectable character of his parents, and his own note of his preserved by Mr Boswell, he says, that “ the
merit, had secured him a kind reception in the best fami- whole of the Norfolk prophecy is very humorous.”
lies at Litchfield ; and he was particularly distinguished Mrs Johnson, who went to London soon after her hus-
by Mr Walmsley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court, a band, now lived sometimes in one place and sometimes in
man of great worth, and of extensive and various erudi- another, sometimes in the city and sometimes at Green-
tion. That gentleman, upon hearing part of Irene read, wich ; but Johnson himself was oftener to be found at St
thought so highly of Johnson’s abilities as a dramatic John’s Gate, where the Gentleman’s Magazine was pub-
writer, that he advised him by all means to complete the lished, than in his own lodgings. It was there that he
tragedy and produce it on the stage. To men of genius became acquainted with Savage, with whom he was in-
the stage holds forth temptations almost irresistible. The duced, probably by the similarity of their circumstances,
profits arising from a tragedy, including the representation to contract a very close friendship ; and such were their
and printing of it, and the connections which it sometimes extreme necessities, that they often wandered duringwhole
enables the author to form, were in Johnson’s imagination nights in the street, for want of money to procure them a
inestimable. Flattered, it may be supposed, with these lodging. In one of these nocturnal rambles, when their
hopes, he, in the year 1737, set out for London, with his distress was almost incredible, so far were they from being
pupil David Garrick, leaving Mrs Johnson to take care of depressed by their situation, that, in high spirits and brim-
the house and the wreck of her fortune. The twoadven- ful of patriotism, they traversed St James’s Square for se-
turers carried with them from Mr Walmsley an earnest veral hours, inveighed against the minister, and, as John-
recommendation to the Reverend Mr Colson, then mas- son said in ridicule of himself, his companion, and all such
ter of an academy, and afterwards Lucasian professor of pennyless patriots, “ resolved that they would stand by
mathematics in the university of Cambridge; but from their country.” In 1744, he published the life of his un-
that gentleman it does not appear that Johnson ever found fortunate companion ; a work which, had he never written
either protection or encouragement. any thing else, would have placed him very high in the
How he spent his time upon his arrival in London is rank of authors. His narrative is remarkably smooth and
not particularly known. His tragedy was refused by the well disposed ; his observations are just, and his reflec-
managers of the day ; and for some j^ears the Gentleman’s tions disclose the inmost recesses of the human heart.
Magazine seems to have been his principal resource for But, to say nothing of the pretended birth of Savage,
employment and support. To enumerate his various com- whom Mr Boswell considered as an impostor, the moral
munications to that miscellaoy would be equally tedious character of this person was undoubtedly unworthy ot
and unnecessary. It is sufficient to say, that his connec- such a biographer; and it is not easy to discover any
tion with Cave the proprietor became very close; that he thing either in his intellectual or poetical qualifications
wrote prefaces, essays, reviews of books, and poems; and which could reasonably have entitled him to the promi-
that he was occasionally employed in correcting the pa- nent place amongst English poets which the partiality of
pers written by other correspondents. When the com- Johnson has assigned to his companion in misfortune,
plaints of the nation against the administration of Sir Ro- In 1749, when Drury-lane theatre was opened under
bert Walpole became loud, and on the 13th of February the management of Garrick, Johnson wrote for the occa-
1740 a motion was made to remove him from his majes- sion a prologue, which, for just dramatic criticism, as well
ty’s counsels for ever, Johnson was pitched upon by Cave as poetical excellence, is confessedly unrivalled. This
to write what was in the Magazine entitled “ Debates in year is also distinguished in his life as the epoch when his
the Senate of Lilliput,” but was understood to be the arduous and important work, the Dictionary of the Eng-
speeches of the most eminent members in both houses of lish Language, was announced to the world by the publi-
parliament. These orations, which induced Voltaire to cation of its plan or prospectus, addressed to the Earl of
compare British with ancient eloquence, were hastily Chesterfield. From that nobleman Johnson was certain-
sketched by Johnson whilst he was not yet thirty-two ly led to expect patronage and encouragement; and it
years of age, but little acquainted with life, and strug- seems equally certain that his lordship expected, when
gling, not for distinction, but for existence. Perhaps the book made its appearance, to be honoured with the
in none of his writings has he given a more conspicuous dedication. But the expectations of both were disap-
proof of a mind prompt and vigorous almost beyond con- pointed. Lord Chesterfield, after once or twice seeing
ception. They were composed from scanty notes taken the lexicographer, suffered him to be repulsed from his
by illiterate persons employed to attend in both houses; door; but afterwards thinking to conciliate him when
and sometimes he had nothing communicated to him but the work was upon the eve of publication, he wrote two
the names of the several speakers, and the part which papers in The World, warmly recommending it to the
they took in the debate. public. This artifice was seen through ; and Johnson, in
His separate publications which at this time attracted very polite language, rejected his lordship’s advances,
the greatest notice were, London, a poem in imitation of letting him know that he was unwilling the public should
Juvenal’s third Satire ; Marmor Norfolciense, or an Essay consider him as owing that to a patron which Providence
on an ancient prophetical Inscription in Monkish Rhyme, had enabled him to do for himself. This great and labo-
discovered near Lynne, in Norfolk ; and a complete Vin- rious work its author expected to complete in three years;
dication of the Licensers of the Stage from the malicious but he was certainly employed upon it seven years; for
and scandalous aspersions of Mr Brook, author of Gusta- we know that it was begun in 1747, and that the last sheet
vus \ asa. The poem, which was published in 1738, by was sent to the press in the end of the year 1754. When
Dodsley, is universally known and admired as the most we consider the nature of the undertaking, it is indeed
spirited instance in the English language of ancient sen- astonishing that it was finished so soon, since it was writ-
JOHNSON.
Johnson, ten, as he says, “with little assistance of the learned, and
without any patronage of the great; not in the soft ob¬
scurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic
bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sick¬
ness and in sorrow. 'Ihe sorrow to which he here alludes
is probably that which he felt for the loss of his wife, who
died in March 1752, and the loss of whom he continued
to lament as long as he lived.
The Dictionary did not occupy his whole time; for
whilst he was pushing it forward, he fitted his tragedy for
the stage, wrote the lives of several eminent men for the
Gentleman’s Magazine, published an Imitation of the tenth
Satire of Juvenal, entitled the Vanity of human Wishes,
and began and finished The Rambler. This last work is so
well known, that it is hardly necessary to say that it was
a periodical paper, published twice a week, from the 20th
of March 1750 to the 14th of March 1752 inclusive; but
to convey some notion of the vigour and promptitude of
the author’s mind, it may not be improper to observe, that
notwithstanding the severity of his other labours, all the
assistance which he received did not amount to five pa¬
pers ; and that many of the most masterly of these essays
were written on the spur of the occasion, and were never
seen entire by the author till they returned to him from
the press.
Soon after the Rambler was concluded, Dr Hawkes-
worth projected The Adventurer, upon a similar plan ; and,
by the assistance of friends, he was enabled to carry it on
with almost equal merit. For a short time, indeed, it was
the more popular wprk of the two; and the papers with
the signature T, which are confessedly the most splendid
in the whole collection, are now known to have been com¬
municated by Johnson, who received for each the sum
of two guineas. This was double the price for which
he sold sermons to such clergymen as either would not
or could not compose their own discourses; indeed he
seems to have made a kind of trade of sermon-writing.
Though, during the time that he was employed on the
Dictionary, he had exhausted more than the sum for which
the booksellers had bargained as the price of the copy, yet,
by means of the Rambler, Adventurer, sermons, and other
productions of his pen, he now found himself in greater
affluence than he had ever before been ; and as the powers
of his mind, distended by long and severe exercise, requir¬
ed relaxation to restore them to their proper tone, he ap¬
pears to have done little or nothing from the close of the
Adventurer till the year 1756, when he undertook the
office of reviewer in the Literary Magazine. Of his re¬
views, by far the most valuable is that of Soame Jenyns’s
Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil. Never
were wit and metaphysical acuteness more closely united
than in that criticism, which exposes the weakness and
holds up to contempt the reasonings of those vain mortals
who presumptuously attempt to grasp the scale of exist¬
ence, and to form plans of conduct for the Creator of the
universe. But the furnishing of magazines, reviews, and
even newspapers, with literary intelligence, and authors of
books with dedications and prefaces, was considered as an
employment unworthy of Johnson. It was therefore pro¬
posed by the booksellers that he should give a new edition of
the dramas of Shakspeare ; a work which he had projected
many years before, and of which he had published a specimen
which was commended by Warburton. When one of his
friends expressed a hope that this employment would furnish
him with amusement, and add to his fame, he replied, “ I
look upon it as I did upon the Dictionary ; it is all work ;
and my inducement to it is not love or desire of fame, but
the want of money, which is the only motive to writing that
I know of.” He issued proposals, however, of considerable
length, in which he showed that he knew perfectly what a
variety of research such an undertaking required ; but his
597
indlolence prevented him from pursuing it with diligence, Johnson,
cind it was not published till many years afterwards.
On the 15th of April 1785, he began a new periodical
paper entitled The Idler, which came out everv Saturday,
in a weekly newspaper called the Universal Chronicle, or
Weekly Gazette, published by Newberry. Of these essays,
which were continued till the 5th of April 1760, many
were written as hastily as an ordinary letter ; and one in
particular, composed at Oxford, was begun only half an
hour before the departure of the post which carried it to
London. About this time he had the offer of a living, of
which he might have rendered himself capable by entering
into orders. It was a rectory, in a pleasant country, of such
yearly value as would have been an object to one in much
better circumstances ; but, sensible, as is supposed, of
the asperity of his temper, he declined it, saying, “ I have
not the requisites for the office, and I cannot in my con¬
science shear the flock which I am unable to feed.”
In the month of January 1759, his mother died, at the ad¬
vanced age of ninety ; an event which deeply affected him,
and gave birth to the forty-first paper in the Idler, in
which he laments, that “ the life which made his own life
pleasant was at an end, and that the gate of death was shut
upon his prospects.” Soon afterwards he wrote his Ras~
selas, Prince of Abyssinia, that with the profits he might
defray the expense of his mother’s funeral, and pay some
debts which she had left. He told a friend that he re¬
ceived for the copy L.100, and L.25 more when it came
to a second edition ; that he wrote it in the evenings of a
week, sent it to the press in portions as it was written, and
had never since read it.
Hitherto, notwithstanding his various publications, he
was poor, and obliged to provide by his labour for the
wants of the day that was passing over him ; but having
been, early in 1762, represented to the king as a very learn¬
ed and good man, without any certain provision, his majesty
was pleased to grant him a pension, which Lord Bute, then
first minister, assured him, “ was not given for any thing
which he was to do, but for what he had already done ”
But a fixed annuity of three hundred pounds, if it dimi¬
nished his distress, increased his indolence ; for as he con¬
stantly avowed that he had no other motive in writing than
to gain money, as he had now what was abundantly suffi¬
cient for all his purposes, and as he delighted in conver¬
sation, and was visited and admired by the witty, the ele¬
gant, and the learned, very little of his time was passed
in solitary study. Solitude was indeed his aversion ; and,
that he might avoid it as much as possible, Sir Joshua
Reynolds and he, in 1764, instituted a club, which exist¬
ed long without a name, but was afterwards known by the
title of the Literary Club. It consisted of some of the
most enlightened men of the age, who met at the Turk’s
Head in Gerard Street, Soho, one evening in every w eek,
at seven, and till a late hour enjoyed “ the feast of reason
and the flow of soul.”
In 1765, when Johnson was more than usually oppressed
with constitutional melancholy, he was fortunately intro¬
duced into the family of Mr Thrale, one of the most emi¬
nent brewers in England, and member of parliament for
the borough of Southwark ; and it is but justice to ac¬
knowledge, that to the assistance w hich Mr and Mrs Thrale
gave him, to the shelter which their house afforded him
for sixteen or seventeen years, and to the pains which they
took to soothe or repress his uneasy fancies, the public is
probably indebted for some of the most masterly as well as
the most popular works which he ever produced. At
length, in the October of this year, he gave to the world
his edition of Shakspeare, which is chiefly valuable for
the preface, w'here the excellencies and defects of that im¬
mortal bard are displayed with a judgment which must
please every man whose taste is not regulated by the stand-
598 JOHNSON.
Johnson, arc! of fashion or national prejudice, and where the ques-
tion of the unities is discussed with an ability and force of
reasoning which leaves nothing to be added or desired on
the subject. In 1767 he was honoured by a private con¬
versation with the king, in the library at the queen’s house ;
and two years afterwards, upon the establishment of the
Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, he was nomi¬
nated professor of ancient literature ; an office merely ho¬
norary, and conferred on him, as is supposed, at the re¬
commendation of his friend the president.
In the variety of subjects on which he had hitherto ex¬
ercised his pen, he had forborne, since the administration
of Sir Robert Walpole, to meddle with the disputes of
contending factions ; but having seen with indignation the
methods which, in the business of Mr Wilkes, were taken
to work upon the populace, he published in 1770 a pamph¬
let, entitled The False Alarm, in which he asserts, and la¬
bours to prove by a variety of arguments founded on pre¬
cedents, that the expulsion of a member of the House of
Commons is equivalent to exclusion, and that no such ca¬
lamity as the subversion of the constitution was to be feared
from an act warranted by usage, and conformable to the
law of parliament. Whatever may be thought of the prin¬
ciples maintained in this publication, it unquestionably
contains much wit and argument, expressed in the author’s
best style of composition ; and yet it is known to have
been written between eight o’clock on Wednesday night
and twelve o’clock on the Thursday night, when it was
read to Mr Thrale upon his return from the House of Com¬
mons. In 1771 he published another political pamphlet,
entitled Thoughts on the Late Transactions respecting
Falkland's Islands, in which he attacked Junius ; and he
ever afterwards delighted himself with the thought of hav¬
ing vanquished that able writer, whom he certainly rivalled
in nervous language and pointed ridicule.
In 1773, he, in company with Mr Boswell, visited some
of the most considerable of the Hebrides or Western
Islands of Scotland, and published an account of his jour¬
ney, in a volume which abounds in extensive philosophi¬
cal views of society, ingenious sentiments, and lively de¬
scriptions, but which offended many persons by the ve¬
hement attack which it contained on the authenticity of
the poems attributed to Ossian. For the degree of of¬
fence that was taken, the book can hardly be thought
to contain a sufficient reason ; and if the antiquity or
genuineness of these poems be yet doubted, this is owing
more to the conduct of their editor than to the violence
of Johnson. In 1774, the parliament being dissolved,
he addressed to the electors of Great Britain a pamph¬
let, entitled The Patriot; of which the design was to
guard them from imposition, and teach them to distin¬
guish true from false patriotism. In 1775 he published
Taxation no Tyranny, in Answer to the Resolutions and
Address of the American Congress. In this performance
his admirer Mr Boswell cannot, he says, perceive that abi¬
lity of argument or felicity of expression for which on
other occasions Johnson was remarkable. This seems a
singular criticism. To the assumed principle upon which
the reasoning of the pamphlet rests many have objected,
and perhaps their objections are well founded; but if it
be admitted that “ the supreme power of every commu¬
nity has the right of requiring from all its subjects such
contributions as are necessary to the public safety or pub¬
lic prosperity,” it will be found a difficult task to break the
chain of argument by which it is proved that the British
parliament had a right to tax the Americans. As to the
style of the pamphlet, the reader who adopts the maxim
recorded in the Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, that a
controversialist “ ought not to strike soft in battle,” must
acknowledge that it is uncommonly happy, and that the
whole performance is one of the most brilliant as well as
correct pieces of composition that ever fell from the pen Johnso
of its author. These essays drew upon him numerous at-
tacks, all of which he heartily despised ; for though it has
been supposed that a Letter addressed to Dr Samuel John¬
son occasioned by his Political Publications, gave him
great uneasiness, the contrary is manifest, from his having,
after the appearance of that letter, collected them into a
volume under the title of Political Tracts by the Author of
the Rambler. In 1765 Trinity College, Dublin, had created
him doctor of laws by diploma; and he now received the
same honour from the University of Oxford, an honour
with which, though he did not boast of it, he was highly
gratified. In 1777 he was induced, by a case of an ex¬
traordinary nature, to exercise that humanity which in him
was obedient to every call. Dr William Dodd, a clergy¬
man, under sentence of death for the crime of forgery,
found means to interest Johnson in his behalf, and pro¬
cured from him two of the most energetic compositions
ever written ; the one being a petition from himself to the
king, and the other a similar address from his wife to the
queen. But these petitions failed of success. Lord Mans¬
field’s opinion was unfavourable to Dodd, and the reve¬
rend forger underwent the last punishment of the law.
The principal booksellers in London having determined
to publish a body of English poetry, Johnson was prevailed
upon to write the lives of the poets, and give a character
of the works of each. This task he undertook with ala¬
crity, and upon the whole executed it in a manner worthy
of his reputation. The work was published in ten small
volumes, of which the first four appeared in 1778, and the
others in 1781. Whilst the world in general was filled
with admiration of the great powers of the man who at
the age of seventy-two, and labouring under a complica¬
tion of diseases, could produce a work which displays so
much genius and learning, there were narrow circles in
which prejudice and resentment were fostered, and whence
attacks of different sorts issued against him. But these
gave him not the smallest disturbance. When told of the
feeble though shrill outcry that had been raised, he re¬
plied, “ Sir, I considered myself as intrusted with a certain
portion of truth. I have given my opinion sincerely ; let
them show where they think me wrong.”
He had hardly begun to reap the laurels gained by this
performance, when death deprived him of Mr Thrale, in
whose house he had enjoyed the most comfortable hours
of his life ; but it abated not in Johnson that care for the
interests of those whom his friend had left behind him, and
whom he thought himself bound to cherish, in duty as one
of the executors of his will, and in gratitude for the kind¬
ness he had experienced at his hands. On this account,
his visits to Streatham, Mr Thrale’s villa, were for some
time after his death regularly made on Monday, and pro¬
tracted till Saturday, as they had been during his life;
but they soon became less frequent, and at length he stu¬
diously avoided the mention of the place or the family.
Mrs Thrale, who ere long changed her name for that of
Mrs Piozzi, says, indeed, that “ it grew extremely perplexing
and difficult to live in the house with him when the master
of it was no more, because his dislikes grew capricious, and
he could scarce bear to have any body come to the house
w hom it was absolutely necessary for her to see.” The
person whom she thought it most necessary for her to see
may perhaps be guessed at without any extraordinary share
of sagacity; and if these were the visits which Johnson
could not bear, posterity, so far from thinking his dislikes
capricious, though they may have been perplexing, would,
if he had acted otherwise, have blamed him for the w7ant of
gratitude to the friend whose “ face for fifteen years had
never been turned upon him but with respect or benignity.”
About the middle of June 1783, his constitution sustain¬
ed a severer shock than it had ever before experienced,
J O H
hnson. from a stroke of the palsy, which was so sudden and so vio-
-y-w' lent, that it awakened him out of a sound sleep, and ren¬
dered him for a short time speechless. As usual, he had re¬
course, under this affliction, to piety, which in him was
constant, sincere, and fervent. He tried to repeat the
Lord’s prayer, first in English, then in Latin, and afterwards
in Greek ; but succeeded only in the last attempt, imme¬
diately after which he was again deprived of the power of
articulation. From this alarming attack he in a short time
recovered, but it left behind it presages of a dropsical
affection; and he was soon afterwards seized with a spas¬
modic asthma of such violence that he was confined to the
house in great pain, whilst his dropsy increased, notwith¬
standing all the efforts of the most eminent physicians.
He had, however, such an interval of ease as enabled him,
in the summer of ITSL, to visit his friends at Oxford,
Litchfield, and Ashbourne in Derbyshire. One day the
Roman Catholic religion being introduced as the topic of
conversation when he was in the house of Dr Adams, John¬
son said, “ If ydu join the Papists externally, they will not
interrogate you strictly as to your belief in their tenets.
No reasoning Papist believes every article of their faith.
There is one side on which a good man might be persuad¬
ed to embrace it. A good man of a timorous disposition,
in great doubt of his acceptance with God, and pretty
credulous, might be glad of a church where there are so
many helps to go to heaven. I would be a Papist if I
could. I have fear enough ; but an obstinate rationality
prevents me. I should never be a Papist unless on the
near approach of death, of which I have very great ter¬
ror.” His constant dread of death was indeed so great,
that it astonished all who had access to know the piety
of his mind and the virtues of his life. Attempts have
been made to account for it in various ways; but that
probably is the true account which is given by an elegant
and pious writer, in the Olla Podrida. “ That he should
not be conscious of the abilities with which Providence
had blessed him was impossible. He felt his own powers ;
he felt what he was capable of having performed ; and he
saw how little, comparatively speaking, he had performed.
Hence his apprehension on the near prospect of the account
to be made, viewed through the medium of constitutional
and morbid melancholy, which often excluded from his
sight the bright beams of divine mercy.” This, however,
was the case only whilst death was approaching from a dis¬
tance. From the time that he was certain it was near, all
his fears were calmed ; and he died on the 13th of Decem¬
ber 1784i, full of resignation strengthened by faith, and joy¬
ful in hope.
Dr Johnson was a man of herculean form of body, as
well as of great powers of mind. His stature was tall, his
limbs wrere large, his strength was more than common,
and his activity in early life had been greater than such a
form gave reason to expect; but he was subject to an in¬
firmity of the convulsive kind, resembling the distemper
called St Vitus’s dance; and he had the seeds of so many
diseases sown in his constitution, that a short time before
his death he declared that he hardly remembered to have
passed one day wholly free from pain. He possessed ex¬
traordinary powers of understanding, which were much
cultivated by reading, and still more by meditation and re¬
flection. His memory was retentive, his imagination vi¬
gorous, and his judgment penetrating. He read with great
rapidity, retained with wonderful exactness what he so
easily collected, and possessed the power of reducing to
order and system the scattered hints on any subject which
he had gathered from different books. It would not be
safe to claim for him the highest place amongst his con-
J o H
599
temporaries in any single department of literature ; but Johnston,
he brought more mind to every subject, and had a great- v-w
er variety of knowledge ready for all occasions, than any
other man that could easily be named. Though prone
to superstition, he was in other respects so incredulous,
that Hogarth observed, whilst Johnson firmly believed the
Bible, he seemed determined to believe nothing but the
Bible. Of the importance of religion he had a strong sense;
his zeal for its interests was always awake, whilst profaneness
of every kind was abashed in his presence. The same en¬
ergy which he displayed in his literary productions, or even
greater, was exhibited also in his conversation, which was
various, striking, and instructive. Like the sage in Ras-
selas, he spoke, and attention watched his lips ; he reason¬
ed, and conviction closed his period. When he pleased,
he could be the greatest sophist that ever contended in
the lists of declamation ; and perhaps no man ever equalled
him in nervous and pointed repartees. His veracity, from
the most trivial to the most solemn occasions, was strict
even to severity. He scorned to embellish a story with
fictitious circumstances; for what is not a representation
of reality, he used to say, is not worthy of our attention.
As his purse and his house were ever open to the indigent,
so was his heart tender to those who wanted relief, and
his soul susceptible of gratitude, and every kind impression.
He had a roughness in his manner which subdued the
saucy and terrified the meek; but it was only in his man¬
ner, for no man wus more loved than Johnson by those
who knew him; and his works will be read with admira¬
tion as long as the language in which they are written
shall be understood.
JOHNSTON, Arthur, a very eminent Latin poet,
was the fifth son of George Johnston of Caskieben, by
Christian the daughter of Lord Forbes.1 The father, who
was possessed of extensive estates, had a numerous family,
six sons and seven daughters having reached the age of
maturity. Arthur was born at Caskieben in the county of
Aberdeen in the year 1587, but the day of his birth is not
mentioned. 1 he first elements of classical learning he ac¬
quired at the neighbouring town of Kintore, and he after¬
wards became a student in Marischal College, Aberdeen.
Caskieben, Kintore, Inverury, and Aberdeen are all com¬
memorated in his poems. Whether he resided in the uni¬
versity long enough to take a degree in arts, we are not in¬
formed ; but it is probable that he proceeded to the con¬
tinent at a very early age, for he took the degree of M. D.
at Padua on the 11th of June 1610. This university was
long celebrated as a school of physic as well as law; and
Benson supposes that it may have afforded him a favour¬
able opportunity for the cultivation of his talents for Latin
poetry.
In an elegy addressed to Wedderburn, he has supplied
us with some information respecting his personal history.
Quas ego non terras, qnse non vagus sequora press!,
Msec licet ingenio sint minus apta meo ?
Bis mihi trajectse vicinse nubibus Alpes ;
Tybris et Eridani pota bis unda mihi est.
Prsebuil hospitium bis binis Gallia lustris:
Conjugis bsec titulum terra patrisque dedit.
Me Geta, me Batavus, me vidit Cimber et Anglus,
Et quae Teutonico terra sub axe riget.
Non tot Duiichius pater est erroribus actus,
Dum peteret patrios per vada saeva lares.
, Quinta Caledonisa me rursus Olympias one
Reddidit eflfbetum, dissimilemque mei.
Numina jam decies et ter fecere parentem;
Pignora sex superant, caetera turba fuit.
Bis mihi quaesivi, nec ab una gente, maritam :
Bis conjunx, bis jam me reor esse senem.
From these verses we learn that he had twice crossed the
1 Douglas’s Baronage of Scotland, p. 36. Johnston’s Genealogical Account of the Family of Johnston of that ilk, formerly of
Caskieben, p. 7* Edinb. 1832, 4to.
JOHNSTON.
600
Johnston. Alps, and had twice visited Rome ; that he had travelled in
-r'-—'' Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, and England; that
he had resided twenty years in France, and had there be¬
come a husband and a father ; and that two wives, who
wrere of different nations, had born him thirteen children.
The fifth Olympiad restored him to his native country.
The term Olympias more properly denotes a period of four
years, but here, as in other instances, it is evidently em¬
ployed to denote a period of five : for it appears that be
had spent twenty years in France, and he mentions his
peregrinations in other countries. He must therefore have
returned to Scotland before the completion of the twenty-
fifth year. Sir Thomas Urquhart has stated that “ before he
was full three and twenty yeers of age, he was laureated poet
at Paris, and that most deservedly.”1 He spent a consider¬
able time in the university of Sedan,2 where his very learn¬
ed countryman Andrew Melville became a professor of di¬
vinity in the year 1611. With him and the other divinity
professor, Daniel Tilenus, he appears to have lived on in¬
timate terms; and the names of both are familiar to the
readers of his poems. As he resided so long in France,
it has been supposed that he there followed the profession
of a physician. The names of his two wives are not men¬
tioned ; but one of them is described as a woman of ho¬
nourable birth. The one he married in France, and the
other belonged to the vicinity of Mechlin, a city in Bra¬
bant. In an elegy addressed “ Ad Senatum Mechlinien-
sem, adversusHamptaeummilitem Bulloniensem,” he speaks
of her in the subsequent terms :
Quid memorem lachrymas quas nunc, absente marito,
Fundit in ignota flebilis uxor humo ?
Per patriam rogat ilia suam, patriosque penates,
Quos dirimit vestra quartus ab urbe lapis.
He appears to have left her in Britain, and to have repair¬
ed to Mechlin for the purpose of prosecuting against this
rude soldier some claim which probably accrued to him by
marriage. After many delays and much anxiety, he ob¬
tained a decision in his favour ; and his feelings during the
progress of this litigation are elegantly recorded in various
poems.
Before his return to Britain, he had acquired consider¬
able reputation by the exercise of his poetical talents. Dr
Eglisham, another Scotish physician, had endeavoured to
detract from the reputation of Buchanan, by publishing
an acrimonious criticism upon his version of the hundred and
fourth psalm ; but in one respect he was a very fair critic,
for he at the same time exhibited in contrast a version of
his own.3 Instead of attempting a serious refutation of
his animadversions, Johnston wrote a very bitter, though
a very elegant satire, in which he treated his case as one
of decided insanity. This poem was speedily published
under the title of “ Consilium Collegii Medici Parisiensis
de Mania G. Eglishemii, quam prodidit scripto, cui titulus
Duellum Poeticum,” &c. Edinburgi, excudebat Andreas
Hart, 1619, 8vo. A Paris edition of the same date is like¬
wise mentioned. This publication is anonymous; and when
he inserted the poem in the collection of his Parerga, he
suppressed the name of Eglisham, and substituted that of
Hypermorus Medicaster. Not satisfied with inflicting so
signal a castigation, he assailed the unfortunate rival of
Buchanan in another poem, entitled Onopordus Furens.
Paris. 1620, 8vo. During the same year, Dr Barclay,
another learned physician, refuted the captious criticisms John x
of Eglisham, and exposed the puerility of the version to*
which the author’s vanity had assigned so conspicuous a
place.
Dr Johnston’s next publication bears the title of “ Elegia
in Obitum Jacobi Pacific!, Magnae Britanniae, Franciae, et
Hiberniae Regis, Fideique Defensoris.” Lond. 1625, 4to.
Lauder has stated that he returned to his native country in
1632, and continued for some years to reside at Aberdeen ;
but Dempster,4 who died in 1625, mentions, though with
some degree of hesitation, that he had already returned at
the period when he himself wrote. Benson conjectures that
he was appointed physician to the king in the year 1633,
but this conjecture is refuted by the title-page of one of
his publications. “ Elegiae duae ; una ad Episcopum Abre-
donensem, de Fratris Obitu; altera de Pace rupta inter
Scotos et Gallos; autore Arturo Jonstono, Medico Re¬
gie.” Aberdoniae, 1628, 4to. After an interval of a few
years, he published “ Parerga Arturi Jonstoni Scoti,
Medici Regii.” Aberd. 1632, 8vo. And at the same
time appeared “ Epigrammata Arturi Jonstoni Scoti, Me¬
dici Regii.” Aberd. 1632, 8vo. The first of these col¬
lections he dedicated in verse to Sir John Scot, and the
second to the Earl of Lauderdale. He soon afterwards
published “ Cantici Salomonis Paraphrasis poetica.” Lond.
1633, 8vo. This paraphrase, which he dedicated to the
king, is accompanied with a specimen of his version of the
psalms. The specimen includes the seven penitential, and
the seven consolatory psalms ; the former being dedicated
to Laud bishop of London, and the latter to Lesley bishop
of Raphoe. Dempster mentions his having translated the
psalms into very elegant elegiac verse; and it is therefore
to be presumed that Johnston long delayed the publication
in order to give his version all the advantage of a delibe¬
rate revisal. He next produced a collection of short
poems, entitled “ Musae Aulicae.” Lond. 1635, 8vo. They
are accompanied with an English translation by Sir Fran¬
cis Kinaston. This little work was followed by his com¬
plete version of the psalms. “ Paraphrasis poetica Psal-
morum Davidis, auctore Arturo Jonstono Scoto. Acces-
serunt ejusdem Cantica Evangelica, Symbolum Apostoli-
cum, Oratio Dominica, Decalogus.” Aberd. 1637, 8vo.
It is dedicated in elegant and panegyrical verse to the
Countess Marischal. Benson supposes the work to have
been printed in London during the same year ; but as it
was printed there in 1657, the one edition may have been
confounded with the other. About the same time he lent
his aid to the publication of the “ Delitiae Poetarum Sco-
torum hujus sevi illustrium.” Amst. 1637, 2 tom. 12mo.
These volumes were neatly printed by Bleau, at the ex¬
pense of Sir John Scot, who himself appears in the list of
contributors, and who doubtless retained the power of ad¬
mitting or rejecting. Johnston has frequently been con¬
sidered as the editor, from the circumstance of his having
written the dedication to Scot, and prefixed the “ Musa-
rum Elogia,” addressed to the same individual. His con¬
tributions are more extensive than those of any other
writer. The entire collection forms a conspicuous monu¬
ment of the scholarship, ingenuity, and taste of our coun¬
trymen ; and the poems of Johnston may safely be brought
into competition with those of any other writer whose name
is to be found in the catalogue of contributors.
1 Urquhart’s Discovery of a most exquisite Jewel, p. 200. Lond. 1652, 8vo. 2 M‘Crie’s Life of Melville, vol. ii. p. 443.
3 Duellum Poeticum, contendentibus Georgio Eglisemmio, Medico Regio, et Georgio Buchanano, Regio Prseceptore, pro Digm-
tate Paraphraseos Psalmi centesimi quarti. Adjectis Prophylacticis adversus Andreae Melvini Cavillum in Aram Regiam, aliisque
Epigrammatis. Lond. 1618, 4to—Among other works, Eglisham published “ Prodromus Yindictse in Ducem Buckinghamise, pro
virulenta Caede potentissimi Magnae Britanniae Regis Jacobi; nec-non Marchionis Hamiltonii, ac aliorum virorum principum.
P’rancofurti, 1626, 4to. Sir Henry Wotton has stated that this work was “ published and printed in divers languages,’’ about the
time of the king’s death. (Reliquiae Wottonianae, p. 554.) There is an English edition of a more recent date. “The Fore-runner
of Revenge: being two Petitions,” &c. Lond. 1642, 4to.
4 Dempsteri Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, p. 303.
JOHN
hnston. On the 24th of June 1637, Johnston was elected rector
of King’s College, Aberdeen. The appointment is annual,
and is considered as honourable. Dr Johnson, who de¬
scribes him as principal of Marischal College,1 must appa¬
rently have been misled by his imperfect recollection of
this academical office; nor is this the only mistake into
which he has fallen with respect to the same university.
Thus, for example, he makes the extraordinary statement
that “ whoever is a master may, if he pleases, immediately
become a doctor.” In this city Johnston appears to have
had many learned and distinguished friends, of whom we
find various memorials in his works. Among these was
the worthy bishop of the diocese, Patrick Forbes, who,
like himself, was descended from the noble family of that
name; the bishop’s son, John Forbes, professor of divinity
in King’s College ; William Forbes, principal of Marischal
College, and afterwards bishop of Edinburgh ; Robert
Baron, professor of divinity in the same college, and after¬
wards bishop elect of Orkney; and David Wedderburn,
professor of humanity in King’s, and rector of the gram¬
mar school of Aberdeen.2 This was indeed a brilliant
era in the history of the university. Dr Baron, a great
adept in scholastic philosophy and theology, seems to have
enjoyed a large share of his esteem, and is highly extolled
in his verses. Wedderburn was the companion of his ear¬
ly youth, and, cultivating the same elegant studies, con¬
tinued to be the friend of his maturest years. Johnston
addressed to him a long elegy, in which he recounted some
of the events of his life, and Wedderburn replied in an¬
other elegy, expressive of the same unaltered regard.
Although he probably continued to pay occasional visits
to Aberdeenshire, he must have chieflyresided in England
after the date of his appointment as physician to the king ;
for it is evident from some of his verses that this appoint¬
ment was not merely honorary, but required his attendance
at court. In his native county he appears to have acquired
some real property: under the great seal, 12 June 1629,
there is a charter of confirmation, in his favour, of the lands
of New' Leslie in the parish of Alford. Soon after his re¬
turn from the continent, he was engaged in a lawsuit be¬
fore the court of session ; and of advocates and attornies his
experience seems to have led him to form no very favour¬
able opinion. But his career, which was sufficiently bril¬
liant, was not destined to be long: at the age of fifty-four,
he died at Oxford in the year 1641, while on a visit to one
of his daughters, who was married to a clergyman of the
established church. His death was affectionately bewailed
by his learned friend Wedderburn, whose Suspiria were
printed at Aberdeen during the same year.
Johnston possessed a masterly command of Latin dic¬
tion ; and to this attainment he added great skill in the
art of versification. He was likewise distinguished by no
mean portion of poetical feeling and fancy, united with an
elegant and classical taste. Although it cannot be affirmed
that he never employs a word or phrase which does not
belong to the best age of Latinity, his diction generally
displays a great degree of purity ;3 and his ear had at-
S T O N. col
tained to exquisite nicety in the harmony of Roman num- Johnston,
bers, particularly those of hexameter and pentameter verse,
Such was his predilection for this combined metre, that he
introduced it into almost all his compositions ; and even his
satires are written in the elegiac measure. His poems are
very numerous, and are sufficiently miscellaneous. Some
of them are obscure, not from the nature of the composi¬
tion, but from their abounding in allusions to persons and
circumstances not easily traced or recognized. Many of
his epigrams are well turned; and his satirical powers are
conspicuously displayed in his poems against Eglisham,
and in several others. His version of the psalms has often
received, and is evidently entitled to very high commen¬
dation. After the brilliant success of Buchanan, such an
attempt might justly be considered as not a little hazar¬
dous ; but it cannot be asserted that Johnston had made
a delusive estimate of his owm powers, for if he does not
surpass or equal so great a master, he at least makes a near
approach to his poetic excellence. In this version, he has
adhered almost uniformly to his favourite elegiac verse :
it is only in the hundred and nineteenth psalm that his
metre is varied, and there every part is exhibited in a new
species of verse. Buchanan’s plan of varying the measure
according to the characteristics of the poem, was evidently
more eligible in a w'riter wdio possessed such versatility of
talent. The Latin paraphrases of the psalms amount to a
very large number ; nor do we incur much hazard in aver¬
ring that the two Scotish poets have excelled all their
competitors.
Dr Beattie, who has passed a general condemnation on
poetical paraphrases of the psalms, is by no means disposed
to exempt those of Buchanan and Johnston from this sen¬
tence. “ If we look into Buchanan, what can we say, but
that the learned author, with great command of Latin ex¬
pression, has no true relish for the emphatick conciseness,
and unadorned simplicity, of the inspired poets ? Arthur
Johnston is not so verbose, and has of course more vigour:
but his choice of a couplet, which keeps the reader always
in mind of the puerile epistles of Ovid, was singularly in¬
judicious. As psalms may, in prose, as easily as in verse,
be adapted to musick, why should we seek to force those
divine strains into the measures of Roman or of modern
song ? He who transformed Livy into iambicks, and Vir¬
gil into monkish rhime, did not in my opinion act more
absurdly. In fact, sentiments of devotion are rather de¬
pressed than elevated by the arts of the European versi¬
fier.”4 These opinions of an elegant and tasteful writer
appear to be somewhat hypercritical, nor do we feel en¬
tirely disposed to acquiesce in any of the dogmas which
he has thus delivered. The charge of verbosity seems to
be very unadvisedly brought against Buchanan ; for, to
adopt the words of Ruddiman, we know of no modern poet
who has “ better preserved that masculine and elegant
simplicity, which we so much admire in the ancient wri¬
ters, and whose stile is farther removed from all gaudiness
and affectation.”
The reputation of Johnston did not die with himself.
1 Johnson’s Journey to the Western Islands, p. 30. “ One of its ornaments is the picture of Arthur Johnston, who was princi-
•> ti' co e£e’ an(* wk° holds among the Latin poets of Scotland the next place to the elegant Buchanan.”
u eduerburn was likewise a contributor to the u Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum.” He published the following grammatical works.
A Short Introduction to Grammar.” Aberd. 1632, 8vo. “ Institutiones Grammaticae.” Aberd. 1634, 8vo. “ Vocabula, cum
ro v1136- LinSuse Subsidiis commonly subjoined to Simson’s Rudimenta Grammatices. See Ruddiman’s Bibliotheca Romana,
H-ort „,°sslus.ad(lresscs Wedderburn as “ homo eruditissimus, beneque promerens de studiisjuventutis.” (Epistohe, p. 304. .Loud.
10J0, iol.) His merit as a grammarian is highly extolled in David Leitch’s “ Philosophia illachrymans, hoc est, Querela Philoso-
pmae, et Philosophorum Scotorum (praesertim vero Borealium) oratorie expressa.” Aberdoniae, 1637, 4to. His posthumous edition
oi rersius was published by his brother Alexander. “ Persius enudeatus : sive Commentarius exactissimus et maxime perspicuus
l"morS1Um’ l)oetarum omnium difficillimum, studio Davidis Wedderburni, Scoti, Abredonensis. Opus posthumum.” Amst. 1664,
3 “ Arturus Jonstonus,” says Morhof, “ in psalmorum yersione, quemadmodum et in operibus ceteris, ubique purus et tersus
r ? u e§° quidem nihil in illo desiderare passim.” (Polyhistor, tom. i. p. 1066.) Some objectionable words and phrases, used by
uonnston, are enumerated in Ruddiman’s Vindication of Buchanan, p. 70.
Beattie’s Dissertations, Moral and Critical, p. 645. Lond. 1783, 4to.
V°L. XII. 4 G
602
JOHNSTON.
Johnston. Soon after his death, a collection of his poems was pub-
lished under the superintendence of William Spang, mi¬
nister of the Scotish church at Campvere, whose name is
well known to the readers of Raillie’s Letters. “ Arturi
Jonstoni Scoti, Medici Regii, Poemata omnia.” Middelb.
Zeland. 1642, 16to. This collection, which is printed in
a very diminutive form, includes his version of the psalms,
and the various works which have already been enume¬
rated, together with some shorter poems published for the
first time. It was followed by “ Arturi Jonstoni Scoti
Psalmorum Davidis Paraphrasis poetica, nunc demum cas-
tigatius edita.” Amst. 1706, 12mo. The editor was Da¬
vid Hoogstratan, well-known for his edition of Phaedrus;
and the volume is inscribed to Janus Broukhusius, an emi¬
nent scholar, at whose suggestion the edition was under¬
taken. After a short interval, Ruddiman published “ Can-
tici Solomonis Paraphrasis poetica, Arthuro Jonstono
Scoto, Medico Regio, auctore: editio nova, summo studio
recognita, ac notis illustrata.” Edinb. 1709, 4to. Edinb.
1717, 8vo. Johnston found a more zealous admirer in
William Lauder, who inserted his sacred poems in a col¬
lection entitled “ Poetarum Scotorum Musae Sacras: sive
quatuor Sacri Codicis Scriptorum, Davidis et Solcmonis,
Jobi et Jeremise, Poetici Libri, per totidem Scotos, Arct.
Jonstonum et Jo. Kerrum, P. Adamsonum et G. Hogaeum,
Latino carmine redditi : quibus, ob argumenti similitudi-
nem, adnectuntur alia, Scotorum itidem, Opuscula Sacra.”
Edinb. 1739, 2 tom. 8vo. The first volume contains a life of
Johnston, together with the testimonies of various learned
writers.1 His paraphrase was also published separately ;
and the editor obtained from the general assembly a re¬
commendation that it should be taught in the lower forms
of grammar schools, as a precursor to that of Buchanan.
An elegant edition of the latter, “ cum notis variorum,”
had been published in 1737 by Robert Hunter and John
Love, the one professor of Greek at Edinburgh, and the
other master of Dalkeith school. Love now thought it in¬
cumbent upon him to extol Buchanan, and to censure
Johnston ; Lauder was far from being satisfied with his
criticisms, and an acrimonious controversy ensued between
them. Johnston’s cause was espoused with great warmth
by Mr Benson, who began his operations by publishing
“ A Prefatory Discourse to a new Edition of the Psalms
of David, translated into Latin verse by Dr Arthur John¬
ston, Physician to King Charles the First: to which is
added, a Supplement, containing a Comparison betwixt
Johnston and Buchanan.” Lond. 1741, 8vo. This pre¬
cursor was speedily followed by “ Arturi Jonstoni Psalmi
Davidici, interpretatione, argumentis, notisque illustrati,
in usum Serenissimi Principis.” Lond. 1741, 4to. & 8vo.
Each of these editions is elegantly printed, and contains a
portrait of Johnston, engraved by G. Vertue. The life of
the poet, we are informed, was translated into Latin by
Dr Ward, professor of rhetoric in Gresham College ;2 and
it may be conjectured that he also lent his aid in the pre¬
paration of the notes and interpretation, which are model¬
led on those of the editions for the use of the Dauphin.
Not satisfied with the honour thus paid to a favourite Johnstr
poet, he soon afterwards published “ Arturi Jonstoni
Psalmi Davidici, cum Metaphrasi Grseca Jacobi Duporti,
Graecse Linguae apud Cantabrigienses Exprofessoris Regii.”
Lond. 1742, 8vo.3 This volume is without preface or an¬
notations ; nor is the name of Benson appended to any
of these publications. The learned Ruddiman, who was
roused to some degree of indignation by his disparaging
animadversions on Buchanan, prepared an elaborate vo¬
lume, consisting of nearly four hundred pages, and bear¬
ing the following copious title : “ A Vindication of Mr
George Buchanan’s Paraphrase of the Book of Psalms,
from the Objections rais’d against it by William Benson,
Esq. Auditor in Exchequer, in the Supplement and Con¬
clusion he has annex’d to his Prefatory Discourse to his
new Edition of Dr Arthur Johnston’s Version of that sa¬
cred book : in which also, upon a comparison of the per¬
formances of those two poets, the superiority is demon¬
strated to belong to Buchanan : wherein likewise several
passages of the original are occasionally illustrated: to¬
gether with some useful observations concerning the La¬
tin Poetry and Arts of Versification : in a Letter to that
learned Gentleman.” Edinb. 1745, 8vo. This volume,
which displays a masterly knowledge of the Latin lan¬
guage and literature, may still be read for the valuable
information which it contains. Although he gives a de¬
cided preference to Buchanan, he is far from being insen¬
sible to the eminent merit of Johnston, on whom he here
bestows no mean commendation. “ I have as high an
opinion of Dr Johnston’s extraordinary genius as most
men have, at least as I think it ought to have; and am
satisfied that, for the elegancy and purity of his diction,
the sweetness and smoothness of his verse, in short all
the other ingredients that are required to the composi¬
tion of a great and masterly poet, he was inferior to none,
and superior to most of the age he lived in. Nay, I will
allow farther that, in my judgment, he deserves the pre¬
ference to the far greater part of those that have lived
since or before him.” And in the last work which he
gave to the public, he speaks of him in terms of warm and
discriminating praise. “ The other I shall name is Dr
Arthur Johnston, physician to King Charles I., whom I
will not be so foolish as, with Mr Auditor Benson, to exalt
above the poets of the Augustan age, or even to prefer
him to Buchanan, but this I can and will say, that tho’
some few of them may have more of pomp and grandeur,
of force and energy in their poetry, yet for the sweetness
and smoothness, the delicacy and harmoniousness of his
numbers, he is not to be equalled in any nation since
Ovid’s time.”4
His youngest brother, William Johnston, M. D. is men¬
tioned by Urquhart as “ a good poet in Latine, and a
good mathematician.” He was educated in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, and afterwards visited several foreign
universities. He successively taught humanity and phi¬
losophy in the university of Sedan, where he is said to
have acquired much reputation.5 In the year 1626 he
1 Lauder and Benson have both overlooked the testimony of Olaus Borrichius, a learned Dane, which is highly favourable, and
which commences thus: “In Arturo Jonstono Scoto, medico regio, redivivum agnoscimus Buchananum, ita non modo divinum
Psalten nova et speciosa veste poetica induit, sed et in seriis jocisque, in laudibus et insectationibus, immo, quocunque stylum vertit,
floridus est, copiosus, disertusque, nec usquam exemplorum inops, aut scaber. Onopordum quondam, in Musas Buchanan! teme-
rano judicio involantem, ita depexum reddidit amarissimis, sed una suavissimis elegis, ut quivis malit esse Thersites in Graecia,
quant in Britannia Onopordus.” (Dissertationes Academicae de Poetis, p. 152. Prancof. 1683, 4to.)
2 Nichols’s Literary Anecdotes of the eighteenth Century, vol. v. p. 522.
3 Buchanan’s paraphrase was published in a similar manner. “ Psalmorum Davidicorum Metaphrasis, Graecis versibus contexta
per Jacobum Duportum Cantabrigiensem : cui in oppositis paginis respondens accessit Paraphrasis poetica Latina, auctore Georgio
Buchanano Scoto : utraeque summa cura recognitae et castigatae.” Lond. 1742, 8vo. The preface, subscribed K. R. is dated “ VVest-
monasterii, viii. Cal. Aprilis, 1/42.’’ 'The editor has added a single note, which relates to Buchanan’s dedication, and to the four
verses which Atterbury proposed to substitute for the conclusion.
4 Ruddiman’s Further Vindication of his Edition of Buchanan’s Works, p. 53. Edinb. 1756, 8vo.
^ Gul. Smith Oratio in qua inclytae Academiae Marischallanae Abredonensis nobilissimus Parens, illustres Maecenates, et eximii
Benefactores, ad annum m.dc.xcvi. commemorantur, p. 24. Abredeis, 1702, 4to. Andrew Strachan, a professor of King’s College,
J O H
ohnston. .was appointed professor of mathematics in Marischal Col-
lege, and here he continued till the time of his death,
which took place on the 15th of June 164-0.1 With his
academical labours he probably combined the practice of
physic; and his circumstances were so prosperous that
he purchased the estate of Beidelstone in the parish of
Dyce and county of Aberdeen. By his wife, who was the
youngest daughter of Abraham Forbes of Blackstoune,
he left a son and two daughters.
Another Latin poet, John Johnston, was likewise con¬
nected with this family. He was the son of Johnston of
Crimond in Aberdeenshire; and after completing the
usual course in King’s College, he prosecuted his studies
on the continent, where he continued to reside for the space
of eight years. He successively studied in the universities
of Helmstadt, Rostock, and Geneva. After having visited
England, he at length returned to his native country, and in
1593 was appointed professorof divinity in the university of
St Andrews, where he was associated with Andrew Melville.
He married Catharine Melville, of the family of Carnbee,
and lived to lament her loss, and that of two children. He
died on the 20th of October 1611.2 Among other works,
he published the two following. “ Inscriptiones Histo-
ricae Regum Scotorum, continuata annorum serie a Fer-
gusio primo regni conditore ad nostra tempora; Joh.
Jonstono Abredonense Scoto authore. Praefixus est Ga-
thelus, sive de Gentis Origine Fragmentum An. Melvini.”
Amst. 1602, 4to. “ Heroes ex omni Historia Scotica
lectissimi, auctore Johan. Jonstono Abredonense Scoto.”
Lugd. Bat. 1603, 4to. Both works consist of short in¬
scriptions, written in elegiac verse, and exhibiting a vein
of ancient simplicity. Besides a prose work, entitled
Consolatio Christiana, he is likewise the author of some
sacred poems, printed at Saumur in 1611.3
John Johnston, M. D. must not be confounded with the
professor of divinity. He was born at Sambter in Po¬
land, on the 3d of September 1603, but was descended
of Scotish ancestors; who, according to his continental
biographers, were of “ the illustrious family of Johnston
of Crogborn,”4 meaning perhaps Craigsburn. His native
country was formerly replenished with Scotish emigrants ;
and during the seventeenth century, as we are assured by
Lithgow, it contained no fewer than thirty thousand Sco¬
tish families.5 Part of his education he received at St
Andrews, and he afterwards prosecuted his studies in se¬
veral other universities. On returning to Poland in 1632,
he was engaged to accompany two young gentlemen on
their travels; and, during a period of four years and a
half, they visited France, Italy, and various other coun¬
tries. He took his doctor’s degree at Leyden, and was
admitted ad eundem at Cambridge. The unsettled state
of his own country induced him to seek another place of
abode; and he withdrew to the duchy of Lignitz in lower
Silesia, where he purchased the estate of Ziebendorf, and
united the practice of physic with a variety of learned
pursuits. By his writings he acquired so much reputa¬
tion, that he was successively offered a medical chair in
JOH
603
the university of Frankfort and in that of Leyden; but Johnstone
preferring a more retired mode of life, he continued to re-
side at his own seat till the period of his death, which
took place on the 8th of June 1675. His remains were
intei red at Lessno in Poland on the 30th of September.
Johnston was twice married, and by his second wife had
several childien. Ihe most elaborate of his works bears
the title of Historia Naturalis, and is divided into five
volumes folio. His other publications, which amount to
a very considerable number, chiefly relate to natural his¬
tory and medicine. He published a short compendium
of civil history, entitled Polyhistor, and a treatise “ De
Festis Hebraeorum et Graecorum.” (x.)
JOHNSTONE, Robert, is a Scotish historian of consi¬
derable reputation, but his personal history is very imperfectly
known. We are however informed that he was the son
of an honest burgess of Edinburgh, and that he was edu¬
cated in the university of his native city.6 He took the
degree of A. M. in the year 1587. His father may per¬
haps have been a native of Annandale, where Johnstone
is still a prevalent name. The son bequeathed legacies to
some of his cousins in Annandale, L.500 sterling in trust to
Lord Johnstone for building a bridge over the river Annan,
and L.1000 in trust to the same nobleman for the mainte¬
nance of a grammar school at Moffat. Whether he pro¬
secuted his studies in some foreign university, and there
took his degree of LL. D., we are not informed, lie ap¬
pears to have fixed his residence in London, and to have
inherited or acquired a considerable fortune. Dempster,
to whom we are indebted for many scattered notices of
Scotish writers, has stated that he was particularly esteem¬
ed by Lord Bruce of Kinloss, and, although not a courtier,
that he was acceptable to King JamesJ His testament,
extracted from the register of the prerogative court of
Canterbury, has lately been printed, and reflects some ad¬
ditional light upon his history.8 He there describes himself
as “ Robert Johnstone, of the parish of St Anne, Blackffy-
ers, London, Esquire.” The codicil is dated on the 12th
of October 1639, and probate was granted to one of his
executors six days afterwards; so that the testator must
have died^ in that interval. The greatest part of his pro¬
perty he bequeathed to charitable and benevolent purpos¬
es. It is however to be suspected that his laudable inten¬
tions were in some cases frustrated: the bridge w'as never
built over the Annan, nor did Moffat school derive much
benefit from his legacy. He had been appointed one of the
executors of George Heriot; and he bequeathed L.l 100 to
the hospital. »He bequeathed L.1000 “ towards the main¬
tenance of eight poor scholars” in the university of Edin¬
burgh. Ihe destination of his library is thus expressed :
“ As for my books, I do appoint the books of humanity,
Thesaurus Linguas Latinae, and Lexicon Graecum, to be
sent unto Moffat in Annandale, when the aforesaid school
is ereckted, with the Latin poets and commentaries: as for
the Italian, French, and Spanish books, 1 would have them
changed for books of philosophy, to be sent unto the Col¬
lege of Edinburgh : for my civil law books, and books of
speaks of Dr Johnston in the following terms : “De Gulielmo certe idem usurpare possumus, quod olim de Tito Imperat. suavissimo
UJctum est, Be/icix est humani generis ; tanta est ejus comitas, tanta urbanitas.” (Panegyricus Inauguralis, quo Autores, Vindices,
et rwergeta? illustris Universitatis Aberdonensis justis elogiis ornabantur, p. 22. Aberdoniis, 1631, 4to.)
_ Spalding’s History of the Troubles in Scotland, vol. i. p. 215.
2 His testament may be found in the Miscellany of the Maitland Club, vol. i. p. 333.
^ See Dr M‘Crie’s Life of Melville, vol. ii. p. 512.
' ;uSdSlttarii Intr°ductio in Historiam Ecclesiasticam, tom. i. p. 217. Jenae, 1718, 2 tom. 4to. Niceron, Memoires pou.* servir
a 1 liistoire des Hommes illustres dans la Republique des Lettres, tom. xli. p. 269.
Lithgow’s Nineteen Years Travels, p. 402.
“ Crawford’s History of the University of Edinburgh, p. 140.
“ Uobertus Johnstonus, Baroni Killosensi dum vivebat carus, vir variae lectionis, rarae eruditionis, scripsit Historiam sui Seculi
Ratine, lib. i. et tersissimam, ut est limati judicii. Yivit adhuc Londini virtutis merito, licet non aulicus. regi acceptus.” (Demn-
fiten Historia Eeclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, p. 394.) '
" Constable’s Memoirs of George Heriot, p. 163. Edinb. 1822, 8vo.
604
J O H
J O I
Johnstone, history, I give also to the said College of Edinburgh ; and my
wv-—/ English books I give unto my said servant Hendry Heron.”
Dr Johnstone had prepared a history of his own time ;
and the earliest part of it, consisting of two books, appear¬
ed under the title of “ Historiarum libri duo, continentes
Rerum Britannicarum vicinarumque Regionum Historias
maxime memorabiles. Sunt praeter hos adhuc xx. libri,
qui typographo nondum in manus venere.” Amst. 1642,
12mo. It contains the author’s dedication to King Charles,
and the subsequent epigram, “ Ad Robertum Johnstonum
Scoto-Britannum,” written by John Owen :
Ingenii, Johnstone, tui sum factus amator,
Historise legerem dum monumenta tuse.
Nil magis ingenuum, nihil ingeniosius extat
Tergeminae Britonum gentis in historia :
Excipias unum Morum de rege Iticardo,
Nemo Britannorum dignior invidia.
Such portions of the volume as relate to Scotish history
were soon afterwards translated into English : “ The His¬
toric of Scotland during the Minority of King lames:
written in Latine by Robert Johnston: done into English
byT. M.,n Lond. 1646, 12mo. This translator was per¬
haps Thomas Middleton, author of the Appendix to Spots-
wood’s History. The identity of the historian and of the
individual who died in 1639, is established by the testimo¬
ny of the translator, who mentions his author’s bequest to
the university of Edinburgh. He has however magnified
the eight exhibitions into eight fellowships. The entire
history at length made its appearance in an ample volume :
“ Historia Rerum Britannicarum, ut et multarum Galli
carum, Belgicarum, et Germanicarum, tarn politicarum
quam ecclesiasticarum, ab anno 1572 ad annum 1628.”
Amst. 1655, fol. The editor, under the signature of J. S.
has prefixed a very brief notice, which contains an erro¬
neous statement of the author having himself published
the first two books. Buchanan’s history, according to the
opinion of Nicolson, has been “ continu’d in the same fine
language” by Johnstone ;1 2 and Lord Woodhouselee de¬
scribes this continuation as “ a work of great merit, whe¬
ther we consider the judicious structure of the narrative,
the sagacity of the reflections, the acute discernment of
characters, or the classical tincture of the style. In those
passages of his history where there is room for a display of
eloquence, he is often singularly happy in touching those
characteristic circumstances which present the picture
strongly to the mind of the reader, without a vain parade
of words, or artificial refinement of sentiment.”3 Of this
high commendation we are however disposed to make
some abatement, both as to the matter and style of John¬
stone’s history. (x.)
Johnstone, a modern and thriving village of Scot-Johnsti
land, in the county of Renfrew, at the distance of about ||
three miles west from Paisley. It owes its origin entire- Joign;
ly to manufactures, as about forty years ago only a few
cottages stood where now is seen a town consisting of
two large squares, many considerable streets, and public
works. It is regularly laid out, there being one main
street, which is crossed by others at right angles. The
houses are substantially built, and for the most part two
stories high. There are within the precincts of the place
seventeen cotton mills of various extent, and other three
in the neighbourhood. There are also in the town two
brass and two extensive iron founderies; five machine
manufactories, and a public gas-work. Besides a chapel
of ease belonging to the Scotch church, there is here a
United Secession and Relief church, a Universalist, and
Methodist chapel. In Johnstone are also a town school, a
subscription library, two news-rooms, a mechanics’ insti¬
tution and library, and sundry benevolent and religious
societies. The Ardrossan Canal from Glasgow termi¬
nates in a basin at the east end of the town. In its
neighbourhood are four collieries, which are of great ad¬
vantage to a place to which coal is of essential import¬
ance. The population in 1811 amounted to 3647, and in
1818 to 5000.
JOHNSTON’S Isle, a small island in the Eastern
Seas, surrounded by a cluster of others. It is covered
with verdure and cocoa-nut trees. Long. 131. 12. E.
Lat. 3. 11. N.
JOHORE, a town of Malacca, and capital of an inde¬
pendent Malay principality, situated near the southern
extremity of the peninsula of Malacca, twenty miles up a
river of the same name. It was founded in 1511 by the
inhabitants of Malacca, who fled thither on the capture of
their city by the Portuguese. In 1603 Johore was also
taken by the Portuguese, but rebuilt a little higher up
the river. The surrounding country abounds in pepper,
tin, gold, sago, and elephants’ teeth. The inhabitants
bring these articles in their own prows to Prince of Wales’
Island, and receive in return opium and other goods.
Long. 104. 5. E. Lat. 1. 40. N.
JOIGNY, an arrondissement of the department of the
Yonne, in France. It extends over 774 square miles, is
divided into nine cantons, and these into 110 communes,
having a population of 78,687 persons. The capital, from
which the circle takes its name, is a city on a hill, rising
from the banks of the river Yonne. It is surrounded with
walls, has a fine market-place, and 1000 houses, with 5176
inhabitants. There are some manufactures of cloth and
of leather. Long. 3. 55. E. Lat. 47. 50. N.
1 This translation occurs in a volume entitled Scotia Rcdiviva, a Collection of Tracts illustrative of the History and Antiquities
of Scotland, p. 361. Edinb. 1826, 8vo.
2 Nicolson’s Scottish Historical Library, p. 121.
3 Woodhouselee’s Memoirs of Lord Karnes, vol. i. app. p. 3.
605
JOINERY.
foinery. Is one of the useful arts which contributes most mate-
—v^'rially to the comfort and convenience of man. As the
arts of joinery and carpentry are often followed by the
same individual, it appears, at first view, natural to con¬
clude, that the same principles are common to both these
arts. But a closer examination of their objects leads us to
a different conclusion.
trpentry The art of Carpentry is directed almost wholly to the
fined, support of weight or pressure ; and, therefore, its principles
must be found in the mechanical sciences. In a building,
it includes all the rough timber-work necessary for sup¬
port, division, or connection; and its proper object is to
give firmness and stability. See the Article Carpentry.
finery The art of Joinery has for its object the addition in a
fined, building of all the fixed wood-work necessary for conve¬
nience or ornament.. It is the Intestinum opus of Vitru¬
vius, and the Menuiserie des bdtimem of the French.
The joiner’s works are many of them of a complicated
nature, and require to be executed in an expensive mate¬
rial ; therefore joinery requires much skill in that part of
geometrical science which treats of the projection and de¬
scription of lines, surfaces, and solids, as well as an inti¬
mate knowledge of the structure and nature of wood.
It may also be remarked, that the rough labour of the
carpenter renders him in some degree unfit to produce that
kind of accurate and neat workmanship which is expected
from a modern joiner.
rogress of In early times, very little that resembles modern joinery
iinery in was known ■ every part was rude, and joined in the most
" ‘ artless manner. The first dawnings of the art appear in
the thrones, stalls, pulpits, and screens of our cathedrals
and churches ; but, even in these, it is of the most simple
kind, and is indebted to the carver for every thing that is
worthy of regard. Whether in these monuments, the car¬
ver and the joiner had been one and the same person we
cannot now determine, though we imagine, from the mode
of joining in some of them, that this was the case.
During several centuries joinery seems to have been
gradually improving, but nothing appears to have been
written on the art before 1677, when Mr Joseph Moxon, a
Fellow of the Royal Society, published a work, entitled
Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handyworks. In
this work the tools, and common operations in joinery, are
described, with a collection of the terms then in use. It
must have been a valuable work at that time, but to a mas¬
ter in the art it would convey little if any thing that was
new. Sash-windows were introduced into England some
time before the date of Moxon’s work, but he has not no¬
ticed them. According to the observations of Dr Thom¬
son this important improvement has not yet found its way
into Sweden.1
About the beginning of the last century several works
of a most interesting kind made their appearance. Forms
began to be introduced in architecture, which could not
be executed at a moderate expense without the aid of new
principles, and these principles were discovered and pub¬
lished by practical joiners. As might naturally be ex¬
pected, these authors had but confused notions, with a
scanty portion of geometrical knowledge ; and, according¬
ly, their descriptions are often obscure, and sometimes er¬
roneous.
The hand-rails of stairs offered many difficulties, and an
imperfect attempt to remove them was first made by Half¬
penny, in his Art of Sound Building, published in 1725. Joinery.
Price, the author of the British Carpenter, published in' "
1733, was more successful, and his remarks show a con¬
siderable degree of knowledge of the true nature and ob¬
ject of his researches.
The publication of Price’s work must have produced a
considerable sensation among joiners, for it was soon fol¬
lowed by many other works of different degrees of merit.
Of these the works of Langley and Pain were the most
popular.
The establishment of the principles of joinery, on the
sound basis of geometrical science, was reserved for Ni •
cholson. In his Carpenterd Guide, and Carpenter and
Joiners’’ Assistant, published in 1792, he has made some
most valuable corrections and additions to the labours of
his predecessors.
Corresponding improvements were also made in the
practice of joinery, for which we are much indebted to the
late Mr James Myatt. This celebrated architect kept to¬
gether some of the best workmen in London, who were
looked up to with a degree of emulation by young men,
which had a beneficial effect on the progress of joinery.
But the art is still far short of perfection. We conceive
that many of those operations, on which the soundness of
work chiefly depends, might be done with greater exact¬
ness, and less labour, by means of tools contrived for these
purposes. The truth and certainty which have been in¬
troduced in block-making, is sufficient to encourage some
one to extend the same manner of mortising in joinery.
See Block-Machinery.
The principles of joinery were cultivated in France by Progress of
a very different class of writers. In the extensive work of Joinery in
Frezier, entitled Coupe des Pierres et des Bois, 3 vols. 4to, France.
1739, all the leading principles ai'e given and explained
with tedious minuteness, offering a striking contrast to the
brevity of our English writers. The first elementary work
on that part of geometrical science, which contains the
principles of joinery, appeared in France in 1705, from the
pen of the celebrated Gaspard Monge, who gave it the
name of Geometric Descriptive. Much of what has been
given as new in English works, had been long known on
the Continent; but there does not appear to have been
much, if any, assistance derived from these foreign works
by any writer prior to Nicholson.
The latest French work which treats of joinery is Ron-
delet’s EArt de Bdtir. It is also the best foreign work
on the subject that we have seen ; but it is not at all
adapted to the state of joinery in England. In practice,
the French joiners are very much inferior to our own
Their work is rough, slovenly, and often clumsy, and at
the best is confined to external effect. The neatness,
soundness, and accuracy, which is common to every part
of the works of an English joiner, is scarcely to be found
in any part of the works of a French one. The little
correspondence, in point of excellence, between their
theory and practice, leads us to think that their theoreti¬
cal knowledge is confined to architects, engineers, &c. in¬
stead of being diffused among workmen, as it is in this
country.
In cabinet-work the French workmen are certainly su¬
perior, at least as far as regards external appearance; but
when use, as well as ornament, is to be considered, our
own countrymen must as certainly carry away the palm.
1 Travels in Sweden, p. 8.
JOINERY.
606
Joinery. The appearance of French furniture is much indebted to a
v'-—superior method of polishing, which is now generally known
in this country.1 For many purposes, however, copal var¬
nish (such as coachmakers use) is preferable; it is more
durable, and bears an excellent polish.
Geometri- Geometry is useful in all, and absolutely necessary in
cal know- some, parts of a joiner’s business ; but it is absurd to en-
ledge ne- counter difficulties in execution, and to sacrifice good
cessary. tastej convenience, economy, and comfort, merely for the
purpose of displaying a little skill in that science. It is,
however, a common fault among such architects as are
better acquainted with geometrical rules than with the
production of visible beauties, to form designs for no other
purpose than to create difficulties in the execution.
But, when geometrical science is properly directed, it
gives the mind so clear a conception of the thing to be
executed, that the most intricate piece of work may be
conducted with all the accuracy it requires.
Practice of The practice of joinery is best learned by observing the
Joinery, methods of good workmen, and endeavouring to imitate
them. But the sooner a workman begins to think for him¬
self tne better; he ought always to endeavour to improve
on the processes of others ; either so as to produce the same
effect with less labour, or to produce better work.2
We intend, in this article, to give a plain and simple ex¬
position of the most valuable principles of the art of join¬
ery, which will, we hope, place many parts of the practice
under a new point of view, and ultimately tend to improve
them.
Cabinet. Cabinet-making, or that part of the art of working in
Making, wood which is applied to furniture, has little affinity with
joinery, though the same materials and tools be employed
in both. Correctness and strict uniformity are not so es¬
sential in moveables as in the fixed parts of buildings ;
they are also more under the dominion of fashion, and
therefore are not so confined by rules as the parts of build¬
ings.
Cabinet-making offers considerable scope for taste in
beautiful forms, and also in the choice and arrangement of
coloured woods. It requires considerable knowledge in
perspective, and also that the artist should be able to sketch
with freedom and precision.
If the cabinet-maker intend to follow the higher depart¬
ments of his art, it will be necessary to study the different
kinds of architecture, in order to make himself acquainted
with their peculiarities, so as to impress his works with the
same character as the rooms they are to furnish.
In as far as regards materials, and the principles of join¬
ing work, the cabinet-maker will find some useful informa¬
tion in the second and third sections of this article. In
ornamental composition he may derive much benefit from
fatham’s Etchings of Ancient Ornamental Architecture,
London, 1799 ; Percier and Fontaine’s Recueil des Decora¬
tions Interieures comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a
l Ameublement, Paris, 1812; and, for general information,
the Cabinet Dictionary, and the Cabinet-Maker and Up¬
holsterer's Drawing-Book of Sheraton, may be consulted.
Sect. I—On making Working Drawings.
1. In this section we propose to lay before the reader
the most important part of the principles of describing, on
a plane surface, the lines necessary for determining bevels,
forming moulds, or any other purpose required in the prac¬
tice of joinery. The limits within which such an article as
joinery must be confined, in a work like this, will not permit Joiner
us to enter much into detail on the various points to be il-
lustrated in this section; but we hope, by judicious selec¬
tion, to place under one point of view the principles that
are most useful to the joiner.
Projection of Bodies.
2. A clear idea of the nature of projection is so essential Nature
in making working drawings, that, in our endeavours to il- Projecti
lustrate it, we cannot proceed upon principles too simple.’hustrat
In the first stage of such an inquiry, experiment furnishes
at once the most clear and satisfactory evidence, parti¬
cularly to those who are not familiar with mathematical
subjects.
If some small pieces of wood, or pieces of wire, were
joined together, so as to represent the form of a solid body,
a cube for example, and if this figure were held between
the sun and the surface of a plane board, then the shadow
of the figure upon the board would be its projection upon
that plane. From this simple experiment, it will appear,
that the projection of any line placed in the direction of
the sun’s rays will be a point: the projection of any line
parallel to the plane will be of the same length as the line
itself, and the projection of any line inclined to the plane
will be always shorter than that line.
3. We have supposed the board to be placed at any
angle with the direction of the rays of the sun ; but, for our
present purpose, it is sufficient to consider them to fall per¬
pendicularly upon it; hence it is obvious, that to project a
straight line upon a plane, a perpendicular to the plane
should be let fall from each end of the line, and the line
joining the points where the perpendiculars meet the plane
will be the projection required.
When a projection is made upon a horizontal plane, it is
usually called a plan of the body. When the projection is
upon a vertical plane, it may be an elevation or a section of
the body; it is a section when a portion is supposed to be
cut off; and the plane of projection is usually parallel to the
plane of the section.
4. Bodies may be divided into three classes, according
to the kinds of surfaces by which they are bounded. The
first class, comprehending those which are bounded by plane
surfaces, such are cubes, prisms, pyramids, and the like.
The second class contains those which are bounded in part
by plane surfaces, and the rest by curved surfaces, as cy¬
linders, cones, &c. The third, including those which are
bounded by curved surfaces only, as spheres, spheroids,
&c.
The projections of the first class of bodies will consist of
straight lines; those of the second class, of curved as well
as straight lines; and those of the third class, of curved
lines only.
4. Let ABCD, and CDEF, Fig. 1, be two plane sur-projecti
faces, connected by a joint at CD, so that while the plane of lines.
CDEF remains horizontal, the
plane ABCD may be placed per¬
pendicular to it, and thus repre¬
sent a vertical plane. Then, if a
line be so placed in space that ab
is its projection on the vertical
plane, and a'b' its projection on
the horizontal plane, its projection
on any other vertical plane, HGEC,
may be determined. This is easily
effected, for we have seen, that if a perpendicular be drawn
Fig. 1.
and 3" 1° ma^inS ant* using the French polish is minutely described in Dr Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, vol. xi. p. 119
P^ptjons of the tools, with instructions for using them, may be found in Moxon’s work before quoted, and in Nicholson’s
Mechanical Exercises, lay lor, London, 1812.
JOINERY.
•qjection
planes.
Fig- 2.
Foinery. to the plane from each end of the given line, they will give
—the positions of the ends of the line in the projection (Art. 3).
Now, the same thing will be done, by drawing a'a" and
b’b" perpendicular to EC, and setting off the points a" and
b" at the same height above EC respectively, as a and b
are above CD, then the line a"b" is the projection re¬
quired.
The heights may be transferred from one vertical plane
to another when they are both supposed to be laid flat, by
drawing the line IC, so as to bisect the angle ECD, and if
be parallel to CD, meeting IC in c, then a line drawn
parallel to EC, from the point c, will give the height of the
point b", and so may be found the height of any other
point.
d deter- ^ie particular case we have drawn, none of the
ine the projections represents the real length of the given line. To
ngthofa obtain this length, draw a'e parallel to CD, and with the
ejected ra(]ius aJ/ describe the arc Ue cutting a'e in e; draw de
Ie- perpendicular to CD, cutting the line in r/; join ad, and
it is the length of the given line.
The real lengths of lines frequently are not given, there¬
fore another general method of finding them will be found
useful, and which may be stated as follows: the length of
an inclined line projected upon a plane is equal to the hy-
pothenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which one side is
the projection upon the plane, and the other side is the dif¬
ference between the perpendicular distances of the extremes
of the line from the plane.
7. In fig. 2, alb'cd represents the horizontal projection,
or plan, of a rectangular surface, and the elevation ab
shows its inclination ; and its pro¬
jection against another vertical
plane, making any angle ECD
with the former, or plane of eleva¬
tion, is shown by a" b" c'd'. GC
being perpendicular to EC, and A C
perpendicular to CD, the heights
may be transferred by means of
ares of circles described from C as
a centre. This is a better method
than that by bisecting the angle given in fig. 1 ; but neither
of them so good, in practice, as setting of the heights with
the compasses, or with a lath. In our figures it is desira¬
ble to shew the connection of corresponding parts as much
as possible; therefore, the reader will bear in mind that
many of the operations we describe may be done with fewer
lines when the operator is fully master of his subject.
8. It may be further noticed in this place, that when a
point is to be determined in one line by the intersection of
another, the lines should cross each other as nearly at right
angles as possible; for, when the intersecting lines cross
very obliquely, a point cannot be determined with any to¬
lerable degree of accuracy.
ojection 9. A curved line can seldom be projected by any other
curved means than by finding a number of points through which
s' the projected line must be drawn, or finding a series of
tangents to the section. In giving an example of the pro¬
jection of a body bounded by a curved surface, we shall
select a case of frequent occurrence in practice, referring
to the Geometrie Descriptive of Monge, for more general
methods.
Let ABC be part of the plan of the base of a solid, fig. 3,
and FED its end elevation; the upper side of the solid
being bounded by the curved surface FD. This solid is
supposed to be cut at AB by a plane perpendicular to the
base, and our intention is to shew the form of the section.
Draw EH parallel to BA, and GIHE will represent the
plane upon which the section is to be projected. Set off
607
any convenient number of points, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the given Joiner j.
curve FD, from each of these points'
draw a line perpendicular to ED,
to meet BA ; and from the points
in BA, thus determined, erect per¬
pendiculars, which will cut HE at
D right angles. Make GH equal to
FE, and set off the points 1, 2, 3,
&c. in GHE at the same distances
a respectively from HE as the cor¬
responding points 1, 2, 3, &c. in
EFD are from the line ED. A
curve being drawn through the
points E, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, G will com¬
plete the section. In large works,
the joiner will often find it useful to put nails in the points,
and to bend a regular lath against the nails; with the as¬
sistance of the lath, the curve may be drawn with more
regularity.1
If the curve FD were very irregular, or a mixed line of
straight parts and curved ones, the same method would de¬
termine the section; all the caution required is, that a suf¬
ficient number of points should be fixed upon in the given
curve ; and upon the proper selection of these points much
of the accuracy of the section will depend.
The angle ribs of groined ceilings, the angle ribs for
coved ceilings, or brackets for large cornices, and the angle
cantilevers for balconies or other works of a similar kind,
are found by this method. If FD be the cross rib of a
groin, then GE will be the form of the corresponding ang^e
rib. Also, if the angle of a room be represented by LAC,
and FD be the cove for the ceiling, then GE will be the
proper angle rib for such a cove.
In some cases, the section may be determined by means
of the properties of the given curve, when the nature of
that curve is known. Thus the oblique section of a cylin¬
der is an ellipse, and the sections of a cone are certain fi¬
gures depending on the direction of the plane of section
(see the article Conic Sections) ; but if an architect were
confined to the use of geometrical curves, there would be
small scope, indeed, for a display of taste in his art; there¬
fore the joiner must generally have recourse to the simple
method we have described.
10. The section of a body may often be drawn by a more
simple and direct process; and yet where the principle is
still the same. Thus the section of the half cylinder
ACB, in fig. 4, being compared with the process in fig. 3,
Fig. 4.
will be found to be the
same in every respect, ex¬
cepting in the position of
the parts of the figure. In
fig. 4, ACB is the end or
plan of the cylinder, and
DE the inclination of the
plane by which it is cut. Let
the ordinates a 1, b% &c.
in the plan, be drawn per¬
pendicular to AB, and con¬
tinued till they cut the in¬
clined line DE. Also draw
the ordinates a' V, b' 2', &c.
perpendicular to the line
DE, and make the distan¬
ces a'V, Z/2/, &c. respectively equal to the corresponding
distances a l, Z>2, &c. upon the plan. Through the points
E, 1', 2/, &c. draw the curve DFE.
As the curve DFE is an ellipse, when ABC is a circle,
in that case it will be better to draw an ellipse with a tram-
p. lOif allC* conveuient instrument for this purpose is described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, vol. xxxv.
608
JOINERY.
Joinery, mel, or any other machine that produces the curve by a
continued motion. (See the article Elliptograph.) DE
is the transverse, and Fc' the semi-conjugate axis of the
ellipse. ...
The most important application of the case, in fig. 4, is
to the hand-railing of a staircase, with a curvilineal well-
hole, or opening down the middle. For, if Ac, or «B,
show the breadth of the rail, Ac C a B would be its plan ;
and Dc7 F o'E the form of a mould, commonly called a
face mould, for cutting out the rail by, when DE is the in¬
clination of the plank. We cannot, however, proceed di¬
rectly to the subject of stair-rails, without considering the
development of the surfaces of bodies.
Development of Surfaces.
To deve- H. To develope the surface of a solid, is to draw, on
lope a py- gome plane surface, a form that would cover it. If this
raraid. form were drawn upon paper, and the paper were cut to it,
the paper, so cut, ought to cover exactly the surface of the
solid. Now, in joinery, it is often required that a mould
should apply to a curved surface ; and, therefore, the deve¬
lopment of that surface upon a flexible material gives the
form of the mould.
The covering of a square pyramid may be found by erect¬
ing a perpendicular from the middle of one
of the sides of its base, as from a in the side
AB, fig. 5. Upon this perpendicular set off
a C equal to the slant height of the pyra¬
mid ; then, with the radius AC and cen¬
tre C describe the arc A3, and set off
the distance AB three times upon the
arc. Join the points C3, C2, Cl, CA,
and CB, and draw the lines 32, 21, 1 A,
which determine the covering requir¬
ed.
Fig. 5.
It is obvious, that we cotdd deveiope a pyramid of which
the base might have any number of sides, by the same me¬
thod ; and that a near approximation to the development
of a right cone might be effected by the same means,
which, in fact, is the means usually employed. But the fol¬
lowing method of spreading out the surface of a cone will
be found more correct.
To deve- 12. Let ABC, fig. 6, be the elevation of a cone, and
ADB half the plan of its base. With the
radius AC describe the arc AE, which will
be the line bounding the development;
and, to find the length of the arc, or rather
the angle containing it, multiply 3(50 by
the radius A a of the base, and divide the
product by the slant height AC of the cone;
the quotient will be the number of degrees
in the arc AE, when the surface ACE ex¬
actly covers the whole cone. Thus, let A«
lope a cone. Fig. U.
it as a prism with numerous sides, it is obvious that anv
other body of a like kind may be developed by the same
means.
Let ABC, fig. 7, be the plan of half a cylinder, and A'E
its height. Divide the curve ACB into any convenient
Fig. 7-
number of equal parts, and let these parts be set off from
C to A, and from C to B'. When the curve is a semicir¬
cle, divide the diameter AB into the proposed number of
parts, and make aD equal to three-fourths of the radius.
From D, through the points A and B, draw the lines DA',
DB', then A'B' is nearly equal to the curve ACB stretched
out J and, by drawing a line from D through each of the
divisions in AB, the line A'B' will be divided into the same
number of equal parts.
In either case, erect a perpendicular from each point of
division, and EA'B'F will be the development of the sur¬
face.
If we suppose A'B' to be divided into the number of
steps that would be necessary to ascend from B to A, in a
circular staircase, the development of the ends of these
steps may be drawn as in the upper part of the figure. The
projection G of the cylinder, with the lines of the develop¬
ment drawn upon it, and the ends of the steps, shews the
waving line formed by the nosings of the steps, and conse¬
quently by the hand-rail of a circular staircase.
When a part of a cylinder is cut off by a plane, the line
of section will be a curved line upon the development, as
is shewn in the lower part of the development, fig. 7- The
faint lines shew the manner of finding the edge of the co¬
vering, and is the same as finding a mould for a soffit form¬
ed by an arch cutting obliquely into a straight wall.
14. In an oblique cone, the lines drawn on its surface, To de^
from its base to the vertex, would be of different lengths ; l°Pe ar r*
and as those lengths are not shewn by the plan or eleva-*^ueq’
tion, they may be had by means of the principle stated in
art. 6.
Let ABC, fig. 8, be the given cone, and AEB a plan of
Fig- 8-
3fi0 v 1 ^
be 12 feet, and AC 40 feet; then ———— — 108 degrees,
40 °
and making ACE an angle of 108 degrees, we have the
sector ACE that would cover the cone.
This applies to the soffits of windows, where they are
enlarged towards the inside, to admit light more freely than
square recesses would do. If ab be the width of the soffit,
draw cb parallel to AB, and from the centre C describe
the arc cd. Then half the developement AEcc? will be
the mould for the soffit; or the form of a veneer that would
cover it.
To deve- \ 3. The development of a cylinder is also of use in
Under Cy" forming th0 mould for soffits, but is still more useful in the
construction of stairs; and, as we are obliged to consider
1 This has been shown by Dr C. Hutton, in his Mathematical Tracts, vol. i. p. 160.
JOINERY.
609
oinery. half its base; to find the development, produce AB, and which gives one point. Also with a rarlins f;•> r •
^frorn the vertex C let fall the perpendicular CD. Divide second diviaion oJ G n as a crnTfie an arc hich
the circumference of the base into any number of equal being crossed by an L described with a radius, Mual to
parts, and from each point of division describe an arc from one of the divisions of the arc ED, and s as a centre de-
D, as a centre, to cut the line AB at 1, 2, 3, &c. From termines another point in the edge of the covering. Pro-
C, as a centre, describe the arcs AA', 11 22, &c. and with ceed in the same manner till half the developmenl of one
a radius equal to one of the dmsions of the circumference edge be completed; the other edge will be obtained by
of the base and the centre B cross the arc 55, which de- drawing lines through the points t, t, u, from the corres-
termines the point 5 in the development, with the same ponding points in G /), and making s w equal to a 1 ; (,r
radius, and the point 5, as a centre cross the arc 44, and so equal to b 2, &c.
on for the remainder of the arcs. Join A'C, and draw a
curve line through the points A', 1, 2, &c. which gives the
covering for half an oblique cone.
If the cone be cut by a plane, a b, parallel to the base,
the surface Bba' A' will be the covering of a soffit for a
conical arch cutting obliquely into a straight wall.
Srnlthe 15. As it often happens that there is not a sufficient me wan oe circular, nnu me develop-
OTigofspace between the head of a door or a window, and the ment of the arc ED as before, and transfer the distances
iftl- cornice of the ceiling, to admit of the same bevel being from CD of the points in the curved wall, to the corres-
preserved at the crown or top, as at the sides of the win- ponding lines in the development, in the same manner as
dow; m such cases the soffit is made level at the crown, or  J— ^ 1 ■’ 1 ~
with such an inclination only as will prevent the architrave
cutting into the cornice of the room.
Let ABCD, fig. 9, be the plan of the space to be cover¬
ed with a soffit, ED the arch of half the opening, which is
As both sides are the same, the soffit mould for one side
requires only to be reversed for the other side. If the sof¬
fit be level at the crown, the process may be rendered
shorter ; but, where it is possible to get space for a slight
inclination, the appearance of the soffit is always materially
improved.
If the plan of the wall be circular, find the develop-
Fig. 9.
in its proper position when set perpendicularly over the line
CD; and let F c be the height of the arch over AB. Pro¬
duce AC and BD to meet at G; set off cm equal to cF,
and 3 n equal to 3 E, then draw a line through the points
m n, which will give the inclination of the soffit at the high¬
est part of it. Divide the arch ED into any number of
equal parts (in our example we have only divided it into
three parts), and from each point of division let fall a per¬
pendicular to CD, meeting the line CD in the points 1, 2.
Through these points draw the lines Ga, Gb, cutting the
line AB in the points a b, and from each point erect a per¬
pendicular to AB. Set off, on 3 n, the heights of the points
in the curve ED, and divide the line me m the same pro¬
portion as n 3, which will give the corresponding heights
for the arch FD, and through the points thus found the
arch FD should be drawn.
Make G o perpendicular to GE, cutting a line passing
through the points mnm o, and draw lines through the
corresponding ppints of division in the lines me, n 3, so that
G o may be divided in the same proportion as n 3. Draw
was done to find the edge B w xy.
16. The development of a sphere, or globe, can be ef-To deve-
fected only by an approximate process, as it is impossible loPe a
to apply a plane surface so as to touch more than one point sPtiere-
at a time; but various methods may be employed which
are useful in forming spherical surfaces.
A sphere may be divided into numerous zones, the sur¬
face of each zone may be considered as that of the frustum
of a cone, and developed in the same manner as has been
described for a portion of a cone in art. 12. The upper
part of fig. 10 shews half a sphere developed in this man¬
ner : and when it is divided into very
narrow zones, the covering found by
this process has some advantages, in
practice, that are peculiar to it.
17. The surface of a sphere may
also be developed by inscribing it in
a cylinder, LMNO, fig. 10, and con¬
sidering a small portion, or gore, ABD,
to coincide with the surface of the
cylinder. Then, if the portion ABD,
considered as part of a cylinder, be
developed by the process described
in art. 13, one gore, ABe? will be
obtained ; and by dividing the circumference of the sphere
into any number of equal parts, and making AB equal to
one of these parts, the same mould will serve for the whole
of the sphere.
Another method of developing a sphere consists in sup¬
posing it to be a polyhedral, or many-sided figure ; but this
method has no advantage over the preceding ones, while
it has the inaccuracies of both of them.
In lining and boarding domes, the position of the ribs to
which the boards are to be fixed will determine the method
of developement that ought to be adopted; but the form
of the veneers for a spherical surface may be determined
by either method.
To determine the Angle formed by two Inclined Planes.
18. The angle made by two planes which cut one ano-To find the
ther, is the angle contained by two straight lines drawn angle of
from any, the same, point in the line of their common sec-P^anes in-
„ - — X'*~hi liic line m men euiiiiiiuii bee*
perpendicular to GD, and equal to G o, and set off tion, at right angles to that line; the one in the one plane
upon it the same distances as are upon Go. Then, with and the other in the other.1 This ano-le is tho samo
upon it the same distances as are upon G o. Then, with
a radius Gl, and the first division on Gp, as a centre, de¬
scribe an arc at s, and with a radius equal to one of the
divisions of the arc ED and D as a centre, cross the arc s,
dined to
one ano-
and the other in the other.1 This angle is the same as^^r‘
that which the joiner takes with his bevel, the bevel being ei
always applied so that its legs are square from the arris, or
common section of the planes.
definition.18 ^ definit5on given b-v Professor Playfair, in his Elements of Geometry, and it is better suited to our purpose than Euclid’s
vOL. XII. ~ ‘ ' . .. ^ ^
610
Joinery.
JOINERY.
If two lines, AB and CD, be drawn upon a piece of paste-
' board, at right angles to one another, crossing at the point
E, and the pasteboard be cut half through, according to
the line AB, so that it may turn
upon that line as a joint; then, to
whatever angle, CED, fig. 11, the
parts may be turned, the lines EC
and ED will be always in the same
plane. Also, a line ED, drawn
from any point D, in the line ED,
to any point, F, in the line EC, will
be always in the same plane. From
these self-evident properties of
^ planes, it is easy to determine the
& angle formed by any two planes,
when two projections, or one projection and the develop¬
ment of the surfaces, are given.
19. Let ABC, fig. 12, be the plan of part of a pyramid,
General Method of describing a Raking Moulding, when Joinen
the Angle and the Rake, or inclination of the Moulding, v*
is given.
Let ABC, fig. 13, be the plan of the angle of a body, General
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
and BD the elevation of the arris,
or line formed by the common sec¬
tion of the planes in respect to the
line EB ; EB being the projection
of that arris upon the plan.
Draw AC perpendicular to EB,
cutting it in any point E, and from
E draw EF perpendicular to DB.
With the radius EF, and centre E,
cross EB mf, and join A/and /C,
then the angle A/C is the angle
formed by the planes of the pyra¬
mid.
The angle may be constructed
when the plan and elevation of any
two lines drawn in the planes, so as to intersect in the arris,
are given; but as these projections are not often given in
drawings of joiners’ work, we have inserted the preceding,
though it be a less general method.1
The backing, or angle for the back of hip-rafters in car¬
pentry, and of hipped sky-lights, is found in this manner ;
ABC being, in that case, supposed to be the plan of an
angle of the roof or sky-light, and DB the inclination of
the hip-rafter.
20. To shew how the angle formed by two planes may
be found when the plan and development are given, let it
be required to find the angle contained by the two faces of
a square pyramid, fig. 5.
Draw FB perpendicular to AC, and with the radius BF,
and centre B, describe the arc FG. Then, with the ra¬
dius DB, and centre F, cross the former arc in G, join BG,
and FBG is the angle formed by two, the inclined faces of
the pyramid.
Raking Mouldings.
Raking 21. When an inclined or raking moulding is intended to
mouldings, join with a level moulding, at either an exterior or an in¬
terior angle, the form of the level moulding being given, it
is necessary that the form of the inclined moulding should
be determined, so that the corresponding parts of the sur¬
faces of the two mouldings should meet in the same plane,
this plane being the plane of the mitre. It may be other¬
wise expressed, by saying that the mouldings should mitre
truly together.
If the angle be a right angle, the method of finding the
form of the inclined moulding is very easy ; and as it is not
very difficult for any other angle, it may perhaps be best
to give a general method, and to illustrate it by examples
of common occurrence.
which is to have a level method,
moulding on the side AB ;
and this level moulding is
to mitre with an inclined
moulding on The side BC.
Also, let CBD be the
angle the inclined moulding
makes with a level or hori¬
zontal line BC.
Produce AB, and draw
C b perpendicular to AB ;
also make DC perpendicu¬
lar to BC, and d C perpen¬
dicular to b C. Set off C d
equal to CD, and join bd;
then the inclined moulding must be drawn on lines parallel
to bd.
Let 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. be any number of points in the given
section of the level moulding; from each of these points
draw a line parallel to b d, and draw A 6' perpendicular to
bd. Set off the points 1', 2', 3', 4', &c. at the same dis¬
tances respectively from the line A 6', as the correspond¬
ing points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. are from the line AB, and through
the points 1', 2', 3', &c. draw the moulding. The mould¬
ing thus found will mitre with the given one ; also, suppos¬
ing the inclined moulding to be given, the level one may
be found in like manner.
If the angle ABC be less than a right angle, the whole
process remains the same ; but when it is a right angle, BD
coincides with bd; and the method of describing the mould¬
ing becomes the same as that usually given ; as it does not
then require the’ preparatory steps which are necessary
when the angle is any other than a right angle.
22. It is in pediments, chiefly, that the method of form- ;For pe(
ing raking mouldings is of use. Fig. 14 represents part ofments,
Fig. 14.
a pediment; AB is that part of tne evel moulding which
mitres with the inclined moulding; all that part of the cor¬
nice below B, being continued along the front, the lower
members of the raking cornice stop upon it, and, therefore,
do not require to be traced from the other.
In that part of the cornice marked AB, set off a sum-
cient number of points; and from each of these points draw
a line parallel to the rake, or inclination of the pediment.
Also, let a verticle line be drawn to each of the same points
from the horizontal line rs. Make s't perpendicular to t e
inclination of the pediment, and with a slip of paper, or y
1 On this subject the reader may consult Monge’s Giometrie Descriptive, Art. 19 et 20, par. 23 and 24, 4th edition, Paris, 1820.
JOINERY.
nery.
I skirt-
means of arcs of circles, transfer the distances on rs to
' the line r's, and from the points thus found, draw lines
parallel to st; the intersection of these, with the inclined
lines, will determine the form of the moulding, as js indi¬
cated by the letters.
When a pediment has a cornice with modillions, the caps
of the modillions require to be traced by the same method.
23. It sometimes happens, that an inclined base-mould¬
ing has to mitre with a level one at an angle ; and as the
same thing occurs still more frequently with other mould¬
ing, such as cornices under the steps of stairs, &c. we shall
give another example, which will serve still farther to illus¬
trate the method of proceeding in such cases.
In fig. 15, a raking base-moulding is shewn, where the
Fig. 15.
611
inclined moulding B is traced to mitre with the horizontal
moulding C; and the horizontal moulding A is traced to
mitre with the inclined one B. The preceding examples
being understood, the lines and letters in the figure will be
sufficient to show the mouldings are traced.
I larks 24. Mouldings being almost the only part of modern
o iouW- j0iners’ work, which can, in strictness, be called ornamen¬
tal, and consequently that in which the taste of the work¬
man is most apparent, we shall offer a remark or two that
may have their use. The form of a moulding should be
distinct and varied, forming a bold outline of a succession
of curved and flat surfaces, disposed so as to form distinct
masses of light and shade. If the mouldings be of consi¬
derable length, a greater distinction of parts is necessary
than in short ones.
Mouldings for the internal part of a building should not,
however, have much projection; the proper degree of shade
may always be given, with better effect, by deep sinkings
judiciously disposed. The light in a room is not sufficient¬
ly strong to relieve mouldings, without resorting to this
method; and hence it is that quirked mouldings are so
much esteemed.
t lifica-
ti i of a
g ■
j< :r.
Sect. II.—On the Construction of Joiners’ Work.
25. The goodness of joiners’ work depends chiefly upon
the care that has been bestowed in joining the materials.
In carpentry, framing owes its strength to the form and
position of its parts ; but in joinery, the' strength of a frame
depends upon the strength of the joinings. The import¬
ance, therefore, of fitting the joints together as accurately
as possible, is obvious. It is very desirable, that a joiner
should be a quick workman; but it is still more so that he
should be a good one; that he should join his materials
with firmness and accuracy ; that he should make surfaces
even and smooth, mouldings true and regular, and the parts
intended to move so that they may be used with ease and
freedom.
Where dispatch is considered as the chief excellence of
a workman, it is not probable that he will strive to improve
himself in his art, further than to produce the greatest Joinery,
quantity of barely tolerable work with the least quantity of'
labour. In some articles of short duration, dispatch in the
manufacture may be of greater importance; but in works
that ought to remain firm for years, it certainly is bad eco¬
nomy to spare a few shillings’ worth of labour at the risk
of being annoyed with a piece of bad work as long as it
will hold together.
We have seen, with no small degree of pleasure, the
effect of encouraging good workmanship in the construc¬
tion of machinery, and would recommend that a like en¬
couragement should be given to superior workmen in other
arts.
26.
Joining Angles.
When the length of a joint at an angle is not con- on joining
Fig. 17.
siderable, it is sufficient to cut the
joint, so that when the parts are join¬
ed, the plane of the joint shall bisect
the angle. This kind of joint is shewn
for two different angles, by fig. 16.
When an angle of considerable
length is to be joined, and the kind
of work does not require a joining
should be concealed, fig. 17 is often
employed; the small bead renders the
appearance of the joint less objectionable,
because any irregularities, from shrinkage,
are not seen in the shade of the quirk of
the bead.
A bead upon an angle, where the na¬
ture of the thing does not determine it to
be an arris, is attended with many ad¬
vantages ; it is less liable to be injured, and admits of a
secure joint, without the appearance of one. Fig. 18 shews
Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20.
angles.
a joint of this description, which should always be used in
passages.
Fig. 19 represents a very good joint for an exterior angle,
whether it be a long or short one. Such a joint may be
nailed both ways. But the joint represented by fig. 20 is
superior to it; the parts being drawn together by the form
of the joint itself, they can be fitted with more accuracy,
and joined with certainty. The angles of pilasters are often
joined, as fig. 20.
Interior angles are commonly joined, as shewn by fig. 21.
Fig. 21. If the upper or lower edge be visible, the
joint is mitred, as in fig. 16, at the edge
only, the other part of the joint being groov¬
ed, as in fig. 21. In this manner are put
together the skirting and dado at the inte¬
rior angles of rooms, the backs, and back-
linings of windows, the jambs of door-ways,
and various other parts of joiners’ work.
Framing.
27. Frames in joinery are usually connected by mortise The object
tenon joints, with gooves to receive pannels. Doors, win-of fram-
dow-shutters, &c. are framed in this manner. The object mS’
in framing is, to reduce the wood into narrow pieces, so
that the work may not be sensibly affected by its shrink-
JOINERY.
Joining
curved
pieces.
Joining
with glue.
age; and, at the same time, it enables us to vary the sur¬
face without much labour.
From this view of the subject, the joiner will readily per¬
ceive, that neither the parts of the frame nor the pannels
should be wide. And as the frame should be composed
of narrow pieces, it follows, that the pannels should not be
very long, otherwise the frame will want strength. The
pannels of framing should not be more than 15 inches wide,
and 4 feet long, and pannels so large as this should be
avoided as much as possible.1 The width of the framing
is commonly about one-third of the width of the pannel.
It is of the utmost importance, in framing, that the tenons
and mortises should be truly made. After a mortise has
been made with the mortise chisel, it should be rendered
perfectly even with a float; an instrument which differs
from a single cut, or float file, only by having larger teeth.
An inexperienced workman often makes his work fit too
tight in one place, and too easy in another, hence the mor¬
tise is split by driving the parts together, and the work is
never firm; whereas if the tenon fill the mortise equally,
without using any considerable force in driving the work
together, is is found to be firm and sound. The thickness
Fig. 22. °f tenons should be about one-fourth
I-   fjijp of that of the framing, and the width
II of a tenon should never exceed about
■ five times its thickness, otherwise,
j||| in wedging, the tenon will become
UittlJ llfillrisi bent, and bulge out of the sides of
the mortise. If the rail be wide,
two mortises should be made, with
a space of solid wood between;
fig. 22 shews the tenons for a wide
rail.
In thick framing, the strength and firmness of the joint
is much increased by putting a cross or feather tongue in
on each side of the tenon; these tongues are about an
inch in length, and are easily put in with a plough proper
for such purposes. The projected figure of the end of a
rail, fig. 22, shews these tongues put in, in the style there
are grooves ploughed to receive them.
Sometimes, in thick framing, a double tenon in the thick¬
ness is made; but we give the preference to a single one,
when tongues are put in the shoulders, as we have describ¬
ed ; because a strong tenon is better than two weak ones,
and there is less difficulty in fitting one than two.
The pannels of framing should be made to fill the grooves,
so as not to rattle, and yet to allow the pannels to shrink
without splitting.
28. When a frame consists of curved pieces, they are
Fig. 23. often joined by means of pieces of
hard wood called keys. Fig 23 is
the head of a Gothic window frame,
joined with a key, with a plan of the
joint below it. A cross tongue is
put in on each side of the key, and
the joint is tightened by means of
the wedges a a. ,
It is, however, a better method to
join such pieces by means of a screw
bolt instead of a key, the cross tongues being used which¬
ever method is adopted.
Joining with Glue.
29. It is seldom possible to procure boards sufficiently
wide for pannels without a joint, on account of heart shakes,
which open in drying. In cutting out pannels, for good Joinery
work, shaken wood should be carefully avoided. That part ^v-«
near the pith is generally the most defective.
If the pannels be thick enough to admit of a cross or
feather tongue in the joint, one should always be inserted,
for then, if the joint should fail, the surfaces will be kept
even, and it will prevent light passing through.
Sometimes plane surfaces of considerable width and
length are introduced in joiners’ work, as in dado, window
backs, &c.; such surfaces are commonly formed of inch,
or inch and quarter, boards joined with glue, and a cross
or feather tongue ploughed into each joint. When the
boards are glued together, and have become dry, tapering
pieces of wood, called keys, are grooved in, across the back,
with a dovetail groove. These keys preserve the surface
straight, and also allow it to shrink and expand with the
changes of the weather.
30. It would be an endless task to describe all the me- Glueing!
thods that have been employed to glue up bodies of such curved
varied forms as occur in joinery; for every joiner forms
methods of his own, and merely from his being most fami¬
liar with his own process, he will perform his work, accord¬
ing to it, in a better manner than by another, which, to
an unprejudiced mind, has manifestly the advantage over
it. The end and aim of the joiner, in all these operations,
is to avoid the peculiar imperfections and disadvantages of
his materials, and to do this with least expense of labour
or material. The straightness of the fibres of wood ren¬
ders it unfit for curved surfaces, at least when the curva¬
ture is considerable. Hence short pieces are glued toge¬
ther as nearly in the form desired as can be, and the ap¬
parent surface is covered with a thin veneer; or the work
is glued up in pieces that are thin enough to bend to the
required form. Sometimes a thin piece of wood is bent to
the required form upon a cylinder or saddle, and blocks
are jointed and glued upon the back ; when the whole is
completetely dry it will preserve the form that had been
given to it by the cylinder.
The proper thickness for the pieces to be bent may be To deter
easily determined by an easy experiment on a piece of the mine the
same kind of wood. Thus, select a piece of wood, of the
same kind as that to be used, and bend it as much as it°iecegt0
will bear without injury ; then ascertain the radius of cur-|^ueCj t0.
vature, and also the thickness of the piece, at the mostgether.
curved part of it. From these data the proper thickness
for any other curve will be determined by the following
proportion:
As the radius of curvature, found by experiment, is to
the thickness of the piece tried; so is the radius of any
other curve to the thickness of the piece that may be bent
into it.1
For example, we have found that a piece of straight
grained white deal, of an inch in thickness, may be bent,
without iniurv, into a curve of which the radius is 120
radius
inches, therefore, 120: 1 :: radius: thickness =-
120
That
is, a piece of deal of the same quality may be bent into any
curve, of which the radius is not less than 120 times its
thickness.
A piece of work glued up in thicknesses should be very
well done; but it too often happens that the joints are vi¬
sible, irregular, and in some places open; therefore other
methods have been tried.
31. If a piece of wood be boiled in water for a certain l'^rstea]
time, then taken out and immediately bent into any parti'^ or
cular form, and it be retained in that form till it be dry, a^j^g.
, liendiiu
1 Pannels of external doors and shutters may be rendered more secvire by boring them, and inserting iron wires. See Tram, of the
Society of Arts, vol. xxv. p. 106.
2 The reader will find some interesting propositions relating to fixture in the Article Carfentby. p. 624, vol. ii.
JOINERY.
\ J eTJ‘ permanent change takes place in the mechanical relations
of its parts; so that though, when relieved, it will spring
back a little, yet it will not return to its natural form. °
The same elfect may be produced by steaming wood;
but though both these methods have been long practised to
a considerable extent in the art of ship-building, we are
not aware that any general principles have been discovered,
either by experiment or otherwise, that will enable us to
apply it to an art like joinery, where so much precision is
required. We are not aware that it has been tried; but,
before it can be rendered extensively useful, the relation
between the curvature to which it is bent, and that which
it assumes, when relieved, should be determined, and also
the degree of curvature which may be given to a piece of
a given thickness.
The time that a piece of wood should be boiled, or steam¬
ed, in order that it may be in the best state for bending,
should be made the subject of experiments ; and this being
determined, the relation between the time and the bulk of
the piece should be ascertained.
For the joiner’s purposes, we imagine, that the process
might be greatly improved, by saturating the convex side
of each piece with a strong solution of glue, immediately
after bending it. By filling, in this manner, the extended
pores, and allowing the glue to harden thoroughly before
relieving the pieces, they would retain their shape better.
Gli igup 32. Large pieces of timber should never be used in join-
wo n ery, because they cannot be procured sufficiently dry to
co! ns. prevent them splitting with the heat of a warm room.
Therefore, the external part of columns, pilasters, and works
of a like kind, should be formed of thin pieces of dry wood ;
and, if support be required, a post, or an iron pillar, may
be placed within the exterior column. Thus, to form co¬
lumns of wood, so that they shall not be liable to split, nar¬
row pieces of wood are used, not exceeding five inches in
width. These are jointed like the staves of a cask, and
glued together, with short blocks glued along at each joint.
Fig. 24 is a plan of the lower end of a column glued up
Fig. 24. in staves; the bevel at A is used for
forming the staves, that at B is used
for adjusting them when they are
glued together. A similar plan must
be made for the upper end of the co¬
lumn, which will give the width of the
upper end of the staves. The bevels
taken from the plan, as at A and B,
are not the true bevels ; but they are
those generally used, and are very nearly true, when the
columns are not much diminished. To find the true bevels,
the principle we have given in art. 19 should be applied’.
The same method may be adopted for forming large pillars
for tables, &c.
If a column have flutes, with fillets, the joints should be
in the fillets, in order to make the column as strong as pos¬
sible ; also, if a column be intended to have a swell in the
middle, proper thickness of wood should be allowed for it.
When columns or pillars are small, they may be made of
613
, ta. dry wood; and to secure them against splitting, a hole may
ft be bored down the axis of each column.
Fixing Joiners' Work.
bi ; 33. We have hitherto confined our remarks to that part
*0t';o- of joinery which is performed at the bench ; but by far the
6 • most important part remains to be considered. For, how¬
ever well a piece of work may have been prepared, if it be
not properly fixed, it cannot fulfil its intended purpose.
As in the preceding part, we shall state the general prin¬
ciples that ought to be made the basis of practice, and il¬
lustrate those principles by particular examples.
If the part to be fixed consist of boards jointed together,
but not framed, it should be fixed so that it may shrink, or Joinery.
swell without splitting. The nature of the work will gene- ^ 
rally determine how this may be effected. Let us suppose
that a plain back of a window is to be fixed. Fig 25 is a
Fig. 25. section shewing B the back of the win¬
dow, A the window-sill, D the floor, and
C the skirting. The back is supposed to
be prepared, as we have stated in art. 29,
and that it is kept straight by a dovetail¬
ed key a. Now, let the back be firmly
nailed to the window-sill A, and let a nar¬
row piece (1, with a groove, and cross
tongue, in its upper edge, be fixed to bond
timbers or plugs in the wall; the tongue
being inserted also into a corresponding
groove in the lower edge of the back of B.
It is obvious, that the tongue being loose, the back B may
contract or expand, as a pannel in a frame. The dado of
a room should be fixed in the same manner. In the prin- p- •
cipal rooms of a house, the skirting C is usually grooved skSg
into the floor D, and fixed only to the narrow piece J for rooms,
which is called a ground. By fixing, in this manner, the
skirting covers, the joint, which would otherwise soon be
open by the shrinking of the back, and from the skirting
being grooved into the floor, but not fastened to it, there
cannot be an open joint between the skirting and floor.
When it is considered, that an open joint, in such a situa¬
tion, must become a receptacle for dust, and a harbour for
insects, the importance of adopting this method of fixing
skirting will be apparent.
In fixing any board above five or six inches wide, similar
precautions are necessary; otherwise it is certain to split
when the house becomes inhabited. We may, in general,
either fix one edge, and groove the other, so as to leave it
at liberty, or fix it in the middle, and leave both edges at
liberty.
Sometimes a wide board, or a piece consisting of several Fixing
boards, may be fixed by means of buttons, screwed to the landing of
back, which turn into grooves in the framing, bearers, or stairs,
joists, to which it is to be fixed. If any shrinking takes *°PS
place the buttons slide in the grooves. In this manner thetables’ &c'
landing of stairs are fixed, and it is much the best mode of
fixing the top of a table to its frame.
34. The extension of the principle of ploughing and Formint-
tonguing work together is one of the most important ofarchi-
the improvements that have been introduced by modern traves, &c.
joiners. It is an easy, simple, and effectual method of
combination, and one that provides against the greatest de¬
fect of timber work, its shrinkage. By means of this me¬
thod, the bold mouldings of Gothic architecture can be ex¬
ecuted with a comparatively small quantity of material; and
even in the mouldings of modern architecture it saves much
labour. For example, the moulded part of an architrave
Fig. 26. may be joined with the plain part,
as shewn by fig. 26. If this me¬
thod be compared with the old
method of glueing one piece upon
another, its advantage will be more
evident.
33. The architraves, skirtings, and surbase mouldings, Fixitw
are fixed to pieces of wool called grounds; and as the grounds,
straightness and accuracy of these mouldings must depend
upon the care that has been taken to fix the grounds truly ;
it will appear, that fixing grounds, which is a part often left
to inferior workmen, in reality requires much skill and at¬
tention ; besides, they are almost always the guide for the
plasterer. Where the plasterer’s work joins the grounds,
they should have a small groove ploughed in the edge to
form a key for the plaster.
36. In our remarks on construction, we must not omit Faying
to say a few words on laying floors, because it will give us floors.
JOINERY.
an opportunity of pointing out a defect which might be
easily remedied. The advice of Evelyn, to tack the boards
down only the first year, and nail them down for good the
next, is certainly the best, when it is convenient to adopt
it; but, as this is very seldom the case, we must expect
the joints to open more or less. Now these joints always
admit a considerable current of cold air, and also, in an
method. The reader who may be desirous of examining
this method, may consult the Transactions of the Society
of Arts, (vol. xxvi. p. 196.)
38. Various kinds of hinges are in use. Sometimes they
are concealed, as in the kind of joints called rule joints;
others project, and are intended to let a door fold back over
projecting mouldings, as in pulpit doors. When hinges
Joiner
unner room, unless there be a counter floor, the ceiling be- project, the weight of the door acts with an increased lever-
lovv may be spoiled by spilling a little water, or even by age upon them, and they soon get out of order, unless they
washing the floor. To avoid this, we would recommend a be strong and well fixed.
Folding
floors cen¬
sured.'
Heading
joints.
tongue to be ploughed into each joint, according to the
old practice. When the boards are narrow, they might be
laid without any appearance of nails, in the same way as a
dowelled floor is laid, the tongue serving the same pur¬
pose as the dowels. In this case we would use cross or
feather tongues for the joints.
There is a method sometimes used in laying floors, which
workmen call folding; according to this method, two boards
are laid, and nailed at such a distance apatt, that the space
is a little less than the aggregate width of the boards in¬
tended for it; these boards are then put to their places,
and, on account of the narrowness of the space left for them,
they rise like an arch between its abutments. The work¬
men force them down by jumping upon them. According-
ingly, the boards are never soundly fixed to the joists, nor
can the floor be laid with any kind of evenness or accuracy.
We merely notice this method here, in order that it may
be avoided.
As boards can seldom be got long enough to do without
Fig. 27. Fig- 28.
B   A
A,
Hinging.
The door of a room should be hung so that, in opening Room
the door, the interior of the room cannot be seen through doors,
the joint. This may be done by making the joint accord¬
ing to fig. 29. The bead should be continued round the
door, and a common but-hinge answers for it.
The proper bevel for the edge of a door or sash may beThepro
' *•<**>• . S':
door.
joints, it is usual, except in very inferior work, to join the
ends with a tongued joint, as shewn in fig. 27, where B is
the joist. The etched board is first laid, and nailed to the
joist.
In oak floors, the ends are forked together sometimes, as
shewn at A, fig. 28, in order to render the joints less con¬
spicuous.
The joints should be kept as distant from one another as
possible.
Hinging.
37. It requires a considerable degree of care to hang a
door, a shutter, or any other piece of work in the best man¬
ner. In the hinge, the pin should be perfectly straight, and
truly cylindrical, and the parts accurately fitted together.
The hinges should be placed so that their axes may be
in the same straight line, as any defect in this respect will
found by drawing a line from the centre of motion C,
fig. 30, to e, the interior angle of the rebate, draw ed per¬
pendicular to C e, which gives the bevel required. In prac¬
tice, the bevel is usually made less, leaving an open space
in the joint when the door is shut; this is done on account
of the interior angle of the rebate often being filled with
paint.
Stairs.
39. The construction of stairs is generally considered Stairs,
the highest department of the art of joinery, therefore we
treat of it under a distinct head.
The principal object to be attended to in stairs is, that
they afford a safe and easy communication between floors
of different levels. ‘The strength of a stair ought to be ap¬
parent as well as real, in order that those who ascend it
may feel conscious of safety. In order to make the com¬
munication safe, it should be guarded by a railing of pro¬
per height and strength; in order that it may be easy, the
rise and width, or tread, of the steps should be regular and
justly proportioned to each other, with convenient landings;
there should be no winding steps, and the top of the rail
should be of a convenient height for the hand.
The first person that attempted to fix the relation be-pr0peI
tween the height and width of a step, upon correct princi-pr0por'
pies, was, we believe, Blondel, in his Cours d,Architecture, for sta
If a person walking npon a level plane move over a space,
P, at each step, and the height which the same person could
ascend vertically, with equal ease, were H; then, if h be
the height of a step, and p its width; the relation between
produce a considerable strain upon the hinges every tittle
the hanging part is moved, which prevents it from moving p ami y must be such, that when p = l\ h — o\ and when
freely, and is injurious to the hinges. H — h,p — o. These conditions are satisfied by an equa-
In hanging doors, centres are often used instead of hin- / p\
ges; but, on account of the small quantity of friction in tion of the form h = H ^1 — p )• Blondel assumes
centres, a door moves too easily, or so that a slight draft of
air accelerates it so much in falling to, that it shakes the
12
building, and is disagreeable. We have seen this in some
degree remedied by placing a small spring to receive the
shock of the door.
The greatest difficulty, in hanging doors, is to make
them to clear a carpet, and be close at the bottom when
shut. To do this, that part of the floor which is under the
door, when shut, may be made to rise above a quarter of
an inch above the general level of the floor; which, with
placing the hinges so as td cause the door to rise as it opens,
will be sufficient, unless the carpet should be a very thick
one. Several mechanical contrivances have been used for
either raising the door, or adding a part to spring close to
the floor as the door shuts. The latter is much the better
inches for that of H;
equation, it becomes
inches for the value of P, and
substituting these values in our
A — - (24 —p), which is precisely Blondel’s rule. We do
not think these the true values of P and H; indeed, it
would be difficult to ascertain them; but they are so near,
and agree so well with our observations on stairs of easy
ascent, that they may be taken for the elements of a prac¬
tical rule. Hence, according as h or p is given, we have
7i = ^ (24 —p, or = 24 — 2/i.
Thus, if the height of a step be six inches, then 24- 12—
12, the width or tread for a step that rises six inches.
40. The forms of staircases are various. In towns, where
JOINERY.
j ery. space cannot be allowed for convenient forms, they are
^ ' often made triangular, circular, or elliptical, with winding
Di ent steps, or of a mixed form, with straight sides and circular
Irir of ends. In large mansions, and in other situations, where
8ta convenience and beauty are the chief objects of attention,
winding steps are never introduced when it is possible to
avoid them. Good stairs, therefore, require less geometri¬
cal skill than those of an inferior chai-acter.
The best architectural effect is produced by rectangular
Staircases, with ornamented railing and newels. In Gothic
structures scarcely any other kind can be adopted, with pro¬
priety, for a principal staircase. Modern architecture ad¬
mits of greater latitude in this respect; the end of the stair¬
case being sometimes circular, and the hand-rail continued,
beginning either from a scroll or a newel.
Re ngu- 41 • When a rectangular staircase has a continued rail,
jar dr- it is necessary that it should be curved so as to change gra¬
dually from a level to an
inclined direction. This
curvature is called the
ramp of the rail. The
plan of a staircase of this
kind is represented by
ABCD, fig. 31, and fig.
32 shews a section of it,
supposing it to be cut
through at ab, on the
plan.
The hand-rail is sup¬
posed to begin with a
newel at the bottom, and
the form of the cap of the
newel ought to be deter¬
mined, so that it will mi¬
tre with the hand-rail.
Let H, fig. 33, be the
section of the hand-rail,
and ab the radius of the
newel; then the form of
the cap may be traced at
C by the method we have
already described. (Art.
9 and 10.)
The sections of hand¬
rails are of various shapes;
some of the most com¬
mon ones are too small;
a hand-rail should never
be less than would re¬
quire a square, of which
the side is 2J inches, to
circumscribe it.
For the level landings
of a staircase the height
of the top of the hand-rail should be about 40 inches, and
in any part of the inclined rail the height of its upper side
above the middle of the width of the step should be 40
inches less the rise of one step, when measured in a verti¬
cal direction.
cribe To describe the ramps, let rs be a vertical line drawn
of< mPs through the middle of the width of the step, fig. 32; set
ru equal to rs, and draw ut at right angles with the back
of the rail, cutting the horizontal line in t. From the
point t, as a centre, describe the curve of the rail. When
there is a contrary flexure, as in the case before us, the
tj, method of describing the lesser curve is the same.
tjj“ lw 42. The hand-rail of a stair often begins from a scroll7;
riti f" an4 that kind of spiral which is called the logarithmic spi-
»pii ral> has been proposed as the best for the purpose. It is
shewn- by writers on curve lines, that any radial lines drawn
from the centre will be cut by the logarithmic spiral in one
615
and the same angle. By means of this property of the Joinery,
curve, it may be described as follows: -
Let C be the centre, fig. 34, and draw AB perpendicu¬
lar to DE, crossing it in
C. Bisect the angles by
the lines ab, cd. Draw
eV>b to cut CB at the an¬
gle proposed for the curve,
and to meet Cb in b;
draw cb perpendicular to
be, cutting Cc in c; draw
c a perpendicular to ci cut¬
ting C a in a ; and pro¬
ceed round with as many
revolutions as may be re¬
quired in the same man¬
ner. Then B, E, A, D,
F, G, &c. are points in
the curve, and the lines
eb, cb, ca, ad, &c. are tangents to the curves at these
points. Therefore, the curve may be either drawn by
hand, or by means of circular arcs. Also, any number of
interior or exterior spirals may be drawn by drawing lines
parallel to the tangents, as xy, yz, See.
If eb were to cross BC at a right angle, the curve would
be a circle.
43. The scrolls and volutes used in architecture are al- A new spi-
ways made to terminate in a circle at the centre ; conse-ra^ Pf0P°-
quently none of the curves described by mathematicians p^ef0r V°"
are adapted for these purposes. But the construction we scroiis &c.
have employed for the logarithmic spiral readily leads to a
species of spiral that appears well suited for scrolls or vo¬
lutes. In the logarithmic spiral the angle of the curve is
constant; but imagine the angle to change regularly, and
to become a right angle at the point where the circle called
the eye begins. This would afford us a regular and pleas¬
ing curve, unfolding itself from a circle in the centre.
This curve might be called the Architectural Spiral.
Let C be the centre, fig. 35, and round this centre de-
Fig. 35.
scribe a circle for the eye of the scroll, or volute. Divide
this circle into eight equal parts, and draw lines from the
centre through the points of division.
With any radius aC, and C as a centre, describe the
arc ac, and upon this arc set off any number of equal divi¬
sions. The extent of a division must be regulated by the
quantity the curve may unfold at each revolution, and the
number depends on the number of revolutions.
Then, beginning at A, draw Ab perpendicular to Ca;
db parallel to O'; de perpendicular to C2; ef parallel to
C3 ; and so on for any number of revolutions. The points
A, B, D, E, F, G, and H, in the curve, and the tangents
to these points, are found; therefore the curve may be de¬
scribed by hand, or by means of circular arcs.
The tangents to any interior or exterior spiral will be
parallel to the ones first found, and, therefore, any number
may be drawn with the greatest facility.
Fig. 34.
616
JOINERY.
Joinery. Neither the logarithmic nor the architectural spiral can
—-v—be drawn truly by circular arcs ; but we shall here point
out the principle by which such spirals may be drawn.
When a spiral is drawn by means of circular arcs only, the
centres of the adjoining arcs must always be upon the same
straight line ; and the regularity of the curve will depend
on the number of arcs employed to describe one revolu¬
tion. Let the proposed distance between the revolutions
be divided into as many equal parts as there are to be cir¬
cular arcs in one revolution ; and, on the eye as a centre,
construct a regular polygon of the same number of sides as
the number of divisions, and on each side equal to one di¬
vision. Then the angles of the polygon will be the centres
for describing the spiral, as shewn by the figures below,
where the triangle, square, and hexagon, are given as ex¬
amples :
Fig. 36. Fig. 37.
If a spiral be drawn to begin from a circle at the cen¬
tre, let the arcs be described from the angles of a rectan¬
gular fret, as in fig. 39, the sides of which may increase in
any regular proportion. Or, a figure may be drawn in the
same manner as the tangents of the spiral, fig. 35, and the
arcs described in the angle, as in fig. 40. By either of
these methods a pleasing curve may be obtained.
44. Fig. 41 represents the plan of a staircase, beginning
with a scroll, and having steps winding round the circular
part of the well-hole.
In the first place, let the end of the steps be developed Joine
according to the method we have given in Art. 13. Fig. 43 ^ „
shews this development. 'Now, the hand-rail ought to
follow the inclination of a line drawn to touch the nosings
of the steps, except where there is an abrupt transition
from the rake of the winding to that of the other steps ; at
such places it must be curved; the curve may be drawn
by the help of intersecting lines, as in fig. 44, if the work¬
man cannot trust to his eye.
The part which is shaded in fig. 43, represents the hand-Develc
rail and ends of the steps, when spread out, and the hand- menu t
rail is only drawn close to the steps for convenience, as itcircula
would require too much space to raise it to its proper posi-*)art‘
tion. This development of the rail is called the falling
mould.
The wood used for hand-rails being of an expensive
kind, it becomes of some importance to consider how the
plank may be cut so as to require the least quantity of ma¬
terial for the curved part of the rail. Now, if we were to
suppose the rail executed, and a plain board laid upon the
upper side of it, the board would touch the rail at three
points ; and a plank laid in the same position as the board
would be that out of which the rail could be cut with the
least waste of material.
Let it be required to find the moulds for the part al> ofTofim
the rail, fig. 41, and to avoid confusing the lines in ourthefac
small figure, the part ad has been drawn to a larger scaleraould!
in fig. 42. The plain board, mentioned above, would touch
Fig. 42.
the rail at the points marked C and B in the plan; draw
the line CB, and draw a line parallel to CB, so as to touch
the curve at the point E. Then E is the other point on
the plan ; and a', ef, and b', are the heights of these points
in the development, fig. 43.
Erect perpendiculars to CB, from the points C, E, and
B, fig. 42, and set off C a, on fig. 42, equal to a'c, fig. 43;
Ee equal to de', and B6 equal to fb. Through the points
C and E, draw the dotted line Ch ; through ae draw a line
to meet CE in h ; and through the points ab, draw a line
to meet CB in g; then join kg, and make C* perpendicu¬
lar to hg.
Now, if Cd be equal to Ca, and perpendicular to Ci;
and di be joined, it will be the angle which the plank
makes with the horizontal plane, or plan. Therefore, draw
FD parallel to C i, and find the section by the process de¬
scribed in Art. 10. This section is the same thing as
would be obtained by projecting vertical lines from each
point in the hand-rail against the surface of a board, laid
to touch it in three points. The inexperienced workman
will be much assisted in applying the moulds if he acquires
a clear notion of the position when executed.
To find the thickness of the plank, take the height to To fin ,ef
the under side of the rail cr in the development, fig. 43, thicksll
and set it off from s, in the line C i, to r, in fig. 42 ; from the
JOINERY.
inerr. the point r draw a line parallel to di, and the distance be-
4-y—'tween those parallel lines will be the thickness of the plank,
fipply The mould, fig. 42, which is traced from the plan, is
t called the face mould. It is applied to the upper surface
4 Ms. of the plank, which being marked, a bevel should be set to
the angle idQ,, and this bevel being applied to the edge
will give the points to which the mould must be placed to
mark out the under side. It is then to be sawn out, and
wrought true to the mould. In applying the bevel, care
should be taken to let its stock be parallel to the line di, if
the plank should not be sufficiently wide for di to be its
arris.
After the rail is truly wrought to the face mould, the
falling mould, fig. 43, being applied to its convex side, will
give the edge of the upper surface, and the surface itself
will be formed by squaring from the convex side, holding
the stock of the square always so that it would be vertical
if the rail were in its proper situation. The lower surface
is to be parallel to the upper one.
The sudden change of the width of the ends of the steps
causes the soffit line to have a broken or irregular appear¬
ance ; to avoid it, the steps are made begin to wind before
the curved part begins. Different methods of proportion¬
ing the ends of the steps are given by Nicholson, Roubo,
Rondelet, and Krafft. We cannot in this place enter into
a detail of these methods, but for the reader’s information
a list of the principal writers on staircases is subjoined.
Price, in his British Carpenter, 410, 1735 ; Langley,
Builders' Complete Assistant, 8vo, 1738 ; Frezier, Coupe
des Pierres et des Bois, 4to, 1739 ; Roubo, L'Art du Me-
nuisier, folio, 1771 ; Skaife, Key to Civil Architecture, 8vo,
1774 ; Nicholson, Carpenters' New Guide, 4to, 1792;
Carpenters' and Joiners' Assistant, 4to, 1792; Architec¬
tural Dictionary, 4to ; Transactions Society of Arts, &c.
for 1814 ; Treatise on the Construction of Staircases and
Handrails, 4to, 1820 ; Rondelet, Traite de I'Art de Ba-
tir, tome iv. 4to, 1814 ; and Krafft, Traite sur I'Art de la
Charpenter, part ii. folio, 1820.
Sect. Ill—On Materials.
1 )ort- 45. There is no art in which it is required that the struc-
‘ n> die ture and properties of wood should be so thoroughly under-
u’ stood as in joinery. The practical joiner, who has made
the nature of timber his study, has always a most decided
advantage over those who have neglected this most im¬
portant part of the art.
In the article Anatomy, Vegetable (vol. iii. p. 61 and
82), the structure of wood is described ; in this place, there¬
fore, we shall only show how the joiner may, in a great
measure, avoid the warping caused by its irregular tex¬
ture.
1 ids cut 4fi. It is well known that wood contracts less in propor-
c ti011* in diameter, than it does in circumference ; hence a
t wj]| "whole tree always splits in drying. Mr Knight has shown
1 retain that, in consequence of this irregular contraction, a board
1 r form, may be cut from a tree that can scarcely be made, by any
means, to retain the same form and position when subject¬
ed to various degrees of heat and moisture. From the ash
and the beech he cut some thin boards, in different direc¬
tions relatively to their transverse septa, so that the septa
crossed the middle of some of the boards at right angles,
and lay nearly parallel with the surfaces of others. Both
kinds were placed in a warm room, under perfectly similar
617
circumstances. Those which had been formed by cutting Joinery,
across the transverse septa, as at A in fig. 44, soon changeds——v'—^
their form very considerably, the one side becoming hollow,
and the other round ; and in drying, they contracted nearly
14 per cent, in width.
The other kind, in which the septa were nearly parallel Difference
to the surfaces of the boards, as at B in fig. 44, retained,in shrink-
with very little variation, their primary form, and did not affe‘
contract in drying more than three and a half per cent, in
width.1
As Mr Knight had not tried resinous woods, two speci¬
mens were cut from a piece of Memel timber ; and, to ren¬
der the result of our observation more clear, conceive fig.
45 to represent the section of a tree, the annual rings being
shewn by circles. BD represents the
manner in which one of our pieces was
cut, and AC the other. The board AC
contracted 3*75 per cent, in width, and
became hollow on the side marked h.
The board B D retained its original
straightness, and contracted only 0*7
per cent. The difference in the quan¬
tity of contraction is still greater than in
hard woods.
From these experiments, the advantages to be obtained
merely by a proper attention in cutting out boards for pan-
nels, &c. will be obvious; and it will also be found that
pannels cut so that the septa are nearly parallel to their
faces, will appear of a finer and more even grain, and re¬
quire less labour to make their surfaces even and smooth.
The results of these experiments are not less interesting
to cabinet-makers, particularly in the construction of bil¬
liard-tables, card-tables, and indeed every kind of table in
use. For such purposes, the planks should be cut so as to
cross the rings as nearly in the direction BD as possible.
We have no doubt that it is the knowledge of this property
of wood that renders the billiard-tables of some makers so
far superior to those of others.
In wood that has the larger transverse septa, as the oak,
for example, boards cut as BD will be figured, while those
cut as AC will be plain.
47- There is another kind of contraction in wood whilst Cause of
drying, which causes it to become curved in the direction pieces
of its length. In the long styles of framing we have often curvipg in
observed it; indeed, on this account, it is difficult to pre- tionofth^r
vent the style of a door, hung with centres, from curving, length,
so as to rub against the jamb. A very satisfactory reason
for this kind of curving has been given by Mr Knight,2
which also points out the manner of cutting out wood, so
as to be less subject to this defect, which it is most desir¬
able to avoid. The interior layers of wood, being older,
are more compact and solid than the exterior layers of the
same tree ; consequently, in drying, the latter contract
more in length than the former. This irregularity of con¬
traction causes the wood to curve in the direction of its
length, and it may be avoided by cutting the wood so that
the parts of each piece shall be as nearly of the same age
as possible.
48. Besides the contraction which takes place in drying, Changes
wood undergoes a considerable change in bulk with the va- produced
riations of the atmosphere. In straight-grained woods the Lv M’6
change in length is nearly insensible;3 hence they areweat*lcl*
sometimes employed for pendulum rods ; but the lateral
dimensions vary so much, that a wide piece of wood will
serve as a rude hygrometer.4 The extent of variation de-
1 Philosophical Transactions, part ii. for 1817, or Philosophical Magazine, vol. 1. p. 437. 2 Ibid.
•'5 Mr Ramsden and General Roy made some experiments on the expansion in length. See Account of the Trig. Survey, vol i. p. 46
and 49.
4 See Phil. Trans. Lowlhorpe’s Abridg. vol. ii. p. 37-
VOL. XII. 4 i
618
J O L
Joint
Jolloxo-
chitl.
creases in a few seasons, but it is of some importance to
the joiner to be aware, that even in very old wood, when
the surface is removed, the extent of variation is nearly the
same as in new wood.
It appears, from Rondelet’s experiments,1 that in wood
of a mean degree of dryness, the extent of contraction and
expansion, produced by the usual changes in the state of
the atmosphere, was,
in fir wood, from to — part of its width ;
and, in oak, from -rL to part of its width.
412 84
Consequently, the mean extent of variation in fir is
Kinds of
wood.
Oak.
and in oak, yyyy; and, at this mean rate, in a fir board
about 12£ inches wide, the difference in width would be
Ti0th of an inch. This will show the importance of attend¬
ing to the maxims of construction we have already laid be¬
fore the reader ; for, if a board of that width should be
fixed at both edges, it must unavoidably split from one end
to the other.
49. The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery
are, the oak, the different species of pine, mahogany, lime-
tree, and poplar.
Of the oak, there are two species common in this island ;
that which Linnaeus has named Quercus Robur is the most
valuable for joiners’ work ; it is of a finer grain, less tough,
and not so subject to twist as the other kind. Oak is also
imported from the Baltic ports, from Germany, and from
America. These foreign kinds being free from knots, of a
straighter grain, and less difficult to work, they are used in
preference to our home species. Foreign oak is also much
used for cabinet-work; and lately, the fine curled oak that
is got from excrescences produced by pollard, and other
JON
old trees, has been used with success in furniture. When jonai
well managed, it is very beautiful, and makes a pleasing p
variety. It is relieved by inlaid borders of black or white Jonath
wood, but these should be sparingly used. Borders of in- ''“■'Y'
laid brass, with small black lines, give a rich effect to the
darker coloured kinds.
The greater part of joiners’ work is executed in yellow Fir.
fir, imported from the north of Europe. White fir is often
used for internal work, and American pine is much used
for mouldings.
The forest of Braemar, in Aberdeenshire, furnishes yel¬
low fir of an excellent quality, little inferior to the best fo¬
reign kinds.
For the general purpose of joinery, the wood of the larch Larch,
tree seems to be the best; this useful tree thrives well on
our native hills. We have seen some fine specimens of
this wood from Blair-Athol. It makes excellent steps for
stairs, floors, framing, and most other articles.
Mahogany, in joinery, is only used where painted work Mahoga
is improper, as for the hand-rails of stairs, or for the doors
and windows of principal rooms. For doors it is not now
so often used as it was formerly ; its colour is found to be
too gloomy to be employed in large masses. In cabinet¬
work it is almost the only kind used for ornamental work.
Lime-tree, and the different species of poplar, make very Lime-ti
good floors for inferior rooms, and may often be used for oplar.
other purposes, in places where the carriage of foreign tim¬
ber would render it more expensive. Lime-tree is valu¬
able for carved work, and does not worm-eat; but carving
is at present seldom used in joinery.
For farther information on wood, in addition to the works
referred to, the reader may consult Evelyn’s Silva, Dr
Hunter’s edition; Duhamel, Du Transport, de la Conser¬
vation, et de la Force des Bois, Paris, 1767 ; Barlow’s Es¬
say on the Strength and Stress of Timber, 1817 ; Tred-
gold’s Elementary Principles of Carpentry, sect. x. 1820;
and the article Dry-Rot.2
JOINT, in general, denotes the juncture of two or
more things. The joints of the human body are called
by anatomists articulations. See Anatomy.
JOINTURE, in Scotch Law, signifies generally a set¬
tlement of lands and tenements, made on a woman in con¬
sideration of marriage.
JOINVILLE, a city of the department of the Upper
Marne, in France, in the arrondissement of Vassy. It
stands on the left bank of the Marne, at the foot of a lof¬
ty hill, on which there remains an ancient castle, where
the association of the League was formed in 1584. It
contains 845 houses, and 3100 inhabitants. There are
manufactures of woollen cloths and stockings. Long. 5. 1.
E. Lat. 48. 26. N.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in Architecture, those pieces of
timber framed into the girders and summers, upon which
the boards of the floor are laid.
JOKAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta ter¬
ritories, in the province of Khandesh, seventy-four miles
south-east from Oojain. Long. 76. 46. E. Lat. 22. 31. N.
JOKES. See Jesting.
JOLLOXOCHITL, an Indian word, signifying “ flower
of the heart,” is the name of a plant, bearing a large, beau¬
tiful flower, which grows in Mexico, where it is much
esteemed for its beauty and odour; the latter being so
powerful, that a single flower is sufficient to fill a house
with the most pleasing fragrance.
JONAH, or the Prophecy of Jonah, a canonical book of
the Old Testament, in which it is related, that Jonah,
about 771 before Christ, was ordered to go and prophecy
the destruction of Nineveh, on account of the wickedness
of its inhabitants. But the prophet, instead of obeying
the divine command, embarked for Tarshish, when, a
tempest arising, the mariners threw him into the sea. He
was swallowed by a great fish, and after being three days
and nights in its belly, was cast upon the land. The pro¬
phet, sensible of his past danger and surprising deliver¬
ance, now betook himself to the journey and embassy to
which he was appointed ; and arriving at Nineveh, the
metropolis of Assyria, he, according to his commission,
boldly laid open the sins of the Ninevites, and proclaimed
their sudden overthrow; upon which the whole city, by
prayer, fasting, and speedy repentance, happily averted the
divine vengeance, and escaped the threatened ruin. Upon
this, Jonah, fearing that he would pass for a false prophet,
retired to a hill at some distance from the city, where
God, by a miracle, condescended to show him the unrea¬
sonableness of his discontent.
JONATHAN, the son of Saul, celebrated in sacred
history for his valour, and his friendship for David against
1 Trait? Thcoretique et Pratique de l'Art de Batir, article Menuiperie, tome iv. p. 425, 1814.
2 When the roof of Westminster Hall was under repair, an opportunity was taken to examine the wood of which it is construct¬
ed ; and it was found to be of oak, and not of chestnut, as stated in the Article Dry-Rot, voL viii. p. 233. The oak has been of an
excellent kind, but is now much worm-eaten.
JON JON 619
mthan the interest of his own house. He was slain ii> battle in
|| the year 1055 before Christ.
ones, Jonathan, or Jonas, Maccabaus, brother of Judas, a
renowned general of the Jews. He forced Bacchides, the
Syrian general, who made war with the Jews, to accept a
peace, conquered Demetrius Soter, and afterwards defeat¬
ed Apollonius, general of that prince ; but, being ensnared
by Tryphon, he was put to death, 144 before Christ.
JONES, Inigo, a celebrated English architect, the son
of a cloth-worker of London, was born in 1572. He was
at first put as apprentice to a joiner; but having early
distinguished himself by his inclination for drawing or de¬
signing, he was particularly noticed for his skill in land¬
scape-painting. This afterwards recommended him to
the favour of William earl of Pembroke, who sent him
abroad with a handsome allowance, in order to perfect
himself in that branch. He had no sooner arrived at
Rome, than he found himself in his proper sphere ; he felt
that nature had not formed him to decorate cabinets, but
to design palaces. He accordingly dropped the pencil, and
conceived Whitehall. In the state of Venice he saw the
works of Palladio, and learned that refined taste may be
exerted on a less theatre than the capital of an empire.
How he distinguished himself in a place where he had no
opportunity to display his talents, we are not informed,
though it would not be the least curious part of his his¬
tory. Certain it is, how-ever, that, on the strength of his
reputation at Venice, Christian IV. invited him to Den¬
mark, and appointed him his architect; but on what
buildings he was employed in that country we have yet
to learn. James I. found him at Copenhagen, and Queen
Anne took him, in the capacity of her architect, to Scot¬
land. He served Prince Henry in the same capacity, and
the place of surveyor-general of the works was granted
to him in reversion. On the death of that prince, Jones
travelled once more into Italy, and, assisted by maturity
of judgment, perfected his taste. To the interval between
these voyages Mr Walpole is inclined to attribute those
buildings of Jones which are less pure, and border too
much upon the bastard style. Inigo’s designs of that pe¬
riod are not Gothic, but have a littleness of parts, and a
weight of ornament, with which the revival of the Gre¬
cian taste was encumbered, and which he shook off in his
grander designs. The surveyor’s place having become va¬
cant, he returned to England ; and, as if architecture was
not all he had learned at Rome, he disinterestedly gave
up the profits of his office, which he found extremely in
debt, and prevailed upon the comptroller and paymaster
to imitate his example, until the whole arrears were clear¬
ed off.
In 1620 he was employed in a manner very unworthy
of his genius, King James having set him upon discover¬
ing, or rather guessing, who were the founders of Stone¬
henge. But his ideas were all Roman; consequently, his
partiality to his favourite people, which ought rather to
have prevented him from charging them with that mass
of barbarous clumsiness, made him conclude that it was
a Roman temple.
In the same year Jones was appointed one of the com¬
missioners for the repair of St Paul’s ; but this was not
commenced till the year 1633, when Laud, then bishop of
London, laid the first stone, and Inigo the fourth. In the
restoration of that cathedral he made two capital faults.
He first renewed the sides with very bad Gothic; and
then added a Roman portico, magnificent indeed, but
which had no affinity to the ancient parts that remain¬
ed, and made his own Gothic appear ten times heavier.
He committed the same error at Winchester, thrusting a
screen in the Roman or Grecian taste into the middle of
that cathedral. Jones indeed was by no, means successful
when he attempted Gothic. The chapel of Lincoln’s-Inn
has none of the characteristics of that architecture. The Jones,
cloister beneath seems oppressed by the weight of the IniS0*
building above.
The authors of the life of Jones place the erection of the
Banqueting House in the reign of King Charles; but it
appears, from the accounts of Nicholas Stone, that it was
begun in 1619, and finished in two years, being a small
part of the pile designed for the palace of our kings, but
so complete in itself, that it stands as a model of its kind.
Several plates of the intended palace at Whitehall have
been given, but, Mr Walpole thinks, from no finished de¬
sign. The four great sheets are evidently made up from
general hints; nor could such a source of invention and
taste as the mind of Inigo ever produce so much same¬
ness. The whole fabric, however, was so great an idea,
that, according to Walpole, one forgets for a moment, in
the regret for its not being executed, the confirmation of
our liberties, obtained by a melancholy scene that passed
before the windows of that very Banqueting House.
In 1623 he was employed at Somerset House, where a
chapel was to be fitted up for the Infanta, the intended
bride of the prince. The chapel is still in existence. The
front to the river, part only of what was designed, and
the water-gate, were afterwards erected on the designs
of Inigo, as was the gale at York Stairs.
On the accession of Charles, Jones was continued in
his posts under both king and queen. His fee as sur¬
veyor was eight shillings and fourpence a day, with an
allowance of L.46 a year for house-rent, besides a clerk,
and incidental expenses. What other remuneration he
received, or whether he received any at all, we have not
been informed.
During the prosperous state of the king’s affairs, the
pleasures of the court were indulged in with much taste
and magnificence. Poetry, painting, music, and architec¬
ture, were all called in to contribute rational amusements.
Mr Walpole is of opinion, indeed, that the celebrated fes¬
tivals of Louis XIV. were copied from the shows exhibited
at Whitehall, in his time the most polite court in Europe.
Ben Jonson was the laureate; Inigo Jones the inventor
of the decorations; Laniere and Ferabosco composed
the symphonies; whilst the king, the queen, and the
young nobility, danced in the interludes. We have ac¬
counts of many of those entertainments called “ masques,”
which had been introduced by Anne of Denmark. Lord
Burlington had a folio of the designs for these solemni¬
ties, by Inigo’s own hand, consisting of habits, masks,
scenes, and so forth. The harmony of these masks was
a little interrupted by a war which broke out between
the composers, Inigo and Ben, in which, whoever was the
aggressor, the turbulent temper of Jonson took care to
put him most in the wrong.
The works of Inigo Jones are not scarce; and Sur¬
geons’ Hall is one of his best performances. One of the
most admired is the arcade of Covent-garden, and the
church ; “ two structures,” says Mr Walpole, “ of which
I want taste to see the beauties. In the arcade there is
nothing remarkable ; the pilasters are as arrant and home¬
ly stripes as any plasterer could make. The barn-roof
over the portico of the church strikes my eyes with as
little idea of dignity and beauty as it could do if it cover¬
ed nothing but a bam. It must be owned, that the de¬
fect is not in the architect, but in the order. Who ever
saw a beautiful Tuscan building? Would the Romans
have chosen that order for a temple ?” The expense of
building the church amounted to L.4500.
Ambresbury in Wiltshire was designed by Jones, but
executed by his scholar Webb. Jones was one of the first
who observed the same diminution in pilasters as in pil¬
lars. Lindsay House in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, which he
built, owes its chief grace to this singularity. In 1618, a
620 JON
Jones, Sir special commission was issued to the Lord Chancellor, the
William. Earls of Worcester, Pembroke, Arundel, and others, to
plant and reduce to uniformity Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, as it
should be drawn by way of map or ground-plot, by Inigo
Jones, surveyor-general of the works. That square is
laid out with a regard to so trifling a singularity, as to be
of the exact dimensions of one of the Pyramids; a con¬
ceit which would have been admired in those ages when
the keep at Kenilworth Castle was erected in the form of
an horse-fetter, and the Escurial in the shape of St Lau¬
rence’s gridiron.
Coleshill in Berkshire, the seat of Sir Matthew Pley-
dell, built in 1650, and Cobham Hall in Kent, were works
of Jones. He was employed to rebuild Castle Ashby, and
finished one front; but the civil war interrupted his
progress there and at Stoke Park in Northamptonshire.
Shaftesbury House, now the London Lying-in Hospital,
on the east side of Aldersgate Street, is a beautiful front
of his. The Grange, the seat of Lord Henley, in Hamp¬
shire, is entirely of this master. It is by no means a large
house, but one of the best proofs of his taste. The hall,
which opens to a small vestibule with a cupola, and the
staircase adjoining, are beautiful models of the purest and
most classic antiquity The gate of Beaufort Garden at
Chelsea, designed by Jones, was purchased by Lord Bur¬
lington, and transported to Chiswick. He also drew a
plan for a palace at Newmarket. One of the most beau¬
tiful of his works is the queen’s house at Greenwich. The
first idea of the hospital is said to have been taken from
his papers by his scholar Webb. Heriot’s Hospital in
Edinburgh, and the improvements made in his time on
Glammis Castle, Forfarshire, Scotland, are specimens of
the designs of Inigo Jones.
Inigo tasted early the misfortunes of his master. Being
not only a favourite, but a Roman Catholic, he in 1646
paid L.545 for his delinquency and sequestration. Whe¬
ther it was before or after this fine, it is uncertain, that
he and Stone the mason buried their joint stock in Scot¬
land yard; but an order being published to encourage
the informers of such concealments, and four persons
being privy to the spot where the money was hidden, it
was taken up, and reburied in Lambeth marsh. Grief,
misfortunes, and age, put a period to his life, at Somerset
House, on the 21st of July 1651. Several of his designs
have been published by Mr Kent, Mr Colin Campbell,
and Mr Isaac Ware. He left in manuscript some curious
notes on Palladio’s architecture, which are inserted in an
edition of Palladio published in 1714.
Jones, Sir William, the son of William Jones, Esq. an
eminent mathematician, contemporary with the great New¬
ton, was born in London on the 28th of September 1746,
and received the rudiments of his education at Harrow
School, under the tuition of Dr Robert Sumner, whom he
has celebrated in an elegant and affecting eulogium. From
Harrow School he went to University College, Oxford,
where the rapidity of his literary acquisitions excited uni¬
versal admiration.
He travelled through France at the age of twenty-three,
taking up his residence for some time at Nice, where society,
and the various forms of government, became the favourite
objects of his investigation. A wish to relieve his mother
from the burden of his education made him long for a fellow¬
ship in his college; but having no immediate prospect of
obtaining it, he, in 1765, became tutor to young Lord Al-
thorp, afterwards Earl Spencer, in which situation he was
introduced to the best of company, and had also leisure
to prosecute the acquisition of knowledge, and the further
cultivation of his intellectual powers, which were objects
ever dear to him.
He obtained next year the fellowship he expected, and
was thus raised to a state which he could not help viewing
JON
as independent. Being at Spa with his pupil in the year Jones si
1767, he employed much of his time in making himself ac- William,
quainted with the German language ; and in the following
year he was requested, by the Duke of Grafton’s under-se¬
cretary, to undertake a translation of a Persian manuscript
of the life of Nadir Shah into the French language, of
which the king of Denmark was anxious to have a version.
This, his first publication, appeared in 1770, with the ad¬
dition of a treatise on oriental poetry, which was very much
admired on account of the elegance of the French style
and the accuracy of the translation. For this excellent
publication it appears that he received nothing more than
a diploma from his Danish majesty, constituting him a mem¬
ber of the Royal Society of Copenhagen, with a warm re¬
commendation to the notice of his own sovereign.
That he might be enabled to gratify his commendable
ambition, he now began to think seriously of some profes¬
sion ; and, as he had conceived an early predilection for the
law, he made that the object of his choice, and, in the month
of September 1770, entered himself at the Temple. Yet
the studies of his profession did not prevent him from mak¬
ing those literary advances in w hich he so much delighted;
and oriental literature still continued a favourite object.
When the life of Zoroaster by Anquetil Duperron made
its appearance, in the preliminary discourse to which the
university of Oxford had been attacked, our author defend¬
ed it in a pamphlet written with equal severity and ele¬
gance. In 1772, he published a small volume of poems,
being translations from the Asiatic poets, remarkable for
the grace and brilliancy of their style; and in 1774 appear¬
ed his work De Poesi Asiatica, the beauty and purity of
the Latin in which it is composed exciting the admiration
of men of taste and learning both at home and abroad.
He was called to the bar in the beginning of 1774, but
declined to act in that capacity without a previous know¬
ledge of the actual business of the profession. He w as ap¬
pointed a commissioner of bankrupts in 1776, about which
period he addressed a letter to Lord Althorp, in which he
expresses his ardent wish to have constitutional liberty es¬
tablished by constitutional means.
His translation of the speech of Isseus, on account of the
elegant style and the profound critical and historical know¬
ledge it displayed, commanded the admiration of every
competent judge. Soon after this his practice at the bar
increased with rapidity; but he had little reason to flat¬
ter himself with the prospect of advancement in profes¬
sional rank and dignity, because he was known to be con¬
vinced of the injustice of the British cause respecting the
American war, w hich he was at no pains to conceal; and
an opponent of the measures of those who had then the
direction of public affairs, had little preferment to look
for. In 1780 he became a candidate to succeed to Sir
Roger Newdigate as representative in parliament for the
university of Oxford, in which he was respectably sup¬
ported ; but his political sentiments were ill suited to se¬
cure him a majority, a circumstance which made him de¬
cline the contest prior to the election. He soon after¬
wards published a pamphlet entitled “ An Inquiry into
the legal mode of suppressing Riots, with a Constitu¬
tional Flan of future Defence,” recommending the pro¬
priety of making every citizen a soldier in cases of immi¬
nent danger. He next published a translation of seven
ancient poems of the highest reputation in Arabia, which,
with an ode on the marriage of Lord Althorp, procured
for him the highest reputation. His essay on the law of
bailment was also much admired, as was his speech at the
London Tavern in defence of a parliamentary reform in
1782. At Paris he drew up a dialogue between a farmer
and a country gentleman on the principles of government,
which was published in Wales by the dean of St Asaph,
and for which a bill of indictment was preferred against
JON
J O R
es, Sir that clergyman. In a letter to Lord Kenyon, Mr Jones
llliam avowed himself the author, and asserted the principles it
II . contained to be perfectly agreeable to the British constitu-
ropnig- tjon . jt appears that he afterwards relaxed considerably
'' in his political ardour.
After the resignation of Lord North, and the appointment
of Lord Shelburne, Mr Jones was nominated oneof the judges
in the British territories of India ; an appointment which he
had long wished for, as it would afford him an opportunity
of prosecuting his favourite researches into oriental litera¬
ture. He was appointed a judge in March 1783, and on
the 20th of that month the honour of knighthood was con¬
ferred upon him. He arrived at Calcutta in September,
and entered upon his office in December, opening the ses¬
sions with a very elegant charge to the grand jury. Here
he planned the institution of a society similar to the Royal
Society of London, the valuable labours and researches of
which are already in the hands of the public. He collected
materials for a complete digest of the Hindu and Mahom-
medan laws, which interesting work he did not live to bring
to a conclusion. The publication of the Asiatic Researches
occupied much of his attention. In 1789 he translated
an ancient Indian drama called Sacontala, which has been
considered as an interesting curiosity. In 1794 he gave
the world his Ordinances of Menu, a famous Indian legis¬
lator, containing a system of duties both civil and religious.
The climate of India having proved unfavourable to the
health of Lady Jones, she was obliged to return to Eng¬
land, whither Sir William designed soon to follow her. But,
on the 20th of April 1794, he was seized at Calcutta with
an inflammation of the liver, which set the powers of medi¬
cine at defiance, and on the 27th of the same month he
expired without pain or struggle.
It may be fairly asserted that few men have died more
respected or regretted, as few have passed a more useful
and irreproachable life. The uncommon extent of his eru¬
dition has been displayed in all his writings, and hardly
any subject of human research escaped his notice. He
has scarcely ever been equalled as a linguist, for he is said
to have been more or less acquainted with about twenty-
eight different languages. Taste and elegance marked all
his exertions, and he might have risen as a poet to the very
first rank. Great as his knowledge was, his virtue and re¬
ligion were not inferior. In whatever light we think pro¬
per to view him as standing in relation to society, he was
undoubtedly a pattern worthy of imitation.
As a permanent monument to his memory, his affection¬
ate lady published his whole finished works in six quarto
volumes, in the year 1799 ; and a marble monument to his
memory by the same endeared friend was placed in the
anti-chamber of University College, Oxford. The East
India Company also voted a monument to his memory in
St Paul’s Cathedral, and a statue of him to be sent out to
Bengal. Memoirs of his life were published by Lord
feignmouth ; and a society of gentlemen in Bengal, who
had been educated at Oxford, subscribed a sum for a prize
dissertation on his character and merits, by students of that
university.
JONK, Jonque, or Junk, in naval affairs, is a kind of
small ship, very common in the East Indies. These vessels
are of various dimensions; and differ in the form of their
building, according to the different methods of naval ar¬
chitecture used by the nations to which they belong. Their
sails are frequently made of mats, and their anchors of wood.
JONKOPING, a province in the south of Sweden, ex¬
tending over 4804 square miles, and situated between 56.56.
and 58. 9. of north latitude, and 13. 9. and 15. 36. of east
longitude. It is a mountainous and rocky district; but in the
cultivated parts produces corn sufficient for food, and toler¬
able crops of potatoes, hemp, flax, and buck-wheat. The
mines produce a little gold and silver, and considerable por¬
tions of iron and copper. The woods are extensive, and fur¬
nish deals, pitch, tar, and potash for exportation. It is di¬
vided into six bailiwicks or circles, comprehending three
towns or cities, 4029 farming or mining establishments, and
121,250 inhabitants, who are remarkable for their sprightly
cheerfulness, and especially for their activity. Jonkoping,
the capital of the province, is a city on the Lake of Wet¬
ter, and close to twm smaller lakes. It is well and reo-u-
larly built, the court of justice and guildhall being of stone.
It contains three churches, 608 houses, and 3145 inha¬
bitants. A detachment of artillery is fixed here, with its
laboratory and stores.
r JONS AC, an arrondissement of the department of the
Vendee, in France, extending over 622 square miles. It is
divided into seven cantons, and these into 120 communes,
and contains 78,528 inhabitants. The capital, a city of
the same name, stands on the river Seugne, and has 610
houses, with 2590 inhabitants, whose chief trade is in wine
and brandy.
JOORIA, a populous and thriving sea-port of Hindus¬
tan, in the Gujerat peninsula, belonging to the rajah of
Amiam. It is situated on the Gulf of Cutch, twenty miles
below Wowamia, and carries on a considerable traffic with
Mandavee and other places in the Gulf of Cutch, and on
the western coasts of India, Persia, and Arabia, and oc¬
casionally with Bombay. Its exports consist chiefly of cot-
ton, ghee, oil, and hides, to the southward, and coarse cloth
for 1 ersia and Arabia. In return it receives spices of all
sorts, powder, lead, and cocoa-nuts. In 1808, the rajah
and piincipal inhabitants agreed with the Bombay govern¬
ment not to permit or connive at piracy ; and also to ab¬
stain from plundering persons in distress. Lone. 70. 40. E
Lat. 22. 40. N.
JOR, the Hebrew for a river, which, joined with Dan,
concurs to form the term Jordan.
JORDAN, a celebrated river of Palestine, w'hich has its
rise in a mountain called Jebel Sheik, and passing by Cae¬
sarea Philippi, now called Panias, is increased by other
tributary streams from the adjacent mountains, when it
becomes a considerable river. It rolls on for ten miles
through rocky and wooded banks, when it enters the great
Lake of Tiberias on the north side, and again issues from
its southern extremity. It then meanders in a southern
direction through an extensive plain, and passing to the
east of Jericho, falls into the Dead Sea, or Lake Asphal-
tites. The lower part of its course is through the middle
of a barren valley, with hills of white clayey soil on each
side, about 200 feet in height. Its banks, when it was
crossed by Mr Buckingham, and when it was at its lowest
ebb, were fourteen or fifteen feet high. On each side the
stream is lined by close thickets, which would afford ample
shelter to wild beasts; and which, being driven away by
the swelling of the river, has given rise to the Scripture
expression, like “ a lion from the swelling of Jordan.”
Near Jericho the Jordan is deep and very rapid, nearlv
equal in breadth to the Thames at Windsor. It overflows
its banks both in the spring and during the time of harvest,
from the early and the later rains.
JORDANO, Lucca, an eminent Italian painter, was
born at Naples in the year 1632. He became early a dis¬
ciple of Ribera; but going afterwards to Rome, he attached
himself to the manner of Pietro da Cortona, whom he assist¬
ed in his great works. Some of his pictures being seen by
Charles II. king of Spain, he engaged him to paint the Es-
curial, in which task he acquitted himself as a great paint¬
er. The king having shown him a picture of Bassani, ex¬
pressing his concern that he had not a companion, Lucca
painted one so exactly in Bassani’s manner, that it was consi¬
dered as a performance of that master ; and for this service
he was knighted, and gratified with several honourable and
valuable employments. The works he had executed in
622 J O U
Jorjan Spain raised his reputation so high when he returned to
II Naples, that, though he was a very quick workman, he
Joudpoor. coui(j not supply the eager demands of the citizens. No
one, not even Tintoret, ever painted so much as Jordano ;
and his generosity carried him so far as to present altar-
pieces to churches that were not able to purchase them.
His labours were rewarded with great riches, which he
left to his family at his death, which took place in 1705.
JORJAN, a town of Persia, in the province of Astrabad,
situated to the east of the Caspian. It is considered as one
of the strongest fortresses in the kingdom, and is frequently
mentioned in Persian history. It is 100 miles west of
Meshid, and 300 north-north-east of Ispahan.
JOSEPH, the son of Jacob, memorable for his chastity,
and the honours conferred on him at the court of Egypt.
He died in the year 1635 before Christ, aged a hundred
and ten.
JOSEPHUS, the celebrated historian of the Jews, was
of noble birth, being by his father Mattathias descended
from the high priests, and by his mother of the blood-royal
of the Maccabees. He was born a. d. 37, under Caligula,
and lived under Domitian. At sixteen years of age he be¬
took himself to the sect of the Essenes, and then to the
Pharisees; and having been successful in a journey to
Rome, upon his return to Judaea he was made captain-ge¬
neral of the Galileans. Being taken prisoner by Vespasian,
he foretold his coming to the empire, and his own deliver¬
ance by his means. He accompanied Titus to the siege
of Jerusalem, and wrote his Wars of the Jews, which Titus
ordered to be put in the public library. He afterwards lived
at Rome, where he enjoyed the privileges of a Roman ci¬
tizen, and where the emperors loaded him with favours,
and granted him large pensions. Besides the above work,
he wrote, 1. Twenty books of Jewish Antiquities, which
he finished under Domitian ; 2. Two books against Apion ;
3. A Discourse on the Martyrdom of the Maccabees; and,
4. His own Life. These works are all written in Greek.
JOSHUA, the renowned general of the Jews, who con¬
ducted them through the wilderness, and died in 1424
before Christ, aged a hundred and ten years.
Joshua, a canonical book of the Old Testament, con¬
taining a history of the wars and transactions of the per¬
son whose name it bears. This book may be divided into
three parts ; the first of which is a history of the conquest
of the land of Canaan; the second, which begins at the
twelfth chapter, is a description of that country, and the
division of it amongst the tribes; and the third, comprised
in the two last chapters, contains the renewal of the cove¬
nant which he caused to be made by the Israelites, to¬
gether with the death of their victorious leader and gover¬
nor. The whole comprehends a term of seventeen, or, ac¬
cording to others, of twenty-seven years.
JOSIAH, king of Judah, the destroyer of idolatry, and
the restorer of the true worship, an excellent magistrate
and a valiant general, was slain in battle, 609 before Christ.
JOSSELIN, a town of the arrondissement of Ploermel,
in the department of Finisterre, in France. It stands
on the river Oust, contains 2692 inhabitants, and has some
manufactures of coarse woollen cloths. It is visited in
summer on account of celebrated mineral springs. Near
to it is a curious cavern called the Pertuis des Fees, or
Fairy’s Cave, with an arch tweniy-five feet in height. .
JOTAPATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Lower Galilee, distant forty stadia from Gabara ; a strong
place, situated on a rock, walled round, and encompassed
on all hands with mountains, so as not to be seen except
by those who approach very near. It was taken with
difficulty by Vespasian. When it surrendered, it was or¬
dered to be razed.
JOUDPOOR, an extensive rajpoot principality of Hin¬
dustan, in the province of Ajmeer, of which the proper
J o u
and ancient name was Marwar, and its sovereign was call- Joudpoo
ed the Rhatore rajah. The boundaries of this territory ||
are not very exactly defined, being intermixed with that Journal j
of Odeypoor and Jyepoor. They are said, however, to
reach nearly to the Indus on the west, the town of Amer-
kote in Sinde, within thirty miles of that river, being in
possession of the rajah ; on the east his territories com¬
prehend the city of Meerta or Meerat; on the north they
are bounded by Bicanere and Jesselmere ; on the south by
the province of Gujerat and Odeypoor ; and on the east by
the dominions of Jyenagur. The southern and eastern parts
of Joudpoor are fertile, being watered by streams that flow
from the mountains. They are chiefly cultivated byJauts,
and they produce wheat, barley, and other kinds of grain
common in India; also cotton, sugar, &c. The western
portion of the country consists principally of desert or pas¬
ture lands, on which is bred a hardy race of horses, camels,
and cattle. There are also lead mines in the country. The
imports consist of cloth, shawls, spices, opium, rice, sugar,
steel, and iron. The exports are salt, camels, bullocks,
and horses. The principal inhabitants of Joudpoor are
Rhatore rajpoots, who are a brave, handsome race of men,
of the purest castes. The rajahs of Odeypoor, Jyepoor,
and Joudpoor formerly enjoyed considerable power and
consequence, and their alliance was much sought after by
the Mogul emperors of Hindustan. The country is de¬
scribed as having been much more populous in ancient
times.
The rajahs of Jyepoor and Joudpoor were employed with
their followers in the imperial armies, and attained the
highest military rank till the time of Aurungzebe, who at¬
tempted to enforce the capitation tax on his Hindu sub¬
jects, and sought to obtain possession of the children of
the rajah Jerwont Sing, who died in the year 1678; a cir¬
cumstance that gave rise to a war, in which the rajpoots
were ultimately victorious, and, after the death of Aurung¬
zebe, they only paid a nominal allegiance. Being after¬
wards weakened by dissensions amongst themselves, they
became tributary to the Mahrattas, and were only deliver¬
ed from their yoke by the British in their successful war
against the Pindaries.
Joudpoor, a fortified city, and capital of the above
principality, is well built, mostly of stone. It is situated on
a hill; and carries on a considerable traffic, by means of
caravans, with Gujerat and the Deccan. The rajah is now
one of the British allies. Long. 73. 18. E. Lat. 26. 27. N.
JOURNAL, a day-book, register, or account of what
passes daily. See Diary.
Journal, in merchants’ accounts, is a book in which
every particular article is posted out of the waste-book,
and made debtor. This is to be very clearly worded, and
fairly engrossed. See Book-Keeping.
Journal, in Navigation, a sort of diary or daily regis¬
ter of the ship’s course, winds, and weather, together with
a general account of whatever is material to be remarked
in the period of a sea-voyage. In all such journals, the
day, or what is called the twenty-four hours, terminate
at noon, because the errors of the dead reckoning are at
that period generally corrected by a solar observation.
The daily compact usually contains the state of the wea¬
ther ; the variation, increase, or diminution of the wind ;
and the suitable shifting, reducing, or enlarging the quan¬
tity of sail extended ; as also the most material incidents
of the voyage, and the condition of the ship and her crew;
together with the discovery of other ships or fleets, land,
shoals, breakers, soundings, and the like.
Journal is also a common name of weekly essays,
newspapers, and also of several books which come out at
stated times, and give abstracts, accounts, or criticisms ot
the new books that are published, and the improvements
daily made in arts and sciences.
J U A
rney JOURNEY, a tract of ground passed over in travelling
II by land, properly as much as may be passed in one day.
if0!-- JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the day
only; but the word is now used for any one who works
under a master, either by the day, the year, or the piece.
JOVIAN, the Roman emperor, elected by the army
after the death of Julian the Apostate, in 363. He at
first refused to assume the purple, saying he would not
command idolatrous soldiers ; but, upon an assurance that
they would embrace Christianity, he accepted the throne,
and immediately shut all the pagan temples. But he did
not long enjoy the dignity to which his merit had raised
him, having been suffocated in his bed by the fumes of a
fire which had been made to dry the chamber. This hap¬
pened a. d. 364, in the thirty-third year of his age, and
the eighth month of his reign. See Constantinople.
JOVIUS, Paul, in Italian Giovio, a celebrated histo¬
rian, was born at Como, in Italy, in the year 1483. As
his father died in his infancy, he was educated by his eldest
brother Benedict Jovius, under whom he became well
skilled in classical learning; and then went to Rome for
the sake of enjoying the benefit of the Vatican library.
He there wrote his first work, De Piscibus Romanis, which
he dedicated to Cardinal Louis of Bourbon. For many
years he received a pension of five hundred crowns from
Francis I. king of France, whose favour he secured by his
flatteries. But, in the following reign, having disgusted the
Constable Montmorency, his name was struck out of the
list of pensioners. Jovius, however, did not suffer his
spirits to sink under his misfortune. He had obtained a
high reputation in the learned world by his writings; and
having always showed great respect to the house of Me-
dicis, on whose praises he had expatiated in his works, he
applied to Clement VII. and obtained the bishoprick of
Nocera. His principal production is his History, which is
that of his own time, beginning with 1494, and extending
to the year 1544. The composition of this work consti¬
tuted the chief business of his life. For he formed the
plan of it in the year 1515, and continued to labour upon
it till his death, which happened at Florence in 1552. It is
printed in three volumes folio. Jovius is allowed to have
been a man of wit as well as learning; he was master of
a polished style, and has made many curious observations ;
but being a venal writer, his statements are not much cre¬
dited.
JOY, in Ethics, is that passion which is produced by
love, regarding its object as present, either immediately
or in prospect, in reality or imagination. The operation
of joy sometimes affects the functions of the body, by in¬
creasing the secretion of perspiration, and otherwise.
JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the South Pacific
Ocean,about one hundred and ten leagues west of Chili, of
which it may be considered an appendage, the governor of
it being appointed by the president of that republic. It is
about twelve miles in length, and hardly six in breadth ;
but, though small, it is so diversified by lofty hills, streams,
and varied vegetation, that it has been described as one
of the most enchanting spots upon the sea. It abounds
with excellent timber trees, amongst which are the san¬
dal, the yellow wood, and the chonta, a species of palm,
which produces a pleasant fruit. It is noted for the re¬
freshments it has afforded to navigators, from its wild
goats, vegetables, and water. This island was discover¬
ed by Juan Fernandez, from whom it derived its name,
and was early settled from the continent of South Ame¬
rica. After the death of the discoverer it was deserted,
but subsequently the Spaniards made a permanent esta¬
blishment on it, and settled the port called Juan Fernan¬
dez on the south-west coast. There is another port lying
to the south, which is called English Harbour, from the
circumstance of its having given shelter to Anson’s squa-
J u B 623
dron during his celebrated voyage round the world. It Juan de
was also early noted for having been the solitary residence Ulloa
for several years of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch mariner, H
who was cast away upon it; an event upon which, as is ,J^ba II-
well known, De Foe founded his celebrated narrative of
Robinson Crusoe. Long, 78. 58.15. W. Lat. 33. 40. 0. S.
Juan de Ulloa, or the island of Sacrifices, is an island
on the west coast of Mexico, in the bay of Vera Cruz. It
was first visited by Grijalva, who gave it its name from
having found on it a temple in which a human sacrifice
had been offered up the day previous to his landing. It
is now a mere heap of sand, but there are vestiges of ruins
upon it; and when Humboldt was in this quarter of the
world, one wretched Indian family constituted its only in¬
habitants.
Juan Blanco, or White Jack, a Spanish name for pla-
tina.
JUBA, king of Numidia, who succeeded to the throne
on the death of his brother Hiempsal, about b. c. 50. In
the war between Caesar and Pompey, we find Juba espous¬
ing the cause of the latter, and proceeding to the assist¬
ance of Varus, who was besieged in Utica by Curio. He
gained a victory over Curio; and when many of the partisans
of Caesar had surrendered to Varus, on condition of their
lives being preserved, Juba, disregarding the promise made
to them, put the greater part to death. (Caes.Zte Bello Civili,
ii. 26, 42.) After the battle of Pharsalia, Caesar proceeded
into Africa to crush the remains of Pompey’s party; but
Juba, thinking this a favourable opportunity of destroying
the troops of his opponent, collected a large army. He
was soon, however, obliged to retire to the protection of
his dominions, which were threatened by Sittius, the chief
of a band of banditti. Appointing Sabura to the command
of the troops against Sittius, he proceeded to rejoin Scipio
at the head of a numerous army. The pride of Juba could
not tolerate that Scipio should wear a purple cloak like his
own, and Scipio did not think proper to offend his powerful
ally on such a trivial point. A battle was fought, in which
Caesar defeated the allied army ; and the Numidian prince
fled to his own dominions, where he found Sabura had
been defeated by Sittius. He wished to shut himself up
inZama; but the inhabitants gained by Caesar having shut
the gates of their city, Juba caused himself to be put to
death (b. c. 46) by Petreius, one of his companions in
misfortune (Liv. Epit. 114; Flor. iv. 2), or by a slave
(Caes. Aft. 94). Caesar reduced the kingdom of Juba into
the form of a province, and the historian Sallust was the
first governor. (Afr. 97.)
Juba Hi, the son of the former, was carried to Rome
by Julius Caesar on the defeat and death of his father, and
formed one of the principal ornaments of the triumph which
Caesar enjoyed. At Rome the young prince received the
benefit of an excellent education ; and being naturally of
an intelligent and thoughtful disposition, he soon equalled
in learning and knowledge the wisest philosophers of
Greece and Rome. (Plut. Cces. 55.) Augustus became
attached to him from his excellent qualities, and gave him
in marriage Selene, or Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony
and Cleopatra. {Anton. 87 ) He was restored to the king¬
dom of his father by Augustus, and some parts of Gaetulia
were added to it. The Gastulians, unwilling to acknow¬
ledge themselves tributary to a prince imposed upon them
by the Romans, made incursions into his territory, which
he was unable to repel until he received assistance from
Augustus. (Dion Cass. li. liii.) He was more fortunate
in peace than in war, and made himself so much beloved
by his subjects, that they placed him in the number of
their gods, and erected statues to his honour. Pliny
states, that the profound knowledge of Juba made him
more illustrious than even his crown. He wrote many
historical works of great value : the Antiquities of Assyria
624 J U B
Jubilee, and of Rome; a History of Arabia, which he dedicated
‘'-v'"-' to the young Caius Caesar; a History of Painting and of
Painters; a History of Theatres, many fragments of which
still remain ; on the Nature and Qualities of different Ani¬
mals ; a Treatise on the Plant Euphorbia; and an Essay
on the source of the Nile.
JUBILEE, amongst the Jews, denotes every fiftieth
year, being 'that following the revolution of seven weeks
of years, at which time all the slaves were made free, and
all lands reverted to their ancient owners. But the jubi¬
lees were disregarded after the Babylonian captivity. The
word, according to some authors, comes from the Hebrew,
jobel, which signifies; but this must be a mistake,
for the Hebrew, jobel, does not signify fifty, neither do its
letters, taken as ciphers, or according to their numerical
powers, make up that number, these being 10, 6, 2, and 30,
or in all 48. Others say, that jobel signifies a ram, and that
the jubilee was so called, because proclaimed with a ram’s
horn, in memory of the ram which appeared to Abraham in
the thicket. Masius chooses to derive the word from Ju-
bal, the first inventor of musical instruments, which for that
reason were called by his name; and hence the words jo¬
bel and jubilee came to signify the year of deliverance and
remission, because proclaimed with the sound of one of
those instruments, which at first was no other than the horn
of a ram. Others derive jobel from in', jabal, in hiphil, V£rr,
hobil, which signifies to recall or return ; because this year
restored all slaves to their liberty, and recalled exiles to
their native land. The institution of this festival is to be
found in Leviticus (chap. xxv. v. 8-17).
The learned are divided about the year of jubilee ; some
maintaining that it occurred every forty-ninth, and others
that it took place every fiftieth year. The ground of the
former opinion is chiefly this, that the forty-ninth year be¬
ing of coxxrse a sabbatical year, if the jubilee had been ob¬
served on the fiftieth, the land must have had two sabbaths,
or have lain fallow two years, which, without a miracle,
would have produced a scarcity. On the other hand, it is
alleged, that the Scripture expressly declares for the fiftieth
year (Levit. xxv. 10, 11) : and, besides, if the jubilee and
sabbatical year had been the same, there would have been
no need for a prohibition against sowing or reaping, because
this kind of labour was prohibited by the law of the sabba¬
tical year (Levit. xxv. 4, 5). The authors of the Univer¬
sal History (book i. chap. 7, note R) endeavour to recon¬
cile these opinions, by observing, that as the jubilee began
in the first month of the civil year, which was the seventh
of the ecclesiastical, it might be said to be either the forty-
ninth or fiftieth, according as one or other of these compu¬
tations was followed. The political design of the law of the
jubilee was to prevent the oppression of the poor, as well
as to obviate their being liable to perpetual slavery. By
this means a kind of equality was preserved amongst all the
families of Isi’ael, and the distinction of tribes was also pre¬
served, that they might be able, when there was occasion,
on the jubilee year, to prove their right to the inheritance
of their ancestors. It served also, like the olympiads of the
Greeks, and the lustra of the Romans, for the computation
of time. The jubilee has likewise been supposed to be ty¬
pical of the gospel state and dispensation, described by
Isaiah (Ixi. ver. 1, 2, in reference to this period) as the “ ac¬
ceptable year of the Lord.”
Jubilee, in a more modern sense, denotes a grand so¬
lemnity or ceremony, celebrated at Rome, in which the pope
grants a plenary indulgence, at least to as many as visit the
churches of St Peter and St Paul.
The jubilee was first established by Boniface VII. in the
year 1300, in favour of those who should proceed ad limina
apostolorum; and it was only to return every hundred
years. But the first celebration brought in such store of
wealth to Rome, that the Germans called this the golden
J U D
year ; a circumstance which induced Clement VI. in 1343, juflaj
to reduce the period of the jubilee to fifty years. Urban
VI. in 1389 appointed it to be held every thirty-five years,
that being the age of our Saviour ; and Paul II. and Sixtus
IV. in 1475 brought it down to every twenty-five years,
that all persons might have the benefit of it once in their
lifetime. Boniface IX. granted the privilege of holding ju¬
bilees to several princes and monasteries ; for instance, to
the monks of Canterbury, who had a jubilee every fifty
years, when people flocked from all parts to visit the tomb
of St Thomas-a-Becket. Jubilees are now7 become more
frequent, and the pope grants them as often as the church
or himself has occasion for them. There is usually one
at the inauguration of a new pope. To be entitled to the
privileges of the jubilee, the bull enjoins fastings, alms, and
prayers. It gives the priests full power to absolve in ?.ll
cases, even those otherwise reserved to the pope, to make
commutations of vows, and to perform other functions, in
which it differs from a plenary indulgence. During the
time of jubilee all other indulgences are suspended.
One of our kings, Edward III., caused his birth-day to
be observed in the manner of a jubilee when he became
fifty years of age, in 1362, but never before nor after; and
this he did by releasing prisoners, pardoning all offences
except treason, making good laws, and granting many pri¬
vileges to the people.
There are particular jubilees in certain cities, when
several of their feasts fall upon the same day ; at Puy-en-
Velay, for instance, when the feast of the Annunciation
happens on Good Friday ; and at Lyons, when the feast of
St John Baptist concurs with the feast of Corpus Christi.
The Jesuits celebrated a solemn jubilee at Rome in 1640,
that being the centenary or hundredth year from their in¬
stitution ; and the same ceremony was observed in all their
houses throughout the world.
JUDAH, the fourth son of Jacob, and father of the
chief of the tribes of the Jew7s, distinguished by his name,
and honoured by giving birth to the Messiah, died in the
year before Christ 1636.
JudahHakkadosh, or the Saint, a rabbi celebrated for his
learning and riches, who lived in the time of the Emperor
Antoninus, and was the friend and preceptor of that prince.
Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice, tells us that Rabbi
Judah, who was very rich, collected, about twenty-six
years after the destruction of the temple, in a book which
he called Misnia, the constitutions and traditions of the
Jewish magistrates who had preceded him. But as this
book was short and obscure, two Babylonian rabbin, Rab-
bina and Ase, collected all the interpretations, disputes,
and additions, which had been made upon the Misnia
until their time, and formed the book called the Babylo¬
nian Talmud or Gemara, which is preferable to the Jeru¬
salem Talmud, composed some years before by Rabbi
Jochonan of Jerusalem. The Misnia is the text of the
Talmud, of which there is a good edition in Hebrew and
Latin by Surenhusius, with notes, in three vols. folio. It
were to be wished that as much had been done for the
Gemara.
The Kingdom of Judah was of small extent compared
with that of the kingdom of Israel, consisting only ot two
tribes, Benjamin and Judah. Its eastern boundary was
the Jordan ; on the west it had the Mediterranean in com¬
mon with the Danites, if we except some places taken by
the kings of Israel, which had been recovered by the
Philistines and others; on the south its limits seem to
have been contracted under Hadad, of the royal family of
Edom (1 Kings, xi. 14).
Tribe of Judah, one of the twelve divisions of Palestine
by tribes (Josh, xv.), having Idumea on the south, from
the extremity of the Lake Asphaltites, and also the wilder¬
ness of Zin, Cadesbarnea, and the brook or river of Egypt;
J U D J U D 02S
aism on the east the Lake Asphaltites ; on the west the Medi-
S terranean ; and on the north the mouth of the lake,
'g68, where it receives the Jordan, Bethsemes, and Thimna, as
far as Ekron on the sea.
JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and rites of the
Jews. Judaism was but a temporary dispensation, and
destined to give way, at least the ceremonial part of it, at
the coining of the Messiah. For a complete system of
Judaism, it is only necessary to refer to the books of
Moses. Judaism was anciently divided into several sects,
the principal of which were the Pharisees, Sadducees, and
Essenians. At present there are but two sects amongst
the Jews, viz. the Caraites, who admit of no rule of reli¬
gion but the law written by Moses ; and the Rabbinists,
who add to the law the traditions of the Talmud.
JUDAS Maccabeus, a celebrated general of the Jews,
renowned for the many victories which he gained over
his enemies, was at last slain in battle, 261 before Christ.
See Jews.
JUDE, St, brother of St James the younger, and son
of Joseph (Mat. xiii. 55). He preached in Mesopotamia,
Arabia, Syria, Idumea, and died in Berytus for the pro¬
fession of the faith of Christ. He wrote the epistle which
goes under his name, and which was composed after the
death of most of the apostles. He was cruelly put to
death for reproving the superstition of the Magi.
Jude, or the General Epistle of Jude, a canonical book
of the New Testament, written against the heretics, who,
by their disorderly lives and impious doctrines, corrupted
the faith and morals of the Christians. St Jude draws
them in lively colours, as men given up to their passions,
full of vanity, and conducting themselves by worldly wis¬
dom, and not by the spirit of God.
JUDEA, or JudjEA, in Ancient Geography, taken large¬
ly, denotes either all Palestine, or the greater part of it,
and thus it is generally employed in the Roman history;
Ptolemy, Rutilinus, Jerome, Origen, and Eusebius, using
the word to signify the whole of Palestine. Plere we con¬
sider it as denoting the third part of the country on this
side of the Jordan, the southern part being distinct from
Samaria and Galilee ; and under such restriction it is often
employed, not only in Josephus, but also in the New Tes¬
tament. It contained four tribes, Judah, Benjamin, Dan,
and Simeon, together with Philistia and Idumea ; and
hence it was included between Samaria on the north,
Arabia Petraea on the south, the Mediterranean on the
west, and the Lake Asphaltites, with part of Jordan, on
the east. Josephus divides it into eleven toparchies, and
Pliny into ten ; so that, according to both, it had a greater
extent than that which is just mentioned. See Palestine.
JUDENBURG, a circle of the Austrian province of
Steyermark, extending over 2312 square miles, and con¬
taining five cities with their suburbs, fourteen market-
towns, and 387 villages, with 16,624 houses, and 87,388
inhabitants. The chief place, which gives its name to the
circle, is situated on the river Mur, in the most fertile
part of the province. It contains three churches, and
1684 inhabitants, living in 260 houses. Long. 14. 35. 25.
E. Lat. 47. 23. 29. N.
JUDEX, Matthew, one of the principal writers of the
Centuries of Madgeburg, was born at Tippleswolde in
Misnia in 1528. He taught theology with great reputa¬
tion ; but, owing to party feuds, met with many annoy¬
ances in the exercise of Ids ministry. He wrote several
works, and died in 1564.
JUDGE, a chief magistrate of the law, appointed to
hear causes, to explain the laws, and to pronounce sen¬
tence.
Judges, in Jewish antiquity, certain supreme magis¬
trates who governed the Israelites from the time of Joshua
till the reign of Saul. These judges resembled the Athe-
vol. xn.
nian archons and the Roman dictators. The dignity of Judges
judge was for life, but not always in uninterrupted succes- II
sion. God himself, by an express declaration of his will, U( Sment'
regularly appointed the judges. The Israelites, however,
did not always wait for his appointment, but sometimes
chose for themselves a judge in times of danger. The
power of the judges extended to affairs of peace and war.
They were protectors of the law, defenders of religion,
and avengers of all crimes ; but they could make no laws,
nor impose any new burdens upon the people. They lived
without pomp or retinue, unless their own fortunes en¬
abled them to do so; for the revenues of their office con¬
sisted in voluntary presents from the people. They con¬
tinued from the death of Joshua till the beginning of the
reign of Saul, being a space of about 339 years.
Judges, in ordinary affairs, civil and religious, were ap¬
pointed by Moses in every city, to terminate differences;
but in affairs of greater consequence, the differences were
referred to the priests of Aaron’s family, and the judge of
the people or prince at that time established. Moses
likewise established two courts in all the cities; one con¬
sisting of priests and Levites, to determine points con¬
cerning the law and religion ; the other consisting of
heads of families, to decide in civil matters.
Booh of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Testa¬
ment, so Called from its relating to the state of the Israel¬
ites under the administration of those illustrious persons
who were called judges, from being both the civil and
military governors of the people, and who were raised up
by God upon special occasions after the death of Joshua
till the time of their making a king. In the time of this
peculiar polity, there were several remarkable occurren¬
ces, which are recorded in this book. It acquaints us
with the gross impiety of a new generation which sprung
up after the death of Joshua ; and it gives us a short
view of the dispensations of heaven towards this people,
sometimes relieving and delivering them, and at others
severely chastising them by the hands of their enemies.
Select Judges ( Judices selecti), in Antiquity, were per¬
sons summoned by the praetor to give their verdict in
criminal matters in the Roman courts, as juries do in
ours. No person could be regularly admitted into this
number till he was twenty-five years of age. The Sorti-
tio Judicwn, or impannelling of the jury, was the office of
the Jadex\ Questionis, and was performed after both par¬
ties had come into court, each having a right to reject or
challenge whomsoever he pleased. The number of the
Judices selecti varied, according to the nature of the
charge. When the proper number appeared, they were
sworn, took their places in the subsellia, and heard the
trial.
JUDGMENT, amongst logicians, is a faculty or rather
an act of the human soul, by which it compares its ideas,
and perceives their agreement or disagreement. See
Metaphysics and Logic.
Judgment, in Law, is the sentence pronounced by
the court upon the matter contained in the record. In
the law of England, judgments are of four sorts ; first,
where the facts are confessed by the parties, and the law
determined by the court, as in the case of judgment
upon demurrer; secondly, where the law is admitted
by the parties, and the facts disputed, as in the case of
judgment upon verdict; thirdly, where both the fact and
the law arising thereon are admitted by the defendant,
which is the case of judgments by confession or default;
or, lastly, where the plaintiff is convinced that either fact
or law, or both, are insufficient to support his action, and
therefore abandons or withdraws his prosecution, which
is the case in judgments upon a nonsuit or retraxit.
Judgment, in criminal cases, is the next stage of pro¬
secution, after trial and conviction, in such crimes and
4 ic
626 J IT I)
Judicature misdemeanours as are either too high or too low to be
II included within the benefit of clergy. For when, upon
^UDei*Um 3 caP*ta^ c^arge> ^le jurJ have brought in their verdict
v_)_ guilty in the presence of the prisoner, he is either imme¬
diately, or at a convenient time soon afterwards, asked
by the court, if he has any thing to offer why judgment
should not be awarded against him ? And in case the
defendant be found guilty of a misdemeanour (tbe trial
of which may, and does usually, happen in his absence,
after he has once appeared), a capias is awarded and is¬
sued, to bring him up to receive his judgment; and if he
absconds, he may be prosecuted even to outlawry. But
whenever he appears in person, upon either a capital or
inferior conviction, he may at this period, as well as at his
arraignment, offer any exceptions to the indictment, in
arrest or stay of judgment; as for want of sufficient cer¬
tainty in setting forth either the person, the time, the
place, or the offence. And if the objections be valid, the
whole proceedings are set aside ; but the party may be in¬
dicted again.
A pardon also may be pleaded in arrest of judgment;
and it has the same advantage when pleaded here as when
pleaded upon arraignment, namely, saving the attainder,
and, of course, the corruption of blood ; which nothing
can restore but parliament, when a pardon is not plead¬
ed till after sentence. Praying the benefit of clergy may
also be ranked amongst the motions in arrest of judgment.
If all these resources fail, the court must proceed to
pronounce that judgment which the law has annexed to
the crime. Of these some are capital, which extend to
the life of the offender, and consist generally in being
hanged by the neck till dead; though in very atrocious
crimes other circumstances of terror, pain, or disgrace,
are superadded. Some punishments consist in exile or
banishment, by abjuration of the realm, or transportation
beyond the seas; others, in loss of liberty, by perpetual
or temporary imprisonment. Some extend to confisca¬
tion, by forfeiture of lands or moveables, or both, or of the
profits of lands for life ; others induce a disability of
holding offices or employments, of being heirs, executors,
and the like. Some, though rarely, occasion a mutilation
or dismembering, by cutting off the hand or ears ; others
fix a lasting stigma on the offender, by slitting the nos¬
trils or branding in the hand or face. Some are merely
pecuniary, by stated or discretionary fines ; and there
are others which consist principally in the ignominy,
though most of them are mixed with some degree of cor¬
poral pain.
JUDICATURE, the quality or profession of those who
administer justice.
Judicature is also used to signify the extent of the
jurisdiction of the judge, and the court in which he sits
to render justice.
JUDICIA Centum vi kali a, in Roman antiquity, were
trials before the Centumviri, to whom the praetor commit¬
ted the decision of certain matters of inferior nature, like
our justices of the peace at the quarter-sessions. During
the judicia centumviralia, a spear was stuck up in the fo¬
rum, to signify that the court was sitting.
JUDICIUM CALUMNiiE was an action brought
against the plaintiff for false accusation. The punish¬
ment, upon conviction, was inustio frontis, or branding in
the forehead. °
Judicium Dei, Judgment of God, was a term anciently
applied to all extraordinary trials of secret crimes, as those
by arms and single combat, and the ordeals, or those
by fire or red-hot ploughshares, by plunging the arm in
boiling water, or the whole body in cold water, in hopes
that God would work a miracle rather than suffi;r truth and
innocence to perish. These customs were a long time
kept up even amongst Christians; and they are still in
JUG
use amongst some nations. Trials of this sort were usually Judi^
held in churches in presence of the bishops, priests, and Pariui
secular judges, after three days’ fasting, confession, and ||
communion, with many adjurations and ceremonies, which Jugge|
are described at large by Du Cange. ,la'f
Judicium Panum denotes a trial by a man’s equals,
that is, of peers by peers, and of commoners by commons.
In Magna Charta it is more than once insisted on as the
principal bulwark of our liberties, that no freeman shall
be hurt either in his person or in property, nisi per legale
judicium parium suorum velper legem terree. And this was
esteemed in all countries a privilege of the highest and
most beneficial nature.
Judicium Falsi was an action which lay against the
judges for corruption or unjust proceedings.
Judicium Prcevaricationis was an action brought
against the prosecutor, after the criminal was acquitted,
for suppressing the evidence of, or extenuating, his guilt,
rather than urging it home, and bringing it to light.
JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a square of 120 Ro¬
man feet, being to the English acre as 10-000 to 16-097.
JUGGERNATH, properly Jagatnatha, the Lord of
the World, a celebrated temple and place of Hindu worship,
on the sea-coast of Orissa, and district of Cuttack, near to
the town of Pursolem, esteemed the most sacred of all the
Hindu religious establishments. It is situated a few miles
to the north-east of the Chilka Lake, close to the sea-shore,
and, when seen from a distance, is a shapeless mass of
building, but forms an excellent landmark for navigators
in approaching so low a coast. It is surrounded by se¬
veral courts or inclosures, into the interior of which no
European is admitted; and at the gate of the outward
wall are two large statues of singhs, an imaginary or fa¬
bulous animal, nearly as large as an elephant. Jugger-
nath is said to be one of the incarnations of Vishnu ; but
the original dedication of the temple is involved in fable.
It is known to have existed for above 800 years, and is
mentioned as a celebrated place of Hindu worship by the
oldest Mahommedan historians of India. The idol itself
is a huge disgusting image of the human form, made of
wood, with a frightful black visage, and a distended mouth
foaming w-ith blood. On each side of him is another image,
one part of which is painted white, and the other yellow;
the first is said to be the image of his sister Shubudra,
the other that of his brother Balaram. The throne of the
idol is placed on a stupendous car or moveable tower, about
sixty feet high, resting on wheels, which, from the weight,
indent the ground deeply as they move along ; and it is
then that, in the fanatical madness of his bloody supersti¬
tion, devotees throw themselves under the wheels and
are crushed to death. The tower is drawn along by the
people by means of ropes, amidst the shouts of the igno¬
rant multitude; and upon the car are the priests and at¬
tendants. Hie concourse of Hindu pilgrims to this
shrine is immense ; the aged come to die at Juggernath;
and so numerous are these pilgrims, that the approach to
it is known at the distance of fifty miles by the quantity
of human bones strewed on the way. The impurity of
the Hindu idolatry is strongly indicated by the indecent
sculptures that cover the walls of the temple and the sides
of the machine.
The resort of Hindu pilgrims to Juggernath is the
source of a considerable revenue ; and the British, by the
conquest of the province of Cuttack from the Mahrattas
in 1803, have succeeded to all their rights as sovereigns,
and consequently to the right of collecting this tax on the
superstition of the inhabitants. The superintendence of
the temple and of its interior economy was conferred on
the rajah of Khoordah. The sum realized by the com¬
pany from this singular source of revenue is very trifling,
not exceeding 11,000 or 12,000 rupees. The tax amounts
J U G
gglers to from ten to two rupees, according to the different
8 classes of pilgrims, who are allowed access to the temple
u!ares from thirty to four days. The devotees of low caste are,
however, obliged to perform all their ceremonies on the
outside of the temple. A great number of pilgrims,
including all devotees and religious persons, are admit¬
ted gratuitously to the temple. Merchants and traders
have access to the town of Parsottom, which is adjacent
to the idol ; but they have no access to the temple except
by permission. One of the chief periods of pilgrimage is
in March, when the Dole Jattrah takes place; and the other
in July, when the Ruth Jattrah is celebrated. The tra¬
velling distance from Calcutta it 311 miles, from Benares
512. from Madras 719, from Delhi 910, and from Bombay
1052 miles. Long. 86. 5. E. Lat. 19. 49. N.
JUGGLERS, a kind of people whose profession, name¬
ly, to perform slight-of-hand tricks, has not often been
deemed either respectable or useful. Yet Professor Beck¬
mann, in the third volume of his History of Inventions, de¬
fends them, and pleads ably the cause of the practitioners
of legerdemain, including rope-dancers, and such as ex¬
hibit feats of uncommon strength. He places all these
under the general denomination of jugglers ; and taking
it for granted that every useful employment is full, he
contends, strangely enough, that there would not be room
on the earth for all its present inhabitants, did not some
of them practise the art of juggling.
These arts, he observes, are not unprofitable, for they
afford a comfortable subsistence to those who practise
them, which they usually spend upon the spot; and this he
considers as a good reason why their sojourning in a place
ought to be encouraged. Lie is also of opinion, that if
the arts of juggling served no other end than to amuse the
most ignorant of our citizens, it is proper that they should
be encouraged, for the sake of those who cannot enjoy
the more expensive deceptions of an opera. Thej^ convey
instruction in the most acceptable manner, and serve as
an antidote to superstition. We scarcely think, how¬
ever, that it is innocent to entice the labouring poor, by
useless deceptions, to part with their hard-earned pittance
to idle vagabonds, whose life cannot be comfortable, being
passed amidst scenes of the most grovelling dissipation.
Juggling is certainly of very great antiquity. The de¬
ception of breathing out flames was practised by some of
the slaves in Sicily about 150 years before the commence¬
ment of the Christian era. It is, however, practised in
modern times with much greater dexterity. The ancients
made use of naphtha, a liquid mineral oil, which kindles
when it only approaches a flame. According to Plutarch,
Alexander the Great was astonished and delighted with
the secret effects of naphtha, which were exhibited to him
at Ecbatana. Wonder has been excited in modern times
by persons walking over burning coals or red-hot iron ;
but this is easily done by rendering the skin of the
feet callous and insensible, so that the nerves under it
are secured from injury. We are told by Beckmann that
the Hirpi, who dwelt near Rome, jumped through burn¬
ing coals; that women were accustomed to walk over
burning coals at Castabala, near the temple dedicated to
Diana; that the exhibition of cups and balls is often men¬
tioned in the works of the ancients ; and that the various
feats of horsemanship exhibited in our circuses passed,
m the thirteenth century, from Egypt to the Byzantine
court, and thence over all Europe.
JUGLANS, the Walnut, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polyandria class, and in the natural method
ranking under the fiftieth order Amentacece. See Botany.
JUGULAR, amongst anatomists, is applied to certain
veins and glands of the neck. See Anatomy.
JUGULARES, in the Linnaean system, is the name
°f an order or division of fish, the general character of
JUG
which is, that the ventral fins are placed before the pec¬
toral. See Ichthyology.
JUGUM, an humiliating mode of punishment inflicted
by the victorious Romans upon their vanquished enemies,
t was done in this vyay : I hey set up two spears, and
laying a third across, in the form of a gallows, they ord*er-
ed those who had surrendered themselves to pass under
this ignominious erection, without arms or belts. None
suffered this disgrace of passing sub jugo except such as
had been obliged to surrender.
JUGURTHA, king of Numidia, was son of Mastana-
bal and a concubine; he was also grandson of Masinissa.
I he principal events of his life are included between 134
and 106 b. c. He was educated, along with his cousins Ad-
hcrbal and Hiempsal, the sons of his uncle Micipsa, and
began at an early period to exhibit such strong symptoms
of ambition, that Micipsa felt much uneasiness respecting
the succession of his sons to the throne. WTith a view,
therefore, of getting rid of Jugurtha, when the Romans
sent for auxiliaries in their w'ar against Numantia, b. c.
134, Jugurtha was despatched at the head of a body of
troops, and it was hoped that he might fall in some en¬
gagement with the enemy. Ihe event did not correspond
with his expectation ; for he returned to Ivlicipsa with
letters from Scipio, who commanded the Roman troops,
full of the most flattering expressions. When Micipsa
found his end approaching, he saw it necessary to change
his policy in respect to Jugurtha; and, hoping that gra¬
titude might prevent him from gratifying his ambitious
views, he named him joint heir with his two sons Adher-
bal and Hiempsal. But the third part of the kingdom did
not satisfy Jugurtha, who began immediately to take mea¬
sures for getting rid of his cousins. Hiempsal was mur¬
dered, and Adherbal only saved his life by a timely flight,
b. c. 112. The fugitive prince had recourse to Rome,
where the venality of the nobility had become proverbial,
and made application to the senate. The bribes of Ju¬
gurtha prevented an adverse decision, and commissioners
were appointed to divide the kingdom equally between
the two princes. 1 he most fertile and populous part of
Numidia was given to Jugurtha, who, finding all his
schemes succeed, began without delay to make war on
his cousin. Having shut him up in the town of Cirta,
Jugurtha induced him to surrender upon promise of his
life, but, in contempt of all the laws of honour, put him
to death. This atrocious proceeding roused the indig¬
nation of the people of Rome, and the senate could no
longer withstand the popular feeling. War was declar¬
ed, and carried on with vigour (b. c. Ill), till the Numi-
dian prince succeeded in bribing the generals sent against
him. Peace was at last granted to him upon very advan¬
tageous conditions, and he had even the boldness to come
to Rome, where he caused Massiva to be murdered,
whose claims to his kingdom began to give him uneasiness.
Nothing could now save him from the indignation of
Rome, and he was ordered immediately to quit Italy. It
was on leaving Rome that he is said to have frequently
looked back on it, and to have exclaimed, “ Urbs venalis
et mature peritura si emptorem inveniet.” The war be¬
gan b. c. 110, but with little success to the Romans.
Jugurtha defeated Aldus, who had been sent against him,
and made his troops pass under the yoke. Metellus was
next despatched to Africa, who, not allowing himself to
be gained either by the promises or bribes of Jugurtha,
soon reduced him to great difficulties. He took many
of his chief cities, b. c. 109, and compelled Jugurtha to
apply for assistance to the Gaetulians and Moors. Ma¬
rius followed up the war with still greater vigour, till
Jugurtha was obliged at last to fly to Bocchus, who de¬
livered him up to Sylla, then quaestor of Marius, b. c. 106.
He was carried to Rome, where he was led in triumph
027
Jugum
II
Jugurtha.
028 J U L
Juice, by Marius, and afterwards perished in prison. His life
v—has been written by Sallust, and some facts may be
found in Plutarch’s Life of Marius (c. 3), and Sylla (c. 10),
and Diodorus Siculus, Fragm. tom. x. p. 141.
JUICE denotes the sap of vegetables, or the liquors of
animals.
The juices of several plants are expressed to obtain
their essential salts, and for several medicinal purposes,
with intention either to be used without further prepara¬
tion, or to be made into syrups and extracts. The gene¬
ral method of extracting these juices is, by pounding the
plant in a marble mortar, and then by putting it into a
press. In this way is obtained a muddy and green liquor,
which generally requires to be clarified. The juices of
all plants are not extracted with equal ease. Some
plants, even when fresh, contain so little juice, that wa¬
ter must be added whilst they are pounded, otherwise
scarcely any juice could be obtained by expression. Other
plants, which contain a considerable quantity of juice,
furnish by expression but a small quantity of it, because
they contain also much mucilage, which renders the juice
so viscid that it cannot flow. Water must also be added
to these plants to obtain their juice. The juices thus ob¬
tained from vegetables by a mechanical method are not,
properly speaking, one of their principles, but rather a
collection of all the proximate principles of plants which
are soluble in water; such is the saponaceous extractive
matter, the mucilage, the odoriferous principle, and the
saline and saccharine substances; all of which are dis¬
solved in the water of the vegetation of the plants. Besides
these matters, the juice contains some part of the resin¬
ous substance, and the green colouring matter, which in
almost all vegetables is of a resinous nature. These two
latter substances not being soluble in water, are only in¬
terposed between the parts of the other principles which
are dissolved in the juice, and consequently disturb its
transparency. They nevertheless adhere together in a
certain degree, and so strongly in most juices, that they
cannot be separated by filtration alone. When therefore
these juices are to be clarified, some previous preparations
must be used by which the filtration may be facilitated.
Juices which are acid, and not very mucilaginous, are
spontaneously clarified by rest and gentle heat. The
juices of most antiscorbutic plants abounding in saline vo¬
latile principles, may be disposed to filtration merely by
immersion in boiling water; and as they may be contain¬
ed in close bottles, whilst they are thus heated in a water
bath, their saline volatile part, in which their medicinal
qualities chiefly consist, may thus be preserved. Fermen¬
tation is also an effectual method of clarifying juices which
are susceptible of it; for all liquors which have ferment¬
ed clarify spontaneously after fermentation. But this me¬
thod is not used to clarify juices, because many of them
are susceptible of only an imperfect fermentation, and be¬
cause the qualities of most of them are injured by that pro¬
cess. The method of clarification most generally used,
and indispensably necessary for those juices which contain
much mucilage, is boiling with the white of an egg. This
matter, which has the property of coagulating in boiling
water, and of uniting with mucilage, does accordingly,
when added to the juice of plants, unite with and coagu¬
late their mucilage, and separates it from the juice in form
of scum, together with the greatest part of the resinous
and earthy matters which disturb its transparency. And
as any of these resinous matters which may remain in the
liquor, after this boiling with the whites of eggs, are no
longer retained by the mucilage, they may be easily sepa¬
rated by filtration.
The juices, especially before they are clarified, contain
almost all the same principles as the plant itself; because,
in the operation by which they are extracted, no decom-
J U I
position happens, but every thing remains, as to its nature, ju|ce
in the same state as in the plant. The principles contain-
ed in the juice are only separated from the grosser oily,
earthy, and resinous parts, which compose the solid mat¬
ter that remains under the press. These juices, when well
prepared, have therefore the same medicinal qualities as
the plants from which they are obtained. They must evi¬
dently differ from each other as to the nature and propor¬
tions of the principles with which they are impregnated,
as much as the plants from which they are extracted dif¬
fer from each other in those respects.
Most vegetable juices coagulate when they are exposed
to the air, whether they are drawn out of the plant by
wounds, or naturally run out; though what is called na¬
turally running out is generally the effect of a wound in
the plant, from a sort of canker, or some other internal
cause. Different parts of the same plant yield different
juices. The same veins, in their course through the dif¬
ferent parts of the plant, yield juices of a different appear¬
ance. Thus the juice in the root of the cow-parsnip is of
a brimstone colour, but in the stalk it is white.
Amongst those juices of vegetables which are clammy
and readily coagulate, there are some which readily break
with a whey. The great wild lettuce, with the smell of
opium, yields the greatest plenty of milky juice of any
known British plant. When the stalk is wounded with a
knife, the juice flows out readily like a thick cream, and
is white and ropy; but if these wounds are made at the
top of the stalks, the juice that flows out of them is dashed
with a purple tinge, as if cream had been sprinkled over
with a few drops of red wine. Some little time after let¬
ting this out, it becomes much more purple, and thickens;
and finally, the thicker part of it separates, and the thin
whey swims at the top. The whey or thin part of this sepa¬
rated matter is easily pressed out from the curd by squeez¬
ing between the fingers, and the curd will then remain
white ; and on washing with water it becomes like rags.
The purple whey (for in this is contained all the colour)
soon dries into a purple cake, and may be crumbled be¬
tween the fingers into a powder of the same colour. The
white curd being dried and kept for some time, becomes
hard and brittle. It breaks with a shining surface like
resin, and is inflammable, taking fire at a candle, and burn¬
ing all away with a strong flame. The same thick part
being held over a gentle heat, will draw out into tough, long
threads, melting like wax. The purple cake made from
the whey is quite different from this; and when held to a
candle scarce flames at all, but burns to a black coal. The
whole virtue of the plant seems also to consist in this thin
part of its juice ; for the coagulum or curd, though look¬
ing like wax or resin, has no taste at all ; whereas the
purple cake made from the serum is extremely bitter, and
of a taste somewhat resembling that of opium.
Of the same kind with the wild lettuce are the throat-
wort, spurge, and many other plants. These are all re¬
plete with a milky juice which separates into curds and
whey like that already described. But this, though a
common law of nature, is not universal; for there are
many plants which yield the like milky juices without any
separation ensuing upon their extravasation. The white
juice of the sonchus never separates, but dries into an uni¬
form cake ; the common i-ed wild poppy bleeds freely with a
milky juice ; and the heads or capsules of seed bleed not
less freely than the rest of the plant, even after the flower
is fallen. The juice, on being received into a shell or
other small vessel, soon changes its white to a deep yellow
colour, and dries into a cake which seems resinous and
oily, but no whey separates from it. The tragopogon, or
goat’s beard, wrhen wounded, exudes freely a milky juice;
it is at first white, but becomes immediately yellow, and
then more and more red, till at length it is wholly of a
J U I
lice, dusky red. It never separates, but dries together into
one cake ; and is oily and resinous, but of an insipid taste.
The great bindweed also exudes freely a white juice ; the
flowers, as well as the stalks and leaves, affording this
liquor. It is of a sharp taste ; and, as many of the purg¬
ing plants are of this class, it would be worth trying whether
this milk is not purgative.
These juices, as well as the generality of others which
bleed from plants, are white like milk ; but there are some
of other colours. The juice of the great celandine is of a
fine yellow colour; it flows from the plant of the thick¬
ness of cream, and soon dries into a hard cake, without
any whey sepai'ating from it. Another yellow juice is
yielded by the seed-vessels of the yellow centaury in the
month of July, when the seeds are full grown. This is
very clammy ; it soon hardens altogether into a cake with¬
out any whey separating from it. It sticks to the fingers
like bird-lime, is of the colour of pale amber, and will never
become harder than soft wax if dried in the shade; but
if laid in the sun it immediately becomes hard like resin.
These cakes burn like wax, and emit a very pleasant
smell. The great angelica also yields a yellowish juice
on being wounded; and this will not harden at all, but if
kept several years will still be soft and clammy, drawing
out into threads or half-melted resin.
Other kinds of juices very different from all these are
those of a gummy nature. Some of these remain liquid
a long time, and are not to be dried without the assistance
of heat; and others very quickly harden of themselves,
and are not inflammable. The gum of the juice of rhu¬
barb leaves soon hardens, and is afterwards soluble in com¬
mon water, and sparkles when put into the flame of a candle.
The clusters of the common honeysuckle are full of a
liquid gum. This they frequently throw out, and it falls
upon the leaves, where it retains its own form. The red
hairs of the ros soils are all terminated by large bladders
of a thin, watery fluid. This is also a liquid gum ; it sticks
to the fingers, draws out into long threads, and stands the
force of the sun all day. In the centre of each of these
dew-drops there is a small red bladder, which stands im¬
mediately on the summit of the red hair, and contains a
purple juice which may be squeezed out of it. The pin-
guicula, or butterwort, has also a gummy matter on its
leaves, in much greater quantity than the ros soils.
Some plants yield juices which are manifestly of an oily
nature. These, when rubbed, are not at all of a clammy
nature, but make the fingers glib and slippery, and do not
at all harden on being exposed to the air. If the stalk
of elecampane be wounded, there flows out an oily juice
swimming upon a wate'ry one. The stalks of the hemlock
also afford a similar oily liquor swimming upon the other;
and in like manner the white mullein, the berries of ivy,
the bay, juniper, dogberry tree, and the fruit of the olive,
when wounded, show their oil floating on the watery juice.
Some of these oily juices, however, harden into a kind of
resin. Our ivy yields such a juice very abundantly ; and
the juice of the small purple-berried juniper is of the same
kind, being hard and fat, and not very gummy. If the
bark of the common ivy is wounded in March, there will
ooze out a tough and greasy matter of a yellowish colour,
which, taken up between the fingers, feels not at all gum¬
my or sticking, but melts in handling into a sort of oil,
which in process of time hardens and crusts upon the
wounds, and looks like brown sugar. It burns with a last¬
ing flame, and smells very strong. The tops of the wild
lettuce, and the leaves growing near the tops, if examin¬
ed with a magnifying glass, show a great number of small
bladders or drops of an oily juice of a brownish colour,
hardening into a kind of resin ; they are easily wiped off
when of any size, and are truly an oily juice a little har¬
dened. It is probable, also, that the fine blue flour or
J U L 629
powder called the bloom, upon the surface of our common Juist
plums, is no other than such an oily juice exudating from II
their pores in small particles, and hardening into a sort of Juhan-
resin.
JUIST, an island in the German Ocean, belonging to
the Hanoverian province of East Friesland. It has a Lu¬
theran church, and 280 inhabitants, who live by fishing,
and as mariners. Long. 6. 54. 53. E. Lat. 53. 41. 11. N.
JUJUBES, in the Materia Medica, the name of a fruit
of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Linnaeus con¬
siders as a species of rhamnus. See Rhamnus.
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in pec¬
toral decoctions; but they are now seldom used on these
occasions, and are scarcely at all heard of in prescription,
or to be met with except in our shops.
JUL, or Jol, a Gothic word, signifying a “ sumptuous
treat,” and particularly applied to a religious festival, first
amongst the heathens, and afterwards amongst the Chris¬
tians. By the latter it was given at Christmas, which is still
known under the name of lul, or Yool, in Denmark, Nor¬
way, Iceland, Sweden, and even in Scotland; and hence
the month of Januarius was by the Saxons styled Giuli, or
the “ Festival.” As this feast had originally been dedi¬
cated by our heathen ancestors to the sun, their supreme
deity, so the Christians, for the purpose of engaging the
minds of their Ethnic or gentile brethren, ordered that it
should be celebrated in memory of the birth of Christ; and
thus it has been through ages a feast of joy and entertain¬
ment. We are indebted to Procopius for the first account
of this feast.
JULAMERICK, a district in the east of Kurdistan,
bounded by Armenia on the north, and by the pachalic of
Bagdad on the south. It is a hilly country throughout,
producing in some places a quantity of corn, and in all abun¬
dance of pasturage. Its chief town bears the name of the
province, and there are, besides, numerous villages. It con¬
tains a thousand inhabitants, and is situated on the banks
of the Hakiar. It is defended by a citadel of stone, and is a
hundred and twenty miles east-south-east of Betlis.
JULEP, in Pharmacy, a medicine composed of some
proper liquor and a syrup or sugar, of extemporaneous pre¬
paration, without decoction.
JULIAN, the famous Roman emperor, styled the Apos¬
tate, because he professed the Christian religion before he
ascended the throne, and afterwards, having embraced pa¬
ganism, endeavoured to abolish Christianity. For this pur¬
pose, however, he made no use of violence. He knew that
such measures had always rendered it more flourishing, and
therefore behaved with a polite mildness to the Christians,
recalling all who had been banished on account of their reli¬
gion under the reign of Constantins. He undertook to per¬
vert them by his caresses, and by temporal advantages ox-
mortifications ; forbidding Christians to plead before courts
of justice, or to enjoy any public employments. He even
prohibited their teaching polite literature, well knowing the
great advantages which they drew from profane authors in
their attacks upon paganism and irteligion. Though he on
all occasions showed a sovereign contempt for the Christians,
whom he called Galileans, yet he was sensible of the advan¬
tage they obtained by their virtue and the pui-ity of their
manners ; and therefore he incessantly proposed their ex¬
ample to the pagan priests. At last, however, when he
found that all other methods failed, he gave public employ¬
ments to the most cruel enemies of the Christians, when
the cities in most of the provinces were filled with tumults
and seditions, and many of them were put to death. It has
been pleaded by Julian’s apologists, however, that the be¬
haviour of the Christians afforded sufficient excuse for
most of his proceedings against them; that the animosi¬
ties amongst themselves furnished him with the means ;
that they were continually prone to sedition, and made a
630
Julian
Period
II
Julius II.
J U L
J U N
merit of insulting the public worship ; and, finally, that they and Louis, in his turn, excommunicated the pontiff, who juii
made no scruple of declaring, that want of numbers alone died soon afterwards, in the year 1512. He built the fa- Vir
prevented them from engaging in open rebellion. Histo¬
rians mention, that Julian attempted to prove the falsehood
of our Lord’s prediction with respect to the temple of Je¬
rusalem ; and resolved to have that edifice rebuilt by the
Jews, about three centuries after its destruction by Titus;
but all their endeavours served only the more {perfectly to
verify what had been foretold by Jesus Christ; for when the
Jews, who had assembled from all parts to Jerusalem, were
diggingthefoundations, flamesoffireburstforth and consum¬
ed the workmen. However, the Jewrs, wLo were obstinate¬
ly bent on accomplishing that work, made several attempts;
but it is said that all who endeavoured to lay the founda¬
tion perished by these flames, which at last obliged them en¬
tirely to abandon the work. Julian having been mortally
mous church of St Peter at Rome, and was a patron of |
the polite arts. Juncti
Julius Vicus, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Wv
Nemetes, in Gallia Belgica, situated between the Tres Ta-
bernse and Noviomagus. It is now Gemersheim, a town
of the Lower Palatinate, on the west side of the Rhine
Long. 15. 8. E. Lat. 49. 12. N.
Julius Pollux. See Pollux.
JULY, the seventh month of the year, during which
the sun enters the sign Leo. The word is derived from
the Latin Julius, the surname of Caesar the dictator,
who was born in it. Mark Antony first gave this month
the name July, which before was called Quintilis, as be¬
ing the fifth month of the year in the old Roman calen-
wounded in a battle with the Persians, is said to have caught dar established by Romulus, which began in the month
in his hand some of the blood which flowed from his wound, of March. For the same reason, August was called Sex-
and throwing it towards heaven, to have cried, “ thou, Ga- tills; and September, October, November, and Decem-
lilean, hast conquered.” But notwithstanding this popular ber, still retain the names of their original rank. On the
report, Theodoret relates, that Julian discovered a differ- 19th day of this month the dog-days are commonly sup-
ent disposition ; and employed his last moments in convers- posed to commence, when, according to Hippocrates and
ing with Maximus the philosopher upon the dignity of the
soul. He died the following night, at the age of thirty-
two. For an account of his reign and exploits, see Con-
STANTINOPOLTTAN HlSTORY.
No prince -was ever more variously represented by dif¬
ferent authors, on which account it is difficult to form a
true estimate of his character. It must, however, be ac¬
knowledged, that he was learned, liberal, temperate, brave,
vigilant, and a lover of justice ; but, on the other hand, he
had apostatised to paganism ; he was a bitter enemy of the
Christian religion ; and he was also a persecutor, though
not of the most sanguinary class. There have been pre¬
served several of his discourses or orations ; some of his
letters ; a treatise entitled Misopogon, which is a satire on
the inhabitants of Antioch ; and some other pieces, all
written in an elegant style. They were published in Greek
and Latin by Father Petau in 1630, in 4to ; and Spanhei-
Pliny, the sea boils, wine turns sour, dogs go mad, the bile
is increased and irritated, and all animals decline and
languish. >
July-Flowers. See Dianthus, Botany.
JUMBASIER River, a town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gujerat, and district of Broach. It exports to
Bombay and other places, cotton, grain, oil, and piece-goods.
The tide rises from five to six fathoms. It is twenty-
eight miles from the town of Broach. Long. 72. 58. E.
Lat. 22. 5. N.
JUMNA. This celebrated river takes its rise in the
Himalaya Mountains, probably on the southern side, where
the Ganges has its rise, though its source has never been
accurately explored. It flows through the province of
Serinagur, in a southern direction, in a line nearly paral¬
lel to the Ganges, from which, at the village of Gurud-
war, in latitude 32. 22. north, it is only forty miles dis-
mius published a fine edition in 1690, in folio. His most tant, and is between 200 and 300 yards broad, after emer-
celebrated work was that composed against the Christians, ging from the mountains. The Jumna enters Hindustan
of which some fragments are contained in Cyril’s refuta¬
tion.
Julian Period, in Chronology, a period so called, as
being adapted to the Julian year. See Chronology.
in the province of Delhi, and directs its course, at the dis¬
tance of sixty or seventy miles, in a parallel line to that of
the Ganges, until, after passing the cities of Delhi and
Agra, it falls into the Ganges at Allahabad, in which, as
the holier and rather the larger stream, its name is ab¬
sorbed. The length of the stream, including its wind¬
ings, is estimated at 780 miles. The Jumna is only use¬
ful as a military barrier to the British territories during
the rainy season, when all field operations are impractica¬
ble. At this period it may be navigated by flat-bottom¬
ed boats of considerable burden ; but at other times it is
of no utility to commerce. Above its junction with the
Chumbul, or ten miles below the fort of Etayeh, it is ford¬
able, except for a few weeks during the rainy season.
From Calpee to its junction with the Ganges there is no
obstruction, and only one place where, in the dry sea¬
son, the passage is rendered difficult by a bank of lime-
Julius II. a pope, remarkable for his warlike disposi- stone. It is mentioned by Bishop Heber that its waters
tion, and his political negotiations. By the latter, he in- act on strangers like the Cheltenham waters,
duced the principal powers of Europe to unite with him JUNAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
against theiepublic ot Venice, in the confederacy called Gujerat, possessed by an independent native chief, now
the league of Cambray, signed in 1508. Ihe Venetians one of the British allies. He and other chiefs engaged,
having purchased peace by the cession of part of Roma- in 1808, with the Bombay government, not to connive at
nia, Julius tinned his arms against Louis XII. king of piracy, and to permit a free and open commerce with the
Fiance, and appeared in person, armed cap-a-pied, at the British vessels, on paying the stipulated duties,
siege of Mirandola, which place he. took by assault in JUNCI Lapidei, the name given by old authors to a
1511. But proceeding to excommunicate Louis, the king species of coral of the tubularia kind, and composed of a
wisely turned his ow n weapons against him, by calling a congeries of small tubules. See Helminthology.
geneial council at Pisa, ihe pope having refused to ap- JUNCTURE, a joining or closing of two bodies. See
pear, was declared to be suspended from the holy see ; Joint.
Julian, St, a town of the arrondissement of Joigny, in
the department of the Yonne, in France. It contains
2340 inhabitants, who carry on considerable trade in wine,
and manufacture woollen cloths.
JULIERS, a fortified city of Prussia, the capital of a
circle of the same name, in the province of Aachen or
Aix-la-Chapelle. It stands on the river Roer, the wa¬
ter of which fills the ditches that surround the walls. The
citadel is a very strong frontier defence. It contains 460
houses, and 3290 inhabitants. The trade is inconsidera¬
ble. Long. 6. 25. E. Lat. 50. 55. N.
JULIO Romano. See Romano.
JULIUS CjEsar. See C^isar.
J U N
j. Hire Juncture, in Oratory, is a part of composition parti-
|| cularly recommended by Quintilian, and denotes such an
attention to the nature of the vowels and consonants, in
1 ^ the connection of words, with reference to their sound,
as will render their pronunciation most easy and pleasant,
and best promote the harmony of the sentence. Thus the
coalition of two vowels, occasioning a hollow and obscure
sound, and likewise of some consonants, rendering it harsh
and rough, should be avoided ; nor ought the same sylla¬
ble to be repeated at the beginning and end of words,
because thereby the sound becomes harsh and unpleasant.
The first verse in Virgil’s yEneid is an example of junc¬
ture.
JUNCUS, the Rush, a genus of plants belonging to
the hexandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the fifth order, Tripetaloidcos. See Botany.
JUNE, the sixth month of the year, during which the
sun enters the sign of Cancer. The word comes from
the Latin Junius, which some derive a Junone ; and hence
Ovid, in the sixth of his Fasti, makes the goddess say,
Junius a nostro nomine nomen habet.
Others rather derive it a junioribus, this being for young
people what the month of May was for old ones. In
this month is the summer solstice.
JUNGERPOOR, a town of Hindustan, possessed by
native chiefs, situated in the province of Gujerat, ninety
miles north-east from Ahmedabad. These chiefs are oc¬
casionally tributary to the Mahrattas. Long. 73. 38. E.
Lat. 23. 49. N.
JUNGEYPOOR, a town of Bengal, district of Ran-
’eshy, • situated on the eastern bank of the Bhagerutty
River. It is the principal silk station of the East India
Company. This establishment was erected in 1773, and
in 1803 about 3000 persons were employed. The method
employed in spinning the silk is the same as that em¬
ployed in Italy, which was introduced as early as in 1762,
by some natives ofltaly sent over for that purpose by the
Company. The worms are bred all over the country, un¬
der the care of women and children. The soil is favour¬
able to the growth of the mulberry. The inhabitants are
obliged to sell the choice cocoons to the Company’s agent.
The employment has no deleterious effects, although the
smell is excessively disagreeable. It is seventeen miles
north by west from Moorshedabad. Long. 88. 13. E.
Lat. 24. 28. N.
JUNGLEBARRY, a town in the province of Bengal,
district of Mymansingh, sixty miles north-east from Dac¬
ca. Long. 90. 42. E. Lat. 24. 27. N.
JUNIUS, Adrian, one of the most learned men of the
age in which he lived, was born at Hoorn, in Holland, in
the year 1511. He travelled into all parts of Europe,
and practised physic with reputation in England, where,
amongst other works, he composed a Greek and Latin
lexicon, to which he added considerably above six thou¬
sand words; an Epithalamium on the marriage of Queen
Mary with King Philip of Spain and Animadversa et de
Como Commentarius, which is the most applauded of all
his works. He died in 1575.
Junius, Francis, professor of divinity at Leyden, was
born at Bourges in 1545, and studied some time at Lyons.
Bartholomew Aneau, who was principal of the college in
that city, gave him excellent instructions as to the right
method of prosecuting his studies. He was employed in
public affairs by Henry IV., and at last invited to Leyden
to be professor of divinity ; an employment which he dis¬
charged with honour, till he was snatched away by the
plague in 1602. Du Pin says he was a learned and ju¬
dicious critic. He wrote, in conjunction with Emmanuel
Tremellius, a Latin version of the Hebrew text of the
Bible; and he also published Commentaries on the greater
J U N 631
part of the Holy Scriptures, besides many other works, Junius
all in Latin. jj
Junius, Francis, or Francis du Jon, the son of the pre- Lmksey-
ceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1589. He at first de-
signed to devote himself to a military life ; but after the
truce concluded in 1609, he applied himself entirely to
study. He came to England in 1620, and lived thirty
years in the Earl of Arundel’s family. He was greatly
esteemed, not only for his profound erudition, but also for
the purity of his manners; and he was so passionately
fond of the study of the northern languages, that being
informed there were some villages in Friesland where the
ancient language of the Saxons was preserved, he went
and lived two years in that country. He returned to
England in 1675; and, after spending a year at Oxford,
retired to Windsor, in order to visit Vossius, at whose
house he died in the year 1677. The university of Oxford,
to which he bequeathed his manuscripts, erected a very
handsome monument to his memory. He wrote, 1. De
Pictura Veterum, which is admired by the learned, the
best edition being that of Rotterdam in 1694 ; 2. An Ex¬
plication of the old Gothic manuscript called the Silver
Manuscript, because the four gospels are there written
in silver Gothic letters, published with notes by Thomas
JVlareschal or Marshal; 3. A large commentary on the
Harmony of the four Gospels by Tatian, which is still in
manuscript; 4. A Glossary in five languages, in which he
explains the origin of the northern languages, published
at Oxford in 1745, in folio.
JUNK, in nautical language, a name given to any rem¬
nant or piece of old cable, which is usually cut into
small portions, for the purpose of making points, mats,
gaskets, sennit, and the like.
JUNKSEYLON, a considerable island on the western
coast of the Malay peninsula, and situated at the south¬
east extremity of the Bay of Bengal. It is divided from
the continent by a narrow isthmus of sand about a mile
in length and half a mile in breadth, which is covered
only at high water, the tide rising in the springs about
ten feet. The island is about forty miles in length by
fifteen in breadth, and has several small islands near it
from one to six miles in circumference. There is another
island sixteen miles east, named Pulo Pinjang, or Long
Island, being twenty-three miles in length by eight in
breadth, and divided from the main by a strait having two
fathoms of water in the narrowest part. On the north
side of the island is an excellent harbour, called Popra,
which may be entered over a mud bar, during the spring-
tides, by ships drawing twenty feet water. The anchor¬
age round the island is generally good, with a mud bot¬
tom. A considerable trade was formerly carried on here,
previously to the establishment of Prince of Wales’ Island,
in the Buggess prows, who resorted to Junkseylori in
great numbers, and brought various mixed cargoes to sell
for tin. It is still occasionally visited by country ships
from Calcutta in their voyage eastward, which import
coarse cutlery, China-ware, iron in bars, looking-glasses,
opium, piece-goods, steel in faggots, tobacco, woollens,
&c. From Prince of Wales’ Island also are imported
opium and piece-goods, and in return tin, edible bird-
nests, which are found on the rocky coasts of the island,
biche-de-mer, and elephants’ teeth, are received. This
island is noted for the production of tin, which is rais¬
ed by the natives, and smelted by a Chinese, who farms
the privilege from government. In 1782, when it was
visited by numerous native traders, the mines yielded
an average of 500 tons per annum. All kinds of coin
are current, but the preference is given to Spanish dol¬
lars. Certain pieces of tin also circulate, which are shap¬
ed like the under half of a cone, and weigh about three
pounds. But as the population, owing to the unsettled
632 J U N
Junnere state of the country, has since decreased to about 6000
II , inhabitants, and the Siamese have mines closer to their
Junonalia. a very small supply is now derived from the island,
not exceeding 46,600 pounds a year. The miners dig
pits of from twelve to twenty feet deep ; but seldom ven¬
ture on a lateral shaft; and the ore is generally found
in round or oblong masses, with well-defined crystals, and
in quartz, or embedded in masses of halt-decomposed
granite.
Junkseylon enjoys a good climate. The heats are never
violent. The rains begin in July, and continue to No¬
vember, with frequent intermissions; after which fine
weather succeeds, accompanied by cold north-easterly
winds at night. There are no horses on the island, bul¬
locks and buffaloes being here used for labour. Persons
of consequence travel on elephants, which are brought
from Mergui. The island breeds wild hogs and deer, a
few tame goats, and poultry ; but no sheep, domestic dogs,
nor cats.
JUNNERE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Aurungabad, forty miles north-north-east from Poonah.
Long. 73. 51. E. Lat. 19. 3. N.
JUNOA, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Ba-
har, and district of Chuta Nagpoor, 183 miles north-west
from Calcutta. Long. 85. 43. E. Lat. 23. 23. N.
JUNO, in Pagan worship, was the sister and wife of
Jupiter, the goddess of kingdoms and riches, and was
styled the Queen of Heaven. She presided over marriage
and child-birth, and was represented as the daughter of
Saturn and Rhea. She married Jupiter, but was not the
most complaisant of wives ; for, according to Homer, that
god was sometimes obliged to make use of all his autho¬
rity to keep her in due subjection; and the same author
observes, that on her entering into a conspiracy against
him, he punished her by suspending her in the air with
two anvils fastened to her feet, and golden manacles on
her hands, whilst all the other deities looked on without
a possibility of helping her. However, her jealousy made
her frequently find opportunities of interrupting her hus¬
band in the course of his amours, and prompted her to
punish with unrelenting fury Europa, Semele, lo, Latona,
and tlie rest of his mistresses. Juno, as the queen of
heaven, preserved great state. Her usual attendants
were Terror and Boldness, Castor, Pollux, and fourteen
nymphs; but her most faithful follower was the beautiful
Iris, or the rainbow. Homer describes her as riding in
a chariot adorned with precious stones, the wheels of
which were of ebony, and which was drawn by horses
with reins of gold. But she is more commonly painted as
drawn by peacocks. She was represented in her temple
at Corinth seated upon a throne, with a crown on her head,
a pomegranate in one hand, and in the other a sceptre
with a cuckoo on its top. This statue was of gold and
ivory. Some mythologists suppose that Juno signifies the
air; and others, that she was the Egyptian Isis, who, be¬
ing represented under various figures, was by the Greeks
and Romans represented as so many distinct deities.
JUNONALIA, a festival observed by the Romans in
honour of Juno. It was instituted on account of certain
prodigies which happened in Italy, and was celebrated
by matrons. In the solemnity two white cow's were led
from the temple of Apollo into the city through the gate
called Carmentalis, and two images of Juno, made of cy¬
press, were borne in.procession. Then marched twenty-
seven girls, habited in long robes, singing a hymn to the
goddess ; next came the decemviri, crowned with laurel
in vestments edged with purple. This pompous compa¬
ny, proceeding through the Vicus Jugarius, performed a
dance in the great field of Rome; and thence they pro¬
ceeded through the Forum Boarium to the temple of Ju¬
no, where the victims were sacrificed by the decemviri,
J U P
and the cypress images were left standing. This festival Junto
is not mentioned in the Fasti of Ovid, but is fully describ- I
ed by Livy (lib. vii. dec. 3). The hymn used upon the JuPitei
occasion was composed by Livius the poet.
JUNTO, or Junta, in matters of government, denotes
a select council for taking cognizance of affairs of great
consequence, and requiring secrecy. In Spain and Portu¬
gal it signifies the same as convention, assembly, or board,
amongst us. Thus, we meet with the junta of the three
estates, of commerce, of tobacco, and the like.
JUPITER, the supreme god of the ancient Pagans.
The theologists, according to Cicero, reckoned three Ju-
piters, the first and second of whom were born in Arca¬
dia ; and of these two, the one sprang from JEther, and
the other from Ccelus. The third Jupiter was the son of
Saturn, and born in Crete, where they pretended to show
his sepulchre. Cicero in other places speaks of several
Jupiters, who reigned in different countries. The Jupi¬
ter by whom the poets and mythologists understand the
supreme god, was the son of Saturn, king of Crete. He
would have been devoured by his father as soon as born,
had not his mother Rhea substituted a stone instead of the
child, which Saturn immediately swallowed. Saturn took
this method to destroy all his male children, because it
had been foretold by Ccelus and Terra that one of his sons
would deprive him of his kingdom. Jupiter, being thus
saved from his father’s jaws, was brought up by the Cure-
tes in a den on Mount Ida. Virgil tells us that he was
fed by the bees; and, out of gratitude for this service, he
changed them from an iron io a golden colour. Some
say that his nurses were Amalthaea and Melissa, who gave
him goat’s milk and honey ; and others, that Amalthsea
was the name of the goat which nourished him, and which,
as a reward for her great services, was changed into a
constellation. According to others, he was fed by wild
pigeons, which brought him ambrosia from Oceanus ; and
by an eagle, which carried nectar in his beak from a steep
rock ; services for which he rewarded the former, by mak¬
ing them the foretellers of winter and summer; and the
latter, by giving him immortality, and making him his
thunderbearer. When grown up, he drove his father out
of heaven, and divided the empire of the world with his
brothers. For himself, he reserved heaven and earth;
Neptune had allotted to him the sea and waters; and
Pluto the infernal regions. The Titans undertook to de¬
stroy Jupiter, as he had done his father. These Titans were
giants, the sons of Titan and the Earth. They declared
war against Jupiter, and heaped mountains upon moun¬
tains in order to escalade heaven ; but their efforts were
unsuccessful, Jupiter overthrew them with his thunder,
and shut them up under the waters and mountains, from
which they were not able to escape. Jupiter had several
wives. The first of these, named Metis, he is said to have
destroyed in a most extraordinary manner. His second
was Themis ; the name of his third is not known; but his
fourth was the celebrated Juno, whom he deceived under
the form of a cuckoo, which, to shun the violence of a
storm, fled for shelter to her lap. He was the father of
the Muses and Graces, and had a prodigious number of
children by his mistresses. He metamorphosed himself
into a satyr to enjoy Antiope; into a bull, to carry off
Europa ; into a swan, to abuse Leda; into a shower of
gold, to corrupt Daniie ; and into several other forms to
gratify his passions. He had Bacchus by Semele, Diana
and Apollo by Latona, and was the father of Mercu¬
ry and the other gods. The heathens in general believ¬
ed that there was but one supreme God; but when
they considered this one great being as influencing the
affairs of the world, they gave him as many different
names; and hence proceeded their variety of nominal
gods. When he thundered or lightened, they called him
J U P
piter. Jupiter; when he calmed the sea, Neptune ; when he
guided their councils, Minerva; and when he gave them
strength in battle, Mars. In process of time they used
different representations of this Jupiter, and considered
them, vulgarly at least, as so many different persons.
They afterwards regarded each of them in different views;
thus, the Jupiter who showered down blessings %vas call¬
ed the Kind ; and the Jupiter who punished, the Terrible.
There was also one Jupiter for Europe, and another for
Africa. In Europe, there was one great Jupiter who was
the particular friend of the Athenians, and another who
was the special protector of the Romans ; nay, there was
scarcely a town or hamlet perhaps in Italy that had not
a Jupiter of its own ; but the Jupiter of Terracina, or Ju¬
piter Anxur, represented in medals as young and beard¬
less, with rays round his head, resembled Apollo more
than the great Jupiter of the Capitol. In this way Jupiter
at length had different temples and different characters al¬
most everywhere. At Carthage, he was called Ammon ;
in Egypt, Serapis ; at Athens, the Olympian Jupiter ; and
at Rome, the Capitoline Jupiter, who was the guardian
and benefactor of the Romans, and whom they called the
best and greatest, Jupiter optimus maximus. The figure
of this Jupiter was represented, in his chief temple on the
Capitoline Hill, as sitting on a curule chair, with the ful-
men or lightning in one hand, and a sceptre in the other.
Thisfulmen, in the figures of the old artists, was always
adapted to the character under which they required to
represent Jupiter. If his appearance was to be mild and
calm, they gave him the comic fulmen, or bundle of flames
wreathed close together, held down in his hand; when
punishing, he held up the same figure, with two trans¬
verse darts of lightning, sometimes with wings added to
each side of it to denote its swiftness (this was called by
the poets the three-forked bolt of Jove) ; and when he was
going to do some exemplary execution, they put in his
hand a handful of flames, all let loose in their utmost fury,
and sometimes filling both his hands with flames. The
superiority of Jupiter was principally manifested in that
air of majesty which the ancient artists endeavoured to ex¬
press in his countenance; particular attention being paid
to the head of hair, the eyebrows, and the beard. There
are, on ancient seals, several heads of the mild Jupiter;
where his face has a mixture of dignity and ease in it,
admirably described by Virgil (JEn. i. ver. 256). The
statues of the Terrible Jupiter were generally of black
marble, as those of the former were of white; the one
sitting with an air of tranquillity, the other standing,
more or less disturbed. The face of the one is pacific
and serene, of the other angry or clouded. On the head
of the one the hair is regular and composed; in the other
it is so dishevelled that it falls half way down the fore¬
head. The face of the Jupiter Tonans resembles that of
the Terrible Jupiter; he is represented on gems and me¬
dals as holding up the triple bolt in his right hand, and
standing in a chariot which seems to be whirled on impe¬
tuously by four horses. Thus he is also described by the
poets (Ovid, Deian. Here. v. 28; Horace, lib. i. od. 4,
v. 8). Jupiter, as the intelligence presiding over a single
planet, is represented only in a chariot and pair; upon all
other occasions, if represented in a chariot, he is always
drawn by four horses. Jupiter is well known as the chief
ruler of the air, whose particular province it was to direct
the rains, the thunders, and the lightnings. As the dis¬
penser of rain, he was called Jupiter Pluvius, under which
character he is exhibited seated in the clouds, holding up
his right hand, or extending his arms almost in a straight
line each way, and pouring a stream of hail and rain from
his right hand upon the earth, whilst the fulmen is held
down in his left. The wings that are given to him relate
to his character of presiding over the air; his hair and
VOL. XII.
j u R 633
beard in the Antonine pillar are all spread down by the
rain, which descends in a sheet from him, and falls for
the refreshment of the Romans; whilst their enemies are
represented as struck with the lightnings, and lying dead
at their feet.
Some are of opinion that the fable of Jupiter includes
a great part of the history of Noah and his three sons,
and that Saturn is Noah, who saw all mankind perish in
the waters of the deluge, and who, in some sort, swallowed
them up, by not receiving them into the ark. Jupiter is
Ham ; Neptune, Japheth ; and Shem, Pluto. The Titans,
it is thought, represent the old giants, who built the tower
of Babel, and whose pride and presumption God had con¬
founded, by changing their language, and pouring out the
spirit of discord and division amongst them. The name
of Jupiter, or Zeus, or Jo vis Pater, is thought to be derived
from Jehovah; and in medals we meet with Jovis in
the nominative as well as oblique cases, thus, Jovis cus-
tos, Jovis propugnator, Jovis stator. To the name Jovis
was added pater; and afterwards, instead of Zeus or Jo¬
vis Pater, they used Jupiter by abbreviation.
The name of Jupiter was not known to the Hebrews
till the reign of Alexander the Great, and the kings his
successors. Antiochus Epiphanes commanded the idol of
Jupiter Olympius to be placed in the temple at Jerusalem;
and that of Jupiter the defender of strangers in the tem¬
ple on Mount Gerizim (2 Macc. vi. 2). Whilst St Paul
and St Barnabas were at Lystra, they were taken for gods,
because they cured one who had been lame from his
birth, and that by an expression only; St Paul was taken
for Mercury, by reason of his eloquence, and St Barnabas
for Jupiter (Acts, xiv. 11, 12), on account of his goodly
mien.
Jupiter, !(., in Astronomy, one of the superior planets,
remarkable for its brightness, and which by its proper
motion revolves round the earth in about twelve years.
See Astronomy.
JURA, one of the Hebrides, or Western Islands of
Scotland, lying opposite to Knapdale in Argyleshire, is
supposed to be about thirty-four miles in length and ten in
breadth. It is the most rugged of all the Hebrides, and is
composed chiefly of vast mountains, naked, and without a
possibility of cultivation. See Scotland.
Jura, one of the departments of the north-east of
France. It is formed out of what was formerly called
Higher Burgundy, is bounded on a part of its eastern fron¬
tier by Switzerland, and on all other sides by French de¬
partments. It is about sixty-six miles in length from north
to south, and about thirty-eight in breadth from east to
west, comprehending 1388 square miles. The department
may be classed under three heads; first, the plains on the
western side, which are fertile; second, the first steps of
the mountains, which suddenly rise like a wall, extending
from ten to twelve miles, above which is an extensive pla¬
teau mixed with hills, between which are some valleys,
which, though stony, are of moderate fertility; the third
division, which comprises nearly two thirds of the whole, is
a mountainous district, but none of its summits exceed
5500 feet in height. These mountains are on the eastern
side of the department; the most remarkable are the Re-
culet, 5200 feet; the Dole, 4950 feet; and the Poupet,
somewhat lower. The woods, according to the Description
Topographique et Stutistique, cover one quarter of the whole
surface. This department is the source of the small rivers
Tansche, Dorrain, Deffoy, and some others ; but a great
part is watered by the Doubs and the Ain, and there are
within it several lakes. The climate varies with the eleva¬
tion, and the snow in the eastern parts is often so deep as
to prevent all communication. The different parts produce
wheat, barley, maize, and buck-wheat; a little excellent
and much middling wine, abundance of fuel, and some very
Jupiter
Jura.
634 J U R
Jurats good cattle, especially horses. There are some mines of
jl iron, and manufactures of various articles from it. The
Jurispru- department is divided into four arrondissements, and sub-
divided into thirty-two cantons and 728 communes, inha¬
bited by 292,880 persons, all of whom adhere to the ca¬
tholic religion.
JURATS, Jurati, magistrates resembling aldermen,
appointed for the government of several corporations. Thus
we meet with the mayor and jurats of Maidstone, Rye,
Winchelsea. Jersey has also a bailiff, and twelve jurats, or
sworn assistants, to govern the island.
JURIEU, Peter, an eminent French protestant di¬
vine, called ironically by the Catholics the Goliath of the
Protestants, was born in the year 1637. He was educated
in England under his maternal uncle Peter du Moulin,
and took orders in the English church; but returning to
succeed his father as pastor of a reformed congregation
at Mer, in the diocese of Blois, he was made professor of
divinity and Hebrew at Sedan, where he acquired great
reputation. This university being taken from the Pro¬
testants, a professorship of divinity was founded for him
at Rotterdam; and he was also appointed minister of the
Walloon church in the same town. Being now in a place
of liberty, he gave full scope to an imagination naturally
warm, and applied himself to study the book of Revelation,
of which he fancied that he had by a kind of inspiration
discovered the true meaning; a notion which led him to
form many enthusiastic conjectures. He was, moreover,
so unfortunate as to quarrel with his best friends for op¬
posing his visionary opinions, which produced violent dis¬
putes with Bayle and De Beauval. Fie died in 1713;
and left a great number of esteemed works, the principal
of which are, 1. A Treatise of Devotion ; 2. Preservative
against Popery, 1673; 3. A Vindication of the Morality
of the Protestants against the Accusations of M. Arnauld,
1675, 1685; 4. The last Efforts of Afflicted Innocence;
5._ Histoire des Dogmes et des Cultes; 6. Histoire du
Calvanisme et du Papisme mise en parallele, 1683, in
three vols.; 7. Lettres Pastorales; 8. Traite de 1’Unite
de 1’Eglise, 1688; 9. Abregb de I’Histoire du Concile de
Trente, 1683; 10. Traite de la Nature et de la Grace;
and various other works. Jurieu was unquestionably a
man of considerable learning, but he entertained peculiar
notions of his own, and showed little toleration for the
opinions of others.
JURIN, James, born in 1684, a distinguished person,
J U R
who cultivated medicine and the mathematics with equal Jurisco
success. He was secretary to the Royal Society of Lon- sultui
don, as well as president of the College of Physicians J
there. He had serious disputes with Michelotti upon the ^ur'sPr
momentum of running waters, with Robins upon distinct
vision, and with the partisans of Leibnitz upon moving ^
bodies or living forces. A treatise of his upon Vision is
printed in Smith’s Optics. He died in 1750. Jurin was
a warm partisan and an active defender of the practice of
inoculation, and, in several publications, established its
utility by a comparison of the respective degrees of morta¬
lity occasioned by the casual and the inoculated small¬
pox. He was also editor of Varenius’s Geography, pub¬
lished at the request of Newton and Bentley; and in the
Works of the Learned for 1737, he carried on a contro¬
versy with Dr Pemberton in defence of Newton.
JURISCONSULTUS (contracted ICtus) amongst the
Romans, was a person learned in the law, a master of the
Roman jurisprudence, who was consulted on the interpre¬
tation of the laws and customs, and on the difficult points
in law-suits. The fifty books of the Digest were compiled
wholly from the answers or reports of the ancient juriscon¬
sults ; and Tribonian, in destroying the two thousand vo¬
lumes from which the Code and Digest were compiled, has
deprived the public of a world of things which would have
thrown light upon the ancient office of the jurisconsults.
We should scarcely have known any thing beyond their
bare names, had not Pomponius, who lived in the second
century, taken care to preserve some circumstances illus¬
trative of their office. The Roman jurisconsults seem
to have been nearly the same with our chamber counsel¬
lors, who arrived at the honour of being consulted through
age and experience, but never pleaded at the bar. The
pleading advocates or lawyers never became jurisconsults.
In the times of the commonwealth, the advocates had by
much the more honourable employment, as being in the
ready way to attain the highest preferments. They then
despised the jurisconsults, calling them in derision formu-
larii and legulei, as having invented certain forms and
monosyllables, in order to give their answers the greater
appearance of gravity and mystery. But in process of
time the latter became so much esteemed that they were
called prudentes and sapientes; the judges were appointed
to follow their advice ; and Augustus advanced them to be
public officers of the empire. Rutilius has written the
lives of the most famous jurisconsults.
JURISPRUDENCE.
I-—The object of the science which is distinguished by
the name of Jurisprudence, is the protection of rights.
The end of The business of the present discourse is, therefore, to
jurispru- ascertain the means which are best calculated for the at-
denee. tainmefit of that end.
What we desire to accomplish is, the protection of rights:
What we have to inquire is, the means by which protec¬
tion may be afforded.
Importance Fhat rights have hitherto been very ill protected, even
of the in- in the most enlightened countries, is matter of universal
quiry. acknowledgment and complaint. That men are suscep¬
tible of happiness only in proportion as rights are pro¬
tected, is a proposition which, taken generally, it is un¬
necessary to prove. The importance of the inquiry, there¬
fore, is evident.
Confusion , ^ *s requisite, as a preliminary, to fix, with some pre¬
in the vul-cision, what we denote by the expression rights. There is
gar uses of much confusion in the use of this term. That disorderly
the word mass> the Roman law, changes the meaning of the word
in stating its division of the subject, Jura Pcrsonarum and
Jura Rerum. In the first of these phrases, the word Jura
means a title to enjoy ; in the second, it must of necessity
mean something else, because things cannot enjoy. Law ¬
yers, whose nature it is to trudge one after another in the
track which has been made for them, and to whose eyes
that which is and that which ought to be have seldom any
mark of distinction, have translated the jargon into Eng¬
lish, as well as into other modern languages.
This is not all the confusion which has been incurred in
the use of the word right. It is sometimes employed in a
very general way, to denote whatever ought to be ; and in
that sense is opposed to wrong. There are also persons,
but these are philosophers, pushing on their abstractions,
who go beyond the sense in which it is made to de*
note generally whatever ought to be, and who make it
stand for the foundation of whatever ought to be. These
philosophers say that there is a right and a wrong, origi¬
nal, fundamental; and that things ought to be, or ought
not to be, according as they do, or do not, conform to
that standard. If asked whence we derive a knowledge
JURISPR
rispru- of this right and wrong in the abstract, which is the foun-
lence. dation and standard of what we call right and wrong in
the concrete, they speak dogmatically, and convey no
clear ideas.1 In short, writers of this stamp give us to
understand that we must take this standard, like many
other things which they have occasion for, upon their
word. After all their explanations are given, this, we find,
is what alone we are required, or rather commanded, to
trust to. The standard exists. Why ? Because they say
it exists; and it is at our peril if we refuse to admit the
assertion. They assume a right, like other despots, to in¬
flict punishment for contumacy, or contempt of court.
To be sure, hard words are the only instruments of tyran¬
ny which they have it in their power to employ. They
employ them accordingly; and there is scarcely an epi¬
thet calculated to denote a vicious state of the intellec¬
tual or moral part of the human mind, which they do not
employ to excite an unfavourable opinion of those whore-
fuse subscription to their articles of faith,
e of the With right, however, in this acceptation, we have at
m right. present no farther concern than to distinguish it clearly
from that sense in which the word is employed in the
science of jurisprudence. To conceive more exactly the
sense in which it is employed in that science, it is neces¬
sary to revert to what we established in the article Go¬
vernment, with regard to the end or object of the so¬
cial union; for to that every thing which is done in sub¬
servience to the social union must of course bear a re¬
ference.
In that article it appeared, that as every man desires to
have for himself as many good things as possible, and as
there is not a sufficiency of good things for all, the strong,
if left to themselves, would take from the weak every
thing, or at least as much as they pleased ; that the weak,
therefore, who are the greater number, have an interest
in conspiring to protect themselves against the strong. It
also appeared, that almost all the things which man deno¬
minates good are the fruit of human labour, and that the
natural motive to labour is the enjoyment of its fruits.
That the object, then, of the social union may be ob¬
tained ; in other words, that the weak may not be de¬
prived of their share of good things, it is necessary to fix,
by some determination, what shall belong to each, and to
make choice of certain marks by which the share of each
may be distinguished. This is the origin of right. It is
created by this sort of determination, which determina¬
tion is either the act of the whole society, or of some part
of the society which possesses the power of determining
for the whole. Right, therefore, is factitious, and the
creature of will. It exists only because the society,
or those who wield the powers of the societj', will that
it should exist; and before it was so willed it had no
existence. .
It is easy to see what is the standard, in conformity
with which the rights in question ought to be constituted ;
meaning by ought, that which perfect benevolence would
desire. It is the greatest happiness of the greatest num¬
ber. But whether rights are constituted, that is, whether
the shares of good things are allotted to each, according
to this standard, or not according to this standard, the al¬
lotment is still the act of the ruling power of the commu¬
nity ; and the rights about which the science of juris¬
prudence treats have this alone for the cause of their
existence.
iprin- In this complicated term it is obvious that there is in-
i Vwf S vo^ve^j on one hand, the idea of the person to whom
I jQpjsina share is allotted, and on the other hand, an idea of the
1 lential ^lngs which are allotted. The one is the owner of the
1 >e ofV
i Wor^
U D E N C E. 635
right, the person to whom it belongs; the other is the Jurispru-
object of the right, namely, the person or thing over dence.
which certain powers are given.
All rights of course are rights to objects of human desire, All rights
of nothing else need shares be allotted. All objects which respect ob-
men desire, are desired either as the end or as means. j?cts de*
The pleasurable state of the mind is the end, consisting sire^
of the feelings of the mind. It would be absurd, how¬
ever, to speak of giving a man a right to the feelings of
his own mind. The objects of desire, therefore, which
are the objects of right, are not the pleasurable feelings
themselves, which are desired as the end, but the objects
which are desired as the means to that end.
Objects of desire, as means to that end, may be divided The ob-
into the class of persons and the class of things. Both jects of
may be the object of rights. In framing our language, rights are
therefore, we may say that all rights are the rights
persons ; but they may be rights to either persons or things.
All that men desire, either with persons or things, is Rights
to render them subservient to the end for which they are mean le-
desired as means. They are so rendered by certain galized
powers over them. All rights, then, when the term isPowers*
closely investigated, are found to mean powers ; powers
with respect to persons, and powers with respect to things.
What any one means when he says that a thing is his
property, is, that he has the power of using it in a certain
way. _
It is no part of the present inquiry to ascertain what
rights ought to be constituted, or what rights perfect be¬
nevolence would choose to see constituted. That belongs
to the question, how government should be constituted ;
in other words, how the powers which are necessary for
the general protection ought to be distributed, and the
advantages of the union to be shared. At present, our
sole endeavour is to ascertain the most effectual means
which the governing power of the state can employ for
protecting the rights, whatever they are, which it has seen
meet to create.
Rights, it must be remembered, always import obliga-Rvery
tions. This is a point of view which, in the consideration right im-
of rights, has not in general attracted sufficient attention, ports a cor-
If one man obtains a right to the services ttf another man, resPon<fing
an obligation is, at the same time, laid upon this other to ^hgation.
render those services. If a right is conferred upon one
man to use and dispose of a horse, an obligation is laid
upon other men to abstain from using him. It thus ap¬
pears that it is wholly impossible to create a right with¬
out at the same time creating an obligation.
The consequences of this law of nature are in the high-}j0 creation
est degree important. Every right is a benefit; a com-of good
mand to a certain extent over the objects of desire. Every by rights
obligation is a burden ; an interdiction from the objects Wltll(lut t^?e
of desire. The one is in itself a good, the other is in it-^£txon
self an evil. It would be desirable to increase the good
as much as possible. But, by increasing the good, it ne¬
cessarily happens that we increase the evil. And if there
be a certain point at which the evil begins to increase
faster than the good, beyond that point all creation of
rights is hostile to human welfare.
The end in view is a command over the objects of de¬
sire. If no rights are established, there is a general
scramble, and every man seizes what he can. A man gets
so much, and he is interdicted by the scramble from all
the rest. If rights are established, he also gets so much,
and is interdicted by his obligations from the rest. If
what he obtains by his rights exceeds what he would
have obtained by the scramble, he is a gainer by the ob¬
ligations which he sustains.
See the writings of Kant and his followers, passim. See also Degerando, and others of his school, in various parts of their works.
C36
JURISPRUDENCE.
Jurispru- If it is proposed to create rights in favour of all the
dence. members of a community, the limits are strict. You cannot
give all your advantages to every one; you must share them
out. If you do not give equal rights to all, you can only
give more than an equal share to some, by diminishing
the share of others, of whom, while you diminish the
rights, you increase the obligations. This is the course
which bad governments pursue ; they increase the rights
of the few, and diminish the rights of the many, till, in
the case of governments virtually despotic, it is all right
on the one side, all obligation on the other.
It may be necessary to say a word to prevent miscon¬
struction of the term “ equal rights.” Rights may truly
be considered as equal, when all the sorts of obligation under
which a man lies with respect to other men, they are
placed under with respect to him ; if all the abstinence
which he is obliged to practise with respect to their pro¬
perty, they are obliged to practise with respect to his ; if
all the rules by which he is bound not to interfere with
their actions, bind them equally not to interfere with his.
It is evident, that inequality of fortune is not excluded
by equality of rights. It is also evident, that from equa¬
lity of rights must always be excepted those who are in¬
trusted with the powers of the community for the pur¬
poses of government. They have peculiar rights, and the
rest of the community are under corresponding obliga¬
tions. It is equally evident that those must be excepted
who are not sui juris, as children in non-age, who must be
under the guidance of others. Of two such classes of per¬
sons, the relation to one another, that is, their reciprocal
rights and obligations, need to be regulated by particular
rules.
It is presumed that these illustrations will suffice to fix,
in the minds of our readers, the exact meaning which is
intended, in the present discourse, to be attached to the
word rights. The sequel is to be occupied in discovering
the means which are most proper to be employed for af¬
fording to those rights.
Meaning
of the word
protection,
in the ju¬
rispruden¬
tial phrase,
protection
of rights.
II.—In the term protection, it is hardly necessary to give
notice, that we do not here include protection against fo¬
reign enemies r that protection which is to be yielded by
employing armies against invaders. The protection of
which it is the business of jurisprudence to find out and
to describe the means, is that which is required by one
member of the community against the other members.
The members of the community, each of whom endea¬
vours to have as much as possible of the objects of desire,
will be disposed to take those objects one from another;
to take them either by force or by fraud. The means
of preservation must therefore be found. Certain mem¬
bers of the community, as organs of government, are fur¬
nished with powers for that purpose. The question is,
what powers are required, and in what manner are they
to be employed ?
In proceeding to present what may be called a skele¬
ton map of the ill-explored country of jurisprudence, it
is necessary to warn the reader, that he must supply,
by his own attention, what the limits of the work did not
permit to be done for him. The several topics are rather
indicated than expounded. It is hoped they are indicat¬
ed so clearly that there will be no difficulty in spreading
out the ideas in detail. It is necessary, however, that the
reader should do this for himself. As the writer has not
been able to dwell upon the several topics, though of the
utmost importance, long enough to stamp the due impres¬
sion of them upon the mind, unless the reader takes time
to do this, by reflection on each topic, as it arrives, he
will pass to the succeeding ones without due preparation,
and the whole will be perused without interest and with¬
out profit.
That a man’s rights may be effectually secured, it is Jurispru.
obviously necessary, in the first place, that they should be dence.
made capable of being accurately known. This seems tober^-~v^
so undeniable, that it would answer little purpose to en-TlieArst
large in its illustration. It is, however, exceedingly ne-te
cessary that the importance of this requisite should be tection'of
clearly and adequately conceived. How can a man’s rights,
rights be protected from encroachment, if what are his
rights be uncertain or unknown? If the boundary by
which his rights are distinguished is clear and conspicu¬
ous, it is itself a protection. It warns off invaders; it
serves to strike them with awe ; for it directs the eyes
and indignation of mankind immediately and certainly to
the offender. Where the boundary, on the other hand,
is obscure and uncertain, so far scope is allowed for en¬
croachment and invasion. When the question, to which
of two men an article of property belongs, comes for de¬
cision to the judge, it is easy, if accurate marks are affix¬
ed, to point out and determine the rights of each. If no
marks are attached, or such only as are obscure and va¬
riable, the decision must be arbitrary and uncertain.
To that extent the benefit derived from the creation and
existence of rights is diminished.
It is therefore demonstrable, and we may say demon-Definition
strated (the demonstration not being difficult), that in the °f rights
inquiry respecting the means of protecting rights, the*^6^81"1
definition of rights may be entered at the head of the list,
Without this as the groundwork, all other means are in-ti0n.
effectual. In proportion as rights can be ascertained, are
the judicial functions and judicial apparatus capable of
being employed to any beneficial purpose. In proportion
to the facility with which they can be ascertained, is the
extent of the benefit which the judicial functions are en¬
abled to secure.
Such, then, is the first of the means necessary for the
protection of rights. That they may receive the most
perfect possible protection, they must be as accurately as
possible defined.
In supposing that rights have need of protection, we Definition
suppose that there are acts by which rights are violated.
With regard to those acts, the object is twofold ; to re-ty.wlutl‘
dress the evil of the act when it has taken place, and to
prevent the performance of such acts in future. To pre- &c, an. ’
vent the performance, two classes of means present them-other in¬
selves ; to watch till the act is about to be committed, strument
and then to interpose; or to create motives which shall°fprotec‘
prevent the will to commit. It is but a small number oftlon'
cases in which the first can be done ; the latter is, there¬
fore, the grand desideratum. From the view of these cir¬
cumstances, we discover two other articles in the cata¬
logue of means. Those acts by which rights are violated
require to be made accurately known; in other words, to
be defined ; and the motives which are fitted to prevent
them must be duly applied. Motives sufficient to that
end can only be found in the painful class; and the act
by which they are applied is denominated punishment.
The definition, therefore, of offences, or of the acts by
which rights are violated, and which it is expedient to
punish, and the definition of the penalties by which they
are prevented, are equally necessary with the definition of
rights themselves. The reasons which demonstrate this
necessity are so nearly the same with those which de¬
monstrate the necessity of the definition of rights, that
we deem it superfluous to repeat them. civil ami
The definition of rights constitutes that part of law aic<xlc
which has been generally denominated the civil code.
The definition of offences and punishments constitutes
that other part of law which has been generally denomi¬
nated the criminal or penal code. ot.
When rights are distributed, and the acts by which
they may be violated are forbidden, an agency is required, £_wjjat.
JU RIS P R U D E N C E.
, ispru- by which that distribution may be maintained, and the
nee. violators of it punished. That agency is denominated
judicature. The powers by which this agency is consti¬
tuted require to be accurately defined, and the mode in
which the agency itself is to be carried on must be fixed
and pointed out by clear and determinate rules. These
rules and definitions prescribe the form and practice of
the courts, or mode in which the judicial functions are
performed ; and constitute that branch of law which has
been called the code of procedure.
c us Ju- These three codes, the civil code, the penal code, and
r r Body code of procedure, form together the whole subject of ju-
0 w>— risprudence. Of the three, it sufficiently appears that
1' ' the last exists only for the sake of the other two. Courts
and their operations are provided, that the provisions of
the civil and penal codes may not be without their effect.
It is to be considered, therefore, as subordinate, and
merely instrumental, in respect to the other two. They
form the main body of the law; this is an accessary to
the main body, though an accessary of indispensable use.
It would be of great advantage to affix characteristic
names to distinguish from one another the main and ac¬
cessary parts of law. Unexceptionable names, however,
it is not easy to find. Mr Bentham, the great improver
of this branch of knowledge, has called the civil and pe¬
nal codes together by the name of “ substantive law,”
the code of procedure by that of “ adjective law not, we
may be satisfied, because he approved of those names, but
because the language hardly afforded others to which
equal objections would not apply. In the very sense in
which either the term accessary or the term adjective
can be applied to the code of procedure, both may be ap¬
plied to the penal code, as it respects the civil. The penal
code exists purely for the sake of the civil, that the rights
which are ordained by the legislature, and marked out by
the terms of the code, may be saved from infringement.
The civil code is therefore the end and object of all the
rest. The code of procedure, however, is auxiliary to
each of the other two ; the penal code to no more than
one.
Having now explained the nature of the three codes
which constitute the body of law necessary for the pro¬
tection of rights, it remains that we illustrate, as much in
detail as our limits will permit, what is required for the
perfection of each.
" -isre- III.—The grand object of the civil code is the defini-
v Hor tion of rights. Rights are sometimes more, sometimes
ti' >ftheleSS extensive- Thus tIie right of a man to a horse may
ci' ,:ode,es°iety exten(i to use him in riding from one stage to ano¬
ther ; or it may extend to the power of doing with him as
he pleases. In like manner, the rights of a man with re¬
spect to a person may extend only to some momentary
service, or they may go the length of slavery. Even sla¬
very itself does not imply rights always equally extensive.
In some cases it implies rights as extensive over the
slave as over the inferior animals.
All rights, when the essence of them is spoken of, are
powers ; powers to an individual which the governing
members of the community guarantee; powers, more or
less extensive, of making either a person or a thing sub¬
servient to the gratification of his desires. To be made to
gratify the desire of an individual, is to be made to render
him a service. And the term service may, fortunately, be
applied to both persons and things. A man receives a
service from the field when it produces a crop, as well as
from the servant and the horse who ploughed it. In one
meaning of the word service, it implies only active ser¬
vice, or that rendered by the voluntary operations of sen¬
tient beings. In the present case, however, it is employ¬
ed to denote both active and passive services. It is evi-
637
dent, that in every case in which any thing inanimate is Jurispru-
rendered subservient to the gratification of a desire, the Bence,
service is, properly speaking, a passive service. It is v—
also evident, that even animate beings are rendered sub¬
servient to the gratification of desires in a way which may
equally be called passive.
It is necessary to request attention to the explanation
which is here given of the meaning in which the term ser¬
vice is to be employed; as both the English and the Ro¬
man lawyers use it in a very restricted sense. Here it is
employed to denote the whole of that ministration to the
gratification of our desires, which we are entitled, in con¬
sequence of rights, to derive either from persons or from
things. Rights are powers, and the powers are means for
the obtaining of services. We have now, therefore, a lan¬
guage, by the help of which we may speak with tolerable
clearness.
Our object is to define rights, and rights are powers.
But these powers can be defined, only by a reference to
the services which they are the means of obtaining.
The first thing, therefore, to be done for the definition Operations
of rights is, to make out a list of all the kinds of services Prelimina-
which the legislature permits an individual to derive, first,t0. dm
from persons, and secondly, from things. This would not
be a matter of very great difficulty, it would be right to0* ^ Ks-
begin with the most simple cases, and go on to the more
complex. Thus, of the services derivable from a person,
some are limited to a single species of act, and that with¬
in a limited time, and at a particular place. Others are
services, consisting of various acts, limited or not limited
in space and time. And, lastly, are the whole services
which a man is capable of rendering, without limitation
as to either space or time. Considerable pains would be
necessary to make the list complete; and not only con¬
siderable pains, but considerable logic, would be necessary
to classify the services, in other words, make them up into
lots, the most convenient for the purpose in question, and
to fix the extent of each by an exact definition. It is ob¬
vious, that as soon as all the possible gradations in the
services which one human being can render to another,
are exhibited by such enumeration and assortment, it is
easy for the legislature to point out exactly whatever por¬
tion of these services it is its will to give any individual a
right to.
The same considerations apply to the class of things.
In being made subservient to the gratification of our de¬
sires, they also render services. In proportion as a man
has the right to derive those services from them, they are
said to be his property. The whole of the services which
are capable of being derived from them may, without
much difficulty, be enumerated and classified; and wdien
they are so, those which k may be the pleasure of the le¬
gislature to make any one’s property may be very easily
and distinctly pointed out.
We may take land for an example. All the differ¬
ent services which are capable of being derived from the
land may be enumerated, and, being classed under conve¬
nient heads, may be referred to with perfect certainty;
and any portion of them which is made the property of
any individual may thus be accurately described. A man
may have a right simply to pasture a field; to pasture it
for a day, or a year, or a hundred years. He may have a
right to crop it; and that either in a -particular manner,
or in any manner he pleases, for a year, or for any other
time. He may have a right to use it for any purpose, and
that during a limited time, or an unlimited time. The ser¬
vices which it is capable of rendering may belong to him
in common with a number of other persons, or they may
all belong to himself.
In illustration of this subject we may notice a classifica¬
tion of the services derivable from the land, made, though
638
Jurispru- very rudely, by the English law. Blackstone, who, like
dencc. English lawyers, has on this, as on all other occa-
sions, no idea of any other classification than that which
is made bv the technical terms of the English law, has
distinguished certain lots of the services derivable from
the land, under the name of “ estates therein ; estates
with respect to, ls£, quantity of interest; '"Idly, time of
enjoyment; Mhj, number and connection of the tenants.”
That is, estates in fee simple, comprehending the whole
of the services which are capable of being derived from
the land, unlimited in point of time ; estates in fee tail,
implying always limitation in point of time, and often a
limitation in respect to some of the services ; estates for
years ; estates at will; estates at sufferance ; estates on
condition ; estates in remainder; estates in reversion ;
estates in jointenancy ; estates in coparcenary ; estates in
common. The Roman law has made no enumeration or
classification of the services derivable from any thing, not
even from the land. It speaks of property in the abstract,
and in two states ; property in possession, and property in
action. The English law does the same thing in regard
to all other property but the land. “ Property, in chattels
personal, is either in possession or in action,” says Black-
stone. He does, indeed, add, “ the property of chattels
personal is liable to remainders, if created by will, to join-
tenancy, and to tenancy in common.”
The services derivable from other articles of property
than land, need not be divided under many heads. A
piece of plate, for example, may render certain services
without alteration of its form ; it may be incapable of ren¬
dering other services till it has received an alteration of its
form. It is chiefly, therefore, by limitation of time, that
the various quantities of interest in such articles need to
be determined. A man’s right may extend to the use of
a silver cup, for a day, or a year, or for his life. During
this time the different services which it is capable of ren¬
dering have no occasion to be divided. They go natural¬
ly altogether. An unlimited right to its services implies
the power of urfing it, either with or without alteration of
its form, and without limitation of time. In most instances
the limited right would be called loan, though, in the case
of heir-looms and some others, there is a limited use to
which the term loan is not customarily applied.
In speaking of the rights which a man may have to per¬
sons ; as master, as father, as husband, and so on, there
is one case so remarkable, that it requires a few words to
be added in its explanation. It is that of one’s own per¬
son. In this case the rights of the individual have no
proper limitation beyond the obligations under which he
is laid, in consequence either of the rights conferred upon
others, or of the means which are thought necessary for
protecting them.
If we have enabled our readers to form a tolerable con¬
ception of what we desire to be accomplished, under the
title of an enumeration and commodious classification of
the services derivable from persons and things, we have
performed what we proposed. The enumeration and clas ¬
sification themselves are evidently incommensurate with
the design of an article in the present work. That they
are practicable may be confidently taken for granted. In
fact, they amount to nothing more than a description of
the different degrees in which the property of a thing may
be possessed ; a point which is decided upon in every legal
dispute. If this be done from time to time, for one article
after another, it may be done once for all.
We have already said, that rights are powers, powers
for the obtaining of certain services. We have also said,
that those powers can be defined only by a reference to
the services which they are the means of obtaining. When
those services are enumerated and classified, what remains
is easy. A right to those services must begin, and it
U D E N C E.
may end. The legislature has only to determine what Jurispr
fact shall be considered as giving a beginning to each dence
right, and what shall be considered as putting an end to
it, and then the whole business is accomplished.
It is evident that, for the definition of rights, two things Two thi
are necessary. The first is, an exact description of thenecessai
extent of the right; the second is, the description of the for the J
fact which gives birth to it. The extent of the right isfinitior>
described by reference to the lots of services, in the title3 nght-
to which services all rights consist. The facts which the
convenient enjoyment of rights has pointed out as the
fittest for giving commencement to rights, have been
pretty well ascertained from the earliest period of society;
and there has, in fact, been a very great conformity with
respect to them in the laws of all nations.
The following is an imperfect enumeration of them:
An expression of the will of the legislature, when it makes
any disposition with regard to property; occupancy, when
a man takes what belongs to nobody; labour ; donation;
contract; succession. Of these six causes of the commence¬
ment of a right, there is a remarkable distinction between
the first three and the last three. The first three give
commencement to a right in favour of one individual, with¬
out necessarily putting an end to a right enjoyed by any
other individual. The last three give commencement to
a right in favour of one individual, only by making the
same right to cease in favour of another individual. When
a man, by donation, gives a horse to another man, the
horse ceases to be the property of the one man, by the
very same act by which he becomes the property of the
other ; so in the case of sale, or any other contract.
It is necessary for the legislature, in order that each
man may know what are the objects of desire which he
may enjoy, to fix, not only what are the facts which shall
give commencement to a right, but what are the facts
which shall put an end to it. In respect to these facts,
also, there is a great harmony in the laws of all nations.
There is first the will of the legislature. When it con¬
fers a right, it may confer it either for a limited or for
an unlimited time. In the term unlimited time, we in¬
clude the power of tradition, or transfer, in all its shapes.
If the time is limited, by the declaration of the legisla¬
ture, either to a certain number of years, or the life of the
party, the fact which terminates the right is obvious. If
a man possesses a right unlimited in point of time, the
events are three by which it has been commonly fixed
that it may be terminated : 1. some expression of his
own will, in the way of gift or contract; 2. some act of
delinquency ; or, 3. his death.
The possessor of a right unlimited in point of time,
may, in the way of gift or contract, transfer his right either
for a limited or for an unlimited time. Thus the owner of
a piece of land may lease it for a term of years. He may
also, in this way, convey the whole of the services which
it is capable of rendering, or only a part of them. In this
transaction, one event gives birth to a right in favour of
the man who receives the lease, and terminates a right
which was possessed by the man who gives it; another
event, namely, the arrival of the period assigned for the
termination of the lease, terminates the right of the man
who had received the lease, and revives the former right
of the man who gave it.
Acts of delinquency have been made to terminate rights,
by the laws of most nations, in the various modes of for¬
feiture and pecuniary penalty.
The mode in which the event of death should terminate
rights has been variously regulated. Sometimes it has
been allowed to terminate them simply; and what a man
left at his death was open to the first occupant. All but
rude nations, however, have determined the persons to
whom the rights which a man possessed without limita-
JURISPR
JURISPRUDENCE.
, ispru- tion of time, shall pass at his death. The will of the former
:nce. owner, when expressed, is commonly allowed to settle the
matter. When that is not expressed, it has by most le¬
gislators been regulated that his rights shall pass to his
next of kin.
What is the extent of each right, by what event it
shall receive its commencement, and by what event it
shall be terminated ; this is all which is necessary to be
predetermined with respect to it. To do this is the duty
of the legislature. When this is done, the inquiry of the
judge is clear and simple. Does such a right belong to
such a man ? This question always resolves itself into
two others. Did any of the events which give com¬
mencement to a right happen in this case? And did
any of those events which terminate a right not happen
in this case ? These are questions of fact as distinguish¬
ed from law, and are to be determined by the produc¬
tion of evidence. If a man proves that an event which
gives commencement to a right happened in his case, and
if another man cannot prove that an event which termi¬
nates a right happened subsequently in that case, the
right of the first man is established.
If we have now ascertained the importance and prac¬
ticability of a civil code, and have shown what is to be
done in order to obtain the benefit of it, we shall conclude,
with some confidence, that we have rendered a great ser¬
vice to mankind. We proceed to the consideration of
the penal code. The object of that code is, the acts by
which rights may be violated.
at is IV.—In the term violation, we include all those acts by
i ?ssary which the powers conveyed by a right are prevented
) ioVoT" ^rom °Perat‘ng according to the will of the owner.
penal With respect to a part of such acts, all that it is found
, >. convenient to do, through the instrumentality of judica¬
ture, is, to remove the obstruction which prevents the
enjoyment of the right, without inflicting any penalty for
creating it. Thus, if a debt is not paid when due, the
right is violated of the man who ought to receive it.
Enough, however, is in this case supposed to be done, if
the man who owes the debt is constrained to make pay¬
ment. The act of secretly abstracting, with a view to ap¬
propriate a property of perhaps less value, would be an
act which the laws of all nations would punish as theft.
Of injurious acts, those alone to the commission of
which it has been deemed expedient that penalties should
be annexed, are considered as the object of the penal
code. Of injurious acts so perfect an analysis has been
exhibited by Mr Bentham ; so perfectly, too, have the
grounds been laid down upon which those acts which are
destined for punishment should be selected from the
rest; and so accurately have the principles according to
which punishment should be meted out been displayed
by that great philosopher, that, on this part of the sub¬
ject, the philosophy of law is not far from complete,
j ' As acts are declared to be offences, and are made sub-
, P“nish-ject to punishment solely for the protection of rights, it
is evident that all acts which enter into the penal code
are acts which infringe rights, either directly or indirectly.
I hose which infringe them directly, are those by which
injury is done to some individual or individuals ; a blow,
for example, an act of theft, and so on. We include also,
under this division, all acts the effects of which produce
an immediate infringement of rights ; destroying a mound,
for example, to inundate the lands of another man; im¬
portation of infection, by which the health or lives of
others may be destroyed. Those acts by means of which
rights are affected indirectly, are those which bear imme¬
diately upon the means which the state has provided for
the protection of rights. The means which the state has
provided for the protection of rights are the operations
639
of government generally. All acts, therefore, meet for Jurispru-
punishment, are acts which disturb either individuals in dence.
the enjoyment of their rights, or the operations required
for the protection of those rights. The latter, though me¬
diately, and not immediately, hurtful, are apt to be more
extensively mischievous than the former. An act which
infringes upon a right immediately, is commonly injurious
only to one individual, or a small number of individuals;
an act which prevents any of the operations of government
from proceeding in its natural course, is injurious to all
those individuals to whose protection the due course of that
operation is useful. Permit acts which interrupt all the
operations of government, and all rights are practically
destroyed.
If, as it thus appears, acts are meet for punishment, on¬
ly because they infringe a right, or because they interrupt
the operations provided for the protection of rights, it is
evident, that, in the definition of one set of those acts,
must be included the specification of the right which is in¬
fringed ; and, in the definition of the other, must be in¬
cluded the specification of the operation disturbed. Be¬
fore, therefore, an accurate penal code can exist, there
must exist an accurate civil code, and also what we may
call a constitutional or political code; the latter consisting
of an accurate definition of the powers created for the pur¬
poses of government, and of the limitations applied to their
exercise.
From what has been said, it may appear that the defini- What is
tion of offences, by which name we shall hereafter distin- required to
guish punishable acts, consists necessarily of two parts. t!ie de^ni‘
The first part is the specification of the right infringed, or^n°* an
the operation of government disturbed ; and the second0 nCe'
part is the definition of the mode. Thus, for the defini¬
tion of an act of theft, the right which the act has violat¬
ed must be distinctly marked, and also the mode in which
the violation has been committed. In one and the same
class of offences, those against property, for example, the
mode in which the violation is performed, is that chiefly
which constitutes the difference between one offence and
another. In a theft and a robbery, the right violated may
be exactly the same ; the mode in which the violation was
effected constitutes the difference.
For several purposes of the penal code, it is useful, that,
in the specification of the right violated, the value of what
has been violated, in other words, the amount of the evil
sustained, should sometimes be included. It is evident
that the value of rights can be judged of ultimately, only
by a reference to human feelings. Of these feelings, how¬
ever, certain outward marks must be taken as the stan¬
dard. In offences which concern property, the modes of va¬
luation are familiarly known. In injuries to the person,
those marks which denote injuries regarded by mankind
in general as differing in magnitude; the size, for exam¬
ple, or position, of a wound ; in injuries to reputation, the
words used, and the occasion when, and so forth, are the
only means of distinction which can be employed.
It may be necessary also to remark, that, in that part of
the definition which relates to the mode, are to be distin¬
guished the parties, when more than one, who engage in
the same offence with different degrees of criminality;
meaning, by different degrees of criminality, nothing more
than demand for different degrees of punishment. The
chief classes of such persons are those of principals and ac¬
cessaries ; and of accessaries, both those before and those
after the fact.
In the definition of the mode, the act is first to be describ¬
ed in its ordinary shape. The act, however, may be attend¬
ed with aggravating circumstances on the one hand, or ex¬
tenuating circumstances on the other ; presenting a demand
for increased punishment in the first case, and diminished
punishment in the second. Mr Bentham has logically re-
640
Jurispru¬
dence.
The doc¬
trine of pu¬
nishment.
Satisfac¬
tion.
JURISPRUDENCE.
marked, that the circumstances which are to be regarded
as aggravating, and the circumstances which are to be re¬
garded as extenuating, being pretty nearly the same in all
cases, they may be defined, in a separate chapter, once for
all. This being done, the code proceeds in the following
manner :—The definition is given of the olfence in its ordi¬
nary shape, and the appropriate punishment is annexed;
then immediately follows the same offence with aggravating
circumstances; punishment so much the more severe : the
same offence with extenuating circumstances ; punishment
so much the less.
Thus far we have spoken of the definition of offences,
into which we have entered the less in detail, because we
do not think there is much of controversy on the subject.
Many persons, who doubt the possibility of framing a civil
code, though, after the preceding exposition of the subject,
it is a doubt which could not, we should imagine, very ea¬
sily maintain itself, allow that offences may all be defined ;
and that it is possible to prevent the monstrous iniquity of
punishing men for acts, as offences, which thej^have not
the means of knowing to be such.
V.—After offences, comes the consideration of the pu-
• nishment to be annexed to them. This is a subject of con¬
siderable detail; it has been, however, so fully and admi¬
rably treated by Mr Bentham, that only some of the more
general considerations, necessary to mark out the place
and importance of the topic, need here to be introduced.
When a right has been infringed, there are two things,
it is evident, which ought to be done : the injury which
has been sustained by the individual ought to be repaired,
and means ought to be taken to prevent the occurrence of
a like evil in future.
The doctrine of satisfaction is not at all difficult, as far
as regards the regulating principles ; the complication is
all in the detail. The greater number of injuries are those
which concern property. A pecuniary value can general¬
ly be set upon injuries of this sort, though it is not very
easy to determine the pretium affectionis, a matter of con¬
siderable importance, which the English law, so much made
up of clumsiness in one part, and false refinement in ano¬
ther, wholly overlooks. For injuries to the person, also,
it is most frequently in the pecuniary shape alone that any
compensation can be made. In making these estimates,
some general marks are all that can be conveniently de¬
fined by the law, and a considerable discretion must be
left to the judge. Indeed, the question of damages is al¬
ways a question of fact, which must be determined by the
evidence adduced in each instance.
It accords with the feelings of every man to say, that he
who has committed an injury should be made to repair it.
One part of punishment, therefore, ought, wherever special
reason does not intervene, to consist in making satisfaction
to the party injured. Pecuniary satisfaction, where the de¬
linquent is rich, may be a small part of the due punish¬
ment ; still, however, there is an obvious propriety in
making it a part so-far as it can go. In the cases in which
the delinquent has no property, there is the same pro¬
priety in making his labour subservient to that end. Hard
labour, with the most economical fare, till the produce of
the labour equals the amount of the satisfaction required,
is therefore a species of punishment recommended by the
strongest considerations. It is not said that labour so li¬
mited would always be sufficient punishment, and there are
many cases in which it would be too much ; but even then
it should go as far as it can in the one case, and as far as
it ought in the other.
When the injury is done to reputation, there is a mani¬
fest propriety in making the injurer contribute to the re¬
paration, wherever it can be done. In many of the cases,
too, the proper mode is abundantly obvious; all those, for
example, where the publication of falsehood is the inju- Jurispi
rious act. The author of the injury may be obliged to dence
declare, in a way as public as that of the offence, and as
well calculated as possible for the reparation of the injury,
that he has been solemnly adjudged to have propagated
a falsehood, and is condemned to publish his own shame.
In the case of those offences which affect rights indi¬
rectly, namely, by affecting the securities provided for
them, satisfaction seldom can have any place, because no
determinate individual or individuals have sustained an
injury.
This may suffice in exposition of the first thing which
is desirable where an injury has been committed; name¬
ly, that reparation should be made. The second is, that
measures should be adopted for preventing the future oc¬
currence of similar events.
Acts are performed only because there are motives to Penaltu'
the performance of them. Of course injurious acts are
performed only because there are motives to the perform¬
ance of them.
Cor-poral restraint being out of the question where all the
members of the community are concerned, it is evident
that only twm means remain for preventing injurious acts;
either, first, to take away the motives which provoke to
them; or, secondly, to apply motives sufficient for the
prevention of them.
From the very nature of many of the acts, it is impossi¬
ble to take away the motives which provoke to them.
From property stolen it is impossible to detach the value
of the property ; from vengeance it is impossible to detach
the hope of that relief which is sought by the blow that is
aimed.
What is wanted, then, is a sufficiency of motive in each
instance to counteract the motives which lead to the
crime. Whatever the motives of the alluring kind which
lead to an act, if you give stronger motives of the same
kind to abstain from the act, the act will of course be pre¬
vented. The man who would steal from you L.5, will as¬
suredly not do so if he knows that he shall receive L.6
for abstaining.
The question may then be started, Why should not all
crimes be prevented in this way, since reward is much
more desirable and humane than punishment ? The an¬
swer is most satisfactory, and is built upon a ground which
ought to receive profound attention on many occasions on
which it is treated with the most perfect disregard. No
reward can be given to one man or set of men, but at the
expense of some man or set of men. What is reward to
one, is therefore punishment to others. If L.6 be given
to the man who would steal L.5, it must be taken from
some one or more individuals of the community. If one
man is elevated by any title or distinction, all the rest,
with regard to him, are degraded and depressed. This is
utterly unavoidable. The one event is necessarily included
in the other. The giving of rewards, therefore, is a mat¬
ter of serious import. It is not that simple act, that pure
creation of good, which it is often so fraudulently given
out to be, and so credulously and foolishly admitted to be.
Other reasons, which prove the insufficiency of rewards
for preventing injurious acts, are too obvious to require to
be mentioned. We shall not therefore dwell upon this to¬
pic. This at least is sufficiently evident, that, to counter¬
act the motives which lead to the commission of an act,
we have but turn methods. If we cannot apply motives
of the pleasurable sort to induce the party to abstain from
committing the act, we must apply such motives of the pain¬
ful sort as will outweigh the motives which prompt to the
performance. To prevent, by such means, a theft of L.5,
it is absolutely necessary to affix to that act a degree of
punishment which shall outweigh the advantage of possess¬
ing L.5.
JURISPRUDENCE. 641
rispru- We have now, it is evident, obtained the principle by
ence. which punishment ought to be regulated. We desire to
prevent certain acts. That is our end, and the whole of
our end. We shall assuredly prevent any acts, if we at¬
tach to them motives of the painful kind, sufficient to out¬
weigh the motives of the opposite kind which lead to the
performance. If we apply a less quantity of evil than is
sufficient for outweighing those motives, the act will still
be performed, and the evil will be inflicted to no pur¬
pose ; it will be so much suffering in waste. If we apply
a greater quantity of evil than is necessary, we incur a si¬
milar inconvenience; we create a quantity of evil which
is absolutely useless; the act which it is the tendency of
the motives cf the pleasurable kind to produce, will be
prevented, if the motives of the painful kind outweigh
them in the smallest degree, as certainly as if it outweigh
them to any degree whatsoever. As soon, therefore, as
the legislator has reached that point, he ought immediate¬
ly to stop. -Every atom of punishment which goes be¬
yond, is so much uncompensated evil, so much human mi¬
sery created without any corresponding good. It is pure
unmingled mischief.
As no exact measure, indeed, can be taken of the quan¬
tity of pain which will outweigh a supposed quantity of plea¬
sure, it is sometimes necessary to risk going somewhat be¬
yond the mark, in order to make sure of not falling short
of it. And, in the case of acts of which the evil is very
great, of the higher order of crimes, in short, it may be
expedient to risk a considerable degree of excess in order
to make sure of reaching the point of efficiency.
In estimating the quantity of evil which it may be
necessary to create, in order to compensate the motive
which leads to a mischievous act, two circumstances
should be taken into the account. These are certainty
and proximity. It is of the less importance here to en¬
ter far into the illustration of these topics, that they are
now pretty generally understood. It is well known that
the prospect of an evil which is to happen within an hour,
or two hours, produces a much greater uneasiness than
the prospect of the very same evil removed to the dis¬
tance of years. Every man knows that he will die with¬
in a certain number of years; many are aware that they
cannot live beyond a few years ; and this knowledge pro¬
duces no uneasiness. The effort, on the other hand, which
enables a man to behave with tranquillity on the prospect of
immediate death, is supposed to be so difficult, that it is
this which makes the hero. It is therefore of the great¬
est importance that punishment should be immediate;
because, in that case, a much smaller quantity of evil
suffices. It is imperatively required by the laws of bene¬
volence, that, if evil is a necessary means to our end,
every expedient should be used to reduce it to the small¬
est quantity possible. It is cruelty, it belongs only to a
malignant nature, to apply evil in a way which demands
a quantity of it greater than would otherwise have been
required. Suppose a law, that no act of theft should be
punished or challenged till twenty years after the com¬
mission, or till the life of the thief was supposed to be
near its end. It is evident that all punishment in this
case, that death, in the greatest torture, would be nearly
destitute of power. This is partly the ground of the
complaint, of the little efficacy of religious punishment,
though dreadful beyond expression in the degree.
The want of certainty is a defect of equal importance.
If it is a matter of doubt whether a threatened evil will
take place, the imagination is prone to magnify the chance
of its not happening; and, by indulgence, magnifies it to
such a degree, that the opposite chance at last excites a
comparatively feeble influence. This is a remarkable law
of human nature, from the influence of which even the
most wise and prudent of men are not exempt; and of
VOL. XII.
which the influence is predominant in those inconsiderate Jurispru-
minds which are the most apt to give way to the allure- dence.
ments of vice. To illustrate this law, the influence of
the religious punishments affords the most instructive of
all examples. The punishments themselves go far be¬
yond what the imagination can conceive. It is the com¬
plaint of divines, and the observation of all the world,
that, with the great body of men, the efficacy of them is
exceedingly small. The reason is, that to the want of
proximity is added the greatest uncertainty. If a man
puts his fingers in the candle, he knows that he will be
punished, and immediately, by being burned. If a man
commits even a heinous sin, he has no fear of receiving
the religious punishment immediately, and he conceives
that, in the mercy of his Judge, in repentance and faith,
he has a' chance of escaping it altogether. This chance
his imagination exaggerates, and most men can, in this
way, go on sinning with tranquillity, to the end of their
days. If all punishments were as certain and immediate
as that of putting a finger in the candle, the smallest
quantity, it is evident, beyond what would form a coun¬
terbalance to the advantage of the forbidden act, would
suffice for its prevention. If uncertainty is admitted to
any considerable degree, no quantity of evil will suffice.
It is a fact which experience has most fully established,
and which is now recognised in the most vulgar legisla¬
tion, that undue severity of punishment runs counter to
its end. This it does by increasing uncertainty; because
men are indisposed to be the instruments of inflicting evil
by which their feelings are lacerated. That legislation,
therefore, is bad which does not take measures for the
greatest possible degree of proximity and certainty in the
punishments which it applies.
The sources are three from which motives of the pain¬
ful sort, applicable to the purposes of the legislator, are
capable of being drawn:—ls£, The physical; ‘Zdly, the
moral; and, 'idly, the religious.
I. Pains from the physical source may be communicat¬
ed to a man through,
1. His person,
2. His connections,
3. His property.
Through his person, they may be communicated in four
principal ways,—by death, disablement, restraint and
constraint, simple pain.
A man’s connections are either public or private; pri¬
vate, as spouse, parent, servant, master, &c.; public, as
ruler, subject, teacher, scholar, and so on.
The modes in which a man is punished through his
property need no explanation.
II. Pains from the moral source are the pains which
are derived from the unfavourable sentiments of man¬
kind. For the strength of the pains derived from this
source, we must refer to the writers who have treated of
this part of human nature. It is sufficient here to advert
to what is universally recognised, that these pains are
capable of rising to a height, with which hardly any
other pains, incident to our nature, can be compared;
that there is a certain degree of unfavourableness in the
sentiments of his fellow-creatures, under which hardly
any man not below the standard of humanity can endure
to live.
The importance of this powerful agency for the pre¬
vention of injurious acts is too obvious to need to be illus¬
trated. If sufficiently at command, it would almost super¬
sede the use of other means. It is, therefore, one of the
first objects to the legislator to know in what manner he
can employ the pains of the popular sanction with the
greatest possible effect.
To know how to direct the unfavourable sentiments of
mankind, it is necessary to know in as complete, that is,
4 M
642
JURISPRUDENCE.
Jurispru¬
dence.
in as comprehensive a way as possible, what it is that
gives them birth. Without entering into the metaphysics
of the question, it is a sufficient practical answer, for the
present purpose, to say, that the unfavourable sentiments
of men are excited by everything which hurts them.
They love that which gives them pleasure; hate that
which gives them pain. Those acts of other men which
give them pleasure or save them from pain, acts of bene¬
ficence, acts of veracity, and so on, they love. Acts, on
the other hand, which give them pain, mendacity, and so
on, they hate. These sentiments, when the state of mind
is contemplated out of which the acts are supposed to arise,
are transformed into approbation and disapprobation, in all
their stages and degrees ; up to that of the highest vene¬
ration, down to that of the deepest abhorrence and con¬
tempt.
The unfavourable sentiments which the legislator would
excite towards forbidden acts must, therefore, in each
man, arise from his conception of the mischievousness of
those acts. That conception depends upon three circum¬
stances : ls£, The view which he himself takes of the act;
‘idly, the view which appears to be taken by other people ;
3c%, every thing which operates to render more or less per¬
manently present to his mind his own and other men’s
conception of its mischievousness. From these circum¬
stances, the practical rules for applying this great power
as an instrument of the legislator for the prevention of
mischievous acts are easily deduced. 1. Let the best
measures be taken for giving the people a correct view of
the mischievousness of the act; and then their unfavour¬
able sentiments will be duly excited. 2. Let proper pains
be taken that the people shall know every mischievous
act that is committed, and know its author; that so no
evil act may, by concealment, escape the punishment which
their unfavourable sentiments imply. 3. Let the legislature,
as the leading section of the public, make publication of
its own unfavourable sentiments; let it brand the act
with infamy. 4. Let the same publication of his own un¬
favourable sentiments be made by the judge in the shape
of reprimand and other declarations. 5. The legislature
may increase the effect of these declarations, where the
case requires it, by symbolical marks ; or, 6. by personal
exposure. 7. The legislature may so order matters in
certain cases, that the mischievous act can be done only
through another act already infamous ; as when it is more
infamous to break a vow to God than to make false de¬
clarations to men, a witness may be made to swear that
he will tell the truth. 8. As the favourable sentiments
of mankind are powerfully excited towards wealth, a man
suffers through the popular sanction when his property is
so diminished as to lessen his rank.
III. In pointing and proportioning the apprehension of
divine punishment, the legislator can do three things:
L He can declare his own apprehension, and the mea¬
sure of it, which should be as exactly proportioned as
possible to the mischievousness of the acts:
2. He can hire other people to declare similar appre¬
hensions, and to make the most of the means which are
available for their propagation:
3. He may discountenance the pointing of religious
apprehensions to any acts which are not mischievous ; or
the pointing of them more strongly to acts which are
slightly, than to acts which are deeply mischievous. What¬
ever power of restraining from mischievous acts may be
lodged in religious apprehensions, is commonly misapplied Jurisp
and wasted. It would be worth the cost, therefore, of denc<
pretty forcible means to prevent such a misapplication '""'V
and waste of religious fears.1
In drawing from one or more of these sources, a lot
of punishment adapted to each particular case, the fol¬
lowing properties, desirable in a lot of punishment, ought
to be steadily borne in view. Every lot of punishment
ought, as much as possible, to be,
1. Susceptible of graduation, so as to be applied m
different degrees.
2. Measurable, that the difference of degrees may be
duly ascertained.
3. Equable, that is, calculated to operate with the same
intensity upon all persons.
4. Such that the thought of the punishment may na¬
turally excite the thought of the crime.
5. Such that the conception of it may be naturally
vivid and intense.
6. Public, addressed to the senses.
7. Reformative.
8. Disabling; viz. from crime,
9. Remediable; viz. if afterwards found to be unde¬
served.
10. Compensative; viz. to the party injured.
11. Productive; viz. to the community, as labour.
Of all the instruments of punishment which have yet
occurred to the ingenuity of man, there is none which
unites these desirable qualities in anything like an equal
degree with the Panopticon Penitentiary, as devised and
described by Mr Bentham.
One general rule applies in the case of all the lots of
punishment. It is this: That the private good which has
operated as the motive to the injurious action should, in
all possible cases, be cut off, and the expected enjoyment
prevented. Where this can be done completely, all the
additional punishment necessary is only that which would
suffice to compensate the want of certainty and proxi¬
mity in the act of deprivation ; for no man wmuld commit a
crime which he was sure he could not profit by; no man
would steal, if he knew that the property stolen would
that minute be taken from him. The interests which are
capable of being promoted by a criminal act may be
summed up under the following titles:
1. Money, or money’s worth.
2. Powrer.
3. Revenge.
4. Vanity, emulation.
5. Sensual pleasure, chiefly venereal.
6. Safety in respect to legal punishment.
With respect to four of these interests, viz. money,
power, vanity, and safety in respect to legal punishment,
the contemplated benefit is capable, in many cases, of
being completely intercepted.
In the case in which revenge has operated through the
degradation of the party suffering, the evil-doer may be
disappointed by re-exaltation of the degraded party.
Sensual pleasure, having been enjoyed, is beyond the
reach of this operation.
It is highly worthy of observation, that, among the ad¬
vantages constituting the motives to crime, those which
can be cut off, and from the enjoyment of which the offender
can be precluded, constitute by far the most frequent in¬
centives to crime.
Nothing which can in any degree interfere with the rights of conscience, including whatever interpretation any man may put upon
the woras or Scripture, is here understood. It is the object of the legislator to encourage acts which are useful, prevent acts which
are hurtful, to society. But religious hopes and fears are often applied, not to promote acts which are useful, prevent acts which are
huitful, to society ; in which way alone they are capable of conducing to the views of the legislator; but to mere ceremonies. And
cases are not wanting in which they are applied to produce acts that are hurtful, prevent those that are useful, to society. As far as
leiigious motives are attached to the useful instead of the useless or hurtful objects, society is benefited. It is this benefit which it
is recommended to the legislator to pursue.
inspru- This must sufficG us a summary of what should be said
lence. on the mode of applying pain most usefully for the pre-
vention of certain acts. It only remains to add, that the
following are the cases in which it may be pronounced
unfit that pain should be employed for that purpose:
1. Where the evil to the community does not over¬
balance the good to the individual.
2. Where the evil necessary for the punishment would
outweigh the evil of the act.
3. Where the evil created is not calculated to prevent
the act.
4. Where the end could be obtained by other means.
ecQde vn—\ve have now, therefore, stated what the limits
™ce' of this discourse enable us to adduce on the subject of
the main body of the law ; the enactments of the legisla¬
ture with respect to rights, and with respect to those acts
by which rights are violated. It remains that we consider
that subsidiary branch of law, by which an agency is con¬
stituted for the purpose of carrying those enactments into
effect. The inquiry here is, 1. what are the operations
essential to that agency ; 2. by what agents are they most
likely to be well performed ; and, 3. what are the best se¬
curities that can be taken for the good conduct of those
agents.
It most significantly illustrates the manner in which
ignorance gropes its way in the dark, to observe that the
agency, the sole end of which is to carry into execution
the civil and penal laws, was created first, and was in ope¬
ration for ages, before the idea of the other branches
of law was even tolerably framed. It is also worthy of
remark, that the men whose wisdom rules our affairs, are
in the habit of calling the mode in which ignorance gropes
its way in the dark, by the name of experience ; the mode
of acting upon a plan, and with forethought, by the names
of theory and speculation.
There is instruction in observing the mode in which
this inverted course of law-making was pursued. Men
disputed; and their disputes were attended with the
most destructive consequences. Originally, the king, at
the head of the military force, and his subordinates, each
at the head of a section of that force, interfered in those
disputes. After a time, the king appointed functionaries,
under the name of judges, for that particular service.
Those judges decided, without any rule, by their own
discretion. The feelings of the community, grounded
upon their experience of what tended to good and evil
upon the whole, pointed vaguely to certain things as right,
to other things as wrong; and to these the judge, as often
as he was bona fide, conformed his decision. The mode
was similar both in arbitrating and in punishing.
As punishing, especially in the severer cases, was an act
which made a vivid impression upon the mind, the mode
in which that act had been performed in previous cases
was apt to be remembered ; of the several modes, that
which was most approved by the public would naturally be
followed the most frequently, and at last there would be a
species of scandal, if it was unnecessarily departed from.
In this way a uniformity, more or less perfect, was esta¬
blished, in punishing the more heinous offences ; and in
regard to them custom first established what had some
small portion of the attributes of a law.
In those cases in which, without a call for punishment,
the authoritative termination of a dispute was all that was
required, the experience of what was necessary, not only
for any degree of mutual comfort, but even for the means
of subsistence, soon established a few leading points of uni¬
formity. Thus, when a man had cultivated a piece of
ground which belonged to nobody more peculiarly than
to himself, it was evidently necessary that the crop should
be considered as belonging to him ; otherwise, no crops
JURISPRUDENCE.
643
would be raised, and the community would be deprived of Jurisnru-
the means of subsistence. deuce.
These general feelings, with the remembrance, more or
less perfect, of what had been done in similar cases, were
the only guide; and it is surprising to what an extent,
over the surface of the whole globe, law has, in all ages,
remained in that state of imperfect existence, if, indeed
with any propriety, it can be called a state of existence!
In eveiy part of Asia, and in all ages, law has remained
in that state of existence or non-existence. In Europe,
where, at a pretty early period, it became the practice to
record in writing the proceedings of the judges, the na¬
tural propensity of referring to the past as a rule for the
present begat in time a species of obligation of being di¬
rected by the examples which had already been set. This
created a uniformity and certainty, which, however im¬
perfect, afforded something better than the arbitrary pro¬
ceedings of Asiatic judges. Yet this was a benefit which
had a dreadful alloy. A body, not of law, but of deci¬
sions, out of which, on each particular occasion, a law
foi that particular occasion, as out of the crude ore, was to
be smelted, hammered, and wire-drawn, was the natural
material out of which to manufacture a system of chicane.
How accurately the system of law, in the several nations
of Europe, has conformed to the character of a system
of chicane, is matter of present and lamentable experience.
The uncertainty, the delay, the vexation and expense,
and that immorality of the worst species with which they
inundate the community, are not the only evils, great
as they are, of laws constructed upon such a plan. A sys¬
tem of laws, so constructed, becomes an instrument of
conservation for the barbarous customs and ideas of the
times in which they were engendered; and infests socie¬
ty with the evils of an age which it has left behind.
To conceive the operations which are necessary to give
effect to the enactments of the legislature, it is necessary
to conceive the occasions which call for them.
When the legislature has established rights, so long as
there is no dispute about those rights, and so long as there
is no complaint of any violation of them, so long there is
no occasion for any agency to give to the enactments of
the legislature their effect. The moment, however, one
person says, the right to that object is mine, and another
person says no, but the right to that object is mine; or
the moment any man complains that such or such a right
belonging to him another man has violated, that moment
occasion for the agency in question begins.
It is evident, also, that the operations necessary to give
effect to the enactments of the legislature are confined to
those two occasions, namely, that on which a right is dis¬
puted, and that on which it has been violated. On the
occasions on which a right is disputed, it is requisite to
determine to whom it belongs. On the occasions on
which a right has been violated, it is sometimes only re¬
quired to compel reparation to the injured party; some¬
times it is necessary, besides, to inflict punishment upon
the offender. The question is, What are the operations
required for these several results ?
Where a right is disputed, all possible cases maybe re¬
solved into that of A who affirms, and B who denies. That
right is mine, says A ; it is not yours, says B.
I he first question to be asked of A is, which, among
those facts which the legislature has determined shall
give commencement to rights, happened in such a man¬
ner as to give commencement to that.which is claimed as
a right by him.
If no such fact is affirmed, the right does not exist.
If some such fact is affirmed, it may be met by the oppo¬
nent in one of two ways. B either may deny the fact, and
affirm that the right never had a commencement; or he
may allow the fact, and admit that the right had a com-
644
JURISPRUDENCE.
Jurispru- mencement, but affirm that there bad subsequently hap-
dence. pened one of those facts which put an end to rights : ad-
mitting that A bought the horse, and had a right to him
in the month of July, he might affirm that A sold him
again in August, and by that transaction put an end to his
right.
When B meets the affirmation of A in the first way,
that is, by denying the commencement of the right, he
may do it in either of two ways. He may deny the in¬
vestitive fact which A affirms, or, not denying the fact, he
may affirm some antecedent fact which deprived it of its in¬
vestitive power. Thus, if A affirmed that he got the pro¬
perty by occupancy, B may affirm that it was not open to
occupancy, but the property of another person. If A
affirmed that he got the property by succession to his fa¬
ther, B may allow the fact of the succession, but affirm
that the property did not belong to the father of A at the
time of his death.
Whenever the legislature has accurately determined
what are the facts which shall give commencement, and
what those which shall give termination, to a right, the
whole confused and intricate mass of what in English
law is called pleading, reduces itself to these clear and
simple elements. A begins by affirming some one of
the facts which gives commencement to a right. B
may deny this fact directly. A affirms contract, for ex¬
ample ; B denies it; and then of course comes the evi¬
dence. Or, instead of denying it, B may affirm an an¬
tecedent fact which deprived the fact affirmed by A of
its investitive force; or he may affirm a subsequent fact,
which put an end to the right. In those two cases in
which B affirms a new fact, A must be called upon for a re¬
ply ; in other words, asked whether he admits or denies it.
If he admits, there is an end of course to the claim of A.
If he denies, then again we have affirmation and denial
upon a matter of fact, which is to be determined by the
production of evidence.
This is the first part of the proceeding, neither intri¬
cate nor obscure. The next is, the adduction of evidence.
A fact is disputed; affirmed on the one side, denied on
the other. A produces evidence to prove the fact, B pro¬
duces evidence to disprove it. The decision is on the one
side or the other, and the dispute is at an end.
If both parties obey the decision, there is no occasion
for another act. If the losing party disobeys, force is
necessary to compel obedience. This is called execution,
and terminates the agency required.
It is needless to particularize a penal proceeding, all
the possible varieties of which fall under one or other of
the cases illustrated.
Thus, when a man is charged with a crime, the prose¬
cutor affirms one of the acts violating rights, to which
punishment is annexed by the legislator. The defendant
can meet this affirmation in one of two ways only. First,
he may deny the act, and then the second stage of pro¬
ceeding, the adduction of evidence, immediately takes
place. Or, not denying the act, he may affirm some pre¬
vious act, which prevented it from having the effect of
violating a right. Not denying the fact of taking the
horse out of the field with a view to appropriate him, he
may affirm a previous purchase, gift, &c. The adduction
of evidence has nothing peculiar in the case of a penal
proceeding at law. In the last stage, that of execution, the
peculiar act of inflicting punishment is required.
Having thus a view, though very summary, of the ope¬
rations required, we shall be the better able to judge of
the agents necessary for the performance.
The stages, we have observed, are three. The Jirst is
that in which the plaintiff adduces the fact on which he
relies, and is met by the defendant either with a denial
of the fact, or the affirmation of another fact which, to
maintain the suit, the plaintiff must deny. The second is Jurispn
that in which evidence, to prove or disprove the fact on dence.
which the affirmation and denial of the parties ultimately
rests, is adduced and decided upon. The third is that in
which the operations are performed necessary for giving
effect to the sentence of the judge.
What is desirable in the operations of the first stage is, First sta
\st, That the affirmations and negations with respect to°fthejui
the facts should be true; and, 2^, that the facts them-cial busi-
selves should be such as really to have the quality as-11688,
cribed to them. For the first of these purposes, all the
securities which the nature of the case admits of, should
be taken, for the veracity of the parties. There is the
same sort of reason that the parties should speak truly,
as that the witnesses should speak truly. They should
speak, therefore, under all the sanctions and penalties of
a witness. They cannot, indeed, in many cases swear
to the existence or non-existence of the fact, which may
not have been within their cognizance. But they can
always swear to the state of their belief with respect to it.
For the second of the above purposes, namely, that it may
be known whether the facts affirmed and denied are such
as to possess the quality ascribed to them, two things are
necessary: the first is, that all investitive and divestitive
facts, and all acts by which rights are violated, should have
been clearly predetermined by the legislature ; in other
words, that there should be a well-made code : the se¬
cond is, that the affirmations and denials with respect to
them should be made in the presence of somebody capa¬
ble of telling exactly whether they have the quality ascrib¬
ed to them or not. The judge is a person with this know¬
ledge, and to him alone can the power of deciding on mat¬
ters so essential to the result of the inquiry be intrusted.
To have this important part of the business done, then,
in the best possible way, it is necessary that the parties
should meet in the very first instance in the presence of
the judge. A is asked, upon his oath, to mention the fact
which he believes confers upon him or has violated his
right. If it is not a fact capable of having that effect, he
is told so, and his claim is at an end. If it is a fact capa¬
ble of having that effect, B is asked whether he denies it;
or whether he affirms another fact, either one of those
which, happening previously, would prevent it from having
its imputed effect, or, in a civil case, one of those which,
happening subsequently, would put an end to the right to
which the previous fact gave commencement. If he affirm¬
ed only a fact which could have neither of these effects,
the pretension of B would be without foundation.
Done in this manner, the clearness, the quickness, and
the certainty of the whole proceeding are demonstrated.
Remarkable it is, that every one of the rules for doing it
in the best possible manner is departed from by the Eng¬
lish law, and that to the greatest possible extent. No
security whatsoever is taken that the parties shall speak
the truth; they are left with perfect impunity, aptly by
Mr Bentham denominated the mendacity-license, to tell as
many lies as they please. The legislature has never enu¬
merated and defined the facts which give commencement,
or put a period to or violate rights ; the subject, therefore,
remains in a state of confusion, obscurity, and uncertainty.
And, lastly, the parties do not make their affirmations and
negations before the judge, who would tell them whether
the facts which they allege could or could not have the
virtue ascribed to them; they make them in secret and in
writing, each along with his attorney, who has a motive
to make them, not in the way most conducive to the in¬
terests of his client, but in the way most conducive to his
own interests, and those of his confederates, from the bot¬
tom to the top of the profession. First, A, the plaintiff,
writes what is called the declaration, an instrument for the
most part full of irrelevant absurdity and lies; and this he
JURISPRUDENCE.
irispru- deposits in an office, where the attorney of B, the defen-
lence. dant, obtains a copy of it, on paying a fee. Next B, the
defendant, meets the declaration of A, by what is called a
plea, the form of which is not less absurd than that of the
declaration. The plea is written and put into the same
office, out of which the attorney of the opposite party ob¬
tains a copy of it on similar terms. The plea may be of
two sorts; either, Irf, a dilatory plea, as it is called; or,
‘idly, a plea to the action. To this plea the plaintiff may
make a replication, proceeding through the same process.
To the replication the defendant may put in a rejoinder.
The plaintiff may answer the rejoinder by a sur-rejoinder.
This, again, the defendant may oppose by a rebutter, and
the plaintiff may answer him by a sur-rebutter.
All this takes place without being once seen or heard of
by the judge ; and no sooner has it come before him than
some flaw is perhaps discovered in it, whereupon he quashes
the whole, and sends it to be performed again from the be¬
ginning.
This mischievous mess, which exists in defiance and
mockery of reason, English lawyers inform us, is a strict,
and pure, and beautiful exemplification of the rules of lo¬
gic. This is a common language of theirs. It is a language
which clearly demonstrates the state of their minds. All
that they see in the system of pleading is the mode of per¬
forming it. What they know of logic is little more than
the name.
The agency necessary for the performance of this portion
of the business is some person who, when he hears a fact
affirmed and denied, can tell whether it is one of those facts
to which the legislature has attached the power of giving
commencement or of putting a period to rights. It is evi¬
dent, that on such occasion any one person, with the requi¬
site knowledge, attention, and probity, is as competent to
the task as a hundred. If he is single, the attention and
probity is likely to be the greatest, as responsibility is not
weakened merely, it is almost annihilated, by being shared.
There should be one judge, therefore, and not more, to su¬
perintend that branch of procedure which consists of plead¬
ing.
Mid The agency best adapted to the business of the second
rial 6s.tage of judicature is that which next demands our atten-
iness. t*on’ *s t^ie business of taking evidence ; in other words,
the doing all that is necessary to ascertain whether the dis¬
puted fact happened, or did not happen.
The subject of evidence is a matter of complexity in the
detail. And where any thing complex is to be stated in
words, there is always difficulty in the expression, how plain
soever the ideas. Such general considerations, however,
as we can even here adduce, will, we hope, throw sufficient
light upon the subject, to leave no doubt with respect to
the conclusions which we have it in view to establish.
This is one of the topics connected with law which Mr
Bentham has exhausted, though a small part only of what
he has written upon it has yet seen the light.1
With respect to all facts legally operative, that is, which
give or take away rights, it is desirable that evidence
amounting to proof should if possible always exist. With
respect to a great proportion of them, it is in the power of
the legislature to take measures that evidence of them shall
be collected at the moment of their happening, and shall
be preserved. I his is the case with all those of which an
evidentiary writing can be made and preserved by registra-
fion; all contracts, births, deaths, marriages, and so on.
The proportion is really very great of the whole number of
facts legally operative, in regard to which a legislature, by
proper means, might secure the existence of evidence, and
645
to that extent might either prevent disputes, or render the Jurispru-
decision of them easy. That so little of this most im- dence.
portant and obvious work has anywhere been done, only
shows how ill the legislatures of the world have hitherto per-
oimed theii duty. It is in the power of the legislature, by
a pioper classification, to have an accurate formulary for
the different species of contracts, wills, and other eviden¬
tiary writings. Those formularies, properly made and
printed with blanks to fill up, would render the business of
conveyancing, which in England is a boundless, trackless,
and almost impenetrable jungle, abounding with expense,
with delay, and vexation to parties, with wealth and almost
boundless power over the fortunes of other men to lawyers,
a thing of the greatest simplicity, certainty, and ease.
Into the question of what might be and ought -to be
done by the legislature, for making and preserving evi¬
dence or the principal facts by which rights are made to
begin or to end, we cannot enter at length on the present
occasion. The great importance of the subject is evident
from what we have thus shortly advanced.
_ he business of him who is only called upon to deter¬
mine whether a disputed fact did or did not happen, is, to
make the best use of all the evidence which exists, whether
it were or were not desirable that more had been made to
exist. For the best use of that which exists, three things
are necessary :
1^, That the whole of it should be made to bear, that is,
should be taken and applied.
2dly, I hat it should be taken in those circumstances
which are most conducive to trust-worthiness.
2>dly, I hat the proper value should be set upon each ar¬
ticle, and upon the whole.
1. That the evidence may be taken as completely as
possible, two things are necessary. The first is, that the
judge should have power to send for, and to compel the
attendance of, all persons and things which may be capa¬
ble of affording evidence. The second is, that the evi¬
dence should all be taken, and nothing be omitted or lost.
It is not necessary here to enter into any details with re¬
spect to the first of those requisites. The necessity of the
power is obvious, and the end to be attained is so precise
and perspicuous, that there can be no difficulty in conceiv¬
ing the mode of putting together and applying the means.
There is no limit, it is obvious, to the physical power which
should be placed at the disposal of the judge. He ought
to have the right of calling upon every man, upon the
whole community, to aid him in any act which is neces¬
sary to the performance of any part of his judicial duty ;
because any force opposed to the performance of that duty,
there ought to be a force sufficient promptly to overcome.
It is convenient, however, to the community, instead of
being liable to be called upon individually, for the perfor¬
mance of the ordinary services auxiliary to the business of
the judge, to provide him with a proper number of officers
paid for attending to execute his commands. Their prin¬
cipal business, as regards this stage of the judicial proceed¬
ings, is, to serve notice upon any persons whose own pre¬
sence, or that of any writing or other thing which they
may possess, is required by the judge. Persons or things
subjected immediately to the operations of judicature have
a particular name in English. They are said to be forth¬
coming, a word which has an exact equivalent in few other
languages, and is exceedingly appropriate and useful. It
is of the greatest convenience, when a concrete term, the
use of which is very frequent, has an abstract term corre¬
sponding^ to it; as good has goodness ; hard, hardness ; and
so on. I here was not any word in the language corre-
that hanov^brirf ^ wr‘tiri£i\Jias be^ presented to the public by Mr Dumont, the first of translators and redacteurs, in
1 naPPy torm which he has given to other portions of that philosopher’s manuscripts. ^
JURISPRUDENCE.
646
Jurispru- spending in this way to forthcoming. Mr Bentham, per-
dence. ceiving the great need of it, made the term forthcoming-
ness; not exceptionable on the score either of harshness
or obscurity. The small wits thought proper to laugh at
him. We shall, nevertheless,—sorry at the same time
that we cannot supply a defect in the language without of¬
fending them,—make use of the word, in which we find
great appropriateness and great convenience. This par¬
ticular branch, therefore, of the judicial agency, is that
which relates to forthcomingness ; and forthcomingness is
required for two purposes, both for evidence and for justi¬
ciability ; for evidence, that a true decision may be passed ;
for justiciability, that the sentence of the judge may not
fail of its intended effect.
So much with respect to the forthcomingness of evidence.
The second condition required to give the decision the
benefit of all existing evidence is, that the whole should
be taken, and that not any part of it which can be taken
without preponderant inconvenience should be excluded
and lost.
Of the several articles of evidence, some will always be
of more importance, some of less ; and some may be of
very little importance ; but whether of little or of much,
it is always desirable that all should be taken, and every
the smallest portion counted for what it is worth. The
discovery of truth is promoted by taking advantage of
every thing which tends to throw light upon the subject
of dispute.
These propositions it may appear to be useless, indeed
impertinent, formally to state. They are too evident, it
may be said, to be disputed, and too important to be over¬
looked. Important as they are, and undisputed by all the
rest of the world, they are not only disputed, but trampled
upon, by lawyers, especially English lawyers. They have
unhappily established a set of rules in direct opposition to
them. These rules they applaud in all forms of expres¬
sion, and celebrate as guards and fences of all that is dear
to mankind.
In all causes, they have determined that persons so and
so situated, things so and so situated, though apt to be
pregnant with information beyond all other persons and
things, shall not be admitted as sources of evidence. Thus,
in English law, we have incompetency of witnesses, that
is, exclusion of them, Is#, from want of understanding ;
2dly, from defect of religious principle ; 3dly, from infamy
of character ; \thly, from interest. These are undisguis¬
ed modes of exclusion ; besides which, there is an exten¬
sive assortment of disguised modes. Under this title
comes the rule, that only the best evidence be given which
the nature of the case admits of; according to which, it
often happens that the only evidence which can be had is
excluded. Under this title also falls the rule, making
certain kinds of evidence conclusive, by which proceeding
all other evidence is excluded. To the same list belongs
the rule that hearsay evidence is not admissible. The
rules, so extensive in their application, by which writings
are wholly rejected, only because they want certain for¬
mularies, are rules of exclusion ; and so are the limitations
with respect to time, and to number of witnesses. Into
the very extensive subject, however, of the absurdity and
mischievousness of the rules of evidence in English law,
we cannot pretend so much as to enter. A remarkable
exemplification of them was afforded on the trial of War¬
ren Hastings, to which, for this purpose, the reader may
be referred. (See Mill’s History of British India, book vi.
chap, ii.)
The only conceivable reasons for the exclusion of evi¬
dence are three :
1. Irrelevancy.
2. Inconvenience in obtaining and producing.
3. Danger of deception.
With regard to irrelevancy, the decision is clear. What Jurispr
has no tendency either to prove or disprove the point in dence.
question, it would be loss of time to receive.
With regard to inconvenience, it is no doubt liable to
happen, that when all the good which can be expected
from the obtaining of a lot of evidence is compared with the
evil of the delay, cost, and vexation, inseparable from the
obtaining of it, the evil may be more than an overmatch for
the good. In all such cases it is expedient that the lot of
evidence should be foregone.
As a guard against the danger of deception, it is equal¬
ly certain that no evidenee ought ever to be excluded.
An account of all the reasons by which the absurdity of
exclusion on this ground is demonstrated, and of the wide
and deplorable mischief which, in the vulgar systems, is
produced by it, would be far too extensive for the con¬
tracted limits of the present discourse. Reasons, however,
decisive of the question, present themselves so obviously,
that hardly any man, with an ordinary understanding, not
fettered by prejudice, can look at the subject without per¬
ceiving them.
If evidence is to be received from no source from which
evidence, liable to produce deception, is capable of com¬
ing, evidence must not be received at all. Evidence must
be received from sources whence false evidence as well
as true is liable to flow. To refuse all information from
such sources, is not the way by which a knowledge of the
truth can be obtained. This is the way to make sure
of not having that knowledge. The means of obtaining it
are, to receive information from every possible source, and
to separate the bad from the good, under all those secu¬
rities, and by the guidance of all those marks, of which
understanding and attention know how to avail themselves.
It is not enough to say, we will receive information from
those sources only which are least likely to yield decep-
tious evidence, refuse to receive it from those which are
most likely. You are obliged to receive it from sources
differing in almost all possible degrees of likelihood.
Where are you to draw the line of separation ? Is not
the same discernment which guards you against the dan¬
ger of false information from the sources which you deem
the least likely to yield it, sufficient to guard you against
it from those sources which you deem the most likely to
do so ? In fact it will be still more sufficient, because in
this case you will be much more apt to be upon your
guard. The very best information is, in truth, liable to
be derived from the very worst of sources,—from a man
who, you know, would not tell you one word of truth if
he could help it.
The securities that a man will give true information, in¬
dependently of those artificial securities which the legisla¬
ture can apply equally to all, are, Is#, intelligence; 2t%,
probity ; 2>dly, freedom from interest. Suppose that one or
two or all of these securities are wanting, it only follows,
that what he states should be heard with a proportional
distrust. It may still be of the utmost importance to the
discovery of the truth that he should be heard. Hear him
with the proper allowances. This must always be more
favourable to the discovery of the truth, than that he should
not be heard at all. His testimony may appear, when heard,
to be utterly unworthy of credence. But that could not be
known till it was heard and examined. It might have so
been, that it was not only worthy of credence, but complet¬
ed the proof of a fact of the greatest possible importance.
That a man should not be heard as a witness, on account
of his religious creed, is an absurdity which we cannot de¬
scend to notice.
2. The second of the three things which we found ne¬
cessary, as above, for making the best use judicially of what- _
ever evidence to the fact in question exists, was, that it
should be taken under those circumstances which are most
JURISPRUDENCE.
urispni- conducive to trust-worthiness. Those circumstances are
dence. constituted by the artificial securities, which arrangements
can be made to apply. The following enumeration of them
has been made by Mr Bentham {Introduction to the Ra¬
tionale of Evidence, p. 54), and appears to be complete.
1. Punishment.
2. Shame.
3. Interrogation, including counter-interrogation.
4. Counter evidence,—admission of.
5. Writing,—use made of it for giving permanence, &c.
to evidence.
6. Publicity,—to most purposes, and on most occasions.
7. Privacy,—to some purposes, and on some occasions.
For developing the import of these several securities, we
can afford to say nothing. The principal operation of the
judicial functionary in this part of the business is, to pre¬
side over the interrogation ; to see that it is properly and
completely performed. The question, then, what is the
sort of agency best adapted for the performance of this part
of the task of taking evidence, is not difficult to answer.
There is nothing in it which one man, with the proper in¬
tellectual and moral qualifications, is not as capable of per¬
forming as any number of men.
3. All the existing evidence being collected and receiv¬
ed, it only remains that the proper value should be attach¬
ed to the several portions, and a corresponding decision
pronounced.
It is sufficiently evident that, for the performance of this
duty, no very precise instructions can be laid down. The
value which belongs to an article of evidence often depends
on minute and almost indescribable circumstances; and the
result must be left to the sagacity and conscience of the
judge.
At the same time, however, service to this end, and of
the greatest importance, may be, and of course ought to
be, rendered by the legislature. The different marks of
trust-worthiness may, to a certain extent of particularity,
be very correctly described. This being done, the differ¬
ence between the value of any two lots of evidence to
which those marks attach may be very exactly ascertain¬
ed. One has a certain number of the marks of trust-wor¬
thiness, as laid down by the legislature ; another has all
these and so many more ; the result is clear. It is evident,
that as far, in this respect, as experience and foresight can
go, nothing should be left undone by the legislature.
Another important service can be rendered by the legis¬
lature, and that is, to provide an accurate language for the
judge; a language in which he can express precisely the
degree of value which he allots to each article of evidence,
and to the whole. Various expedients may be adopted for
this purpose. A very obvious one is, to fix upon some par¬
ticular, well-known article of evidence, the value of which
all men appreciate equally; the clear testimony, for ex¬
ample, of a man of the ordinary degree of intelligence and
probity, as a standard. Is the value to be expressed, which
the judge attaches to any other article of evidence ? If in¬
ferior to the standard, it falls below it by so many degrees,
one, two, three, four; if superior, it rises above it by so
many.
Having provided an accurate language, the legislature
should take security that it be used ; and admit of no vague
and general expressions in the account of the value which
the judge attaches to each article of the evidence on which
he grounds his decision.
At the same time that the legislature insists upon the
use of precise language in stating the value of evidence, it
should insist upon reasons ; upon receiving from the judge
a precise statement of the grounds upon which he attaches
such a value, and no other, to each and every article of
evidence ; that is, upon receiving a reference, as exact as
language can give, to each of the circumstances which con-
647
tributed to suggest to him that particular estimate which Jurisnru-
he says he has formed. dence.
Of the importance of all these expedients we presume
that no illustration is required.
We come now to the third and last stage of the business Third stage
or judicature ; when all that remains is to carry into effect of the ju-
the sentence of the judge. dicial busi-
When they upon whom the sentence operates are will-ness*
ing to obey, all that is necessary is to afford them notice of
what it requires them to perform. In well-ordered coun¬
tries, all but a very insignificant number will be found to
be cases of this description. When opposition is to be
overcome, a physical force must be provided, sufficient for
the purpose. As there seems nothing mysterious in deter¬
mining how this should be formed, and under what rules
it should act, to secure the ends for which it is provided,
with the smallest possible amount of collateral evil, we
shall here take leave of the subject.
VH.—We have now seen the whole of the operations toThe judi-
be performed. The parties are required to state before the cial esta-
judge the investitive or divestitive facts on which they rely, bhshnient.
If they state, for this purpose, a fact which is not possessed 9r the best
of those qualities, they are immediately told that it is not <■
possessed of them, and not calculated to support their claim. Km the
They come, by two or three steps at the longest, to a fact laws,
upon which the question ultimately turns, and which is
either contested or not contested. In a great many cases
it would not be contested. When the subject was stript
of disguise, the party who had no right would generally
see that he had no hope, and would acquiesce. The suit
would thus be terminated without the adduction of evi¬
dence. . When it wTas not, the cases would be frequent in
which it might be terminated by the evidence which the
parties brought along with them. In these cases, also, the
first hearing would suffice. A vast majority of the whole
number of suits would be included in these two sets of
cases. For the decision of a vast majority, therefore, of
the whole number of suits, a few minutes would suffice.
When all the evidence could not be forthcoming at the
first hearing, and only then, would a second hearing be re¬
quired. In this mode of proceeding, justice would be, that
without w hich it is not justice, expeditious and cheap.
In all this there is nothing which one man, with the ap¬
propriate intellectual and moral qualities, is not as compe¬
tent to perform as any number of men. As one man is
cheaper than any greater number, that is one reason why
no more than one judge should be allowed to one tribu¬
nal.
The next object of inquiry is, to ascertain what securi¬
ties can be provided that those who are intrusted with the
business of judicature shall possess the requisite intellec¬
tual and moral endowments.
The intellectual endowments depend upon those who Securitas
have the power of choosing and of dismissing the judges, for the in.
and who do or do not appoint men whose knowledge and tellectual
capacity are ascertained. The moral behaviour of theendow-
judges depends upon the interests which act upon them in iuen-tsr1of
the situation in wFich they are placed. the judge.
Into the question, who should have the appointment of
the judges, w e do not intend to enter. The answer would
be different under different forms of government; and this
is not the place to compare the different forms of govern¬
ment, either for this or any other of the ends of its insti¬
tution. One thing only we shall state, because it carries
its evidence along with it. Those who appoint the judges
ought to have no interest contrary to the best administra¬
tion of justice.
As the uprightness of the judge is assailed by interests
inseparable from his situation, viz. the profit which he may
derive from misdecision, it is necessary to counterbalance
648 JURISPRUDENCE.
Jurispru- them by opposite interests, assuming the character of seen-
dence. rities. Several of the securities which we have already
seen applying to the situation of witness, apply also to the
fbrthemo s'tuati°n of judge : some are peculiar to each. The fol-
ral qimli-0" lo'viog is the list of those which apply to the situation of
ties of the judge,
judge. 1. Punishment.
2. Shame.
3. Publicity.
4. Writing, for the sake of accuracy and permanency.
5. Singleness of the functionary.
6. Appeal.
For the punishment of the several kinds of judicial of¬
fences, provision ought to be made in the penal code.
In the case of the judge there is particular occasion to
point accurately, and to strengthen to the utmost, the ope¬
ration of shame ; for in the situation of judge it is possible
to be guilty of offences very numerous and very serious,
without permitting so much of evidence to attach to any
definite act, as would suffice to form a ground for punish¬
ment.
The great instrument for the application of shame is
publicity. The importance of publicity, therefore, is para¬
mount. It is not only the great instrument for creating
and applying the moral sanction, the approbation and dis¬
approbation" of mankind ; but it is of essential service to¬
wards the application of punishment, by making known the
occasions on which it is deserved. It is not only a great
security in itself, but it is the principle of life and strength
to all other securities.
All other publicity is feeble and of little worth compar¬
ed with that of the press. Not only, therefore, ought this
to be allowed to operate with its utmost force upon the
judge, but effectual provision ought to be made to cause it
to operate upon him with its utmost force. Not only ought
the judgment-hall to be rendered as convenient as possible
for the "reception of the public ; not only ought the great¬
est freedom to be enjoyed in publishing the proceedings of
the judge, and in publishing all manner of observations
upon them, favourable or unfavourable; but measures
ought to be taken to make a public, and to produce publi¬
cation, where there is any chance that a voluntary public,
and voluntary publication, would be wanting. For this
purpose, unless other very important considerations inter¬
vene, the judgment-seat should always be in that place,
within the district to which it belongs, where the most nu¬
merous and intelligent public, and the best means of pub¬
lication, are to be had.
In England, where there is no definition of libel, and
where the judges, therefore, are allowed to punish, under
the name of libel, whatever writing they do not like, the
publishing of unfavourable observations on the conduct of
a judge, nay, in some instances, and these the highest in
importance, the simple report of his proceedings, is treated
as one of the most heinous of all possible offences. No
wonder! Allow judges, or allow any men, to frame laws,
and they will frame them, if they can, to answer their own
purposes. Who would not, if he could, make a law to pro¬
tect himself from censure ? More especially if he were a
man disposed to act in such a way as to deserve censure.
Would you allow falsehood to be published against the
judge? The word falsehood is here ambiguous. It means
both erroneous opinions, and false statements with regard
to fact. Erroneous opinions we would undoubtedly per¬
mit, because we know no standard for ascertaining them,
other than that which is afforded by public discussion;
and because this is an adequate remedy for all the evil
which erroneous opinions have any tendency to produce.
Affirmation of facts injurious to the judge, if false, and
made without reasonable grounds for having been believed
to be true, we would prevent.
Allow facts injurious to the judge to be published, even JuriSpn
when true ; allow comments unfavourable to the judge to dence.
be made upon his actions, you discredit the administra-
tion of justice. Discredit the administration of justice, to
which the people are resorting every day for the greatest
of all possible benefits, protection from injury! As well
talk of discrediting the business of a bread-baker, a meat-
seller, if the fraudulent dealer is exposed to the censures
of the public ! Discredit the administration of justice, in¬
deed, by taking measures of security against the vices of
judges, indispensable for its perfection !
The importance of recording, in permanent characters,
what takes place before the judge, we must content our¬
selves with assuming. We may do so, it is presumed,
with propriety, on account of the facility with which the
reasons present themselves. We must also leave it to our
readers to draw the line of distinction between the occa¬
sions on which it is requisite, and the occasions on which
it may be dispensed with ; the occasions, for example,
where everything is simple and clear, and all parties are
satisfied.
It is a great security, both for diligent and for upright
conduct in the judge, that he occupy singly the judgment-
seat. When a man knows that the whole credit and re¬
ward of what is done well, the whole punishment and dis¬
grace of what is done ill, will belong to himself, the mo¬
tive to good conduct is exceedingly increased. When a
man hopes that he can shuffle off the blafne of negligence,
the blame of unfairness, or fix a part of it on another,
the uncertainty of the punishment operates, as we have
already seen, to the diminution, and almost to the extinc¬
tion, of its preventive force. Certain common, and even
proverbial expressions, mark the general experience of
that indifference with which a duty that belongs in com¬
mon to many is apt to be performed. What is every
body’s business is nobody’s. This is as true in the family
as in the state; as true in judicature as in ordinary life.
Much remains to be said upon this topic, which is one
of great importance; but we must pass to the next.
Of the use of appeal as a security against the miscon¬
duct of the judge, there is the less occasion to adduce any
proof, because it seems to be fully recognised by the prac¬
tice of nations.
One thing, however, which is not recognised by that
practice is, that if it is necessary in any one sort of causes,
so it is in every other, without exception. Not a single
reason can be given why it should exist in one set of
cases, which is not equally strong to prove that it should
exist in every other.
It is instructive to observe the cases in which it has
been supposed that it ought to exist, and the cases in
which it has been supposed that it might be omitted. The
cases in which it has been thought necessary, are those
which concern property of considerable value. Those in
which it has been dispensed with are those which con¬
cern property of inconsiderable value. The first set of
cases are those which are of importance to the aristocra-
tical class, the second are those which are of no impor¬
tance to that class. It is the aristocratical class who have
made the laws : they have accordingly declared that the
suits which were important to them should have the bene¬
fit of appeal; the suits not important to them should not
have the benefit of appeal.
We recognise only one standard of importance, name¬
ly, influence upon human happiness and misery. The
small sum of money for which the suit of the poor man is
instituted is commonly of much greater importance to
him, than the larger sum for which the suit of the rich
man is instituted is to the rich. Again, for one rich man
there are thousands and thousands of poor. In the cal¬
culation, then, of perfect benevolence, the suits for the
J U R
(ury small sums are not, as in the calculation of perfect aristo-
|j cracy, those of the least, or rather no importance ; they
vTrial.are 0f ten thousand times greater importance than the
suits for the largest sums.
If an appeal ought to be had, how many stages should
there be of appeal ? I his question, we imagine, is easily
answered. If you go for a second judgment, you should,
if possible, go to the very best source: and if you go at
once to the best source, why go any farther?
What is required to be done, in the case of an appeal,
is the first thing which deserves to be ascertained. An
appeal takes place in consequence of a complaint against
the previous judge. Where no complaint, there is no ap¬
peal, nor place for appeal.
A complaint against the judge must relate to his con¬
duct, either at the first, the second, or the third stage, of
the judicial operations.
If to his conduct at the first stage, it must be a com¬
plaint of his having permitted a party to rest upon a fact
which had not the investitive or divestitive quality ascribed
to it; and this implies either a mistake with respect to
the law, or that he allowed the decision to turn upon a fact
which did not embrace the merits of the question. It is
evident that, for the decision of this question, all that is
necessary is an exact copy of the pleadings, and transmis¬
sion of it to the court of appeal.
If the complaint relates to his conduct at the second
stage, it must turn upon one of two points; either that
he did not take all the evidence, or that he did not pro¬
perly determine its value.
If he did not take the evidence properly, by a failure
either in assembling the sources of it, or in extracting it
from them when assembled, the proper remedy is to send
back the cause to him, with an order to supply the omis¬
sion ; or, if he be suspected of having failed wilfully, to send
it to the judge oi one of the neighbouring districts, to re¬
take the evidence and decide.
It the complaint relates to a wrong estimate of the evi¬
dence, the statement of it transmitted to the court of ap¬
peal, with the reasons assigned by the judge for the value
affixed to every portion of it, will enable the appellate
court to decide.
With regard to the third stage, the only complaint
there can be is, that the judge has not taken measures to
execute his own sentence. If any inquiry is in this case
to be made, the proper course is, that the appellate court
refer it to one of the neighbouring judges. When a sim¬
ple act is to be done, the proper order is to be des¬
patched, and the proper penalties for non-performance
exacted.
It thus appears, that for every thing which is required
to be done by the appellate judicature, nothing what¬
soever is required, as a foundation, but certain papers.
The presence is not required either of parties or of wit¬
nesses.
As it is of no great consequence, in a country in which
the means of communication are tolerably provided, whe¬
ther papers have to be transmitted 50 or 500 miles, the
distance, even though considerable, of the seat of the ap¬
pellate jurisdiction is a matter of very little importance.
The object, then, is to get the best seat; that is, the best
public. The best public, generally speaking, is in the
capital. The capital, then, is the proper seat of all appel¬
late jurisdiction. And that there should be one judge,
J u R
649
and one judge only, in each court of appeal, is proved by Jury Trial,
exactly the same reasons as those which apply to the
coui ts of primary jurisdiction.
The question, how many courts there should be, as well
of primary as of appellate jurisdiction, is to be determined
by one thing, and one thing only; namely, the need there
is for them. The number of the courts of primary juris¬
diction must be determined, in some instances, by the
number of suits; in some, by local extent. To render
justice sufficiently accessible, the distance from the seat
of judicature must not be great, though the number of ac¬
cruing suits, either from the paucity or from the good con¬
duct of the people, should be ever so small.
As the judgment-seat should never be empty, for the
need of staying injustice is not confined to times and sea¬
sons, and as one judge may be sometimes ill, sometimes
called to a distance even by the duties of his office, pro¬
vision ought to be made for supplying his place. For this
purpose, the proper expedient is a deputy. That the de¬
puty should well perform his duty, the best security is,
that he should be chosen and employed by the judge, the
judge being responsible for the acts of the deputy as his
own. Whatever it be which the judge cannot do, or
cannot conveniently do, in that he may employ his de¬
puty. If there is a great influx of causes, the deputy
may be employed in some of the least complex and diffi¬
cult. If there is any business not of first-rate impor¬
tance, requiring the presence of the judge at a distance,
the delegation of the deputy or deputies is the proper
resource.
Besides the judge and his deputy, there are two ad¬
juncts to every tribunal, which are of the utmost impor¬
tance ; indispensable, indeed, to the due administration of
justice. These are, a pursuer-general and a defender-gene¬
ral. The business of both pursuer-general and defender-
general is, to reclaim the execution of all laws in the
execution of which the nation has a peculiar interest,
though, individuals may not. The peculiar business of
the pursuer-general is to act on behalf of the adminis¬
trative authority, in its character of plaintiff, and on be¬
half of every plaintiff who is without the means of en¬
gaging another advocate ; to obviate any prejudice he
sees likely to arise to justice from the conduct of plain¬
tiffs, whether in civil matters or penal; and to perform, in
the case of all offences where no private prosecutor ap¬
pears, the office of prosecutor. The peculiar duty of the
defender-general is to act on behalf of the administrative
authority in its capacity of defendant, and on behalf of
every defendant who has not the means of engaging an¬
other advocate, and to obviate any prejudice he sees likely
to result to justice from want of skill or other causes on
the part of a defendant who pleads his own cause, or on the
part of the advocate who pleads it for him.
The courts of appeal, though all seated in the metro¬
polis, ought to be as numerous as the speedy hearing of
all the appeals which come to them requires. The judges
of appeal ought all to be chosen from the judges of pri-
mary jurisdiction, not only on account of the education
and the experience received, but as a step of promotion,
and a proper motive to acquire the requisite education,
and to merit approbation in the inferior employment.
There is the same propriety, and for the same reason, in
choosing the judges of primary jurisdiction from the de¬
puties. (A. a. a.)
JURY, a certain number of men sworn to inquire into
and try a matter of fact, and to declare the truth upon
such evidence as shall appear before them.
Jury Trial. The method of trial by jury is one of
vol. xir.
the most ancient of judicial institutions; so ancient, in¬
deed, that its origin lies beyond the commencement of
authentic history amongst the nations of Europe, particu¬
larly in the north. In the earliest of the Scandinavian
4 N
Ci 50 JURY
JuryTrial. histories, it is spoken of or referred to as familiarly known.
'wThe oldest code of Iceland, composed in the beginning
of the tenth century, also treats of it as an existing insti¬
tution ; and so also does the most ancient Norwegian code,
the precise date of which has not been ascertained. Kofod
Ancher, a sagacious critic and eminent lawyer, does not
scruple to admit the authority of the Edda, from which it
would appear that Odin had introduced this method of trial
into Scandinavia. But all that the Edda says is, that Odin
ordained the twelve Asagods to adjudge all causes in the
metropolis of Asgard. It is curious to observe, however,
that the old juries invariably consisted of twelve ; a num¬
ber which seems to characterise the institution as one of
high antiquity ; for as the verdict was commonly given by
the majority, an uneven number would have been prefer¬
able, to avoid the contingency of an equality of votes. Saxo
informs us, that Ragnar Lodbrok, who, according to Tor-
fceus, governed Denmark between the years 750 and 790,
first instituted trial by jury; but the authority of this
monastic writer is not such as to induce us to attach much
importance to his statement. In fact, the Edda is a much
better historical authority than Saxo; and, according to
that record, trial by jury is several centuries older than
the commencement of Ragnar Lodbrok’s reign, in the year
750 of our era. But the precise antiquity of this institu¬
tion cannot now be determined. We find that it was in
existence at the earliest dawn of northern history, and
spoken of as a mode of trial then familiarly known; but
beyond this all is conjecture. We can trace it as far back
as a thousand years ; this is the farthest limit to which legal
antiquaries have carried their researches, the history of
northern Europe, before that period, being involved in
Cimmerian darkness.
It seems pretty certain, however, that, though trial by
jury was early known in Scandinavia, yet it was not so
generally resorted to before the beginning of the tenth
century as afterwards. In these rude times, trial by bat¬
tle often superseded trial by jury. Men of rank, or in other
words warriors, always preferred it; they would have
deemed it pusillanimous to submit any cause in which
they were concerned to the decision of a jury. The weak
and the aged alone claimed the benefit of this mode of
trial; and women frequently appealed to it. Even after
it had become common, the trial by battle, when de¬
manded with certain legal formalities, was admitted in
preference. In Scandinavia, however, this species of trial
is of pagan origin ; that is, it was in use prior to the in¬
troduction of Christianity into that northern region. But
as the relations of society multiplied, and differences in¬
creased both in number and nicety, the inconvenience of
such a mode of trial began to be felt. The jus fortioris,
barbarous in itself, had no powers of adaptation. A man
sometimes became involved in a new law-suit before he
had recovered of his last wounds; some were prevented
by the infirmity of age from prosecuting a cause in itself
just; others had no male relations to espouse it for them;
and a third class, though firmly convinced of the justice
of their cause, were as fully persuaded of the superior
strength or dexterity of their adversaries. Thus, the trial
by battle became gradually unpopular; and hence, when
the Christian faith began to be generally received, it ra¬
pidly declined, though without being entirely abolished.
In this state of things trial by jury would, in all proba¬
bility, have become universal, if the clergy, who soon ac¬
quired great influence both with sovereigns and subjects,
had not introduced a new mode of deciding causes. This
was the Christian ordeal, which was more the result of cir¬
cumstances than of any preconcerted design. The clergy
had to preach a new faith to people slow of belief; and,
as the arguments which they advanced in support of it
* were chiefly founded upon recorded or traditionary mira-
TRIAL.
cles, their sceptical hearers naturally asked, “ Show us one Jury i
such miracle, and we will believe.” The validity of this w-v
reasoning has always been admitted by the Catholic
clergy, who, accordingly, set about working miracles.
Hence the origin of the Christian ordeal, which agreed
with the trial by battle in this, that it was an appeal to
heaven, though in a less rude and barbarous form. To a
miracle said to have been performed by Bishop Pappo in
Jutland, where, according to the legend, he put his hand
in an iron glove red-hot, and withdrew it unhurt, is attri¬
buted the introduction of this method of trial into Den¬
mark. This is a point which Ancher considers as esta¬
blished. But, whatever may have been the occasion of
introducing it, the clergy endeavoured to substitute for
every other kind of trial that which they called “ the
judgment of Godand from this period the ordeal was
frequently employed in all the countries of the north,
particularly in Denmark, and in that part of Sweden called
Scaney or Scania. In the code of laws still preserved,
and known under the name of Shaanske Lov, or Lex
Scanica, the ordeal of hot iron is expressly ordered to be
employed, particularly in cases of theft. This mode of
trial subsisted during two centuries and a half; but, though
frequently employed during that period, it was always
regarded with suspicion and distrust by the greater num¬
ber of the laity. It afforded occasions for jugglery and
deception to which the most ignorant could scarcely be
altogether blind. By a little dexterity of management,
the innocent might be condemned, and the guilty suffered
to escape.
We have already seen that the insufficiency of the trial
by battle was early felt, and that, as society advanced,
the law of the stronger fell into disuse. The same fate
likewise awaited the trial by ordeal, which, being substi¬
tuted in its stead, long retarded the adoption of trial by
jury. But, whilst each of these three modes struggled
for pre-eminence, that by jury was always considered as
the most normal or regular; and hence the appellation
of law, which, in Denmark, was applied to a jury of a par¬
ticular description. The trial by battle, and the ordeals,
were no doubt recognised and admitted by the law; but
every one felt that the trial by the country was the only
one to which the term legal could with propriety be ap¬
plied. That form of trial was the law, xarsi'o%?iv, although
the other forms were not contrary to the law; and this
superior legality the ancients vindicated, in the strongest
manner, by the term they employed. Thus, in the history
of the northern judicatories, we recognise, first, the trial
by battle ; secondly, the trial by ordeal; and, thirdly, the
trial by jury. This, however, is to be considered only as
the order of general usage or practice ; for, although some
theorists have assumed that trial by battle is the most
ancient mode, there is sufficient evidence to prove that
which we have already stated, that amongst the northern
nations trial by jury is at least of equal antiquity. In
fact, it cannot be said that the most ancient codes sanc¬
tion any other form of trial than that by jury. In none,
not even in those of the tenth century, is the trial by battle
even mentioned ; and very few have prescribed the ordeals,
which, being ecclesiastical inventions, must consequently
be sought for chiefly in the ecclesiastical codes. But all
the ancient laws abound with references to jury trial,
and contain elaborate regulations respecting its form,
applications, contingencies, and uses. Hence it may,
with some confidence, be concluded that the trial by jury
is the most ancient strictly legal mode of trial which ob¬
tained in the countries of the north.
The time was when it would have been considered ne¬
cessary to inquire whether any enactment respecting jury
trial occurs in the Sachsenspiegel; a code which, according
to an opinion once universal amongst jurists, had been
JURY TRIAL. 651
ryTrial. compiled in the time of Charlemagne. But Couring, iu by peculiar atrocity, eleven, the accused himself bein." the JurvTrial.
his work De Origins Juris has demonstrated that twelfth. But there were some crimes for which no fine
the Sachsenspiegel was compiled subsequently to the year was deemed a sufficient expiation ; and in these cases no
1230, though soon after that period; and this is also the wager of law is mentioned, because it was not allowed,
period to which a philologist, unaided by history or juris- From the nature and constitution of this mode of expur-
prudence, would refer that compilation. In fact, the gation, it is obvious that unanimity was indispensable.
Sachsenspiegel itself contains evidence that it was com- This seems to be implied in the words Undecima many.
posed after the council of Lateran, held in the year 1215; jurat; nor could it well be otherwise, seeing that the ac-
for it mentions a prohibition against matrimony in the cused chose his own jurors or compurgators*
fifth remove, which was first issued by that council under Although Norway derived from Sweden the stock of
Innocent III., though the bull on the same subject was its actual population, and the first seeds of civilization
not published until 1230; and hence it is probable that yet, strangely enough, there are preserved Norwegian
the Sachsenspiegel was not compiled until after that year, codes of higher antiquity than any now extant in Sweden.
But as jury trial had been introduced into Britain, and The history of Norwegian law has been divided into three
other northern countries, long before this period, it follows periods ; the first commencing in the rehm of Hakon
that the authority of the Sachsenspiegel (a crude collec- Athelstane, about the year 910; the second in the rehm
tion of ancient customs, moral precepts, legendary divi- of Magnus, about 1274 ; and the third in 1397, at the
nity, and nursery tales), is of no avail whatever in the pre- union of Calmar. During all these periods, the trial by
sent question. Yet, even in this code, something may be jury was more or less used, and invariably prescribed by
found analogous to the institution of jury trial, though, Jaw. In the first and second periods its use was universal,
upon examination, it will be found difficult to determine scarcely any cause of importance being decided without
whether the mode of trial indicated in the Sachsenspie- the intervention of a jury ; but in the second period, the
gel should not be considered as wager of law, rather than authority of the jury was modified by the judges acquir-
trial by jury in the strict acceptation of the terms. ing greater authority in every judicial decismn, and ex-
The case is quite different with respect to the ancient ercising, as they still do, an influence on the verdict •
Saxon as well as Frisian law, two codes (if that which and, during the third, this authority and influence in¬
may easily be printed on a sheet of paper deserves the creased so greatly, that, by the end of the seventeenth
name of code) of high antiquity. The Saxon law is writ- century, the functions of the jury had become almost no-
ten in Latin, a language unknown in Saxony before the minal, and, in many cases, were entirely superseded. The
time of Charlemagne. It was discovered in the library constitution of Norwegian juries is clearly explained in
of Fulda, and first edited at Basil by John Herald, in the Lagaboetir’s amended Law of Gulathing (b. i. c. 2 and 3),
year 1557. It is a Christian code, addressed to the promulgated by King Magnus ; thing, in the Scandina-
Saxons, over whom the ancestors of Charlemagne had no vian countries, signifying an assembly of the deputies of
authority, and with whom they had little or no inter- the people. The Logman or Lawman presided' and his
course. Spelman (see his Glossary under the term Lex function originally was to recite the laws of the land,
Saxonum) attributes this code to Harald Bluetooth, king which he knew by heart; but after the promulgation of
of Denmark, who reigned about the middle of the tenth King Magnus’s code, he had only to state the king’s writ-
century ; and in this opinion he is supported by Adam ten law, to interpret it, and to point out the portion which
of Bremen, Helmold, and Albert. But are the laws applied to each particular case. It is not certain by
which Harald gave to the Transalbians and Frisians iden- whom, practically, juries were most frequently selected ;
tical with the Leges Saxonum of Fulda, and with the but, from the northern codes, it appears that they might
Frisian laws which Siccama edited? We cannot say be chosen, first, by the deputies from their own number,*
that this is certain ; but it is at least highly probable, secondly, by the lawman ; thirdly, by the officers of the
and such undoubtedly was the opinion of Spelman. Mr crown ; and, lastly, by the parties themselves. It seems
T. G. Repp, who has discussed this subject with much probable, however, that in Norway, juries were commonly
learning and ability, sums up his reasoning by stating chosen by the deputies. In the old Saxon, Danish, and
that the Capitularia and the Leges could not emanate from Icelandic laws, a simple majority of the jury decided
the same legislator; that the Capitularia are justly attri- finally, and without appeal, in every case brought before
buted to Charlemagne, who could not, therefore, be the them. But Magnus, in the event of a difference of opi-
author of the Leges ; that, as the Leges abrogate an en- nion, gave the power of decision, not to the majority, but
actment of the Capitidaria, the former are consequently to the lawman along with the minority; reserving to him-
ot more recent date ; and that, as there is only a ques- self the privilege of reversing their verdict, in the last re-
t'.on as to two legislators, if Charlemagne be not the au- sort, and, if he so pleased, affirming the deliverance of
thor, the Leges must be ascribed to Harald. the majority. Further, by the code of this prince, the
From these codes, if they may be called such, we find lawman was for the first time constituted a judge ; the
that the Saxons had no juries in the strict modern accep- judicial authority of the crown was extended ; unanimity
tation of the term. They had only wagers of laio. A was not insisted on, any more than in other Scandinavian
man, when accused of a crime, either paid a certain fine, laws ; the king was virtually constituted supreme judge;
or, if he wished to establish his innocence, he convened and it was-provided, that in all cases where the law did
a certain number of persons, before whom he cleared him- not decide^ that was to be considered as the law which the
self by oath of the crime with which he was charged, jurors agreed upon.
from the words used in the Saxon and Frisian law, it is We find jury trial described in the ancient codes of
not clear in what manner the conjuratores were bound to Sweden, a country where the regulations respecting it
swear ; but it seems probable that they only affirmed upon are in some instances stricter and more detailed than in
oath their belief that the accused was innocent. The Norway, where this institution has been more fully deve-
number of the conjuratores varied according to the mag- loped for the trial of every description of causes, and
nitude of the crime ; and the fine, in case the accused where, also, it has longer subsisted in full force. There
failed to prove his innocence, varied in the same ratio, were several kinds or species of jury in Sweden, viz the
lor crimes of the least aggravated kind only three com- Lawman’s, the Bishop’s, and the Hundred’s jury; but in
purgators were required ; for those of a more heinous cha- all, the decision of the majority was final. The circum-
racter six were necessary ; and for such as were marked stances and ceremonies attending the election of jurors,
652
J U R
JUS
Jury Trial, the qualifications which rendered them eligible, the par-
y-^ ties who elected them, the oath which they took before
proceeding to try a case, and the validity of their deliver¬
ance or verdict, together with the functions of the law¬
man, will all be found stated and explained in Mr Repp s
very curious book, to which the reader is referred. T he
king’s jury consisted of twelve, and constituted a species
of appeal court; it took cognisance of all offences against
the public law of the state calculated to disturb or mo¬
lest the people ; and its decision was in every case final.
No servant could be a juror ; they required to be men hav¬
ing a fixed residence ; and persons of infamous character
or lawless habits were also excluded. I he absence of a^
juror subjected the absentee to a heavy fine. Causes of
every description appear to have been tried by Swedish
juries. Important questions of property, as well as cri¬
minal cases of every kind, were referred to their decision ;
they formed a sort of mixed tribunal, by which the law as
well as the fact was determined; and, in particular cir¬
cumstances, they acted as a court of review, as in the
case of the king’s jury on the Landsthing, before which
causes o. great importance came ultimately for decision.
In fact, the only limitation (if limitation it may be called)
in the authority of the jury to judge and decide, consist¬
ed in this, that cases of minor importance which occurred
between terms, were adjudicated by the magistrate or the
lawman, whilst all causes of moment were reserved for
the cognisance of the jury.
The subject of Danish juries has been ably treated by
Peter Kofod Ancher, for many years professor of the civil
law in the university of Copenhagen, a writer who, in his
Dansh Lovhistorie (Copenhagen, 1769-1776, in 2 vols.
4to), has surveyed ancient judicial institutions with a scru¬
tinising eye. Ancher is by no means an admirer of this
form of trial; but, as he is a conscientious and critical his¬
torian, he takes pains to place every fact in its true light,
without reference to his own particular views or opinions.
According to him, there were four kinds of persons em¬
ployed in the ancient courts of Denmark to adjudicate
causes ; and these were either regular jurors, or covjura-
tores in a wager oflaw, or persons who, from the principles
on which they were nominated, resembled these. He
then proceeds to consider each of the four classes sepa¬
rately, viz. first, the Tingmcend or Thingmen, that is,
those who frequent a Thing, or are enjoined by law to be
present at it; secondly, the Ncevninger, or regular juries,
an institution of very high antiquity in Denmark ; thirdly,
the Sandemcend qy Truthsmen, who were employed for de¬
ciding important causes, and took cognisance of homi¬
cide, cutting and maiming, rape, armed aggression, dis¬
putes respectingboundaries, and questions in which church
property was concerned ; and, lastly, the Wager of Law in
Denmark. For ample details under each of these heads,
we refer to Anchor’s work above mentioned, and also
to the distinct and satisfactory abridgment of his inves¬
tigations, given by Mr Repp in his book on Ancient Ju¬
ries. It is sufficient to state here, that in Denmark trial
by jury was not resorted to excepting in causes of im¬
portance, and that particular care was taken that none
but good and impartial men should be chosen as jurors.
They were selected from the inhabitants of a district
generally ; no friend or relative of the parties could be
chosen ; and they required to be men of substance, “ three-
marks-men,’’ who could pay a compensation to the injur¬
ed party, in case they found a wrong verdict. The num¬
ber of Danish jurors was originally twelve, a number com¬
mon to all the northern countries ; but, at subsequent pe¬
riods, the law of Denmark in this respect was somewhat
changed. In Scania the jurors were twelve, but the accused
was permitted to challenge three; and the Scanian law pro¬
vided that the prosecutor should either nominate fifteen,
or that, if three were challenged, he should pray a tales Jus pc
to complete the number twelve. The Jutland law, chary beran
of numbers, provided that there should only be eight ju- II
rors in each hundred, or two in each quarter; but kind- t*usb14
red jury, as it was called, consisted of twelve, as well as ni15,
juries which took cognisance of forgery, arson, and high-
way robbery. By the law of Erik, the number of jurors
in the more important class of cases was thirteen, and in
the less important seven, that is, twelve, and the half of
twelve, with one additional to secure a majority. In fact,
the basis of all the numbers of jurors is the number
twelve. In Denmark, as in Sweden and in Iceland, the
cause was decided by the suffrages of the majority of the
jurors impannelled in each case.
From these historical notices, it appears that trial by
jury, in one or other of the various forms under which it
is found, was not only of great antiquity amongst the north¬
ern nations, but employed to an extent of which, in
this country, we have hitherto had no adequate concep¬
tion. Nor can it be doubted that, for the institution
which we now justly regard as the palladium of liberty,
and one of the best safeguards against the arbitrary abuse
of power, and which time and experience have enabled
us to adapt to a more advanced state of society, we are
indebted to those nations which we are perhaps a little
too prone to undervalue, and which, even at a period of
comparative barbarism, seemed to have fully divined the
benefits which might accrue from this mode of deciding
causes, whether civil or criminal. For accounts of the
origin, progress, and improvement of jury trial in our own
country, we must refer the reader generally to its history,
and, in a particular manner, to the different institutional
writers. (See Repp’s Historical Treatise on Trial by
Jury, Wager of Law, and other co-ordinate Institutions ;
also Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Law of England,
b. iii. c. 22, § 6.) (a.)
JUS Deliberandi, in Scotch Law, that right which an
heir has, by law, of deliberating for a certain time whether
he will represent his predecessor.
Jus Devolutum, in Scotch Law, the right of the church
to present a minister to a vacant parish, in the event of
the patron neglecting to exercise that right within the
time limited by law.
Jus Mariti, in Scotch Law, the right which the hus¬
band acquires to his wife’s moveable estate, in virtue of
the marriage.
Jus Relictce, in Scotch Law, the right which the wife
has in the goods in communion, in case of the previous
decease of the husband.
Jus Preventionis, in Scotch Law, the preferable right
of jurisdiction acquired by a court, in any cause to which
other courts are equally competent, by having exercised
the first act of jurisdiction.
Jus Civile, amongst the Romans, signified no more than
the interpretation given by the learned, of the laws of the
Twelve Tables, though the phrase is now extended to the
whole system of the Roman laws.
Jus Civitatis signifies the freedom of the city of Rome,
which entitled those persons who had obtained it to most
of the privileges of Roman citizens; yet it differed from
the Jus Quiritium, which extended to all the advantages
which a free native of Rome was entitled to. The differ¬
ence, in fact, was much the same as that between deniza¬
tion and naturalization with us.
Jus Honorarium was a name given to those Roman
laws which were made up of edicts of the supreme ma¬
gistrates, particularly the praetors.
Jus Imaginis was the right of using pictures and sta¬
tues amongst the Romans, and had some resemblance to
the right of bearing a coat of arms amongst us. This
honour was allowed to none but those whose ancestors or
JUS
Papi- themselves had borne some curule office, that is, had been
num Curule jEdile, Censor, Proctor, or Consul.
| The use of statues or pictures, which the Jus Imaginis
conferred, was that of exhibiting them in funeral proces-
'' sions.
Jus Papirianum included the laws of Romulus, Numa,
and other kings of Rome, collected into a body by Sextus
Papirius, who lived in the time of Tarquin the Proud.
Jus Trium Liberorum was a privilege granted to such
persons in the city of Rome as had three children, by
which they were exempted from all troublesome offices.
The same exemption was granted to any person who lived
in other parts of Italy having four children ; and those who
lived in the provinces, provided they had five, or, as some
say, seven children, were entitled to the same immunity.
JUSSIEU, Antoine de, doctor of physic, professor of
botany in the Royal Garden at Paris, and a member of the
Academic des Sciences, was born at Lyons in the year
1686, and educated at Montpellier, where he took his de¬
gree of doctor of physic, after which he became associat¬
ed with the faculty of Paris. Although much occupied
in the practice of medicine in the capital, he was ardently
devoted to the study of botany, having, in the earlier part
of his life, visited Spain and the southern provinces of
France in search of plants. When stationary at Paris, he
communicated various essays to the academy, which are
printed in its Memoires. These are chiefly botanical, illus¬
trating the characters or the qualities of various exotics,
at that period not wrell known; but he has given several
papers also, on extraneous fossils, and a few other sub¬
jects of natural history. He furnished the two Appendices
to Tournefort’s Institutiones Pei Herbariec, and edited the
leones of Barrelier. He also published an historical ac¬
count of the magnificent collection of drawings of plants
and animals, originally begun under the auspices of Gas¬
ton duke of Orleans, and continued down to the present
times. When Linnaeus visited Paris in 1738, he, in a let¬
ter to Haller, mentioned the elder Jussieu, as “ much en¬
gaged in medical practice, well versed in the knowledge
of the species of plants, though too prone to multiply
them, and strictly confined to the ideas and principles of
Tournefort.” In one important point, however, which
could hardly escape Linnaeus, and ought not to be for¬
gotten, he emancipated himself from the errors of his
master, for he perfectly understood, and fully admitted,
the doctrine of the sexes of plants. A letter of his, com¬
pletely explaining this phenomenon on the most correct
principles, is given by Bradley, in his Philosophical Ac-
count of the Works of Nature (p. 25-32). He died of an
apoplectic fit, at Paris, on the 22d of April 1758, aged
seventy-two.
Jussieu, Bernard de, younger brother of the preced¬
ing, and, like him, a physician, and a member of the Aca¬
demic des Sciences, was still more devoted to the philoso¬
phical as well as practical study of botany, and ranks
amongst the greatest names in that science, as having first
attempted to form a system according to the natural affi¬
nities of plants. He was born at Lyons in 1699, and ap¬
pears to have accompanied or followed his brother to
Paris, where he occupied, under him, the place of botani¬
cal demonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and at length
succeeded him as professor of botany. If his communi¬
cations to the academy were less numerous than those
of his brother, they were of a rather superior character.
In one of them, published in the Memoires of that body
for 1742, he enters on the subject, then scarcely touched
by any person, of the animal nature of certain marine pro¬
ductions, previously taken for plants; and we perceive, in
bis inquiries, dawnings of that meridian light which our
countryman Ellis afterwards threw on these curious tribes.
On other occasions he explained the flow ers of the Litto-
JUS 653
rella, and, with much acuteness, the more obscure fructi- Jussieu,
fication of the Pilularia. He w'rote, in conjunction with
the learned Comte de Caylus, on the Papyrus; and he gave
an improved edition of tournefort’s History of the Plants
about Paris, in 1725.
Linneeus became personally acquainted with this inge¬
nious man at Paris in 1738, and maintained, for some
years, an intimate correspondence with him. They could
not be long in each other’s company without discussing
the natural affinities of plants; a study which seems to
have been much advanced, if not first excited, in the
mind of Linnaeus, by his correspondence with Haller.
Bernard de Jussieu had probably about the same time been
led to consider it by his own contemplations; for the
system of Tournefort, in wdiich he was educated, is too
artificial in principle to have given him any such ideas.
In its execution, indeed, that great author is led, by his
own good sense, into some natural and philosophical views,
even in spite of his system; and these may possibly have
caught the attention of Jussieu. However this may be,
mutual satisfaction and instruction could not but'flow
from the intercourse of Bernard de Jussieu and Linnee-
us. They traced out together the characters and the
limits of various natural assemblages or orders. Every
day produced, and every letter communicated, some new
discovery. But as the multifarious hordes of the north
appear originally to have used one common tongue, which,
after they were dispersed, divided, and cultivated, when
it came to be written, assumed the form of various dis¬
tinct languages ; so these two botanical philosophers, when
their more intimate intercourse had ceased, pursued dif¬
ferent paths, and went far towards different conclusions.
Linnaeus, after throwing the w-hole vegetable creation,
more or less completely, into natural groups, became
more and more persuaded that it was not only impracti¬
cable to connect them by one synoptic clue or system,
but that not one of his assemblages or orders was capable
of precise and unexceptionable definition. On the other
hand, Bernard de Jussieu, to the last, aimed at a general
scheme of classification, though he accomplished little
more than throwing his several orders into larger assem¬
blages, and disposing the whole, as indeed Linnaeus him¬
self has done, in one series, according to their relation¬
ship to each other. The French botanist is recorded to
have spoken with great diffidence of his own performance,
and he has written nothing of a general classification. But
he often gave hints, in lectures or conversation, by which
others perhaps profited. This appears from the preface
to the Genera Plantarum of his distinguished nephew, An¬
toine Laurent de Jussieu, botanical professor at Paris,
who, following up the ideas of his uncle, and sacrificing
something to technical convenience, at the expense of na¬
ture, contrived to exhibit a tolerably natural system, found¬
ed on methodical principles.
It would be to little purpose to discuss, at the present
day, the claims of Linnaeus or of Bernard de Jussieu to
originality in the study of natural orders. Professor de
Candolle has justly asserted, that they had the same object
in view, and adopted, in the main, the same principles. Ber¬
nard de Jussieu having, in a letter dated the 15th of Feb¬
ruary 1742, congratulated Linnams on his appointment to
the botanical chair at Upsal, says, 11 Floree devotus omnino
poteris viam quam monstrasti facilem amplius aperire, natu-
ralemque methodum tandem perficere, quam desiderant et ex¬
pectant botanophyli omnes.” In a subsequent letter of the
7th May, 1746, he also tells his Swedish friend, “ Scio quan¬
tum emolumentum receperint qui secundum tua principia
student; memet experientia docuitJ This is enough to
settle the question, though great allowance is perhaps
due to the modesty of Jussieu, who was less disposed to
honour himself than his friend.
654 JUS
Just His biographer, the celebrated Marquis de Condorcet,
11. records his singularly amiable and unaffected manners.
V'ferk6" These, during his occupation of arranging, according to
_ natural classes, the garden of Trianon, attracted the no¬
tice and esteem of his sovereign, Louis XV. to whom any
unsophisticated character or object could not but form an
agreeable relaxation from the routine of a court. Jussieu
obtained plants and seeds to be sent to his friend in the
king’s name. He pursued his innocent and useful studies
till his death, which happened in 1777, in his seventy-
ninth year.
A compendious view of his nephew’s system, and a
comparison of their natural orders with ' those. of Lm-
naeus, may be seen under the article Botany.
JUST, or Joust, a sportive kind of combat on horse¬
back, man against man, armed with lances. The word is
by some derived from the French jouste, formed from the
Latin jwatfa, because the combatants fought near one ano¬
ther. Salmasius derives it from the modern Greek zous-
tra, or rather <£ou<rrga, which is used in this sense by Nice¬
phoros Gregorius. Others derive it from justa, which in
the corrupt age of the Latin tongue was used for this ex¬
ercise, because it was supposed to be a juster and more
equal combat than that of the tournament.
The difference between jousts and tournaments consists
in this, that the latter is the genus, of which the former
is only a species. Tournaments included all kinds of mi¬
litary sports and engagements made for gallantry and di¬
versions. Jousts were those particular combats where the
parties were near each other, and engaged with lance and
sword. It may be added, that the tournament was fre¬
quently performed by a number of cavaliers, who fought
in a body ; whereas the joust was a single combat of one
man against another. Though the jousts were usually
made in tournaments after a general rencontre of all the
cavaliers, yet they were sometimes singly, and indepen¬
dent of any tournament. (See Chivalry and Tourna¬
ment.)
Just, St, a parish of Cornwall, in the hundred of Pow¬
der, 269 miles from London, in which is comprehended
the borough-town of St Mawes. It is opposite to the port
of Falmouth. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1416,
in 1811 to 1639, in 1821 to 1648, and in 1831 to 1558.
Just, St, a large parish of the county of Cornwall, in
the hundred of Penwith, 295 miles from London. It is
in one of the mining districts, which affords employment
to the inhabitants, who amounted in 1801 to 2779, in
1811 to 3057, in 1821 to 3666, and in 1831 to 4667.
JUSTICE, in a moral sense, is one of the four cardinal
virtues, which consists in giving every person his due.
Civilians distinguish justice into two kinds, communi¬
cative and distributive. The former establishes fair deal¬
ing in the mutual commerce between man and man, and
includes sincerity in our discourse, as well as integrity in
our dealings. Distributive justice is that by which the
differences of mankind are decided according to the rules
of equity. The former is the justice of private individuals,
the latter" that of princes and magistrates.
Justice is also an appellation given to a person deputed
by the king to administer justice to his subjects, and whose
authority arises from his deputation, and not by right of
magistracy.
Justice-Clerk of Scotland, the vice-president of
the Court of Justiciary, in absence of the lord-justice-ge¬
neral. This officer was originally no other than the clerk
to the Justiciar or Justice Court of Scotland, as the name
indeed imports ; and his progress from the table to the
bench is singular, and not a little curious.
In early times there were two justice-clerks, as there
were likewise two justiciars, one on either side of the
Forth ; and as the jurisdiction of the Justice Court was
JUS
then nearly universal in respect of the matters cognisable Junk i
there, and very high in degree, the office of clerk was of the p jf]
considerable importance, and enjoyed by persons of sta- | ^ 1
tion in society. Thus we find that Adam Forrester of Justi(i. j
Corstorphine, justice-clerk benorth Forth {temp. Dav. II.), WY >
was in 1373 provost, or, as that officer was then called’
alderman, of the towm of Edinburgh, and in 1382 sheriff of
the shire ; and in 19 Rob. II., he wms keeper of the great
seal, in the absence of the chancellor, who had gone abroad.
In the beginning of the fifteenth century, the justice-
clerks began also to act as public prosecutors before the
justiciars, the latter being previously, it would seem, them¬
selves the prosecutors, as the sheriffs were in their county-
courts before the institution of procurators-fiscal; and, in
the beginning of the next century, as the office of justi¬
ciar came into the hands of a single individual, so likewise
did that of justice-clerk. The offices of justice-clerk and
king’s advocate (an officer of whom we have little account
previously to the end of the fifteenth century) appear to
have had at this time so many duties in common, that
Henryson of Fordel, and Lawson of Hierigs, succeeded
each other in them respectively; and the two offices hav¬
ing become vacant by the fall of those individuals at the
fatal field of Flodden, Wischeart of Pittarrow wTas thereupon
appointed to both places; but in his time a deputy began
to be appointed to officiate as clerk to the Justice-Court,
Wischeart probably directing his chief attention to his duty
as public prosecutor. On his death the offices of justice-
clerk and king’s advocate were again separated; and to
the former Crawfurd of Oxengangs was appointed. On
the institution of the present Court of Session, Crawfurd,
then justice-clerk, was advanced, as were likewise the
king’s advocate, treasurer, and clerk-register, upon reasons
of public policy ; the deliberations of the court being at that
time, and till the revolution, in secret with shut doors,
agreeably to the practice of the papal tribunals, the prin¬
ciples of which, the court, as may be supposed from its
ecclesiastical constitution, had very largely imbibed. The
justice-clerk continued in this threefold character of clerk
of the Justice Court (but discharging the duties by de¬
puty)) lord of Session, and public prosecutor, for some time,
when he was at length superseded in the last capacity
altogether by the lord-advocate; and in the degree in
which he was so superseded he appears to have been ap¬
pointed an assessor to the lord-justice-general, equally
with the other lords of Session. In the time of the excel¬
lent Sir Robert Murray, who was appointed to the office
in 1651, he began to be styled “ lord-justice-clerk.” In
1663, Sir John Home was appointed, and, the same year,
declared by act of Privy Council a constituent judge of
the Justice Court ; and in 1672, a statute passed, consti¬
tuting the lord-justice-clerk vice-president of the court, to
preside in absence of the lord-justice-general.
In the Court of Session the justice-clerk had no pre¬
eminence, till the time of that distinguished lawyer, Miller
of Barskimming, who, on his appointment, took his seat by
desire of the court, on the right of the lord president;
and on the division of the Court of Session into two cham¬
bers in 1811, the lord-justice-clerk was made ex-officio
president of the Second Division, though he is not neces¬
sarily a lord of Session. (u. u. u.)
Justices of the Peace, are persons of interest and cre¬
dit appointed by the king’s commission, to keep the peace
of the county where they live.
JUSTICIAR, or Justice-General of Scotland, of¬
ficially the chief judge of the supreme criminal court of
Scotland, but of old, as in England, the chief justice of
the kingdom. The origin of this high office cannot, from
the want of records, be traced. There can scarcely be a
doubt, however, but that it was derived to us from Eng¬
land after the Norman conquest. The earliest notice we
JUS
, ticiar. have of it is in the time of Male. IV.; and then fteo justi-
jciars appear, a justiciar of Scotland, and a justiciar ot' Lo¬
thian, or the territory subject to the king of Scots south of
the Forth. Here, as in England, the justiciar was the
king’s chief officer, and at the head, not only of the law in
all its departments, civil, criminal, and maritime, but also of
the military force of the kingdom, caput legis et militia ;
and accordingly we find several instances of the martial
prowess, as well as judicial authority, of the justiciar of
Scotland in early times, particularly of the valiant justi¬
ciaries Buchan and Durward, in the middle of the thir¬
teenth century. Durward, indeed, during his temporary
removal from office, is known to have joined the standard
of King Henry III. of England in the French campaign;
and Fordun’s character of him is more that of a gallant
military officer than a sober gownsman.
In 1296, a single justiciar appears for the whole king¬
dom, in the person of Sir William de Ormesby, a justice
of the Common Pleas in England, who was constituted
by King Edward I. lord-justiciar of Scotland ; but this ap¬
pointment was of short continuance. In 1305, the Eng¬
lish monarch having again put down the Scotch, distributed
the kingdom into four districts, and appointed for each
district two justices ; an arrangement in which the Eng¬
lish Justinian had certainly an eye to the judicial system
of England, and to the introduction of justices in eyre or
of assize, as delegates of the aula regia, or justice-deputes,
such as were established in that country. The death
of Edward, however, soon afterwards put an end to the
project; and the old practice of having two justiciars was
returned to, and continued till the time of King James IV.,
but under the designation of a justiciar north of Forth,
and a justiciar of Lothian, or south of Forth.
Soon after the fatal battle of Flodden, in the beginning
of the sixteenth century, the office of justiciar, or, as he
was now styled, justice-general (in contradistinction to
the special justices now frequently appointed, as well for
particular places as for particular trials), came again into
the hands of a single individual, viz. the Earl of Ar¬
gyll, in which noble family it was hereditary for a cen¬
tury. The High Court of Justiciary, also, began then to
be settled at Edinburgh ; whereas, before, the parliament
and superior courts were held chiefly north of Forth.
Towards the end of the same century, an alteration
was made on the manner of going circuit. In the time
of King Robert III., the justiciars were each required to
pass twice in circuit through every shire of their jurisdic¬
tion. But by 1587, cap. 82, instead of passing through
the realm from shire to shire successively, the realm was
divided into four quarters, and two senators or advocates
of the College of Justice were appointed as justice-de¬
putes for each quarter. This system continued about a
century, when, by 1672, cap. 16, instead of the former
justice-deputes, certain lords of Session were constituted
commissioners of Justiciary, along with the justice-gene¬
ral, and the justice-clerk was made vice-president of the
court, to preside in absence of the justice-general; an ar¬
rangement which has continued to the present day.
The jurisdiction and the powers of the justiciar of Eng¬
land are known to have been distributed amongst the su¬
perior courts now existing there. The history of the
powers possessed by the justiciar of Scotland we shall
now notice. In England the justiciar became a formid¬
able officer, a terror at once to the crown and the people.
It does not appear that such was ever the case in Scot¬
land. This no doubt arose much from the early partition
of the office into a justiciary north and south of Forth.
But his great adversary was the lord-chancellor, as the
organ and instrument of the papal clergy, in whose hands
tbe office of chancellor had here, as in the other countries
ot Europe, long been vested. The high office of justiciar
JUS
655
was the envy of the ecclesiastics, always noted for their Justiciary
ambition ; but it being forbidden them by the papal con- j|
Siitutions, as a secular tribunal and a place of blood, they Justifica-
could not directly seize upon it as they had done upon the , tion.
office of chancellor. They therefore set about filching
its jurisdiction ; and in 1425 the first Court of Session
was erected, composed of the chancellor, and with him
“ certaine discreete persones of the three estates,” chosen
by the king, with power to judge in all matters compe¬
tent to the king and his council. In 1503, the Court of
Daily Council was instituted instead of the Court of the
Session; and at length, in 1532, the present Court of
Session and College of Justice was established at Edin¬
burgh, with a jurisdiction in all civil causes. From that
time forward, the civil jurisdiction of the justiciar (whose
office, it will be remembered, was now hereditary in the
family of Argyll, and consequently feeble and inefficient)
ceased. And not only so, but its relative importance
expired, and the Court of Session became the supreme
court of the kingdom ; for, by clerical ability, or by lay sub¬
serviency not found in England, where the old common
law has ever continued the antagonist of Roman jurispru¬
dence, an act passed here (1540, cap. 72), requiring all
sheriffs and other temporal judges to copy the proceed¬
ings (not of the justiciar, as heretofore, but) of the Court
of Session. I he triumph of the papal clergy was then
complete ; the old common law ceased ; its records be¬
came obsolete, and are to this day of apocryphal autho¬
rity ; and the civil and canon laws became, what they
were in use to be denominated, the common law of Scot¬
land. And what the Court of Session effected/n the
civil jurisdiction of the justiciar, the Court of Admiralty
did in its maritime jurisdiction. That court was little
known before the end of the sixteenth century. About
that time Mr Alexander King, advocate, was appointed
judge of the Admiralty ; and almost immediately, owing to
the compilation of his Treatise on Maritime Law (per¬
haps the earliest regular work on that branch of jurispru¬
dence in Britain), the Court of Admiralty rose to im¬
portance ; and in 1681 it w'as declared a sovereign judi¬
cature, and the high-admiral, the king’s lieutenant, and
justice-general on the seas. In our own day, however,
the High Court of Admiralty has been abolished, and the
Court of Justiciary has re-acquired a criminal jurisdiction
on the seas. As respects the military power once pos¬
sessed by the justiciar, that departed from him long ago,
and became vested in the army itself, superintended by
the crown ; yet to this day a recognition of the ancient
power may be observed at the Justiciary circuits.
The supreme judicative power of Scotland is therefore
now vested in the Courts of Session and Justiciary. The
justice-general being now wholly nominal, and a sinecure,
the chief judge of Justiciary is the justice-clerk, and the
puisne judges are certain lords of Session. The justice-
clerk is also president of the Second Division of the
Court of Session, though, which is singular, he is not ne¬
cessarily a lord of Session ; and by a late act of parlia¬
ment, the president of the Court of Session is, on the ter¬
mination of the existing interest, to assume the office of
justice-general. In effect, therefore, though in a very
bungling and awkward sort of way the Court of Session
will, on the act in question coming into operation, take the
place and jurisdiction of the ancient justiciar, (u. u. u.)
JUSTICIARY, or Court of Justiciary, in Scotland.
See Scotland.
JUSTIFICATION, in Law, signifies a maintaining or
showing a sufficient reason in court why the defendant
did what he is called to answer.
Justification, in Theology, that act of grace which
renders a man just in the sight of God, and worthy of
eternal happiness.
656 J U S
Justin Different sects of Christians hold very different opi¬
nions concerning the doctrine of justification ; some con-
Justinian- tenc[ing for justification by faith alone, and others for jus-
tification by good works.
JUSTIN, commonly called Justin Martyr, one of the
earliest and most learned writers of the eastern church,
was born at Neapoli, the ancient Sechem of Palestine.
His father, Priseus, a Gentile Greek, brought him up in
his own religion, and had him educated in all the learning
of Greece. To complete his studies, he travelled to Egypt,
and followed the sect of Plato. But one day walking by
the sea side wrapt in contemplation, he was met by a
grave person, of a venerable aspect, who, falling into dis¬
course with him, turned the conversation by degrees
from the excellence of Platonism to the superior perfec¬
tion of Christianity, and reasoned so well, as to raise in
him an ardent curiosity to inquire into the merits of that
religion. The consequence of this inquiry was, that he
was converted about the year 132. On his embracing the
Christian religion, he quitted neither the profession nor
the habit of a philosopher; but a persecution having
broken out under Antoninus, he composed an Apology
for the Christians; and afterwards presented another to
the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, in which he vindicated
the innocence and holiness of the Christian religion,
against Crescens a Cynic philosopher, and other calum¬
niators. He did honour to Christianity by his learn¬
ing and the purity of his manners ; and suffered martyr¬
dom in the year 167. Besides his two Apologies, there
are still extant his Dialogue with Trypho, a Jew; two
treatises addressed to the Gentiles, and one on the unity
of God. Other works are also ascribed to him. The best
editions of St Justin are those of Robert Stephens, in 1551
and 1571, in Greek and Latin; that of Morell, in Greek
and Latin, in 1656; and that of Prudentius Marandus, a
learned Benedictine, in 1742, in folio. His works have
also been published separately.
JUSTINIAN, the first Roman emperor of his name,
and more celebrated for his code of laws than for the mi¬
litary achievements which distinguished his reign, was ne¬
phew of Justin I. and succeeded to the imperial purple on
the death of his uncle in 527. He began his reign with the
character of being a religious prince ; and having published
severe laws against heretics, and repaired ruined places of
worship, he openly declared himself the protector of the
church. But whilst thus engaged in re-establishing Chris¬
tianity at home, he carried his arms against the enemies
of the empire abroad, and, through his generals, proved
so successful, that he in some measure reinstated it in its
ancient glory. By means of Belisarius, the greatest captain
of his age, the Persians were conquered, and the Vandals
exterminated ; Africa was regained ; the Goths in Italy
were subdued ; the Moors were defeated ; and the Roman
empire was restored almost to its primitive glory. But,
in the midst of these successes, the Emperor was endan¬
gered by a powerful faction at home ; Hypalius, Pompei-
us, and Probus, nephews of the Emperor Anastasius, the
immediate predecessor of Justin, raised an insurrection
to dethrone him, and it required all the energy of Beli¬
sarius, seconded by Mundus, to put down the rebellion.
This, however, was at length effected ; the conspiracy
was broken, and the ringleaders were capitally punished.
The empire being now in the full enjoyment of profound
peace and tranquillity, Justinian made the best use of it,
by collecting the immense variety and number of the Ro¬
man laws into one body. To this end he selected ten of
the most able lawyers in the empire, who, having revised
the Gregorian, Theodosian, and IJermogenian codes, com¬
piled one body, called Codex Justinianus. This may be
called the statute law, as consisting of the rescripts of
the emperors. But the reduction of the other part was a
J u s
much more difficult task. It was made up of the deci-JustinL
sions of the judges and other magistrates, together with 1
the authoritative opinions of the most eminent lawyers,
all which lay scattered, without any order, in no less than 1
tw'o thousand volumes. These wrere reduced to the num¬
ber of fifty books; but ten years were spent in the reduction.
The design was completed in the year 553, and the name
of Digest or Pandects given to it. Besides these, for the
use chiefly of young students in the law, and to facilitate
that study, Justinian ordered four books of Institutes to
be drawn up, containing an abstract or abridgment of the
text of all the laws; and, lastly, the laws of a date poste¬
rior to that of the former were, in the year 541, thrown
into one volume, called the Novellce, or New Constitu¬
tions. See Civil Law.
This transaction has immortalised the name of Justi¬
nian, who, in other respects, wras neither a great nor a
good man, and whose name was held in abhorrence by
the people, partly on account of his rash and inconsider¬
ate conduct in ecclesiastical matters, but still more by
reason of the heavy burdens which he imposed on them.
He died suddenly in 565, after a reign of thirty-nine
years, at the advanced age of eighty-three. Justinian
built a great number of churches, particularly the famous
St Sophia at Constantinople, which is esteemed a master¬
piece of architectural design.
JUSTINIANI, St Laurence, the first patriarch of Ve¬
nice, descended of a noble family, was born there in the
year 1381. He died in 1485, leaving several religious
works, which were printed together at Lyons in 1568, in
one volume folio, with his life prefixed by his nephew.
He was beatified by Clement Vll. in 1524, and canonized
by Alexander VIII. in 1690.
Justiniani, Augustin, bishop of Nebbio, one of the most
learned men of his time, was descended from a branch of
the same noble family with the preceding, and born at
Genoa in 1480. He assisted at the fifth council of Lateran,
where he opposed some articles of the concordat betw een
France and the court of Rome. Francis I. made him his
almoner; and he was for five years regius professor of
Hebrew at Paris. He returned to Genoa in 1522, where
he discharged all the duties of a good prelate ; whilst learn¬
ing and piety flourished in his diocese. He perished at
sea in his passage from Genoa to Nebbio, in 1536. He
composed several pieces, the most considerable of which is
Psalterium Hebrceum, Grcecum, Arabicum, et Chaldaicum,
cum tribus Latinis interpretationibus et glossis. This was
the first psalter of the kind printed. There is also ascrib¬
ed to this prelate a translation of Maimonides’s More Ne-
vochim.
JUSTINUS, a Latin historian, whose name appears in
some manuscripts as M. Junianus Justinus, and in others,
Justinus Frontinus. We are unable to fix with precision
the period during which he flourished, though some have
placed him in the reign of Antoninus, A. d. 160, from the
name of that emperor being found in the dedication accord¬
ing to some manuscripts, though it is doubted whether this
dedication be genuine. Of his private history we know
nothing. Justin abridged the history of Trogus Pompeius,
who wrote in the reign of Augustus. Its title runs thus: His-
toriarum Philippicarum, et totius mundi originum et terra
situs ex Trogo Pompeioexcerptarum, libri xliv. a Nino ad Ca-
sarem Augustum. The first six books may be considered as
an introduction to the history of Macedonia, which is found
in books vii. viii. ix. xi.—xvii. xxiv.—xxvi. xxviii.—xxx.
xxxiii. Justin tells us that he omitted every thing which he
considered as either unnecessary or likely to be displeas¬
ing to the reader, and in this way he has passed over all
the geograpical information of Trogus. He is particularly
deficient in chronological arrangement, though his style is
in general simple and correct. The Prologi which are
J U V
istness found attached to each book were not written by Justin,
|| but by some old grammarian. Editio princeps, Venet. 1470,
•enftlis. per Jenson, and Rome, 1470, 1471. It has often been
published along with Floras: Mediol. 1476; ed. Bongar-
sius, Par. 1581; ed. Lemaire, Par. 1823; e recen. Gron.
et cum var. not. ed. Frotscher, Lips. 1827, 3 vols.
JUSTNESS, the exactness or regularity of any thing.
Justness is chiefly used in speaking of thought, language,
and sentiments. The justness of a thought consists in a
certain precision or accuracy, by which every part of it
is perfectly true, and pertinent to the subject. Justness of
language consists in using proper and well-chosen terms ;
in not saying either too much or too little.
JUTERBOCK, a city of the circle of that name, in the
Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the river Elbe, con¬
taining 569 houses, and 3394 inhabitants, employed in mak¬
ing cloth, leather, shoes, and linen goods.
JUTLAND, a large peninsula, which makes the princi¬
pal part of the kingdom of Denmark. See Denmark.
JUVENALIS, Decimus or Decius Junius, a celebrat¬
ed Roman satirist, respecting whose personal history only
a few scanty notices have been preserved, chiefly in a life
of the poet usually ascribed to Suetonius. Juvenal was a
native of Aquinum, now Aquino, a city of Latium, on the
Via Latina, a few miles from the left bank of the Liris;
but whether he was the son of a freeman by birth or by
adoption, is a point which cannot now be decided. Neither
is the exact date of his birth or death known, though it
seems most consonant to the other facts stated respecting
him, to conclude that he must have been born about a. d. 42,
in the reign of the Emperor Claudius. Some have believ¬
ed him to have been the pupil of Quintilian, and Pronto,
the preceptor of the two Antonines; but the time during
which they flourished disproves this supposition. Juvenal
seems to have pursued in his early years the study of rhe¬
toric with much ardour, more as a recreation than with the
view of employing it in the practical affairs of the forum ;
and it was not until he was far advanced in years that his
genius for poetry fully developed itself. It is said that a
passage in one of his Satires (vii. 87-92), which lashes with
an unsparing hand the court of Domitian, was thought
by the favourite of the day to aim indirectly at the con¬
duct of Hadrian ; and the emperor marked his displeasure
by banishment from Rome to the most remote district of
Egypt, though under the pretext of an appointment as
prcefectus cohortis. He had now reached his eightieth
year, a. d. 121, and his age was not suited to bear a change
of climate or the fatigues of a camp. He is said to have
died in Egypt, though some make him return to Italy.
Of the works of Juvenal we possess a collection of six¬
teen satires, divided by grammarians into five books. The
last satire is considered by some as not being the production
of Juvenal. They were not written and published in the same
order in which we now possess them. The character of the
Satires of Juvenal is very different from that of the Satires
of Horace. Whilst Horace laughs in a good-natured tone
at the follies of mankind, Juvenal pursues their crimes with
all the unmitigated bitterness of scorn. The picture
which he at times presents is so hideous, that the mind re¬
volts at its contemplation; and it is impossible not to be¬
lieve but the same effect might have been produced if the
poet had been somewhat less minute in his details. The
corruption of manners which had at this time pervaded
every class of the Romans, was certainly of the most re¬
volting kind, and supplied ample materials for the pen of
the satirist. Yet there is an exaggerated tone, and an air of
rhetorical declamation, throughout his satires, which lessen
greatly their effect. This is also the fault to be found with
all the writings of his age, produced evidently by a desire
of astonishing the imagination with bold and novel descrip¬
tions. The first edition of Juvenal was probably that pub-
>OL. XII.
J u X 657
lished along with Persius, at Rome, 1470. The best is that Juvencus
of Ruperti, Lips. 1801, which has often been reprinted.
It. IlHS hp^n trsincl Qf-orl . TT „ I 3  i r* i r*
It has been translated into English by Holyday, Oxf. 1616,
1673; by Stapleton, six Satires, Oxf. 1644; bv Dryden,
Lond. 1697 ; by Owen, Lond. 1785 ; and by Madau, Lond.
1789. The best translation into French is said to be
that of Dusaulx, Paris, 1770, 1816, 5th ed., or of Raoul-
Rochette, Paris, 1812.
JUVENCUS, Caius Vecticus Aquilinus, one of the
first of the Christian poets, was born of an illustrious family
in Spain. About the year 320 he put the life of Jesus
Christ into Latin verse, of which he composed four books.
In this work he followed closely the text of the evangelists ;
but his verses are written in bad taste and in worse Latin.
JUVENTAS, in Mythology, the goddess who presided
over youth amongst the Romans. This goddess was long
honoured in the capitol, where Servius Tullius erected a
statue to her. Near the chapel of Minerva there was the
altar of Juventas, and upon this altar a picture of Proser¬
pine. The Greeks called the goddess of youth Hebe; but
it has been generally supposed that this was not the same
with the Roman Juventas.
JUXON, Dr William, archbishop of Canterbury, was
born at Chichester in 1582. He was educated at Mer¬
chant Tailors’ School, and thence elected into. St John’s
College, Oxford, of which he became president. King
Charles I. made him bishop of London, and in 1635 pro¬
moted him to the office of lord high treasurer of England.
The whole nation, and especially the nobility, were greatly
offended at this high office being given to a clergyman;
but he behaved so well in the administration, that he soon
put a stop to all the clamour raised against him. This place
he held no longer than the 17th of May 1641, when he
prudently resigned the staff, to avoid the storm which then
threatened the court and the clergy. In the following Fe¬
bruary an act passed, depriving the bishops of their votes in
parliament, and incapacitating them from exercising any
temporal jurisdiction. In these leading steps, as well as in
the total abolition of the episcopal order which followed, he
was involved with his brethren ; but neither as a bishop nor
as a treasurer was a single accusation brought against him
in the long parliament. During the civil wars he resided at
his palace at Fulham, where his meek, inoffensive, and af¬
fable manners, notwithstanding his remaining steady in his
loyalty to the king, procured him the visits of the principal
persons of the opposite party, and respect from all. In
1648 he attended his majesty at the treaty in the Isle of
Wight; and, by his particular desire, waited upon him at
Cotton House, Westminster, the day after the commence¬
ment of his trial, during which he frequently visited him
in the office of a spiritual father; and his majesty declared
he was the greatest comfort to him in that afflicting situa¬
tion. He likewise attended his majesty on the scaffold,
where the king, taking off his cloak and george, gave him
the latter. After the execution, Bishop Juxon took care
of the body, which he accompanied to the royal chapel at
Windsor, and stood ready, with the common-prayer book
in his hands, to perform the last ceremony for the king;
but he was prevented by Colonel Whichcot, governor of the
castle. He continued in the quiet possession of Fulham
Palace till the ensuing year, 1649, when he was deprived,
having been spared longer than any of his brethren. He
then retired to his own estate in Gloucestershire, where he
lived in privacy till the restoration, when he was presented
to the see of Canterbury ; and, during the little time he en¬
joyed it, expended, in buildings and reparations at Lam¬
beth Palace and Croydon House, near L. 15,000. He died
in 1663, having bequeathed L.7000 to St John’s College,
and to other charitable uses near L.5000. He published a
sermon on Luke, xviii. 31, and Some Considerations upon
the Act of Uniformity*
4 o
J uxon.
V Y 
658
K.
K A A K A D
Kthe tenth letter, and seventh consonant, of our al- well peopled, and is a beautiful and fertile country. Kas- Kaban
j phabet, being formed by a guttural expression of son is likewise considered as rich in gold, silver, and coffee. ||
the breath through the mouth, together with a depression The capital is called Kooniakary. The commerce of the
of the lower jaw, and an opening of the teeth. Its sound states in this quarter consists in exchanging gold, ivory,
is much the same with that of the hard c, or qu, and it and slaves, for European goods.
is used for the most part only before e, i, and n, in the be- KABANIA, a fortress of Asiatic Russia, being part of
^inning of words, as ken, kill, know, and the like. It the line formed for the defence of the government of To-
used formerly to be always joined with c at the end of bolsk. There are seventy-five houses without the fort,
words, but is atfpresent very properly omitted, at least in It is 270 miles south of Tobolsk.
words derived from the Latin. Thus, iox publick, mimck, KABANOUA, or Kabanouska, a fortress of Asiatic
we now say public, music, and so on. However, in mo- Russia, in the government of Tomsk, for protecting the
nosyllables it is still retained, as jack, block, mock, and the frontier against the Kirghises. It is eighty-six miles south
]jke> of Tomsk.
K was borrowed from the Greek kappa, and was but KABARDA, a territory of Asia, in the Russian govern-
little used amongst the Latins. Priscian looked on it as a ment of Caucasus, inhabited by the principal of those na-
superfluous letter, and says that it was never to be used tions known under the name of Circassians. The Terek,
except in words borrowed from the Greek. Dausquius, along the southern bank of which it extends, separates it
after Sallust, observes that it was unknown to the ancient from the Russian government of Caucasus. It is divided
Romans. Indeed we seldom find it in any Latin authors, into the Great and Little Kabarda, the frontier of which
excepting in the word kalendce, where it sometimes stands reaches from the shore of the Caspian to the river Malka,
instead of c. Carthage, however, is frequently spelt on whilst the latter extends thence to the environs of the city
medals with a K, salvis aug. et caes. fee. kart.; and of Mosdok. They are both subject to Russia, but they
sometimes the letter K alone stood for Carthage. M. Ber- are governed internally by their own princes,
ger has observed, that a capital K, on the reverse of the KABOUR, a river of Asia, in the pashalik of Bagdad,
medals of the emperors of Constantinople, signified which rises near Merdin, and pursues a southerly course,
tinus ; and that on the Greek medals it signified KOIAH until it receives the Mygdonius, when it enters the Eu-
SYPIA, Cede-Syria. Quintilian tells us, that in his time, phrates at Kerkesia, the ancient Circessium.
some people had a mistaken notion, that wherever the let- KABRONANG, an island in the Eastern Seas, about
ters c and a occurred at the beginning of a word, k ought to eighteen miles in circumference. It is in a high state of
be used instead of the c. Lipsius observes, that K was a cultivation, and may be seen about eighteen leagues off,
stigma anciently marked on the foreheads of criminals with being distinguished by a high-peaked hill about the mid-
a red-hot iron. die. It is separated from Salibabo island, which lies to the
The letter K has various significations in old charters north-west, by a strait about four miles wide. Long. 126.
and diplomas ; for instance, KR. stood for chorus ; KR. C. 35. E. Lat. 3. 50. N.
for cara civitas; KRM. for carmen; KR. AM. N. for cams KACHTAN, or Cachtan, a small district of Yemen, in
amicus noster; KS. chaos; KT. capite tonsus, &c. The Arabia, situated in a mountainous district, about six days’
French never use the letter k excepting in a few terms of journey north-north-east from Saade.
art and proper names borrowed from other languages. Ab- KADESH, Kadesh-barnea, or En-mishpat, in An-
lancourt, in his dialogue of the letters, introduces K as com- dent Geography, a city celebrated for several remarkable
plaining that he has been often in a fair w ay of being ba- events. At Kadesh, Miriam the sister of Moses died; and
nished from the French alphabet, and confined to the here it was that Moses and Aaron, showing a distrust in
countries of the north. God’s power, when they smote the rock at the waters of
K is also a numeral letter, signifying 250, according strife, were condemned to die without the consolation of
to the verse, entering the promised land. The king of Kadesh was one
_ , ... of the princes killed by Joshua. This city was given to
K quoque ducentos et quinquagmta tenebit. tjie trj^e 0p Ju(]ailj anj was situated about eight leagues to
When it had a stroke above it, K, this letter stood for the south of Hebron.
250,000. K on the French coinage denotes money coined KADIRGUNGE, a town of Hindustan, in the province
at Bordeaux. of Agra, and district of Furruckabad, surrounded by a
KAARTA, one of the many kingdoms into which the mud wall. It is situated near the south-west bank of the
western part of Africa is divided, and of which little or no- Ganges, and forty-three miles north-north-west from Fur-
thing is known, excepting that it is of considerable extent, ruckabad. Long. 79. 2. E. Lat. 27. 50. N.
but, from the arenaceous nature of the soil, very scanty in KADMONiEI, or Cadmonjei, in Ancient Geography, a
all vegetable productions, with the exception of the lotus, people of Palestine, said to have dwelt at the foot of Mount
The capital is called Kemmoo; but the king has, be- Hermon, which lies to the eastward, and is the reason ot
sides, two strong fortresses, Joko and Gedingooma, to the appellation, with respect to Libanus, Phoenicia, and
which he can flee for security when his dominions are in- the northern parts of Palestine. They were also called
vaded by the forces of the neighbouring states. Kasson, Ilevcci.
formerly an independent country, is now incorporated with KADOM, a city of European Russia, in the province of
Kaai'ta. It is about fifty miles from north to south, and Tambow. It is situated in a woody district, mostly inha-
nearly the same from east to west; but, though small, it is bitedby Tartars. The population amounts to 5100 persons.
K A F
{affa Much wax and honey is collected in the neighbourhood.
II , It is 230 miles east-south-east from Moscow.
iffrana. KAFFA, a city of the Russian empire, in Europe, in
the Crimea. It was formerly the capital of that penin¬
sula, and the residence of the khan; and, from the end of the
thirteenth till the middle of the fifteenth century, it main¬
tained, by its flourishing trade, which was chiefly with
Genoa, a population of 100,000. It was taken by the
Turks in 1474, since which time its trade has vastly de¬
clined. It was taken by the Russians in 1770, and given
back again to the khan in 1774. But it was, with the whole
of the Crimea, given up to Russia in 1783, which cession
was confirmed by the treaty of 1792, concluded at Jassy,
between Turkey and Russia. It stands on a bay of the
Black Sea, on the side of a hill. It was declared a free
port by the Russians in 1798. It is the seat of the pro¬
vincial government, has some trade in the products of
the soil of the peninsula, and contains 5000 inhabitants.
There is a Greek theatre, a botanic garden, and a museum
of antiquities, established in the neighbourhood. It is
sometimes called by the Russians Feodosia.
KAFFILAR KOOK, a village of Persia, surrounded by
a range of high mountains of the same name, on the road
from Sultania to Sennah, and seventy miles north-north¬
east of the latter place.
KAFFRARIA, Kafferland, or Caffraria, a terri¬
tory extending along the eastern shores of South Africa,
from the eastern boundary line of the Cape of Good Hope
to Delagoa Bay, a distance of between 600 and 700 miles.
It extends inwards to the country of the Boshuanas, be¬
tween 200 and 300 miles from the sea; but this frontier
has never been properly explored, and consequently can¬
not be correctly defined. To this coast the Portuguese
gave the name of Natal, which has been followed by na¬
vigators, but is of course not in use amongst the natives
as a designation of their territory. Of this region of the
globe, either as regards its physical aspect or natural
productions, little is known, and that little is confined to
isolated parts, and not to the country as a whole. In
some portionsof itsandy plainsspread out in unfruitful bar¬
renness for many miles ; but others are exceedingly fertile,
consisting of fine savannahs, intersected with small clumps
of trees, and carpeted with a rich variety of herbaceous
plants, whilst excellent streamlets, meandering amongst
the shrubbery in the centre of the valleys, give life and
beauty to the landscape. These are chiefly to be met
with at the base of a chain of high mountains stretching
into the vicinity of Delagoa Bay. The ridge was recent¬
ly crossed by one of the missionaries resident in this quar¬
ter, who says, that on reaching the summit, fine grassy
plains, thickly inhabited, were seen spreading out in every
direction, it being the summer residence and grazing-place
of those clans who live along the base of the mountain.
The pasturage was good and abundant, the climate re¬
markably fine, and the general aspect of the country, the
trees, and shrubs, and other features, strikingly resembled
those in many parts of England, whilst the whole appear¬
ed watered by numerous rills. The mountainous range
which divides the sea-border from the interior is in some
parts 6000 feet in height; and the most distinguishing
geological feature which they possess is the presence of
a superincumbent stratum of sandstone. High detached
masses are found in many places standing some feet above
the surface of the earth. The upper part of a mountain
visited by the individual alluded to, presented to the eye
immense precipices capped with large rhomboidal tables,
and projecting angles forming a sort of cornice to the face.
On the side of the declivities there was a description of
prismatic quartz crystals in a corroded state, and evident¬
ly undergoing the process of decomposition; a circumstance
which is observable in all the mountains of South Africa,
K A F
and will no doubt yearly give rise to an increasing ex¬
tent of soil. Iron-stone is everywhere found in Kaffra-
na, and also considerable quantities of ochre of various
kinds, presenting itself under different circumstances. The
coast of Natal has been described by one of the most re¬
cent authorities as looking like a large park, varied with
hill and dale, displaying occasionally through a luxuriant
valley the distant prospect of blue mountainous ridges.
On other parts of the coast the landscape was equally
beautiful; clusters of trees, hills, vales, and glens compos¬
ing the foreground, whilst in the distance, divided by a
deep valley or chasm, a range of craggy mountains ex¬
tended in a parallel direction to the limits of vision.
There are a great many rivers on the Kaffraria coast, of
which the Kai or Ky, and Keiskamma, are amongst the
largest. The entrance of the former is one of the most
picturesque and extraordinary in the world, as it forms, by
its abrupt and perpendicular heights, a natural lock, “want¬
ing only a flood-gate to make it a wet dock.” That part of
the coast where Port Natal is situated possesses so many
advantages, that proposals have been lately made to the
British government to have it regularly settled. The me¬
morial of the merchants and other inhabitants of the Cape
of Good Hope embodies various reasons for laying the case
before the “ king in council and as it likewise conveys a
description of the country, we shall give an abstract from it.
The arguments brought forward are, that the country in
the vicinity of Port Natal was originally purchased by the
Dutch, and held by them as a dependency of the Cape
of Good Hope, and, of course, along with the latter colony,
was ceded to Great Britain in 1814; that since the year
1824, Port Natal has been almost constantly occupied by
British subjects, by permission of the governor of Cape
Colony ; that these persons had succeeded in opening a
trade with the natives, which has gradually increased in
extent, from the encouragement offered by the Zoolas, who
are favourable to Europeans, but whose residence there is
attended with great risk in the absence of a government
establishment, which would be a protection to the trader,
and likewise prevent the frequent collision of the Zoola and
Kaffre tribes. The pastures of the country between these
tribes are of a highly favourable description. It is well
wooded with large timber, and watered by upwards of one
hundred rivers and running streams, some of which are
larger than the chief rivers of Cape Colony. The soil is
fertile, and has produced three crops of Kaffre and Indian
corn in the year. The rains are periodical, and the cli¬
mate is cooler than that of the Cape, and highly salubri¬
ous. The bay of Port Natal is an exceedingly fine har¬
bour, but the entrance is narrow, and has a bar of shift¬
ing sand. There are six feet of water on the bar, with a
run of six feet, and at spring-tides the depth is fourteen.
“ There are a considerable number of natives, a labori¬
ous and well-conducted people, who are the remains of
the tribes who formerly occupied the country purchas¬
ed and ceded by the Dutch, and who, having attached
themselves to the white inhabitants, are living in its vi¬
cinity under their auspices, unmolested by the Zoolas.”
The memorial goes on to state, that such an, establish¬
ment as that contemplated would prevent the irregular
trading which is carried on at Port Natal, and advance
the civilization and moral improvement of the neighbour¬
ing tribes, besides protecting the Kaffres. The ceded ter¬
ritory is said to extend about two hundred miles along
the coast to the westward, and one hundred miles inland ;
and, from the capabilities of the country for maintaining
a large population, and carrying on an extensive trade,
a comparatively small military force is all that is required.
The name Kaffre (in Arabic Kafir, signifying an unbe¬
liever or pagan) was given by the early Portuguese naviga¬
tors to the natives of the entire eastern coast of Africa. The
660 K A F K A F
KafFraria. Dutch settlers at the Cape, therefore, when, in their mi-
grations eastward, they discovered a race of men entirely
different from the Hottentots, called them Kaffres. This
name, in its most extensive application, designates several
African tribes, wrho are again distinguished by other appel¬
lations ; and colonial usage has almost appropriated the
generic term Katfre to the tribe in closest contact with the
colony, and who call themselves Amakosa. Their northern
neighbours are called the Amatembu, which the Dutch have
metamorphosed into Tembooger, and the English into Tam-
bookies. Farther east is located the Amaponda or Amambo,
which has been corrupted into Mambookies. The latter are
the most industrious of the three nations, but the Amakosa
are considered the most warlike. Still farther to the east of
the Amaponda are the Zoolas, to whom refei’ence has already
been made. The descent of these races of men has been attri¬
buted to the Bedouins or wandering Arabs; and this conjec¬
ture is by no means improbable, for they are distinct from
both negroes and Hottentots ; whilst the people above men¬
tioned, having penetrated into every part of Southern Africa,
may have reached this country by skirting the Red Sea, and
journeying southward by the sea-coast, so as to avoid the
great desert of sand by which Africa is divided into two parts.
Their character, manners, modes of building, and other cir¬
cumstances, also favour the assumption. The middle of the
seventeenth century has been assumed as the period when
they first acquired territory here from the native tribes.
The Amakosa Kaffres have been frequently described by
individuals who have visited their country. Their fea¬
tures are Asiatic, their physical endowments considera¬
ble, and their intellectual qualities respectable, although,
from their remaining still in an uncivilized, and almost en¬
tirely savage state, the latter have not had a fair oppor¬
tunity of developing themselves. But we shall recur to the
subject of their character and futui’e prospects at the close
of this article.
One of the principal articles of trade amongst the Kaf¬
fres is the barter of cattle for young women of the Tam-
bookie tribe, who are short, stout,'and muscular; and these
are preferred by the chiefs to females of their own peo¬
ple. In the warm season a thin apron constitutes their
sole bodily attire ; but in winter a cloak is used, made of the
skins of wild beasts, admirably curried. The head, even
in the hottest weather, is never protected by any covering ;
and they seldom use shoes, except on undertaking a long
journey, when they condescend to wear a rude substitute
for them. The bodies of both sexes are tatooed ; and
those of the young men who correspond to the fops of more
civilized nations paint their skins and curl their hair.
Their arms are the javelin, a large shield of buffalo hide,
and a short club. The women exhibit taste in the arrange¬
ment of their dress, particularly for the head, which con¬
sists of a turban made of skin, and profusely ornamented
with beads. A mantle of skin, variously bedecked with
beads and other showy trinkets, is worn ; and the only dis¬
tinction between the dress of the chieftain’s wives and those
of the lower ranks consists in the greater profusion of orna¬
ments possessed by the former, but of which all are alike
vain. There is no change, the whole wardrobe of the fe¬
male being that which she carries about with her, and
sleeps in; for bed-clothes they have none. Their huts
are generally about twelve feet diameter, with a raised
floor, and a gutter for a drain. They are constructed
by setting up poles erect, then bending “the tops till they
meet, when they are tied together with fibres. This ske¬
leton of a dwelling is then thatched outside with rushes,
and plastered inside with clay or cow dung. Little time
is spent in these primitive abodes, for the excellence of the
climate admits of the people living much in the open air.
The Kaffre hamlet generally consists of about a dozen of
such huts; and the sites of these, as wrell as the cattle folds,
are chosen with reference to the pasturage ground, as the Kaffiar
safety and multiplication of their flocks is the chief care of
these modern Arcadians. Horses have lately been brought
amongst them, previous to the introduction of which the
ox was their only beast of burden. Sheep and goats have
greatly multiplied with them.
The grain which they chiefly cultivate is a kind of millet,
holcus sorgium ; a small quantity of Indian corn, and some
pumpkins, are likew ise grown; but a species of sugar-cane
called mifi is produced in great abundance, and of this they
are extremely fond. Their diet, however, is chiefly milk in
a sour, curdled state. They abhor swine’s flesh, keep no
poultry, are averse to fish, but indulge in eating the flesh of
their cattle, which they prepare in a very disgusting man¬
ner. They are nearly strangers to spirituous liquors, but
have as substitutes a kind of mead, and a tolerably good
beer prepared from malted millet. Although naturally
brave and warlike, they prefer an indolent, pastoral life,
hunting being an occasional pastime. They are excellent
herdsmen, and extremely expert in the management of
their oxen, which they train to obey with perfect docility
the will of their masters. They are carefully sheltered and
secured in pens, and milked morning and evening in their
folds. The hides are made into garments by the men,
who also exhibit some dexterity as artisans in fashioning
weapons, axes, and the like. The women, however, officiate
as the architects of the dwellings; and they also w eave a
superior sort of mat from a fine rush, which displays some
taste in the execution. Their whole household .utensils
consist of a sleeping mat, a leathern milk sack, a calibash,
and an earthen pot for cooking.
Their form of government is that of hereditary chief¬
tains, or clansmen. The chiefs are legislators as well as
judges, but the old men of the tribe assemble on necessary
occasions, forming a sort of jury, and they have also a
voice in decisions, which are generally founded on pre¬
cedents, orally and faithfully transmitted from sire to son.
Their laws are few and simple. The courts, which all have
the privilege of attending, are held in the open air, and each
party to a suit pleads his own cause. In their religion,
although no regular system of idolatry exists amongst them,
they are addicted to sorcery, spells, and charms. They re¬
verence a Supi’eme Being, and believe in the immortality
of the soul, yet never associate with it the idea of future
rewards and punishments. With the exception of a few
unimportant matters connected with the burying of the
dead, their religious or solemn ceremonies present nothing
worthy of particular notice.
Much light has recently been thrown on the present
condition and future prospects of this people, by papers
relative to the Cape of Good Hope, which were laid before
government in 1835. From these it appears that a sys¬
tem of aggression, and an unjustifiable appropriation, on the
part of the whites, have from time to time roused the
savage energies of the Kaffres, and impelled them to make
severe reprisals on their European spoilers. The longing
of the colonists for the well-watered valleys of the Kaffres,
and of the latter for the colonial cattle, which are much
superior to their own, still are, as they have always been,
the sources of irritation. The Dutch boors, an unscrupulous
race of men, seem from time to time to have treated the
aboriginal population very unceremoniously. In the year
1834, matters arrived at a crisis. A portion of land on the
western side of the Keiskamma had, for many years, been
occupied by the herds of the Kaffres, by permission of the
colonial government. This indulgence was said to have
been abused, and the immediate expulsion of the trans¬
gressors took place. This happened in November 1833.
The Kaffres retaliated, and, at the close of 1834, the de¬
predations in the colony had reached an alarming height.
The savages poured into the colony in great numbers,
K A I
K A J
661
hlore wasted the farms, drove off the cattle, and murdered not a
|| few of the inhabitants. An army of 4000 men was marched
isers' against the invaders, who were driven far beyond the
boundary line which formerly separated Kafferland from Cape
^ Colony, and not only forced them to confine themselves
within the new limits prescribed, but to pay a heavy fine.
Treaties have been entered into between some of the na¬
tive chiefs and the colonial government, by which the
river Ky is constituted the boundary of the colony; an ar¬
rangement which deprives the Amatembu people, who did
no harm, of their independence. Tracts of country have been
assigned to the Kaffre chiefs of several families, who ac¬
knowledge themselves to be subjects of Great Britain, and
who are to pay a fat ox annually as a quit-rent for the
lands which they occupy. They are now, so far at least,
brought within the pale of the English government; but
how the plan will succeed is still a matter of uncertainty
and speculation. (For further particulars on this subject,
see Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixiii.)
KAHLORE, a Sikh town of Hindustan, in the province
of Lahore, situated on the banks of the Sutlege, above
Macowall, and near the mountains through which that
river enters Hindustan. There is also a town of this name
situated at a short distance north-east from the city of
Lahore.
KAIBALLS, a people of Asiatic Russia, who reside
near the source of the Yenesei. They appear to be an in¬
termixture of the Samoyeds with the Tartar race.
KAINSI, the Hottentot name of a species of antelope,
denominated by the Dutch, on account of its agilit}',
klip-springer. It is of a yellowish-gray colour, and of the
size of a kid of a year old.
KAINSKE, a small fortified town of Asiatic Russia, in
the government of Tomsk, situated on a small river of
the same name. It is placed as a defence to the Tartars
of the steppe of Barabinsk, against the incursions of the
Kalmucks and Kirghises.
KAIR, a large fortified town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Aurungabad, situated on the south bank of the
Godavery.
KAIRWAN, a city of Africa, in the province of Tunis,
the first seat of Saracenic empire in Barbary, and still rank¬
ing second only to Tunis in trade and population. It is
a walled town, situated in a barren sandy plain, and de¬
pendent for its supply of water upon a capacious reservoir,
filled by the rains, and a pond which becomes nearly dry
in summer, when it exhales a noxious effluvium. The situa¬
tion is undoubtedly ill chosen, yet it appears to occupy an
ancient site, and it derives importance from its situation.
Shaw, in his Travels, gives the following account of it. “We
have at Kairwan several fragments of ancient architecture ;
and the great mosque, which is accounted to be the most
magnificent, as well as the most sacred, in Barbary, is sup¬
ported by an almost incredible number of pillars. The in¬
habitants told me (for a Christian is not permitted in Bar¬
bary to enter the mosques) that there are no fewer than
five hundred. Yet among the great variety of columns,
and other ancient materials, that were employed in this
large and beautiful structure, I could not be informed of
one single inscription.” The name which it bears seems to
be the same with caravan, and might therefore originally
designate the place where the Arabs had their principal
station in subduing this portion of Africa. It was found¬
ed by Hucba or Akbar, in the fiftieth year of the hejira,
“ under the modest title,” says Gibbon, “ of the station of a
caravan.” The population is said to amount to above 50,000.
Long. 9. 57. E. Lat. 35. 36. N.
KAISERSLAUTERN, a city of Bavaria, the capital of
the district of the same name, in the province of the
Rhine. The district extends over 706 square miles, and
contains 98,400 inhabitants. It is in a mountainous coun¬
try, filled with mines, and a great part covered with woods.
The city is situated on the river Lauter, and is surround¬
ed with walls, containing three churches, 380 houses, and
2810 inhabitants. There are manufactories of cotton goods
and hosiery, and several blast-furnaces. It is remarkable
for three battles fought there between the Prussians and
the French, one in 1793, the other two in 1794. Long.
7. 41. E. Lat. 49. 26. N.
KAJAAGA, or Galam, a kingdom of Western Africa,
extending from within a few miles of the Cataract of Feloo
in the east (where it is bounded by Kasson), about forty miles
west of the Falume, to the north of Geereer Creek, which
divides it from Foota. On the south it is bounded by Bon-
doo. The most complete description of this country is that
contained in Major Gray’s Travels in Africa, who visited it
in 1819. At that time Kajaaga was composed of a series
of towns situated on either bank of the river Senegal. It
formerly extended several miles in the direction of Bondoo,
Foota, and Bambouk, but had shrunk into its present di¬
mensions in consequence of the encroachments of the neigh¬
bouring tribes, with whom a war was kept up, and who
were enabled to carry it on more successfully from dis¬
agreements amongst the various branches of the royal fa¬
mily. The river Fa-lemme (which signifies “small river”)
divides it into Upper and Lower Kajaaga. The former is
governed by the Tonca of Maghana, and the latter by the
Tonca of Tuabo. These towns constitute the capitals of
the respective divisions, but neither acknowledge the su¬
premacy of the other, although previously and of right it
belonged to the former, near which is situated Fort St
Joseph, now deserted and in ruins. This was the point at
which the French attempted to carry on the commerce of
the Upper Senegal, and a voyage thither was calculated to
realize cent, per cent.; but the unhealthiness of the climate,
the difficulties of the navigation, and the constant hazard of
being plundered by a succession of barbarous chiefs, who
occupy the banks, render it a very precarious speculation.
The Serawoollies, who are located in this quarter, rank
amongst the most industrious of the African tribes, and
have engrossed the trade of Bambouk, Handing, and most
of the upper districts of the Senegal as well as the Niger.
The face of the country is very mountainous, and cover¬
ed to a considerable extent with wood, a large portion of
which is well adapted to common uses. The vegetable
productions, like those of Bondoo, are corn of four differ¬
ent kinds, together with rice, pumpions, water melons,
gourds, sorrell, onions, tobacco, red pepper, pistachios, cot¬
ton, and indigo. Numbers of tamarinds, baobabs, rham-
nus lotus, and other fruit-trees, are likewise scattered about
the beautiful and picturesque valleys. This country dif¬
fers from Bondoo only in its proximity to the river, and in
its partial inundation during the rains. The commerce con¬
sists in the exchange of the cotton cloths manufactured
in the country, and the superabundance of their provisions,
for European merchandise, such as fire-arms, gunpowder,
India goods, hardware, amber, coral, and glass beads. These
are again exchanged with their neighbours of Kaarta, Kas¬
son, and Bambouk, for gold, ivory, and slaves, who are in
their turn sold to vessels from Senegal. The manufactures
of Kajaaga are nearly similar to those of the neighbouring
kingdoms, consisting of wearing apparel, household furniture,
together with implements of husbandry, carpenters’, black¬
smiths’, and leather-workers’ tools, and knives, spear and ar¬
row heads, bridle-bits, stirrups, and a variety of other small ar¬
ticles. But they have an advantage over their neighbours in
some respects, particularly in the weaving and dyeing of
cotton ; “and,” Major Gray observes, “whether it be that the
humidity of the soil on the banks of the river is more con¬
genial to the growth of the cotton and indigo, or that the
manufacturers are more expert, I cannot say; but certain
it is, that they can dye a much finer blue than I have before
Kajaaga.
6G2 K A L
Kajaaga seen in Africa.” The dress of the people is far from being
li inelegant or inconvenient. The men wear on the head a
Kaleido- ^ite cotton cap, very neatly worked with different colour-
^scope^ g.jj.s or worsteds; whilst a shirt of white cotton, with
short sleeves, worn next the skin, covers the body from the
neck to about the thigh, and is surmounted by a very large
one of the same materials, descending below the knees, as
do also the small clothes, which are very roomy above,
and generally of a blue colour. They wear their hair cut
close ; and the cap, which is always white, is of a very grace¬
ful form, and embroidered. The dress of the wumen, who
are extremely neat in their persons, is handsome ; and they
are very fond of such ornaments as amber, coral, and glass
beads of different colours, wherewith they bedeck different
parts of their bodies. In their livihg they are proverbially
fond of animal food; indeed a putrid hippopotamus float¬
ing down the Senegal is considered as a prize, the division
of which, when dragged to shore, sometimes occasions strife
amongst the captors. From a state of paganism, these
people are gradually veering round to the tenets of Mahom-
med. Some towns are wholly inhabited by priests, who are
by far the most wealthy and respectable members of the com¬
munity. There is a mosque in every town, and the times
of worship are strictly attended to by the priests and their
disciples. Great numbers of dates are grown in all the
towns, which are beautifully shaded with large trees of the
fig and other kinds of timber; and being well walled, pre¬
sent a more respectable appearance than might be expected
amongst a people whose means are so limited. In their
persons they are rather robust, and of a grave and sober
deportment. Their colour is a jet black, which they are at
much pains to preserve, by profusely anointing their bodies
with rancid butter. They are considered as more friendly
to Europeans than any other of the surrounding tribes, pro¬
bably from the long existence of a state of commercial in¬
tercourse between them and the inhabitants of Senegal,
with whom they claim relationship, and towards whom they
show much attachment. The advantages which they de¬
rive from their local situation render them enemies to
the people of Bondoo, who have nothing to do with the
river except through the medium of the Kajaaga country.
Hence the exertions which have been made by Bondoo
to subjugate the nations, and kindle up intestine warfare
between the inhabitants of the upper and lower states ;
and this to a certain extent they have succeeded in effect¬
ing. But with these barbarous races of men, amongst
whom war is a regular trade, and moral restraint can be
but imperfectly recognised, there is such a continual fluc¬
tuation of affairs, that it is hazardous to assign limits to the
territory which they possess, or to say what the form of go¬
vernment is at any given time ; for the predatory inroad of
a neighbouring foe may totally alter both in the course
of a single day. According to Major Gray’s account, the
succession to the crown is not hereditary, but descends in
a regular line to the eldest branch of a numerous race
called Batcheries, who are the undisputed chiefs of the
K A L
country. The population was considerably increased by Kake
an influx of inhabitants from the north bank of the river, ||
who were obliged to quit their own country on account of ^alei
the exorbitant demands of the Kaartans,| to whom they ^°PI
paid tribute. But what the total amount may at present w”'’r
be it is impossible to form a conjecture.
KAKETI, the most easterly and mountainous province
of Georgia, in Asia, the surface of which is covered with
the ruins of fortresses, villages, and towns, owing to the
numerous wars, both foreign and domestic, to which it
has been exposed. It is now subject to the dominion of
Russia, having been formerly governed by its own princes.
Some degree of order has been x*estored under the rigor¬
ous rule of Russia, and both commerce and population are
extending.
KAKKABBAN, an island in the Eastern Seas, and one
of the cluster called Maratuba, forty miles from the east
coast of Borneo. Long. 116. 40. E. Lat. 2. 8. N.
KAKORH, a large town of Hindustan, in the province
of Ajmeer, situated at the southern extremity of a range
of hills.
KAKREZE, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Gujerat, which consists of eighty-four villages, belonging
to several Hindu chiefs. Its principal towns are Therah
and Oon, at the latter of which the district commences.
Kakreze is fifteen miles to the. north of Rahdunpoor.
KALAMATA, a town of Greece, in the Morea, the
capital of a circle of the same name. It stands at the
mouth of the river Pirnascha, on the Gulf of Koron, and
contains 2500 inhabitants, partly employed in the fishery,
and in cultivating olives.
KALASIN, a city of the province of Twer, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of its own name, which contains
one city, 650 villages, and 64,210 inhabitants. The city
stands at the mouth of the Chabna, where that river falls
into the Volga. It contains 640 houses, and 3820 inha¬
bitants. Long. 38. 38. E. Lat. 57. 20. N.
KALATIGAS, a small river of the island of Java, near
its eastern extremity. It is the termination of the fine
military road made by order of General Daendels, the
French governor, and which extends in length from Ba¬
tavia 684 miles.
KALATOA Isle, an island in the Eastern Seas, about
thirty miles in circumference, surrounded by a cluster of
other islands or rocks, on which the English ship the
Ocean was lost in 1797. Long. 122. 15. E. Lat. 7.
18. S.
KALBE, a city, the chief place of a circle of the same
name, in the province of Saxony, in Prussia, and situated
on the river Saale. It is celebrated for its manufactures
of friezes, flannels, and hosiery. It is fortified, and con¬
tains 781 houses, with 4427 inhabitants. Long. 11. 39.
1. E. Lat. 51. 54. 52. N.
KALDER Dag, a lofty range of mountains in Asia
Minor, extending eastward from Osium Kara Hissar to
beyond Ak Shehr.
KALEIDOSCOPE.
Kaleidoscope, an optical instrument, invented by Sir
David Brewster, which, by a particular arrangement of mir¬
rors, or reflecting surfaces, presents to the eye, placed in a
certain position, symmetrical combinations of images, re¬
markable for their beauty and the infinite variations of
which they are susceptible. The name is derived from
the Greek words xaXog, beautiful, hbog, a form, or appear¬
ance, and ffxtwrsw, to see.
The effect of combining two or more plane mirrors, so
as to produce a multiplication of images, had long been Histoi o
known and described by writers on optics. Baptista the w
Porta, in his Magia Naturalis, gives an account of thetlon’
construction of an instrument, which he calls polyphaton,
in which two rectangular specula are united by two of
their sides, so that they may be opened or shut like a
book, and the angles varied; and also of a polygonal spe¬
culum, consisting of several mirrors arranged in a polygon,
for multiplying in different directions the images of ob-
KALEIDOSCOPE.
663
leido- jects. Kircher, also, in his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbra, constructed, and of the mode in which those effects are Kaleido-
)pe- describes, as an invention of his own, the former of these produced.” To convey a knowledge of these principles scope,
constructions, and distinctly traces the relation between is the object of the present article.
the angle of inclination of the mirrors and the number of It follows from the optical law of the equality of the Optical
images formed. The very same contrivance was after- angles which the incident and reflected rays make with principles
wards adopted by Bradley, for the purpose of assisting in a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point?11 which
the designing of garden plots and fortifications; and he of incidence, that rays which diverge from any object, andltacts‘
states that, “ from the most trifling designs, we may, by fall on a plane surface, will, after reflection, proceed in the
this means, produce some thousands of good draughts.” same course as if they had immediately diverged from a
But the particular application of this principle in the case point situated at the same distance behind the reflecting
where the two reflectors are inclined to one another at surface as the radiant point is before it. This point is
a small angle, so as to form a series of symmetric images, called the virtual focus of those rays ; and the eye re-
distinctly visible only in a particular position of the eye, was ceiving them will have the perception of a reversed image
a discovery reserved for Sir David Brewster. The first idea of the object in this situation. Thus the miror A A' (Plate
of this remarkable property occurred to him in the course CCCXIX. fig. 1) will produce a reversed image of the ob-
of some experiments in which he was engaged on the po- ject II, situated at the point S, in the line R/?S, perpen-
larization of light, during the year 1814. But the only dicular to the surface of the mirror; and this image will
circumstance which at that time attracted his attention, appear in the same place whatever be the situation of the
was the circular arrangement of the images of a candle eye, as E, provided the reflected rays rE meet it.
round a centre, and the multiplication of the sectors Since the course of the reflected rays is the same as if
formed by the extremities of the plates of glass, between they had immediately proceeded from a real object of S,
which the light had undergone several successive reflec- where its image is seen, this image will, with relation to
tions. In repeating, at a subsequent period, some expe- another mirror, have all the effect of a real object; and a
riments of M.. Biot on the action of homogeneous fluids second reflection of the rays by a new mirror at BB', will
upon polarised light, and in extending them to other fluids produce, at the point T, equally distant from BB' as S is,
which he had not tried, Sir David Brewster happened, for but on the other side of it, an image of the first image,
greater convenience, to place them in a triangular trough, visible to the eye at E by the twice reflected rays RgvE.
formed by two plates of glass, cemented together by two As the first image was reversed with respect to the ob-
of their sides, so as to form an acute angle. The ends ject, so the second image will be reversed with respect to
being closed up with pieces of plate-glass cemented to the first, and therefore direct when compared with the
the other plates, the trough was placed horizontally, for object. The second image may, it is evident, by a new
the reception of the fluids. The eye being necessarily reflection from the first mirror, give rise to a third, which
placed without the trough, and at one end, some of the will now again, like the first image, be reversed ; and so
cement which had been pressed through between the on, in succession, may a series of images alternately re-
plates at the object end of the trough appeared to be ar- versed and direct be produced on each side, by two mir-
ranged in a remarkably regular and symmetrical manner, rors only, in consequence of multiplied reflections, provid-
Pursuing the hint thus obtained, and investigating the ed the mirrors are of sufficient extent to admit of them,
subject optically, he discovered the leading principles of and provided the eye be so placed as to receive the rays
the kaleidoscope, in as far as the inclination of the reflec- which are last reflected.
tors, the position of the object and that of the eye, were If the mirrors be parallel to each other (see fig. 2),
concerned. He then constructed an instrument in its the images of the intervening objects, AA'BB', will be
simplest form, and showed it to some of the members of ranged in succession in a continued line on each side. If
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, who were much struck they be somewhat inclined to each other (as in fig. 3),
with the beauty of its effects. Several very material im- the images will be disposed in the arch of a circle, having
provements were subsequently made by the inventor, in for its centre the point in which the directions of the mir-
the construction and application of the instrument, for ror unite. If the mirrors be of sufficient length, or suffi-
which he then took out a patent. But, in consequence ciently inclined, so as actually to meet; and if, moreover,
of one of these instruments having found its way to Lon- the angle they form be an even aliquot part of a circle,
don, its properties became generally known before any the images of all the objects situated in the space between
number of the patent kaleidoscopes could be prepared for them, ABC, fig. 4, will together occupy a circular field,
sale. It very quickly became popular, and the sensation and will be disposed in the form of sectors all round the
it excited in London throughout all ranks of people was circle.
astonishing. Kaleidoscopes were manufactured in im- This circular arrangement of the images, however legi- General
mense numbers, and were sold as rapidly as they could timately it may have been deduced from the simplest law method of
be made. The instrument was in every body’s hands, of optics, appears to be so extraordinary an illusion of tracinS ^le
and people were everywhere seen, even at the corners of the sense, as to call for somewhat further examination be-^^r^°
streets, looking through the kaleidoscope. It afforded fore we can feel perfectly assured that it is a necessary con- iera^s"
delight to the poor as well as the rich; to the old as sequence of that law. Perhaps the most satisfactory me-
well as the young. Large cargoes of them were sent thod of prosecuting their examination is to investigate
abroad, particularly to the East Indies. They very soon separately the mode in which each of the images results
became known throughout Europe, and have been met from the successive reflections by the two mirrors. A very
with by travellers even in the most obscure and retired simple and convenient rule may be laid down for enabling
villages in Switzerland. Sir David Brewster states, that no us to trace the whole course, however complex, of the
fewer than two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes were sold rays which form these images; and this rule will be best
in London and Paris in the space of three months; “ and understood by considering, as an example, its application
yet,” says he, “ out of this immense number, there is, per- to one of the remote images in the circular field. Thus,
haps, not one thousand constructed upon scientific prin- in the circular field AHL, fig. 5, divided into equal sec-
ciples, or capable of giving any thing like a correct idea tors by the radii CF, CG, CH, &c. let S be one of the
of the power of the kaleidoscope ; and of the millions who remoter images of the object R, formed by four reflec-
have witnessed its effects, there is perhaps not one hun- tions from the mirrors AC, BC ; and let E be the place
dred who have any idea of the principles upon which it is of the eye. Draw the line ES, intersecting the radii al-
064 K A L E ID
Kaleido- ready mentioned, in P, Q, T, V ; make Q.q equal to CQ.,
scope. an(j j0in equal to CT, and join qt; make
Cv equal to CV, and join tv and vR. Then \ivtq PE will
be the real course of the rays, by which the image of R
is seen at S by the eye at E; for it is sufficiently appa¬
rent, without the necessity of a formal demonstration,
that by this construction, the equality of the angles of
incidence and reflection is everywhere preserved. The
different positions of the line PS, that is, PQ,, Q,T, TV,
and VS, are in fact the images of Vq, gt, tv, and vR re¬
spectively, which are so many portions of the real course
of the reflected rays. It is evident that a similar con¬
struction will, in every other case, furnish us with the ac¬
tual course of all the rays from which images result,
through all their successive stages of reflection; and it
has also the advantage of giving us the exact angles of
incidence and reflection throughout the whole path.
We have hitherto, for the sake of perspicuity, suppos¬
ed both the object and the eye, together with the path of
the rays, to be in the same plane. But it is obvious that
the same method of construction and of reasoning may be
employed in tracing their course, if we suppose the mir¬
rors to be prolonged in a direction perpendicular to the
plane of the figure, and the eye raised above that plane.
The space between the mirrors, instead of being the sec¬
tor of a circle merely, is now the sector of a cylinder ;
which cylinder may be completed by supplying the other
sectors which compose it, as is represented in fig. 8,
where ACac and BC&c being the mirrors, the rest of the
cylindrical space is occupied by complementary sectors.
The course of the rays by which the eye at E will see
the image S, for instance, of the object R, may readily be
traced by drawing a straight line from E to S, which will
pass through as many planes BC&c, &c. as the rays have
suffered reflections. The portions of the lines ES, in¬
tercepted between these planes, may, as in the former
case, be regarded as the images (either reversed or di¬
rect, as the case may be) of some portion of the actual
path of the rays between the mirrors; A will occupy the
same position with regard to the complementary sector it
traverses, as the real path does in the original sector
bounded by the mirrors. By drawing, in this sector, lines
similarly situated with respect to its sides, as the several
portions, PQ,, QT, TS of the lines ES, are with respect
to the sides of their respective sectors, we obtain the real
course of the rays, ~RtqpE.
Creation Symmetry appears to be the principal, constituent of
trical™11)16" beauty in the forms given to the various works of art
pearances. Jiave exercised the skill and ingenuity of man ; and
the richness of each individual ornament, as well as the
pleasing effect of the whole assemblage, is generally in
proportion as this principle has received a more perfect
development. Even nature, in the multitude of forms
with which she has invested the different tribes of the
animal creation, has, with but few exceptions, follow¬
ed the law of symmetry, in as far as respects the per¬
fect similarity of the two sides of the body. In almost all
the higher classes, or those which are comprehended un¬
der the great division of vertebrated animals, and in many
of the inferior tribes, as in insects, one half of the animal
form is the reflected image of the other half. A still
higher degree of beauty, derived from a more extended
symmetry of form, bas been displayed in the structure of
objects in the vegetable kingdom. Flowers, in particular,
derive a peculiar beauty from their presenting to the eye
a symmetrical combination of forms with reference to a
common centre. This is also the general model followed
in the structure of radiated animals, of which the star-fish
and sea anemone are examples. In those works of art in
which there is the greatest scope for the indulgence of
fancy in the production of pleasing effects, the most per-
o s c o P E.
feet and successful kinds of ornament are those resulting Kaleii
from a symmetrical arrangement of parts, which is not scot
confined to a single lateral repetition, but is extended in ''“•‘V-
various directions in space, and is multiplied and alternat¬
ed in different lines, and around different centres. It is
the latter of these combinations, more especially, that is
represented by the kaleidoscope, namely, the disposition of
a certain number of pairs of images symmetrically disposed
around one or more centres.
On examining the subject more minutely, we find that the
first element of this symmetry consists in the union of any
particular form, or of its direct image with its reversed
image, by which a new form is created, composed of two
simple forms similar to each other, and similarly situated
with respect to a given line. If a succession of these com¬
pound forms be now arranged around a centre, they will
combine into a perfect whole, in which all the similar parts
are brought into union, and which must thus afford plea¬
sure, by enabling the mind readily to take in and compre¬
hend every part at a single glance. The operation of the
kaleidoscope is, in this way, to create regularity and symme¬
try out of every form that is presented to it, however irregu¬
lar in itself that form may be. Thus, out of the few simple
lines contained in fig. 9, the appearance presented in fig. 6
is created k>y the instrument. It is scarcely necessary to
observe, that the original lines, which occupy the sector
between the mirrors, are seen by direct vision, and that
their appearance unites itself on each side with their images
seen by reflection. We shall in future designate the whole
of the appearance thus produced by the kaleidoscope by
the term spectrum.
If we examine the effect produced by each elementary Appear
portion of the compound figure of the spectrum, we shall ces of pi.
find that any straight line reaching directly across the sec-8oriSi sT
tor, as fg (fig. 9), is formed by the kaleidoscope into a regular curves’ '
polygon, having as many sides as the numbers into which the
circular field is divided; if it be at right angles to either of
the sides, the polygon will have only half the number of
sides. A line, as mn, crossing the field between the mirrors
in an oblique direction, is converted by the instrument into
a polygon of the same number of sides as the former, but
with salient and re-entering angles ; that is, into the form
of a star, with a number of rays equal to half the number
of sectors. Another line crossing the field in an opposite
direction gives another star, having its rays intermediate
to those of the former. Curved lines form by their union
a multitude of beautiful and elegant figures, of which the
variety is inexhaustible. Each group, taken separately,
possesses its peculiar and intrinsic beauty; but the effect
of the whole assemblage is considerably heightened by the
combination, and by the regularity of the relations that
each part bears to all the others.
Having thus given an account of the general principles Requis
upon which the kaleidoscope is constructed, and of the ‘
mode in which it acts, we are now prepared to direct our
attention to the conditions which are required for the per¬
fect performance of its functions.
If the mirrors of the kaleidoscope could reflect the whole Econon
of the light which falls upon them, the images would pos-°l^Sut
sess the same degree of brilliancy as the objects from which
they are derived ; and their number would be limited only
by the more or less favourable position of the mirrors, and
of the eye with relation to the objects. But as a very large
portion of the incident light is, in most cases, destroyed by
reflection, it follows that each successive image will be
fainter than that which preceded it; and that in the pro¬
gress of the reflections we must very soon arrive at a limit
beyond which they become no longer visible. It is found,
from experiment, that the quantity of light lost by reflec¬
tion is in all cases greatest when the rays fall perpendicu¬
larly on the mirror, and least when they fall with the great-
KALEIDOSC OPE.
] eido-
ipe.
est obliquity. The difFerence is more considerable in the
case of glass than in that of metallic surfaces. Thus, in a
common looking-glass, the images of objects seen by hold¬
ing it directly opposite to them are produced wholly by the
surface of the quicksilver, those reflected by the glass being
too faint to occasion any interference. If the glass be
placed obliquely, so that the angles of incidence and reflec¬
tion be large, a greater proportion of light will be reflected
from the glass, and the images formed by it will be bright
enough to be seen, and will mix themselves with the ima¬
ges from the quicksilver. At a certain angle, both sets of
images will appear of equal brightness ; and by still further
increasing the obliquity, those produced by the quicksilver
will gradually fade away, and vanish, leaving the images
produced by the glass perfectly distinct, and nearly as
brilliant as the objects themselves.
The following table, abridged from one given by Sir
David Brewster, and founded on the experiments of Bou-
guer, shows the number of rays reflected from plate-glass
at various angles of incidence, the number of incident
rays being supposed to be 1000.
665
Complement
of the Angles
of Incidence.
91°
* 2
7i
' 2
10
121
15
20
25
Kays reflect¬
ed out of
1000.
584
543
474
412
356
299
222
157
Complement Rays reflect-
of the Angles! ed out of
of Incidence. 1000.
30c
35
40
50
60
70
80
90
112
79
57
34
27
25
25
25
With the help of this table, and the method above ex¬
plained of tracing the course of the rays, and on investi¬
gating the angles of incidence, the degree of illumination
of any part of the spectrum might be calculated, were it
not for a new condition, termed polarisation, with which
the rays of light are affected by reflection, and which may
also contribute to the further loss of light, when the reflec¬
tion is repeated at certain angles, and in certain positions
of the plane in which it takes place ; a circumstance which
is not without its influence in the case of the kaleidoscope,
especially in those constructed with glass mirrors.
As the effect which the kaleidoscope is intended to pro¬
duce is to be the result of repeated reflections, it is an ob¬
ject of essential importance, in order that as little light may
be lost as possible, that all these reflections should take
place with the greatest obliquity. With this view, the mir¬
rors should be of considerable length, and the eye should
be raised above the field of view, and brought as near as
possible to the planes of the mirrors ; that is, as near as
possible to the remote end of the line of their intersection.
From this situation the remoter sectors will be seen by a
greater quantity of light than from any other, and conse¬
quently the illumination of the spectrum will be more
equal in every part. This position of the eye affords the
further advantage of giving to the spectrum a circular ap¬
pearance ; for it is obvious, that if viewed from any other
and more oblique situation, it would, from the laws of per¬
spective, appear more or less elliptical. It is scarcely ne¬
cessary to remark, that the eye cannot be mathematically
in the line of junction of the mirrors, for no light would in
that case reach it by reflection from them.
The essential parts of the kaleidoscope, then, are the
fthetvvo mirrors ACE and BCE (fig. 10), which should be
^ from six to ten inches in length, and from one inch to an
inch and a half in breadth at the object end C, while they
are made narrower at the other end E. They are kept
TOL. XII.
apart at their upper edges, and united along their lower Kaleido-
edges CE, so as to form an angle which must be an even scope,
aliquot part of a circle. The angles 36°, 30°, 25°f, 22°
0 , or 18°, which divide the circumference of the circfe
respectively into 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 equal parts, are
tne only angles which can conveniently be employed with
glass mirrors. I he objects to be viewed must occupy the
space ABC, between the ends of the mirrors, and must be
situated in the plane formed by these lines. They are to
be viewed from the opposite or narrow end e ; the eye be¬
ing placed near to the angular point E, formed by the
junction of the ends of the mirrors. It should, however,
be a little above this point, in order that a sufficient quan¬
tity of light may enter through the pupil. By trial, the
proper distance at which the maximum of illumination is
obtained will easily be found.
It is of considerable importance that the junction of the Accuracy
mirrors be a perfectly straight line, free from roughness, in their
and from particles of dust. Any irregularity in this Unejunction,
will interfere with the perfection of the image at that part
most remote from the object. The projection of this line
of junction of the mirrors on the field of view is a line CD,
fig. 4, immediately opposite to the middle of the space
between the mirrors. If tolerable pains have been taken to
npply u straight and smooth edge of one mirror upon the
surface of the other, and to preserve them clean, this line
will scarcely be seen, more especially as the greater part
of it is placed much nearer than the objects contemplated,
and lies, therefore, within the distance to which the refrac¬
tive powers of the eye are adapted; it is, therefore, seen
only indistinctly.
Any deviation in the angle formed by the mirrors from Angle of
that which accurately divides the circle into an even num- their incli-
ber of sectors, is quickly perceived by the eye, from the nation-
consequent irregularity which takes place in the compound
figure of the spectrum at the part most remote from the
object. This is illustrated by fig. 7, where the last ray of
the star is seen to be imperfect, from the want of corre¬
spondence in the images which meet in the remote sector.
If the angle be too small, the image is redundant, from a
reduplication of one portion ; if too large, the image pre¬
sents a deficiency. But, in consequence of tlm aperture
of the pupil being of sufficient size to admit pot dons of the
images from both mirrors, reflected from the parts imme¬
diately adjacent to the line of their junction, these two
images will be, for a certain space, seen in the same direc¬
tion, and will consequently overlap and interfere with each
other. As soon as the angle of the mirrors is rendered
correct, the double images coalesce into one, and perfect
symmetry is restored to the spectrum. It is necessary to
observe, that the angle must be an even aliquot part of a
circle ; that is, must divide it into an even number of equal
parts. If the division were into an odd number of parts,
as in fig. 7, the discordance of the adjacent images at the
remote sectors would be the greatest possible. This will
appear from considering that the images in the successive
sectors on each side, being alternately reversed and direct,
those in the sectors immediately adjacent to the radius
most remote from the mirrors, would both be of the same
kind; the one, therefore, could not be the reverse of
the other, a relation which, as we have already seen, is the
elementary condition of symmetry in each pair of images.
The corresponding parts of each, indeed, instead of being
adjacent, would then be the most remote from one another.
This circumstance, namely, the necessity of the angle of
the mirrors being the even aliquot part of a circle, although
it be an essential condition of the instrument, is not men¬
tioned in the specification of Sir David Brewster’s patent.
It was first noticed by the author of this article in the An¬
nals of Philosophy.
If we investigate the proportion of light distributed over
4 p
666 KALEIDOSCOPE.
Kaleido- the field of view, by considering the degrees of obliquity
scope, with which the rays impinge upon the mirrors, and also
the number of reflections which they sustain, we shall find
s^ns^of the h diminishes nearly in the same proportion as we recede
mirrors. from the edge of the sector bounded by the mirrors, and
is least in the remotest sector. The line of equal illumina¬
tion in each individual sector, or the isophotal line, as Sir
David Brewster has termed it, is parallel to that radius of
the sector which is nearest to the mirror on that side. It
follows as a consequence, that the light will diminish in
each sector in proportion as we recede from the angular
point or common centre of the field. This last circum¬
stance limits us to the magnitude which it would be pro¬
per to allow to the field of view, and therefore restricts us
in the breadth of the mirrors when they are of a given
length. In general, their breadth should not exceed one
sixth of their length, and the angle subtended by the cir¬
cular field will then be about 19°. The proper proportion,
however, varies according to the angle at which the mir¬
rors are inclined. The larger this angle, the greater lati¬
tude may be allowed in extending the field of view ; while,
if the angle be small, the number of reflections for com¬
pleting the remote parts of the spectrum will be great;
the light will become too faint to allow the eye to distin¬
guish the parts at the circumference; and the diameter of
the field must be contracted by lessening the breadth of
the mirrors.
What has now been said relates only to the proportional
length and breadth of the mirrors. With regard to their
absolute size, we must be guided in our choice by other
circumstances of convenience. As the length of the in¬
strument determines the distance of the eye from the field,
it should be such as to admit of the distinct vision of
every part of the spectrum. This may be effected, if re¬
quisite, by interposing a convex lens, of the proper focal
distance, between the eye and the narrowr end of the
mirrors.
Position of The last circumstance we shall notice as essential to the
the objects. perfect operation of the instrument, is, that the objects
must be situated as nearly as possible in the plane ABC,
fig. 10, formed by the ends of the mirrors. All deviations
from this position are productive of irregularity in the
spectrum. If the eye, indeed, were a mere mathematical
point, and were it possible for it to receive the rays while
placed at the very point of the angle E, the distance-bf the
object from the mirrors would, in strictness, produce no de¬
viation from symmetry. Let the plane MN be taken at a
little distance from the ends of the mirrors, and the planes
of the mirrors produced till they meet it in the lines ac
and be. It is evident that the space comprehended be¬
tween these lines, is the only situation in that plane from
whence rays can proceed so as to fall upon the mirrors;
no object, therefore, which is not within that space, can
have its image formed by reflection from the mirrors.
The lines ac and be are the projections of AC and BC as
viewed from the point E. But if the eye be raised to e,
it will be apparent that a space below the former, and
bounded by the lines de and^e, which will now be the
projections of AC and BC, will come into view. The ob¬
jects situated in this space will have no corresponding
images, and their introduction into the field of view will
produce confusion in every part of the spectrum. The
magnitude of this additional space, measured by the in¬
terval cr, which is unrepresented by the instrument, and
which may be termed the aberration, is dependent upon
and proportional to two separate causes, namely, the dis¬
tance of the eye from the angular point, and the distance
of the object from the mirrors. The deviation from re¬
gularity which it produces in the spectrum increases as
the object approaches to the centre. An eye accustom¬
ed to observe and admire the symmetry of the combined
images will instantly perceive it to be violated, even when Kaleid
the distance of the object Cc is less than the twen- scope
tieth part of an inch. When the object is very distant,
the defect of symmetry is so enormous, that, although
the object is seen by direct vision, and also in some of
the sectors, it is entirely invisible in the rest. If the ob¬
ject, on the other hand, be placed within the reflectors, a
symmetrical spectrum will indeed be formed; but the
centre of this spectrum will not coincide with the centre
of the circular field of view, and its effect in producing a
symmetrical picture is thereby entirely destroyed. In
order to insure perfect mathematical symmetry, the ob¬
jects should, strictly speaking, be limited to lines lying in
the same plane, which plane must be exactly in contact
with the ends of the mirrors.
We have hitherto considered the effects resulting fromPolycen
the combination of only two mirrors, in which case thetral kali j
field of view is necessarily limited to a circle. But on^OSC()P^
the very same principles we may, by employing a greater
number of mirrors, obtain an extension of this field in all
directions, and produce groups of images around several
centres, which shall be repeated in perpetual succession
on every side. Kaleidoscopes of this description have on
that account been called Polycentral, and, when properly
constructed, their effects are exceedingly beautiful. With
respect, also, to their utility, as applicable to the arts,
they very far excel the simple kaleidoscope, inasmuch as
the occasions requiring an ornamental design for a flat
extended surface are of much more ordinary occurrence
than those in which we are limited to a circular space.
The principles upon which polycentral kaleidoscopes
should be constructed, and the conditions to which they
are limited, were first pointed out by the author of this
article, in the Annals of Philosophy (vol. xi. p. 375), soon
after the common instrument became known in Lon¬
don.
It is evident that, by joining together a number of mir-Onlyfo I
rors, so as to compose the sides of a pi'ism, we might ob-sPecies s
tain a succession of images in every possible direction. mittet‘1
But we must recollect that, for the production of symme¬
trical combinations of images, we are restricted in our
choice of a base for the required prism, to such angles
only as will divide the circle into an even number of ali¬
quot parts. This condition confines us to a very limited
range. It excludes, in the first place, all angles above
90° ; and, therefore, all polygons having more than four
sides. Of four-sided polygons, the square and the rect¬
angle, where all the angles are right angles, are the only
figures that can give symmetrical combinations. After
these, there remain only triangles ; and, among all the pos¬
sible varieties of triangles, we can take only such as are
formed with angles of 90°, 60°, 45°, or 30°, which are
the quotients of 360°, divided by 4, 6, 8, and 12; all the
other even aliquot parts of the circle being excluded by
the necessary condition that the sum of those angles must
be equal to 180°. We are, therefore, limited to the three
following species of triangles, represented in figures 15,
16, and 17 ;
The first having all its angles equal
to. .....60°, 60°, and 60°;
The second its angles respectively
equal to    451*, and 45° ;
And the third its angles respectively
equal to     90°, 69°, and 30°;
The sum of these angles, in each case, being 180°.
Let us now inquire into the effects resulting from each
of these combinations.
The comparative effects of these four species of poly-Comp*
central kaleidoscopes are illustrated by figures 14,15,twee
16, and 17, where A, in each case, represents the sections o
of the mirrors, or the base of each prism; B, the elements
KALEIDOSCOPE.
667
leido- of each pattern ; and C, the pattern itself, resulting from Of these, the last two appear to be those more especially Kaleido-
ope- the series of reflected images. calculated to afford assistance to artists in the invention scope.
v It will be seen that the square polycentral kaleidoscope, of ornamental patterns.
f scone 14, Pr.oduces a. less Pleasing effect than the others, It is evident, that the principal advantage which the
:t p’because the attention being more particularly directed to polycentral kaleidoscopes have over the simple ones, is
the repetition of the same set of images in one direction the greater extension they give to the field of view. This
only, the whole pattern appears composed of an alterna- field might, in theory, appear to be infinite; but in prac-
tion of longitudinal stripes. The direction of the stripes tice it soon becomes limited, from the great loss of light
is determined by the general direction of the lines, in the attendant on repeated reflections. The effects of polari-
elementary pattern approaching more to one of the sides zation, in further diminishing the light, is also greater
of the base than to the other side. It is scarcely neces- in them than in the simple kaleidoscope. On both these
sary to observe, that the spectrum produced by a reel- accounts, metallic are preferable to glass mirrors for their
angular is quite similar to that of a square kaleidoscope, construction. The number of reflections required, in or-
only that it is more extended in one direction. der to obtain any extent of spectrum, being greater than
tr cope, The first of the triangular polycentral kaleidoscopes in the ordinary kinds of simple kaleidoscopes, the instru-
(fig. 15), which has for the base of its prism an equilate- ment must be of greater length comparatively with the
ral triangle, affords very regular combinations of images, breadth of the mirrors, as in this way the course of the
disposed in three different directions, which cross each rays will be more oblique with respect to the mirrors, and
other at angles of 60° and 120° ; thus presenting what a larger portion of light will reach the eye. A greater
may be called a triangular symmetry. The circumstance obliquity is also obtained, with the same proportion be-
of each pair of images being combined in groups of three tween the length and breadth of the mirrors, by making
together in every part of the spectrum, has suggested the them taper at the end next the eye. The instrument
name of Triascope for this species of triangular polycen- will then, see fig. 18, have the form of a truncated pyra-
tral kaleidoscope. mid instead of a prism; ABC being the triangular base,
te icope, The second species of triangle (fig. 16), which may be to which the objects are to be applied, and abc the nar-
made the base of the prism, is that composed of two con- rower end at which the eye is applied. It is true, that
tiguous sides, together with the connecting diagonal of a in mathematical strictness, this construction is incorrect •
square ; or, in other words, of a right-angled isosceles tri- for the mirrors in that case having necessarily a degree of
angle. The result of this construction is to produce a inclination to the base, the spectrum will be composed of
division of the field of view into regular square compart- portions, not of a plane, but of a spherical surface, which
ments, having the base of the above-mentioned triangle does not admit of the same divisions; but the field really
for their sides. The very perfect symmetry which re- visible to the eye is too limited to render this inaccuracy
suits from this construction is the source of remarkably of any consequence.
beautiful designs; the predominant character of which After the detailed explanation which has been given ofConstruc-
is an arrangement of forms grouped together by fours, the principles on which kaleidoscopes act, it will not betion of the
at a time, and symmetrically disposed in squares. Such necessary to enter into any minute account of the me-^P16 ka'
an instrument may, on this account, be called a Tetra- thods of constructing them. A few practical directions leid°SCOpe'
SC0Pe- . . , may, however, be useful for the guidance of such as wish
ji iexa- The last species of triangular polycentric kaleidoscope, to provide themselves with this source of innocent amuse-
^ • or that which takes for its base the half of an equilateral ment. In order to construct the simple kaleidoscope, two
triangle (fig. 17), resulting from its division by a perpen- slips of plate-glass, about six or eight inches long,' and
dicular drawn from an angle to the opposite side, affords about an inch or an inch and a half in breadth, must be
also appearances of very considerable beauty. Here the procured. The best form for these plates is that repre¬
predominant form is the hexagon, from the circumstance sented in fig. 10, where one end of them is only half the
that the smallest of the angles, which is that of 30°, pro- breadth of the other. The newest plate-glass should be
ducing the greatest number of repetitions of the same employed, as that which is old has frequently scratches
image around one centre, the symmetry is most conspi- and imperfections on its surface, which occasion a o-reat
cuous with reference to that centre, and the attention of loss of light. They should have been skilfully cut wuth a
the spectator is immediately directed to the hexagonal diamond, so that at least one of the edges may be per-
compartments into which the field is thereby divided, fectly smooth, and free from chips. If this be not the
As the pairs of images in these leading objects (such as case, one of the edges must be made quite straight, and
the stars in the figure, which, it will be observed, have freed from all imperfections, by grinding it with very fine
each six rays) are six in number, we shall, following the emery upon a flat surface, such as another piece of plate-
analogy of the other names, denominate this variety of glass. The posterior surfaces of each of the plates are
the instrument a Hexascope. These names, derived from now to be covered with a black varnish, or with black
the circumstance which gives the chief character of sym- sealing-wax, so as to remove its reflective power. When
metry to the extended spectrum, will perhaps be consi- this has been done, and the varnish is dry, take the plate
dered as sufficiently appropriate. They will, at all events, of which the edge has been rendered perfect, and apply
recommend themselves by their brevity, when we consi- this edge against the surface of the other plate, as near as
der the very compound epithets which would otherwise convenient to the edge of this latter plate, and keep the
be required in order to designate correctly the equi- edges so applied in contact, by means of a strip of black
angular, triangular, polycentral kaleidoscope; the rect- silk or cloth glued along the back of the plates, so as to
angular, isosceles, triangular, polycentral kaleidoscope; serve the purpose of a hinge, allowing of their opening and
and the semi, equilateral, triangular, polycentral kaleido- closing to a certain extent, like the leaves of a book. They
8cope. are now to be adjusted to the proper angle, which may be
As a plane surface of indefinite extent admits of sub- done with the greatest accuracy, by directing the mirrors,
division, by regular polygons of the same kind, only in placed as in fig. 10, to any line, or the straight edge of
three ways, namely, by triangles, by squares, and by hex- any object in contact with the broad ends, and very ob-
agons, so each of these modes of division is the result of liquely situated with respect to the edge of either of the
a separate arrangement of three plane mirrors, namely, mirrors ; then, looking from the other end, open or shut
that of the triascope, the tetrascope, and the hexascope. the plates till the figure of a star appears, having six, se-
668
KALEIDOSCOPE.
Kaleido- ven, eight, or any other number of rays which may be
scope. thought desirable, and observing that the images of the
rayS in the spectrum most remote from the object perfect¬
ly coalesce. The mirrors must now be fixed in their po¬
sition by small arches of wood or brass, extending across
the open ends of the plates AB in two or three places.
These may at first be attached temporarily by means of
sealing-wax ; but they should afterwards be fastened more
securely by other pieces glued to the plates in several
places along the edges Ae, Be. The clearness of the ef¬
fect of the instrument is much promoted by excluding all
light, except what comes from the field of view ; and this
is best accomplished by laying a strip of black velvet, pre¬
vious to the fixing of the pieces just described, all along
the upper side of the instrument, so as to line the whole
of the space between the upper edges of the mirrors. All
reflection of light from that quarter is thus effectually pre¬
cluded.
The plates thus prepared are to be placed in a tube, as
represented in fig. 11, so that the broad ends of the mir¬
rors shall barely project beyond the end of the tube;
while the narrow end is placed so that the angle formed
by the junction of the mirrors shall be a little below the
middle of that end of the tube. The plates must then be
kept in this position by pieces of cork or wood wedged in
between them and the tube ; taking care, however, that
they press but lightly on the mirrors, for a very slight
force is capable of bending and altering the figure, even
of very thick plates of glass. A 'cover, with a circular
aperture in the centre, is then to be fitted to the end abc,
which should, in general, be furnished with a convex lens,
whose focal length is an inch or two greater than the
length of the mirrors, in order to allow the eye to see
every part of the spectrum with perfect distinctness.
Persons who are short-sighted will of course not require
this lens ; but it will still be expedient to close the end
abc of the mirrors with a piece of plane glass, as a secu¬
rity against the introduction of dust.
Of poly- 1° constructing polycentral kaleidoscopes, where three
central ka- mirrors are employed, the third mirror occupies the place
leidoscopes. 0f the black velvet and connecting pieces already describ¬
ed. Great care should be taken to have three very per¬
fect edges for the junctions of the plates with each other ;
and considerable attention should be paid to their being
fixed at the exact angles required by the construction ;
and when once placed correct!}', they are to be retained
in their relative position by effectual securities. Similar
remarks apply to the construction of square and rectan¬
gular polycentral kaleidoscopes.
Revolving The instrument, when so far completed, is now ready
object case, to be applied to the objects which are to form the spec¬
trum. A case for holding these objects, and for commu¬
nicating to them a revolving motion, is fitted to the ob¬
ject end of the tube. The best construction for such a
case is the following: Upon the end of the tube abed,
fig. 12 (corresponding to the end of the mirrors ABC, fig.
Uj, is placed a ring of brass, mn, which moves easily upon
the tube, and is kept in its place by a shoulder of brass
on each side of it. A brass cell, MN, is then made to
slip tightly upon the moveable ring mn, so that when the
cell is turned round by means of the milled end at MN,
the ring mn may move freely upon the tube. The objects
are to be placed in a small box, consisting of two glasses,
one transparent, and the other ground, kept at the dis¬
tance of one eighth or one tenth of an inch by a brass
rim. This brass rim should consist of two pieces which
should screw into one another, so that the box can be
opened by unscrewing it, and the objects changed at plea¬
sure. This object box is placed at the bottom of the cell
MN, as shown at OP; and the depth of the cell is such
as to allow the side O to touch the end of the mirrors
Kaltid
scope
when the cell is slipped upon the ring mn. The instru¬
ment, when used, is to be held in one hand, with the an¬
gular point E downwards, and the cell is turned round
with the other, so as to present the objects in succession
before the aperture ACB, fig. 11.
The objects best fitted for producing pleasing effects Selectio
are small fragments of coloured glass, of sufficient size toof props
occupy a certain portion of the interval between the mir- objects,
rors, but not so large as to engross the greater part, or to
interfere with each other’s motions, as they are made to
fall in succession into the field of view, by the revolution
of the case which holds them. Wires of glass, both spun
and twisted, and of different colours and shades of co¬
lours, and of various shapes, both curvilineal and angular,
may be intermixed with the larger masses of coloured
glass, together with one or two beads, bugles, fine needles,
bent metallic wires, small pieces of lace, and fragments of
fine sea-weed. Looped curves like the figure 8, double
curves like the letter S or the figure 3, circles, ovals,
spirals, triangles, or lines bent into angles like the letter W
or Z, have generally a good effect, either alone or in com¬
bination with other objects. Care should, however, be
taken not to crowd the case with too many objects at a
time, as an excess in this respect produces a degree of
complexity totally inconsistent with beauty. In order to
obtain a greater variety in the styles of patterns produ¬
ced, a number of different cases, with objects, may be pro¬
vided, so as to fit on occasionally, and be changed at plea¬
sure.
By Sir David Brewster’s very ingenious contrivance ofTelescoi
substituting for the case of objects above described, and or com- i
which is applied in contact with the ends of the mirrors, P™111^
a convex lens placed at a certain distance from them, the le'l*oscoi
images of distant objects may be brought to occupy the
exact place adapted for their reflection by the kaleido¬
scope, and may thus afford a still greater variety of sym¬
metric combinations. This operation of the lens is illus¬
trated by fig. 13, where the lens L forms an image of the
object R at F, the space between the ends of the mirrors,
which image is multiplied by the reflecting powers of the
instrument, and forms a symmetric spectrum, precisely in
the same way as if a real object of that size had occupied
its place. The lens may be fitted to the end of a sepa¬
rate tube, external to that of the instrument, and capable
of being drawn out upon it to the proper distance, which
is known by observing when the spectrum appears per¬
fectly symmetrical. The instrument in this form has
been called the Telescopic or Compound Kaleidoscope;
and is applicable to distant objects of every description,
and equally so to those in motion as to those at rest.
All their movements are represented with singular effect
in the spectrum. A blazing fire viewed by it gives the
appearance of beautiful fire-works, at one time rushing
with great rapidity towards the centre, and at another
issuing from it towards the circumference, or darting in
splendid starriform corruscations over the field of vision.
These varieties in the spectrum are occasioned both by
turning the instrument round its axis, and by moving it
forwards in any direction.
The compound kaleidoscope has thus a much more ex¬
tended range than the common kind; and it has this fur¬
ther advantage, that it admits of the symmetry of the
spectrum being rendered perfectly correct, since the
images may be brought exactly to the ends of the mir¬
rors ; a condition which can never be completely obtained
when the objects are confined in a glass case, as they
must then always be separated from the mirrors by at
least the thickness of the glass.
The focal length of the lens should always be much
less than the length of the outer tube, and should in ge¬
neral be such as to be capable of forming an image at the
K A L
lendar end of the mirrors, when the object is four or five inches
|| from the lens. Its diameter should be such as that, when
lemla- jt jg at its greatest distance-from the mirrors, it shall still
!tum. 0CClW the whole of the field of view which is seen by
, 1^0 direct vision; or, in other words, that the eye shall not
see any part of its edge.
I ippli- The exhibition of the effects of the kaleidoscope to a
c >n t? number of spectators at the same time, by throwing the
| :liagic images on a wall, after the manner of the magic lanthorn,
J lorn’ or solar microscope, might be easily accomplished, if suf¬
ficient light could be procured for the illumination of the
objects. The form of an instrument for this purpose is
represented in fig. 20, where L is the lamp, the light from
which being augmented by the reflector M, and concen¬
trated by the very convex lens N, upon the transparent
objects at the end of the kaleidoscope K, is formed into
an image on the opposite wall by refraction through the
lens P, the focal distance of which is somewhat shorter
than the length of the tube. The brilliant light produced
during combustion carried on by means of a stream of
oxygen gas is peculiarly fitted for the exhibition of these
effects, as was very successfully shown by Mr William
Allan, in his lectures at Guy’s Hospital, London.
By a contrivance on a similar principle, the patterns
formed by the kaleidoscope may be copied, if thought
necessary, by receiving them in a camera obscura. The
readiest mode of tracing them, however, is by the use of
a camera lucida, applied to the instrument at the end
next the eye. The kaleidoscope might also be applied to
the microscope, if it were worth while to multiply these
applications; for which, however, considering the infinite
variety of designs which the simpler instruments afford,
there appears not to be the least necessity,
s l kalei- Instead of employing the exterior surfaces of glass as
“ ’P63' the reflectors, we may employ the interior surfaces of a
prism of solid glass for that same purpose ; and we may ob¬
tain in this way, as was shown by Sir David Brewster, a total
instead of a partial reflection of light. This solid form
of the instrument is peculiarly fitted for polycentral ka¬
leidoscopes ; but it is liable to the objection of its being
K A L
669
extremely difficult to procure a piece of glass of sufficient Kalends,
size entirely free from veins, and also to obtain the per-
feet junction of the two reflecting planes.
Simple kaleidoscopes have been variously constructed Polyangu-
with reference to the angles of inclination of the mirrors.lar? annu-
In some instruments, called by Sir David Brewster Polyan-^x' and
gularKaleidoscopes, this angle maybe varied at pleasure,by kaleillo^1
allowing the mirrors to move on their connecting edges as scoped*
on a hinge, so as to open or close at pleasure by means of
a screw. Others admit of the mirrors entirely separating,
so as gradually to become parallel to each other, and thus
give rectilineal or annular patterns, as is seen in figures 2
and 3. But there is no occasion to dwell more particu¬
larly on these subjects, as the circumstances of their con¬
struction and effects must be sufficiently obvious from
what has been already said; and there is probably more
ingenuity than utility in devising these variations. We
shall therefore conclude, by merely noticing a convenient
mode of uniting several of these instruments, which was
suggested by the auther of this article, with a view to
compare the effects of the simple and polycentric kalei¬
doscopes, applied to the very same set of objects. Fig.
20 shows a section of that instrument, in which mn are
the mirrors of a simple kaleidoscope in the middle of the
tube t, and which might be set to any angle ; the mirrors
def on one side forming a tetrascope, and pqr on the other,
a hexascope. The whole was enclosed in the tube t, at
the eye end of which were three separate apertures, in
order to allow the observer to look through each in suc¬
cession. The other end was fitted with a case of move-
able objects, as in figure 12; and was also provided with
an additional tube for the reception of a lens instead of
the case, and capable of being drawn, so as to convert the
whole into a telescopic instrument. The effect of the
whole combination was very striking.
See Sir David Brewster ’s Treatise on the Kaleidoscope,
Edinb. 1819; Harris’s Treatise on Optics; Wood’s Optics;
Dr lioget on the Kaleidoscope, in the Annals of Philoso¬
phy, vol. xi. p. 375 ; and the Compte rendu des Travaux
de lAcademic de Dijon, pour 1818, p. 108-117.
KALENDAR, a distribution of time, accommodated
to the uses of life. See Calendar.
Kalendar, Kalendarium, originally denoted, amongst
the Romans, a book containing an account of monies at
interest, which became due upon the kalends of January,
the usual time when the Roman usurers let out their
money.
Kalendar Months, the solar months, as they stand in
the kalendar, beginning with January.
Astronomical Kalendar, an instrument engraved upon
copper-plates, printed on paper, and pasted on board, with
a brass slider which carries a hair, and shows by inspec¬
tion the sun’s meridian altitude, right ascension, declina¬
tion, rising, setting, amplitude, &c. to a greater exactness
than our common globes will show.
Kalendar Brothers, a sort of devout fraternities, com¬
posed of ecclesiastics as well as laymen, whose chief bu¬
siness it was to procure masses to be said, and alms distri¬
buted, for the souls of such members as were deceased.
They were also denominated kalend-brothers, because they
usually met upon the kalends of each month, though in
some places only once a quarter.
KALENDARIUM Festum. The Christians retained
much of the ceremony and wantonness of the kalends of
January, which for many ages was held as a festival, and
celebrated by the clergy with great indecency, under the
names offestum kalendarum, or hypodiaconorum, or stulto-
rum, that is, “ the feast of foolssometimes also libertas de-
cembrica. The people met masked in the church, and in
a ludicrous way proceeded to the election of a mock pope
or bishop, who exercised a jurisdiction over them suitable
to the festivity of the occasion. Fathers, councils, and
popes, long laboured in vain to restrain this license, which
prevailed even at the close of the fifteenth century.
KALENDS, or Calends, in the Roman chronology,
the first day of every month. The word is formed from a
Greek word signifying to call or proclaim, because, before
the publication of the Roman fasti, it was one of the offices
of the pontifices to watch the appearance of the new moon,
and give notice thereof to the rex sacrifwulus; upon which
a sacrifice being offered, the pontiff summoned the people
together in the capitol, and there with a loud voice pro¬
claimed the number of kalends, or the day whereon the
nones would fall, which he did by repeating this formula as
often as there were days of kalends, Calo Juno Novella.
Hence the name of ealendee was given thereto, from calo,
calare. This is the account given by Varro. Others derive
the appellation from the circumstance, that the people
being convened on this day, the pontifex called or pro¬
claimed the several feasts or holidays in the month ; a
custom which continued no longer than the year of Rome
450, when C. Flavius, the curule sedile, ordered the fasti
or kalendar to be set up in public places, that every body
might know the differences of times, and the return of the
festivals.
The kalends were reckoned backwards, or in a retro-
670 K A L
Kalends grade order. Thus the first of May being the kalends of
Jl May, the last or the 30th of April was the pridie kalen-
Kalmucks. (jm> or second of the kalends of May; the 29th of April,
j-jjg 0f the kalends, or before the kalends; and so
backwards to the 13th, where the ides commence ; which
are likewise numbered inversely to the fifth, where the
nones begin; which are numbered after the same manner
to the first day of the month, which is the kalends of
April. See Ides and Nones.
The rules of computation by kalends are included in the
following verses:
Prima dies mensis cujusque est dicta kalendce:
Sex Mains nonas, October, Julius, et Mars ;
Quatuor at reliqui: habet idus quilibet octo.
Inde dies reliquos omnes die esse kalendas ;
Q,uas retro numerans dices a raense sequente.
To find the day of the kalends answering to any day of
the month we are in; see how many days there are yet re¬
maining of the month, and to that number add two. For
example, suppose it the 22d day of April; it is then the
10th of the kalends of May. For April contains 30 days ;
and 22 taken from 30, there remain 8 ; to which two be¬
ing added, the sum is 10. The reason of adding two is,
because the last day of the month is called secundo kalen¬
das., the last but one tertio kalendas, and so on.
The Roman writers themselves are at a loss to account
for this absurd and whimsical manner of computing the
days of the month ; yet it is still kept up in the Roman
chancery, and by some authors, out of a vain affectation
of learning, preferred to the common, more natural, and
easy manner.
Kalends are also used in church history to denote con¬
ferences anciently held by the clergy of each deanry, on
the first day of every month, concerning their duty and
conduct, especially in what related to the imposition of
penance.
Kalends of January, in Roman antiquity, was a solemn
festival consecrated to Juno and Janus, in which the Ro¬
mans offered vows and sacrifices to those deities, and ex¬
changed presents amongst themselves as a token of friend¬
ship.
KALHAT, a sea-port of Arabia, in the province of
Ammon, situated at the mouth of a river which falls into
the Persian Gulf. It is eighty miles south-east of Muscat.
KALISCH, a city of Poland, the capital of the circle of
that name. It is situated between the branches of the
river Prosna, in a marshy situation. It contains ten
churches, one of which, formerly the Jesuits’, is now used
by Lutherans. There is a college for military students,
in an university which belonged to the Jesuits. It contains
7310 inhabitants, of whom 1800 are Jews. There are
manufactories of cloth, hats, and linen goods, and a large
annual fair. Long. 18. 55. E. Lat. 51. 51. N.
KALKAS, a race of Mongols, who inhabit an extensive
tract of country to the north of China, bordering on Sibe¬
ria. I heir princes and pontiffs dwelt a few years ago in
a camp, which is now converted into a city. Only the
temples and abodes of the priests, and that of the Chinese
viceroy, are built of wood. The rest of the nation dwell
in tents.
KALKOON, or Turkey islands, a cluster of small islands
in the Eastern Seas, surrounded by dangerous and exten¬
sive shoals. Long. 115. 45. E. Lat. 6. 15. S.
KALMUCKS, a tribe of those wandering Tartars who,
in the thirteenth century, under Jenghis Khan, subdued
and desolated the whole breadth of Asia. The Kalmucks
(See Asia) are distinguished from the other nations of Asia
by their peculiar physiognomy. They are in general of
the middle size, powerfully and well made, except in their
thighs and legs, which are somewhat bent. A large head,
round face, dark olive complexion, high and prominent
K A L
cheek bones, sparkling black eyes punctured in the head, Kalmuc
and widely separated from each other, a flat broad nose
scarcely rising above the level of the face, and turned up,
with two immense nostrils, thick and fleshy lips, and ex¬
ceedingly white teeth, a short chin, and a thin scanty beard,
with black coarse hair, complete the portrait of a Kalmuck
face. In many of the women, however, these harsh fea¬
tures are softened, and they have agreeable countenances,
with very delicate complexions, which are set off by fine
black hair ; so that some of the higher classes would even be
considered as beauties by the Europeans. They are, like
all barbarians, coarse, filthy, and disgusting in their habits;
they are covered with grease and vermin, and slovenly
and dirty in the extreme. Nor do their moral qualities
make amends for these defects. Morality is indeed amongst
all nations upon a level with their intelligence, and amongst
barbarians is generally at a low ebb. The Kalmucks are
accordingly represented as being addicted to lying and
cheating, though travellers report that robberies are rare
amongst them, and that a murder is almost unknown. They
pay great respect to old age; and, though hot in their tem¬
perament, and fierce when irritated, they in general live
amicably together. Whoever receives a present of meat
or drink divides it faithfully amongst his companions; and
if a relative has lost his flocks or other substance by war
or accident, he is sure to be liberally rewarded. Accord¬
ing to Pallas, a Kalmuck provided with a horse, with arms,
and equipage, may ramble from one place to another for
three months together, without taking with him money or
provisions. His friends and relatives, however distant, re¬
ceive him with all that hospitality which distinguishes bar¬
barous nations; and wherever he goes he meets with the
kindest reception, and is entertained in the best manner
that their circumstances afford. And a stranger, from
whatever country he comes, is sure to be well receiv¬
ed by the Kalmucks. His property is faithfully kept for
him the moment he puts himself under the protection of
his host, it being considered as a crime of the deepest dye
to rob any one who is a guest. These tribes, from the
prince to the peasant, dwell in tents, which are their only
habitations, and are all of a circular form, with a conical
roof, and a hole at the top. They are covered with felt
made of camels’ hair or wool, and are constructed of cane
or wood. One of their encampments presents the appear¬
ance of a city, with regular streets, sometimes extending a
mile in length, and containing numerous shops, where se¬
veral of the more refined arts are carried on. Here are
artificers in copper, brass, and iron ; also goldsmiths, who
make trinkets for their women, idols of gold and silver, and
vessels for their altars; also others who are expert at in¬
laid work and enamelling. Dr Clarke asserts that these
oriental tribes of Kalmucks have, from time immemorial,
possessed the art of making gunpowder. The riches of the
Kalmucks consist entirely in their flocks. Their habits are
wholly pastoral; and they never think of cultivating the
ground, though they inhabit extensive tracts of luxuriant
meadows, which are of peculiar fertility. Like all pastoral
tribes, they emigrate with the seasons, residing with their
flocks in the mountains during the summer, and descending
in the winter to the verdant plains. They have few camels,
these being delicate and difficult to rear; and they are chiefly
possessed by priests and by the richer classes. Their horses
are small but very swift, and are capable of enduring
great fatigue, galloping for several hours successively with¬
out injury, or passing a whole day without drinking. Their
horned cattle are of a beautiful shape; and their sheep are
the same as those which are found throughout Great Tar¬
tary. They are exceedingly fat, with large tails and broad
and pendent ears; but their wool is so coarse that it can
only be used in the manufacture of felt. They live on the
milk and flesh of their cattle, and have no objection to
K A L K A L 671
jbblub horse flesh. They make a fermented liquor from mare’s
i || milk, from which they distil a spirit called koumiss, of
duga. which they are very fond. They are also extremely partial
to tobacco and tea. Their principal amusements are hunt¬
ing, wrestling, archery, and horse-racing. They are expert
horsemen, being trained to it from their infancy; and the
women are equally skilful with the men. They are, like
all barbarous tribes, passionately addicted to gaming; and
often lose at cards all that they possess, even to their very
clothes. They have also chess, draughts, and backgam¬
mon ; and the youth of both sexes amuse themselves with
singing and dancing to the two-stringed lute. Their most
common diseases are malignant fevers, which are greatly
aggravated by their gross diet and want of cleanliness. The
itch, and other cutaneous diseases, are also common amongst
them. Their religion is pagan, and their priests, as amongst
every ignorant and superstitious people, are treated with
the most extraordinary respect. Their commerce consists
entirely in the exchange of their horses and cattle for corn,
woollen cloths, linens, copper, pewter, kitchen utensils,
knives, and spoons; and great numbers of them visit As-
trakan for this purpose. They never deal in slaves ; but
such prisoners as they take in war are naturalized, and
adopted into the tribe.
This powerful tribe, like all the other pastoral states of
Asia, has been greatly reduced, both in numbers and ex¬
tent of territory, by the increasing powTer of the civilized
nations by whom they are surrounded. Before their sub¬
jugation or dispersion, they were divided into three prin¬
cipal branches ; the Soonganes, the Coschotes, and the Tor-
gots. Of these, the first were engaged in almost perpetual
hostilities with the Mongols and Chinese. The Coschotes,
on the conquest of Thibet, became subject to the Chinese;
and still continue under the protection of that power, except
a smaller part which had retired to the Irtish, and fell under
the dominion of the Soonganes. The Torgots, who had se¬
parated themselves from the Soonganes, settled at an early
period amongst the steppes on the Volga; but many of
them, disgusted with the tyranny of Russia, returned in
great numbers in 1770 and 1771, over the river Ural, on the
ice, and across the Kirgusian steppes into Soongaria. It was
in 1720 that the Kalmucks were driven from Thibet; and
about forty years afterwards, by the extension of Kiang
Long’s conquests, such as refused to submit to his authority
w ere compelled to seek for new settlements towards the
west. Many of them accordingly dispersed themselves in
the interior parts of Asia, and amongst the cities of the Us-
beck Tartars ; others took refuge in Russia, and some thou¬
sands fled to Siberia, but the greater number submitted to the
Chinese sovereignty. At present the most numerous and
powerful tribes of the Kalmucks inhabit the country lying
between the Caspian Sea, Muscovy, Samarcand, and Cash-
gar. Others occupy with their flocks and herds both banks
of the Volga, between the Irghis and the Caspian, and ex¬
tend their excursions on both sides of the Oon and the
Ural. (f.)
K ALUBBLUB, a small island in the Eastern Seas, near
the south-western coast of Mindanao. Long. 121. 32. E.
Lat. 6. 46. N.
KALUGA, a government or province of Russia in Eu¬
rope, extending over 13,142 square miles. It contains
twelve cities, twelve market-towns, and 2061 villages and
hamlets, of which 351, with the people in them, belong to
the crown. The whole number of inhabitants are 1,159,600.
It is divided into eleven circles. It is generally a level
country, the most fertile and the best cultivated of any in
the Russian empire, and is the chief source of the supply
of provisions to the ancient capital, Moscow. It is estimat¬
ed to produce 1,600,000 quarters of corn yearly, besides
other vegetables for food, and a large quantity of hemp, flax,
and fat cattle. The woods are extensive, and yield more
fuel than the internal consumption requires. The chief Kalw
employment, besides agriculture, consists in spinning flax ^ II
and hemp. It is well watered by the navigable rivers Oka Kamts*
and Shisdra, and by many smaller streams that empty their
waters into them. Ihe climate is deemed the most healthy
in Russia, and it is certainly the mildest. The city of Ka¬
luga is the capital of the province, as well as of a circle of
the same name, which comprehends in it 795 square miles,
one city, and 160 villages, with 72,198 inhabitants. It
stands on the river Oka, where the Kainschka falls into it.
The w'alls have been recently converted into promenades.
It is the see of a bishop, who has a handsome palace. It
contains twenty-four churches, 3827 houses mostly of wood,
and 24,500 inhabitants, w hose chief employment is making
sail-cloth and other linen goods, and who, besides, carry on
cotton, paper, and china manufactures, and distilleries, su¬
gar refineries, and breweries, all of which render it a flou¬
rishing place. Long. 26. 4. E. Lat. 54. 30. N.
KALW, a city of the kingdom of Wirtemberg, in the
circle ot the Black Forest, and capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, which extends over 168 square miles, and con¬
tains a population of 20,500 persons. The city is situated
on the river Nagold, which divides it into the upper and
lower town. It contains 540 houses, with 4250 inhabitants,
who are employed in woollen, cotton, and leather manufac¬
tures, and carry on much trade in rafting timber by the river.
KAMAKURA, an island in the Eastern Seas, near the
south coast of Nipbon, in Japan, about three miles in cir¬
cumference, and surrounded with very high and steep
rocks. It is used as a state prison.
KAMENEZ, a city of the province of Podolia, in Rus¬
sia, the capital of the circle of that name, and the see of
the Greek archbishop of Podolia and Brazlow, as well as
that of the Catholic bishop of Podolsk. It is, like all the
Polish towns, ill built, chiefly of wood, with narrow, crook¬
ed streets. It has numerous churches, with several con¬
vents, 943 houses, and 5658 inhabitants. Long. 26. 59.
10. E. Lat. 48. 40. 50. N.
KAMINIEC, an ancient town, the capital of the pro¬
vince of Podolia, when it formed part of the kingdom of
Poland, but occupied by Russia when that unfortunate
country was dismembered the second time. It stands
a little to the north of the river Dniester, and was once
the strongest fortified place on that frontier. There is
some trade, chiefly with Moldavia. It has a Popish and an
Arminian bishop. The population is 5600 persons, many
of whom are Jews. Long. 27. 1. 30. E. Lat. 48. 50. N.
KAMTSCHATKA, a large peninsula of Asia, which
runs out from the north-east coast in a southern direction
about 600 or 700 miles, from lat. 59. to 51. N., whilst its
greatest breadth is not above half as much. It forms part
of the Russian government of Irkoutsk, to which it is join¬
ed at its northern extremity. On the east it is bounded
by the North Pacific Ocean, and on the west by that large
gulf called the Sea of Okhotsk. The country is of a very
unequal surface. A chain of elevated mountains with nume¬
rous lofty peaks extends from north to south along the whole
length of the peninsula, from which numerous rivers spring,
and find their way to the ocean. The chief of these, and the
only stream that is navigable, is the Kamtschatka, which
admits vessels of 100 tons burden fifty miles up the stream.
The country also contains many lakes of a considerable
size, and so numerous that all intercourse between the
several parts of the peninsula during spring, summer, and
autumn, is effectually precluded. The mountains are vol¬
canic, and of very great height; the most remarkable is
one situated near Nijni Kamtschatsk, which, it is said, is
visible at the distance of nearly 200 miles, and which, in
this case, must rise to an enormous height. This moun¬
tain is an active volcano, subject to frequent eruptions,
which often continue for a fortnight without interruption,
672 - K A M T S C H A T K A.
I Kamts- Covering the whole country for thirty miles round with
ashes to the depth of several inches ; torrents of flame and
lava continually bursting forth, and melting the snows with
which the mountain is at all times covered. The years
1737, 1762, and 1767, were distinguished by dreadful
eruptions from this volcano.
The climate is ungenial, and cold to a degree scarcely
accounted for by the latitude, and is probably owing to the
snow-clad mountains, and to the heavy rains and still
heavier fogs which settle upon this land from the seas by
which it is surrounded. Winter may be said to occupy
more than one half of the year, the snow lying upon the
ground for seven or eight months ; spring and summer the
other half. The winters are not so severe as in Siberia,
the thermometer never descending in the southern parts of
the peninsula below 20° of Reaumur, and seldom below 12°
and 15°. Spring is the finest season of the year, the summer
being extremely disagreeable, owing to the rains and fogs
already mentioned. The greatest heat is in July, when the
thermometer is 27° and 28° of Reaumur. Owing to the
absence of heat, the variable nature of the climate, the
prevalence of rain and of heavy fogs, and to the short and
imperfect summer, joined to the stony character of the
soil, the country is unproductive, and can hardly be made
to yield grain even in the smallest quantity. Its produce
is confined to wild vegetables. Wild berries, wild garlic,
and roots abound, and greens, turnips, and radishes might
with care be everywhere produced. One of the most va¬
luable productions is a root called duranne, which grows
wild, and supplies in some degree the place of bread ; also
a plant called sweet grass, which is used in cookery, and
from which a spirituous liquor is distilled, equal in strength
to brandy. The trees are numerous, though stunted in
their size ; the birch is most common, also the willow and
some kinds of dwarf pines and cedars. Shrubs are more
plentiful. But the chief riches of Kamtschatka consist in the
variety and abundance of wild animals which range over its
unproductive wastes, and in the great numbers of fish which
swarm in all its rivers. The animals of the chase are found
in prodigious numbers ; and, as in all cold climates, they
are provided with a covering of the richest furs. The ani¬
mal from which the sable is procured is even more plen¬
tiful than in Siberia, though the fur is not quite so beauti¬
ful. There are several species of the arctic fox, particularly
one called the ognefka, or the fiery-red fox of Kamtschatka,
which is the finest species. The other animals are the beaver,
the hare, the marmot, sea and river otters. Bears, wolves,
rein-deer, and mountain sheep, and sometimes a few lynxes,
are to be found ; and hunting, especially of the bear, con¬
stitutes one of the chief occupations of the Kamtschadales.
The dogs of Kamtschatka, which are trained to useful oc¬
cupations, are much valued. These faithful animals are
employed to transport fish, supply the house with water
and the cattle with hay, and to do all the work for which
horses are employed in England. They are fed well or ill
according to circumstances, but are always left to shift
for themselves from June to October. They are of a
coarse appearance, in shape resembling the common house¬
dog ; but are endowed with uncommon sagacity. The fish,
which swarm in the rivers and around the coasts, supply
the chief article of food to the inhabitants. The salmon,
herrings, and different kinds of shell-fish, are of particular
excellence; and great benefit accrues from the numerous
whales which are cast upon the shores. Independently of
fish and wild animals, the Kamtschadales derive also a con¬
siderable benefit from the surprising quantities of geese,
ducks, swans, snipes, and wild cocks, which are found in
their country. They are preserved either by salting, or by
being dipt in water, which freezes and keeps them fresh Kami
whilst the winter continues. The ducks and snipes are chatki
excellent; also the geese, swans, and wild sheep, which are
considered as venison. With all these resources for their
subsistence, fish, flesh, and fowl, wild berries, and roots in
great variety and abundance, with immense quantities of
furs of the warmest and most durable kind for clothing,
and, for firing and building, wood in profusion for their
limited wants, the inhabitants of Kamtschatka have an
ample supply of the necessaries of life placed at their dis¬
posal.
The inhabitants of this peninsula formerly lived in the
filthy and famished condition of savages, and since they
have come under the dominion of the Russians they are
not greatly improved ; so difficult is it to change the moral
habits of a people. They are in general of low stature,
with broad shoulders and a large head and short legs ; the
face, and particularly the nose, long and flat, with small
and sunk eyes, thin lips, and scarcely any beard, which is
a complete Tartar portrait, both in figure and features, and
proves them to have sprung from this great Asiatic stock.
They are now, as mentioned by Captain Cochrane, who
traversed so large a portion of Asia on foot, established in
villages, all built in the old Russian style, which are clean
and comfortable. During the summer or fishing season they
leave their winter residences for the places which they use
for drying fish. The summer is thus occupied in providing
food for the winter, which is mostly employed in the chase.
But though the above traveller represents the inhabitants
of this wild and inhospitable country as amiable and honest
in their dispositions, he still charactei'ises the Kamtscha-
dale, after providing his winter store, as being, beyond this, /
“ the same lazy, drunken, servile animal as formerly.”1
Their ancient language is not forgotten, though most of
them speak the Russian. The number of real Kamtscha¬
dales who retain their ancient usages is small. They re¬
side on the northern coasts, beyond Tygil and Nijni
Kamtschatsk. Hospitality, the virtue of all rude nations, is
the most striking feature in their character, though they
are also remarkable for their strict adherence to truth.
Their character is represented by other travellers as mild
and hospitable, living together in general in great har¬
mony, and even, when necessary, notwithstanding their
usual habits of laziness, assisting each other in their la¬
bours. They are a healthy race, enjoying, notwithstand¬
ing the rudeness of the climate, great vigour of constitution,
so that they are subject to but few maladies, and generally
reach an advanced age. Since they have been subjected
to the Russian dominion, they are prohibited from going
to war, though formerly wars were frequent amongst them,
and were carried on with all the characteristic cunning
and cruelty of savages. It was not their common practice
to engage in regular battle, but the hostile parties laid am¬
buscades for each other; and when they succeeded they
killed the men and children, and carried off the women.
Sometimes a party, surprised by their enemies, would, in
their desperation, first kill their women, and then them¬
selves. Their arms are clubs, lances, and arrows pointed
with bone. Now that they are compelled to remain at
peace, they have sunk into indolence and the coarsest sen¬
suality ; they devour their fish, which is their principal
food, raw, with eager avidity, and without the slightest
regard to cleanliness or delicacy. Salmon is their greatest
delicacy, and they bury it in the ground till it become
putrid, when they consider it as in the best state to be eaten.
Their whole habits, both in eating and in every other part of
their domestic economy, are filthy in the extreme ; no part
of their body is ever washed, neither their face, hands, nor
1 Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through Russia and Siberian Tartary, by Captain John Dundas Cochrane, R. N. vol. ii. p. 42.
KAMTSCHATKA.
-s- i lieir manners, however, are lively and cheerful; they
a- delight in dancing, which causes them entirely to shake off
^ their natural indolence ; their songs are full of rude mirth;
they have agreeable voices, though their tunes are very
rude; and they are fond of feats of mimicry, in which they
excel. One of their favourite dances is the imitation of
the gestures and attitudes of a bear in moving quietly along,
or in the act of seizing its prey. All these they represent
to the life; and in the distortions into which they throw
themselves in order to perform these uncouth exhibitions,
they undergo a degree of labour which astonishes all tra¬
vellers, considering their natural indolence and aversion to
all bodily exertion. The admiration which the spectators
express on beholding these performances, rude as they are,
is unbounded. These social meetings of the Kamtscha-
dales are not always, however, the most pure. Licentious¬
ness prevails, and the females are by no means scrupulous
in their conduct. It is their practice to go out at a parti¬
cular season to collect roots and vegetables for winter con¬
sumption ; and they celebrate this time, which is a holiday
festival, with all the unbounded license of bacchanalian re¬
vellers. Like all rude nations, they are extremely super¬
stitious. They formerly relied for aid, in all extremities, on
their own priests, the Shamanes; but they have now trans¬
ferred their veneration to the Russian priests, to whom
they give presents of furs, whilst all that was exacted by
the former for their spiritual aid was a hearty meal.
1 he Kamtschadales had formerly their winter and their
summer habitations, the former sunk some feet under
ground for the sake of warmth, the walls formed of trees
laid over each other and plastered with clay, the roof slant-
ing, and covered with coarse grass or rushes: their houses
now exactly resemble those of their conquerors, and a Kamts-
chadale is a counterpart of a Russian village. It is ex¬
tremely dirty and uncomfortable, and the intercourse with
the Russians has in no respect reformed the original habits
of the inhabitants. The dirt, and stench, and soot, issuing
from the lamp of a Kamtschadale cottage, are what only a
native could endure. “ They seem,” says Cochrane, ‘‘a
race disburdened of all care and consideration for the fu¬
ture, and are entirely resigned to any fate which may
await them, whether it be oppression, starvation, or disease.”
The summer house is raised to the height of twelve or
thirteen feet from the ground, by a number of posts, which
support a platform made of rafters and covered with clay,
which serves as the floor, whence the house ascends in the
form of a cone, covered with thatch or dried grass; and
here the whole family eat and sleep. The purpose of rais¬
ing up the house upon these posts is to afford a space shel¬
tered from the sun and the rain, where they can conve¬
niently dry the fish, which are accordingly attached to the
posts and ceiling for this purpose.
The Kamtschadales have few domestic animals. Ac¬
cording to the last census, Captain Cochrane informs us
that the number of horses throughout the whole peninsula
did not exceed 109, and the number of horned cattle 968,
two thirds of which are in the hands of the Russians, and
about 400 head of cattle in the possession of 3400 Kamts¬
chadales and Koriaks. The cattle left by Captain King
have not multiplied as was expected, which is a great loss
to the inhabitants, as the introduction of horses and horned
cattle would tend to ameliorate the condition of the people.
The extensive meadows of Kamtschatka would afford am¬
ple pasture for large herds of cattle, nor is the climate too
severe ; and the neglect, therefore, of supplying the country
with these is ascribed by Cochrane to the interested views
of the Russian chiefs, more intent on their own selfish ob¬
jects than on the public good. At present, the large spe¬
cies of dog, which rather resembles the mountain or shep¬
herd dogs of Europe, is the only beast of burden which
the inhabitants use; and there is no individual, either Rus-
vol. xu.
673
sian or native, who has less than five. These dogs are
harnessed to a sledge, two and two abreast, with one pecu-
liaily well trained and intelligent placed in front as a leader.
They have different cries to encourage and spur them on,
or to direct their course. The cry of “ tag, tag,” turns
them to the right; that of “ kongha, kongha,” to the left;
ah, ah. stops them; and “ ha” hastens their departure.
A sledge for personal convenience is drawn by four or five
dogs, one for baggage by ten. The travelling sledge is in
the form of an oblong basket, three feet in length and one
foot in breadth, and raised three feet from the ground ; and
both extremities are elevated in a curve. On this vehicle
the rider sits astride, or more commonly sideways ; and it is
reckoned the perfection of charioteering to drive standing
on one foot. Whilst the vehicle is passing over uneven
ground, it is extremely difficult to maintain the balance;
and inexperienced riders are consequently in great danger
of being thrown out and of overturning the carriage. The
only instrument they use is a stick, which they throw at the
dogs, and catch again with amazing dexterity.
Of the origin and history of the Kamtschadales we have
no accurate accounts ; and very little is known of them
beyond the last 130 years. The country was visited in
1649 by some Russians, whose vessel was wrecked on the
coast. They lived in peace with the natives for a consi¬
derabletime ; but afterwards quarrelling among themselves,
were murdered. It was not till the year 1696 that a body
of Cossacks from Anadirsk penetrated into the country.
From that time they were involved in perpetual hostilities
with the natives. Successive expeditions were sent into
this inhospitable country, and the Russians advanced far¬
ther and farther, erecting forts and levying tribute, until
all Kamtschatka was, in 1706, surveyed and occupied by
them. From this period it has been governed by Russia;
and though the sway of the emperor has been mild, yet
the inhabitants have been severely oppressed by their own
magistrates, each of whom is a petty despot within his own
district. Each ostrog or district is permitted to choose
its own magistrates, the chief of whom is called a town,
who is merely a peasant like those whom he governs, and
has no outward mark of distinction. He has another ma¬
gistrate under him, called yesaoul, who assists him in his
functions, and in his absence acts as his deputy. These
magistrates have a general charge over the peace of the
district; they are besides collectors of the tax, and pos¬
sess large discretionary powers, which they often abuse
in oppressing the inhabitants. The yasack is an inconsi¬
derable pecuniary tax, which is paid by a contribution of
furs from each village, but is rendered odious and oppres¬
sive from the arbitrary manner in which it is collected.
The furs are often undervalued, especially if the toion or
chief of a village does not properly compliment the chief
officers on his annual visit. Cochrane mentions that he
had seen sables valued at 2s. 6d., for which merchants
would have given I2s. These furs, though of the finest
quality, and worth 40s. a pair, are never averaged at more
than 10s. This tax is payable to the emperor, and also to
his deputies; so that, by their arbitrary exactions, it is often
paid five times over. Besides this, there is a capitation
tax of 7d. on each individual; and to enforce the collec¬
tion of this tax the most arbitrary measures are often
employed. The property of defaulters may be seized and
sold in a moment; such as axes, knives, nets, guns, kettles,
or the clothing of the family ; and it has often happened
that the poor natives are ruined by the illegal dues added
to this tax by the collectors. '1 here are other oppressions
to which the inhabitants are liable, namely, forced and
gratuitous services, such as forwarding of the post, the
transport of flour and salt, and the forced levies of horses
or dogs to officers and favourites. Any favourite or officer,
who may wish to trade, is furnished with a free billet,
4 Q
Kamts¬
chatka.
674 KAN KAN
Kan. which authorizes him, on the plea of public duty, to call
out any supply of men and dogs that he may deem expe¬
dient ; and besides this, he may purchase as many sables
as the poor native happens to possess, and at any price
which he himself chooses to fix.
The trade carried on with Russia consists in the ex¬
change of furs for such articles as are in demand amongst
the inhabitants. Captain Cochrane estimates the annual
number of animals caught in the peninsula at 30,000,
worth at least 200,000 rubles, or L.10,000. For these are
received bread, flour, oatmeal, tea, sugar, tobacco, coarse
cottons, nankeens, ribbons, handkerchiefs, &c.; woollens,
linens, axes, knives, kettles, twine, &c. But the article
most desired by the inhabitants, and which is ruinous
alike to their morals and their health, is spirits, supplied
to them by the Russian traders. For a glass of spirits
these miserable creatures will sell the last sable they are
possessed of. No less than 16,000 bottles of this perni¬
cious stuff are consumed in the short period of three or
four months, by 600 or 700 people, and at a most exorbi¬
tant price. This, with the introduction of European vices,
carrying with them the seeds of other diseases, has con¬
tributed greatly to the desolation of the country. The
population was greatly thinned by continuaFwars and in¬
surrections ; and these were followed by the introduction
of the small-pox, which, in the year 1768, carried off no
less than 6000 persons. Vaccination has been introduced,
but a want of vaccinating matter has prevented this im¬
provement from being generally introduced. St Peter’s
and St Paul’s is the chief city of Kamtschatka, which
contains forty-two dwellings, besides fifteen edifices be¬
longing to the government, an old church, and the foun¬
dation of a new one. There is a school in this place, go¬
verned by a priest and a regular schoolmaster ; but they
are neither of them highly qualified for their duties. The
children of the natives receive no education, and the
children of the Russians but little more. The number
of convicts who are sent here is also a serious grievance,
as they obtain an ascendency over the natives, which is
exercised in a most intolerant and infamous manner.
They frequently desert, and commit every species of vil-
lany and outrage, even to the fomenting of insurrections.
Kamtschatka has been divided, since 1783, into four
districts : ls£, Bolcheretsk ; 2d, Tiguilok; 3c/, Nijni Kamts-
chatsk; 4/A, Verschnei Kamtschatsk. Since 1802 a com¬
mandant-general or governor has been appointed over the
peninsula, who formerly resided at Verschnei Kamtschatsk,
but has since been removed to St Peter’s and St Paul’s,
and is, says Cochrane, again to be removed. According
to his account, no improvement can be brought about in
the condition of this desolate country, as long as its
governors are sent for five years only. The general mode
of occupying the allotted term, he adds, is for the first
year to look about and to form plans for the improve¬
ment of the country, the second is passed in making re¬
ports, stating opinions; the third year brings the reply of
the government, directing or authorizing the mode of ad¬
ministration ; the fourth is employed in preparing, or at
most in acting upon, such orders ; and the fifth and last
year in preparing to return to Europe, and in levying a
parting contribution; the whole five years being indeed
taken up more or less with accumulating as much money
as possible. The population of Kamtschatka, according
to the last census, amounts to 2208 Kamtschadales, 498
Koriaks, and 1260 Russians, amounting, along with the ad¬
dition of other straggling hordes, to 4574 men, women, and
children. (f.)
Islands in the Sea of Kamtschatka. See Aleutian
Islands.
KAN, or Khan, the name of an officer in the East, an¬
swering to that of governor in Europe. There are khans
of provinces, countries, and cities, who have different ad- Kanan
ditions to distinguish them. ^ ||
KANANY, a group of small uninhabited islands in the Kanog
Eastern Seas, lying off the north coast of Mysol, about the ^
130th degree of east longitude. Good water may be pro¬
cured at the south end of the great island. These islands
produce a species of nut, full of oil, and about the size of a
small almond. The north point of the principal island is
fixed in long. 129. 36. E. and lat. 1. 47. S.
KAN-CHOO-FOO, a city of China, of the first rank, in
the province of Kiangsi, situated at the confluence of two
rivers, one of which has very high banks. A bridge of
boats, fastened with iron chains, crosses these rivers at the
union of their streams ; and a stone quay extends for some
distance, with handsome landing places. This town in¬
cludes twelve others in its jurisdiction, and its neighbour¬
hood produces abundantly the varnish trees. Long. 114.
30. E. Lat. 25. 52. N.
KANDAHAR. See Candahar.
KANDERN, a town, the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, in the circle of the Treisam, in the duchy of
Baden. The bailiwick contains, besides the town, fifty-
four villages and hamlets, and 12,800 inhabitants. The
town is situated on the river Kandern, has some consider¬
able iron-works, and contains 144 houses and 1527 inha¬
bitants.
KANGAROO Island is situated on the south coast of
Holland. It was discovered by Captain Flinders, and was
so called from the great number of kangaroos found on the
island, which were so tame that they suffered themselves
to be knocked down with spikes. The soil, as far as it
was examined by Captain Flinders, appeared to be fertile,
and the country was covered with a thick wood. Long,
of Kangaroo Head, 137. 58. E. Lat. 35. 43. S.
KANGELANG Isle, an island of a very irregular
shape, and surrounded by a cluster of smaller ones, with
innumerable shoals. The principal island is twenty-five
miles long by eight in average breadth. It is situated be¬
tween the sixth and seventh degrees of south latitude,
and the 115th and 116th of east longitude.
KANGRAH, called also Catochin, a district of Hindus¬
tan, in the province of Lahore. It is bounded on the north
and north-west by Hurreepoor, on the east by Chambay,
on the south by Calour, and on the west by the Punjab,
being situated to the south-west of the.Himalaya Moun¬
tains, between the Beyah and the Rauvy Rivers. The
country is covered with wood. The fortress of Kangrah,
which is situated in the northern part of the province, has
long been celebrated. It was taken, a. d. 1010, by the
famous Mahmoud of Ghizni, who plundered it of immense
riches. It was retaken by the rajah of Delhi in 1043 ; and
afterwards by the Emperor Akbar, after a very long siege,
who conferred it on one of his officers, with the adjoining
district. From him the present possessors of the lands
boast their descent. It is situated on the top of a steep
mountain, is well supplied with water, and contains ample
space for raising supplies to feed a numerous garrison.
Like all the other hill-forts in India, it is very unhealthy.
Long. 75. 50. E. Lat. 32. 20. N.
KANIJEE, a small town of Hindustan, in the province
of Gujerat, situated a few miles north from Rahdunpoor.
It contains about 250 houses, and is surrounded by a ditch
eight feet deep, and a good parapet.
KANKHO, or Kankiang-ho, a large river of China, in
the province of Kiangsi. Its course is from north to south,
and it falls into the Poyang Lake, forming the termination
of the great water communication reaching from Pekin
southwards for upwards of 1000 miles. It has a rocky
bed, and the navigation is sometimes dangerous.
KANOGE, a town and district of Hindustan, in the
province of Agra. The district extends along the east side
K A N
ant. of the Ganges, and is generally of a sandy soil, though well
cultivated. The town is of great antiquity and celebrity,
about two miles distant from the Ganges, with which it
communicates by a canal. It was in former times of much
greater extent and magnificence ; and, for an extent of
about six miles, the small pieces of brick which are seen
on the spot, and the occasional traces of building, mark
out the site of the ancient capital of Hindustan. The
town at present consists of but one street; there are no
buildings of any consequence ; and the brick walls, which
appear of no great antiquity, are going rapidly to decay.
The adjacent plain is covered with ruined temples and
tombs, and everywhere broken images are seen lying under
the trees. The most curious remains of antiquity are often
found amongst the ruins, such as ancient coins, inscribed
with Sanscrit characters, and sometimes with the figure
of a Hindu deity on one side. Kanoge was the capital of
a powerful empire which existed at the period of the Ma-
hommedan invasion. It was conquered, though not per¬
manently retained, by Mahmoud of Ghizni, a. d. 1018.
The travelling distance from Agra is 217 miles; from Luck¬
now, seventy-five miles ; from Delhi, 214 ; and from Cal¬
cutta, 719. Long. 79. 52. E. Lat. 27. 5. N.
KANT, Immanuel, a very eminent metaphysician, and
the author of that theory which has been distinguished by
the name of the Critical or Transcendental Philosophy,
was born at Konigsberg, in Prussia, on the 22d of April
1724. Of his paternal ancestors little is known with cer¬
tainty ; but tradition represents them as having sprung
from an emigrant Scotchman of the name of Cant; and the
philosopher himself, who frequently alluded to this tradi¬
tionary extraction, is said to have been the first of his fa¬
mily who changed the initial letter of his name to K, with
a view to adapt it to the German pronunciation.
The father of Kant, who exercised the humble profes¬
sion of a saddler or harness-makei*, in the suburbs of Ko¬
nigsberg, was distinguished rather for his integrity and re¬
spectability than for his wealth. His mother appears to
have been a woman of considerable talent, and of a more
decided character. She was exceedingly pious, and much
attached to the strict religious tenets and discipline of Dr
Schultz, a divine who at that period enjoyed a high re¬
putation for learning, eloquence, and piety.1 Kant uni¬
formly spoke of both his parents, but especially of his
mother, with feelings of the warmest affection.2
Although far from being in affluent circumstances, his
parents resolved to bestow upon their son Immanuel
every advantage that could result from a liberal educa¬
tion. Accordingly, after having been taught to read and
write at the charity school of the suburbs, he was sent, in
the year 1732, to the Collegium Fridericianum, at the sug¬
gestion, it is believed, of Dr Schultz, who, even at that
early period, had the penetration to discover the talents of
the boy. At this school he contracted an intimate friend¬
ship with Ruhnkenius, afterwards so celebrated for his
philological attainments, which was maintained by occa¬
sional correspondence during the remainder of their lives,
and which, in their early years, may naturally be suppos¬
ed to have had a salutary influence on the studies of both.
They were both indefatigable students; and they not only
mutually assisted each other in their school exercises, but
read together, during their leisure hours, whatever books
KAN
their inclination led them to peruse, or their circumstances
permitted them to purchase. It is rather a remarkable
circumstance, however, that at this early period Kant
devoted his attention principally to philological studies;
whilst his friend Ruhnkenius seemed to be attracted, by
an apparently natural tendency of disposition, to the cul¬
tivation of philosophy. In their maturer years, as is well
known, these early predilections were precisely reversed.3
Having completed his preliminary education, he repair¬
ed, in the year 1740, to the university of his native town,
where he applied himself with great ardour to the study
of the mathematical, philosophical, and theological sci¬
ences. Amongst the professors of Konigsberg, several of
whom were men of considerable talents and attainments,
he appears to have attached himself particularly to Pro¬
fessor Martin Knutzen, well known, at that period, as the
author of several useful works, to whose instructions in
mathematics and philosophy Kant acknowledged himself
to have been greatly indebted.4 To the great diligence
and success with which he prosecuted his studies at this
period, his early writings bear ample testimony. The
youth who, at the age of twenty-two, could boldly and
successfully impugn the doctrines of Leibnitz and Wolf,
and skilfully wield the weapons of dialectics against the
authority of the most eminent metaphysicians of his day,
must have bestowed no common pains in the acquisition
of scientific knowledge, and in cultivating the powers of
his understanding. From the earliest period of his career,
too, he was left almost entirely to the resources of his owm
talents and prudence, and compelled, at every step, to
struggle against the depressing influence of poverty.
When scarcely arrived at manhood, he had the misfor¬
tune to lose both his parents, who had not the satisfaction
of living to witness the fruits of their son’s talents and in¬
dustry. They, indeed, had never been able to afford him
much pecuniary assistance ; but he was fortunate in meet¬
ing with some relations of his family, who were in more
affluent circumstances, and by whose liberality, combined
with his own exertions and economy, he was enabled to
continue the prosecution of his studies.
After a residence of about three years at the university,
he acted in the capacity of private tutor in several fami¬
lies, and lived about nine years with the Count de Hiiliesen
at Arnsdorf. During this period he embraced the oppor¬
tunities which his retirement afforded him, of collecting a
vast store of general knowledge in almost every depart¬
ment of science and literature, and of sketching the out¬
lines of several of those philosophical treatises, which were
soon afterwards published in rapid succession.
It is rather unfortunate that no record seems to have
been preserved of the course of his studies during this
most interesting period of his life ; nor has he himself, so
far as we know, left any memorials which might enable us
to trace the gradual progress of his mind in the acquisi¬
tion of knowledge. It is certain, however, that he both
read and thought much. According to his own confession,
he was not particularly well qualified to discharge the du¬
ties of a tutor ; being always too deeply engaged in ac¬
quiring and digesting knowledge in his own mind, to be
capable of communicating the rudiments of it to others.
His mind seems to have originally entertained a strong
bias towards mathematical and physical researches; and
675
Kant.
$
-h esteemed in
land^here^e’conthiued’to’reside'untii'his’deattn —1 ^ars d-unger th“ himself, who took orders, and had a living i„ Cour.
tial nJtP ?fi0d 0f hif life’ h7ever’ Ka!lt re,tJained a Sreat fondness for classical literature. He was particularly par
eVen - hlS 0U •*'> he “igh'ed t0 hare “ of reciting »„$ app?,fc
4 Knutzen died in the year 1756, as extraordinary professor of philosophy at Konigsberg.
676 KANT.
Kant, he exhibited some specimens of knowledge, acuteness, and accepted the unsolicited situation of second keeper of the Kant.
V—"v, ^ originality of investigation, in the latter branch of science, royal library, to which a small salary was attached ; and at ^ ^
from which much eminence might have resulted had his the same time he undertook the management of a private
views been exclusively confined to that department. cabinet of curiosities. But these offices he resigned in
It was probably during the period of his retirement at 1772, on account of the interruptions to which he was ex-
Arnsdorf that he was led to engage in a laborious inves- posed in showing the books and rarities to strangers,
ligation of the various metaphysical theories of ancient In the year 1770, Kant at length attained the highest
and modern times. With this view, he made himself object of his ambition, on his advancement to the ordinary
master of the living languages, especially the French and professorship of logic and metaphysics in the university of
English, the latterV which he acquired without the aid Konigsberg ; a situation which, while it placed him far
of a master, in order to enable him to examine into the above the fear of want, afforded him, at the same time,
merits of the British philosophers, particularly Locke, the best opportunity of employing his talents in a manner
Berkeley, and Hume. To the sceptical conclusions of the satisfactory to himself and advantageous to his country,
last-mentioned writer, according to Kant’s own confession, Upon this occasion, he produced his celebiated inaugural
the world is indebted for the Critical Theory. dissertation, De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma
Having attained his thirtieth year, and already distin- et Principiis, in which he propounded some of the funda-
ouished himself as the author of several tracts, exhibiting mental principles of that metaphysical theory to which he
great originality of thought, Kant resolved to devote him- was afterwards indebted for his great reputation,
self to the profession of public teacher. With this view, From this period, the life of Kant affords no very remark-
lie returned to the university of Konigsberg, and took his able incidents tor the pen of the biographer. His time ap-
degree of master of arts, according to the usual forms, in pears to have been chiefly occupied in the faithful and zeal-
the year 1755. It was upon this occasion that he produ- ous discharge of the duties of his office; in the composi-
ced, in the form of an inaugural dissertation, his tract en- tion of those philosophical works, by which he hoped to ac-
titled Principiorum primomm Cognitionis Metaphysics complish an important and beneficial leform in metaphysi-
7iova dilucidatio; the first of his works, it is believed, cal science; and in cultivating the society of a select mmi-
which contained any hints respecting his peculiar views ber of friends. At this tirne, too, he maintained a philo-
of metaphysical science. In the same year he published sophical correspondence with seveial of the first hteraiy
his celebrated treatise on the Universal Natural History characters of the age, and particularly with the celebrated
and Theory of the Heavens; or an Essay on the Constitu- Lambert, then president of the Royal Academy of Sci-
tion and Mechanical Structure of the whole Globe, accord- ences at Berlin, whose views of philosophy were, in some
ing to the Newtonian System. In this treatise, by follow- respects, coincident with his own. His letteis to ^ambeit,
ingout the principles of Newton, he was led to anticipate, indeed, are peculiarly interesting, as they contain frequent
in theory, some of the subsequent discoveries of the great allusions to the gradual development of his metap lysica
nrartiral fistronnmpr Hprsolipl. id.6ciS*
Soon after he had taken his degree, he began to avail In the year 1780, he became a member of the Senatus
himself of the privilege attached to the character of a Academicus ; and in l?87 he was admitted a member of
Doctor docens, by delivering lectures publicly on logic, the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Never, per-
metaphysics, mathematics, and natural philosophy; to haps, did there exist a mind so ardently and so entneiy de-
which, at a subsequent period, he added the law of na- voted to the cultivation of science, and so utterly divested
ture, moral philosophy, natural theology, and physical of all interested motives in the pursuit of know ledge. Hav-
geography. He had not long commenced the discharge ing once attained independence, his ambition, as to world-
of his duties as a public teacher, when the concourse of ly objects, seems to have aspired no higher. Although he
students, whom the reputation of his profound and exten- received, at different times, various invitations, with most
sive learning attracted, was so great, that his auditorium, advantageous proposals, to induce him to transfer his talents
or lecture-room, although large and commodious, could and his reputation to other universities, he could never be
scarcely contain the numbers who eagerly flocked to hear prevailed upon to leave his native town ; being perfect y
him. His affable manners and social talents, at the same satisfied with the advantages he aheady enjoyed, an wit
time, rendered him a most acceptable guest at the tables the sphere of usefulness which had been assigned him. for
of the most respectable inhabitants of Konigsberg, with many years previous to his death, he was the senior profes-
several of whom he lived on habits of intimate friendship, sor of Konigsberg ; and he enjoyed that high egiee o
But notwithstandinghisacknowledgedtalents asaphiloso- respect and veneration which was due alike to ms advan-
pher, and his popularity as a lecturer on scientific subjects, ced age, his eminent talents, and conspicuous vntues. e
it was long before Kant obtained any preferment. W ith a died, by a gradual decay of nature, on the 12th of re iu
mind constantly and intensely engaged in the pursuit of ary 1804, in the eightieth year of his age. His funera was
knowledge, he appears to have possessed no ambition be. attended by the most respectable inhabitants of Komgs-
yond that of being useful in the sphere he had chosen for berg, and by a numerous train of his friends and discip es,
the exercise of his abilities ; and he had too much simpli- and, to express the public regret for the loss of so distin-
city of character to resort to any of those arts by which guished a character, the whole city put on mourning. n
other men, more emulous of distinction, frequently endea- his coffin there was placed a sepulchral urn, with the m-
vour to advance their worldly interests. Upon the death of scription, Cineres mortales immortalis Kantii. A beauti u
Knutzen, in the month of April 1756, he solicited the va- commemorative medal was also executed upon this occa-
cant extraordinary professorship of philosophy, but without sion, by M. Abramson of Berlin. On one side is a stn -
success. The ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics ing likeness of the philosopher, with the inscription, m-
having died in 1758, Dr Schultz, who, as we have already manuel Kant, not. 1724. On the reverse, the artist has at-
observed, discovered at an early period the talents of Kant, tempted to express the services of Kant in assigning limits
and continued to patronise him so long as he lived, exert- to the province of speculative philosophy, by representing
ed all his influence to obtain that situation for his protege, a Minerva seated, and holding an owl in her right nan ,
But Kant was again disappointed. Not discouraged, how- which she prevents from flying, with the inscription, A tins
ever, by the repeated failure of his attempts to attain inde- volantem arcuit.
pendence, he continued to deliver his lectures, and to me- In his person, Kant w as rather below the middle statuie,
dilate his writings. In the month of February 1766 he of a slender and delicate form, and with a very narrow an
K A
mt. flat chest. His bodily frame, indeed, did not seem to pro-
mise longevity; nor would he, in all probability, have at¬
tained so great an age, had not his constitution been pre¬
served by his regular and temperate mode of living. In
his external appearance, strangers found nothing prepossess¬
ing, or indicative of any uncommon talents ; on the con¬
trary, his features are represented by a gentleman who
visited him at Konigsberg, as “ a reproach to physiogno¬
my.” Others, however, describe his countenance as full of
dignity, and expressive of benevolence. His natural dispo¬
sition was cheerful and social, and his manners were polite
and affable. He exhibited none of that awkwardness or re¬
serve which is frequently generated or increased by habits
of recluse meditation, and which is often thought to be cha¬
racteristic of the scholar and man of science. He loved
company, and was both inquisitive himself, and fond of
communicating his own knowledge and opinions upon all
subjects. There was nothing, however trifling it might
appear at first sight, which did not suggest to his mind
some interesting reflections ; and he could talk as fluently
with a lady on the minutiae of female dress, the mysteries
of the kitchen, or the common occurrences of the day, as
he could with a philosopher on the most abstruse points of
science. He was very regular in his habits. He rose early,
and his mornings were generally devoted to study and pro¬
fessional duties, his evenings to society. As he never
entered into the married state, he was not encumbered
with the cares of a family. He used to say, that when he
would have married, he had not fortune sufficient to main¬
tain a wife ; and when he possessed the requisite fortune,
he had no inclination to marry. It has been remarked
that he was fond of society; and during the earlier part of
his life, when otherwise disengaged, he used to dine at the
ordinary of the principal tavern, by which means he had
an opportunity of acquiring an extensive knowledge of hu¬
man character, and, at the same time, of gratifying his in¬
quisitive disposition, by eliciting from travellers of different
countries many curious and valuable observations on the
manners, habits, and literature of various nations. He
possessed an intimate know ledge of geography, and even
of minute topography, probably in a great measure deriv¬
ed fi'om this last-mentioned source, as w ell as from his pri¬
vate reading of books of travels, to which he was always
extremely partial; and he frequently entered into local de¬
tails with a degree of correctness which could not fail to
astonish those who learned that he had never moved fifty
miles from his native town. At a later period of his life,
when more easy in his circumstances, he generally invited
a few of his friends to dinner, with whom he relaxed from
his graver studies, frequently enlivening his discourse with
sallies of wit and humour, of which he possessed no small
share, and occasional irony and satire, of that good-natur¬
ed species which inflicts no wound on the object against
whom it is directed.
Kant’s intellectual faculties were of a high order. He
had a wonderful power of reflection, which enabled him to
unfold the most abstruse principles, and to pursue, in his
own mind, a long train of conclusions. He possessed great
quickness of observation, and clearness of conception ; in¬
somuch that, in conversation, he could describe any object
which he had seen, or of which he had read, with admir¬
able precision and accuracy. His memory was exceeding¬
ly retentive. He kept no library, but made a contract with
a bookseller to send him all new publications, which he
perused, and afterwards returned ; and the knowledge thus
acquired he had always at his command. The most re¬
markable feature in the moral character of Kant w as an
utter abhorrence of every species of falsehood, however in-
N T. 677
nocent, and a love ot perfect honesty and sincerity in word Kant,
and action, flowing no less from his natural disposition, than
from those high principles which he had early imbibed, of
the value ot truth, and the dignity of man. In this respect
he was ever consistent with himself; and the whole tenor
of his long life may be regarded as a practical commen¬
tary on his writings, and an exemplification of his moral
maxims.
The peculiar doctrines of the critical or transcendental
philosophy were not the offspring of impressions accident¬
ally received, and hastily adopted, but the fruit of long,
patient, and systematic investigation. Kant, indeed, was
well advanced in years before he attempted that reform in
metaphysical science which he seems to have long meditat¬
ed. In several of his earlier productions, and in his letters
to Lambert, he evidently appears to have been dissatisfied
with the prevailing theories ; and his inaugural dissertations,
as already mentioned, exhibited some of those peculiar
views, which were afterwards more fully developed in his
great work, the Critik der reinen Vernuvft. This work w as
published in 1781. For several yeai’s it appears to have
attracted little or no attention ; and the publisher, it is said,
w as on the point of destroying the sheets as waste paper,
when a sudden demand rapidly carried off several impres¬
sions. From that period, the Transcendental Theory be¬
gan to excite an extraordinary sensation, and to be regard¬
ed as a new and wonderful discovery in metaphysical sci¬
ence ; the philosophers of Germany were divided into pro¬
fessed partisans and determined antagonists of the doctrines
of Kant; and a multitude of publications issued yearly from
the press, for the purpose of confirming or refuting the new
principles.
It was not long, however, before the Critical Philosophy
bore down all opposition, and obtained a complete ascen¬
dency over the theories inculcated by its adversaries. It
w^as publicly taught in the schools, to the almost total ex¬
clusion of the doctrines of Aristotle, Descartes, Locke,
Leibnitz, and Wolf; it gave a fresh impulse to the spirit
of metaphysical inquiry ; and men of the first note in the
scientific w orld felt a conscious pride in being able to com¬
prehend, to explain, to illustrate, to apply, or to extend its
principles. It not only effected an entire revolution in Ger¬
man metaphysics, but exerted a powerful influence on works
of taste, and the lighter literature of the country. It is im¬
possible, indeed, to comprehend, or to relish, many pass¬
ages in the works of the more recent poets, novelists, and
fugitive writers of Germany, without some previous acquaint¬
ance with the doctrines of Kant.
Owing to what has been already said upon the subject in
another part of this work,1 we shall avoid entering into any
discussion respecting the merits of the Critical Philosophy
in the present article; but we shall present our readers
with a very concise abstract of its objects and results.,.
Mr Hume proved very satisfactorily, that our fc^eas of
cause and effect are not derived from experience iybut he
rashly concluded, as Kant observes, “ that they^are the
spurious offspring of the imagination impregnated by cus¬
tom.” Kant discovered that Hume had been led to this
hasty inference in consequence of having taken too limit¬
ed a view of the great problem which he had thus partial¬
ly attempted to solve. He perceived that the idea of cause
and effect is by no means the only one which the mind
makes use of w ith the consciousness of its necessity, yet
without being derived from experience ; but that the sci¬
ence of metaphysics is altogether founded on ideas of a si¬
milar nature. He endeavoured, therefore, to ascertain the
precise number of these abstract or transcendental ideas ;
and having succeeded in this to his own satisfaction, he
1 See Dissertation First, Part Second, Section Seventh.
678 KANT.
Kant, found himself in possession of the whole of those connect-
ing acts of the mind, which constitute the very elements of
the understanding itself, which are indispensable to its ex¬
ercise, and without which the whole of our experience would
exhibit nothing but a number of insulated facts, without
order or consistency.
The three original faculties, through the medium of
which we acquire knowledge, are, sense, understanding, and
reason. Sense is a passive or receptive faculty. In the
objects presented to our senses, we distinguish matter and
form. The forms or conditions of sense are space and
time ; the former of the external, the latter of the inter¬
nal sense. All our knowledge is limited by space and time ;
for we can perceive nothing that does not exist under these
conditions.
Understanding is an active or spontaneous faculty, and
consists in the power of forming conceptions. In every
conception of the understanding, also, we distinguish the
matter and the form. The matter is the sensible intuition ;
the form is the unity, or connection, established by means
of the synthetic powers of the understanding, or the cate¬
gories. Kant was at great pains in endeavouring to ascer¬
tain the number of these synthetic powers or categories ;
and he found them to be all comprehended under the four
classes of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. The
categories themselves are twelve in number. Under the
first head are comprised unity, multitude, totality ; under
the second, reality, negation, limitation ; under the third,
substance and accident, cause and effect, action and re-ac¬
tion ; under the fourth, possibility, existence, necessity.
This synthetic power of the understanding is called, in
the critical philosophy, its original use. The logical use,
both of understanding and reason, is to be found in the fa¬
culty of judgment. Logic, however, has only to do with
the form of our conceptions, and not with their matter;
which last inquiry belongs to transcendental philosophy, or
metaphysics.
Reason is the third or highest degree of mental sponta¬
neity, and consists in the power of forming ideas. As it is
the province of the understanding to form the intuitions of
sense into conceptions, so it is the business of reason to
form conceptions into ideas. The ideas of reason are ab¬
solute and unconditional, and totally independent of space
or time ; consequently, we can neither obtain nor extend
our knowledge by means of reason alone. For these ideas
are nothing more than certain representations of the un¬
conditional, that is. of the highest unity and totality, which
spring from the essential constitution of our reason, which
serve to render the field of experience a comprehensible
whole, and which, therefore, are merely conditions of the
exercise of our reason, and not real external objects of
which it is possible to acquire any knowledge by intuition.
The results of the critical theory may be stated, we con¬
ceive, in a very few words. The first principles, or condi¬
tions, of our speculative knowledge, are mere subjective
forms, or forms derived from the constitution of the think¬
ing being: First, the forms of sense, or pure intuitions
(space and time) ; and, secondly, the forms or notions of
the understanding (the categories). These intellectual
forms or notions, however, only acquire reality by their
application to our perceptions, with reference to possible
experience, and therefore we can have no speculative
knowledge of things beyond the sphere of experience.
Besides the critical investigation of pure reason in its
speculative exercise, Kant instituted a similar inquiry into
the nature and laws of our practical reason, and of the fa¬
culty oh judgment; and, in tire spirit of his own theory, he
published the Metaphysical Elements of Natural Philo¬
sophy, of Law, and of Ethics. His Logic, Physical Geo¬
graphy, and some other works, were published by his
friends, from his papers, and the marginal notes to his text¬
books. Towards the latter end of his life, he meditated a Kant,
work, which was intended to be the key-stone of his whole
system, and which was to have been entitled The Tran¬
sition from Metaphysics to Physics ; in which he proposed
tq demonstrate the general application of the principles
of the transcendental theory. The decline of his faculties,
however, prevented the execution of this projected work.
We shall close this article with a list of Kant’s publica¬
tions.
Gedanken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen
Krafte, &c. (Thoughts on the true estimation of the ani¬
mal powers, with strictures on the proofs advanced by
Leibnitz and others.) Kbnigsberg, 1746.
Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels,
&c. (Universal Natural History and Theory of the Hea¬
vens, &c.) Ibid. 1755.
Principiorum primorum Cognitionis Metaphysicae nova
dilucidatio. A Dissertation on taking his master’s degree,
in 1755.
Betrachtungen fiber den Optimism. (Reflections on
Optimism.) Konigsberg, 1759.
Von der falschen Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen
Figuren. (On the sophistical subtilty of the four syllogis¬
tic figures.) 1763.
Einzig moglicher Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration
des Daseyns Gottes. (The only possible evidence for de¬
monstrating the existence of the Deity.) Konigsberg,
1763.
Beobachtungen fiber das Geffihl des Schonen und Er-
habenen. (Observations on the feeling of the Beautiful
and Sublime.) 1764. This tract is remarkable on account
of the spirit of humour and pleasantry which pervades it.
Triiume eines Geistersehers, erlautert durch Traume der
Metaphysik. (Dreams of a Ghost-seer, illustrated by the
dreams of Metaphysics.) Riga, 1766. This publication
was occasioned by the visions of the famous Emanuel
Swedenborg.
De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Prin-
cipiis. Konigsberg, 1770. An inaugural dissertation on
obtaining his professorship.
These, along with a number of other tracts, in which
the author displayed an intimate acquaintance with the
principles of the sciences, remarkable quickness of obser¬
vation, great depth of thought and acuteness of reasoning,
will be found incorporated in the following collections.
Kant’s Sammtliche kleine Schriften. (Kant’s Smaller
Tracts collected.) 3 vols. 8vo. Konigsberg and Leipsic,
1797.
Kant’s Vermischte Schriften, mit Anmerkungen, von
Tieftrunk. (Kant’s Miscellaneous Writings, with Notes,
published by Tieftrunk.) 3 vols. 8vo. Halle, 1799. A
fourth volume was added, Konigsberg, 1807.
The early and anonymous essays of Kant were collected
and published by F. T. Rink, Konigsberg, 1800. In the
following works, his peculiar views of metaphysical science,
as constituting what has been called the Critical Philoso¬
phy, are more fully and systematically developed.
Critik der Reinen Vernunfit. (Critical inquiry into the
Nature of Pure Reason.) Riga, 1781 ; 3d ed. 1791, 8vo.
Prolegomena zu einer jeden kfinftigen Metaphysik, &c.
(Prolegomena to every Future System of Metaphysics, &c.)
1783. In the Critik der reinen Vernunft, the author had
proceeded synthetically; in this other work he adopts the
analytical method, with the view of rendering his theory
more intelligible to students.
Metaphysische Anfangsgrfinde dev Naturwissenschaft.
(Metaphysical Elementsof Natural Philosophy,) 1786. This
is a systematic text-book on pure physics, in which the
author treats of those principles in natural philosophy of
whose truth we are conscious a priori, i. e. independently
of experience. The subject is treated under the four
K A R
gacheou heads of Phoronotny, Dynamics, Mechanics, and Pheno-
I || menology.
^ah. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten. (Fundamen-
Hi ^ tal Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals.) 1785.
Critik der Practischen Vernunft. (A Critical Inquiry
into the Nature and Laws of Practical Reason.) 1788.
Critik der Urtheilskraft. (A Critical Inquiry into the
Faculty of Judgment.) 1790. In this work the author de-
velopes his views of the principles of taste.
Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der Rechtslehre. (Me¬
taphysical Elements of Legal Science.) 1797.
Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der Tugendlehre. (Me¬
taphysical Elements of Ethics.) 1797.
Anthropologic, in Pragmatischer Hinsicht. (A Prag¬
matical Treatise on Anthropology.) 1798.
The following works were published from his papers by
his friends :
Logik (Logic), published by G. B. lasche, 1801.
Physische Geographic (Physical Geography), of which,
we believe, there have been several editions by different
editors.
Piidagogik (Pedagogics, or the Art of communicating
Instruction.) Published by F. T. Rink, 1803. (k.)
KANTCHEOU, a large town of China, situated near
the north-western extremity of the country, where it pro¬
jects into Tartary. It appears to be the place called Cam¬
pion by Marco Polo and other early travellers.
KAO, one of the Friendly Islands, in the South Pacific
Ocean, called also Aghao, or Oghao. It is two miles north¬
east of Toofoa, and is a mountainous rock. In the chan¬
nel which separates it from Toofoa, Captain Cook found no
soundings.
KAOLIN, the name of an earth which is used as one
of the two ingredients in oriental porcelain. A quantity
of this earth was brought from China, and examined by
M. Reaumur. He found that it was perfectly infusible by
fire, and believed that it -was a talky earth ; but M. Mac-
quer conceives that it is more probably of an argillaceous
nature, from its forming a tenacious paste with the other
ingredient, called petuntse, which has no tenacity. M.
Bomare says, that by analyzing some Chinese kaolin, he
found it to be a compound earth, consisting of clay, to which
it owed its tenacity; of calcareous earth, which gave it a
meally appearance; of sparkling crystals of mica; and of
small gravel, or particles of quartz crystals. He says that
he has found a similar earth upon a stratum of granite,
and conjectures that it may be a decomposed granite.
This conjecture is the more probable, as kaolins are fre¬
quently found in the neighbourhood of granites.
KAOMING-SZE, a city of China, in the province of
Kiangnan, situated on the great canal. It is distinguished
by a very ancient and splendid pagoda dedicated to the
god Fo. It is sixty-five miles north-east of Nanking.
KAOTCHEOUFOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
in the province of Qnangtong, situated on a river, thirty-
six miles from the sea. It is 200 miles east-south-east
of Canton. Long. 110. 4. E. Lat. 21. 40. N.
KAPINI, a small, uninhabited island, about twenty-five
miles in circumference, lying off the west coast of Suma¬
tra, and situated almost immediately under the equator. In
the charts it is usually named Batu, whilst this latter island
is erroneously named Mintaon.
KAPUVAR, a town of the province of Farther Da¬
nube, in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary, on an arm of
the river Raab, where there is a magnificent castle be¬
longing to Prince Esterhazy. It contains 2943 inhabit¬
ants, with one Catholic church. Much tobacco is culti¬
vated around the town.
KARAH, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the Mah-
rattas, in the province of Gujerat, 17 miles south-east from
Ahmedabad. Long. 72. 45. E. Lat. 22. 46. N.
K A R 679
KARAK, an island in the Persian Gulf, the greater part Karak
of which is rocky; but the eastern part, being somewhat II
lower than the others, is capable of being cultivated. It ^ar^ca*-
was formerly under the Dutch, when it contained from
2000 to 3000 inhabitants. At present it does not contain
above 300 or 400. It affords a safe anchorage at all sea¬
sons, but more particularly during the severe gales which
blow from the north-west, and are the prevailing winds in
this sea. In the year 1808, Sir John Malcolm recommend¬
ed to the British government to occupy this island, as a
defensive position, and a good station for trade, which
might be securely carried on with the neighbouring coasts
of Persia and Arabia. The Persians are in possession of
this island at present. A good supply of water may be
procured here, and also the best pilots for Bassorah. Lat.
29. 14. N.
KARAKALPACS, a people of Tartary, who inhabit
that tract of country which lies to the east of the Aral,
and to the north of the Sihon or Jaxartes. They profess
the Mahommedan faith, and are chiefly employed in agri¬
culture, the soil of the country possessing a considerable
degree of fertility. The country is under the dominion of
khans; but the Seits, the supposed descendants of Ma-
hommed, receive more respect than their princes. The
Russians protect them against the incursions of their neigh¬
bours the Kirghises.
KARAKITA, a small island in the Eastern Seas, to the
south of Sangir, about six miles in circumference. It is
cultivated and inhabited. Long. 125. 25. E. Lat. 3. 7. N.
KARANG SAMBONG, a considerable inland town of
the island of Java, situated upon a fine river, which is navi¬
gable for large prows, and runs through Indramayo into
the sea. It is 168 miles south-east from Batavia.
KARASJEE, a small town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Bejapoor. It contains a number of Mahomme-
dans, who subsist mostly on alms, in a state of filth and
sloth. Long. 75. 28. E. Lat. 17. 26. N.
KARASUBASAR, a city of the province of Taurien
or Taurida, in Russia, in the circle of Feodosia. It stands
in a plain between two mountains, upon the banks of the
river Karask. It contains 915 houses in narrow streets,
and 3700 inhabitants, consisting of Tartars, Greeks, Ar¬
menians, and some Jews, with but few Russians. It has
considerable trade in leather, soap, candles, and taliow.
Long. 34. 30. E. Lat. 45. 4. N.
KARATSCHEW, a city of the province of Orel, in
Russia, the capital of a circle of the same name. It stands
on the river Sujeshat. It contains twelve churches, three
of which are of stone, 1000 houses, and 6230 inhabitants,
who make large quantities of twine and ropes. Long. 34.
51. E. Lat. 53, 16. N.
KARDANAH, a river of Palestine, anciently called
Belus, the sand of which has long been celebrated in the
manufacture of glass. It falls into the Mediterranean,
eight miles south of Acre.
KARGAUW, a town of Hindustan, in the Mahratta
territories, in the province of Khandesh, district of Beja¬
poor. Long. 75. 35. E. Lat. 21. 54. N.
KARGAPOL, a city of the Russian province Olonez,
the capital of a circle of the same name, extending over
fifty-four square miles, and containing 44,500 inhabitants.
The city is built on the river Onega, and is one of the
most respectable provincial towns of Russia. It contains
seventeen stone and nine wooden churches, two convents,
520 other dwellings, and 3700 inhabitants, who are very
active and enterprising. Long. 38. 45. E. Lat. 61. 29. N.
KARICAL, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-coast of
the province of Tanjore, fifty miles east by north from the
province of Tanjore. The surrounding territory produces
rice and salt. Karical was granted to the French by the
x’ajah of Travancore in 1739. The fort is built upon one of
v
680 K A R
Karle the branches of the Cavery, the mouth of which is so
II choked by a bank of sand, that it is only navigable for
Karnac. ]30ats. Jn 1760, Karical was taken from the French by
Colonel Monson. It has been frequently taken and re¬
taken since that period by the contending parties, and was
ceded to the French at the conclusion of the last war.
Long. 79. 54. E. Lat. 10. 55. N.
KARLE, a Saxon term, used in our law, sometimes to
signify simply a man ; and sometimes, with an addition, a
servant or clown. Thus the Saxons call a seaman buscarli,
and a domestic servant huscarle. Hence comes the mo¬
dern word churl.
KARLSBAD. This is one of the most celebrated bath¬
ing places in Europe. It is situated in Bohemia, on the
northern boundary towards Saxony. It is in a narrow
and deep valley in a mountainous district, abounding with
many most romantic prospects, and stands on both sides
of the river Tepel. The springs are said to have been
discovered in the year 1358, by the emperor of Germany,
Charles IV., whilst hunting ; and, the virtues of the water
having been ascertained, he built a castle on the spot,
around which other edifices were subsequently erected,
and thus formed a city. It now contains about 500 housps,
with 3000 resident inhabitants; but, in the summer, the
number of occasional visitors far exceeds this. It has a
neat and well-built church, an elegant theatre, and seve¬
ral spacious halls for assemblies collected for music, dan¬
cing, or promenading. The company to be found at
this place is of the most promiscuous kind ; and monarchs,
nobles, and the most distinguished persons on the con¬
tinent, mix here with the other guests with no observable
parade or ceremony. The walks that have been laid out
display much taste, and, from several points in them, the
prospects are very striking ; whilst the number of retreats,
where refreshments are furnished, are appropriate, and at
very moderate rates. The warm springs are of various
names, viz. the Old and New Sprudel, the New Well, the
Mill Well, the Bernharts Well, and the Theresa Well. All
of these nearly resemble each other in taste, and the pa¬
tients take very large doses of them. The cures in dys¬
pepsia are much celebrated; and gouty, rheumatic, and
scrofulous diseases are frequently cured by the use of
the water. The resident inhabitants make many curious
articles in iron, steel, tin, and wood, of which most of the
visitors become the purchasers.
KARLSTADT, a city of Bavaria, the capital of the
bailiwick of the same name, in the circle of the Upper
Maine. It is built on the Maine, is surrounded with walls,
and contains 460 houses, and 2280 inhabitants.
Karlstadt, a circle of the Austrian Illyrian province
of Trieste, extending over 1326 square miles, contain¬
ing one city, two market-towns, and 514 villages and
hamlets, with 22,400 houses, and 108,250 inhabitants.
The whole circle is very mountainous, the southern part
being a prolongation of the Alps, and the rest a series of
woody mountains. Between the ranges are some exten¬
sive and fertile valleys, producing wine, olives, fruit, to¬
bacco, corn, and good pasture. The chief city, which gives
its name to the circle, stands on the river Kulp, is forti¬
fied, and contains one Greek and two Catholic churches,
a Franciscan convent, 524 houses, and 3224 inhabitants,
who are employed chiefly in building ships and boats. It
is in long. 17. 32. 52. E. and lat. 45. 29. 33. N.
KARNAC, or Karnak, the name of a village near
Thebes, in Upper Egypt, and built on a small part of the
site of a temple, which must have been one of the most
magnificent in the world. The ruins of this edifice seem
to indicate, according to Denon, that it was the largest
ever raised by human hands; and he thinks it probable
that this temple, as well as the palace of Luxor, was built
in the time of Sesostris, called by the Egyptians the
K A R
Great Rhamses, when Egypt was in the highest degree of Karna
prosperity. The plan of this temple is noble and grand; !i
but Denon supposes that the embellishments were added ^kars
long after the building of the temple, as they exhibit a
more correct and chaste style. See article Egypt.
KARNATA, an ancient Hindu geographical division,
which comprehended all the high table-land in the south
of India, situated above the Ghauts. The name has been
transferred to the adjacent provinces on the sea-coasts of
India, Carnatic, and Canara. In the remote periods of
Hindu history, Karnata existed as a powerful empire,
which comprehended great part of the south of India.
KAROON, a river of Persia, which has its rise about
thirty-five miles south-west of Ispahan, at a place called
Correng, at the foot of the same hill where the Zeindrood
or Ispahan river has its source. After receiving a num¬
ber of tributary streams in the mountains of Lauristan, it
flow’s through the city of Shuster, to a small village
twelve miles to the south of that city, where it meets the
Abzal. It then flows with a southerly course as far as
lat. 30. 32. N., and thirty miles east of Bassorah. Here it
divides itself into two branches, one of which disembogues
itself into the s^a at Goban ; and the other, taking the name
of Hafur, after a course of about fourteen miles, again se¬
parates, one division passing through an artificial canal
three miles in length, into the Shat-ul-Arab, and the
other entering the sea by the name of Bamishire. “ The
Karoon,” says Mr Kinneir, “ is a noble river, being in
many parts upwards of 300 yards in breadth, and navi¬
gable for boats of twenty-five tons burden as far as Kish-
tibund, four miles from Shuster.
KAROULY, a town and district of Hindustan, in the
province of Agra, situated on the Putchpuree River, which,
ducing the rainy season, swells to a torrent; and on the
other side is surrounded by deep and extensive ravines.
The town is surrounded by a good stone wall w'ith bas¬
tions, and the fort is in the centre. The rajah is of the
military tribe of the Rajpoots, who have been gradually
stript of their best possessions by the Afghans, Moguls,
and Mahrattas. It is seventy miles south-west from the
city of Agra. Long. 77. E. Lat. 26. 35. N.
KARPOOT, a large and ancient tow n of Koordistan,
built on the summit of a hill, at the eastern extremity of
a fertile valley about three or four miles in breadth and
about twenty-five in length. It belongs to the pasha of
Maden, or inspector of the mines, who resides at Gebbin
Maden, the silver mines on the Euphrates.
KARS, a city of Turkish Armenia, situated at the ex¬
tremity of a fine valley. It is built on the side of an un¬
even rocky height, on the summit of which, to the east¬
ward, rises its citadel, of great antiquity. The walls of
the town extend in a straight line east and w^est along the
plain ; then run up the acclivity of the rock on each side
till they reach its top, where, strongly protected with
round and square bastions, they meet at the great towers
of the fortress. It is a perfect and interesting specimen
of an Asiatic fortified city. Beyond the walls, a consi¬
derable suburb stretches out eastward; but three or four
pentagon batteries, each mounted with five pieces of can¬
non, appeared to Sir R. K. Porter, who visited this place in
1818, to be the sole defences of the outer town. Seen from
a distance, the town has a majestic appearance, from the
imposing aspect of its citadel, the extent of its walls,
and the height of its towers, which, being mostly of stone,
give it an air of peculiar magnificence. But the illusion
vanishes the moment the traveller enters the town, which
presents an appearance of ruin, dirtiness, and neglect, in
all its long and narrow valleys. According to Sir R. K.
Porter, Kars is the Charsa of Ptolemy; and being con¬
sidered as one of the strongest places in this part of the
Turkish dominions, is the selected residence of the pa-
K A S
rtan slia of the northern frontier. In consequence of its situa-
|| tion as the very key of Armenia towards the north, it
3an- has stood a variety of sieges, and endured every change
f"*' from the varied events of war. The population amounts
to about 10,000 families, consisting of Turks, Koords,
Armenians, Georgians, Jews, and a few Persian mer¬
chants. The place has no great appearance of prosperity.
It is thirty miles from Erivan.
KARTAN, or Martan, four small islands in the In¬
dian Ocean, near the southern coast of Arabia, at the en¬
trance of the Gulf of Curia Muria. Long. 54. 50. E. Lat.
17. 30. N.
KARTUEL, or Kartalinia, one of the four provinces
which constitute the state of Georgia, and the most west¬
ern of the whole, bordering on Immeritia. It occupies
both banks of the Kur, and comprehends the greater part
of the ancient Iberia; but it no longer boasts of the
fine cities and handsome public buildings which it con¬
tained in the time of Strabo. The repeated revolutions
which it has experienced since that period, and, in parti¬
cular, the destructive inroads of the Lesghaes, have com¬
pletely changed the face of the country, and almost ex¬
terminated its population. The few inhabitants who re¬
main are to be found, as in ancient times, in the south¬
ern and middle mountains of Eastern Caucasus. They
live chiefly by agriculture, and have their houses almost
on the very tops of the hills.
KARUKU, a small island in the Eastern Seas, about
three miles to the eastward of Amboyna. This island
contains hot springs that will boil an egg. It is princi¬
pally allotted to the culture of the clove tree.
KASAN, one of the eastern provinces of the Russian
empire, which extends beyond the boundaries assigned
to Europe by many geographical authorities. It has ob¬
tained the name of a kingdom. It was formerly inhabited
by a people of the Finnish race, a branch of which, called
the Viarmiers, in the most prosperous time of the west¬
ern Roman empire, had founded a great commercial city
at Perm, which flourished till about the year 1236, when
this country was conquered by Ghengis Khan. His suc¬
cessors were driven but by some southern Tartars, who,
constantly carrying on hostile operations with the Rus¬
sians, under four different khans, denominated by the
names of their respective capitals, Kasan, Astrakan, Kapts-
chak, and Krim. Unfavourable events induced the khans
of Kasan and of Astrakan to make submission, at the end
of the fifteenth century, to the Czar Iwan Basilijw I.; and
the Russians from that period obtained great influence in
the choice of khans over the other two districts. Peace
was constantly interrupted between the Tartars and the
Russians; and at length the Czar Iwan Basilijw II, con¬
quered, in 1552, the city of Kasan, and in 1554 the city
of Astrakan, and the other two were taken possession of
by the Russians. The semblance of the Tartar rule was
preserved under khans nominated by the czars till 1714,
when Peter the Great erected his own government in the
city of Kasan, and subjected to it the waywodeships of
Simbirsk, Wiatka, Perm, and Pensa. These now form
what is called the kingdom of Kasan; but each of the six
has its separate government under a stadtholder. The
whole extent is given, by authority, at 251,140 square
miles, and the population as 5,867,000 persons.
Kasan, a stadtholdership or government of the Russian
kingdom of the same name. It extends in north latitude
from 54. 13. to 56. 44. and in east longitude from 47. 12.
to 51. 39. It is bounded on the north by Wiatka, on the
east by Orenburg, on the south by Simbirsk, and on the
west by Nishegorod, and is divided into twelve circles or
local governments. The whole extent is 22,960 square
miles.
The face of the country is undulatory, not hilly, except
VOL. XII.
K A S
681
that, in the south-east, some of the projections of the Ural Kaschin
Mountains enter the province ; and on the right bank of the II
Wolga there are some calcareous hills, more remarkable Kasimow.
tor the extensive and. lofty natural caverns in them than
for their height. Being watered by two great rivers and
a vast number of brooks and rivulets, and interspersed with
woods, meadows, and corn-fields, it has a cheerful aspect,
!n spite of some districts which are covered with sand or
wild heaths. The river Wolga, which runs through the
vyhole province, receives the other streams, and conveys
their water to the Black Sea, It is navigable throughout
its whole extent, and abounds with fish, particularly with
stuigeon, which produce much isinglass and caviare, and
foi m an important part of food for home consumption, as
well as for exportation to other districts, though chiefly
to Moscow. ° J
The number of inhabitants is 1,293,250, the greater
portion of whom are of the Russian race ; but there are
still many of the lartar family, and, what appears singu¬
lar, they are represented as being better instructed than
the Russian peasantry. I hey live in villages by them¬
selves, and have been provided by the government with
schoolmasters and books. They mostly practise agricul¬
ture, but some engage in handicraft employments, and they
aie geneially peaceable and industrious. The Russians all
adhere to the orthodox Greek church, and many of the
1 artars have been converted to the same faith ; but others
of the latter yet retain their profession of Mahommedan-
ism. I here are still some remains of the Finnish race,
who are a wretched set of people, without information,
and generally indolent. There are but few nobles. There
are 9200 small proprietors of land, and near 300,000 slaves,
the property of the crown.
The husbandry is conducted upon the same plan as in
most parts of the Continent, the rotation being a fallow
succeeded by rye or wheat in the second year, and these
crops by oats or barley in the third year, when the same
course is repeated. The corn scarcely yields five times
the quantity sown ; but enough is raised for bread, as well
as for distillation, and some is exported. A large quan¬
tity of hemp is grown, and some flax. The woods produce
much excellent timber. They mostly belong to the crown,
but some of them to private proprietors. There are ma¬
nufactures both of linen and woollen goods, mostly of a
coarse kind, but suited to the climate and the condition
of the people. The meadows raise numerous herds of
cattle, where hides and tallow are the most valuable of
the exports. There are mines yielding copper, and others
iron, and from the latter much steel is made. A large
quantity of potash is made, and forms a material article
of export. The river Wolga is the chief means of trans¬
port, and a certain source of commercial occupation and
wealth.
KASCHIN, a city of the province of Twer, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of the same name, extending over
eighty-seven square miles, containing one city and 486
villages, with 75,896 inhabitants. The city is situated
on the river Kaschinta, and contains twenty-five churches,
705 houses, and 3813 inhabitants. Long. 37. 35. E. Lat.
57. 20. N.
K A SI MOW, a city of the Russian province Riasan, the
capital of a circle of the same name, at the junction of the
river Babinka with the Oka. It is surrounded with walls,
which have been recently converted into pleasant pro¬
menades. It has a suburb inhabited by a tribe of Tartars,
amounting to 500 persons, having been once the capital of
a prince of that people. It contains ten churches, 1800
houses mostly of wood, and 9840 inhabitants. It has con¬
siderable trade, chiefly with the Tartars, in furs, and some
manufactures of cloth and of earthen ware. Long. 41.
4. E. Lat. 55. 11. N.
4 R
682 ' K A W
Kasmark KASMARK, a city of the circle of Zips, in the pro-
11 . vince of the Hither Theiss, in the kingdom of Hungary,
Kawschani. an(j situate(jon the river Poprad. It contains 493 houses,
an(j 4,392 inhabitants, of whom 2619 are Lutherans, the
remainder Catholics. It has considerable manuiactures
of linens, cloths, flannels, and blankets, and good salmon
fishing on the river Poprad, which is navigable. Long.
20. 22. 5, E. Lat. 49. 7. 33. N.
KASSON. See Kaarta.
KATCHINS, a barbarous tribe of Asia, on the banks
of the Yenisei, in the government of Tomsk, under the
jurisdiction of Russia, and who pay tribute to that power.
They are altogether pastoral in their habits, dwelling in
tents, wandering from place to place, subsisting upon the
produce of their herds. About six thousand of their num¬
ber pay the capitation tax.
KATERLY, a town of Asia Minor, situated on a fine
bay of the Sea of Marmora. It is the ancient Drepanum,
and is in general a flourishing and populous place, though,
at the time of Mr Kinneir’s visit, it was almost deserted,
in consequence of the plague.
KATTEGATTE, or Cattegat, a narrow sea, lying
between part of Jutland and the coast of Sweden, and,
towards the latter, covered with a great number of islands.
It is almost closed at the extremity by the low Danish
islands of Zealand and Funen, which, in ancient times,
formed the seat of the Suiones. Between the former and
the coast of Sweden is the Sound. These islands were
anciently called Codonania, and gave to the Cattegat the
name of Sinus Codonanus. Its greatest depth is thirty-
five fathoms; but this decreases as it approaches the
Sound, which begins with sixteen fathoms, and near Co¬
penhagen shallows even to four. According to Pliny, the
Roman fleet, under the command of Germanicus, sailed
round Germany, doubled the Cimbricum Promontorium,
and arrived at the islands which fill the bottom of the
Cattegat, and of which, either by observation or infor¬
mation, the Romans were acquainted with twenty-three.
One of these they called Glessaria, from its amber, a fos¬
sil abundant to this day on part of the southern side of the
Baltic. A Roman knight was employed by Nero’s mas¬
ter of the gladiators to collect in these parts that precious
production, and thereby became perfectly acquainted with
this country.
KATWYK, a town of the Netherlands, in the province
of South Holland. It is distinguished from another place
of the same name near it as Katwyk-on-the-Sea. It is ce¬
lebrated for its sluices, deemed a masterpiece of hydraulic
architecture, by which the old Rhine is admitted to the
sea. It contains 2750 inhabitants.
KAUFBEUERN, a city of Bavaria, in the province of
the Upper Danube, and situated on the river Bertoch. It
is surrounded with walls, and contains one Lutheran and
two Catholic churches, with 490 houses, and 4630 inhabi¬
tants. It has a brisk trade in cotton goods, linens, iron¬
mongery, and paper, and Morocco leather and printed cali¬
coes are also made. Long. 10.31. 25. E. Lat. 47. 53. 10. N.
KAUKEHMEN, a town of the circle of Niederung, in
East Prussia, situated on a canal connecting together the
rivers Russ and Gilge. It is in the centre of a parish,
which contains 4880 inhabitants.
KAURZIM, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, extending over 952 square miles, comprehending
forty-one cities and tqwns, and 680 villages and hamlets,
with 24,197 houses, and 150,609 inhabitants. The capi¬
tal, a city of the same name, is fortified, and contains 282
houses, with 1520 inhabitants.
KAWSCHANI, a town of the Russian province Bessa¬
rabia, the capital of a circle of the same name. It was
once the residence of the prince of the Nogai Tartars,
and is said then to have contained 20,000 inhabitants,
K A Y
who are now diminished to little more than 2200, chief- Kawu
ly Jews and Moldavians, who live by gardening. Long. II
29. 43. E. Lat. 46. 23. N.
KAWUCK, a town of Afghanistan, in the district of
Cabul, situated in the Hindu Coosh range of mountains.
Long. 69. 30. E. Lat. 35. 40. N.
KAYE’S Island, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the
west coast of North America, about thirty miles in length
and four in breadth, so named by Captain Cook. The
south-western point of the island is situated in long. 216.
58. E. and lat. 59. 49. N.
KAYrNS, Kiayns, or Carianers, a singular tribe who
inhabit that mountainous and woody tract which lies be¬
tween Bengal, Aracan, Ava proper, and the province of Mu-
nipoor or Cassay. They are represented as a simple, in¬
nocent race, speaking a language distinct from that of the
Burmans, and entertaining rude notions of religion. Their
habits are altogether pastoral, and they are the most indus¬
trious subjects of the state. Their villages form a select
community, from which they exclude all other sects, and
in no case reside in any city, or marry or intermingle with
strangers. They profess and practise the doctrine of uni¬
versal peace, never engaging in war, nor taking any part
in contests for dominion. They devote themselves to agri¬
culture, the care of cattle, and the raising of poultry. Al¬
most all the provisions used in the country are raised by
this tribe, and they particularly excel in gardening. They
have of late years been oppressed and heavily taxed by the
great Burman landholders, and have in consequence with¬
drawn into the mountains of Aracan. They have no writ¬
ten laws, but are guided by immemorial custom, which
stands in the place of law. Some learn to speak the Bur-
man tongue, and a few can read and write it imperfectly.
They are (says Symes, in his account of his embassy to
Ava) timorous, honest, mild in their manners, and exceed¬
ingly hospitable to strangers.
KAYOR, or Cayor, a kingdom of Western Africa, si¬
tuated on the coast between the rivers Gambia and Se¬
negal. As is the case with many other kingdoms of
Africa, correct or recent information regarding Kayor is
very limited. According to GolberVy, its western limits
are the last five leagues of the left bank of the Senegal,
adjoining to the mouth of that river, and all the extent of
coast comprised between the bar of the Senegal and Point
Serene, situated in lat. 14. 44. N. It is bounded on the
north by the territory of Wal or Brack, eastward by the
dominions of the Bourb Yolof, and on the south by the
petty states of Sin and Salum. Extending 150 miles
from north to south, by an average breadth of 120 miles,
it thus comprises a surface of about 6000 square miles,
which is thinly peopled by not more than 160,000 inha¬
bitants. The ground rises imperceptibly from the sea-
coast eastward, but without high mountains. The soil
is sandy, but fruitful, and bears a number of those im¬
mense trees called baobab. At the little island of Go-
ree, on this coast, the French have established the capital
of all their African settlements. Its advantages consist
solely in its almost inaccessible situation on a rock, three
sides of which are perpendicular, and the fourth very
steep. The rock is fortified, and the town contains about
7000 inhabitants. It is a bustling place, being the entre¬
pot of all the trade with the opposite coast, and also a
place of refreshment for French ships on their way to In¬
dia. The capital of Kayor bears the same name, and is
only a large village, situated about 120 miles from Goree.
The sovereign of the country is called Darnel, and the
government is feudal. The inhabitants are Jalofs or Yo-
lofs, which people are described as the handsomest ne¬
groes of Western Africa, being tall and plump, with finely
turned limbs, short curling hair, and shining jet-black
skin. They are a domestic people, little known beyond
K E A
imeen their own territories, and recognise amongst themselves
|j the distinction of caste.
KAZAMEEN, a town of Asia, in the pashalik of Bag-
dad, on the western bank of the Tigris. It contains about
8000 inhabitants, Persians, who have been induced to set¬
tle here on account of its being the burying-place of two
noted saints, to the memory of whom a noble mosque has
been erected. The town is ornamented with two gilded
cupolas, supported by the contributions of pilgrims. It has
a tolerable bazar, fifteen coffee-houses, three humums, and a
caravanserai; and opposite to the town is a tomb of another
Mahommedan saint. Nine miles south-west of the town,
and at some distance from the river, is the very extraordi¬
nary structure which has received the name of the tower
of Babel from Europeans, Nimrood from the natives of
Bagdad, and Agerkuf from the Arabians. It is 190 feet
in height, 100 in diameter ; and, from its appearance, Mr
Kinneir judged it to be coeval with the remains of ancient
Babylon, being built of the same materials, namely, square
bricks dried in the sun, cemented with slime and layers of
reeds. It is three miles north of Bagdad.
KAZEROON, a town of Persia, in the province of Far-
sistan. It is situated in a valley about thirty miles long by
seven or eight broad, bounded on the north by a salt lake,
and fertilized by a number of rivulets of excellent water,
producing in consequence abundant crops of grain, which
are often destroyed by flights of locusts, the frequent and
unwelcome visitors of all the country properly called F'er-
sia. It formerly consisted of three distinct villages. It
was almost entirely depopulated during the late civil wars.
It is novv, according to Fraser, a heap of ruins, and does
not contain above 3000 or 4000 inhabitants. It is a con¬
siderable mart for horses, which are bred in the vicinity,
and are highly esteemed on account of their Arab blood.
It is celebrated for its wrestlers, and for a class of bird-
catchers, who practise a curious mode of taking spar¬
rows.
KEAN, Edmund, a distinguished tragedian, was born
at London about the year 1787, but, from the obscurity
of his birth and parentage, the exact date is uncertain.
His parents appear to have been either actors, or in some
manner connected with the theatre, to which young Kean
was introduced at a very early age. After appearing in
various juvenile parts on the metropolitan boards, parti¬
cularly in pantomimes, he joined a strolling company in
1804, amongst whom he became actor of all work, and
with whom he visited various towns of England, and also
Waterford in Ireland. He gradually began to attract at¬
tention in his profession, both by his histrionic powers
and by his agility of body; for it was very common for
him to perform the part of harlequin in a pantomime after
he had personated Richard the Third or Shylock. He
quitted Ireland in 1810, and became a wanderer on his
own account, visiting Dumfries, Carlisle, York, and other
places, and by his recitations earning a very precarious
livelihood. We pretermit that chequered part of his
career which he passed as a provincial actor, and come
to that period of it when, having attracted the attention
of individuals capable of appreciating his remarkable
powers, he wras engaged to appear at Drury Lane. This
took place early in the year 1814, and the character in
which he made his debut was that of Shylock. This per¬
formance was hailed with great applause, and he repeated
it with increasing success, and also added Richard the
I bird, Hamlet, Othello, and other characters, to the list
of those which he personated. Objections were made to
the peculiarity of his style of acting, for it formed a com¬
plete contrast to that of Kemble, being less dignified,
graceful, and elaborately finished, though more impas¬
sioned, fiery, and striking in particular parts; but he was
very generally recognised as the most brilliant and origi-
K E A
nal tragedian that had appeared for many years. His
subsequent career is chiefly marked by a succession of
appearances which increased his reputation ; and, after the
letirement of Kemble from the stage, he was considered
as indisputably the first tragedian of his day. By many
he was at all times esteemed superior even to Kemble in
all the higher walks of the art. He gradually widened his
range of characters, but those in which he chiefly excelled
were the fine creations of Shakspeare already mentioned,
lie visited Scotland and Ireland, and in 1818 went to
France. A few years afterwards he paid a visit to the
United States of America, where he was received with
the utmost enthusiasm. After his return to England, a
private affair in which he was involved induced him to re¬
lax in his professional exertions, and retire for a time to
the Continent. On his re-appearance before the public
he met with considerable opposition, and failed to rein¬
state himself in his old position, so that the offer of an
engagement in America was gladly accepted by him.
Two seasons elapsed ere he again exhibited before an
English audience. By the exertion of his rare talents,
he acquired vast sums of money; but his prodigality kept
pace with his fortunes ; and his irregular mode of life hav¬
ing induced a premature decay both of his physical and
mental powers, hastened his death, which event took place
at Richmond on the 15th of May 1833. As an actor,
Kean possessed great pathos, vigour, sarcastic power, and
the faculty of creating terror in the highest degree. His
intensity in expressing all the passions was extraordinary,
but he was often too abrupt, paused too long between his
sentences, and occasionally exhibited the bright points
of a character instead of the whole. But his Richard, his
Shylock, his Sir Giles Overreach, and his Othello, were
performances as matchless, and as much his own, as were
those of his great rival in Coriolanus and Cato. His fi¬
gure was diminutive but graceful. His eye possessed re¬
markable brilliancy and force of expression ; and the tones
of his voice were highly musical, and capable of the most
tender and pathetic expression. His life was published in
2 vols. 8vo, London, 1835.
KEAIE, George, was boim in 1730, and educated at
Kingston School, after which he went to Geneva, where he
resided for some years, and became acquainted with Vol¬
taire. When he had made the tour of Europe, he became
a student in the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar,
but did not meet with such encouragement as to induce
him to persevere. In the year ] 760 he published his An¬
cient and Modern Rome, a poem which was received with
considerable approbation; and the following year he gave
to the world a short Account of the Ancient History, pre¬
sent Government, and Laws, of the Republic of Geneva,
8vo, dedicated to Voltaire, who once intended to translate
it into French, but afterwards abandoned his design.
In 1762 he produced an Epistle from Lady Jane Grey
to Lord .Guildford Dudley; and next year The Alps, a
poem, believed to be the best he ever wrote, for truth of
description, vigour of fancy, and beauty of versification.
In 1764 appeared Netley Abbey; and, in 1765, the Tem¬
ple Student, an Epistle to a Friend, in which he rallies his
own deficiency in application to the study of the law, and
his consequent want of success in that profession. In
1766 he published a poem to the memory of Mrs Cibber,
of whose talents as an actress he entertained a very high
opinion. He married, in 1769, Miss Hudson ; and about
the same period he published Ferney, an Epistle to Voltaire.
Having praised with energy the beauties of that philoso¬
pher’s poetical works, he introduces a panegyric on Shak¬
speare, whom Voltaire used every effort to depreciate, pro¬
bably from a spirit of envy. This eulogium induced the
mayor and burgesses of Stratford to present our author
with a standish mounted with silver, made out of the fa-
683
Kean.
684 K E D KEF
Kebban mous mulberry tree which is said to have been planted by
Shakspeare himself.
", In 1775 appeared his Monument in Arcadia, a dramatic
poem ; and in 1779 he published his Sketches from Nature,
taken and coloured in a Journey to Margate, justly allow¬
ed to be an elegant composition. In the year 1787 came
out The Distressed Poet, a serio-comic poem, in three can¬
tos,“occasioned by a long and vexatious law-suit. His last
work was perhaps the most creditable of the whole, both
to his head and to his heart. Captain Wilson, of the An¬
telope packet, having suffered shipwreck on the Pelew
Islands, was refused any further command, and reduced to
distress ; a circumstance which induced the humane Keate
to publish an account of these islands, for the benefit of that
gentleman, which, it is said, brought him about nine hun¬
dred guineas in the space of a year. This work is written
with much elegance, although it is probable that the man¬
ners of the natives of Pelew, in as far as regards their al¬
leged amiability, are somewhat highly coloured.
The life of Keate was spent without any vicissitudes of
fortune ; he was possessed of an ample estate, which he
never attempted to increase, except by prudence in the ma¬
nagement of it. He was a man of beneficence and hospita¬
lity, and enjoyed in a high degree the favour of his coun¬
trymen. He died in June 1797, leaving one daughter.
KEBBAN Dag, a lofty range of mountains in Persia,
province of Kurdistan, bounding the plain of Erzerum to
the south-east. These mountains abound with springs,
and give rise to numerous rivers ; and they form the divid¬
ing ridge between the streams that flow into the Black Sea
and those which flow east into the Euphrates.
KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahommedans to
that part of the world where the temple of Mecca is situ¬
ated, towards which they are obliged to turn themselves
when they pray.
KECSKEMET, a large town of the circle of Pest, in
the Austrian kingdom of Hungary. It is in the middle of
an extensive heath, between the Danube and the Theiss,
and contains one reformed and four Catholic churches,
three colleges, a Franciscan convent, a military academy,
3000 houses, and 24,862 inhabitants, who carry on consi¬
derable trade in internal productions. Long. 19. 37. 6. E.
Eat. 46. 54. 29. N.
KEDAH, in Ancient Geography, a district in the desert
of the Saracens (so called from Kedar the son of Ishmael,
according to Jerome, who in another place says that it
was uninhabitable), to the north of Arabia Felix.
KEDARNATH, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrim¬
age, in Northern Hindustan, situated in the mountains of
Serinagur. Those who perform this difficult pilgrimage
have to travel over the most steep and inaccessible roads,
which, during half the year, are blocked up with snow.
The place lies about fourteen or fifteen miles of direct dis¬
tance west-north-west of Bhadrinath. The ceremonies
observed here are nearly the same as at other places of
Hindu ablution. The most peculiar of these is that of the
widows shaving their heads, having previously bathed and
purified themselves in the Ganges, which is here a narrow
stream. Long. 79. 19. E. Eat. 32. N.
KEDES, in Ancient Geography, a city of refuge in the
tribe of Naphtali, on the confines of Tyre and of Galilee.
Jerome calls it a sacerdotal city, situated on a mountain,
twenty miles from Tyre, near Paneas, and called Cidis-
sus. It was taken by the king of Assyria.
KEDGE, a small anchor used to keep a ship steady
whilst she rides in a harbour or river, particularly at the
turn of the tide, when she might otherwise drive over her
principal anchor, and entangle the stock or flukes with her
slack cable, so as to loosen it from the ground. This is
accordingly prevented by a kedge rope that hinders her
from approaching it. The hedges are particularly useful in
transporting a ship ; that is, removing her from one part of Kedger
the harbour to another, by means of ropes which are fasten- II
ed to these anchors. They are generally furnished with Keffing
an iron stock, which is easily displaced for the convenience
of stowing them.
KEDGEREE, a town of Bengal, situated near the
mouth of the Hooghly, where ships frequently stop either in
entering or going out of the river. The river here expands
to a breadth of nearly nine miles across. It is esteemed
healthier than Diamond Harbour.
KEDRON, or Cedron, in Ancient Geography, a town
which, from the defeat and pursuit of the Syrians (1 Mac.
xvi.), appears to have stood on the road leading from Up¬
per India to Azotus. In this war it was burnt by the Jews,
Kedron, or Cedron, in Ancient Geography. St John
calls it a brook, but Josephus a deep valley between Jeru¬
salem and Mount Olivet to the east. It was called Kedron
from its blackness.
KEEL, the principal piece of timber in a ship, which is
usually first laid on the blocks in building.
Keel is also a name given to a low, flat-bottomed vessel,
used in the river Tyne, to bring the coals down from New¬
castle and the adjacent parts, in order to load the colliers
for transportation.
Keel-Raiding was a punishment inflicted for various
offences in the Dutch navy. It was performed by plung¬
ing the delinquent repeatedly under the ship’s bottom on
one side, and hoisting him up on the other, after having
passed under the keel.
KEELAN Isle, a small island, about twenty miles in cir¬
cumference, lying off the western extremity of Ceram. The
island is inhabited, and well planted with cocoa-nut and
plantain trees. Long. 127. 55. E. Lat. 3. 15. S.
KEELSON, a piece of timber which may be properly de¬
fined the interior or counterpart of the keel, as it is laid upon
the middle of the floor timbers, immediately over the keel,
and, like it, composed of several pieces scarfed together.
KEEMA-KEDAN, a cluster of small islands, in the
Eastern Seas, near the western coast of the island of Leyta.
Long. 124. 36. E. Lat. 10. 30. N.
KEEN, or Kaynduem River. This great river, which
is supposed to have its source in the mountains which di¬
vide Assam from Ava, is the second river in the Burnian
empire. It enters Ava from the north-west, and falls into
the Irrawaddy at Miondap, in lat. 21. 45. N. It is liable
to floods during the rainy season ; and, except during this
season, its mouth is much obstructed by sand-banks cover¬
ed with long grass and reeds. Being shallow, it is only
navigable for flat-bottomed boats. Its banks are occupied
by the rude and inoffensive tribes of the Kayns or Carianers.
The adjacent country is said to be mountainous, and cover¬
ed with wood. It has never been explored by Europeans.
KEEPER of the Great Seal, is a lord by his office,
and styled Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of Great Bri¬
tain. He is always one of the privy council. All grants,
charters, and commissions of the king under the great seal
pass through the hands of the lord keeper.
Keeper of the Privy Seal is also a lord by his office, and
through his hands all grants, pardons, and* the like, pass
before they come to the great seal; and even some things
go through his hands which do not pass the great seal at all.
This officer is also one of the privy council, yet was an¬
ciently called clerk of the privy seal.
KEEPING, in Painting, denotes the representation of
objects in the same manner as they appear to the eye at
different distances from it, for which the painter should
have recourse to the rules of perspective.
KEEPING, an island, about forty-five miles in circum¬
ference, in the Eastern Seas, to the south-east of the island
of Ceram, from which it is separated by a narrow strait.
Long. 130. E. Lat. 3. 50. S.
K E I
efil KEFIL, a village of Irak Arabi, held in peculiar vene-
I ration both by Jews and Mahommedans as the tomb of
ilf the prophet Ezekiel, and hence a frequent resort of pil-
^ v grims. It is fourteen miles south of Hillah.
KEGWORTH, a parish in the county of Leicester, in
the hundred of West Goscote, 114; miles from London.
It stands on the river Trent, over which is Cavendish
Bridge, built by the Duke of Devonshire, to whom a toll
is paid. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 13G0, in
1811 to 1550, in 1821 to 1607, and in 1831 to 1840.
KEHL, a town of the bailiwick of Kork, in the duchy
of Baden. It is situated on the right bank of the Rhine,
opposite to Strasburg, and during the revolutionary wars
was celebrated for the strength of its fortress, which com¬
manded the passage of the river, and stood on an island of
the Rhine. The works have been neglected since 1815, and
are now in ruins, though some of the more substantial
buildings remain. There is a bridge connecting Kehl with
Strasburg. The population has increased lately, and is
said to exceed 2000.
KEIGHLEY, a market-town and parish in the west
riding of the county of York. It is situated in a romantic
spot in a valley, through wdiich the river Aire runs, and near
the canal which connects the two great trading towns of
Leeds and Liverpool. It has thus an easy intercourse
with every part of the kingdom, and a great increase of its
trade and population has hence arisen. There are in it
several large establishments for making woollen, linen, and
cotton goods. The church is a large and handsome build¬
ing, and it has several chapels for the different descriptions
of dissenters. There is a w7ell-supplied market on Wed¬
nesday. The population amounted in 1801 to 5745, in
1811 to 6864, in 1821 to 9223, and in 1831 to 11,176.
KEILL, John, a celebrated astronomer and mathema¬
tician, was born at Edinburgh in 1671, and studied in the
university of that city. In 1694 he went to Oxford, where,
being admitted of Baliol College, he began to read lectures
according to the Newtonian system, in his private chamber
in that college. He is said to have been the first who
taught Sir Isaac Newton’s principles by the experiments
on which they are founded; and this, it seems, he did by
an apparatus of instruments of his own providing, by which
means he acquired a great reputation in the university.
The first specimen he gave to the public of his skill in ma¬
thematical and philosophical knowledge, was his Examina¬
tion of Burnet’s Theory of the Earth, with remarks on Mr
Whiston’s Theory ; and these theories being defended by
their respective inventors, Mr Keill published an Exami¬
nation of the Reflections on the Theory of the Earth, toge¬
ther with a Defence of the Remarks on Mr Whiston’s New
Theory. In 1701, he published his celebrated treatise, en¬
titled Introductio ad veram Physicam, which only contains
fourteen lectures; but in the following editions he added
two more. This work has been translated into English,
under the title of an Introduction to Natural Philosophy.
Afterwards, being made fellow of the Royal Society, he
published, in the Philosophical Transactions, a paper on
the laws of attraction ; and, being offended at a passage in
the Acta Eruditorum of Leipsic, warmly vindicated against
Leibnitz, Sir Isaac Newton’s right to the honour of priori¬
ty in the invention of the method of Fluxions. In 1709 he
went to New England as treasurer of the Palatines. About
the year 1711, several objections being urged against Sir
Isaac Newton’s philosophy, in support of Descartes’s no¬
tions of a -plenum, Mr Keill published a paper in the Philo¬
sophical Transactions, on the rarity of matter, and the te¬
nuity of its composition. But whilst he was engaged in
this dispute, Queen Anne appointed him her decipherer;
and he continued in that situation under King George I.
until the year 1716. He had also the degree of doctor of
physic conferred upon him by the university of Oxford in
K E I
685
1713. Besides the works already mentioned, Dr Keill Keill
published Introductio ad veram Astronomiam, which was lj
translated into English by the author himself; and an edi- v Keith,
tion of Commandinus’s Euclid, with additions of his own.
Keill, James, an eminent physician, and brother of the
preceding, was born in Scotland about the year 1673 ; and
having travelled abroad, read lectures on anatomy with
gieat applause in the Universities of Oxford and Cam¬
bridge, by the latter of which he had the degree of doctor
of physic conferred upon him. In 1700 he settled at North¬
ampton, where he had considerable practice as a physi¬
cian ; and died there of a cancer in the mouth in 1719. He
published, 1. An English translation of Lemery’s Chemis¬
try ; 2. An account of Animal Secretion, the quantity of
Blood in the human Body, and Muscular Motion ; 3. A Trea¬
tise on Anatomy; and, 4. Several pieces in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions.
KEITH, ■ James-Francis Edward, field-marshal in
the Prussian service, was the younger son of William
Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, and was born in 1696.
He was designed by his friends for the law; but his incli¬
nation led him to the profession of arms, and the first occa¬
sion of drawing his sword was at the age of eighteen years,
when the rebellion broke out in Scotland. Through the
instigation of his mother he joined James’s party, and was
wounded at the battle of Sheriffmuir, but afterwards made
his escape to France. There he applied himself to military
studies; and having proceeded to Madrid, he, by the interest
of the Duke of Leiria, obtained a commission in the Irish
brigade, then commandedbytheDukeof Ormond. Heafter-
wards attended the Duke of Leiria when he went as ambas¬
sador to Muscovy ; and, being by him recommended to the
czarina, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and
invested with the order of the black eagle. He distinguished
himself by his valour and conduct in the Russian service,
and had no inconsiderable share in the revolution which
raised Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great, to the
throne. He also served in several embassies; but finding
the honours of that country only a splendid species of slavery,
he left the Muscovite court, and entered the Prussian ser¬
vice. The king of Prussia made him field-marshal of the
Prussian armies, and governor of Berlin ; and so far dis¬
tinguished him by his confidence, as to travel in disguise
with him over a great part of Germany, Poland, and Hun¬
gary. In business, Frederick made him his chief coun¬
sellor ; in his diversions, his chief companion. The king
wras much pleased with an amusement which the marshal
invented, in imitation of the game of chess. The latter
ordered several thousand small statues of men in armour to
be cast by a founder ; these he would set opposite to each
other, and range them in battle array, in the same manner
as if he had been drawing up an army; he would then
bring out a party from the wings or centre, and show the
comparative advantage or disadvantage resulting from the
different draughts which he made. In this manner the
king and the marshal often amused themselves, and at
the same time improved their military knowledge. This
brave and experienced general, after rendering many im¬
portant services in the wars of that illustrious monarch, was
killed in the unfortunate affair of Hochkirchen, in the year
1758. ^
Ihe family of Keith was amongst the most ancient in
Europe. In 1010, the Scotch having gained a complete
victory over the Danes at Camus Town in Angus, King
Malcolm II., as a reward for the signal bravery of a cer¬
tain young nobleman, who pursued and killed Camus, the
Danish general, bestowed on him several lands, particular¬
ly the barony of Keith in East Lothian, from which his
posterity assumed their surname. The king also appointed
him hereditary great marischal of Scotland, which high
office continued in his family till the year 1715, when the
686 K E L
Kej last earl having engaged in the rebellion, forfeited his es-
!i tate and honours ; and thus ended the family of Marischal,
after serving their country in a distinguished capacity tor
above seven hundred years.
KEJ, a town of Persia, and the present capital of the
province of Mekran. Being situated on the high road from
Candahar, Kelat, Shikrapoor, Khozdar, Bayla, &c. to the
sea-port towns of Guatter and Chobar, it is a town of con¬
siderable importance, and an emporium of trade. Ihe
town encircles a fort, which is built on a high precipice,
under which a river runs; and, from its natural strength,
it is considered as impregnable by the natives, ihe go¬
vernor or naib of Kej holds the city and district under the
nominal authority of Mahmood Khan of Kelat, though he
does not acknowledge his authority by the payment of tri¬
bute. The revenues are trifling, and the governor, who
formerly supported 4000 or 5000 men, has only a small
number of Arabs in his pay. ihe country in the imme¬
diate vicinity is described as a flat and arid tract of waste
land, extending northward as far as the sea-coast, and in
some spots producing great quantities of dates. Ihe flat
is in some places intersected by ranges of hills and bare
rocky mountains running north and south, but not ad¬
vancing to the sea-shore.
KELAT, a city of Asia, the capital of Beloochistan, and
thence called Kelat, or the city. Its situation is elevated
on the western side of a well-cultivated plain or valley,
about eight miles in length and two or three in breadth,
the greater part of which is laid out in gardens and other
enclosures. The town is built in the form of an oblong
square ; three sides of it are encompassed by a mud
wall eighteen or twenty feet high, flanked at intervals of
250 paces by bastions, which, as well as the wall itself, are
pierced with numberless loop-holes for matchlock men ;
but no cannon are now mounted. The defence of the fourth
side of the city is formed by the western face of the hill on
which it is built, being cut away perpendicularly. There
are within the walls 2500 houses, without the M all 1250.
They are built of half-burnt brick or umoden frames, and
plastered over with mud or mortar; the streets are broader
than those of native towns, and have mostly a raised path¬
way on either side for foot passengers, and an uncovered
kennel in the centre, which is a recipient for all filth, and
dirt, and stagnant water. The upper stories of the houses
also stretching across the streets, render the part beneath
them gloomy and damp. The palace of the chief of Kelat
stands on the summit of the hill on which the city is built.
Viewed from the outside, it appears an irregular heap of
common mud buildings, with flat roofs, forming terraces,
protected by low parapet walls pierced with loop-holes.
The quarter on which the khan’s residence is erected has
been enclosed by a mud wall MTith bastions. The bazar of
Kelat is extensive, and well furnished with every kind of
goods, and M7ith provisions of all sorts, which can be pro¬
cured at a moderate rate. The town is also supplied with
delicious water, from a spring in the face of a hill on the
opposite side of the plain, whence it meanders through the
centre of it. The inhabitants of Kelat may be divided
into four classes, namely, the Beloches or Brahooes, Hin¬
dus, Afghans, and Dehwars. The latter are the princi¬
pal merchants of the place, and are therefore encouraged
by the chief. Long. 67. 57. E. Lat. 29. 6. N.
Kelat, or the fortress, is a singular valley in the pro¬
vince of Khorassan, in Persia, which extends, in a direction
nearly east and west, from fifty to sixty miles in length,
and from twelve to fifteen in breadth, situated amongst the
hills that divide the plain of Mushed from the desert. It
is surrounded by mountains so steep and difficult by na¬
ture as to be almost impassable, and they have been ren¬
dered completely so by art. The rocks, says Fraser, are
scarped in the outside, presenting a mural appearance, so
K E L
that there is no possibility of scaling them; and beyond Kelat
these is a lesser range, with a hollow between, M'hich the H
natives call the ditch. Not less care has been taken in the
inside to increase every natural difficulty, so as to render W'Y>
a descent into or an escape from the valley equally im¬
practicable. There are two openings in this valley, one at
the M'estern and one at the eastern extremity. These
openings, which are both narrow and intricate, are called
the gates of the fortress, and have been built up*and forti¬
fied in such a manner that it is impossible to force an en¬
trance. On these fortified gateways there are towers
where watchmen are continually posted to give warning
of all who approach, and none are admitted except those
who have passed from the end of the valley. In this val¬
ley there is a great deal of cultivation, and its population
amounts to 2000 families. It was in this stronghold that
Nadir Shah intended to deposit his vast treasure. Futeh
Allee Khan was placed in command of the fortress by Al¬
ice Shah, after the death of Nadir, and wras killed in a
brawl which subsequently took place. His son succeeded
in putting the murderer to death, and he has ever since
retained possession of the fortress. He is an independent
chieftain, possessed of 1000 horse and 2000 foot, and can
considerably increase the number by arming his villagers.
As he is besides on good terms with the Toorkomans of
the desert, he can always command a large force of their
cavalry.
Kelat, a town and strong fortress of Afghanistan, in
the province of Candahar. It was taken by the Emperor
Baber in the year 1506; but, upon the decline of the Mo¬
gul empire, it fell again into the hands of the Afghans.
Mr Foster, who passed it in 1783, describes it as a fort
situated on an eminence, surrounded by a desert country.
It is sixty miles east-north-east of the city of Candahar.
KELENDRI, a seaport of Caramania, in Asiatic Tur¬
key, the ancient Celendris, the ruins of which lie scat¬
tered in heaps at the foot of the mountains, and along a
small bay. It is twrenty-five miles south-w est of Selefkeh.
KELIKDONI, or Erminak, a river of Asia Minor, the
ancient Calycadnus, which falls into the Mediterranean
near Selefkeh. It is nowhere fordable, but travellers are
accustomed to swim across on bladders.
KELLAMUNGULLUM, a town of Hindustan, in the
ceded districts of Mysore, annexed to the Barramahal. It
contains about 300 houses, and is defended by a small
fort, with two reservoirs. A considerable quantity of opium
is produced in the neighbourhood. It was at this place
that, in 1799, the grand army assembled which over¬
threw the power of Tippoo Sultan. Long. 78. 5. E. Lat.
12. 35. N.
KELLY, Hugh, an author of some repute, w as born on
the banks of the lake of Killarney, in Ireland, in 1739.
His father, a gentleman of good family, having reduced
his fortune by a series of unforeseen reverses, was obliged
to repair to Dublin that he might endeavour to support
himself by his personal industry. A tolerable school edu¬
cation was all he could afford to give his son, who was bound
apprentice to a stay-maker, and served the whole of his
time with diligence and fidelity. At the expiration of his
indentures he set out for London to procure a livelihood
by his business, and there encountered all the difficulties a
poor and friendless person might be expected to meet with
on his first arrival in town. Happening, however, to be¬
come acquainted with an attorney, he was employed by
him in copying and transcribing. He prosecuted this oc¬
cupation with so much assiduity, that he is said to have
earned about three guineas a week, an income which, com¬
pared to his former gains, might be deemed affluent. 1 bed,
however, of this drudgery, he soon afterwards (about
1762) commenced author, and was intrusted with the ma¬
nagement of the Lady’s Museum, the Court Magazine, the
K E L
e]p Public Ledger, the Royal Chronicle, Owen’s Weekly Post,
y and some other periodical publications, in which he wrote
J wory. many original essays and pieces of poetry, which extended
^ 'T**' his reputation, and procured the means of subsistence for
himself, his wife, and a growing family. For several years
after this period, he continued wTiting upon a variety of
subjects, as the accidents of the times chanced to call for
the assistance of his pen ; and he employed himself in com¬
posing many pamphlets on the important questions then
agitated, the greater part of which are now buried in obli¬
vion. Amongst these productions, was a Vindication of Mr
Pitt’s Administration, which Lord Chesterfield makes ho¬
nourable mention of in the second volume of his Letters. In
1767, the Babbler appeared in twro pocket volumes, which
had at first been inserted in Owen’s Weekly Chronicle, in
single papers; as did also the Memoirs of a Magdalene,
under the title of Louisa Mildmay. About 1767, he was
tempted, by the success of Churchill’s Rosciad, to write
some strictures on the performers of both theatres, in two
pamphlets, entitled Thespis, which gave great offence to
some of the principal persons at each house. The talents
for satire which he displayed in this work recommended
him to the notice of Mr Garrick, who, in the next year,
caused his first play of False Delicacy to be acted at Dru¬
ry Lane. It was received with great applause ; and from
this time he continued to write for the stage with profit
and success, until the last period of his life. As his repu¬
tation increased, he began to turn his thoughts to some
mode of supporting his family less precarious than by writ¬
ing, and for that purpose entered himself a member of the
Middle Temple. After the regular steps had been taken,
he was called to the bar in 1771, and his proficiency in the
study of the law afforded promising hopes that he might
make a distinguished figure in that profession. But his se¬
dentary course of life had by this time injured his health,
and subjected him to much affliction. Early in 1777, an
abscess formed in his side, which, after a few days’ illness,
put a period to his life. He was the^author of six plays be¬
sides that above mentioned.
KELP, a term which is used in Britain to signify the al¬
kaline substance obtained by burning sea-weed, and which
is chiefly employed in the manufacture of green glass.
Different species of sea-weed, belonging to the genus/w-
cus, and order alga, are cultivated for this purpose. These
plants are thrown on the rocks and shores in great abun¬
dance, and in the summer months are raked together and
dried as hay in the sun and wind, and afterwards burned
to the ashes called kelp. The process of making it is
this : The rocks which are dry at low water are the beds
of great quantities of sea-weed, which is cut, carried to
the beach, and dried. A hollow is dug in the ground
three or four feet wide; round its margin are laid a row
of stones, on which the sea-weed is placed and set on
fire within ; and quantities of this fuel being continually
heaped upon the circle, there is in the centre a perpetual
flame, from which a liquid like melted metal drops into
the hollow beneath. When it is full, as it commonly is ere
the close of the day, all heterogeneous matter being re¬
moved, the kelp is wrought with iron rakes, and brought
to an uniform consistence in the state of fusion. When
cool, it consolidates into a heavy, dark-coloured, alkaline
substance, which undergoes in the glass-house a second
vitrification, and, when pure, assumes a perfect transpa¬
rency.
KELPOORY, a town and small district of Hindustan,
in the province of Delhi. The district is situated about
the 29th degree of north latitude, and is bounded on the
north by the mountains of Kemaon. The soil is fertile,
with the exception of a considerable portion that is over¬
grown with extensive forests. It was ceded to the Com¬
pany in 1801 by the nabob of Oude, and is now included
K E L
in the collectorship of Bareilly. The town is forty-eight
miles north-north-east from Bareilly. Lone. 79. 39rE.
Lat. 28. 59. N.
KELSO, a town of Roxburghshire, is delightfully si¬
tuated, partly on a plain, and partly on a declivity on the
north bank of the Tweed, opposite to its junction with
the Teviot, in long. 1. 20. W. and in lat. 55. 38. N.
When the town was first built cannot now be ascertained ;
but, from various ancient records, in which the name is
written Calchow, Calco, and Kellsowe, it appears to have
been of considerable antiquity and importance.
During the border conflicts, Kelso was frequently ex¬
posed to the ravages of war, and was thrice burned down
by the English. It was also destroyed by an accidental
fire in the year 1686, and at different subsequent periods
of its history,
Ihe Duke of Roxburghe, whose magnificent mansion is
situated about a mile to the west, and commands one of
the most delightful prospects, is superior of the town, and
lord of the manor. Kelso was first incorporated into a
burgh of barony in the year 1605, under a charter grant¬
ed by King James I. to Sir Robert Ker of Cessford ; and
it is governed by a baron bailie and fifteen stentmasters,
who compose the town council, eight of whom are nomi¬
nated by the bailie, and seven by the different incorpo¬
rated bodies.
1 he town, which has of late been greatly improved by
the erection of many elegant houses, consists of four prin¬
cipal streets, branching at right angles from a spacious
square or market-place, extending in length 300 feet,
and in breadth 200. On the east side stands the town-
hall, a chaste modern structure, two stories in height.
But the most attractive object to the eye of the stranger
is the ruins of the venerable abbey, which present one of
the finest specimens of Saxon or early Norman architecture
that this country can produce. It is built in the form of
the Latin cross, with the principal entrance to the west,
of which only a segment remains. Some years ago, the
modern part of the building, which was used from the
time of the reformation till 1773 as the parish church,
was taken down, and the interior of the structure, dis¬
closing two lofty pointed arches, exposed to view. The
abbey was/ounded on the 3d of May 1128, by David I., by
whom it was richly endowed ; but it was destroyed during
an incursion of the English in the year 1515, under the
Earl of Hertford. Contiguous to the abbey is the bridge
over the Tweed, founded in the year 1800. It is a hand¬
some and elegant structure, consisting of five bold ellipti¬
cal arches of nearly equal span.
Kelso being in the centre of a rich and fertile agricul¬
tural district, has, besides a weekly market on Fridays,
two fairs in the year, as well as different other markets
at fixed seasons for the sale of stock, horses, and the like.
Notwithstanding many facilities for carrying on manufac¬
tures, Kelso is without any. There are, however, a distil¬
lery and a brewery, four public banks, and a gas-work; and
it is in contemplation to carry into execution a rail-road
from Berwick, by Kelso, to Hawick, for which an act of
parliament was obtained some years ago. There are six
places ot worship in the parish, including an established
church and an Episcoplian chapel. There are two paro¬
chial schools, one for Latin, and the other for reading,
writing, &c., besides several private seminaries of edu¬
cation, a subscription school for the poor, and another
for the instruction of girls, founded and principally sup¬
ported by the Duchess of Roxburghe. Kelso possesses a
public dispensary, three public subscription libraries, two
reading rooms, a debating society, and another called the
Tweedside Physical and Antiquarian Society. In 1821,
the population amounted to 4000, and in 1831 to 4700.
KELVEDON, a town of the hundred of Whitham, in
687
Kelso
11
Kelvedon.
688 K E M
Kemaon. the county of Essex, on the great road to Colchester and
Ipswich, forty miles from London. It stands on the river
Pant, in a ver}' fertile district, and consists chiefly of one
long and well-built street, with several good inns. The
population amounted in 1801 to 994, in 1811 to 1186, in
1821 to 1328, and in 1831 to 1463.
KEMAON, or Kumaon, a district of Northern Hin¬
dustan, which was formerly a Hindu principality, conter¬
minous with thatof Dution the east, the boundary line being
the Cali River. On the west it was separated from Gur-
wal by the Ilamgunga, and extended a considerable way
into the plains of Bareilly. The modern district of Ke¬
maon, as it has been regulated by the British since its
conquest in 1815, comprehends the whole tract of coun¬
try between the Ganges and the Cali, from the plains to
the highest pinnacle of the Himalaya, which space in¬
cludes a large portion of the Gurwal province south-east
of Alcananda, whilst the Cali River on the east forms a
natural and well-defined boundary towards Nepaul. The
other geographical divisions are Kemaon proper, Pain-
khandi, and Bhutant, within the limits of which last is the
pass of Niti, supposed to have been the earliest and most
frequented route into Chinese Tartary. It includes an
area of 7000 square miles.
Kemaon is situated amongst the lower ranges of the Hi¬
malaya Mountains. It is separated from the lower dis¬
tricts of Bareilly 'and Morabad by a thick forest of nearly
tw'o days’journey, which surrounds the whole and skirts the
margin of the mountains. The soil is marshy, and the at¬
mosphere, during two thirds of the year, is more pestilential
than that of the Sunderbunds ; it is, says Heber,1 “ a literal
belt of death, which even the natives tremble to go near,
and which, during the rains more especially, the monkies
are forced to abandon. After the middle of November
this is dry, practicable, and safe.” Kemaon proper is se¬
parated on the north-east from the province of Gurwal by
a range of mountains, which, in point of ruggedness, pre¬
sents a contrast to the hills of Kemaon. These latter ap¬
pear to rise in a regular gentle acclivity from their bases;
and the soil is fertile, consisting of rich earth, which gives
nourishment to fine verdure and extensive forests. The
hills are also intersected by rather spacious valleys, ren¬
dered fertile by tillage; and the cultivation is more ex¬
tended, and carried farther up the hills, than in Gurwal
with a denser population. In these valleys, rice is pro¬
duced in abundance, and the cultivator is thus in a manner
rendered independent of the seasons, as the numerous
mountain streams, descending in every direction, enable him
to irrigate all the lower lands. The higher lands produce
wheat, barley, and various small grains, which being raised
in a redundant quantity, form an article of traffic with
Bhutant. There are several passes into Kemaon from
the districts of Bareilly and Morabad, but those leading
through Cossipoor and Roderpoor are considered as the best,
and are most frequented. The first leads by Chilkeah,
where an annual /air is held, to which the hill people
resort in great numbers. Similar meetings also occur at
Bhagesur, on the banks of the Cali, each continuing ten
days, and are frequented by merchants from Bhote and
the low countries. Chilkeah is one of the principal marts
of trade in Kemaon, and through that country into Thibet
and 1 artary. The article which meets with the readiest
sale is cloth with distinct colours on each side. Euro¬
pean articles, of a coarse quality, are also in demand, such
as knives, razors, wine-glasses, tumblers, spying and look¬
ing glasses, spectacles, and cheap enamelled watches ;
and Bishop Heber also saw exposed to sale English cloths,
and eastern shawls of good appearance, with many other
K E M
serviceable and valuable commodities. The greatest staple Kemac
that is exported from this southern frontier has always
been timber, found in the immense forests already men¬
tioned, which skirt the border. Here the saul forests are
of great extent, and produce some of the best timber of
that species in India. Owing to the difficulty of access,
it is necessary to convert the trees into planks on the
spot, that they may be the more easily transported to the
populous parts of the country. In some parts they have
to be carried down a perpendicular height of 500 feet.
The fir-tree grows to an immense size, and it is much
stronger than the firs of Europe, and as heavy as teak,
the grain strong and full of turpentine. Some of the trees
have from sixty to seventy feet clear of branches, and the
spans are from twenty to twenty-three inches in diame¬
ter. Rosin, turpentine, doedwar, oil, and hemp of an ex¬
cellent quality, are to be found among the Kemaon Hills.
The bamboo, though small, grows remarkably tough, and
seems to gain consistency and soundness from a certain
degree of frost. The same is said to be the case with the
plantains. The tea-plant grows wild all through Kemaon,
but cannot be made use of, from an emetic quality which it
possesses. The upper mountains produce copper, lead,
iron, and the Panar River gold, but there is no mine of
consequence. The northern parts are cold, and yield pas¬
ture for numerous flocks of sheep ; and in summer a con¬
siderable intercourse is carried on with the country sub¬
ject to China.
The towns and villages of Kemaon, when viewed from
a distance, present a neat appearance. But a nearer ap¬
proach does not confirm these favourable prepossessions.
They are generally surrounded by dirt and filth ; though
Bishop Heber mentions, that the town of Almorah is very
neat, with a natural pavement of slaty rock, which is kept
beautifully clean. He mentions, however, of the peasan¬
try, namely, the Khasyas, that, near Almorah, though they
are honest, peaceable, and cheerful, they are dirty to a
degree which he never saw amongst the Hindus, and ex¬
tremely averse to any improvement, using their women
ill, and employing them in the most laborious tasks. These
people are rigid Hindus. The houses are generally con¬
structed of large masses of stone, roofed with slate, and
of two stories in height, the lower story being allotted to
cattle. Their poverty is extreme, their food consisting of
coarse cakes made from the grain of a kind of holcus, in
which the flour, bran, and husk, are mixed together, and
baked, or rather scorched, on the fire. In other parts, how¬
ever, as he advanced farther among the hills, Bishop
Heber saw tolerably neat and comfortable cottages, the
people better fed and clothed than most of the Khasyas.
Polygamy is common among the lower classes.
Wild animals abound in the mountains and forests of
this country. The tiger is found quite up to the glaciers,
of size and ferocity undiminished. There are also lynxes,
and bears are common and mischievous throughout the pro¬
vince. Though they do not, except when pressed by hun¬
ger, eat flesh, preferring roots, berries, and honey, yet, as
if out of capricious cruelty, they often worry and destroy
passengers. The chamois is not uncommon in the snowy
mountains, but scarce elsewhere ; and the hares are much
finer and larger than those in Hindustan, and not much
inferior to those of Europe. The musk-deer is also found
in the highest and coldest parts of the province, and the
neighbouring countries of Thibet and Tartary. It cannot,
says Heber, even bear the heat at Almorah. In like man¬
ner, the yak or mountain ox of Tartary droops as soon as
it leaves the neighbourhood of the ice. The shawl-goat
will live, but its wool degenerates. On the other hand,
1 Yol. ii. p. 143.
K E M
j naon. Englisl.i dogs, impaired by the climate of the plains, im-
^ prove in strength, size, and sagacity, amongst the moun¬
tains ; and it is remarkable that, in a winter or two, they
acquire the same fine short shawl-wool, mixed with their
own hair, which distinguishes the indigenous animal of
the country. The same is in some degree the case with
horses. Flying squirrels are also common amongst the
colder and higher parts of these woods. Some of the
marmots, of the alpine kind, also abound in the neigh¬
bourhood of the snow. A singular species of wild dog is
mentioned as a native of these hills. In form and fur
these animals resemble a fox, but they are much larger.
They hunt in packs, give tongue like dogs, and possess a
very fine scent. They make great havock of the game
amongst the hills, and even attack and destroy the tiger,
overpowering him by their numbers. Of birds, the con¬
dor is to be found of a remarkable strength and size. Eagles
are numerous, and very large and formidable; and these
birds do much injury to the shepherds and goatherds, and
sometimes carry away the poor naked children of the
peasants. Their nests being in the remote glaciers, and
among inaccessible crags, there is no possibility of de¬
stroying these dangerous animals. There are larks in Ke-
maon, not very different from the English, as well as quails,
partridges, pheasants, thrushes, &c. A little bird resem¬
bling the robin, and the goldfinch, are found at the foot
of the snowy mountains.1
This country, though, from its elevation, the climate is
colder than in Hindustan, with ice and snow in winter, is
remarkably unhealthy, from a certain malaria which pre¬
vails in all the lower valleys, especially during and after
the rainy season, and which gives rise to ague, intermit-
tents, and fevers which assume the appearance of typhus,
and under which the powers of life decline more rapidly,
though often not more surely, than under continued fits
of the ague. Several of the inhabitants seen by Bishop
Heber in this devoted region, he describes as singular¬
ly WTetched; the fever and the ague destroying all their
energy, and preventing them from adopting the simple
means of dry and well-raised dwellings, and sufficient
clothing, to support life and health. “ They are,” says the
intelligent traveller already quoted, “ a very ugly and mi¬
serable race of human beings, with large heads, and parti¬
cularly prominent ears, flat noses, tumid bellies, slender
limbs, and sallow complexions, and have scarcely any gar¬
ments but a blanket of black w ool, though most of them
have matchlocks, swmrds, and shields.” The chief region
of insalubrity is at the foot of the lowest hills, where a
long, black, and level line of forest extends, though the
mountainous country is also more or less unhealthy in all
the low valleys. I his insalubrity is said to be increasing.
The industry of the inhabitants was at one time x'eclaiming
the forest, and the cowmen and woodmen were pushing
their incursions farther every year; and the plains, now de¬
solate, being shunned as the abodes of disease, were once
populous. But the country was ruined by the invasion of
Meer Khan in 1805, and it has never recovered from the
devastation to which it was exposed from his licentious sol¬
diery. So terrified are the natives to approach it, that no
witnesses can be procured, at certain seasons of the year, to
attend the circuit court; and two of them, rather than go
to Chilkeah, forfeited a small pension which was due to
them.
This country was acquired by the British government in
1815, when its limits were extended to the westward by
the annexation of a portion of Gurwal, east of the Alca-
nanda and the Ganges. Prior to this, it was ruled by mi¬
litary chiefs, who owned a nominal allegiance to Nepaul,
K E M
689
ough they were nearly independent wuthin their own ter- Kemble,
ntories. 1 hey were extremely tyrannical, and not only v—"v'w
cuvided the lands amongst themselves, without regard to
tie rights of the ancient proprietors, but, on any arrears
of rent, sold the wives and children of the peasants as
s aves, to an amount almost incredible, whilst they quelled
every murmur among the people by the most barbarous
severity. The court of Nepaul issued repeated edicts
against the practice, but without effect, since most of the
young persons who w^ere of a marketable age were sold
into slavery when the British, to the great joy of the in¬
habitants, who gave them every possible aid, acquired pos¬
session of the country. Since this period uninterrupted
tranquillity has prevailed, which may be partly ascribed
to the peaceable and orderly habits of the people, and to
the general popularity of the British government. The re¬
venue of the country has been fixed at 85,746 rupees for
Kemaon proper, and at 37,614 for the annexed districts of
Gurwal; and, as a proof that the assessment is moderate,
it has been punctually realized, and has even been paid in
many instances in advance.
Almorah is the chief town. The population of Kemaon
proper is estimated at 300,000 ; that of Gurwal, east of Al-
cananda, is yet more considerable; and the people generally
are in a high state of civilization. (F.)
KEMBLE, John Philip, one of the greatest trage¬
dians that England ever produced, w'as born on the 1st
of February 1757, at Prescot, in Lancashire. Mr Roger
Kemble, his father, though only the manager of a provin¬
cial company of actors, was of ancient and respectable
family; and, sensible of the disadvantages attending his
own profession, sent his son to receive his education at a
Roman Catholic seminary, for the purpose, it is believed,
of qualifying him to take orders in the Catholic church.
He was also a student for two or three years at the College
of Douay ; but the strength of natural bias prevailed, and
he became an actor in 1776. After performing in York,
Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh, Dublin, and other
places, and gradually acquiring reputation, he made his
first appearance before a London audience on the 30th of
September 1783, in the character of Hamlet. He was
received by the public generally with great applause, al¬
though, as always happens in such cases, a party lagged
behind, preferring and paying greater homage to a fa¬
vourite idol of longer standing. He rapidly attained an
acknowledged pre-eminence in the tragic scene, and took
that decided lead which he ever afterwards maintained.
He subsequently undertook the management of Drury
Lane Theatre, which he conducted, with only a slight in¬
terruption, till 1801; and during that period the drama
was indebted to him for various and considerable improve¬
ments, particularly in introducing appropriate costume.
In 1794, he brought out a musical piece of his own, en¬
titled Lodoiska, which was very successful at the time,
and is still occasionally performed. He likewise revived
old pieces of merit, and brought forward many new pro¬
ductions, some of which were of considerable merit, alter¬
ed by himself. In 1802, he visited the Continent; and
on his return to London, purchased a sixth share of Co¬
vent Garden Theatre, and became manager of that esta¬
blishment. His career in this place was brilliantly suc¬
cessful, but partially suspended in consequence of the to¬
tal destruction of the theatre by fire in 1809. A new edi¬
fice, however, was speedily reared, and opened with an in¬
crease of entrance-money, which, along with certain ar¬
rangements regarding the private boxes, created a series
of disturbances, known by the name of O. P. riots, which
lasted for sixty-six nights, and in which the public finally
4 s
VOL. XII.
1 Heber, Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, vol. ii. p. 218, 219.
690 K E M KEN
Kemble, carried their point. Kemble stood the storm with firm-
ness; but he was subjected to much insolence, without
having the power of retaliation within his reach. In
1812 he retired for two years, conceiving he had done
his part, and being desirous of repose. His return to the
stage was hailed with the utmost enthusiasm. He rose
to the summit of popularity, and was acknowledged, with¬
out dispute, as the first actor in Britain, probably in the
world. His health, however, began to give way ; and he
formed the resolution of taking farewell of the stage,
which he did on the 23d of July 1817, after performing,
with unabated power, his great character of Coriolanus.
The “ Valedictory Stanzas” addressed to him at a pub¬
lic meeting held in that month, do equal honour to the
actor, and the poet Mr Campbell; and Sir Walter Scott
composed the “ Farewell Address” which he delivered on
taking leave of the Edinburgh stage in the month of
March preceding. He retired to the Continent, and fixed
his residence at Lausanne, where he died on the 26th of
February 1823.
In judging of the talents of Mr Kemble, we must re¬
gard him in the threefold character of actor, manager,
and improver of dramatic representation. In reference
to the first, tragedy, and that of the most stately and ma¬
jestic character, was the line in which he excelled. His
person was on a scale suited to the stage, being tall and
stately; his countenance, in nobleness of expression, re¬
sembled the finest models of the antique ; and his move¬
ments and demeanour, at once majestic and graceful, cor¬
responded to the heroic cast of his form and features.
What others assumed, seemed in him to be inherent. He
looked an abstraction of the characteristics of tragedy, and
trode the stage with solemn and majestic step, as if he
were there “ native, and to the manner born.” His style
was his own, and seemed to grow out of the peculiar quali¬
ties of his person and his intellect. It was that in which
taste and judgment qualify and soften spontaneous con¬
ception and feeling with profound consideration, measured
dignity, and learned precision. Talking of him generally,
his deportment was solemn, his movements slow, his ut¬
terance deliberate, and always finely articulated, and his
bearing and expression of countenance contemplative. His
voice was distinct and impressive; but an early tendency
to asthma rendered it necessary for him to husband his
efforts in the more level parts, reserving them for those
bursts of passion to which he gave such sublime effect.
His acting was the result of long and laborious study,
assisted by learning; he was a profound master in his art,
and metaphysically curious in expressing each line of his
part with the accent and manner exactly appropriate.
Every word of a sentence had its peculiar emphasis ; and
this attention to minute details led him sometimes to sus¬
pend the action so long as to injure the effect, which, to
be perfectly grand, should be instant, and not anticipat¬
ed by any “ note of preparation.” A sacrifice of energy
of action to grace has likewise been reckoned amongst
the faults ascribed to this great actor; but this was
more than compensated by the correctness of his concep¬
tion of character, the precision of his taste, the patience
of his investigation, which allowed of no point passing un¬
considered, and that moral firmness which enabled him to
maintain his own views regarding readings, when he be¬
lieved himself in the right, against all opposition. Al¬
though some detracted from his merits on account of his
peculiarities, all concurred in regarding him as a highly-
gifted actor; and the impression which he made in cha¬
racters more immediately adapted to his style of excel¬
lence, such as Cato, Coriolanus, Penruddock, Brutus, Mac¬
beth, Hamlet, John, Jaques, and many others, will last as
long as any mere recollection connected with the drama
can last. As a manager he was gentlemanly, accurate, and
regular; but somewhat strict. Reformation was carried by Kempe
him into almost every department of the drama, and his ||
innovations were calculated to confer permanent benefit on
the art. Before his time there was no such thing as re- '‘'•'V"'
gular costume, and anachronisms of dress of the most lu¬
dicrous description were constantly exhibited. These
Kemble reformed, by diligently consulting illuminated ma¬
nuscripts, ancient pictures, and other contemporary autho¬
rities. Scenic decoration he also carried to a high degree
of perfection, thereby adding to the splendour and illusion
of the drama. In early life he published a volume of Fu~
gitive Pieces ; but all the copies of this production he af¬
terwards carefully destroyed. His life (in 2 vols. 8vo,
1825) has been written by Mr James Boaden, a person
whose power of doing justice to the subject of his bio¬
graphy appears to be extremely disproportionate to the
admiration with which the great founder of the classic
school of acting had inspired him. (it. r. r.)
KEMPEN, a town of Prussia, the capital of the circle
of the same name, in the province of Cleeves-Juliers. It
contains 520 houses, with 3120 inhabitants, who carry on
manufactures of linen and tapes. It is also the birth-place
of the celebrated divine, Thomas a Kempis.
KEMPIS, Thomas a, a pious and learned regular canon,
was born at the village of Kemp, or Kempen, in the diocese
of Cologne, in 1380, and took his name from that village.
He performed his studies at Deventer, in the community
of poor scholars established by Gerard Groot; and there
made ^reat progress in the sciences. In 1399 he enter¬
ed the monastery of the regular canons of Mount St Ag¬
nes, near Swol, of which his brother was prior. Thomas
a Kempis there distinguished himself by his eminent pie¬
ty, his respect for his superiors, his charity to his brother
canons, and his continual application to labour and prayer.
He died in the year 1471, at the age of ninety. The best
editions of his works, which consist of sermons, spiritual
treatises, and lives of holy men, are those of Paris in
1649, and of Antwerp in 1607. The well-known book
De Imitatione Christi, which has been translated into all
the languages of the civilized world, though it has com¬
monly been numbered amongst the works of Thomas a
Kempis, is also found printed under the name of Gerson;
and, on the credit of some manuscripts, it has been since
ascribed to the abbot Gerson, of the order of St Benedict.
This occasioned a violent dispute between the canons of
St Augustin and the Benedictines.
KEMPTEN, a city of Bavaria, in the province of the
Upper Danube. It is situated on the river Iller, which is
navigable nearly to its site, and is surrounded by hills.
It is the seats of the revenue and police boards of the
circle, and of the local courts of justice, both for civil and
criminal affairs. The trade is inconsiderable, but consists
in small linen and woollen manufactures. It contains 850
houses, and 5640 inhabitants, chiefly Catholics. Long.
10. 13. 25. E. Eat. 47. 44. 10. N.
KEN, Thomas, a deprived bishop of Bath and Wells,
descended from an ancient family established at Ken-
place, Somersetshire, was born at Berkhamstead, Hert¬
fordshire, in the month of July 1637. At the age of
thirteen lie was sent to Winchester School, where he re¬
mained some time, and thence removed to New College,
Oxford, of which he became a probationer-fellow in 1657.
He took his degrees regularly ; pursued his studies close¬
ly for many years; and in 1666 became a fellow of Win¬
chester College, soon after which he was appointed do¬
mestic chaplain to the Bishop, and obtained the rectory o.
Brixton in the Isle of Wight. In 1674, he made a jour¬
ney to Rome, and after his return took his degrees in di¬
vinity. Not long afterwards, having been appointed chap¬
lain to the Princess of Orange, he went to Holland, where
his piety and prudence gained him general esteem; but
KEN
K E N
Ken
II
endal.
having offended the prince, afterwards William III., by
obliging one of his favourites to espouse a young lady of
^ the princess s train whom he had seduced by a promise
of marriage, Ken returned to England, and was employed
to attend Lord Dartmouth in quality of chaplain to Tan¬
gier. Having returned with this nobleman in 1684, he
was immediately appointed chaplain to the king, and not
long afterwards nominated, without solicitation, to the
bishopric of Bath and Wells. He attended the king in
his last illness, and did his utmost to awaken the royal
conscience ; speaking, says Burnet, “ with great elevation
of thought and expression, and like a man inspired.”
4 he sudden death of the king delayed his admission to
the temporalities of the see of Wells ; but, on the acces¬
sion of King James, new instruments were prepared for
that purpose, and Ken entered upon the exercise of his
episcopal functions. In 1685, he published an exposition
of the Church Catechism; and, the same year, he gave
to the world Prayers for the use of the Bath. He took
no part in the popish controversy which was then so
warmly agitated, though, in his discourses from the pulpit,
he frequently took occasion to notice and confute the
errors of Popery; nor did he hesitate, when preaching
in the chapel-royal, to set before the court the danger¬
ous policy of its projected coalition with the sectaries.
Some attempts were made to gain him over to the inte¬
rest of the popish party; but these proved completely
abortive ; and when the declaration of indulgence was or¬
dained to be read, in virtue of the dispensing p£wer as¬
sumed by the king, Ken was one of the seven who openly
opposed it, and who were in consequence sent to the
Tower. But though he ventured to disobey the mandate
of his sovereign for the sake of his religion, he refused to
transfer his allegiance; and, accordingly, on the arrival of
the Prince of Orange, he sliffered himself to be deprived,
and withdrew to Longleate, a seat of Lord Weymouth, in
W iltshire, where he composed many pious works, and
amused himself with writing verses, which, however, have
but little of the spirit of poetry in them. Eventually he
had settled on him a pension of L.200 a year, which was
punctually paid out of the treasury as long as he lived.
Dr Ken, who had long been afflicted with colic pains, ex¬
perienced, in 1710, a paralytic attack, which deprived him
of the use of one side ; and, after lingering for some time
in a hopeless state, he expired at Longleate, upon the 19th
March 1711. His works, consisting for the most part of
devotional pieces, in verse as well as in prose, were pub¬
lished in 1721, in four volumes. (a.)
Ken, a small island in the Persian Gulf. It possess¬
ed at one time a flourishing commerce, and is still capa¬
ble of supplying refreshments to vessels, being better
planted than most ot the islands. Its ancient name was
Kataia. It has a low and rocky coast in some parts,
and must be approached with caution in the night. Long.
53. 40. E. Lat. 26. 27. N.
KENANY, a small island of Hindustan, situated about
thirteen miles south of Bombay, and two and a half from
the mainland. In 1678 Sevajee, the Mahratta chief, took
possession of it, and from this station he greatly annoyed
the trade of Bombay. It has a small harbour for vessels
drawing little water, on the eastern side. Long. 72. 56.
E. Lat. 18. 42. N.
KENDAL, a market-town of the county of Westmore¬
land, in the ward of the same name, 260 miles from
London. It is situated on the river Ken, in a pleasant
valley, and, by inland navigation, comes into connec¬
tion with the sea, and with the rivers Morrey, Dee,
Ribble, Ouse, Trent, Severn, Humber, Thames, and
Avon. There is much industry applied to manufactures,
the principal of which are the inferior kinds of woollen
cloths and stuffs. It is a corporate town, under a mayor,
twelve aldermen, and twenty-four capital burgesses, but
i etui ns no members to parliament. There are guilds or
companies for several branches of trade, which now scarce¬
ly exist. I he church is a large Gothic building, and
there aie chapels for the various denominations of Pro¬
testant dissenters, and for Roman Catholics. It is one
of those towns which have been much increased and im¬
proved of late years. The population amounted in 1801
to 6892, in 1811 to 7505, in 1821 to 8984, and in 1831 to
10,015.
KENILWORTH, a town of the county of Warwick,
in the hundred of Knightlow, 100 miles from London.
It is celebrated as the residence of the Earl of Leicester,
the favourite of Elizabeth, and for the entertainments
given in the castle, the ruins of which attest their former
splendour. There is a market which is held on Wednes¬
day. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1968, in 1811
to 2279, in 1821 to 2577, and in 1831 to 3097.
KENNEL, a term used indifferently for a puddle, a
water-course in the streets, a house for a pack of hounds,
and the pack or cry of hounds themselves. See Hound
and Hunting.
KENNERI, a collection of remarkable caverns exca¬
vated in the rocky hills of the island of Salsette, near to
Bombay, one of which had been fitted up by the Portu¬
guese as a church, and they consequently thought it their
duty to deface all the most pagan-looking sculptures.
Hie fine teak ribs for supporting the roof are almost gone,
and the portico is not so elegant as that at Carli. On
the sides are two gigantic erect figures, each twenty-five
feet in height, with their hands close to their bodies, which
resembled the figures of Buddha seen at Ceylon. On
each side of the great cave are smaller ones, apparently
unfinished. The origin of these singular excavations is
lost in obscurity. There is not even the slightest gleam
of tradition to guide the antiquarian in his researches
into these curious memorials of Hindu or Buddha super¬
stition ; and in what age of the world, or by what people,
they have been completed, is a question now likely to
remain for ever unknown.
KENNET, White, a learned English writer, and Bi¬
shop of Peterborough in the eighteenth century, bred at
St Edmund Hall, Oxford, where he soon distinguished
himself by his vigorous application to his studies, and by
his translations of several works into English, and other
pieces which he published. In 1695 Kennet published
his Parochial Antiquities. But a sermon preached by
him on the 30th of January 1703, at Aldgate, exposed
him to great clamour. It was printed under the title of
A compassionate Inquiry into the Causes of the Civil War.
In 1706 he published his Case of Impropriations, and two
other tracts upon the same subject. In 1706 he brought
forward the third volume of the Complete History o.
England, the two former volumes having been compiled
by Mr Hughes. In 1709, he published a Vindication o,
the Church and Clergy of England from some reproaches
rudely and unjustly cast upon them; and a true Answer
to Dr Sacheverel’s Sermon. When the great point in
Dr Sacheverel’s trial, namely, the change of the ministry,
was gained, and strange proceedings took place upon it, an
artful address by the bishop and clergy of London was to
be prepared, and they who would not subscribe it were to
be represented as enemies to the queen and the minis¬
try. Dr Kennet fell under this imputation. He was ex¬
posed to great odium as a low churchman, on account ot
his conduct and writings. When he was Dean of Peter¬
borough, an uncommon method was taken to expose him
by Dr Walton, rector of the church of Whitechapel. In
the altar-piece of that church, which was intended to
represent Christ and his twelve apostles eating the pass-
over and last supper, Judas the traitor was drawm sitting
691
Kenil¬
worth
Kennet.
H92. KEN
Kennet in an elbow chair, dressed in a black garment, with a
II . great deal of the air and appearance of Dr Kennet. It was
cott*1" generally said that the original sketch was intended for a
v_r_ bishop under Dr Walton’s displeasure ; but the painter
being apprehensive of an action of scandalum magnatum,
leave was given to drop the bishop and paint the dean.
As this gave general offence, however, the Bishop of Lon¬
don ordered the picture to be taken down. In 1713 he
presented the Society for Propagating the Gospel with a
great number of books suitable to their design ; published
his Bibliothecce Americance Primordia ; and founded an an¬
tiquarian and historical library at Peterborough. In 1715
he published a sermon entitled the Witchcraft of the
present Rebellion, and afterwards several other pieces.
In 1717 he was engaged in a dispute with Dr William
Nicholson, bishop of Carlisle, relating to some alterations
in a sermon by the Bishop of Bangor; and he disliked
the proceedings of the convocation against that bishop.
Upon the death of Dr Cumberland, bishop of Peterbo¬
rough, he was promoted to that see, to which he was
consecrated in the year 1718. He sat in it more than
ten years, and died in 1728. He was an excellent philo¬
logist, a good preacher, and well versed in the history and
antiquities of our nation.
Kennet, Basil, a learned English writer, brother of the
preceding, was educated in Corpus Christi College, in the
university of Oxford, where he became fellow. In 1706
he went as chaplain to the English factory at Leghorn,
where he met with great opposition from the Papists,
and was in danger from the inquisition. Kennet died
in the year 1714. He published Lives of the Greek
poets, Roman Antiquities, a volume of Sermons preach¬
ed at Leghorn, and a translation into English of Puffen-
dorf’s Treatise of the Law of Nature and Nations. He
was a man of most exemplary integrity, generosity, piety,
and modesty.
KENNICOTT, Dr Benjamin, well known in the
learned w'orld for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew
Bible and other valuable publications, was born at Tot-
ness, in Devonshire, in the year 1718. His father was
the parish clerk of Totness, and once master of a charity
school in that town. At an early age young Kennicott
succeeded to the same employment in the school, being
recommended to it by his remarkable sobriety and pre¬
mature knowledge. It was in this situation he w'rote the
verses on the recovery of the honourable Mrs Courtney
from a dangerous illness, which recommended him to her
notice, and that of many neighbouring gentlemen, who,
with laudable generosity, opened a subscription to send
him to Oxford. In judging of this performance, they
may be supposed to have considered not so much its in¬
trinsic merit, as the circumstances under which it was
produced. For although it might justly claim praise as
the fruit of youthful industry struggling with obscurity
and indigence, yet as a poem it never rises above medio¬
crity, and generally sinks below it. But, in whatever
light these verses may be considered, the publication of
them was soon followed by such contributions as pro¬
cured for the author the advantages of an academical
education. In the year 1744 he entered himself at Wad-
ham College : and it was not long before he distinguish¬
ed himself in that particular branch of study in which he
afterwards became so eminent. His two dissertations, on
the Tree of Life, and the Oblations of Cain and Abel,
came to a second edition as early as the year 1747, and
procured him the singular honour of a bachelor’s degree
conferred upon him gratis by the university a year before
the statutable time. The dissertations were gratefully
K E N
dedicated to those benefactors whose liberality had open- Kennicott.
ed his way to the university, or whose kindness had made 's—'y>-'
it a scene not only of manly labour, but of honourable
friendship. With such merit and such support, he proved
a successful candidate for a fellowship of Exeter College ;
and soon after his admission into that society, he distin¬
guished himself by the publication of several occasional
sermons. In the year 1753 he laid the foundation of
that stupendous monument of learned industry, at which
the wise and the good will gaze with admiration, when the
cavils of prejudice, and envy, and ingratitude, shall no
longer be heard. This he did by publishing his first dis¬
sertation, on the state of the printed Hebrew text, in which
he proposed to overthrow the then prevailing notion of its
absolute integrity. The first blow, indeed, had been struck
long before by Capellus, in his Critica Sacra, published after
his death by his son, in 1650 ; a blow which Buxtorf, with
all his abilities and dialectical skill, was unable to ward off.
But Capellus having no opportunity of consulting manu¬
scripts, though his arguments were supported by the autho¬
rity of the Samaritan Pentateuch, and that of parallel pas¬
sages and the ancient versions, could neverabsolutely prove
his point. Indeed the general opinion was that the He¬
brew manuscripts contained none, or at least very few and
trifling variations from the printed text; and with respect
to the Samaritan Pentateuch, the most opposite opinions
were entertained. Those who held the Hebrew verity, of
course condemned the Samaritan as corrupt in every place
where it deviated from the Hebrew; and those who believed
the Hebrew to be incorrect, did not think the Samaritan
of sufficient authority to correct it. Besides, the Sama¬
ritan itself appeared to very great advantage ; for as
no Samaritan manuscripts were then known, the Penta¬
teuch itself was rashly condemned for errors which ought
rather to have been ascribed to the incorrectness of the
editions. In this dissertation, therefore, Dr Kennicott
proved that there were many Hebrew manuscripts ex¬
tant, which, though they had hitherto been generally
supposed to agree with one another, and with the Hebrew
text, yet contained many and important various readings;
and that from those various readings considerable autho¬
rity was derived in support of the ancient versions. He
announced the existence of six Samaritan manuscripts in
Oxford alone, by which many errors in the printed Sama¬
ritan might be removed ; and he attempted to prove, that
even from the Samaritan, as it was already printed, many
passages in the Hebrew might undoubtedly be corrected.
This work, as might reasonably be expected, was examined
with great severity both at home and abroad. In some
foreign universities the belief of the Hebrew verity, on
its being attacked by Capellus, had been insisted on as
an article of faith. “ Ista Capelli sententia adeo non ap-
probata fuit fidei sociis, ut potius Helvetii theologi, et
speciatim Genevenses, anno 1678, peculiari canone cave-
rint, ne quis in ditione sua minister ecclesise recipiatur,
nisi fateatur publice textum Hebraeum, ut hodie est in
exemplaribus Masoreticis, quoad consonantes et vocales,
divinum et authenticum esse.”1 And at home this doc¬
trine of the corrupt state of the Hebrew text was op¬
posed by Comings and Bate, two Hutchinsonians, with as
much violence as if the whole truth of revelation had
been at stake.
The next three or four years of Dr Kennicott’s life
were principally employed in searching out and examining
Hebrew manuscripts, though he found leisure not only
to preach, but also to publish several occasional sermons.
About this time Dr Kennicott became one of the king’s
preachers at Whitehall; and in the year 1759 we find
1 W olfii Biblioth. Heb. tom. ii. p. 27-
KEN
I wing- him vicar of Cuiham in Oxfordshire. In January 1760
on. he published his second dissertation on the state of the
^ '-*_|/ Hebrew text, in which, after vindicating the authority
and antiquity of the Samaritan Pentateuch, he disarmed
the advocates for the Hebrew verity of one of their most
specious arguments. They had observed that, the Chal-
daic Paraphrase having been made from Hebrew manu¬
scripts near the time of Christ, its general coincidence
with the present Hebrew text must evince the agree¬
ment of the latter with the manuscripts from which the
paraphrase was taken. Dr Kennicott demonstrated the
fallacy of this reasoning, by showing that the Chaldaic
Paraphrase had been frequently corrupted, in order to
reconcile it with the printed text; and thus the weapons
of his antagonists were successfully turned against them¬
selves. He appealed also to the writings of the Jews
themselves upon the subject of the Hebrew text, and gave
a compendious history of it, from the close of the Hebrew
canon down to the invention of printing; together with a
description of a hundred and three Hebrew manuscripts
which he had discovered in England, and an account of
many others preserved in various parts of Europe. A col¬
lation of the Hebrew manuscripts was now loudly called
for by the most learned and enlightened friends of bibli¬
cal criticism; and in the same year, 1760, Dr Kennicott
issued his proposals for collating all the Hebrew manu¬
scripts prior to the invention of printing, which could be
found in Great Britain and Ireland, and for procuring at
the same time as many collations of foreign manuscripts
of note as the time and money he should receive would
enable him to procure. His first subscribers were the learn¬
ed and pious Archbishop Seeker, and the delegates of the
Oxford press, who, with that liberality which has general¬
ly distinguished them, gave him an annual subscription of
L.40. In the first year the money received was about five
hundred guineas; in the next it rose to nine hundred, at
which sum it continued stationary till the tenth year,
when it amounted to one thousand. During the progress
of this work, the industry of our author was rewarded by
a canonry of Christ Church. He was also presented,
though we know not exactly when, to the valuable living
of Mynhenyote, in Cornwall, upon the nomination of the
chapter of Exeter. In 1776 the first volume was pub¬
lished, and in 1780 the whole was completed. If we con¬
sider that above six hundred manuscripts were collated,
and that the whole work occupied twenty years of Dr
Kennicott’s life, it must be owned that sacred criticism is
more indebted to him than to any other scholar of his
age. Within two years of his death he resigned his liv¬
ing in Cornwall, from conscientious motives, on account
of his not having a prospect of ever again being able to
visit his parish. Although many good and conscientious
men may justly think, in this case, that his professional
labours, carried on elsewhere, might properly have entitled
him to retain this preferment, and may apply this reason¬
ing in other cases, yet conduct so signally disinterested
certainly deserves to be admired and celebrated. Dr
Kennicott died at Oxford, after a lingering illness, on
the 18th of September 1783 ; and he lef t a widow, who was
sister to Mr Edward Chamberlayne of the treasury. At
the time of his death he was employed in printing lie-
marks on Select Passages in the Old Testament, which
were afterwards published, the volume having been com¬
pleted from his papers.
KENNINGTON, a hamlet adjoining to London, in
the parish of Lambeth, in Surrey, a mile and a half from
Westminster Bridge. It is one of those places in the vi¬
cinity of the metropolis which of late years have vastly in¬
creased in opulence and appearance. Two new churches,
and numerous substantial houses, have been built. A pa¬
lace formerly stood within it, which was inhabited by se-
KEN
693
veral of our monarchs, the last of whom was Henry the Kenrick
iiugntn. It was destroyed in the civil war under Charles II
the hirst. A canal has been carried on to this place from Kent-
the 1 hames, by which coals and other heavy articles are
conveyed to it at a cheap rate.
KENRIGK, William, an author of considerable abi¬
lity, was the son of a citizen of London, and brought up,
it is said, to a mechanical employment. This, however,’
he seems early to have abandoned, and to have devoted
his talents to the cultivation of letters, by which he sup¬
ported himself during the rest of a life which might be
said to have passed in a state of warfare, as he was sel¬
dom without an enemy to attack or to defend himself
against. He was for some time a student at Leyden, where
he received the degree of doctor in both laws. Not long
after his return to England, he attracted some notice as a
poet by Epistles Philosophical and Moral, 1759, addressed
to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of infidelity, written whilst
under confinement for debt, and with a declaration that
he was “ much less ambitious of the character of a poet
than of a philosopher.” From this period he became a
wi iter by profession ; and the Proteus shapes under which
he appeared it would be a fruitless attempt to trace. He
was for a considerable time a writer in the Monthly Re¬
view; but having quarrelled with his principal, he be<mn a
new review of his own. When Dr Johnson’s edition of
Shakspeare first appeared in the year 1765, it was followed
in a fortnight by a pamphlet, entitled a Review of Dr
Johnson’s new Edition of Shakspeare, in which the igno¬
rance or inattention of that editor is exposed, and the
poet defended fiom the persecution of his commenta¬
tors. I his pamphlet was followed by an examination of
it, and that by a Defence in 1766, in which year he pro¬
duced his pleasant comedy of Falstaff’s Wedding, at first
intended to have been given to the public as an original
play of Shakspeare retrieved from obscurity, and which,
it must be acknowledged, is a happy imitation of the great
dramatic bard. With the celebrated English Roscius Dr
Kenrick was at one time on terms of the strictest intima¬
cy ; but he took occasion to quarrel with him in print, and
in a mode too unmanly to be mentioned. In politic^ also he
made himself not a little conspicuous, particularly in the
dispute between his friends Wilkes and Horne. He was
the original editor of the Morning Chronicle; but being
ousted for neglect, he set up a new one in opposition. He
translated in a very able manner the Emile and the He-
loise of Rousseau ; the Elements of the History of Eng¬
land by Millot; and produced several dramatic perform¬
ances, together with an infinite variety of publications
both original and translated. To him also the public
are indebted for the collection, imperfect as it is, of the
poetical works of Robert Lloyd, 1774, in two vols. 8vo.
Dr Kenrick died on the 9th of June 1777.
KENSINGTON, a large parish, whose boundary joins
to London, in the hundred of Ossulton, in the county of
Middlesex. It is chiefly remarkable for the royal pa¬
lace and gardens, the latter of which forms the scene of
the recreation of the inhabitants of the metropolis. The
palace is an irregular brick building, purchased by Wil¬
liam the Ihird, and by him and his successors enlarged
in various styles. Though with little exterior taste, it has
good suites of apartments allotted to junior members of
the royal family, and to other persons. The gardens have
received all the advantages of which their situation is ca¬
pable, and form a most pleasing promenade. Holland
House and other mansions are objects of remark within
this parish, as well as the numerous smaller buildings
erected within the last twenty years. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 8556, in 1811 to 10,386, in 1821 to
14,428, and in 1831 to 20,902.
KENT, a maritime county in England, and, reckon-
694
KENT.
Kent.
ing its population, extent, and fertility, perhaps the first
in the island. It is in a peninsular form, being bounded
by the British Channel on the south; by the German
Ocean on the east; by the river Thames, which divides
it from Essex, on the north ; and by the counties of
Surrey and Sussex on the west. Its length is sixty-six,
and its breadth thirty-six miles. The area is calculated
at about 1300 square miles.
The divisions of Kent are into five laths, which are
subdivided into sixty-three hundreds and fifteen liber¬
ties, and contain two cities, thirty-six towns, and 414
parishes.
The population, at the four decennial enumerations,
amounted in 1801 to 307,624, in 1811 to 373,095, in
1821 to 426,016, and in 1831 to 479,155. At the last
census the males were 234,572, and the females 244,583.
These are comprehended in 97,142 families, of whom
31,667 are chiefly employed in agriculture, 29,419 are oc¬
cupied in trade, manufactures, and handicraft, and 36,056
are not included in either of the other classes. The num¬
ber of males above twenty years of age employed in re¬
tail trade or in handicraft, or masters or workmen, was
34,257.
The baptisms, burials, and marriages, show the follow¬
ing proportion at different periods, in the parish regis¬
ter :—
One Baptism One Burial One Marriage
in in in
1796 to 1800 30 41  116
1806 to 1810 29 38 115
1816 to 1820 31 51 130
1826 to 1830 34 49 143
Thus it is seen that the increase of population has been
going on rather by a greater degree of longevity than by
the increase of births. The only scale of morals which
our present statistical knowledge supplies is that regard¬
ing chastity, by showing the proportion which the num¬
ber of illegitimate children bears to the whole of the
births. The illegitimates in Kent have only been one in
twenty-four, whereas in the whole of England they were
one in twenty; in the whole of Wales, one in thirteen;
and in England and Wales taken together, one in nine¬
teen.
The cities of Kent are two, and the towns whose houses
and population exceed 3000 inhabitants, are—
Cities.
Houses
inhabited.
Inhabitants.
Canterbury 3033.
Rochester 1088.
Towns.
Greenwich 3665.
Deptford 4386.
Woolwich 2672.
Chatham 2840.
Maidstone 2844.
Dover 2095.
Tonbridge 1709.
Margate 1808.
Lewisham 1716.
Ramsgate 1354,
Deal 1391
Minster in Shep- 4
pey, with Sheer- > 1430
ness 3
Gravesend 756,
Dartford 994,
Sevenoaks 905
13,649
..9,891
24,553
,19,795
,17,661
17,430
..1,538
11,922
.10,380
,10,339
..9,659
..7,985
..7,268
..7,922
,5,097
,4,715
,4,709
Milton   685.
Bromley 669.
Faversham 737.
Cranbrooke   639.
Folkstone 719.
Bexley 601.
Tenterden 548.
Sandwich 595.
.4,348
.4,002
.3,982
.3,844
.3,638
.3,206
.3,177
.3,136
Kent.
By the law of 1832, entitled an act to amend the repre¬
sentation of the people of England, the county of Kent has
been divided into the eastern and western parts. The
election for the first of these is held at Canterbury, and the
other polling places are Sittingbourne, Ashford, New Rom¬
ney, and Ramsgate. The election for the second or western
division is held at Maidstone, and the other polling places
are Bromley, Gravesend, Tonbridge, and Cranbrooke. By
the same act, the boroughs of New Romney and of Queen-
borough have been disfranchised; and the borough of
Hythe, which before returned two members, can in future
elect but one, and, to make up the competent constituency,
the towm of Folkstone has been added to it. Greenwich
has by the same law been erected into a borough, and re¬
turns two members; and Chatham is also a borough re¬
turning one. The other places, viz. Canterbury, Roches¬
ter, Dover, Maidstone, and Sandwich, return, as before, two
members each. Thus the^ representation consists of four
members for the county, and fourteen for the cities and
towns.
The extent of land in the county appears to be 996,480
acres when the whole area is included ; but, from some not
ascertainable cause, the returns from the several parishes
show only 972,240 acres. The annual value of the landt
including that of the houses, was taken'in 1815, for the pur¬
pose of the property tax, at L.1,644,179. The whole of
the poor-rates levied in 1833 amounted to L.450,851; and
it had not much varied in the few preceding years.
The appearance of Kent is generally acknowledged to be
equal, if not superior, in beauty, to that of any other British
county. Its surface is gently undulating; none of its hills,
except on the coast, rise abruptly, nor reach a great eleva¬
tion. In all the valleys there are streams of water; the
woods and trees enrich the scenery, and the mixture of
pasture and corn land, interspersed with orchards, fruit-
trees, and hop plantations, give to its beauties a character
of softness and grace.
The Thames may be considered as a Kentish river, as it
washes its whole northern boundary, and empties itself into
the sea on its shores. The river next in importance is the
Medway, formed by the junction of four small streams, one
only of which rises within the county. It becomes navi¬
gable for large barges at Tunbridge, and continues its course
by Maidstone to Chatham, where ships of the largest size
can approach the shore ; and there terminates its course, by
joining the Thames at the Nore, beyond the arsenal of
Sheerness. The Greater Stoure, the Lesser Stoure, the
Rother, the Cray, the Darent, and the Ravensbourne, are
small rivers, none of them navigable, but all of great bene¬
fit, by the fertility they communicate to the meadows on
their banks, and by the power they afford to the many
mills erected upon their banks.
Kent is almost exclusively an agricultural county; and
though the soil is generally fertile,' and though there are
few extensive tracts of barren or uncultivated land, yet no
part of the kingdom exhibits within so small a compass so
great a variety of soils, of productions, and of modes of
cultivation. It has been judiciously divided into eight
districts for the purposes of agricultural description. The
first of these, the Isle of Thanet, is in the north-west angle
of the county. The soil is a light mould on a chalky bot¬
tom, and has been highly enriched by the marine sub¬
stances that have been administered as manure. The
,nt. whole island contains 23,000 acres of arable and 3500 acres
of rich marsh land. The most common rotation of crops
is fallow, sometimes with, sometimes without, a crop of
peas : this is followed by barley, clover, and wheat; and on
some soils rather heavier, the course pursued is beans,
wheat, and barley. The barley of this district is very much
esteemed, and sought for as seed in other countries. Be¬
sides the common grains, seeds of various kinds are raised
for sale to the London seedsmen, particularly canary, ra¬
dish, spinach, mustard, and onion seed. The soil in the
marshy parts of the island is a mixture of clay, sea sand,
and small shells, and yields most abundant pasture.
The upland farms of East Kent, which surround Canter¬
bury, and extend to Dover on one side and Ashford and
Rochester on the other, are an open and dry tract of corn
land, intermixed with woods. The soils are very various,
all resting on a subsoil of chalk. Some of them are very
heavy loamy clays, with a great quantity of flint stones on
the surface : these are usually cultivated on a four-course
rotation of fallow, barley, beans, and wheat; when the soil
is somewhat stiffer, a variation occurs of fallow, wheat,
beans, and oats. In this district the harvest usually com¬
mences from twelve to fourteen days later than in the Isle
of Thanet. The woods in this district usually supply poles
to the hop-planters in the vicinity ; they are cut down after
from ten to fourteen years’ growth. There are in this di¬
vision some few hop grounds, but they are confined to three
or four parishes. In the vicinity of Sandwich, Faversham,
and Deal, a portion of land, of a rich sandy loam, receives
an almost uniform cultivation ; it is nearly all under the
plough, and a four-course rotation is practised, of wheat,
beans, barley, and oats, after a fallow, or sometimes canary
occupies the place of wheat. Some portions of this land are
alternately cropped with beans and wheat, or beans and
canary. In the vicinity of Sandwich are many orchards,
the apples of which are partly sent to London, and partly
furnish return cargoes to the vessels that come laden with
coals from Newcastle and Sunderland.
The district extending from Maidstone to Canterbury,
and thence to Sandwich, is the great garden-tract for the
growth of hops. The soils on which hops are produced
are very various : the most productive are those which have
a deep loam surface, with a subsoil of deep loamy brick
earth ; some of these have a considerable quantity of flint-
stones mingled with the soil, and, when it becomes compact,
almost covering it. Another soil, provincially called stone
shalten, is very good for the growth of hops; it is mixed
with many small portions of stone and sand, and rests upon
the basis of the stone called Kentish rag, which is burned
into excellent lime. The cultivation of hops is a very fluc¬
tuating pursuit, as the produce varies in different years
from two to fifteen hundredweight per acre, and the prices
have varied from three to fifteen pounds. The expense of
cultivation is very great, from the quantity of manure that
is required, from the great expense of the poles round
which the plants twine, and the labour of keeping the
ground clear and of picking the hops. Besides hops, the
district is very productive of apples, cherries, and filberts,
to the growth of which many fields, from one to ten acres
in extent, are devoted: part of the apples are made into
cider; the remainder, with the cherries and filberts, are
principally conveyed to the different markets in London.
The Isle of Sheppey is separated from the rest of Kent
by an arm of the sea called the Swale, which is navigable
for ships of 200 tons burden. Its length is eleven, and its
breadth eight miles. About four fifths of this island is
either marsh or dry pasture-land ; upon the former many
oxen are fattened, and the latter is appropriated to the
breeding and feeding of sheep. About 10,000 acres of this
island is arable land, of great fertility, usually cultivated
with beans and wheat in alternate years, with occasionally
a fallow before the beans. This land is highly fertile, the
wheat raised on it being considered as the best that is
brought to London, a bushel frequently weighing sixty-four
pounds. This great productiveness may be in some measure
owing to the practice of applying to the natural heavy clayey
soil a frequent dressing of the cockle shells which are wash¬
ed on the beach by the sea. It is not unusual to apply thirty
cart-loads of these shells to an acre of land. The uplands
of West Kent are extensive and various in their soils.
This part is more woody and enclosed than East Kent.
The ridge of the chalk hills, about six or seven miles in
breadth, consists of a stiff clay, with many surface flints, and
requires six horses frequently to plough it. On these soils
the most common rotation is a year’s clean fallow, then
wheat, clover, wheat, and oats. Many large flocks of South
Down sheep are kept on this hilly range. The valleys and
the sides of the hills are lighter soil and easier to work, but
do not produce better corn ; some of this, but not to a great
extent, is cultivated for hops.
The district known as the Weald of Kent was, in for¬
mer times, an immense forest, desolate of inhabitants, and
only occupied by wild swine and deer; and though it is
now filled with towns and villages, and well peopled, the
woods that remain are extensive; exhibiting some pleas¬
ing landscapes, where seats, farms, and villages, are mixed
with cultivated fields, and woods of spreading oaks. The
roads in this district are very bad, many of them impassable
for carriages in the best seasons; and, in winter, horses can
only travel by keeping on the narrow paved tracts that
are formed by the sides of the highways. The soil is prin¬
cipally clay, with a substratum of marl, in some places very
heavy, but in others sufficiently light to be ploughed with
oxen. This district produces wheat, oats, barley, rye-grass,
clover, and beans; but so various are the rotations, that it
is scarcely possible to generalise them. The pastures are
very rich and fertile, and fatten annually great numbers of
cattle. In the western part of this district, and in the ad¬
joining Weald of Sussex, there were formerly many iron¬
works : the ore is found, and the abundance’of wood’made the
manufacturing of it profitable ; but the substitution of coke
for charcoal in making iron has put a final stop to all the
iron-works of Kent and Sussex.
The last agricultural division is a rich, level, extensive
tract of land, on the southern coast, containing about forty-
five thousand acres of the richest pasture in the united
kingdom. This level is protected from the violence of
the sea, and from inundations, by a dyke of earth of very
great thickness, called Dimchurch-wall. The whole is al¬
luvial land, consisting of a fine, soft, rich loam, with portions
of sea-sand and broken shells intermixed. The subsoil
consists of alternate layers of sand and clay mixed with
shells, amongst which are sometimes found large oak trees
in various positions, the wood of which is as black and as
hard as ebony. On this plain there are two towns, Rom¬
ney and Lydd, but scarcely any villages, and few other
houses than those of the shepherds and herdsmen who at¬
tend upon the numerous cattle that graze on the marshes.
As there are no other fences but dykes, or posts and
rails, from the surrounding heights it has the appearance of
one large verdant field covered with sheep and oxen. The
breeding and fattening of sheep is the principal purpose to
which this level is appropriated, and the number bred is
greater than on any other tract of the same extent in the
kingdom. The sheep take their denomination from the
district; they are larger than the South Downs, but not of
a size equal to the Lincolnshire sheep. Their flesh is highly
esteemed in the London markets, and their wool is both
fine and of a long fibre ; the average weight of the fleeces
being about five pounds.
The landed property of Kent is much divided ; there are
some noblemen that have large, but none such vast estates
696 KEN
Kent, as to give a preponderating political influence. The num-
her of freeholders exceeds ten thousand, enjoying estates
from the smallest value that can give a vote, and gradually
rising to L.7000 or L.8000 per annum. The copy-hold
tenures are very few, and the peculiar tenure ot Kent,
known as gavel-kind, is very much diminished by various
legal operations.
The chief manufactures carried on in this county are
those connected with the building and equipping of ships
and boats. The males above twenty years ot age employ¬
ed in the several branches of ship-building, block, rope, and
sail making, amount to 2120; to which are to be added,
nearly as many plumbers, glaziers, painters, joiners, iron¬
mongers, copper-smiths, and other trades who are occu¬
pied more in shipping than in other kinds of business.
The larger operations of the kind are carried on in the
king’s yards at Deptford and Woolwich ; but there are
many private yards for building and repairing ships on the
south bank of the Thames. At Woolwich, the great manu¬
factory of warlike stores, for the use of the artillery chiefly,
gives occupation to many labourers exclusively of the sol¬
diers. There mortars and brass cannon are cast, bored,
and mounted, the different kinds of shot prepared, and
all the various combustibles used in wrar compounded;
and in the dockyard at that place, some of the largest ships
of war are always building or repairing/ In Chatham, and
at Rochester, the chief manufactories are those of the go¬
vernment, either for the navy or for the ordnance depart¬
ment. The private manufacturing establishments are not
either numerous or extensive. The largest in value is
paper, which is made at Maidstone and near Dover, of the
best quality ; but in other parts, where the water is adapt¬
ed for the purpose, that trade is carried on ; some espe¬
cially near Westerham. The whole number of males above
twenty years of age employed in making paper are 531, of
whom 147 reside in the town of Maidstone. The grinding
of wheat is a considerable trade, from the goodness of the
wheat grown here, and the slight expense of conveying
the flour by water to the great market of the metropolis.
Some printing of calicoes is carried on, upon the banks of the
river Cray. The principal of these works are at Crayford,
where 124, and at Bexley, where forty males, above twenty
years of age, are employed; but this trade, like that of
making paper, gives occupation to many more females than
males. At Dartford there are some large manufactories of
gunpowder ; at Deptford, of several chemical preparations ;
at Greenwich, of machinery and of combs ; and at Maid¬
stone, of bagging for hops.
One of the proudest ornaments of the nation, Greenwich
Hospital, for the relief of disabled or aged seamen, is in
this county ; and, in the park contiguous to it, the Royal
Observatory, to which the eyes of all the navigators of Eu¬
rope are directed, as the place from which issues the nau¬
tical ephemeris, which all nations depend on when travers¬
ing distant seas.
Though Kent is bounded on three sides by the ocean
and the river Thames, it has scarcely any foreign com¬
merce. The harbours are none of them good; those of
Dover and Ramsgate are formed by artificial piers, and the
former is dry at low water when the sluices are open. The
only trade from Dover is to Calais, Dunkirk, and Ostend,
for such light goods as can bear the expense of land-car¬
riage. There is a herring fishery conducted from Folk-
stone ; besides which, the principal foreign trade consists
in smuggling those various articles whose high duties offer
a temptation to encounter such perilous adventures.
The sea-shores in this county invite numerous visitors,
who frequent and fill various towns during the warm months
of summer. The principal of these are Margate, Ramsgate,
and Broadstairs ; but, besides these, many of the smaller
places on the coast are resorted to for purposes of health or
KEN
amusement. On the western side of the county, the wa- Kent!
ters of Tunbridge have long been celebrated ; and though gern
the influence of fashion has erected into rivals several other fi
Spas, yet the company that still resort to it is both nume- ^entuck]
rous and respectable.
(See Marshall’s Survey; Boys’s Survey; Brayley’s Beau¬
ties of England and Wales ; and Hasted’s Kent.}
KENTIGERN, St, or St Mungo, a famous saint of the
Catholic church, who flourished in Scotland in the sixth
century, and is said to have been of the royal blood of both
Scotch and Piets, being the son of Thametis, the daughter
of Loth king of the Piets, by Eugene III. king of Scotland.
The bishoprics of Glasgow and St Asaph were founded by
him in 560. He obtained the appellation of Mungo from
the affection of his tutor St Serf or Servanus* bishop of
Orkney, who called him Mongah, which in the Norwegian
language signifies dear friend.
KENTISH Town, a hamlet of the parish of Pancras, in
the hundred of Ossulton, in the county of Middlesex. It
has of late so much extended its buildings, that it almost
forms a suburb to the metropolis. It is finely situated in
a valley, beginning between the hills of Hampstead and
Highgate ; and being deemed a remarkably healthy spot, is
much occupied with country residences of persons con¬
nected with London ; and within the last ten years it has
assumed an elegant appearance. There is a chapel of ease,
and some dissenting places of worship.
KENTON, a parish of the county of Devon, in the
hundred of Exminster, 178 miles from London. It is si¬
tuated on the river Ex, where the Ken falls into that stream.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1639, in 1811 to
1793, in 1821 to 1891, and in 1831 to 2050.
KENTUCKY, one of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, is bounded on the north by the river Ohio, which
separates it from Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana; on the east
by Virginia ; on the south by Virginia and Tennessee ; and
on the west by the river Mississippi. It extends from
long. 81. 50. to 89. 29. W., and from lat. 36. 30. to 39.10.
N. Its extreme length is 380 miles, its medium breadth
is about 100, and it contains an area of 38,000 square
miles.
Kentucky is said to possess larger quantities of fertile
land than any other western state; and, for beautiful
variety of hill and dale, the general excellence of the
soil, and picturesqueness of landscape scenery, including
fine forests, and numerous streams and rivers, few coun¬
tries surpass it. Yet there are in this state large sterile
tracts, and a good deal of land either too mountainous
or too poor for cultivation. The Allegany Mountains
stretch along its eastern and south-eastern boundary, and
branches from that chain penetrate into the counties con¬
tiguous to Tennessee and Virginia, rendering them broken
and hilly. These offshoots from the larger mountains
wind round the basis of the small table hills, and open
up into frightful chasms, shaded by the gigantic poplar.
A tract from five to twenty miles wide along the banks
of the Ohio has the same character, but it is interspersed
with fertile valleys. Between this strip of land, Green
River, and the eastern counties, lies what has been called
the garden of the state ; it is the most populous part, and
is distinguished for its beauty and fertility. It has a finely
diversified or rolling surface, the soil is excellent, and
there is abundance of timber and grape vines. It is
about one hundred and fifty miles in length, and from
fifty to one hundred in breadth. From three to ten feet
beneath the surface, there is a substratum or floor of
limestone. A great quantity of this mineral in a dissolved
state is intermixed with the soil, and imparts to it a warm
and forcing quality, highly favourable to the progress of
vegetation. Much of it belongs to that species of soil
technically called “ mulatto land.” Through this beau-
KENTUCKY.
Ke ickj. tiful country meander the Little Sandy, Licking, Ken-
tucky, and Salt Rivers, with their numerous tributaries*
There are a few precipitous hills, but no elevations of a
magnitude sufficient to entitle any part of it to the cha¬
racter of mountainous. The woods have a very fine ap¬
pearance, and seem as if they had been promiscuously ar¬
ranged for a pleasure ground. Grape vines of vast size
climb the trees, and overshadow the verdure beneath
with their umbrageous leaves. Black walnut, black cherry,
honey-locust, buck-eye, pawpaw, sugar-tree, mulberry,
elm, ash, hawthorn, coffee-tree, and the grand yellow pop¬
lar trees which indicate the richest soil, are everywhere
abundant. When the country was first settled, it was
covered with a thick cane brake; but this has now given
place to a beautiful grass sward. In the early part of
spring, the May-apple throws out its rich and beautiful
verdure in abundance, which, along with the purple and
redundant flowers of the red bud, and the fine white blos¬
soms of the dogwood, impart a delightful charm to the
landscape. The trees are not in general large, but tall,
straight, and tapering at the top. Innumerable branches
wind amongst the copses ; and in the declivities numerous
springs of water, impregnated with lime, gush forth. In
the south-western part of the state, between Green and
Cumberland Rivers, there is a large tract of country,
called “ barrens,” covered with grass like a prairie, and
affording a fine range for cattle. Within these few years
it has been planted with different kinds of trees, which,
however, do not check the growth of the grass, or an
infinite variety of plants, which enamel the sward, and
during spring and summer flower in all the wild and
luxuriant beauty of a western wilderness. Spread over
this district are an immense number of small conical hills,
called “ knobs,” covered with shrubby and post oaks.
The soil is of an excellent quality, being a mixture of
clay loam and sand; and fine tobacco is raised by many
of the farmers. Of this state in general, an American
writer observes : “ For variety of hill and dale, for the
excellence of the soil, yielding in abundance all that is
necessary for comfortable subsistence, for amenity of land¬
scape, beauty of forest, the number of clear streams and
fine rivers, health, and the finest development of the hu¬
man form, and patriarchal simplicity of rural opulence,
we question if any country can be found surpassing Ken¬
tucky.”1
A long extent of the northern frontier of this state is
washed by the Ohio River; and the Mississippi passes a con¬
siderable part of the south-western boundary. Most of the
rivers which have their origin within the limits of Kentucky
rise in the southern part of it, and flow in a northerly direc¬
tion into the Ohio. The river from which the state derives
its name rises in the south-eastern portion, and interlocks
with the head waters of Licking and Cumberland Rivers,
the former having its origin in the north-east, and the other
in the south-east corner. The Kentucky is an important
stream, navigable for one hundred and eighty miles during
winter, with a rapid current, and high, and in some parts
perpendicular, banks of limestone. It takes a north-west
course, and joins the Ohio at Port William, seventy-seven
miles above Louisville, after receiving various tributary
streams. Licking waters a rich and well-settled country,
and, after a sinuous course of two hundred miles, enters the
Ohio at Newport, opposite Cincinnati. Cumberland River
waters eighty miles of this state, when it enters Tennessee ;
but crosses again into Kentucky, and, after running fifty
miles in it, once more returns to Tennessee, which it leaves
a second time to traverse the sister state. The river Big
bandy rises in the Allegany Mountains, and forms the
697
eastern boundary of the state for nearly two hundred miles. Kentucky.
During its progress it receives a great number of large
creeks, and, before it enters the Ohio, separates into two
branches or forks. It is navigable for a considerable dis¬
tance. Green River is boatable for two hundred miles, and
receives a great number of tributaries in its course. Salt
River is boatable for one hundred and fifty miles, and, tra¬
versing four counties, enters the Ohio twenty miles below
Louisville. There are a great many mineral springs, pos¬
sessing medicinal qualities, some of which are really valu¬
able. A fountain of petroleum, vulgarly called mineral oil,
was discovered at the depth of one hundred and eighty
feet, whilst the ground was being pierced to obtain salt
water. When the auger was withdrawn, the unctuous
matter sprung perpendicularly upwards in a continued
stream, more than twelve feet above the surface of the
earth. The rocks of this state are said all to belong to the
secondary formation. Limestone and marble of the most
beautiful species abound. Coal has been discovered in
some places, especially along the Ohio. Iron ore is very
abundant, and wrought to a considerable extent. Lead,
copperas, and aluminous earths are likewise found. There
aie a number of salt springs, from which salt was formerly
obtained ; but it is now found more profitable to import it
from other states. The soil of Kentucky is strongly im¬
pregnated with nitre; and it has been affirmed that fifty
pounds of that salt, in a crude state, have been obtained
from only double the quantity of earth. There are many
natuial curiosities and antiquities in this state; the limestone
caves in particular excite the astonishment of all who visit
them. One, styled Mammoth Cave, in the south-western
part, one hundred and thirty miles from Lexington, on the
load leading to Nashville, is said to be eight or ten miles
in length, with a great number of avenues and windings.
The famous cave of Antiparos is nothing to this stupen¬
dous subterranean cavity. A number of the rivers have
excavated the earth, so as to form abrupt precipices, deep
glens, and frightful gulfs. The precipices formed by Ken¬
tucky River are in many places awfully sublime, present¬
ing perpendicular banks of three hundred feet of solid
limestone, surmounted with a steep and difficult ascent four
times as high.
Amongst the antiquities of Kentucky are great numbers
of those Indian mounds which are scattered over all the
western territory. Human bodies have been found in a
state of entire preservation in several caves ; they are said
to be considerably smaller than the men of modern times.
The fertile soilof Kentucky pi-oduces all the grains, pulses,
and fruits of the temperate climates, in great abundance ;
and, in the south-western counties, near and on the Ten¬
nessee, Cumberland, and Mississippi Rivers, cotton is grown.
Hemp, tobacco, and wheat are the staple productions, but
Indian corn is the principal grain raised for home consump¬
tion. Rye, oats, buck-wheat, barley, flax, potatoes, and
other culinary vegetables, are cultivated. Apples, pears,
peaches, cherries, and plums, are the most common fruits ;
but grapes are raised in many places, and there are vine¬
yards where wine is made. This state is distinguished for
its breed of domestic animals, particularly the horse, which
is of the noblest kind, and reared in great numbers. These,
along with mules, horned cattle, and swine, are annually
driven to the neighbouring states for a market. The fat¬
tening of animals is the chief mode of consuming the surplus
grain, on account of the expense of conveying it to market.
Considerable quantities of whisky are made; and, from its po¬
sition and fairs, Kentucky has become a manufacturing state.
The present exports are chiefly to New Orleans, though a
considerable quantity of produce and manufactures ascends
VOL. XII.
1 The History and Geography of the Mississippi Valley^ by Timothy Flint, p. 348.
4 T
698
K E N T U C K Y.
Kentucky, the Ohio to Pittsburgh. The growers of the produce of
this state, after arriving at New Orleans, frequently ship it
on their own account to the Atlantic states, to Vera Cruz,
and the West Indies. Besides the articles above mention¬
ed, there are sent out of this state immense quantities of
flour, lard, butter, cheese, pork, beef, Indian corn, and meal;
whisky, cider, cider royal, fruit both fresh and dried; and
various kinds of domestic manufactures.
With regard to the amount of the exports of surplus
produce, an American writer on commerce observes, “ from
that part of the state of Kentucky which lies north and east
of Kentucky River, and a few countries bordering on its
south side, the exports in 18B2 were valued as follows, viz.
Hogs, alive, and in pork, bacon, lard ...1,000,000 dollars.
Horned cattle 200,000
Horses and mules 500,000
Hempen fabrics  7o0,000
Tobacco 150,000
Iron castings, pigs and bars  50,000
Wool, ginseng, &c 100,000
Total 2,750,000
Estimating the surplus produce of the remainder of Ken¬
tucky at two millions and a half, we shall have for that
state 5,250,000 dollars.”1
Kentucky is divided into eighty-three counties, each hav¬
ing a county town. Frankfort, the political metropolis ot
the state, is situated on the north bank of the Kentucky,
sixty miles above its confluence with the Ohio. Long.
84. 40. W. Lat. 38. 14. N. The site of the town is a
semicircular plain, some two hundred feet lower than the
table-land in its rear. The environs of the plain are^ re¬
markable for their romantic and splendid scenery. The
river is here about eighty yards wide, flowing between
banks four or five hundred feet high, and dividing the
town into about two equal parts, which are connected by
a bridge. Amongst other public buildings, are the state-
house, court-house, penitentiary, jail, three churches, an
academy, and a county court-house. The state-house is
entirely built of marble, and contains the customary legis¬
lative halls, and other apartments. This town contains
rope-walks, cotton bagging manufactories, a cotton factory,
tobacco warehouses, powder-mills, and other establish¬
ments. Being at the head of steam-boat navigation on the
river, it is a place of considerable commercial enterprise.
The population amounts to 4000.
Lexington, the largest and wealthiest town of the state,
is finely situated, twenty-five miles east-south-east of Frank¬
fort, in a beautiful valley on Town Fork, a small stream
which falls into the southern branch of Elkhorn River. It is
regularly laid out, and contains many large and handsome
buildings. Those of a public nature are, the court-house,
a handsome and spacious edifice ; the bank ; a large masonic
hall; a spacious and commodious lunatic asylum ; a number
of churches, in which all denominations of Christians are
represented ; a market-house ; an academy ; and the Tran¬
sylvania university, which has a high reputation. The ma¬
nufactures of woollen, paper, and cotton are considerable ;
but the articles chiefly made are cotton-bagging, and vari¬
ous kinds of cordage, particularly bale-rope. Of the former
there were manufactured, in 1830, 1,000,000 yards, and ot
the latter 2,000,000 pounds. The environs of this town
are much admired for their beauty and cultivation; and
they are adorned with a great number of handsome villas
• and ornamented rural mansions. The growth of Lexing¬
ton has been very rapid. In 1797 it contained only about
fifty houses; and the last census gives a population of
0104. Long. 84. 18. W. Lat. 38. 6. N.
Louisville, in a commercial point of view, is by far the Kentuck
most important town in the state. It is situated opposite -■0,
the falls of the Ohio, fifty miles west of Frankfort; and its
locality gives it the advantage of being the great outlet of
a large portion of the surplus produce of the state. It is
regularly laid out, and is three miles in length by upwards
of one in breadth. The public buildings are, a court-house,
jail, a number of houses of public worship, a poor-house,
free public school house (a fine edifice), a marine hospital
(a conspicuous and showy building), a bank, a theatre, and
others of less importance. The private buildings are most¬
ly of brick; and the warehouses, particularly those recently
erected, are very extensive. Manufactures are as yet com¬
paratively in their infancy. There is one manufactory of
cotton and one of woollen, three iron founderies, a steam-
engine factory, tanneries, hat, saddle, and shoe making
establishments, and the like. The exports are, tobacco,
whisky, cotton bagging and baling, hemp, flour, pork, ba¬
con, lard, and many other productions of the country. The
imports are various and extensive, the easy circumstan¬
ces of many of the people creating a large demand for
foreign articles of comfort and luxury. The commerce is
carried on by upwards of three hundred steam-boats, some
of which are daily arriving from or departing for all parts
of the immense valley of the Mississippi. Amongst the
public works connected with this rising town, is the
Louisville and Portland Canal, which is two miles in
length, and calculated to admit of the passage of the largest
steam-boats on the western waters. Its top-water line is
two hundred feet, its bottom fifty feet, and its depth varies
from four to forty-two feet. Its sides are sloping and
paved with stone, and it has over it a beautiful stone bridge
between Louisville and Portland. Its locks consist of a
guard-lock and three lift-locks, which are larger than any
in the United States. It cost 940,000 dollars, and was
opened on the first of January 1831. An idea of the ex¬
tent of the commerce carried on by means of this medium
of inland navigation may be formed from the following
statement of the number of steam-boats, and flat and keel
boats, which passed in 1832, 1833, and one half of 1834:—
1832, 453 steam-boats, 179 flats and keels, 70,109 tons;
1833, 875 steam-boats, 710 flats and keels, 169,885 tons;
first half of 1834, 630 steam-boats, 139 flats and keels,
98,122 tons.
The county of which Louisville is the capital is one
of the most fertile and best settled in the state, and the
town is considered as one of the greatest thoroughfares in
the union. The city government consists of a mayor and
city council, chosen annually by the viva voce vote of all
residents in their respective wards. The census of 1830
assigns to it a population of 10,352, but the increase has
been exceedingly rapid since that period. Long. 85. 30
W. Lat. 38. 3. N.
The next town to Louisville, in point of commercial
importance, is Maysville, situated on the Ohio, sixty-three
miles north-east of Lexington. It is indebted for its im¬
portance chiefly to its being the principal place of importa¬
tion for the north-eastern part of the state. Glass and some
other articles are manufactured to a considerable extent.
It possesses a fine harbour for steam-boats, a number of
which have been built here, and is altogether a thriving,
busy town. The population amounts to about 4000.
Washington, three miles south of this place, is a consider¬
able village, in the centre of a well-peopled country. It
possesses the usual number of public buildings, such as
court-house, jail, seminaries of learning, together with the
customary stores and mechanics’ shops, and also a branch
of the Kentucky bank. Paris, the chief town of Bourbon
A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America. By Timothy Pitkin, 1835.
ken K E N 699
K tucL-y. county, is central to a delightful and populous country, and
J is entirely an interior town, twenty miles east of Lexing¬
ton. Some of the houses have a spacious appearance ; and
it contains some manufactories of cotton bagging and rope-
walks, with a population of 1200. Georgetown, the county
town of Scott county, is situated in a fine, rich tract of coun¬
try, and contains a number of considerable manufacturing
establishments, handsome private houses, and some public
buildings. Newport, opposite to Cincinnati, is the county
town for Campbell county, and is situated at the mouth of
Licking River. It has a spacious arsenal, containing arms
and munitions of war, and also some other public buildings.
Bagging, cordage, and tobacco are manufactured here.
Covington, situated below Newport, and on the opposite
side of the Licking, is laid out with great regularity. It is
intended that the streets shall be continuations of those of
Cincinnati, and liberal donations have been made for the
erection of public buildings. In this place are respectable
manufacturing establishments, particularly of cotton. Rus¬
sellville, the county town of Logan county, is an interior
town, intermediate between Green and Cumberland Rivers,
and thirty-five miles distant from each. It contains a se¬
minary denominated a college, and a number of respect¬
able public buildings. Salt lakes abound near the town,
and many of the prairies in the vicinity are of great beauty.
There are a great number of other towns and villages in
this state, but it would be an unnecessary repetition to enu¬
merate them particularly. They all possess public build¬
ings and manufactures corresponding to their size or si¬
tuation. We have mentioned one great public work be¬
longing to Kentucky, the Louisville and Portland Canal.
Another of a very important nature deserves mention,
namely, a railroad extending from Lexington, through
Frankfort, to Louisville, a distance of about ninety miles.
The work was begun in 1832, and in January 1835 it was
completed as far as Frankfort, a distance of twenty-eight
miles. It is substantially built, and estimated to cost,
when finished, 1,032,000 dollars.
The first permanent settlement of this state was begun
on Kentucky River in 1775, by Colonel Daniel Boone.
The county formed a part of the state of Virginia till 1790,
and in 1792 was admitted into the union as an independent
state. The constitution then adopted continued in force
till 1799, when the one which now exists was formed.
The legislative power is vested in a senate and house
of representatives, which together are styled the General
Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. The repre¬
sentatives are elected annually, and are apportioned, every
four years, among the different counties, according to the
number of electors. Their present number is one hundred,
which is the highest number that the constitution autho¬
rizes ; fifty-eight being the lowest. The senators are elect¬
ed for four years, one quarter of them being chosen an¬
nually. Their present number is thirty-eight; and they
cannot exceed this number, nor fall short of twenty-four.
The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elect¬
ed for four years, and is ineligible for the succeeding seven
years after the expiration of his term of office. At the
election of governor, a lieutenant-governor is also chosen,
who is speaker of the senate, and on whom the duties of
the governor devolve in case of his absence or removal.
The representatives and one quarter of the members of the
senate are elected annually by the people, on the first Mon¬
day in August; the governor is elected by the people,
every fourth year, at the same time, and he commences
the execution of his office on the fourth Tuesday succeed¬
ing the day of the commencement of the election at which
he is chosen. The polls are kept open three days, and the
votes are given openly, or viva voce, and not by ballot.
The general assembly meets (at Frankfort) annually, on the
first Monday in November. The constitution grants the
right of suffrage to every free male citizen (people of co- Kenwyn
lour excepted) who has attained the age of twenty-one ^ li
years, and has resided in the state two years, or in the^enz*n8en
county where he offers his vote one year, next preceding
the election. The judiciary power is vested in a supreme
court, styled the court of appeals, and in such inferior
courts as the general assembly may from time to time
erect and establish. The judges of the different courts,
and justices of the peace, hold their offices during good be¬
haviour. The state is divided into sixteen circuits or dis¬
tricts, to each of which there is attached a circuit judge.
The religious bodies of Kentucky stood in 1830 as fol¬
lows : Baptists, twenty-five associations, 442 churches,
289 ministers, and 37,520 communicants ; Methodists, se¬
venty-seven preachers, and 23,935 members ; Presbyte¬
rians, 103 churches, sixty-one ministers, six licentiates,
and 7832 communicants ; Roman Catholics, about thirty
priests; Episcopalians, five ministers. What are called
Cumberland Presbyterians are also numerous.
The principal literary institution is Transylvania uni¬
versity, at Lexington. It is under the patronage of the
state, and in 1830 contained one hundred and forty-three
graduates, sixty-two in the preparatory department, two hun¬
dred medical students, and nineteen law students. There
are also other colleges in different parts of this state, sup¬
ported by religious societies, viz. St Joseph’s, at Bardstown,
by the Catholics ; Centre College, at Danville, by the Pres¬
byterians; Augusta College, at Augusta, by the Methodists;
Cumberland College, at Princetown, by the Cumberland
Presbyterians ; and Georgetown College, at Georgetown,
by the Baptists. Many years since, the state appropriated
6000 acres of land for the purpose of endowing an academy
in each county ; but little public benefit has yet flowed from
this source. Steps have been repeatedly taken for the pur¬
pose of introducing a system of common schools, but not
with the effect which could have been desired. The gene¬
ral state of education in Kentucky may be gathered from
a document furnished by the census of 1830. A committee
had been appointed by the house of representatives to
examine the subject, but the returns made to that body
appear to be very inaccurate. If, however, we take those
counties from which correct returns are supposed to have
been made, it would appear that the number at school does
not amount to more than one third of the aggregate num¬
ber of children.
The first newspaper in Kentucky was printed at Lexing¬
ton in 1786. The number printed in the state in 1810
was seventeen, and in 1834 twenty-five. There is a jour¬
nal of medicine published, and some other periodicals have
been attempted.
By a return, dated the 30th of August 1834, the bank
in Kentucky stood thus : Capital, 1,079,435 dollars ; notes
issued, 450,000 dollars; specie and specie funds, 240,690
dollars ; deposits, 250,000 dollars ; discounts of notes, &c.
1,500,000. The postage received in Kentucky for the
year ending 31st March 1832 amounted to 42,979*30 dol¬
lars. The population of this state by the census of 1830
was 688,844, of whom 165,350 were slaves, (r. r. r.)
KENWYN, a parish in the county of Cornwall, within
the hundred of Powder, 257 miles from London. It
joins the town of Truro, and forms a kind of suburb to
it. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 4017, in 1811
to 5000, in 1821 to 6221, and in 1831 to 8492.
KENZINGEN, a city, the capital ofthe bailiwick of the
same name, in the circle of Treisam, in the duchy of Baden.
The bailiwick comprehends two towns, twenty villages and
hamlets, peopled by 12,100 souls. The city stands on the
river Elz, in a fine situation, containing 460 houses, and
2430 inhabitants. It is surrounded with walls, and is a
place of some trade, especially in leather. Near to it is
the well-frequented baths of Birnhalden.
700 K E P
Keounsay KEOUNSAY, a town of the Burman empire, situated
II on the eastern bank of the Irrawaddy River; and, like all
the other towns in this country, the houses are raised
several feet above the ground, upon piles. Long. 96.40.
E. Lat. 17. 20. N.
KEPLER, John, one of the most eminent astronomers
who have appeared in any age, was born at Wiel, on the
27th of December 1571. His father’s name was Henry
Kepler, an officer of distinction in the army of Wirtem-
berg, but reduced to poverty by numerous misfortunes.
This exposed young Kepler to many difficulties and inter¬
ruptions whilst acquiring the rudiments of his education;
but such was his genius and his avidity for knowledge,
that he surmounted every difficulty, and made astonishing
proficiency. He studied at the university of Tubingen,
where he obtained the degree of bachelor in the year
1588, and that of master of philosophy in 1591. In the
year 1592 he applied himself to the study of divinity ;
and the sermons he produced afforded sufficient indication
that he would have excelled as a preacher had he conti¬
nued in the clerical profession. The mathematics, how¬
ever, became his favourite study; and he soon acquired
such distinguished reputation as a geometrician, that he
was invited to Gratz in Styria in the year 1594, to fill the
mathematical chair in the university of that city. After
this period his chief attention was directed to the study
of astronomy, and he made many interesting discoveries
respecting the laws of the planetary motions.
Two years after his marriage with a lady descended
from a noble fatuity, persecution on account of his religion
compelled him to quit Gratz, to which he was afterwards
recalled by the states of Styria. The calamities of war,
however, induced him to look out for a residence where he
might enjoy greater safety and tranquillity. During this
uncomfortable situation of affairs, the celebrated Tycho
Brahe strongly urged him to settle in Bohemia as his as¬
sistant, where he himself had every necessary requisite
furnished to him by the Emperor Rodolph for the prose¬
cution of his astronomical studies. The numerous and
urgent letters which Kepler received upon this subject,
and the solemn assurances that he should be introduced
to the emperor, at length induced him to leave the uni¬
versity, and settle in Bohemia with his family, in the year
1600. But on his way to that country he was seized
with a quartan ague, which afflicted him for seven or eight
months, and rendered him incapable of contributing that
aid to Tycho which he would otherwise have done. He
was likewise displeased with the conduct of this astrono¬
mer towards him, and thought that he behaved in an un¬
friendly manner, by neglecting to do a material service
to his family when be had it in his power. Kepler further
considered him as by far too reserved, in not communi¬
cating to him the whole of his discoveries and improve¬
ments. Tycho died in the year 1601, and the intercourse
between these two eminent men being thus of short du¬
ration, precluded Kepler from being either serviceable
to, or deriving much advantage from, the investigations
and researches of the Danish astronomer. Kepler, how¬
ever, was introduced to the Emperor by Tycho, in con¬
formity to his promise, and appointed mathematician to
his imperial majesty, with instructions to complete the
Rodolphine Tables, which that great man had commenced.
These were not published till the year 1627, owing to a
variety of obstructions and difficulties which were thrown
in his way. Two years after the publication of this work,
he went, by permission of the emperor, to Ratisbon, to
claim payment of the arrears of his pension, but he was
there seized with a violent fever, supposed to have been
brought upon him by too hard riding; and to this he fell
a victim in the month of November 1630, in the fifty-
ninth year of his age.
K E P
The learned world is indebted to this sagacious and Kennel
able astronomer for the discovery of the true figure of Bav.
the planetary orbits, and the proportions of the motions
of the solar system. Like the disciples of Pythagoras and
Plato, Kepler was seized with a peculiar passion for find¬
ing analogies and harmonies in nature ; and although this
led him to the adoption of strange and ridiculous con¬
ceits, we shall readily be disposed to overlook these, when
we reflect that they were the means of leading him to the
most important discoveries. He was for some time so
charmed with the whimsical notions contained in his
Mysterium Cosmographicum, published in 1596, that he de¬
clared he would not give up the honour of having invent¬
ed what was contained in that book for the electorate of
Saxony; so easy is it for the greatest of men to be de¬
ceived by a favourite hypothesis.
He was the first who discovered that astronomers had
been mistaken in ascribing circular orbits and uniform
motions to the planets, since each of them moves in an
ellipsis having one of its foci in the sun ; and, after a va¬
riety of fruitless efforts, he, on the 15th of May 1618,
made his splendid discovery, that the squares of the pe¬
riodic times of the planets are always in the same pro¬
portion as the cubes of their mean distances from the
sun. As it was long a favourite opinion of Kepler’s that
there are only six primary planets, he seems to have been
alarmed at the discovery made by Galileo of four new
planets, or satellites of Jupiter, which gave a deathblow
to the doctrines contained in his Mysterium Cosmogra¬
phicum. The sagacity of this wonderful man, and his in¬
cessant application to the study of the planetary motions,
pointed out to him some of the genuine principles from
which these motions originate. Lie considered gravity
as a power that is mutual between bodies; that the earth
and moon tend towards each other, and would meet in a
point so many times nearer to the earth than to the moon
as the earth is greater than the moon, if their motions did
not prevent it. His opinion of the tides was, that they
arise from the gravitation of the waters towards the moon ;
but his notions of the laws of motion not being accurate,
he could not turn his conceptions to the best advantage.
The prediction he uttered at the end of his epitome of
astronomy has been long since verified by the discoveries
of Sir Isaac Newton, namely, that the determination of
the true laws of gravity was reserved for the succeed¬
ing age, when the Author of nature would be pleased to
reveal those mysteries.
To this concise account of the illustrious Kepler we
shall now add a list of his principal publications. These
are, 1. Mysterium Cosmographicum, already mentioned,
4to; 2. Paralipomena ad Vitellionem, quibus Astronomiae
Pars Optica traditur, 1604, 4to; 3. De Stella Nova in
Pede Serpentarii, 1606, 4to ; 4. Astronomia Nova, seu
Physica Caelestis, tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stel¬
la: Martis, ex Observationibus Tyconis Brahei, 1609, fo¬
lio ; 5. Dissertationes cum Nuncio Sidereo Galilei, 1610;
6. De Cometis libri tres, 1611, 4to; 7. Ephemerides
Novae, from 1617 to 1620 ; 8. Epitome Astronomiae Coper-
nicanae, in two volumes 8vo, the first published in 1618,
and the second in 1622; 9. Harmonices Mundi, lib. v.
1619, 4to; 10. Chilias Logarithmorum in totidem nume-
ros rotundos, 1624, 4to; 11. Supplementum Chiliadis,
&c. 1625, 4to; 12. Tabulae Rodolphinae, 1627, folio; 13.
De Jesu Christi Servatoris anno natalitio. He was also
the author of several pieces connected with chronolo¬
gy, the mensuration of solids, and trigonometry, and ot
a treatise on dioptrics, an excellent performance for the
period in which he flourished. See the Dissertations on
the History of Physical and Mathematical Science prefix¬
ed to this work.
KEPPEL Bay, on the eastern coast of New Holland,
K E R
?rah discovered and so named by Captain Cook, who sailed past
| it in 1770. It was visited by Captain Flinders, who dis-
eri* covered that it communicated with Port Curtis. Long.
t*ie anchorage, 150. 58. E. Lat. 23. 29. S.
^ KERAH, or Haweeza, and by the Turks called Ka-
rasu, a considerable river of Persia, which takes its rise in
the mountains of Ardelan, in Kurdistan, from the junc¬
tion of numerous streams. It makes its way through the
plain of Kermanshaw, greatly increased by the contribu¬
tion of two considerable rivers, the Kazawur and the
Gamasu; after which it flows with a furious course
through Chusistan, receiving in its progress the accession
of many streams. It flows onward to the ruins of Shus,
and the city of Haweeza, and enters the Shut-el-Arab
about twenty miles below Korna.
KERBELA, or Meshed Hossein, a large and popu¬
lous town of Irak Arabi, situated at the extremity of a
very noble canal drawn from the Euphrates. This was
called by the ancient geographers Vologesia, and is
mentioned as an inconsiderable place. But since the
death of Hossein, the son of Ali by Fatima, the daughter
of the prophet, who was slain near this place, and is in¬
terred at it, it has greatly increased, from the numerous
resort of pilgrims of the sect of Ali, who flock to it from
all quarters, especially from Persia, to pay devotions at
the shrine. It has five gates, a well-supplied bazar, and
seven caravanserais. But the chief and the only orna¬
ments of the city are, the tomb of Hossein, which is
adorned with a lofty cupola, gilded by Nadir Shah ; and
a noble mosque, consecrated to the memory of Abbas,
the half-brother of the Imam. The town is subject to
the Turks, but the majority of the inhabitants are Per¬
sians. The environs of the town and borders of the ca¬
nal are shaded by extensive plantations of palm trees;
and the walls, which are upwards of two miles in circum¬
ference, were repaired some years ago, to secure the rich¬
es of the city against the incursions of the Wahabees, by
whom it was plundered when that sect was more power¬
ful. The canal of Kerbela, or Nahr Sares, though it
now bears the name of Hossein, is more ancient than
the days of Alexander. This place is fifty miles south-
south-west of Bagdad.
KERCOLANG, an island in the Eastern Seas, and
the largest of the Salibabo islands, estimated at from
eighty to a hundred miles in circumference, and inhabit¬
ed chiefly by Mahommedans. It is situated between the
4th and 5th degrees of north latitude, and about 126. 30.
of east longitude.
KERESOUN, a sea-port of Rumiyah, in Asiatic Tur¬
key, situated in a gulf of the Black Sea bearing the same
name. It consists of about 700 ruinous houses, of which
500 are inhabited by Turks, 150 by Greeks, and fifty by
Armenians, the only industrious portion of the communi¬
ty. The town is built on an elevated rocky promontory
which bounds the bay, and is supposed to be the ancient
Cerasus. The inhabitants trade with the Crimea. It is
seventy miles west-south-west of Trebisond.
KERGUELEN’S Land, or Island of Desolation,
an island in the South Indian Ocean, discovered by Ker¬
guelen, a Frenchman, and visited in the year 1779 by
Captain Cook. It occupies one degree and a quarter of
latitude, and about two oflongitude. It is almost totally
destitute of vegetation, owing to the coldness and mois¬
ture of the climate; and is represented as one of the
bleakest and most desolate places of the earth, the haunt
of sea-birds and amphibious animals. Long. 69. 30. E.
Lat. 49. 20. S.
KERI-CETIB, are various readings in the Hebrew
Bible, keri signifying that which is read, and cetib that
which is written. For where any such various readings
occur, the wrong reading is written in the text, and that
K E R 701
is called the cetib ; and the true reading' is written in the Kerinja
margin, with p under it, and called the heri. It is gene- ^ I!
rally said by the Jewish writers that these corrections Kern.
were introduced by Ezra; but it is more probable that
they had their origin from the mistakes of the transcrib¬
ers after the time of Ezra, and the observations and cor¬
rections of the Masorites. Those keri-cetibs which are
found in the sacred books written by Ezra himself, or
which were taken into the canon after his time, could not
have been noticed by Ezra himself; and this affords a
presumption that the others are of later date. These
words amount to about a thousand ; and Dr Kennicott,
in his Dissertatio Generalis, remarks that all of them
excepting fourteen have been found in the text of differ¬
ent manuscripts.
KERINJA, a large walled town of Hindustan, in the
province of Berar. It has a large reservoir of water.
The latitude is not ascertained.
KERKOOK, a town of Asiatic Turkey, and the largest
of Lower Kurdistan. It is the ancient Demetrias of
Strabo, and the Gorcura of Ptolemy. It is in the direct
road from Bagdad to Mosul, fifty- nine furlongs from the
former, and forty-one from the latter. The city is situ¬
ated on a commanding eminence, nearly perpendicular on
all sides, below which is an extensive suburb ; and it still
retains the appearance of a Roman fortress. A nearer
examination of the town, however, disclosing the narrow¬
ness and filth of the streets, together with the meanness
of the houses, leaves no doubt as to the character and
habits of the people. The city is defended by a mud wall,
and has two gates, seven mosques, fourteen coffee-houses,
a museum, a caravanserai, an Armenian church, and
twelve pieces of useless artillery on the bastions. In the
suburbs are five mosques, nine small caravanserais, thir¬
teen coffee-houses, three convents, and three catholic
churches. The surrounding country is unequal in its sur¬
face, and on the north side is a low range of barren and
rocky mountains." The population of Kerkook is estimat¬
ed at 18,000, though Mr Kinneir does not think it can
exceed 13,000. These consist of Turks, Armenians,
Nestorians, and Kurds. Long. 43. 42. E. Lat. 35. 29. N.
KERMANSHAW, a handsome and flourishing town
of Persia, in the western part of the province of Irak. It
is situated on the south-western slope of a range of moun¬
tains, at the extremity of a large plain, through the centre
of which runs the Kerah or Karasu. It has the appear¬
ance of a handsome city, exhibiting the glittering domes
of mosques within, and the battlements and towers of lofty
walls without. The present shah has made it the capital
of the district, over which he has constituted his eldest
son, Mahmoud Ali Mirza, the governor. This prince is
daily adding to its importance, by the construction of mo¬
dern defensive works, and the erection of various public
edifices. The bazar was rebuilt on an extensive plan in
1818, when it was visited by Sir R. K. Porter; a magni¬
ficent palace was also finished at the same time. Kerman¬
shaw is famous for a manufactory of fire-arms, and the vil¬
lages in its vicinity for carpets of the most beautiful co¬
lours and fabric. Luxurious gardens surround the town,
abounding in fruits of all kinds, but particularly in grapes
of a delicious muscatel flavour. The population amounts
to 15,000 families, amongst whom there are a few Chris¬
tians and Jews. It is 140 miles north-east from Bagdad.
Long. 46. 30. E. Lat. 34. 20. N.
KERMES, the name of an insect produced in the ex¬
crescences of a species of the oak.
Kermes Mineral, so called from its colour, which resem¬
bles that of vegetable kermes, is one of the antimonial pre¬
parations.
KERN, or Kerne, a term in the ancient Irish militia,
signifying a foot soldier. Camden tells us that the armies of
702 K E R
Kerrey Ireland consisted'of cavalry, called galloglasses ; and infan-
II try, lightly armed, called kernes. The kernes were armed,
with swords and darts; and to the latter were fitted cords,
by which they could recover them after they had been
launched out.
KERREY, a large parish in the county of Montgo¬
mery, and hundred of that name, in North Wales, i?9
miles from London. It is finely situated on a gentle
eminence in a beautiful valley, and the country around
it is highly fertile. A large proportion of the population
is employed in making fine Welsh flannels. It has a
fine old Gothic church, of most venerable appearance. The
population amounted in 1801 to 1758, in 1811 to 1855, in
1821 to 2038, and in 1831 to 2199.
KERRY, a maritime county in the province of Mun¬
ster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the estuary of
the river Shannon, which separates it from the county of
Clare ; on the east by the counties of Limerick and Cork ;
on the south by the county of Cork and the Atlantic ;
and on the west by the same ocean. The tribe of the
Juvernii inhabited this part of Ireland during the time
when Ptolemy wrote. Previously to the English invasion,
the O’Connors were in possession of its northern parts,
the Moriartys of the middle, and the O’Sullivans and
O’Donoghoes of the southern. The M‘Carthys were also
a powerful sept here ; but their property afterwards fell
into the hands of the Fitzgeralds, from whom was de¬
scended the Desmond family, the head of which exercis¬
ed an authority nearly equal to that of sovereign in Kerry
and the adjoining counties till the close of the reign of
Elizabeth. The county was made shire-ground so early as
1210, by King John ; but afterwards the southern part of
it, together with a large portion of the county of Cork, as
far as the mouth of the Blackwater, was formed into a
palatinate in favour of the earl just named. After the
attainder of the last Earl of Desmond, and the confisca¬
tion of his property, the county was portioned out amongst
English adventurers, the principal of whom were the
Dennys, the Brownes, and the Conways. It is at present
divided into the eight baronies of Clanmaurice, Corka-
guiney, Dunkerron, Glanerough, Iraghticonnor, Iveragh,
Magonihy, and Trughenachmy. It extends over a sur¬
face of 1,148,720 acres, of which 581,189 acres are culti¬
vable land, 552,862 acres are mountain and bog, and the
remaining 14,699 acres are covered with water. The
average length and breadth of Kerry is sixty miles from
north to south, by fifty-four from east to west.
The county contains the two dioceses of Ardfert and
Aghadoe, which have from time immemorial been united
so intimately that the parishes belonging to each cannot
be ascertained. In 1663 they were both allowed to be
held in commendam by the Bishop of Limerick, and the
union thus formed has not been since disturbed. This
union of dioceses is the only one that has not been "in
some manner altered by the late arrangements for the re¬
duction of the number of Irish bishoprics. The diocese
of Ardfert includes the northern part of the county; the
seat of the see is Ardfert, a small town, now little more
than a village. The cathedral was burned in the wars of
1641. A small part of the building was afterwards fitted
up for divine service, and has been since kept in decent
repair. The seat of the diocese of Aghadoe, which com¬
prehended the southern part of the county, is at a place
of the same name, near Killarney, where the ruins of the
cathedral are still to be seen. The number of parishes
in the united dioceses is eighty-eight, five of which are
in the county of Cork.
The land in the northern part of the county is low and
level, although it rises to a considerable elevation at the
north-western promontory of Kerry Head, which presents
an elevated summit to the fury of the Atlantic. The
K E R
middle part is an upland, gradually rising to the east and j^'errv
south ; the southern is wholly mountain and glen, having
in it some of the highest points in Ireland. The loftiest of
these is Garran-Tual, 3410 feet above the sea, being the
summit of the range called M‘Gillycuddy’s Reeks, which
stretches across the barony of Dunkerron, sending out
several branches in various directions. Of these, Man-
gerton, stretching towards the east, is the next in eleva¬
tion, being 2550 feet high; more eastward of which are
the Paps, rising to a height of 2280 feet; and between
both these, Turk, Glena, and Tomies Mountains, all of
elevations little inferior. To the west are the mountains
of Drung and Cullee, each 2000 feet high, separating
Dunkerron from Iveragh, in which latter barony or pe¬
ninsula are the lofty summits of Knockalin, 2150 feet,
Knockadubber, 2000, and Knockatubrid, 1556 feet high.
More northerly are Brandon Hill, Slieve Mish, the Stacks,
and the Glanruddery Mountains, all of inferior elevation
to those already mentioned. These mountain ranges are
intersected by deep and precipitous glens, possessing fea¬
tures of sublime and picturesque scenery. One, called
the Gap of Dunlo, lying between Tomies and M‘Gilly-
cuddy’s Reeks, is formed by mountains on each side, near¬
ly perpendicular, and opens into a valley watered by a
succession of mountain lakes, and terminated by a roman¬
tic waterfall. These valleys are the beds through which
numerous rivers take their course. The most northern
rivers are the Feale, Gale, and Brick, which, having
formed a junction near Rattoochurch, discharge their
united streams, under the name of the Cashen, into the es¬
tuary of the Shannon. The Mang passes by Castlemaine,
and empties itself into Dingle Bay. The Flesk, after a
winding course through Glanflesk, falls into the Lake of
Killarney, from which it passes, under the name of the
Laune or Lane, with a body of waters much augmented,
into Dingle Bay. The Carra, rising in the mountains of
Dunkerron, falls into the same bay. The Fahrta and the
Inny rise in Drung Mountain, and flow westward, the
former into Yalentia Harbour, the latter into Ballinskelig’s
Bay. The Roughty empties itself into the head of the
estuary called Kenmare River. The Blackwater forms
part of the boundary between this county and Cork.
Lakes are numerous, but few of large size. The principal
is the Lake of Killarney, celebrated for its scenery. It is
situated near the town of Killarney, at the northern side
of the range of mountains of which the Reeks form the
summit, and consists of three lakes, named the Lower,
Turk, and Upper. The first and second are separated
only by a narrow isthmus, on which the fine ruin of Mu-
cruss Abbey stands. The third is situated three miles
higher in the mountains, and is connected with the others
by a river navigable by boats, and equally admired as the
lakes themselves for the scenery of its banks. The lower
lake is studded with several islands, of which the most
remarkable, both for fertility and beauty, is Innisfallen, on
which stand the ruins of an abbey of the same name.
The island also gives name to one of the most ancient ot
the native chronicles, entitled the Annals of Innisfallen.
On Ross Island are the ruins of Ross Castle, which made
a gallant stand against the parliamentary forces in the
wars of 1641. Another is named O’Donoghoe’s Prison,.
from being supposed to have been used as a place ot
confinement by a chieftain of that name. The other
more remarkable features of the Lower Lake are O’Sulli¬
van’s Cascade, and the Bay of Glena, where there is an
extraordinary echo. Turk Lake has but one island, named
the Devil’s Island. The Upper Lake has several. The
most remarkable are, Oak, Arbutus, Ronar’s, and Eagle
Islands. The Lower Lake is not more than fifty ieet above
the level of the sea. The other lakes in the county are
Lough Carrane, near Ballinskelig’s Bay, containing several
KERR Y.
rry. islands ; Loughs Derriana and Elaineane, in the mountains
s y'—' of Iveragh ; and Lough Brien, Carra, and Gutane, in
Dunkerron. The Devil's Punch-Bowl is a small but
very deep lake, near the summit of Mangerton Mountain ;
its water is extremely cold. Lough Quintan, near Kil-
macaloge Harbour, has some small floating islands in it.
Ihe coast is indented by several large bays. That
next the county of Cork is the estuary of the Kenmare
River, which contains some good harbours, and has a
number of small islands along its shores. The next is
Ballinskelig’s Bay, to the north of which are the Skelig
Islands. On the largest of these there was a convent,
which was afterwards transferred to the mainland. The
gannet breeds here, and nowhere else on the coast.
North of this bay is Valentia Island, separated from the
mainland by a safe and capacious roadstead, which has
been chosen as the termination of a proposed railway
from Dublin across Ireland, for facilitating the communi¬
cation with North America. Dingle Bay succeeds, con¬
taining within it Castlemaine and Dingle Harbours, and
having the Blasquet Islands at its northern extremity.
Dunmore Head, to the north-west of this bay, is the most
western point of Ireland. Smerwick Bay, Brandon Bay,
and Tralee Bay are adapted for smaller vessels only ; be¬
tween the two latter are the Magharees or Seven Hogs
Islands. Ballyheige Bay is separated from the Shannon
by the bold promontory of Kerry Head. Within the
mouth of the Shannon are the harbours of Ballylongford
and Tarbert, the latter protected by the island of the
same name.
The climate is mild, but moist. Many plants, general¬
ly deemed suitable only for the genial atmosphere of more
southern latitudes, grow here freely; and cattle remain
frequently in the open air during the whole winter.
The soil in the northern parts is retentive and coarse;
the middle district is mostly of an alluvial character. The
valley of the river Mang is entirely limestone. The up¬
lands are chiefly argillaceous, but with limestone inter¬
mixed. The valleys in the mountainous region of the
south are mostly covered with bog ; and, though at pre¬
sent little better than wastes, they are capable, from their
favourable exposure, of being cultivated to advantage.
All the limestone in the county is secondary, with marine
remains and calc spar. The north-western coast to Kerry
Head is composed of beds of argillaceous sandstone, near¬
ly horizontal, in the partings of which, the quartz crystals
called Kerrystones are found. The midland district is
mostly argillaceous, composed chiefly of slate clay and
hard sandstone, covering beds of anthracolite and culm,
which has not been raised for fuel, partly on account of the
abundance of turf, partly from the offensive vapour of the
coal when ignited. The component rock of the mountains
which form the wdiole of the southern district is of the tran¬
sition class, being a clay slate or ardesia. The slate is
quarried for roofing, particularly at Valentia Island. It is
light and durable, splits readily, bears piercing, and is
harder and more siliceous than that of Bangor. In all the
mountains the common gritstone contains large quan¬
tities of spar or crystal. Detached blocks of it are also
found in the valleys, in some places in such quantity as
seriously to impede cultivation. Iron ore is found in great
plenty in the southern parts, and was largely manufactur¬
ed at Killarney and Blackstones, until the works were
stopped by the failure of timber for fuel. Copper was
raised at Mucruss and Ardfert. The marble of Tralee
is marked like that of Kilkenny, but with larger spqts;
■other kinds of marble have been raised in various parts.
Fine amethysts have been found near Kerry Head. Pot¬
ters’ and pipe clay, a substance like tripoii, brown ochre,
and fuller’s earth, are to be met with in various places.
The whetstones found near the Devil’s Punch-Bowl are
much valued. Fossil shells, particularly of the cockle
species, are frequent. Several mineral springs, some cha-
lybeate, others sulphuro-chalybeate, have been discover¬
ed. Of the former, there is one near Killarney, another
near Valentia Island, another at the mouth of the Inny,
and several between Blackstones and Killorglin. Of the
latter, the most celebrated are near Dingle, Castlemaine,
and Tralee. A saline spring at Magherybeg, in Corka-
guiney, rises a little below high-water mark, bursting out
of a clear white sand.
The deep and extensive vales with which the moun¬
tainous district in the south is everywhere indented, are
almost wholly occupied with bog, most of which, from its
elevated position, and the declivities of the land, would
admit of easy and profitable reclamation. The extent of
bog throughout the county is estimated at 171,054! acres.
One species of it, called by the people meagh-bone, or fat
turf, is of a highly inflammable quality, and is therefore
used more to give light than heat: a small piece applied
to a lighted candle burns like a wax taper. The county
was once covered with timber, much of which has been
cut down for the supply of the iron-works; but there are
still many fine tracts of wood; and, even where the land
has been cleared, its re-growth is prevented solely by the
cattle; for, wherever these are excluded, the trees shoot
up from the old roots so vigorously as often to choke up
the young plantations. Some of the great landed pro¬
prietors are very attentive to the rearing of timber trees.
The population of the county, according to the estimate
of De Burgo, amounted to 56,628 in 1760 ; in 1792,
Beaufort judged it to amount to 107,000. The first par¬
liamentary census, taken in 1813, which, however, was
very inaccurate, stated it at 178,622 ; that of 1821, the
most correct of any, gives 216,185 ; that of 1831, 264,559.
The census of 1834 being returned according to dioceses
instead of counties, prevents the specification of the
amount of the population at that period ; but from that
return it appears that the dioceses of Ardfert and Agha-
doe, which are nearly commensurate with the county,
contained 304,687 souls, of whom 7529 were Protestants
of the established church, twenty-seven Protestant dis¬
senters, and 297,131 Roman Catholics.
The returns of inquiries relative to education present
the following results :—
Boys.
Girls. Sex unascer¬
tained.
Total.
1821, 10,106 3532 ... 13,638
1824-26, 14,406 5609 76 20,091
Of the number specified in the second of these returns,
1026 were of the established church, 19,055 Roman Ca¬
tholics, ten whose religious persuasion was unascertained.
The total number of schools was 354, of which twenty-
six, containing 1062 pupils, were supported by grants of
public money ; twenty-nine, containing 2766 pupils, by
voluntary contributions of societies or individuals; the re¬
maining 299, containing 16,263 pupils, were wholly sup¬
ported by the fees of the parents and friends of the chil¬
dren who had recourse to them for instruction.
The relative numbers of Protestant and Roman Catho¬
lic children at the schools at the latter period were 1026
and 19,065 ; of which numbers, 16,263 paid for their edu¬
cation, 2766 were educated by voluntary subscriptions,
and only 1062 derived sthe means of education from the
grants of public money. This county was formerly fa¬
mous for the knowledge of the Latin language acquired
by the peasantry. The same holds good to the present
day, though in an inferior degree. A taste for mathema¬
tics and arithmetic also prevails.
Previously to the union, the county returned eight
members to parliament; two for the county, and two for
each of the boroughs of Tralee, Dingle, and Ardfert. By
703
Kerry.
704 KERRY.
Kerry, the union the number was reduced to three, two for the
county, and one for Tralee; and the reform act has made
no change in this arrangement. The number of magis¬
trates is 126, of whom fifteen are clergymen. The pre¬
servation of the peace is in the charge of the constabulary,
consisting of six chief constables, thirty-two constables,
and ninety-six sub-constables, making a total of T28 indi¬
viduals.
The state of the constituency before and after the re¬
form act is as follows :—
Date. L.100. L.50. L.20- I,. 10. 40s. Total.
1st Jan. 1829, 88 460 269 ... 3776 4593
1st Jan. 1830, 88 476 334 126 ... 1024
1st May 1832, ... 277 231 653 ... 1161
Tillage is in a more backward state than in any other
part of Ireland, no regular system being practised. Ihe
usual crops are, potatoes, wheat, barley, oats, and flax;
green crops are little known; rape is cultivated in a few
places, for the seed. Dairies are numerous, particularly in
the northern parts. The management of the cattle, and
the manufacture of the butter, are judicious. An hundred
thousand firkins of butter are annually sent to Cork for
sale. Lime is much used for manure, as is also sea-sand,
one species of which, called floating sand, from its great
lightness, and found to consist wholly of fragments of shell,
is much prized. In the mountainous parts the plough is
little used, the tillage being chiefly executed by a long
narrow-bladed spade, called a loy.
Kerry was remarkable for a small breed of black cattle
and of horses. But both have degenerated so far as to be
nearly extinct, in consequence of the introduction of Eng¬
lish breeds. The native Kerry cow was prized for the
beauty of its shape, the quantity of its milk, the facility
with which it was fattened, and the excellence of its beef.
The ponies were formerly found to be strong enough for
agricultural purposes, but are now so degenerate as to be
unfit for any thing but light saddle weights. Numbers
of them, which never felt the restraint of a halter until
transferred to the purchaser, are annually driven down
from the mountains to the fairs held in the northern dis¬
trict. The Suffolk punch is now the favourite breed amongst
the farmers. The sheep are of the mountain kind, in some
parts of large size, and in general carrying good clothing
wool. They have a strong resemblance to the Spanish
merinos, from which they are supposed to be descended.
The chief manufacture is that of coarse linen, which is
mostly confined to the barony of Corkaguiney. A quality
of narrow cloth, of strong texture, called handle linen, and
also “ box and trap,” was in great demand for the army
and the West India market. It owed its reputation to the
careful method of preparing the yarn, but has latterly
fallen into disrepute from mismanagement. The manu¬
facture of wool is almost entirely confined to that employed
in the domestic consumption, the rest being sent in the
raw state to the Cork and Limerick markets. Flannels,
however, are sold in some quantities in the markets of Tra¬
lee and Dingle. There are some distilleries, and several
breweries, in the northern part of the county.
The fishery is chiefly carried on at Dingle and Valentia,
from the former in row-boats, and from the latter in sail¬
ing vessels. A fishery is also carried on along the shores
of the Kenmare River. All kinds of round fish are taken,
as are also herrings. Pilchards were caught in large quan¬
tities, but they have latterly deserted the coast. Shell-fish
of every kind are large and abundant. Salmon is caught
in the rivers ; but in some places the numbers are con¬
siderably diminished by the seals which frequent the rocky
shores. These are sometimes shot while basking on the
cliffs; at other times they are taken by moonlight in the
caves, whither they retire to sleep. This latter mode of
capture is attended with danger, as these animals fight
desperately with their teeth, when driven to extremity, par- Kerrj
ticularly when their cubs are in danger.
The state of the peasantry varies greatly in the different
parts of the county. In the mountainous districts they are
comfortable; and, though poorly housed, are well clothed,
and enjoy an abundance of fuel. In some parts, the women
wear a very becoming dress, consisting of a jacket of crim¬
son or scarlet cloth, with long loose sleeves, made to fit
very close round the neck and bosom, and fastened in front
with a row of buttons. Marriages are contracted at a
very early age ; young men are often husbands at eighteen,
and young women wives much sooner. In other districts
the cattle and pigs are housed under the same roof w ith the
family ; the bedding is straw, hay, or dry rushes, with a
blanket or coverlet, the floors of the cabins being mostly
beneath the level of the soil, with no aperture but the door
to let in the light or give vent to the smoke; the clothing
is poor and scanty, two thirds of the population being
without shoes or stockings ; the diet, potatoes and sour-
milk. The wages in spring and harvest are tenpence a-
day, at other seasons there is no employment. Labourers
have been known to offer their day’s employment for two¬
pence. In stature, the men are generally tall and well-
proportioned, with swarthy complexions, dark eyes, and
long black hair, exhibiting marked traces of their Spanish
origin. They are a frank, honest race, of independent spi¬
rit, acute understanding, and of a friendly, hospitable dispo¬
sition to strangers.
Remains of antiquity are numerous and singular. The
most remarkable, as being unique, is a circular building on
the mountains, on the north side of Kenmare River, called
Staigue Fort. It surrounds an enclosure about eighty-
eight feet in diameter. The wall is about ten feet high,
built entirely of dry stone, without mortar, yet so smooth
and compact on the outside as to have defied the ravages
of time. On the inside it is built in the form of steps, so
as to resemble a kind of amphitheatre. The entrance is by
a small door, looking directly southwards. Nothing cer¬
tain is known as to the origin or purpose of this singular
erecth n. Among other conjectures, the most prevalent is,
that ;4 was devoted to religious exhibitions. A late inge¬
nious inquirer supposes, from the position of the door, that
it had been an observatory. The remains of three pillar
towers still exist. One at Ardfert fell in 1771; of the
second, at Aghadoe, about twenty feet remain standing;
the third and most perfect is at Rattoo. The ruins of mo¬
nastic institutions are numerous. The most celebrated is
Mucruss Abbey, on the peninsula which divides the two
lower lakes of Killarney : it is one of the great objects of
interest to visitors of that place. In the cloisters, which
are surrounded by a colonnade, in two different styles of
Gothic architecture, is a venerable yew tree, that throws its
branches over the whole interior. Ballinskelig Monastery
stood originally on the largest of the islands of the same
name, but was afterwards removed to a site on the adjoin¬
ing mainland : it is in yearly danger of being w ashed away
by the sea. O’Dorney Abbey, near the river Brick, is now
a shapeless ruin. Rattoo is said to have been once the site
of seven churches, and of a commandery of knights of St
John, and also to have been a borough town. There was
a dominican monastery at Tralee ; but no traces of it now
remain. The ruins of several stone cells, supposed to have
been the residence of anchorites, still exist. There are
many remains of ancient castles. Among the most ic-
markable are those of Carrigafoyle, Dunlo, Ballyheige,
and Ardea, commanding an extensive view of Kenmare
River, and once the residence of the O’Sullivans ; Dunker-
ron, another seat of the same family ; and Innisfallen, on
the island of the same name. This last was taken by
ral Ludlow during the wars of 1641. A singular dyke, called
Glee Ruagh, or the Red Ditch, proceeds from Kerry Head
f w
K E S K E T
K sey to the Cashin River, and thence to Limerick county, where purses. The word kista, in Chaldee, signifies a measure, a
its traces are no longer visible; it is supposed to have vessel; and Eustathius says that kista is a Persian mea-
tah. formed the boundary line between the principalities of sure. Jonathan, and the Targum of Jerusalem, translate
^ Thomond and Desmond. kesitah a pearl (Gen. xxxiii. 19; Job. xlii. 11), or L.9
Tralee, the assize town, and the largest in the county, English, supposing, as Dr Prideaux does, that a shekel is
was once the chief residence of the Earls of Desmond, and worth 3s. A daric is a piece of gold, which, according to
the place where they held their palatine court. On the Dr Prideaux, is worth 25s. of English money,
ruin of that family, it was made the county town, and ob- KESMARK, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Hun-
tained a charter, with the right of returning two members gary, in the province of the Hither Theiss. • It stands on
to parliament, which it retained till the union, when it was the river Poprad, at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains,
deprived of one of its members. Previously to that period, It contains 4650 inhabitants, of whom the majority adhere
the constituency was limited to the burgesses, fifteen in to the Lutheran church. It is adorned by an elegant pa¬
number, who were nominated by the proprietor of the lace, has one protestant and two catholic churches, and a
town, Sir Edward Denny. It now consists of 180 bur- Lutheran lyceum, with four professors. There are manu-
gesses and householders. The town suffered greatly in factures of linens and flannels, and considerable trade in
the civil wars of 1641 and 1688. Its situation is healthy wine. Long. 20. 22. E. Lat. 40. 73. N.
and picturesque, but not well adapted for trade, as large KESTREL, the English name for a hawk, called also
vessels can approach no nearer than the Samphire Islands, the stannel and the windhover, and sometimes the tinnincu-
two miles distant. The court-house and jail form one side lus and chencris. It builds in hollow oaks, and feeds on
of a square in the centre of the town. The other public partridges and other birds.
buildings are, the church, which is a fine modern structure, KESWICK, a market-town of the county of Cumber-
the Roman Catholic chapel, the Methodist and Independent land, in the parish of Crossthwaite, in Allerdale ward. It
meeting-houses, the county infirmary, the dispensary, and stands in a deep valley, on the celebrated lake of the same
an infantry barrack for six hundred men. The remains of name, or, as it is sometimes called, the Derwent Water. It
one of the four castles belonging to the Desmond family consists of a single narrow, long street, with no attractive
are still in existence. At some distance from the town is objects. It is protected from the cold winds of the north
a celebrated sulphuro-chalybeate spa. The population in by the lofty mountain of Skiddaw, which rises to the height
1832 amounted to 9562. The next town in rank and po- of nearly 3000 feet. In the summer it is visited by nume-
pulation is Killarney, which owes its celebrity chiefly to rous parties, who make it their head-quarters whilst enjoy-
the lakes in its neighbourhood; and there were, till lately, ing the scenery of the lakes and mountains in its vicinity,
extensive iron mines wrought here. Mennius states, that Keswick is a place of little trade, but there is a market
there were four circles of mines round this town ; tin, lead, held on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
copper, and iron. Tin has not been found here in modern 1350, in 1811 to 1683, in 1821 to 1901, and in 1831 to
times. Lord Kenmare’s seat is contiguous to the town. Its 2159.
population is 4710. Dingle, a place of some trade, and a KESZTHELY, a large and pleasantly-situated town of
fishing station, contains 4357 inhabitants. The population the Austrian kingdom of Hungary, in the circle of Szante,
of the other towns which have more than one thousand in- and province of the Farther Danube. It stands on the lake
habitants each is as follows: Listowel, 2289; Castle- of Platte. There is in it a fine palace belonging to the
island, once the county town, but now a declining village, family of the Counts Festitics. It has a large Franciscan
1569; Mill town, 1427 ; Ballylongford, a rising sea-port on convent, a hospital, two churches, and 4650 inhabitants,
the Shannon, with a very improveable harbour, 1300; mostly Catholics. There is a valuable institution esta-
Cahirsiveen, 1192; and Kenmare, at the head of the estu- blished by the count for increasing the knowledge and
ary of the same name, 1072. improving the practice of agriculture ; and there are semi-
KERSEY, a kind of coarse woollen cloth, made chiefly naries of other descriptions for the purposes of education,
in Kent and Devonshire. * Long. 17. 9. 8. E. Lat. 46. 45. 45. N.
KESCH, or Kech, a town, and capital of a district, in KETCH, a vessel equipped with two masts, namely, a
Great Buckharia. It was a favourite city of Timur, whose main-mast and mizen-mast, and usually from 100 to 250
first appointment was as governor of this place. He here tons burden. They are principally used as yachts, or as
erected a splendid palace, on which the traveller Clavijo bomb-vessels.
found workmen employed who had been labouring here for Ketch-Hissar, a town of Asia Minor, in Caramania,
thirty years. It contained a university for the study of law beautifully situated amidst plantations of fruit-trees. It
and the sciences, and had also annexed to it gardens and contains many ancient ruins, which extend over a space of
meadows. It is thirty miles south of Samarcand. seven or eight miles. There is particularly in this place a
KESITAH. This word is to be met with in Genesis beautiful aqueduct of granite; and the massy foundations
and in Job, and is translated in the Septuagint and Vul- of several large edifices are to be seen in different parts
gate, sheep or lambs. But the rabbin and modern inter- of the town; and shafts, pillars, and pedestals lie buried
preters are generally of opinion that kesitah signifies a piece under ground. It is supposed by Mr Kinneir that this
of money. Bochart and Eugubinus conceive that the Sep- place is the ancient Tyana, described by Strabo as one of
tuagint meant mince, and not lambs ; in Greek, hecatom- the oldest cities in Cappadocia. The whole neighbourhood
noil, Maro/Avuv, instead of v/.arov d^vuv. Now a mina was is impregnated with nitre, which supplies materials for a
worth sixty Hebrew shekels, and consequently equal to L.6. large manufactory of gunpowder. It is eighty-five miles
16s. lO^d. sterling. Pelletier is of opinion that kesitah south-west of Kaisarieh.
was a Persian coin, stamped on one side with an archer KETCHLUK, a town of Asia Minor, in Caramania, sur-
(hesitah, or keseth, in Hebrew, signifying a bow), and on rounded with gardens, and supposed to be the city describ-
the other with a lamb ; and that this was a gold coin, ed by Xenophon, in the plain of Cayster, where Cyrus first
known in the East by the name of daric. Several learned met the queen of Cilicia. It is ninety-eight miles north-
men, without mentioning the value of the kesitah, say it was west of Konieh.
a silver coin, the impression on which was a sheep, for KETEE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Sinde.
which reason the Septuagint and Vulgate translate it by It is situated on an island in the river Indus, and is the
this name. Calmet is of opinion that kesitah was a purse principal town of a Mahommedan chief named Meer Thara.
of gold or silver; and in the East they* reckon at present by KETOIE, one of the Kurile Islands, near the eastern
VOL. XII. 4 u
706 K E Y
Kettering coast of Asia, about twenty miles long and seven broad.
J It is covered with wood, which affords shelter to white
foxes, seals, and sea-calves.
KETTERING, a town of the hundred of Orlingbury,
in the county of Northampton, with a market on Saturday.
It is seventy-five miles from London, and is a manufactur¬
ing place, where some worsted and woollen goods are made.
It is not a well-built town. The sessions for the county
are held in it. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 3011,
in 1811 to 3242, in 1821 to 3668, and in 1831 to 4099.
KETTLE, in the art of war, a term which the Dutch
apply to a battery of mortars, because it is sunk under
ground.
KETTLE-Drums are formed of two large basins of cop¬
per or brass, rounded at the bottom, and covered over with
vellum or goat-skin, which is kept fast by a circle of iron,
and by several holes fastened to the body of the drum, with
a like number of screws to screw up and down, and a key
for the purpose. The two basins are kept fast together by
two straps of leather which go through two rings, and are
fastened the one before and the other behind the pommel
of the kettle-drum’s saddle. They have each a banner of
silk or damask, richly embroidered with the sovereign’s
arms, or with those of the colonel, and are fringed with
silver or gold ; and, to preserve them in bad weather, they
have each a cover of leather. The drumsticks are of crab-
tree or of any other hard wrood, of eight or nine inches
long, with two knobs on the ends, which beat the drum
head and produce the sound. The kettle-drum with trum¬
pets is the most martial sound of any. Each regiment of
horse has a pair.
Kettle-Drummer, a man on horseback appointed to
beat the kettle-drum, from which he takes his name. He
marches always at the head of the squadron, and his post
is on the right when the squadron is drawn up.
KEVELS, in Ship-building, a frame composed of two
pieces of timber, whose lower ends rest in a sort of step or
foot nailed to the ship’s side, whence the upper ends branch
outward into arms or horns, serving to belay the great ropes
by which the bottoms of the main-sail and fore-sail are ex¬
tended.
KEVERN, St, a parish of the hundred of Kerriar, in
the county of Cornwall, 277 miles from London. The in¬
habitants amounted in 1801 to 2104, in 1811 to 2242, in
1821 to 2505, and in 1831 to 2437.
KEW, a village of the hundred of Kingston, in the
county of Surrey, six and a half miles from London, on the
right bank of the Thames, over which there is a handsome
bridge. It is a pleasant village, with many highly respect¬
able houses, but chiefly distinguished for the royal palace,
the favourite residence of George III. The palace is of
modern construction, built of brick faced with stone in the
Gothic style. It is, however, inferior to the gardens, which
are laid out with taste and judgment, and contain almost
every curious vegetable production of various countries and
climates. There are in these gardens a variety of temples
connected with classical and historical subjects. One of
the most remarkable is the Chinese pagoda, about 170 feet
in height, said to be an exact copy of one in the celestial
empire, from the top of which is a fine prospect over the
surrounding country. The population amounted in 1801
to 424, in 1811 to 560, in 1821 to 683, and in 1831 to
837.
KEY, an instrument for the opening of locks. Molinus,
in his treatise of keys, De clavibus veterum, printed at Up-
sal, derives the Latin name clavis from the Greek jcAs/«,
claudo, I shut, or from the adverb clam, privately; and
adds, that the use of keys is yet unknown in some parts of
Sweden. The invention of keys is due to one Theodore
of Samos, according to Pliny and Polydore Virgil; but
this must be a mistake, as the use of keys was known be-
K E Y
fore the siege of Troy, whilst mention is even made of Kev f1
them in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis. Molinus is of || 'V
opinion that keys at first served only for untying certain Keysler.
knots wherewith they anciently secured their doors; but'^^v^ '
the Laconic keys, he maintains, were nearly akin in use to
our own, consisting of three single teeth, and made in the
figure of an E ; a form of which there are still some to be
seen in the cabinets of the curious. There was another
key called (BaXavayga, made in the manner of a male screw,
which had its corresponding female in a bolt affixed to the
door. Keg has hence become a general name for several
things serving to shut up or close others.
Key, or Keystone, of an Arch or Vault, is the last stone
placed on the top thereof, which, being wider and fuller at
the top than bottom, wedges, as it were, and binds together
all the rest. The key is different in the different orders.
In the Tuscan and Doric it is only a plain stone projecting ;
in the Ionic it is cut and waved, somewhat after the man¬
ner of consoles ; in the Corinthian and Composite it is a
console enriched with sculpture, foliages, and other orna¬
ments.
Key is also used for ecclesiastical jurisdiction, particu-
laxly for the power of excommunicating and absolving.
The Romanists say the pope has the power of the keys,
and can open and shut paradise as he pleases, grounding
their opinion on that expression of Jesus Christ to St Peter,
“ I will give thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.” In St
Gregory we read that it was the custom for the popes to
send a golden key to princes, in which they enclosed a lit¬
tle of the filings of St Peter’s chains, kept "with a world of
devotion at Rome ; and that these keys were worn in the
bosom, as being supposed to contain some wonderful vir¬
tues.
Key, in Music, a certain fundamental note or tone, to
which the whole piece, be it in cantata, sonata, or concerto,
is accommodated, and with which it usually begins, but al¬
ways ends.
Key, or Quay, a long wharf, usually built of stone, by
the side of a harbour or river, and having several store¬
houses for the convenience of lading and discharging mer¬
chant ships. It is accordingly furnished with posts and
rings, by which the latter are secured; together with cranes,
capstans, and other engines, to lift the goods into or out of
the vessels which lie alongside. The verb cojare, in old
writers, according to Scaliger, signifies to keep in or re¬
strain ; and hence came our term key or quay, the ground
where they are made being bound in with planks and posts.
KEY’S Isles, three islands in the Eastern Seas, of con¬
siderable extent, and named Key Watela, Little and Great
Key Islands, the first forty-five and the second sixty miles
in circumference, and the third fifty miles in length and
from five to twelve in breadth. They are situated about
the 133d degree of east longitude and between the 5th and
6th degrees of north latitude.
KEYDEE, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Ba-
har, district of Nagpoor, 235 miles west by north from Cal¬
cutta. Long. 84. 49. E. Lat. 22. 46. N.
KEYNSHAM, a market-town in the hundred of the
same name, in the county of Somerset, 114 miles from Lon¬
don. It is situated on the south bank of the river Avon, mid¬
way between Bath and Bristol. There is little trade, but
a small market on Thursday. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 1591, in 1811 to 1748, in 1821 to 1761, and in
1831 to 2142.
KEYSLER, John George, a learned German antiqua¬
ry, was born at Thournex in the year 1689. After studying
at the university of Halle, he was appointed preceptor to
Charles Maximilian and Christian Charles, the young counts
of Giech-Buchau, with whom he travelled through the
chief cities of Germany, France, and the Netherlands, gain¬
ing great reputation amongst the learned as he went along,
K H A
Kh ikee by illustrating several monuments of antiquity, particular-
^ vh esh ^ some figments of Celtic idols discovered in the cathe-
' Paris. Having acquitted himself of this charge
with great honour, he was, in 1716, appointed to superin¬
tend the education of two grandsons of Baron Bernstorff,
first minister of state to his Britannic majesty as elector of
Brunswick-Lunenburg. However, having in 1718 obtain¬
ed leave to visit England, he was elected" a fellow of the
Royal Society, for a learned essay de Dea Nehelennia, nu-
71 i if la vctcTuiii TJ alachorum topico, I le also gave an expla¬
nation of the ancient monument on Salisbury Plain called
Stonehenge, with a dissertation on the consecrated misle-
toe of the Druids, dhese detached essays, with others of
the same kind, he published on his return to Hanover, un¬
der the title of Antiquitates selectee. Septentrionales et Cel¬
tics. He afterwards made the grand tour with the young
barons, and to this wre owe the publication of his travels,
which were translated into English, and published in 1756,
in four vols. 4to. Mr Keysler, on his return, spent the re¬
mainder of his life under the patronage of his noble pupils,
who committed their fine library and museum to his care,
with a handsome income. He died in 1743.
KHANAKEE, a handsome little town of Irak Arabi,
on the high road from Bagdad to Hamadan. In the vici¬
nity are some magnificent ruins, supposed to be those of
the palace of Ghosroes. It is ninety miles north-east of
Bagdad.
KHANDESH, a province of Hindustan, in the Deccan,
situated between the 21st and 23d degrees of north lati¬
tude. To the north it is bounded by the Nerbuddah,
which separates it from Malwah ; to the south by Au-
rungabad and Berar; on the east by Gundwana and Be-
rar; and on the west by Gujerat. Its limits have never
been accurately defined, though they may be estimated at
210 miles in length by eighty in average breadth. Khandesh
was one of the small soubahs formed during the reign of
Akbar, from conquests made south of the Nerbuddah. The
modern subdivisions are, 1. Gaulna ; 2. Khandesh proper;
3. Meiwar ; 4. Bejagur; 5. Pattnemaur ; 6. Hindia. This
province is remarkably strong by nature, containing, with¬
in one day’s march, nearly twenty fortresses, all in sight in
different directions. The country is well watered. The
chief rivers are, the Nerbuddah, Tuptee, and other tribu¬
tary streams ; the principal towns, Boorhanpoor, Aseer-
ghur, Hindia, Nundoorbar, and Gaulna. The surface of
the province is very irregular, though it is not mountain¬
ous. The ridge of the western Ghauts extends along the
Tuptee, from which passes descend into the lower coun¬
try. This river has deep and steep banks, and the adja¬
cent country is curiously intersected with ravines from
thirty to forty feet deep, and sometimes winding along for a
distance of several miles. As the road frequently leads
through these chasms, which are remarkably close and hot,
it is not uncommon to see an army on its march through
the country disappear in these deep valleys, and afterwards
emerge half suffocated with heat and covered with dust.
This country was once flourishing and populous ; but at
present, owing to the devastations of different plundering
tribes, such as the Bheels, Pindarries, and Arabs, joined to
the oppressions of its Mahratta rulers, it is now desolate
and overgrown with jungle, the towms are in ruins, the villa¬
ges have been destroyed, and the soil, though fertile and
well watered, lies neglected. The population is estimated
at two millions, five sixths of whom are Hindus.
Khandesh was governed in the beginning of the fif¬
teenth century by independent sovereigns, who, claiming
descent from the Khalif Omar, resided at Aseerghur; but,
towards the close of the century, it w7as subdued, and an¬
nexed to the Mogul empire. Since the decline of the
Mahratta power, the greater part of the province of Khan¬
desh was taken possession of by Arab colonists, whose soldier-
K H O
707
like qualities gave them great influence in India. In 1818 Kharkov
the whole of llolkar’s territories in India were ceded to the I!
British, to whose dominion the Arab colonists evinced aKhorassan.
decided aversion ; and as it was resolved to re-transport
them to their own country, they determined to resist to
the last extremity. The last body of these brave adven¬
turers surrendered in December 1818; but many of the
Bheel chiefs, trusting to their mountainous and jungly re¬
cesses, continued refractory. They were dislodged from
many of their retreats by the vigilance of British officers,
who were for a long time engaged in this harassing war¬
fare. The province was formerly famous for the manufac¬
ture of cotton cloths called baftahs.
KHARKOW, or Charkow, a city of the province Uk¬
raine, in Russia, the capital of a circle of the same name.
It is situated on the Donez, where that river receives the
waters of the Lepanka and the Charkow. It contains 1552
houses, and 15,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of a university
founded in 1813, with twenty-five professors, and 250 stu¬
dents. It enjoys some considerable trade, especially at
four great fairs, to which the Asiatics and Turks equally
resort. Long. 36. 50. 55. E. Lat. 49. 59. 20. N.
KHARSHOOT, a river of Asiatic Turkey, which, flow¬
ing through a narrow and beautiful valley, falls into the
Black Sea near Tereboli.
KHASGUNGE, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Agra, sixty-four miles north-west from the town of Fur-
ruckabad. Long. 78. 36. E. Lat. 27. 52. N.
KHATANGA, a considerable liver of Siberia, which
has its rise in the government of Tomsk, and, after a course
of 500 miles through a low and marshy territory, falls into
the Northern Ocean, forming a gulf to which it gives name.
KHAUAR, or Hawari, a town of Irak, in Persia, 200
miles north of Ispahan. It is situated on a mountain which
separates the province of Irak from that of Mazanderan,
and through which there is a narrow pass that takes its
name from the town.
KHEMLASA, a large walled town of Hindustan, with
a fort adjoining, in the province of Malwah, ninety-four
miles south-west from Chatterpoor. Long. 78. 36. E. Lat.
24. 15. N.
KHEROO, a town of Thibet, situated on the north of
the great Himalaya ridge of mountains, formerly a large,
but now an inconsiderable place, having been laid waste,
prior to 1790, by an incursion of the Tartars, who occupy
the country to the north of Joongale. A considerable trade
is carried on between Nepaul and this place.
KHILLIS, a town of Syria, situated at the foot of
Mount Taurus, where there is a celebrated market for cot¬
ton. It is twenty-eight miles north-north-west of Aleppo-
KHOEE, a town of Azerbijan, in Persia, and capital of
a rich and extensive district, situated on the borders of
the lake Urumea. There is no town in Persia more beau¬
tiful and better built; the walls are in good repair; the
streets regular, and shaded with avenues of trees ; and the
ceilings of many of the houses tastefully painted and em¬
bellished. These paintings are not modern; and as the
immediate predecessors of Shah Ismael frequently held
their court in this city, they were probably executed about
that period. It is the emporium of a considerable trade
carried on between Turkey and Persia. The population
amounts to 25,000. The plain in which it is situated is
famous for a battle fought in 1514, between Shah Is¬
mael and Selim I., in which 30,000 Persians encountered
300,000 Turks.
KHOOSHGAL, a well-built small fort in the province
ofBejapoor, and district of Bancapoor, strongly situated on
a rising ground in the middle of an extensive plain. Long.
75. 13. E. Lat. 15. 29. N.
KHORASSAN is, strictly speaking, a province of Per¬
sia. In its more extended sense, however, it comprehends
70S K H O
Khorassan. an extensive tract of country, of which the boundaries
have been differently defined, and indeed have greatly
varied. In the great revolutions which have occurred in
Asia, Khorassan has been the centre of a great empire,
and the seat of mighty monarchs, and more frequently the
dependency of a fallen state, and the scene of invasion, re¬
bellion, and anarchy. It was a constant subject of dispute
between the independent monarchs, whose territories lay
respectively on the east and on the west; and it sometimes
fell into the power of one, and sometimes of the other. In
these circumstances, its political boundaries were continu¬
ally varying, as the fortune of war inclined to one or other
of the surrounding potentates. At one time they compre¬
hended the whole country to the mouth of the Oxus, in¬
cluding the steppe of Khaurezm, Balkh, and all the inter¬
vening country to the east; on the south-east, not only the
cities and dependencies of Herat, but those of Subzawur,
Furrah, Geeresh, and even Candahar itself; on the south
it was always bounded by Kerman and Seistan; on the
west it included the district of Yezed, but its salt desert
was bounded in that direction by the districts of Ispahan,
Cashan, and Rhe, in the vicinity of Semnaun ; and be¬
yond the Elburz Mountains, the districts of Astrabad and
of Goorgaun were also considered as the dependencies of
this vast territory. If Khorassan be merely considered as
a province of Persia, its extent would be very inconsider¬
able indeed. But if, with Fraser, we take into considera¬
tion the natural features of the country, the following
boundaries may be assigned. According to this traveller,
a line, skirting the districts of Ispahan and Cashan, and
meeting the Elburz Mountains near Dehnimmuck, will di¬
vide Khorassan from Irak on the west. I his line prolong¬
ed eastward to the desert on the eastern side of the Cas¬
pian Sea, in the steppe of Khaurezm, will form its northern
boundary; and we cannot positively decide, nor is exact¬
ness in this matter of great importance, in what part of the
great desert that occupies the whole space between the
foot of the Elburz range and the Oxus, this boundary
should be placed. In a political view, it does not extend
at present beyond the base of the Elburz Mountains. 1 o
the eastward it may properly be allowed to include the
districts of Serrukhs, Hazarah, and Balai Moorghaub ; and
a line running between these and the dependencies of
Balkh, in east longitude 63°, in a direction nearly south, in¬
cluding the district of Herat, and touching Seistan, would
be the boundary of Khorassan on the east; whilst on the
south it is bounded by Kerman and Fars.
The surface of this extensive country is, like other parts
of Persia, much diversified by plains and mountains; a
very large proportion is quite unfit for the habitation of
man, and consists of arid rocks, destitute of vegetation
or fresh water, and deserts either of salt-land or sand,
among which may be found a few spots, like islands in the
sea. The following is a more particular description, chief¬
ly compiled from Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into
Khorassan.
The Elburz range of mountains, which is connected with
the great chain of Caucasus, runs, in an easterly course,
through the northern parts of Khorassan, sending forth va¬
rious ramifications to the southward. From the base of
these mountains a desert of barren sand, chiefly level,
stretches northward to an immense extent, including the
steppe of Khaurezm, and forming a part of that mighty
plain which extends eastward as far as the Jaxartes and
the Oxus. In this plain are found many fertile dis¬
tricts ; but in that portion which is included in the li¬
mits now assigned to Khorassan, there is no permanent
habitation, and the scanty sprinkling of population which
it possesses consists of a few tribes of wandering Toorko-
mans. These mountains, though they present their loftiest
face to the desert, still sweep down in a manner so gradual,
K H Y
as to enclose rich and well-watered valleys, which were for- Khozdar W
merly well peopled and cultivated, and once contained se- II
veral towns, which are now in ruins, from the continued ",
attacks of the Toorkoman plunderers. The only place of
any consideration that remains is Serrukhs, 120 miles from
Mushed, a very ancient town, the remains of which are
now inhabited by Toorkomans and Usbecks. To the south,
the Elburz Mountains send forth ramifications which pene¬
trate the plain to the distance of from sixty to one hundred
miles. Beyond this is the vast salt desert, which extends
southward, with occasional fertile tracts, very nearly to
the Persian Gulf. This desert varies very much in its na¬
ture in different parts. In some places the surface is dry,
and even produces a few of those plants that thrive in a
salt soil; in others it consists of a crackling crust of dry
earth, covered with a saline efflorescence. There are exten¬
sive marshy tracts, in the lower parts of which water ac¬
cumulates during the winter months, which is evaporated
by the summer sun, leaving a quantity of salt in cakes,
upon a bed of mud. In some places the soil is a hard-
baked and perfectly barren clay ; again, in certain districts,
extensive plains of sand are found, which is occasionally
heaped up in hillocks in the form of waves, and frequent¬
ly so light as to be raised aloft by the winds in clouds, un¬
der which travellers are frequently buried, as in the Ara¬
bian deserts. The saline desert, however, according to
Fraser, predominates in Khorassan. It is of a considerably
higher level than the desert to the north of the Elburz
Mountains ; but still this traveller is of opinion that they
are connected. The only fertile parts of Khorassan are
where the country is penetrated by the Elburz Mountains;
and in the north-east corner of Khorassan there is a long
stripe of country, consisting of the lower parts of these
mountains, from ten to twenty miles in breadth, which
bear some inconsiderable traces of cultivation, and give
shelter to a few miserable hamlets, but contain no vil¬
lage of any consequence. The valley of Mushed, amongst
the Elburz Mountains, is of great length. It commences
ten or twelve miles to the north-west of Sheerwan, ex¬
tends, without interruption, for fifty miles beyond Mu¬
shed, and continues for the greater part of the way to He¬
rat. It varies from twelve to thirty miles in breadth, and
contains in its extent, besides the city of Mushed, the
towns of Chinnaran, Radcan, Kabooshan or Cachoon,
Sheerwan, and their dependencies, with a great extent of
cultivated land. The road from Mushed to Herat must
also pass through several well-peopled and well-cultivated
districts. The extensive valley here spoken of contains a
considerable portion of the district known by the appel¬
lation of Koordistan, being inhabited by Koordish colonies.
The country which we have described above, under the
title of Khorassan, may be estimated to extend between
500 and 600 miles east and west, and between 300 and 400
miles north and south.
KHOZDAR, a town of Beloochistan, the residence of
Meer Murad Ali, one of the principal Beloochee ameers of
the Kumburanee tribe. It is situated in a small romantic
valley of the same name, between two tremendous ridges
of bare rocky mountains, tolerably well cultivated, and
watered by a stream flowing through the centre. The
town is walled, and has a good bazar. It is a Mahomme-
dan town, though the Hindus are held in great esteem.
The climate is severe; and at the approach of winter the
richer classes retire to Cutch Gundava, to avoid the intense
cold of the mountain air. It is distant from Kelat, the chief
town of Beloochistan or Baloochistan, three days’ journey.
Its situation is not exactly ascertained, but is nearly in lati¬
tude 36. 30. N. and long. 67. E.
KHYRABAD, or Kairabad, a district of Hindustan,
in the province of Oude, situated principally between the
27th and 28th degrees of north latitude, and bounded on the
K I A
Kh< ioor west by the Ganges, and on the east by the Goggra. The
country is fertile and well watered, being intersected by
Kia ta. river Goomty; and its chief towns are Khyrabad, Sha-
^ habad, and Mahomdy. The capital, which is of the same
name, is conveniently situated between two streams which
fall into the river Goomty. Long. 80.45. E. Lat. 27. 29. N.
KHYRPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Sinde, and the residence of the chiefs of the aristocracy
who govern the place. It carries on a considerable trade,
and is noted for the dyeing of cloths. Latitude not ascer¬
tained.
KHYVAH, an independent territory of Asia, which
extends on or near the banks of the Oxus a distance of
between 100 and 200 miles, and on all quarters is sur¬
rounded by the desert. The town of Khyvah, the capi¬
tal, is about fifteen miles from the Oxus, or 240 miles
from Mungushluc, a bay upon the banks of the Caspian
Sea. This tract of country, however confined and unpro¬
mising, was at one time the seat of the Khaurezmian so¬
vereigns, who maintained a very flourishing empire, well
known in the annals of the East. This empire embraced
the principal part of Western Asia, and the country
around was populous and prosperous. But all is now
changed. The country has been ruined by the invasions
of different conquerors; and the city of Khaurezm or
Ourgunge, like the most celebrated cities of the East,
has become a ruin ; and the seat of the petty power that
now exists has been transferred to the mean and modern
town of Khyvah. The modern city of Khyvah was totally
ruined by Nadir Shah, at the time when he overran all
Turkestan, on his return from India; its youth were en¬
listed in his armies, a great many were put to death, and
numbers were transported to distant parts. The Usbeck
Tartars at length obtained the ascendency in this coun¬
try, and maintained on the throne a prince said to be of
the race of Ghenghis. A chief from one of their tribes
still rules in the country.
KIAHING FOU, a large and populous town of China,
in the province of Tchekiang. It has extensive silk manu¬
factures, there being scarcely a house in which silk-worms
are not bred. It carries on a considerable trade, for the
convenience of which canals are cut in every street. It is
130 miles south-east of Nanquin. Long. 120. 14. E. Lat.
32. N.
KIAKHTA, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the govern¬
ment of Irkoutsk, and district of Yerschnei-Oudinsk. It
is situated in a uniform and rather elevated plain, traversed
by a river of the same name, and is surrounded by a lofty
range of granitic and wooded mountains of a bleak aspect.
It was visited in 1822 by Captain Cochrane, the celebrat¬
ed pedestrian traveller, who mentions that it is a neat and
regularly-built town, containing 450 houses, with 4000 in¬
habitants. Owdng to the narrow and jealous policy of the
Chinese, no stone buildings are by the treaty allowed to be
erected, excepting only a church for public worship. Be¬
yond the fortress, and immediately opposite Maimatchin,
is the Chinese town Old Kiakhta, the residence only of the
marchants ; no officer or stranger being permitted to sleep
in it, according to an article in the treaty. The old town
contains, according to Cochrane, forty-five dwellings, many
of which are very superior edifices, and have within them
very rich stores. Though situated in a dreary and sterile
oasis, Kiakhta, by means of its commerce, possesses many
comforts. It is 330 miles south of Irkoutsk. On one of the
mountains by which the place is surrounded are seen the
boundaries of the Russian and Chinese empires, placed op¬
posite each other ; the Russian boundary being marked by
a hillock of stones, with a cross at the top; whilst that ot the
Chinese is marked by a kind of pyramid. This place is re¬
markable as the centre of all the trade which is carried on
between the Russian and Chinese empires; the Chinese,
KID 709
by the jealous policy of their rulers, being prohibited from Kiama
trading with Russia through any other place. It was fixed _ i}
upon by the treaty concluded between these powers in 1728,
as the only medium of their mutual intercourse ; and a great
fair is accordingly held in December, when merchants
flock thither from the most distant parts of the Russian
empire. At this great commercial rendezvous are ex¬
changed cloths; furs, namely, those of foxes, sables, river
and sea otters, wild cats, beavers, and millions of squirrels,
this latter fur, from its lightness, warmth, and durability,
being a favourite with the Chinese; Russia and Morocco
leather; for nankeens, silk stuffs, tea, rhubarb, &c. Woollen
cloths and copper money are also exported to China, as
well as many articles of curiosity and ingenuity, and some
trinkets. The Russian and Chinese towns are quite sepa¬
rate from each other.
KIAMA, or Khiama, the capital of one of the four
petty states or sultanries of Borgoo, a kingdom in the in¬
terior of Africa. It consists of a vast collection of thatched
huts, built, as well as the town wall, of clay, and irregu¬
larly scattered over a considerable surface of ground. It
is one of the towns through which the Houssa and Bor-
nou caravan passes in its way to Gouja, upon the borders
of Ashantee. It has also a direct trade with Dahomey,
Youri, Nyfei, and Youriba. The inhabitants, for the most
part Pagans, may amount to 30,000 in number. They
are governed by a king or sultan, whose domination is
despostic. Kiama is situated in long. 5. 22. 56. E. and lat.
9. 37. 33. N.
KIANGNAN, a province of China, which may be con¬
sidered as the centre of the navigation, wealth, and com¬
merce of this great empire. It is bounded on the east by
the sea, on the north by Shantung, on the west by Honan,
and on the south by Tchekiang and Quangsed. This ex¬
tensive province is well watered, being traversed by the
great rivers Hoangho and Yang-tse-kiang, previous to their
junction with the sea, and by their numerous tributaries,
which give it an easy communication with all the provin¬
ces and districts of the interior. It is also crossed by the
great canal which leads to Pekin; and its waters are ac¬
cordingly covered with a continuous line of barks, carrying
to their various markets the different productions of the
country. Nankeen is the capital, which surpasses Pekin
in extent, and even in population. It contains many other
cities, which, in point of size and wealth, might have been
the capitals of empires. Industry and manufactures flou¬
rish to a great extent in this province; and the silks, ja¬
panned goods, ink, paper, and other articles, bear a higher
price. There are manufactories of salt on the sea coast;
and it contains also quarries of marble. The official esti¬
mate of the population given to Sir George Staunton was
twenty-two millions, which is probably one of the boastful
exaggerations of the Chinese.
KIANGSEE, a fine province of China, consisting chief¬
ly of lofty and precipitous mountains, with fertile valleys
interposed. It extends southwards from Kiangnan to
Quangtong,and yields in abundance both rice and silk. Its
mountains also contain various metals and minerals, and it
has an uninterrupted navigation from north to south, form¬
ing part of the great line of water communication which
reaches across the empire. A very extensive manufacture
of porcelain is carried on in this province.
KlBBAN, a considerable town of Koordistan, situated
at the foot of a high mountain, and surrounded by narrow
passes and defiles. It is about one and a half mile from
the Euphrates, and eighty miles west of Diarbekir.
KIDDER, Richard, an English bishop, was born, ac¬
cording to Wood, at Brighton, but according to others,
in Sussex. In 1649, he was admitted sizar in Emmanuel
College, Cambridge ; in 1652, he took his bachelor’s de¬
gree ; in 1655, he was elected a fellow; and in 1656, he took
710
K I D
Kidder- his degree of master of arts. Having been presented by
minster his college to the vicarage of Stanground, Huntingdon-
shire, he was ejected for non-conformity in 1662 ; but con-
forming soon afterwards, he was, in 1664, presented to
the rectory of Raine, in Essex, where he continued until
1674, when he was made rector of St Martin’s Outwith,
London. In 1681, he was installed into a prebend of
Norwich ; in 1689, he was made Dean of Peterborough,
on which occasion he took the degree of doctor in divini¬
ty ; and, upon the deprivation of Ken, bishop of Bath and
Wells, he was promoted to the vacant see. In 1693, he
delivered the Boyle Lecture, and afterwards inserted in
his Demonstration of the Messias, the discourses preach¬
ed by him upon that occasion. He also wrote a Com¬
mentary on the Five Books of Moses, with a dissertation
concerning the author or writer of the said books, and “a
general argument to each of them, which was published in
1694, in two vols. 8vo. To the first volume is prefixed a dis¬
sertation, in which he states and answers all the objections
made against Moses being the author of the Pentateuch,
and, in particular, replies to one drawn by Leclerc from
Genesis (xxxvi. 31), which he treats with some severity.
This led to a correspondence between him and Leclerc,
which the latter printed in his Bibliotheque Choisie. Dr
Kidder likewise took part in the Popish controversy, in
the course of which he published, 1. A Second Dialogue
between a Catholic Convert and a Protestant, showing
why he cannot believe the doctrine of Transubstantiation,
though he do firmly believe the doctrine of the Trinity;
2. An Examination of Bellarmine’s thirtieth note of the
Church on the Confession of Adversaries ; 3. The Texts
which Papists cite out of the Bible for their Doctrine
of the Sacrifice of the Mass examined ; 4. Reflections on
a French Testament, printed at Bordeaux in 1686, pre¬
tended to be translated out of the Latin by the divines
of Louvain. The death of this prelate was sudden and
lamentable. In the night between the 26th and 27th of
November 1703, he was killed in bed, with his lady, in his
palace at Wells, by the fall of a stack of chimneys, occa¬
sioned by a violent storm which raged without. Dr Kid¬
der was a clear and learned writer, and accounted one of
the best divines of his time. (a.)
KIDDERMINSTER, a town of the hundred of Half¬
shire, in the county of Worcester, with a market, which is
held on Thursday. It is 126 miles from London, on the
river Stour. It has long been a place of great manufac¬
turing industry. Formerly the chief goods made were of
worsted, or of silk and worsted ; then bombazeens, plushes,
and poplins were introduced; but of late years the chief
fabrics have been those of carpets, in which the Kidder¬
minster manufactures have excelled all others. The streets
are clean, well paved, and well built. There is a fine old
Gothic church, a town-hall, many charitable institutions,
and an endowed grammar-school. By the late law this
town has acquired the right of electing one member to the
House of Commons. The Staffordshire Canal joins the
town, and affords assistance to its trade. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 6110, in 1811 to 8039, in 1821 to
10,709, and in 1831 to 14,981.
KIDDLE, or Kidel (Kidellus), a. dam or weir in a
river, with a narrow cut in it, for the laying of pots or
other engines to catch fish. The word is ancient, for in
Magna Charta (cap. 24) we read Omneg kidelli deponan-
turper Thamesiam et Medweyam, etper totam Angliam, nisi
per costeram mavis ; and, by King John’s charter, power
was granted to the city of London de kidellis amovendis
per Thamesiam et Medweyam. A survey was ordered to
be made of the weirs, mills, stanks, and kiddles, in the
great rivers of England, by 1 Hen, IV. Fishermen cor¬
ruptly call these dams kettles; and they are much used in
Wales and on the sea-coasts of Kent,
K I E
KIDNAPPING, the forcible abduction or stealing Kidnan Is
away of man, woman, or child, from their own country, ping a
and sending them into another. This crime was capital I
by the Jewish law. “ He that stealeth a man and selleth v Kiew'
him, or if he be found in his hand, shall surely be put to
death.” (Exod. xxi. 16.) So likewise, in the civil law, the
offence of spiriting away and stealing men and children,
which was called plagium, and the offenders plagiarii, was
punished with death.
KIDWELLEY, a market-town of South Wales, in the
county of Carmarthen, 226 miles from London. It is
built on both sides the river Gwendraeth, which is navi¬
gable from Carmarthen Bay. It was formerly surrounded
with walls, and there are still the ruins of an ancient
castle. The neighbourhood abounds with coals, the ex¬
port of which forms the principal trade ; and for promot¬
ing which, excellent mechanical contrivances have been
adopted for the most economical mode of trans-shipping
them from the barges to the sea-bound vessels. Near the
town is an iron foundery, and also a manufactory of tin
plates. The town forms part of the duchy of Lancaster,
but is governed by its own mayor and aldermen. There
is a tolerable market on Friday, and three annual fairs.
The population amounted in 1801 to 1488, in 1811 to
1441, in J821 to 1733, and in 1831 to 1631.
KIEL, a city of Denmark, in the province of Holstein,
the capital of a bailiwick of the same name. It stands on
a beautiful bay, resembling a lake, on the Baltic, and has an
excellent harbour. It contains near 800 houses, with 8000
inhabitants. It is a well-built city, containing a univer¬
sity of high character, with about 250 students, an obser¬
vatory, a museum of natural history, and a library of
60,000 volumes. It is a place of considerable trade, both
in the productions of the vicinity and in foreign commo¬
dities, and in ship-building and the fisheries. Lone. 10.
4. E. Lat. 54. 16. N.
KIELCE, a city of Poland, in the province of Cracow,
the capital of a circle of the same name, and the seat of
a bishop. It is, for a country like Poland, a w^ell-built
town, with the bishop’s palace, four churches, a nunnery,
800 houses, and 5100 inhabitants. Long. 19. 55. E. Lat.
50. 52. N.
KIE W, a provinceor government of European Russia, in
the division formerly called Little Russia. It is situated be¬
tween 28.30. and 32. 20. east longitude, and 48. 26. and 51.
34. north latitude. It extends over 15,466 square miles, com¬
prehending sixty-eight cities and towns, and 1304 parishes,
with several villages and hamlets in each. The inhabi¬
tants are 994,830. It is divided into twelve circles, receiv¬
ing the name of the chief towns in it. It is generally a
level district, with undulations of hills proceeding from the
Carpathian Mountains, whose elevations in this province
are inconsiderable. There are many pleasant spots, though
none very striking ; but the whole face of the country has
a monotonous appearance. The soil is generally favour¬
able to cultivation, and yields corn more than sufficient for
consumption, so as to have 1,000,000 quarters annually for
the supply of less productive districts. It yields abundant
crops of hemp, flax, and tobacco. The cattle are numerous,
and many are sold to Germany, Austria, and the internal
provinces, to improve the breed. There are no mines.
Much spirit is distilled from grain, which, with coarse cloth,
soap, and leather, forms the chief branch of trade. The prin¬
cipal river, the Dnieper, receives the waters of the smaller
rivers, and conveys them to the Black Sea. The capital,
Kiew, is on the Dnieper, is the seat of an archbishop, and
has a cathedral, twenty-five other churches, an ecclesias¬
tical seminary or college, and other public institutions. It
contains 3728 houses, in narrow and winding streets, and
about 40,000 inhabitants. Long. 30. 22. 25. E. Lat. 50. 26.
19. N.
K I L K 1 L
Kil, St. KILDA, St, or Kirta, a solitary isle in the Atlantic annually consumed by the natives, besides an immense
w ^ Ocean, belonging to the range of the Hebrides, but re- number of eggs. St Kilda contains about twenty families,
moved to a considerable distance from the main cluster, who, remote from the bustle of the busy world, and the
The nearest land to it is Harris, from which it is distant luxuries of polished society, pass an easy, and even a
sixty miles in a west-south-west direction ; and it is about comfortable life.
one hundred and forty miles from the nearest point of the KILDARE, an inland county in the province of Lein-
mainland of Scotland. It is about three miles long from ster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the county of
east to west, and two miles from north to south, and Meath, on the east by those of Dublin and Wicklow, on
consists of a lofty and uneven ridge, fenced round on all the south by that of Carlow, and on the w^est by the Kino’s
sides by one continued perpendicular mass of rock, of and Queen’s counties. In shape it somewhat resembles a
great height except at a part where is the bay or land- truncated cone, having its base resting on Meath, and its
ing place, and even there the rocks have a considerable vertex cut off by the intervention of Carlow. In its great-
elevation. The surface of the island is rocky, rising into est length, measured from north to south, it extends forty
four eminences, the highest of which, called Conachan, is miles, and twenty-six in its greatest breadth from east to
1380 feet above the level of the sea. The general surface west, comprehending an area of 392,435 acres, or 6132
of the ground is a black loam, six or eight inches deep, square miles, of which 325,117 acres are cultivated ground,
and presents a nearly uniform, smooth, and green sur- and 66,447 are unprofitable mountain or bog.
face. Excepting some imperfect peat upon the highest According to some writers, the EblanDvere the inhabi-
point, the whole is covered by a thick turf of the finest tants of this county in the time of Ptolemy ; others, amongst
and freshest verdure. The island contains three princi- whom is Whitaker, make it the habitation of the Coriundi.
pal springs, one of which gives rise to a considerable Afterwards it formed part of the territory of Cealan or Ga-
stream. Excepting a small tract in the vicinity of the len, which likewise extended over some parts of Wicklow
little village in which the inhabitants live, the wdiole island and Carlow. Its present name is derived from Chille or
is in pasture. The soil would admit of cultivation to any Kill Dara, the forest or church of oaks, the country bein'’-
extent, but the violence of the west winds limits the agri- formerly covered with trees. The principal family in this
culture to the south-east declivity, where there is most district, previously to the arrival of the English, was that
shelter. This tract is held conjointly by all the village, of the O’Kellys, whose residence was at the Moat of Ard-
on the system of run-rig, the ridges being interchanged scull, near Athy. On the death of Dermod M‘Murrough,
after three years; and the work is performed by the spade the last king of Leinster, which occurred shortly after the
and hand-plough. The produce consists chiefly of bear, settlement of the English in it, the county formed part of
which is considered as very fine. The oats are of very in- the palatinate of Leinster, granted by Henry II. to Strong-
ferior quality, and are scantily cultivated; nor are pota- bow. When this extensive inheritance was distributed into
toes raised to nearly the extent which is usual in High- five portions, amongst the daughters of William, earl mar-
land farming. A few horses are kept, together with some shal, who derived from Strongbow, by intermarriage,
goats; but the pasture is chiefly occupied by sheep and through his only daughter, Kildare fell to the lot of 8y-
black cattle. The breed of the former is Norwegian, and billa, the fourth daughter, who married William de Ferrers,
the wool which these animals produce is both thin and earl of Derby, from whom it descended by marriage to the
coarse. The cattle are small, and both the ewes and family of De Vesci, and thence by attainder to that of the
cows are milked. The cheese, which is made from a mix- Fitzgeralds or Geraldines. The principal families which
ture of these milks, is much esteemed. This article, held under Strongbow and his descendants were those of
along with wool and feathers, constitutes the exports of De Hereford, Fitzhenry, Phepoe, Pippard, d’Angulo or
the island. The St Kilda style of husbandry is some- Nangle, and Berrningham. The Fitzgeralds ultimately
what primitive and peculiar to the island. The soil is became possessed of the greater part of it. It was one of
rendered extremely fertile by the laborious industry of the twelve counties into which King John, on his arrival as
the inhabitants, who manure it with great care. The in- lord of Ireland, divided thatpartof the island which acknow-
habitants are all congregated in a village about a quar- ledged the English jurisdiction, but was not finally separated
ter of a mile from the bay on the south-east. It consists from the adjoining county of Dublin, to which it had been
of two rows of houses, with a pavement in the middle ; attached as a liberty, until the close of the reign of Edward
and the habitations, like those of oriental countries, are I., when it was empowered to have sheriffs and courts of
nearly flat in the roof, in order to avoid injury from the its own. The county is now divided into the fourteen ba-
storms which sweep over the island. The walls of the ronies of Carbery, Clane, Connell, Ikeathy and Oughter-
cottages are built of coarse free-stone, without lime or any, Kilcullen, Kilkea and Moone, North and South Naas,
mortar, but consolidated by alternate layers of turf. AH East and West Narraghand Rheban, East and West Opha-
the houses are divided into two apartments, the interior ley, and North and South Salt. These baronies are sub-
one being for the family, and the other, nearest the door, divided into seventy-nine entire parishes, and seven parts
being reserved for sheltering the cattle during winter, of parishes, the remaining parts of which are in some of the
From their insulated situation, it is probable that the in- adjoining counties.
habitants of St Kilda have maintained the same man- According to the ecclesiastical arrangements, the county
ners, customs, and general style of life, for centuries, contains 113 parishes, fifty-six of which are in the diocese
Previously to the reformation, there appears to have been of Kildare, and fifty-seven in that of Dublin, besides a part
three religious buildings on the island; but after that of a parish which extends into the diocese of Meath. Kil-
event took place, the inhabitants continued for ages un- dare diocese extends also into the King’s and Queen’s
solaced by the blessings of religion, being only connected counties. The bishopric was founded in the sixth century,
with the parish of South List by name. These disadvan- by St Conleth, who was buried near the great altar of his
tages are now obviated by the establishment of a mission- own church. The chapter consists of a dean, precentor,
ary and a schoolmaster, under the patronage of the Socie- chancellor, treasurer, four canons, and seven prebendaries,
ty for tbe Propagation of Christian Knowledge. The The bishop takes precedence of every other except Meath ;
people live much upon the wild sea-fowl with which the all the rest rank according to the dates of their consecra-
precipices abound ; and at certain seasons the whole sea tions. Notwithstanding the elevated position he holds, his
is covered, and the very atmosphere is darkened, with episcopal income, in consequence of the dilapidations of his
feathered animals. Upwards of 20,000 solan geese are predecessors, is extremely small, amounting only to L.520
711
Kildare.
712 KILDARE.
Kildare.
a year ; neither has he any episcopal residence, so that, in
order to supply the deficiency of his revenue, he holds the
deanry of Christ Church in commendam. The city of
Kildare is a small, poor place, wholly unworthy of notice,
except from the circumstance of being the seat of the bi¬
shopric, and from the cathedral, and some monastic remains
still existing. This bishopric is one of those to be ex¬
tinguished. After the demise of the present incumbent it
is to merge into the archbishopric of Dublin.
By much the greater part of the county is a flat, inter¬
rupted only by a range of low hills in the centre, the most
northern of which is the hill of Allen, and the southern
those of Dunmurry; the land on the eastern boundary, to¬
ward Dublin and Wicklow counties, gradually rises as it
approaches the adjoining mountain tracts. The general
surface stands at an elevation of from 200 to 300 feet above
the level of high water, giving birth to several rivers. The
Boyne, with its tributary the Blackwater, rises in the bog
of Allen in the northern part, as does the Lesser Barrow,
which unites with the Greater Barrow near Rathangan.
The Grees and Lane are small branches of this latter river,
joining it near the southern extremity of the county. The
Barrow forms the western boundary of the county, ex¬
cept in the neighbourhood of Athy, where the Mearing
embraces some land to the west of this river, which should
more properly form part of the Queen’s county. The Lif-
fey enters the county from the west near Ballymore-Eus-
tace, and after sweeping through it, at first in a western
and then in a northern direction by Kilkullen Bridge, Clane,
and Celbridge, receiving in its course the Morrel and the
Ryewater, it quits the county at Leixlip. Numerous lesser
streams, rising in the more elevated tracts, fall into one or
other of these rivers. A great part of the bog of Allen
lies in the northern part of the county. This bog is not an
interrupted morass, but is intersected in many places by
elevated tracts of firm ground, the largest of which, lying
in its southern part, has obtained the name of the Island
of Allen, in consequence of its being surrounded by an
unproductive and half fluid mass. To the south of the
town of Kildare is a tract. of undulating ground, covered
with fine sward, of a vivid green, uninterrupted by any
plantation. It is called the Curragh. It extends nearly
five miles in a south-eastern direction, having an average
breadth of a mile, and containing 8000 acres. It is used
principally as a sheep walk, for which it is peculiarly adapt¬
ed, from the quality of its herbage and the dry elastic nature
of its soil. The pasturage is held by the farmers of the
surrounding lands, who pay large rents for the exclusive
privilege of grazing sheep on it, in numbers proportioned
to the quantity of land without its limits. The most cele¬
brated race-course in Ireland is on the Curragh. The soft¬
ness and elasticity of the turf render it peculiarly suitable
for this sport. Races are held here periodically, at which
two plates of L.100 each are granted by the government,
to encourage the breeding of running horses. The cli¬
mate is moister than most other parts of the great lime¬
stone plain of Ireland. The soil of the county is generally
a rich, heavy loam, on a bottom of limestone or limestone
gravel, except in some insulated spots in the hilly districts.
Copper ore is said to have been found in the central hills;
but, either from deficiency of quality or quantity, or from
a still more marked deficiency of fuel, none is now raised.
The hill of Allen consists of a gritstone of which mill¬
stones are made.
The population was as follows, according to the autho¬
rities stated beneath, at the respective dates.
1760 De Burgo  51,726
1772... Beaufort 56,000
1812 Parliamentary return 85,133
1821 Ditto 99,065
1831 Ditto 108,401
The parliamentary return of 1834 being made according Kildare p
to dioceses, an accurate inference of its population at that r
period cannot be deduced from it. From these returns
it appears that the population doubled itself in seventy years.
When compared with the acreable contents of the county,
it also exhibits an average of one inhabitant to every three
acres, or of one family to every eighteen acres, and of 177
inhabitants to every square mile. The proportion of Pro¬
testants to Catholics may be estimated as about one to seven.
This population was represented in the Irish parliament
by ten members, two for the county and two for each of
the boroughs of Athy, Kildare, Naas, and Harristown.
All these boroughs were deprived of the right of returning
members by the act of union, and as the reform act has
made no alteration in this point, the representation is at
present confined to the two county members.
The state of the constituency before and since the al¬
terations made in 1829, and subsequently, respecting the
qualifications for exercising the elective franchise, is as
follows:
1st Jan. 1829, 376 80 — 496 952
1st Jan. 1830, 385 86 25 — ' 496
1st May 1832, 221 155 746 — '1122 ’
The constabulary consists of five chief constables, forty-
five constables, and 179 sub-constables, total 229, who are
maintained at an expense of L.9644, being at an average
of somewhat more than L.42 each.
The number of children receiving instruction in public
schools, according to returns made under parliamentary
authority in 1821 and 1824-26, are as follows :
Boys. Girls.
Sex not
ascertained.
Total-
1821, 3398 2393 — 6391
1824-6, 5118 3578 161 8857
Of the number in the latter return, 1425 were of the
established church, 7276 were Catholics, thirty-one dis¬
senters, and 125 whose religious persuasion was unascer¬
tained. The number of schools was 214, of which twenty-
five containing 1623 pupils, were maintained by grants of
public money; twenty-nine, containing 1707 pupils, by vo¬
luntary contributions ; the remaining 160 schools, contain¬
ing 5527 pupils, were wholly supported by the fees paid by
the parents or guardians of those receiving instruction.
The diocesan school for the see of Kildare is held in Naas.
The head master receives a salary of L.60 per annum from
the bishop, in addition to the pupils’ fees.
The lands are very unequally portioned out. There are
a few large estates. That of the Duke of Leinster extends
over nearly or\e third of the county. Many of the farmers
hold large tracts ; many others quantities scarcely sufficient
for the sustenance of a family. The general average of
farms is from 200 to ten acres. The former are well cul¬
tivated according to the most approved systems, though
not with all the neatness and precision which mark the
operations of the English agriculturist. The small farmers
manage their land in a slovenly manner, and with a perse¬
vering attachment to the customs of their forefathers.
Oxen are worked along with horses in the plough. Mules
are to be often seen about the farm-yards. Tillage in part¬
nership is very usual. Wheat is grown in large quantities,
the strong loam being well adapted for it. The lands not
subjected to the plough are very rich, fattening grounds;
but when exhausted by injudicious courses of cropping, the
pasture is poor and light. Dairies of any extent are sel¬
dom to be met with, except for the purpose of raising veal
for the Dublin market. Large flocks of sheep are uncom¬
mon. The breeds both of black cattle and sheep are good;
that of horses is injured by an excessive passion for breed¬
ing racers. The dwellings of the middling farmers gene¬
rally consist of a long building of a single story, the lower
m
W'
K I L
re. part formed of stone and mortar, the upper of clay thatch-
ed with straw, and divided in the inside into a kitchen and
two sleeping rooms, one at each end. In the front is a
yard or bawn, enclosed at each side by the stables, barn,
and cow-houses, and used as a repository for all the manure
collected from the dwelling-house and offices, and for the
feeding of the cattle. In the anxiety to collect manure,
little attention is paid to neatness ; the pile of it is gene¬
rally heaped up in front, and a trough or cess for collecting
the liquid is formed near the family door, to which the pigs
have usually free access. The habitations of the labourers
or cottiers are very wretched, particularly those living in or
near the edges of the bogs. The cabin is sunk beneath
the surface of the soil, in order to diminish the quantity of
wall to be built. The roof, thatched with sods of turf
pared off the surface of the bog, is but a few feet above the
ground, and assimilates so closely with the appearance of
the surrounding fields as to be nearly imperceptible at a
short distance, except from the smoke rising out of its
openings, or the ingress and egress of children and domes¬
tic animals through the hole in the side intended for a
door. The food of the peasantry is potatoes, with some
milk and butter occasionally. The use of flesh meat is lit¬
tle knowm, except on a few high holidays. The fuel is uni¬
versally turf, which may be said to be the only thing the
poor man here has in plenty. The clothes are made of
home-manufactured frize, or cheap cottons. The English
language is in general use.
Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist here. That
of cotton was attempted at Prosperous, near Clane, but
failed. An extensive woollen factory has been for several
years at work near Celbridge, and still continues to pro¬
duce large quantities of the coarser woollen cloths. Paper
is also manufactured in some places, and tanning is carried
on to a considerable extent. The county affords many
fine sites for water-mills. The beautiful fails of the Liffey,
at the salmon-leap near Leixlip, offer a perennial com¬
mand of water adequate to move very extensive machinery.
Many other falls are to be met with on the same river in
its course through the county. The locks of the canals
also could supply water for many lesser works. The Grand
Canal enters the county from the Dublin side, at Hazel-
hatch, eight miles from the harbour at Portobello, and
passes through it in a south-western direction to Sallins,
where there is a short branch to the town of Naas. The
main trunk proceeds in a western direction to Lowtown, at
which place it divides into two branches, the one, proceed¬
ing westward to the Shannon, near Banagher, quits the
county at Edenderry ; the other, which takes a more south¬
ern direction, joins the Barrow at Monasterevan, the west¬
ern bank of which river it follows as far as Athy, where it
ceases, the river navigation from that point to the sea
being deemed sufficient for the purposes of inland naviga¬
tion. The summit-level, commencing at the distance of
seven miles from Dublin, and extending four miles, is 264
feet above the level of the sea at high water. The Royal
Canal, which skirts the northern boundary of Kildare, en¬
ters the county at Leixlip, and proceeding by Maynooth,
Kilcock, and Cloncurry, quits it for the county of Meath
at the Boyne. Both these carry to Dublin large quantities
of turf, which is much used for fuel by the lower classes
in the metropolis ; also bricks, stone, flags, slate, grain of
every description, and potatoes; and bring back chiefly
manufactured goods, timber, and foreign groceries. The
vicinity of the two canals during their transit through the
county diminishes considerably the general extension of
the benefits that ought to accrue both to the metropolis and
to the line of country which they traverse : in one part of
their course they approach within four miles of each other.
The remains of antiquity are numerous. There are
five round or pillar towers. That at Kildare is said to be
VOL. XII.
K I L
the most perfect in Ireland ; it is 130 feet high. At Tag-
hadoe there is another seventy-one feet high. The third,
at Kilcullen, has only forty feet standing. The fourth, at
Oughterard, has suffered still more severely from the ra¬
vages of time ; its height is but twenty-five feet. The
fifth, which stands at Castledermot, is used as a belfry,
and by a casual spectator might be mistaken for the trunk
of a lofty tree, in consequence of its being enveloped with
a covering of ivy from its base to its summit. Several of
the upright stones, supposed to be relics of the worship
of Baal, are also to be seen. One at Punch’s Town stands
twenty feet above the ground; another, with a conical
top, is at Harristown ; two others, situated at Jiggins-
town, are known by the name of the long stones ; ano¬
ther, called the Gobhlan, is near the hill of Carmen or
Mullamast, where is also to be seen a large rath, situated on
the summit of a hill of some elevation, near which are six¬
teen smaller raths or hillocks. These are said to have
been the seats of the elders when the assembly of the
states of Southern Leinster, under the name of Naasteighan,
was held on this eminence. At a later period it became
more memorable from a tragedy acted upon it by some of
the English settlers, who, having invited the neighbour¬
ing Irish chieftains to a conference there, for the amicable
settlement of their disputes as to territorial boundaries,
fell upon them unexpectedly, and slaughtered them to a
man. The pit into which the heads of the victims of this
murderous act of treachery were flung is still shown ; and
the place thence acquired its name of Mullamast, or the
Hill of Decapitation. The other raths of most note are
those of Ardscull, near Naas, where the English, under
Hamo de Gras, were totally defeated by Edward Bruce
in 1315; and that of Rheban, to the north of the same
town. Others are still to be seen at Naas, Kilkea, Moone,
Clane, and Lyons, and at Rathsallagh. The abbey of Kil¬
dare is one of the oldest in Ireland. It is said to have been
founded by St Brigid, and was the place where the sacred
fire was kept, which, after being extinguished by Henry
de Loundres, archbishop of Dublin, in 1220, was again
lighted and kept burning till the reformation. The ruins
of the building in which it was kept are still shown. There
w-ere, besides this, an abbey of gray friars, and another of
Carmelites or white friars, in the town. Castledermot
had also three great monasteries. A parliament was held
in one of them in the year 1499. Naas had an Augusti-
nian and a Dominican abbey. The fine abbey of Monas¬
terevan was converted into a mansion-house for the Moore
family. Of that of St Woolstan’s, near Celbridge, nothing
now remains but two towers and gateways. The com-
mandery of Tully, formerly belonging to the knights-iem-
plars, is now held in commendam with the bishopric of
Kildare. At old Kilkullen, the site of the monastery is
marked by some curious stone crosses. The principal
castles are those of Kilkea, said to be built by De Lacy
in 1180; those of Athy and Castledermot were built by
the eighth Earl of Kildare. Timolin Castle was erected
in the reign of King John, by the Lord of Norragh. Rhe¬
ban, on the Barrow, gave the title of baron to the fa¬
mily of St Michael. The castles of Narraghmore and
Harristown also gave baronial titles to their possessors.
Amongst the modern seats, the most remarkable are Car¬
ton, belonging to the Duke of Leinster, a princely resi¬
dence, near the town of Maynooth; Castletown, the seat
of the Conolly family, and Killadoon, that of Lord Lei¬
trim, in the same neighbourhood; Lyons, on the banks
of the canal, the splendid mansion and demesne of Lord
Cloncurry; StrafFan, on the Liffey, between Celbridge
and Clane, belonging to the Henry family ; Belan, near
Timolin, that of the Earl of Aldborough ; and Palmerston,
the Earl of Mayo’s. At Jigginstown, near Naas, are still
to be seen the walls of a large mansion commenced by
713
Kildare.
71-r K I L K I L
Kilderkin the unfortunate Lord Strafford, whilst lord-lieutenant under
II Charles IL, but never finished.
Kilkenny. There is no large town in the county. The population
0f neither of the assize-towns amounts to 5000 souls.
That of Athy, the larger, was, in 1831, 4494; and of Naas,
3808 souls. The former of these towns is situated on the
banks of the Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge,
and owes much of its small population to its being the point
of connection between the still-water navigation of the
Grand Canal, which terminates here, and the river naviga¬
tion of the Barrow. It was incorporated by James I.
under the care of a sovereign, two bailiffs, and twelve
burgesses. The assizes are held here once a year ; and
its old castle has been converted into a prison for the tem¬
porary detention of culprits. A free school, capable of
receiving 270 children, is the only modern public build¬
ing of any importance. Naas, situated on the Liffey, and
communicating with the main trunk of the Grand Canal by
a connecting branch, though less populous than Athy, has
a better right to the name of the county town, as being
the site of the principal prison ; besides which, it can
boast of a large Catholic chapel, a sessions-house, and a
market-house. In other respects it presents nothing worthy
of notice. Maynooth is remarkable for several castellated
ruins, built at various times by members of the Fitzgerald
family; and for being the site of the Roman Catholic Col¬
lege, founded for the education of the priesthood, and sup¬
ported by an annual parliamentary grant. Its population is
only 2052 souls. The other towns whose population ex¬
ceeds one thousand souls are, Kildare, 1753; Kilcock,
1730; Celbridge, 1645; Monasterevan, 1441 ; Castleder-
mot, 1375; Clane, 1216; Rathangan, 1165; Leixlip, 1156;
Prosperous, 1038.
KILDERKIN, a liquid measure, containing two firkins.
KILGERRAN, a town of Pembrokeshire, in South
Wales, 231 miles from London, on the river Tivi. It is a
corporate town, and had once a market, which has been dis¬
continued. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 854, in
1811 to 769, in 1821 to 862, and in 1831 to 879.
KILKARY, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-coast of
the Carnatic, and district of Minawas, 127 miles north-east
from Cape Comorin. Long. 78. 53. E. Lat. 9. 15. N.
KILKENNY, an inland county, in the province of
Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the Queen’s
county, on the east by the counties of Carlow and Wex¬
ford, on the south by the county of Waterford, and on the
west by that of Tipperary. It comprehends an area of
513,686 acres, of which 417,117 acres are cultivated land,
and 96,569 acres are bog and mountain.
The parish of Durrow, forming an insulated portion sur¬
rounded by the Queen’s county, was made part of the
county of Kilkenny by an act of parliament, obtained
through the influence of the Duke of Ormond. His ob¬
ject was to repress the outrages committed on his ten¬
antry by the Fitzpatricks, who inhabited that district, and
who, when tried in the Queen’s county, which belonged to
their own sept, were always acquitted, but when tried in
Kilkenny, the duke’s county, were sure to be convicted.
According to Ptolemy, the county was inhabited by the
Brigantes and the Caucoi. It afterwards formed part of
the kingdom of Ossory, which was sometimes tributary to
Leinster, sometimes to Munster. After the arrival of the
English, it formed one of the counties into which King
John divided that portion of the island which recognised
his supremacy. At the termination of the sixteenth cen¬
tury it was chiefly occupied by the Graces, the O’Brenans,
the Butlers, the O’Sheas, the Rooths, the Harpurs, the
Walshes of the mountains, the Shortals, and the For-
stals. It is now divided into the nine baronies of Cran-
nagh, Fassadining, Galmoy, Gowran, Ida, Iverk, Kells,
Knocktopher, and Shillelogher ; besides which, the county
of the city of Kilkenny forms a separate jurisdiction. Kilkemir. j
These baronies are subdivided into 126 parishes, and one
part of a parish.
According to the ecclesiastical arrangements of the
country, Kilkenny is chiefly comprehended within the
diocese of Ossory, which extends over 120 of its parishes.
Of the remainder, six are in the diocese of Leighlin, and
part of one in that of Cashel. The see of Ossory was
first planted at Seikyran, near Birr, about the year 402.
Thence it was removed to Aghaboe, in the Queen’s
county, about 1052 ; and finally to Kilkenny, in the latter
end of the reign of Henry II. Like Meath, it derives its
name, not from the seat of the episcopal see, but from that
of the district over which it extends. Besides nearly the
whole part of the county of Kilkenny, the diocese also com¬
prehends the entire barony of Upper Ossory, forming one
third of the Queen’s county, and a small part of the King’s
county. The dean of the cathedral exercises a kind of
episcopal jurisdiction over the vicars-choral, similar to
that of the dean of St Patrick’s, Dublin ; and the arch¬
deacon formerly exercised an ordinary prescriptive juris¬
diction over the whole diocese. The total number of its
parishes is 136, of which 120 are in Kilkenny, fifteen in
the Queen’s, and one in the King’s county. The annual
value of the see was estimated at L.3859 by the parlia¬
mentary return made in 1833. In conformity with the
new arrangements for the established church in Ireland,
this diocese has been consolidated into that of Leighlin
and Ferns.
The face of the country is mostly level, particularly in
the central baronies; but hilly in the northern, and still
more so in the south-eastern districts. An argillaceous soil
is predominant. Very little ground is unfit lor tillage,
and that which is not productive of good grain throws up
excellent herbage. The soil in the northern parts is
chiefly a mossy turf a few inches deep, lying over a bed
of stiff yellow or whitish clay. More southerly, the soil
is light, covering an argillaceous schistus. To the west
there is a hungry clayey loam, over a bed of limestone. In
general, the nearer the limestone is to the surface, the
poorer the soil. A light soil covers all the vicinity of the
city of Kilkenny, exhibiting the appearance of slaty hills
and gravelly bottoms. Proceeding southwards, the fer¬
tility increases. The angle of the river Suir, which forms
the parish of Portnascully,. is the richest land in the
county. There is a great extent of mountainous land,
much of it unimproved. The quantity of bog is incon¬
siderable, amounting altogether to 3500 acres ; the largest
tract is in the north-western extremity. Marl has been
found between two strata of black turf jnould; three
strata of bog have also been discovered, separated by in¬
tervening beds of marl, oak, fir; sallow and birch have
been found in the bogs. There are no loughs of any ex¬
tent. In the parish of Cloghmanta there are some tem¬
porary lakes, produced by the water bursting up from the
ground in November, and subsiding in spring. They are
here named Loughans; in Connaught they are called
Furloughs. The climate is less humid than that of Dub¬
lin or Wicklow.
The principal rivers are the Nore, the Barrow, and the
Suir, all of which rise in the range of the Slieve Bloom
Mountains, and, taking a southern direction, discharge
themselves by a common mouth into the estuary at Wa¬
terford. The Nore passes through the middle of the coun¬
ty, and by the city of Kilkenny ; it is navigable for boats
as far as Thomastown, whence a canal has been for many
years proposed to be carried to the last-named city; but
it still remains uncut. The salmon-peal, a fish resembling
the salmon, is caught in this river. The King’s River
joins the Nore at Jerpoint, and the Argula near Innistioge.
The Barrow forms the eastern boundary of the county,
KILKENNY.
715
Kil my. from near New Bridge to its junction with the Suir, which
^ latter river is its boundary to the south. The Barrow is
navigable for boats along the whole extent of the borders
of the county of Kilkenny, and still farther to Athy in
Kildare county. The Suir is navigable for sloops to Car-
rick, and for barges to Clonmell in Tipperary.
The substrata of this county are granite, siliceous schis-
tus, siliceous breccia, argillite, sandstone, and limestone.
The granite hills form a very small partt being merely
the extension of the Wicklow group. The rock is of va¬
rious shades, but the best is of a light yellow tint, finely
grained, and compact; black mica is found in it, together
with specks of iron ore, and crystals of schorl. Siliceous
breccia forms many of the lower hills. It consists prin¬
cipally of fine quartz sand, united by a siliceous cement,
and enveloping rounded pebbles of quartz. This stone is
constantly accompanied by a red argillite, which covers
the sides of the hills, but scarcely ever the summits. The
hills of breccia run southward from the Nore towards
Waterford. The great hill of Drumdowney, near the
Ross River, forms the extremity of the principal range.
The stone is here of a fine grain, and is quarried for mill¬
stones, which are exported to Cork, Dublin, and other
parts. In the western part of the county there is an ex¬
tensive slate quarry, highly esteemed. The northern
part of the county consists either of ferruginous argillite
or of siliceous schistus. The former, from being always
found above coal, is called coal-cover.
The collieries of Castlecomer are situated near the con¬
fluence of the small rivers Dinan, Dian, Bruckagh, and
Cloghoge, which join the Nore. They were discovered
by accident, in working for iron ore. The depth of the
beds varies from two feet six inches to three feet one
inch. The coal sill, or seat of the coal, which is some¬
times raised with it, is a soft, black, brittle stone, full of
shining impressions, exhibiting obscure traces of the roots
of rushes. It stands fire in a peculiar manner ; crucibles
made of it resist the strongest heat, as, the more it is ex¬
posed to the fire, the harder it becomes. Fire-bricks are
made from two parts of it and one part of clay. The ex¬
cellent qualities of the Kilkenny coal for particular pur¬
poses occasion a great demand for it. It is heavy, burn¬
ing with little flame, like charcoal in an ignited state, and
throwing out a steady and violent heat. It dries malt
well, and is excellent for the forge. When analyzed, it
appears to approach nearly to pure carbon, the propor¬
tions being of that element, and the remainder un¬
inflammable ashes. It seems peculiarly calculated for ce¬
menting steel, and for potteries; but it has not been ap¬
plied to either purpose, although materials for earthen¬
ware are to be found in the neighbourhood, and iron-
mines of the best quality from the upper strata of entire
hills. Yellow ochre is found in various places; also pipe¬
clay of good quality. Manganese is seen on the banks of the
Barrow, and near Freshford, and lead in small quantities
between Innistioge and Ross; a mine of the latter at Flood-
hall was worked for some time with considerable profit. Iron
has also been raised. Jasper, in pieces from ten to twelve
inches long, and half as broad, have been found near the
extremity of the granite district, between the Nore and
Barrow. Limestone is the base of the central part of the
county ; but the quality varies much in different places, all
the species of it containing impressions of shells or coral¬
lines. The most important limestone quarry is that which
produces the Kilkenny marble; it lies about half a mile
from the city. The stone, when polished, presents a
black ground, varied with white marks, which appear more
strongly when exposed to the air; but that approaching
nearest to unmixed black is most esteemed. The analy¬
sis gave ninety-eight per cent, soluble in marine acid, and
two per cent, of a black powder, which appeared to be
Total.
14,511
19,672
carbon. The blocks, when raised, are finished at a mar-Kilkenny-
ble-mill at some distance, remarkable for the ingenuity w-y-
and simplicity of its mechanism.
At Ballyspellan, in Galmoy barony, is a very celebrated
mineral spring. It is a chalybeate, and contains carbonic
acid gas, which soon evaporates on exposure to the air.
Its medicinal qualities have long been highly esteemed in
the neighbouring country. Chalybeate springs, but not
of much strength, exist in other places. This county is
also celebrated for springs of very pure transparent water,
most of them dedicated to some saint, whose patron-day
is annually celebrated on their verge.
The population, taken at different periods, presents the
following results:
1760 De Burgo 62,832
1792 Beaufort 100,000
1812 Parlimentary census 134,664
’ 1821 Ditto 158,716
1831 Ditto 160,283
* This table exhibits an increase of more than double in
seventy years, and gives an average of one inhabitant to
every three acres and a quarter, or of a family of six to
every nineteen acres.
The parliamentary returns of the numbers of children
receiving education in the public schools, in the years
1821, and 1824-26, give the following results :
-r, Sex not
°'7S' 11 s‘ ascertained.
1821, 10,191 4,420 —
1824-26, 12,398 7,000 274
Out of this total of children enjoying the benefits of pub¬
lic instruction, according to the latter of these returns, up¬
wards of 18,000 were Catholics; the Protestants amount¬
ing only to 1376, of which number but thirteen were dis¬
senters. The number of schools maintained by public
money was nineteen, in which 1515 pupils were instruct¬
ed ; of those maintained by private subscriptions, the
number*was the same, the pupils in them being 1281;
all the other schools, 346 in number, in which 16,876
children were instructed, were maintained wholly by the
fees of the pupils. From the same data, it may be infer¬
red that the Catholics in the county of Kilkenny were to
the Protestants at that time in the proportion nearly of
twenty to one.
The county returned sixteen members to the Irish par¬
liament, two for the county at large, two for the city of
Kilkenny, two for the adjoining borough of Irishtown, and
two each for the boroughs of Callan, Gowran, Innistioge,
Knocktopher, and Thomastown. All these, except Kil¬
kenny, were close boroughs, the elective franchise being
vested in the burgesses, whose number seldom exceeded
twenty, and who were elected through the influence of the
proprietor of the land. The constituency of the county
was as follows, before the Catholic relief act, after that
act but previously to the reform act, and subsequently to
the reform act:—
L.50. L.20. L.10. 40s. Total.
1829, 689 210 — 2353 3261
11830, 726 234 118 — 1024
1832, 222 106 918 — 1246
Very little ground throughout the county is unfit
for tillage ; the central parts are peculiarly adapted for
wheat, to the growth of which the best ground, most
of which has a limestone sub-soil, is devoted. The
more mountainous tracts are exclusively appropriated to
oats or pasture. Wheat is sown either on a fallow or
after potatoes. The seed is always steeped for a day
and night, in which prpcess brine has been found most
effectual in guarding against smut. Wheat here suf¬
fers also from what is called the red or yellow wrorm;
but as this disease appears only in dry seasons, when
716 KILKENNY.
Kilkenny, the crop is better and more abundant, the evil is not
much felt. Change of seed is much attended to. Bar¬
ley is usually sown after wheat. Bear is little cultivated.
The same may be said of rye; when raised, it is sown
on burned land, and produces fine crops in the mountain¬
ous districts. All the manure that can be collected is
applied to the potatoes. The street scrapings of Water¬
ford bear a high price in the neighbouring baronies ; sea-
sand and composts of turf mould are also common. The
use of green food for cattle is not so general as might be
desired. Many of the cattle graze out during the winter ;
some are housed from Christmas to April. The only
green food used in winter is furze-tops pounded, on which
the cattle soon become sleek and fine skinned ; for this
purpose the large French furze is preferred. Little at¬
tention is paid to improve the pasturages. The mountain
pastures are left in a state of nature, and the land produ¬
ces little but heath. These heaths are very liable to take fire
in dry summers, by which means the soil is eventually im¬
proved. Much land on the borders of the Nore and Suir
is embanked and used for meadowing. The most consi¬
derable dairies are in the Walsh Mountains; a name sup¬
posed to be derived from the family to which a large tract
of landformerly belonged. It is now mostly held by a single
family, consisting of five branches, who possess upwards of
two thousand acres amongst them. Their houses are small
and contiguous. They intermarry amongst each other,
which renders ecclesiastical dispensations frequently ne¬
cessary. If a widow' marry a stranger, she loses all ex¬
cept what she had brought with her to her first husband.
The land is grazed in common, excepting three hundred
acres, w'hich are divided equally among the five families.
They live principally on potatoes and griddle bread, with
occasionally the offal of the pigs killed for sale. Their
dairies have earthen floors, and are without ceiling, win¬
dow, table, or shelf, but they are kept very neat.
Few horses are bred in the county, most are brought
in from Munster to the fair of Callan, the only esteemed
fair for this description of stock. The Suffolk sorrel breed
is much in request. The common stock of black cattle is
a cross of the Irish breed on the long-horned English.
The Kerry cow is much in demand in dairies, for its low
price and quantity of milk. The breed of sheep has im¬
proved very much, in consequence of the great pains taken
to improve it. Merinos have been successfully introdu¬
ced. Pigs are fattened to the weight of five hundred lbs.
Goats are kept by small farmers and cottiers, but not
in flocks. Rearing fowl is also an object with the small
farmers. Large numbers of turkeys are sent to the
autumn fair of Callan. Bees were more attended to for¬
merly than now, yet the soil and climate are well suited
to them. The dry hills, covered with heath and scented
herbs, produce honey celebrated for its flavour, and for the
depth of its combs.
Within the memory of some old persons, many parts of
the county were covered with woods. Now there are
but few, not covering more than two thousand acres. At¬
tempts to raise plantations from the seed have not been
successful, the seeds in this mild climate being liable to
destruction from vermin. Orchards are much neglect¬
ed. There are some ozieries on the banks of the Nore and
Suir.
The woollen manufacture was introduced by the Earl
of Ormond in the early part of the fourteenth century.
He brought over workmen from Flanders, whose manufac¬
ture is still to be seen in the castle of Kilkenny. James
duke of Ormond went to great expense to introduce the
linen manufacture in the seventeenth century. Latterly
an attempt was made to manufacture superfine broad
cloths in the neighbourhood of Kilkenny, but it soon
failed. Frizes and ratteens are still made; the women
spin the wool. The manufacture of w’oollen cloth was Kilkeniu ^
succeeded by that of blankets, which is still carried on. r'
The linen trade, after a continuance of fifty or sixty years,
has so died away that not a vestige of it now remains, be¬
yond the making of coarse linen and sacking for domestic
use. There are salt-houses at Kilkenny, Newbridge, and
Kilmurry. Paper is manufactured in several places. Bolt¬
ing mills are numerous on the great rivers. The princi¬
pal part of the grain raised in the county is sent to Dub¬
lin in the form of flour, malt, and meal, the manufacturing
of which is another source of wealth.
The number of resident gentry is considerable. Amongst
the mansions remarkable for splendour or for architectural
beauty are, the castle of Kilkenny; Mount Juliet, the
seat of the Earl of Garrick ; Desart, the seat of the Earl
of Desart; Kilfane, that of George Power, Esq.; Flood
Hall, the residence of the head of the Flood family; and
Besborough, the seat of the Earl of Besborough. Gentle¬
men’s seats are numerous and elegant. The farm-houses
are of stone, more generally cemented with clay than with
mortar; the offices usually forming an irregular yard in
front of the house. The people in the hilly parts, who
hold land at will, live in scattered villages. The usual
food of the peasantry is potatoes, to which milk and salt
are sometimes added, and occasionally a herring. Turf is
the general fuel, except in the neighbourhood of the col¬
lieries, where coal is burned, or else culm made up in balls
with one third of clay. The clothing is frize, ratteen,
and flannel. The women wear stuff petticoats and straw'-
hats manufactured at home. Spirituous liquors are seldom
used, excepting at fairs, patrons, wakes, weddings, and
christenings. One person at least from every family in the
village is expected to attend at a wake, and the body is
often conveyed many miles to the family burial-place.
Irish is the language generally spoken, particularly in the
hilly districts and in the western parts, where the priests
frequently preach alternately in Irish and English.
Amongst the remains of antiquity may be noticed a circle
covered with stones on the summit of Slieve Grian, “ the
Hill of the Sun,” called also Tory Hill, on one of which is
an inscription that has given rise to much controversy.
There is another circular mound of stones on the hill of
Cloghmanta, which signifies “the Rock of God.” The most
remarkable cromleach is at Kilmogue; its upper stone is
forty-five feet in circumference. The country people call
it Lachan Schal, or “ the Great Altar Stone.” Near the
spa of Ballyspellin is a large stone, formerly supported by
others ; it is called Clogh-bannagh, or “ the Stone of Bles¬
sing.” Raths are numerous, particularly in Galmoy and
near the Nore. At Earlsrath are the remains of a very
large fort enclosed by a fosse. A moat near Rathbeath is
pointed out as the place where Heremon, son of Milesius,
built his palace and was buried. There are five pillar
towers in the county. One is in Kilkenny, close to the
cathedral ; the others are at Tulloherin, Kilree, Fertagh,
and Aghaviller, of which last the lower part only remains.
All are in the vicinity of places of worship. Besides the
remains of monasteries in the city of Kilkenny, there are
vestiges of some others, once of great note, particularly
one at Jerpoint, and another at Graige, both of the Cis¬
tercian order. The Dominicans had abbeys at Rosbercon
and Thomastown, the Carmelites had one at Knocktopher ;
and there was a nunnery at Kilculliheen.
The number of castles is very great; most of them con¬
sist of a single square tow er, which formed the keep. Gra-
ney or Grandison Castle, in Iverk, is among the most cele¬
brated, as being the residence of Margaret Fitzgerald, the
great Countess of Ormond, a woman of uncommon ener¬
gies. King John built a castle at Tybrachny, where there
are the remains of a Danish town.
Kilkenny city is situated on the river Nore, nearly in
K I L
Ki! nny. the centre of the county- Its name is generally derived
w ' from Kill-kenny, « the church or cell of St Canice,” though
by some it is traced from the words Coil-ken-ui, “ the
wooded hill near the river.’ It consists of two separate
jurisdictions, the city ot Kilkenny properly so called, and
the borough of Irishtown, separated from each other bv the
small river Bregagh. An English settlement was formed'here
shortly after the landing of Strongbow; a castle was also
erected, and the seat of the see of Ossory removed thither.
William lord marshal, who married Strongbow’s daughter,
granted the town a charter of incorporation, which was
confirmed by Gilbert earl of Clare. Elizabeth and James
I. confirmed and enlarged its privileges. Parliaments
M^ere frequently held in it; amongst others, that which pass¬
ed the celebrated statute of Kilkenny, which first notices
the distinction of English by blood and English by birth.
During the wars of 1641, it was the place where the as¬
sembly of the confederate Catholics held their sittings;
the room where they met is still shown. Cromwell after¬
wards took the city on terms highly honourable to its de¬
fenders, and afterwards held his high court of justice in
it. The buildings in the city and borough together oc-
cupy an area of about 380 acres. On the two most ele¬
vated points of the united towns are the castle and the
cathedral, the most marked and ornamental structures of
both. The city is irregular, but presents a cheerful and
busy aspect: the houses, built chiefly of stone, are large and
respectable. The Nore, here a river of some breadth,
though not navigable, is crossed by two modern bridges.
The castle comprehends the remains of the ancient for¬
tress, combined with more modern buildings. It was pur¬
chased by James, third earl of Ormond, in 1391, and has
ever since been the principal residence of the head of the
Butler family. In 1399, he entertained Richard II. in it
for fourteen days. King William dined there after the
battle of the Boyne. The buildings now form the sides
of a quadrangle. Its principal apartments were the pre¬
sence chamber, formed of a suite of rooms opening into one
another, in the farthest of which was an elevated seat for
the lord of the mansion ; and the picture gallery, chiefly
furnished with family portraits. Several of the rooms
were hung with tapestry; but the whole is now undergo¬
ing such alterations as will materially change the state of
the interior without altering the feudal character of its
exterior. The court-house is a large and elegant modern
building, erected on the site ot Grace’s old castle, where
the assizes used to be held. The tholsel, or city court,
is also large, but unornamented ; it contains several apart¬
ments, one of which is used as a library. The market,
well stocked with provisions of every kind, is held in one
of the divisions of its inferior area. There are barracks
both for cavalry and infantry. The theatre is small, and
was for some time kept open by an amateur company, com¬
posed of the neighbouring resident gentry. The county
jail is at a short distance from the city. The environs
of the town are very beautiful. The Duke’s Walk is car¬
ried from it upwards of a mile along the banks of the
Nore. I he corporation consists of a mayor and aldermen,
two sheriffs, a recorder, and other subordinate officers,
who have the management of an income, arising from
rents, of about L.1600 per annum. The cathedral of St
Canice is an extensive pile, on a commanding elevation, in
Irishtown. It is cruciform, surmounted by a small tower,
and of greater dimensions than any similar building in
Ireland, except the cathedral in Dublin. In the north
transept is a chapel used as the parish church, where also
is a stone seat called the chair of St Kevin. The choir
and chancel are fitted up in a style of chaste simplicity.
I lie aisle contains several sepulchral monuments; amongst
them that of Pierce, eighth earl of Ormond, and Mar¬
garet Fitzgerald his wife. The burial-ground of the ca-
K I L
thedral is entered by a flight of marble steps, and is
planted with trees. The episcopal palace was originally
erected in the time of Edward III., and was modernized
and enlarged in 1735; it is now a commodious, though
not a splendid residence. ( The church of St Mary is a
spacious but plain structure. Several monastic institu¬
tions added much to the beauty and dignity of the city.
The most ancient was the preceptory of St John, founded
about 1211. The abbey church, remarkable for the sin¬
gular structure of its windows, which procured it the name
of “ the Lanthorn of Kilkenny,” has been converted into a
parochial church under its old name. The extensive and
noble ruins of the Dominican or Black Abbey, founded in
1225, have been repaired, and now form a Roman Catho¬
lic place of worship. The origin of the Franciscan Abbey
is unknown. Its ruins are much admired. The grammar-
school, generally called the college, is situated near the
banks ot the Nore. It was founded by Pierce earl of
Ormond, and re-endowed by the Duke of Ormond in 1684.
James II. erected it into a royal college, but on his abdi¬
cation it reverted to its former state, and is now a respect¬
able place of elementary instruction, capable of accommo¬
dating eighty resident pupils. In it Dean Swift, Con¬
greve, Farquhar, and Bishop Berkeley, acquired the rudi¬
ments of classical literature. Kilkenny has also a seminary
for the education of students intended for the Roman Ca¬
tholic priesthood. A nunnery provides for the education
of twelve boys and as many girls. The charter-school is
adapted for seventy children. The infirmary, opened in
1767, is supported partly by grants of public money, partly
by benefactions and subscriptions. The house of industry
provides for the maintenance of the poor when out of em¬
ployment ; and an hospital for lunatics is attached to it. A
neat range of buildings, called St James’ Asylum, in the
suburbs, was endowed in 1803, by Mr James Switzer, for
the maintenance of twelve protestant and eight catholic
widows. The population of the city and borough in 1821
amounted to 23,230 souls, and in 1831 to 23,741. The
other towns the population of which exceeds one thou¬
sand souls each are, Callan,- 6111 ; Thomastown, 2871 ;
Castlecomer, 2436; Freshford, 2175; Graige, 2130;
Ballyragget, 1629; Uriingford,a 1338; Durrow, 1298;
and Gowran, 1109.
KILL ALA, a town of Ireland, in the county of Mayo,
situated on a fine bay of the Atlantic, to which it gives name.
There are here some small manufactures, but it is chiefly
noted as being the place where the French landed in 1798,
and of which they kept possession for about a month. It
is 192 miles north-west from Dublin. Long. 9. 8. W. Lat.
54. 13. N.
KILLALOE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Clare,
situated on the western bank of the Shannon, over which
there is a bridge of nineteen arches. It is an old town,
and possesses little or no trade ; but there is a water com¬
munication with Dublin by means of a canal. Killaloe
lies eleven miles north-north-east of Limerick.
KILLARNEY, a small town of Ireland, in the county
of Kerry. It is a neat, thriving, and well-built place,
much frequented on account of the lakes in its vicinity,
for a description of which see the article Kerry.
KILLICRANKIE, a noted pass of Perthshire, Scot¬
land, within about two miles of Blair-Athole. It is formed
by lofty mountains impending over the river Garry, which
rushes through in a deep channel beneath. In the last
century this pass was one of some danger and difficulty,
and a path hanging over a tremendous precipice threatened
destruction at the least false step of the traveller. At
present it is traversed by a beautiful road, forming part of
the Highland line between Dunkeld and Inverness, and
all danger or even difficulty has completely vanished. The
finest portion of the pass is at the southern extremity, and
/ 1/
Killala
It
Killi-
crankie.
718 ' K I L
Killieran- nearly opposite to the house of Faskally, which is situated
on a level paddock at the foot of the precipice, on the
right bank of the Garry, which sweeps round the beauti¬
ful green spot on which it stands.
Near the northern extremity of this pass, in its open
and unimproved state, was fought, in the year 1689, the
battle of Killicrankie, between the adherents of James II.
under Viscount Dundee, and those of William HI. under
General Mackay. Dundee’s army was inferior in numbers
to that of Mackay. When he came in sight of the latter,
he found them formed in eight battalions ready for action.
They consisted of 4500 foot, and two troops of horse.
The Highlanders under Dundee amounted to little more
than half that number. At five of the clock in the after¬
noon, a kind of slight skirmish took place between the right
wing of the Highlanders and the left of the enemy. But
neither army wishing to change their ground, the firing
was discontinued for three hours. Dundee in the mean time
passed from clan to clan, and animated them to action.*
About eight o’clock he gave the signal for battle. The
Highlanders in deep columns rushed suddenly down the hill,
reserving their fire until they were within a pike’s length of
the enemy; when, having discharged their muskets, they
fell upon the red-coats sword in hand. Mackay’s left wing,
unable to sustain the shock, were driven by the Macleans
with great slaughter from the field. But the Macdonalds,
on the left of the Highlanders, were not equally successful.
Colonel Hastings’s regiment of foot stood their ground,
and even forced the Macdonalds to recoil. Maclean, how¬
ever, with a few of his tribe, and Sir Evan Cameron at
the head of his clan, fell suddenly on the flank of this gal¬
lant regiment, and forced them to give way. The slaugh¬
ter ended not with the battle. Two thousand men fell in
the field and in the flight. The tents, baggage, artillery,
and provisions of the enemy, and even King William’s
Dutch standard, borne by Mackay’s regiment, fell into
the hands of the conquerors. The victory was now com¬
plete. But the Highlanders lost their gallant leader, who,
as he was raising his arm, and ordering the Camerons to
advance, received a ball in his side. The wound proved
mortal ; and with Dundee perished all the hopes of King
James.
The battle of Killicrankie, or of Renrorie as the High¬
landers call it, was fought to the westward of the great
pass, on a level space, in the form of a small amphitheatre,
immediately below the house of Urrard, and bounded on
the one .side by the heights, on a terrace of which that
house stands, and on the other by the river Garry, which
at this place runs close by the modern road. In the
middle of this little plain stands a rude block of stone,
which is said to mark the spot where Viscount Dun¬
dee received the wound which put a period to his earth¬
ly career; but this is most probably a mistake ; for, in
the first place, if he had descended to the level ground,
he could not have commanded a full view of the attack,
whereas, by remaining at or near Urrard House, he
must have perceived at a glance every movement that
took place in the plain below; and, secondly, the tradi¬
tion is uniform and uncontradicted, that he was mortally
wounded by a ball which entered between the joinings of
his armour, whilst his horse was stooping to drink at a well
on the heights, and at the moment when he was ordering
the Camerons to advance. Before the onset, the Highland
K I L
army was drawn up on the face of the'hill, a little above Killigrew.
the house of Urrard ; a position which gave them the entire '''■’’“y's*
command of the pass, and enabled them to attack to the
greatest advantage.'^ As Mackay was observing his adver¬
saries, on the hill above, he turned round to young Loch-
eil who stood next him, and pointing to the Camerons,
“ There,” said he, “ is your father and his wild savages;
how would you like to be with him ?” “ It signifies little,”
replied the other, “ what / would like; but I recommend
it to you to be prepared, or perhaps my father and his
wild savages may be nearer to you before night than you
would like.” And it happened as young Cameron had
foreseen. Dundee delayed his attack until near sun¬
set, “ when,” according to an eye-witness, “ the High¬
landers advanced on us like madmen, without shoes or
stockings, covering themselves from our fii’e with their
targets. At last they cast away their muskets, drew their
broadswords, and advancing furiously upon us, broke us,
and obliged us to retreat; some fled to the water, some
another way.”1 In short, the charge was like a torrent,
and the rout immediate and complete. Some regiments,
indeed, withstood the first onset, and regaining their for¬
mation, made some show of resistance ; but seeing them¬
selves at length turned and abandoned, they soon joined
in the flight. It has generally been believed that Dundee
fell towards the close of the action ; but a letter, which
has been preserved, from James VII. to Stewart of Balle-
chin, who commanded the Athole men, proves the reverse.
“ If their courage and yours, and the rest of the comman¬
ders under you, were not steady,” says James, “ the loss
you had in a general you loved and confided in, at your
entrance into action, with so great inequality of numbers,
were enough to baffle you.” The consternation occasioned
by the death of Dundee, however, prevented an imme¬
diate pursuit through the great pass. Had the discom¬
fited troops been closely followed, and had a few High¬
landers been placed at the southern entrance, not a man
of them would have escaped. His uninterrupted retreat
caused General Mackay to conclude that some misfortune
had befallen Dundee. “ Certainly,” said he, “ Dundee
has been killed, or I should not thus be permitted to
retreat unmolested.” (Stewart’s Sketches of the Highland¬
ers, vol. i. pp. 66, 67.)
KILLIGREW, William, was the eldest son of Sir Ro¬
bert Killigrew, and born at Han worth, Middlesex, in the year
1605. At the age of seventeen, he became a gentleman
commoner of St John’s College, where he remained about
three years ; he then travelled into foreign parts, and,
after his return, was made governor of Pendennis Castle
and of Falmouth Haven in Cornwall. At a subsequent
period, he attended Charles I. as gentleman-usher of the
privy chamber; and, upon the breaking out of the civil
war, he commanded one of the two troops of horse which
were appointed to guard the royal person. He was in at¬
tendance upon the king when the court resided at Ox¬
ford ; in 1642, he was created doctor of the civil law by
the university of that place ; and when the king’s affairs
were completely ruined, he suffered like the other cava¬
liers, and was obliged to compound with the republicans
for his estate. But the Restoration made him some com¬
pensation for the losses he had sustained in the royal
cause. He was appointed gentleman-usher of the privy
chamber to Charles II.; and, upon the king’s marriage,
1 The author of the Memoirs of Dundee, speaking of this battle, says, “ Then the Highlanders fired, threw down their fusils, rush¬
ed in with sword, target, and pistol upon the enemy, who did not maintain their ground two minutes after the Highlanders were
amongst them ; and I dare be bold to say, there were never such strokes given in Europe as were given that day by the Highlanders.
What follows seems to partake a little of the marvellous. “ Many of General Mackay’s officers and soldiers were cut down
through the skull and neck to the very breast; others had skulls cut off above their ears like night-caps; some soldiers had both their
bodies and cross-belts cut through at one blow; pikes and small swords were cut like willows ; and whoever doubts of this may con¬
sult the witnesses of the tragedy.” The whole, indeed, seems to have been, in more senses than one, a very cutting affair.
K I L
K I L
719
&
K
i
;rew he was created vice-chamberlain, an office which he held
for twenty-two years. Killigrew died in 1693, four years
iar* after the Revolution. He was the author of four plays,
printed at Oxford, 1666, in folio, and which have been
commended by some eminent judges of dramatic merit,
particularly by Waller. Another play, called the Imperial
Tragedy, 1690, in folio, is also ascribed to him ; and a
little poem of his, set to music by Henry Lawes, is like¬
wise extant. Wood informs us that, in his declining
age, after he had retired from court, he wrote The Art¬
less Midnight Thoughts of a Gentleman at Court, 1684,
in 8vo, the second edition of which he dedicated to
Chari es II.; and another work, entitled Midnight and
Daily Thoughts, in prose and verse, 1694, in 8vo. (a.)
Killigrew, Thomas, brother of the preceding, was
born in 1611, and also distinguished for uncommon natu¬
ral abilities. He was page of honour to Charles I., and after¬
wards groom of the bed-chamber to Charles II., with whom
he had passed many years in exile. During his residence
abroad, he visited France, Italy, and Spain, and was sent
on a mission to Venice in August 1651. But the chief
occupation of his leisure hours consisted in the cultiva¬
tion of poetry and the composition of plays. Of the lat¬
ter, Denham mentions only six ; but it appears that he
wrote nine during his travels, and two after his return,
all of which were printed at London, 1664, in one vol. folio.
Killigrew died in 1682, and was interred in Westminster
Abbey. Possessing a vein of wild humour, to which he
gave unlimited scope, he became a great favourite with
Charles II., wdio, diverted by his sallies, paid more attention
to Killigrew than to his ministers, and allowed the former
access to the royal presence when that favour was denied
to the latter. When he attempted to write, he was no¬
thing. It wras in conversation, and, above all, in light re¬
partee, that he showed to advantage; being, in this respect,
the reverse of Cowley, who made no figure in company,
though he excelled in composition. Hence Denham,
who knew them both, has thus characterised their respec¬
tive excellencies and defects :
Had Cowley ne’er spoke, Killigrew ne’er writ,
Combin’d in one, they’d made a matchless wit. (a.)
f Killigrew, Anne, “ a grace for beauty, and a muse for
wit,” as Mr Wood says, was the daughter of Dr Henry
Killigrew, brother of the two foregoing, and was born a
little before the Restoration. She gave early indications
of genius, and became eminent in the arts both of poetry
and painting. She drew the Duke of York and his duchess,
to whom she was maid of honour, as well as several other
portraits and history pieces ; and crowned all her other
accomplishments with unblemished virtue and exemplary
piety. Mr Dryden seems quite lavish in her praise,
though Wood assures us he has said no more of her than
she w'as equal if not superior to. This amiable young
woman died of the small-pox in 1685 ; and, the year after,
her poems were published, in a thin quarto volume.
KILLOUGH, a considerable village of Ireland, in the
county of Down, pleasantly situated on the sea-shore, with
a good quay, and a fine, safe harbour. Long. 5. 38. W.
Lat. 54. 15. N.
KILMALLOCK, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Limerick, which some centuries ago was one of the best-
built inland towns of Ireland, and made a conspicuous figure
in the annals of Irish warfare. Its former splendour is in¬
dicated by ruins on a pretty large scale ; but, of the monas¬
teries, churches, and other buildings, only one street en¬
tire remains, inhabited by very poor people. It is situ¬
ated twenty miles south from Limerick.
KILMARNOCK, a town in Ayrshire, which is said
to derive its name from the circumstance of St Marnock
1 laving suffered martyrdom there, about 350 years after
Christ. It is pleasantly situated upon an almost level plain,
surrounded by very beautiful scenery. Of its early history
little is known, and neither in a warlike nor a monastic
point of view is it at all conspicuous. Two centuries ago
Kilmarnock was a mere hamlet, dependent upon the baro¬
nial castle in its neighbourhood; and, forty years ago, it
consisted chiefly of a number of narrow passages and lanes.
Since that period, however, it has been greatly enlarged
and improved, elegant and even spacious streets having
supplanted the more confined avenues. It is now well
lighted with gas, possesses a somewhat modern appearance,
and promises to become one of the first manufacturing towns
in Scotland.
Kilmarnock received its first charter as a burgh of baro¬
ny in 1591, a second in 1672; and in 1700 its magistrates
purchased from its feudal lord the whole common good and
customs of the burgh. For many years the town was dis¬
tinguished for the manufacture of those broad, flat bonnets,
which were so long the characteristic of the lowland pea¬
santry of Scotland. In the year 1790, the produce of its
whole manufacture amounted only to L.86,000. How¬
ever, since the above date, it has made rapid advances in
many branches of manufactures, and is now the principal
town in Ayrshire for population, wealth, and appearance.
There are about 1200 weavers, and 200 printers engaged in
the printing of worsted shawls; and from 1st June 1830 to
1st June 1831 there were manufactured 1,128,000 of these
shawls, the value of which is about L.200,000. At present
there are 1000 persons engaged in the production of Scot¬
tish, Venetian, and Brussels carpets: the annual amount of
this important branch may be about L. 100,000. The annual
value of the boots and shoes manufactured is L.42,000, of
the bonnets L.12,000. The number of sheep and lamb skins
dressed annually exceeds 140,000. There are many other
branches of manufactures carried on very extensively. It
unites with Dumbarton, Rutherglen, Renfrew, and Port
Glasgow in returning a member to parliament, Kilmarnock
being the returning burgh. The town is distant from Edin¬
burgh sixty-four miles, Glasgow twenty-one, Ayr twelve,
and is connected with Troon Harbour by a railway, the dis¬
tance being nine miles. It has a market every Tuesday and
Friday, and these are busily attended. The various market¬
places are well arranged and commodious. The trade of
the place is assisted by branches of the Commercial, Ayr,
and Ayrshire banks. The town has several good libraries
and reading-rooms, and publishes a newspaper weekly. There
is also an academy, in which are taught most of the useful and
elegant branches of education. This place has likewise
the advantage of an excellent observatory, furnished with
good telescopes. There is a philosophical institution, and
many societies of a benevolent and friendly nature. There
are three established churches, six dissenters’ meeting¬
houses, and a body of about 600 Catholics who assemble in
a large hall.
Almost the only antiquity here is a monument erected
to the memory of Lord Soulis, commemorating the assas¬
sination of that nobleman by one of the Boyd family. It
has been lately rebuilt, and bears the inscription, “ To
the memory of Lord Soulis, 1444. Rebuilt by subscription,
1825. The days of old to mind I call.” Within a mile
north of the town stands the ruins of the Dean Castle,
the habitation of the Earls of Kilmarnock, which was
burned by accident in 1735. The population amounts to
18,000, having increased 10,000 during the last thirty
years.
KILN, a stove used in the manufacture of various ar¬
ticles ; or a fabric formed for admitting heat, in order to
dry or burn materials placed in it to undergo such ope¬
rations.
KILSYTH, a village in the southern part of Scot¬
land. It is situated on the public road, twelve and a half
miles from Glasgow, eleven and a half from Falkirk,
720
K I N
K I N
Kilwin¬
ning
II
Kincar¬
dineshire.
and sixteen from Stirling. It is a straggling, irregularly
built, but populous place, containing upwards of 2000
inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in weaving for the
Glasgow manufacturers. Kilsyth is a burgh of barony,
with the privilege of holding five annual fairs. Besides
the parish church, there is a relief meeting-house. Kil¬
syth is commemorated in Scottish history by having given
its name to the victory which the Marquis of Montrose
gained over General Baillie in the year 1645.
KILWINNING, an ancient, and now a considerable
and thriving town of Scotland, in the county of Ayr. It
is situated on a rising ground about two miles from the
sea, three miles north-north-west of Irvine, and three
north-east of Saltcoats. Kilwinning consists chiefly of
one main street, with several small lanes or alleys, to¬
gether with a few rows of modern houses. It depends
principally on the weaving and manufacture of gauzes,
muslins, and the like, for the Glasgow and Paisley mar¬
kets. The parish church stands amongst the few remain¬
ing fragments of the once splendid abbey from which the
towm is supposed to have taken its origin. There are, be¬
sides, twm dissenting meeting-houses. The population may
amount to about 1500.
KIMBOLTON, a market-town of the county ofHunting-
don, in the hundred of Leightonstone, 65 miles from Lon¬
don. It stands on a rich and fertile plain, is tolerably
well built, and has a small market on Friday. It belongs
chiefly to the Duke of Manchester, whose magnificent
seat near it has long been celebrated, and, by its architec¬
ture, its decorations, and its paintings, is an object of
great attention. It was the residence of Catherine of
Aragon, after her divorce from Henry VIII. The popula¬
tion amounted in 1801 to 1226, in 1811 to 1400, in 1821
to 1562, and in 1831 to 1584.
KIMCHI, David, a Jewish rabbi, famous as a com¬
mentator on the Old Testament, who lived at the close
of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
He was a Spaniard by birth, son of Rabbi Joseph Kimchi,
and brother of Rabbi Moses Kimchi, both men of emi¬
nent learning amongst the Jews; but he excelled them
both, being the best Hebrew grammarian the Jews ever
could boast of. He wrote a Grammar and Dictionary of
the Hebrew language, from the former of which Buxtorf
compiled his Thesaurus Linguae Hebrece, and from the lat¬
ter his Lexicon Linguae Hebrece. His writings have been
held in such estimation amongst the Jews, that no one can
arrive at any reputation in letters and theology w ithout
studying them.
KIMEDY, a town of Hindustan, in the Northern Cir-
cars, 83 miles south-west from Ganjam. Long. 84. 11. E.
Lat. 18. 48. N.
KINATOOR, a small town of Hindustan, in the Car¬
natic, in which is a Hindu temple, 222 feet in height.
Long. 79. 19. E. Lat. 18. 48. N.
KINCARDINESHIRE, or the Mearns, a county in
Scotland, situated between 56. 43. and 57. 5. north lati¬
tude, and between 1. 47. and 2. 30. west longitude from
Greenwich. It is bounded on the east by the German
Ocean; on the north by Aberdeenshire, from which it is
divided along the greater part of the boundary by the
river Dee; and on the west and south by Forfarshire,
from which it is divided by the river North Esk. The
boundary along the shore of the German Ocean extends
to thirty-two miles, being the greatest length of the
county ; and the greatest breadth from east to w^est is
twenty-four miles; the superficial contents being 360
square miles, or about 243,444 English acres.
The cultivated parts of the county form three principal
divisions; the Howe of the Mearns, the Coast-side, and
Dee-side. The Howe of the Mearns, a continuation of the
great valley of Strathmore, is divided from the Dee-side
district by the Grampian Mountains, which stretch, from Kincar.
west to east, through the w-hole breadth of the county, dineshire. J
gradually declining in elevation, until they disappear in r-
the level ground near the sea, between Stonehaven and
Aberdeen. The greater part of this district is in a state
of high cultivation, and the face of the country is diver¬
sified and ornamented by thriving plantations. The
ground in many places is composed of a bright-red clay,
which gives the surface, when newly ploughed, a very pe¬
culiar appearance. The great road from Perth to Aber¬
deen through Strathmore traverses this district. The
Coast-side district, from the river North Esk to Stonehaven,
contains, with some intermixture of inferior ground, the
most productive land in the county. The road from
Montrose to Aberdeen runs through this division. Not¬
withstanding the vicinity of the ocean, some thriving
plantations are to be seen ; and, almost close to the shore,
there are trees of considerable magnitude, especially at
Brotherton, where a finely-terraced old garden,‘although
within reach of the sea spray, is remarked as being one
of the best and most productive in this part of the coun¬
try. From Bervie to Stonehaven, a distance of ten miles,
the shore is high and bold, presenting to the ocean, along
the whole line, a perpendicular face of rock, from 100 to
250 feet in height. The most conspicuous of this range
of rocks is Fowlsheugh, well known as the rendezvous,
during summer, of innumerable flocks of sea-fowl of va¬
rious kinds. In the face of the rock are various caverns,
and natural arches and galleries, of great extent and mag¬
nificence. From Stonehaven northward to the river Dee
the shore is also bold and rocky ; but the face of the
country is generally of a very inferior character to that
of the same district south of Stonehaven, just described. *
The appearance of a great part of this tract is as uninvit¬
ing as can well be imagined. In the neighbourhood of
Stonehaven, however, and in some other places, part of
the ground is in a state of high productiveness ; and, even
in the most barren and forbidding parts, great improve¬
ments have recently been made, and the progress of culti¬
vation is such as to promise at no distant period a total
change on the face of this part of the country. The
Dee-side district, forming the third division of the culti¬
vated part of the county, is situated on both sides of the
Dee, and extends along the south bank of that river, from
the sea westward, for about thirteen miles, and afterwards
along both banks for nine or ten miles further, embracing
also the valley of the Feugh. Some of the land in this
district is fertile, and produces good crops; but a great
part of the ground is still in little better than a state of
nature, although to a considerable extent capable of, and
in many places in progress towards, cultivation. In this
district, trees have been planted to a greater extent than
in any other part of the county, and the climate is pecu¬
liarly favourable to the growth of timber. The planta¬
tions greatly embellish the face of the country ; and at
many points, especially in the neighbourhood of the rising
valley of Banchory, the prospect along the Dee is rich
and beautiful. Plantations of firs extend in some places
to the summits of the adjoining hills.
These three divisions, comprehending the more level
and cultivated parts of the county, extend to about two
thirds of the whole surface. The other third consists of
the eastern range of the Grampian Mountains, by which
the Dee-side district is divided from the Howe of the
Mearns. This elevated region is exceedingly sterile and
rugged ; but in some of the glens through which the
mountain-streams flow, there are spots of great natural
beauty. On one of these spots, in a romantic situation,
stands the shooting lodge of Glendye. The most pro¬
minent of the Grampian Mountains in this county are,
Mount-Battock, which rises to nearly 3500 feet above fl
KINCARDINESHIRE.
Ki \r- level of the sea ; Clochnaben, remarkable for a protuber-
din< ire. ance of solid rock on its top, nearly a hundred feet in per-
^ ^ pendicular height, and forming a well-known landmark to
vessels at sea j1 Kerloak, which rises nearly 1900 feet
above the sea, commanding a view as far south as the
Lammermuir Hills ; and the hill of Fare, the scene of
the battle of Carrichie, in 1562, between the Earls of
Murray and Huntly, when the latter was slain.
The only streams deserving the name of rivers are, the
Dee, which, as before mentioned, flows through the north¬
ern part of Kincardineshire for nine or ten miles, and
forms the boundary for thirteen miles between this county
and Aberdeenshire; and the North Esk, which divides
Kincardineshire from Forfarshire on the south and west.
The other streams are the Cowie, the Carron, and the Ber-
vie, which fall into the German Ocean ; the Luther, which
joins the river North Esk ; the Dye, the Avon, the Feugh,
the Canny, and the Shiach, whose waters run into the Dee.
These streams, although of inconsiderable magnitude,
abound with trout and par ; and their banks, with the ad¬
joining braes and overhanging trees, are, in many places,
highly picturesque and beautiful. There are no lakes of
magnitude in this county. The Loch of Leys is the lar¬
gest, being about two miles in circumference, and well
stored with pike. In this lake are the ruins of an ancient
edifice, built upon an artificial island, supported by piles
of oak.
The wild animals found in this county are, the fox, the
badger, the otter, the wild cat, the polecat, the weasel,
and the hedgehog. Roe-deer are frequently found in the
woods, and hares and rabbits are incredibly numerous.
The muirs abound with grouse, and black game is not un¬
common. Wild geese, and occasionally swans, are seen
about the beginning of winter. Woodcock, snipe, wild
duck, partridge, plover, curlew, heron, teal, and landrail,
are common. Pheasants have been introduced, and their
numbers are increasing. The sparrow-hawk and the fal¬
con are frequently met with. There are but few reptiles.
Adders are occasionally seen in the hilly districts. Seals
breed in the caverns along the coast.
No coal has yet been discovered ; but limestone is found
in several places ; at Tilly whilly, in tbe Dee-side district;
near Fettercairn, in the Howe of the Mearns ; and at Ma¬
thers, on the Coast-side ; from which last place lime-
shells are sold in considerable quantity, both for building
and for manure. Native iron has also been found in a field
at Balnakettle ; and indications of iron ore are met with
in various parts of the county. Granite, basalt, whin-
stone, sandstone, and plum-pudding stone, are the pre¬
vailing kinds, of rock. Blocks of granite are scattered
over the surface in the neighbourhood of the Grampians,
both of a whitish colour like the granite of Aberdeen, and
of a reddish colour like that of Peterhead. Part of the
granite exported from Aberdeen is taken from the hill
of Nigg in this county. At Stonehaven and at Lauries-
ton, in the Coast-side district, quarries of sandstone afford
excellent and durable materials for building. At Whistle-
berry, in the parish of KinnefF, millstones of valuable qua¬
lity are manufactured from the pudding-rock found on
the sea-coast. Jasper, quartz, and porphyry, are likewise
found in many places ; and specimens of asbestos have been
found at Balnakettle. Zeolite is also found; and some
of the caverns upon the shores near Stonehaven abound
with stalactites. Pebbles of great variety and beauty of
colour are found in many parts of the county, particularly
in the parishes of Arbuthnot and St Cyrus. Scotch to-
721
pazes, or cairngorums, are sometimes found in the moun- Kinear-
tain-streams of the Grampians. In the neighbourhood of dineshire.
Cowie, pipe-clay is dug, and sold for household purposes.
The towns and villages in Kincardineshire are more
numerous than important. Stonehaven, the county town,
is situated in a fine bay at the confluence of the waters of
the Cowie and Carron, nearly midway between Aberdeen
and Montrose, and contains upwards of 3000 inhabitants.
The harbour, lately improved at an expense of L.8000,
is more accessible than almost any harbour on the eastern
coast. The sheriff and other county courts have been
held at Stonehaven since 1660, when they were transfer¬
red by act of parliament from Kincardine, then the county
town, by reason, as the act states, that in that town,
“ there was neither ane tolbuitb, nor any house for par¬
ties to lodge into for their entertainment.” Inverbervie
is the only royal burgh within the county, and contains
about 900 inhabitants. Johnshaven, four miles south of
Inverbervie, contains a population of upwards of 1000.
Laurencekirk, celebrated for its elegant manufacture of
snuff-boxes, contains nearly 1400 inhabitants. Luther-
muir, a manufacturing village, which has sprung up with¬
in these few years in the parish of Marykirk, has acquired
a population of about 700 souls. The village of Banchory,
beautifully situated on the north bank of the Dee, is ra¬
pidly increasing in size. The other villages in the inland
part of the county are Drumlithie, Auchinblae, Fetter¬
cairn, Marykirk, and St Cyrus. Along the coast there
are thirteen or fourteen fishing villages, inhabited by about
1500 individuals, solely supported by catching and curing
fish. Of these villages, Findon is celebrated for its had¬
docks, prepared in a manner peculiar to this district.
The climate of Kincardineshire is different in the dif¬
ferent districts of the county. In the mountainous parts,
the weather, in winter and spring, is excessively severe.
The climate in the low country has of late years been
meliorated by the increase of wood and the draining of
bogs and mosses, and is not inferior to the climate of
other parts of Scotland in nearly the same latitude.
The elegant mansions of many of the proprietors, erect¬
ed in the finest situations on their estates, and generally
surrounded by trees, add much to the beauty and cheer¬
fulness of the country. The principal country-seats are
Inglismaldie, one of the seats of the Earl of Kintore ; Ar¬
buthnot House, the seat of Viscount Arbuthnot; Fasque,
Mr Gladstoun ; Durris, Mr Mactier; Fetteresso Castle, Mr
Duff; Crathes, Sir Robert Burnett; Fettercairn House,
Sir John Stuart Forbes; Drumtochty Castle, Mr Gam-
mell; Ury, Captain Barclay ; Netherley, Mr Silver; Dun-
nottar House, General Forbes. The farm-houses through¬
out the county have, during the last fifty years, been
greatly improved ; and many of them are not only com¬
modious, but handsome. The steadings of offices have
also of late been much improved. The mode of living,
both of the landlords and tenants, corresponds with their
enlarged and improved accommodation. It may be doubt¬
ed, however, whether the custom, now adopted in many
places, of lodging the farming servants in bothies, out of
the family, has a tendency to add either to their comfort
or good conduct.
In 1807, this county was divided amongst eighty proprie¬
tors. The number of separate estates is now eighty-three.
Some of the larger estates have long been in the same fa¬
milies ; but within the last fifty years one half of the land
has changed hands, some of it two or three times. Of the
present proprietors, twenty-seven are resident in the coun-
»»
4 Y
Vol. xn.
1 “ The four great landmarks at the sea,
Are Mount-Mar, Lochnagar, Clochnaben, and Benochie.’
/22 KINCARDINESHIRE.
Kincar- ty ; the others are absentees, or only resident occasionally.
<Uneshire Qf estates, two or three are above L.5000 of yearly
rent; nine or ten above L.3000, and under L.5000; about
twenty from L.1000 to L.3000 ; twenty-three from L.500
to L.1000; and the rest under L.500. The valued rent is
L.74,92L Is. 4d. Scots. The real rent, according to the
property-tax returns in 1815, was L.94,861 sterling. Those
returns, however, must have been considerably under the
truth ; and the real rent of the county cannot at present,
according to a moderate calculation, be less than L. 120,000.
The farms in the cultivated districts are in general under
200 acres in extent. Many do not extend to more than
thirty or forty acres, and others are still smaller. In the
hilly districts the pasture farms are necessarily of much
greater extent. A considerable proportion in number of
the tenants pay less than L.50 a year of rent each ; but
the number of small tenants will no. doubt be lessened,
through the operation of the act for reforming the parlia¬
mentary representation.
During the present century, agriculture in this county
has made great pi'ogress. The example of improvement
on a great scale was set by the late Robert Barclay Allar-
dice of Ury, who, as stated by Sir John Sinclair, in his
Statistical Analysis, “ is entitled to have his name trans¬
mitted to posterity as the first, the most extensive, and the
most systematical improver of land in the north of Scot¬
land.” The improvements begun in the latter part of-the
last century have been continued with much spirit down
to the present time ; and the greater part of the arable
land of the county is now managed according to the most
approved systems of modern husbandry, producing wheat,
barley, bear, oats, peas, beans, clover, and turnips. Man¬
gel-wurzel and ruta-baga are also cultivated. Improve¬
ments by draining, trenching, planting, and enclosing, are
at present in progress on different estates to a consider¬
able extent, especially the estate of Kingcausie, and on the
extensive estate of Durris since the latter became the pro¬
perty of the present proprietor, Mr Mactier. Great faci¬
lity has been given to agricultural improvements, by mak¬
ing new roads. There are now in this small county about
eighty miles of turnpike road, which, with the other roads
of communication, afford easy access to every part of the
county. Lime, since the county was opened up by good
roads, has been used as a manure to a great extent, up¬
wards of 20,000 bolls being yearly imported at Stonehaven
alone for that purpose. Both the improvement of land
and the breed of stock have been encouraged by premiums
given by agricultural associations. On almost every farm,
the rearing and feeding of cattle is united with the raising
of corn ; and in some parts of the county the tenants de¬
pend more on cattle than on corn for the payment of their
rents. The kinds of stock reared are the same as in the
adjoining counties of Aberdeen and Forfar. The pure
short-horn breed has been introduced by Captain Barclay
of Ury, whose superior stock, both of cattle and sheep, is
well known. In the mountainous district the pasturage
of sheep is extensive, almost uniformly of the black-faced
species. Pigs have of late years been fed in almost every
part of the county, with advantage to the farmers. But¬
ter and cheese, especially the former, are made to a greater
extent than the home supply requires. On some farms
cheese is made equal in quality to the best Stilton. The
cheese made at Canterland is well known, and highly
prized.
There are no extensive manufactures in Kincardine¬
shire. At Stonehaven the woollen manufacture is carried
on upon a small scale, and there are two flax-spinning mills.
There are also mills for spinning flax at Bervie, Auchin-
blae, and Caldhame. There is an extensive whisky-dis¬
tillery at Glenury ; and porter and ale are brewed both at
Stonehaven and Laurencekirk. Kelp is manufactured on Kincar.
the sea-coast. There is little direct foreign commerce, dineshirs
the inhabitants being supplied with articles of foreign pro-
duce through Aberdeen and Montrose. The principal
articles of export are grain, potatoes, cattle, pork, butter,
and eggs. Whisky and ale are also exported; and, in
1827, there was an exportation of herrings from Stone¬
haven, to the extent of 3500 barrels. Since that time the
herring fishery has not been successfully, perhaps because
not vigorously, prosecuted. The principal exportation of
grain from the county is at the port of Montrose ; but the
exportation at the small port of Gourdon now amounts to
about 20,000 quarters annually ; and nearly that quantity
was last year exported at Stonehaven. The principal ar¬
ticles of direct import are lime, coals, timber, slates, and
salt. Two banking establishments have branches at the
county town.
Kincardineshire contains eighteen entire parishes, and
parts of three other parishes. The thirteen parishes in
the south part of the county form the presbytery of For-
doun; the rest are attached to the presbyteries of Kin¬
cardine O’Neil and Aberdeen. The places of worship
within the county are, nineteen parish churches, two cha¬
pels of ease connected with the establishment, four cha¬
pels of the Scotch Episcopal communion, three of the
United Associate Synod, three of the Congregational
Union, one of the Berean communion, one of the Wes¬
leyan Methodists, and one Roman Catholic chapel; the
last being connected with the Roman Catholic college
at Blairs, where the chapel is situated. According to the
returns made in consequence of the resolution of the
House of Commons, 3d April 1835, the number of “ exa¬
minable persons” belonging to the established churches
was 19,539 ; and of those belonging to the other religious
denominations 1975. The poor of this county are sup¬
ported by voluntary contributions; no legal assessment
for the support of the poor has yet been made.
The county of Kincardine, before the union, returned
two members to parliament; it now returns one member.
The number of voters forming the constituency, according
to the corrected lists of 1835, is 910, of whom seventy-
two are freeholders from the old roll, forty county pro¬
prietors not formerly enrolled, 581 agricultural tenants,
195 town and village proprietors and householders, ten
parochial clergymen, and twelve parish schoolmasters. In
conjunction with Forfarshire, this county furnishes a regi¬
ment of militia, and it raised by itself a regiment of local
militia, containing 816 men. Along the coast there are
three preventive or coastguard stations, with suitable ac¬
commodation for the officers and men, erected by govern¬
ment. Smuggling, formerly prevalent to a considerable
extent, is at present unknown.
Amongst the remains of antiquity in Kincardineshire, the
most conspicuous is Dunnottar Castle, formerly the prin¬
cipal seat of the earls marischal, now an extensive ruin.
It is built on a high peninsular rock, projecting into the
German Ocean, about a mile south from Stonehaven. The
regalia of Scotland were deposited in this castle for safety
in the time of the commonwealth. The ruins of the Castle
of Fenella, with the remains of a vitrified wall, are still to
be seen near Fettercairn. Part of the Kame of Mathers,
an ancient place of strength, pitched like an eagle’s nest
on the point of a projecting rock, in the parish of St Cyrus,
still remains for the inspection of the lover of antiquity.
Green Castle, Whistleberry Castle, the Castle of Morphie,
the Castle of Kinneff, the Thane of Cowie’s Castle, and the
Castle of Kincardine, are yet pointed out to visitors, or
rather, in regard to some of them, the ground on which
they stood, for the vestiges of these edifices are now nearly
obliterated. Near the mansion-house of Fordoun are to
y
:ar- be seen the remains of a Roman camp. In the vicinity of
,e Stonehaven, traces of a Roman encampment are also observ-
1 able ; and at Raedykes, about three miles inland, an ancient
camp, whether Roman or Caledonian it is difficult to
say, is distinctly marked by an extensive foss, and wall
or embankment. Here was dug up some years ago a
chariot wheel composed entirely of massive iron. On the
hill of Garvock is pointed out the Sheriff’s Kettle, where
the sheriff of the Mearns was boiled in a caldron by cer¬
tain of the barons of the county, in the reign of James I.
Druidical circles of rude stones are also to be seen at
Auquhorthies, and on the hill of Garrol, upon the estate of
Durris.
Amongst the celebrated writers connected with this King,
county may be mentioned Dr Arbuthnot, Barclay, the au-
thor of the Apology, Bishop Burnett, Lord Monboddo, Dr
Reid, and Dr Beattie.
The population of the county in 1811, 1821, and 1831,
is shown in the following table. The total population in
the last-mentioned year amounted to 31,431, of which
number the towns and villages contained nearly one third.
In 1831, the agricultural male servants were 2147 in num¬
ber; other male servants 109, and female servants 2246.
The population from 1801 to 1811 increased at the rate of
four per cent.; from 1811 to 1821, at the rate of five per
cent.; and from 1821 to 1831, at the rate of eight per cent.
YEAR.
1811
1821
1831
5718
5894
6272
HOUSES.
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
6349
6685
7136
283
213
217
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
3071
3025
2876
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
2059
2301
2281
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
1219
1359
1879
Males.
12,580
13,540
15,016
PERSONS.
Females.
14,859
15,578
16,415
Total of
Persons.
27,439
29,118
31,431
KINCARDINE, a considerable and thriving town in
the southern part of Perthshire, situated on the shore of
the Frith of Forth, at the distance of five miles east from
xAlloa, four west from Culross, ten from Dunfermline, and
twenty-two from Perth. Formerly there were a number
of salt-works here, and at one time this place was called
West Pans ; but the manufactories are now gone, and the
name is out of use. The houses of Kincardine are well
built, but the streets are narrow and irregular. The sea¬
port is one of the most thriving on the Forth, having now
a good quay and harbour, and there being a considerable
trade in the building of vessels, chiefly for coasting.
There are upwards of fifty ship-owners, amongst whom a
company has been formed for mutual insurance of their ves¬
sels, thus affording protection against individual loss at sea.
In the town there are works for making sails and ropes,
and a brewery. Distillation is carried on at Tulliallan, in
the neighbourhood. Kincardine is a burgh of barony,
under the government of several bailies. A fair is held
here on the last Friday of July. The established church
is at Tulliallan, but there is a dissenting meeting-house
in the town. The population in 1821 amounted to 2500,
and in 1831 to 1887.
KINDRED, in Law, persons related to one another,
of whom the law reckons three degrees or lines, viz. the
descending, ascending, and collateral line.
KINETON, a market-town of the county of Warwick,
in the hundred of Kington, eighty-four miles from London,
situated at the foot of Edgehill, where a battle was fought
between Charles the First and the parliament army. The
market is held on Tuesday. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 779, in 1811 to 800, in 1821 to 782, and in 1831
to 820, making, with the annexed chapelry of Combrook,
1102.
KING, a monarch or potentate who rules singly over
a people. Camden derives the word from the Saxon
cyning, which signifies the same thing; and that from can,
power, or ken, knowledge, with which every monarch
is supposed to be invested. The Latin rex, the Scythian
reix, the Punic resch, the Spanish rey, and French roi,
come all, according to Postel, from the Hebrew wm, rosch,
signifying chief, head. Kings were not known amongst
the Israelites till the reign of Saul. Before his time they
were governed at first by elders, as in Egypt; next by
princes of God’s appointment, as Moses and Joshua ; then
by judges till the time of Samuel; and lastly, by kings.
Most of the Grecian states were governed at first by
kings, who were chosen by the people to decide differen¬
ces, and to execute a power which was limited by laws.
They commanded armies, presided over the worship of
the gods, and executed other functions. This royalty
was generally hereditary; but if the vices of the heir to
the crown were odious to the people, or if the oracle had
so commanded, he was cut off from the right of succes¬
sion ; yet the kings were supposed to hold their sove¬
reignty b}^ the appointment of Jupiter. The ensign of
majesty was the sceptre, which was made of wood adorn¬
ed with studs of gold, and ornamented at the top with
some figure, commonly that of an eagle, as being the
bird of Jove. At first Rome was also governed by kings,
who were elected by the people, with the approbation of
the senate and concurrence of the augurs. Their power
extended to religion, the revenues, the army, and the ad¬
ministration of justice. The monarchical form of govern¬
ment subsisted 244 years in Rome, under seven kings, the
last of whom was Tarquinius Superbus. Amongst the Greeks
the king of Persia had anciently the appellation of the
Great King ; the king of France now has that of the Most
Christian King, and the king of Spain has that of Catholic
King. The king of the Romans is a prince chosen by the
emperor, as a coadjutor in the government of the empire.
The king of England, by the Lateran council, held un¬
der Pope Julius II., had the title of Christianissimus con¬
ferred on him ; and that of Defender of the Faith was
added by Pope Leo X. though it had been used by them
some time before. The title of Grace was first given to
our kings about the time of Henry IV., and that of Ma¬
jesty was first bestowed on Henry VIII., before whose
time our kings were called Grace, Highness, and the like.
In all public instruments and letters, the king styles him¬
self nos, we ; though till the time of King John he em¬
ployed the singular number. The definition of king
above given is according to the general acceptation of the
term. It will not therefore strictly apply to the sovereign
of Great Britain. The power of our king is subject to
great limitations ; but these are the limitations of wisdom
724 KIN
King at and the sources of dignity, being so far from diminishing
Arms his honour, that they impart an additional glory to his
Kini’s or crovvn•
Lord Ad- oat^ ta^en hy the king at his coronation is con-
vocate. ceived in these terms:—“ The archbishop or bishop shall
saVi Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the
people of this kingdom of Britain, and the dominions
thereto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament
agreed, and the laws and customs of the same ? The king
or queen shall say, I solemnly promise so to do. Arch¬
bishop or bishop. Will you to the utmost of your power
cause law and justice, in mercy, to be executed in all
your judgments ? King or queen. I will. Archbishop
or bishop. Will you, to the utmost of your power, main¬
tain the laws of God, the true profession of the gospel,
and the Protestant reformed religion established by the
law ? And will you preserve unto the bishops and clergy
of this realm, and to the churches committed to their
charge, all such rights and privileges as by law do or
shall appertain unto them, or any of them ? King or
queen. All this I promise to do. After this the king or
queen, laying his or her hand upon the holy gospel, shall
say, The things which I have here before promised, I will
perform and keep, so help me God ; and then shall kiss
the book.” This is the form of the coronation oath, as
it is now prescribed by law. The principal articles appear
to be at least as ancient as the Mirror of Justices, and
even as the time of Bracton; but the wording of it was
changed at the Revolution, because, as the statute alleg¬
es, the oath itself had been framed in doubtful words and
expressions, with relation to ancient laws and constitu¬
tions at that time unknown. See England.
King at Arms, or of Arms, is an officer of great antiqui¬
ty, and anciently of great authority, whose business it is
to direct the heralds, preside at their chapters, and exer¬
cise the jurisdiction of armoury. In England there are
three kings of arms, namely, Garter, Clarencieux, and
Norroy.
The Garter principal King of Arms was instituted by
Henry V. His business is to attend the knights of the gar¬
ter at their assemblies, to marshal the solemnities at the
funerals of the highest nobility, and to carry the garter
to kings and princes beyond the sea; on which occasion
he used to be joined in commission with some principal
peer of the kingdom.
The Clarencieux King at Arms is so called from the Duke
of Clarence, to whom he first belonged. His office is to
marshal and dispose the funerals of all the inferior nobi¬
lity, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentlemen, on the
south side of the Trent.
The Norroy King at Arms is an officer whose duty it is
to do the same thing on the north side of the river Trent.
The two last are also c&Med. provincial heralds, because
they divide the kingdom into provinces between them.
By charter they have power to visit noblemen’s families,
to set down their pedigrees, to distinguish their arms, to
appoint persons their arms, and with the garter king to di¬
rect the other heralds.
Anciently the kings at arms were created and solemn¬
ly crowned by the kings of England themselves; but in
later times the earl marshal has a special commission at
every creation to personate the king.
Lyon King at Arms for Scotland is the second king at
arms for Great Britain, and he is invested and crowned
with great solemnity. To him belong the publishing of
king’s proclamations, the marshalling of funerals, the re¬
versing of arms, and the like.
Kings or Lord Advocate for Scotland. The first in this
K I N
office noticed by our writers was Sir John de Ross of King’s or f
Mountgreenan, who was appointed advocate to Kino- Lord Ad. f
James HI. about the year 1483. Till his time there does Vocate.
not appear to have been any permanent officer named as
king’s advocate, but temporary appointments for particu¬
lar causes only ; as was likewise the case in early times in
England, where the attorneys-general were not other¬
wise constituted till the end of the fourteenth century.
Thus, in the claim set up in the parliament of Scotland
to the forfeited estates of the Earl of March, appearance
was made “ procuratoribus et praelocutoribus excellen-
tissimi principis et domini nostri actoris ab uno prosequen-
tis,” 1436, c. 135; and in the pi'osecution for treason in
parliament against the Earl of Douglas in 1455, Lancelot
de Abernethie was “ proloquitor domini nostri regis.” It
was the clerk-register that raised and prosecuted in parlia¬
ment the indictment for treason against Lord Boyd, No¬
vember 1469 ; in the process of forfeiture in parliament
against the Earl of Ross, 1475, it was the lord chancellor who
conducted the prosecution and led the evidence ; and in a
process of treason, 1479, the king asked the award of par¬
liament “ be his chanceler and advocats.” As respects
the court of the lord-justiciar of Scotland, which, prior to
the institution of the College of Justice, was the highest
court next to the parliament, and possessed of both civil
and criminal jurisdiction, it is well known that the clerk
of court, or justice clerk, was long the only public prose¬
cutor.
Sir John de Ross was succeeded in the office of king’s
advocate by Henryson of Fordel, who continued therein
from 1494 till 1507, when he was made justice-clerk in
the room of Lawson of Hierigs, appointed king’s advo¬
cate. Both these offices of justice-clerk and king’s ad¬
vocate having become vacant in September 1513, by
the fall of Lawson and Henryson on the fatal field of
Flodden, Wischeart of Pittarrow was nominated to both
places, and he continued to hold them till his death, when
thehsffice of king’s advocate was given to Sir William Scot
of Bahreary and Adam Otterburn of Redhall, both lords of
council. In December 1528, Bahreary was despatched to
England in a diplomatic capacity; and having inconsequence
resigned, he was succeeded by Sir James Foulis of Celinton,
a lord of the session, who, however, on the institution of
the College of Justice, accepted the place of clerk-register.
Otterburn then became sole king’s advocate, with the privi¬
lege of pleading within the bar of the new erected court, a pri¬
vilege till then unknown in our juridical practice ; for here¬
tofore all pleaded within the bar, as indeed is still the case
in the court of justiciary, where much of the old common
law proceedings remain to this day ; and in criminal cases
the bar was occupied by the prisoner, who was thence styled
the panel, a synonyme for bar.
To the same period may perhaps be traced the title of
Lord Advocate: for, as early as the 2d April 1573, the
king’s advocate is so styled and in the statute 1587, c. 115,
the title is given him as his accustomed designation. It had
no doubt its origin in the circumstance of his being, from
the erection of the court, a lord of session. This latter
circumstance may seem the more remarkable of the two,
but it admits of easy explanation, and it had its parallel in
the old parliament of Paris. The constitution of the court
of session, like the ecclesiastical tribunals after which it was
modelled, was secret, and all its deliberations took place
with closed doors. Provision was therefore to be made to
secure to the crown a knowledge of its proceedings. Ac¬
cordingly, at the institution of the court, the king’s advo¬
cate, the king’s treasurer, the clerk register, and the jus¬
tice-clerk, were all made lords of session ; and when no
1 Pitcairn’s Criminal Trials.
/
g. vacant seat existed, as was the case when Henry Lauder
was appointed to officiate as king’s advocate during Otter-
burn’s absence in England in 1533, or where the party
was precluded from taking it “ be reason of his less age,”
as was the case when Sir Lewis Bellenden was appointed
justice-clerk in 1578, the course adopted was to issue a
royal warrant to remain in court during its deliberations.
Where more than one individual held the office, as was
commonly the case till the time of Sir Thomas Hope, the
end in view was sufficiently attained if one only had right
to remain in court; and this principle, it is believed, will
be found to have been acted upon.
It was in the beginning of 1626 that Hope was appoint¬
ed king’s advocate, along with the aged Sir William Oli-
phant, a lord of session. The king then also conferred on
Hope the honour of knighthood ; and the court of session,
by act of sederunt passed at the king’s desire, allowed him
to plead covered. This last ordinance has been strangely
misapprehended by our writers ; but, as Oliphant had just
been removed from the bench, and Hope had no seat
on it, there seems little reason to doubt that its object was
to assert and clear the equality of the king’s advocate with
the judges, who then usually sat on the bench with their
hats on, and of the number of whom the king’s advocate
had till now been one. It was not a personal but an offi¬
cial privilege, and was accordingly, with the other honours
and privileges which had been enjoyed by Hope, confirm¬
ed to his successors by the act of sederunt dated the
2d of June 1649. Hope’s learning and astuteness are well
known; and as he held the office for no less a period
than twenty years, and at a time when the king resided
permanently in England, we need not be surprised at the
very large powers enjoyed by him and his successors in his
high office.
When Hope was appointed king’s advocate, he was also
appointed advocate to the Prince of Wales ; but the latter
office has since been always held separate, as it ought to
be. In France, the advocate for the crown was also ad¬
vocate for the church; but in Scotland, since the Refor¬
mation, this has never been the case. On the contrary,
when Grant of Prestongrange accepted the office of king’s
advocate, the General Assembly voted the offices of their
procurator and clerk, then held by him, vacant by such ac¬
ceptance, and filled them up accordingly. Grant, however,
had held the office of procurator to the church while he
was solicitor-general, as did likewise some of his predeces¬
sors ; and the learned Mr Thomas Craig seems to have
been at the same time procurator to the church and advo-
cate-depute.
The office of solicitor-general seems to be of no older
origin in Scotland than about two centuries ago ; and it
was not till the time of Charles Erskine of Tinwald, in the
beginning of last century, that this officer had right to sit
and plead within the bar of the inner-house ; for certainly
by the act of sederunt of 28th February 1662, renewed
6th November 1690, the solicitor-general and one deputy
of the lord advocate were allowed to remain within “ the
innermost bar” of the outer-house. The advocates-depute
are of much older standing, though it was not till towards
the end of the sixteenth century that the office was perma¬
nent. They are now four in number, appointed to attend
the se. eral circuits, and the Glasgow winter assize. 1 he
lord advocate has also a deputy in the court of exche¬
quer. (u* u* u')
King, Dr John, a learned English bishop, born at
Worwall about 1559, was educated at Westminster School
and at Oxford, and appointed chaplain to Queen Elizabeth.
In 1605 he was made dean of Christ Church ; for seve¬
ral years he was vice-chancellor of Oxford; and in 16LI
he was advanced to the bishopric of London. Besides his
Lectures upon Jonah, delivered at York, he published se¬
veral sermons. King James I. used to style him “the King,
king of preachers and Lord Chief-Justice Coke often de-
dared that “ he was the best speaker in the star-chamber in
his time.” He died on the 30th of March 1621, and was
interred in St Paul’s cathedral. ’ Soon after his death it
was reported that he had died a member of the Catholic
church. But the falsehood of this story was sufficiently
exposed by his son Dr Henry King, who was created bi¬
shop of Chichester, in a sermon delivered soon afterwards
at St Paul’s Cross; by Bishop Godwin in the Appendix
to his Commentarius de Frcesulibus Anglia, printed in
1622 ; and by Mr John Gee, in his book entitled The Foot
out of the Snare.
King, Dr William, a facetious English writer, born at
London in 1663, was allied to the noble families of Cla¬
rendon and Rochester. He was elected a student of
Christ Church from W estminster School in 1681. He af¬
terwards entered upon the study of law, and having taken
the degree of doctor of civil law, soon acquired a consider¬
able reputation as a civilian, and obtained great practice.
He attended the Earl of Pembroke, lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, into that kingdom, where he was appointed judge-
advocate, sole commissioner of the prizes, keeper of the re¬
cords, and vicar-general to the lord-primate of Ireland.
He died on Christmas day 1712, and was interred in the
cloisters of Westminster Abbey. His writings are pretty
numerous. The principal are, 1. Animadversions on a
pretended Account of Denmark, written by Mr (afterwards
Lord) Molesworth; 2. Dialogues of the Dead ; 3. The Art
of Love, in imitation of Ovid De Arte Amandi ; 4. A vo¬
lume of Poems ; 5. Useful Transactions ; 6. An Historical
Account of the heathen Gods and Heroes ; and, 7. Several
translations.
King, Dr William, archbishop of Dublin, was descend¬
ed from an ancient family in the north of Scotland, but
born at Antrim in the north of Ireland on the 1st of May
1650. In 1674 he took priest’s orders, and in 1679 was
promoted by his patron, Dr Parker, archbishop of Dub¬
lin, to the chancellorship of St Patrick. In 1687 Peter
Manby, dean of Londonderry, having published at London
a pamphlet entitled Considerations which obliged Peter
Manby, dean of Londonderry, to embrace the Catholic
Religion, our author immediately wrote an answer. Mr
Manby, encouraged by the court, and assisted by the most
learned champions of the church of Rome, published a re¬
ply under the title of a Reformed Catechism, in two Dia¬
logues, concerning the English Reformation, in reply to
Mr King’s Answer. Our author soon rejoined in a Vindi¬
cation of the Answer. Mr Manby dropped the controversy,
but dispersed a loose sheet of paper, artfully written, with
the title of a Letter to a Friend, showing the Vanity of
this Opinion, that every Man’s Sense and Reason are to
guide him in Matters of Faith. This Dr King refuted in
a Vindication of the Christian Religion and Reformation
against the Attempts of a Letter to a Friend, in 1689
he was twice confined in the Tower by order of King
James II., and the same year created doctor of divinity, in
1690, upon King James’s retreat to France after the battle
of the Boyne, he was advanced to the see of Derry. In ,
1692 he published at London, The State of the Protest¬
ants of Ireland under the late King James’s Government,
in 4to ; “ a history,” says Bishop Burnet, “ as truly as it is
finely written.” He had by him at his death attested vouch¬
ers of every particular fact alleged in this book. How¬
ever, it was soon attacked by Mr Charles Lesly. In 1693,
our author, finding the number of Protestant Dissenters
in his diocese of Derry increased by a vast addition of co¬
lonists from Scotland, in order to persuade them to con¬
formity to the established church, published a Discourse
concerning the Inventions of Men in the Worship of God.
Mr Joseph Boyse, a dissenting minister, wrote an answer.
726
KIN
KIN
The bishop answered Mr Boyse. The latter replied, and
the bishop rejoined. In 1702 he pxiblished at Dublin, in
quarto, his celebrated treatise De Origine Mali. Mr Ed¬
mund Law, fellow of Christ’s College in Cambridge, after¬
wards published a complete translation of this work, with
very valuable notes, in 4to. In the second edition he has
inserted, by way of notes, a large collection of the author’s
papers on the same subject, which he had received from
his relations after the publication of the former edition.
In this excellent treatise the author has made many curious
observations. He asserts and proves that there is more
moral good in the earth than moral evil. A sermon by
our author, preached at Dublin in 1709, was published,
under the title of Divine Predestination and Foreknow¬
ledge consistent with the Freedom of Man’s Will. This
was attacked by Anthony Collins, in a pamphlet entitled
a Vindication of the Divine Attributes ; in some Remarks
on the Archbishop of Dublin’s Sermon entitled Divine
Predestination, &c. Fie published likewise a Discourse
concerning the Consecration of Churches, showing what
is meant by dedicating them, with the Grounds of that
Office. He died in 1720. Archbishop King, as appears
by his correspondence with Swift, was a man of humour,
and many of his witty sayings were at one time current.
King, Dr William, principal of St Mary’s Hall, Ox¬
ford, son of the Reverend Peregrine King, was born at
Stepney in Middlesex, in the year 1685. He was made
doctor of laws in 1715; became secretary to the Duke of
Ormond and Earl of Arran, as chancellors of the univer¬
sity ; and was made principal of St Mary’s Hall on the
death of Dr Hudson in 1719. When he stood as candidate
for member of parliament for the university, he resigned
his office of secretary, but retained his other preferment,
and it was all he did enjoy, till the time of his death. Dr
Clarke, who opposed him, carried the election ; and after
this disappointment, he, in the year 1727, went over to
Ireland, where he is said to have written an epic poem
called The Toast, which was a political satire, printed and
given away to his friends, but never sold. On the dedi¬
cation of Dr Radcliffe’s library, in 1749, he spoke a Latin
oration in the theatre of Oxford, which was received with
the highest acclamations; but it was otherwise treated
when printed, for he was attacked in several pamphlets on
account of it. Again, at the contested election for Ox¬
fordshire in 1755, his attachment to the old interest drew
on him the resentment of the new, and he was libelled in
newspapers and pamphlets, against which he defended
himself in an Apology, and warmly retaliated on his ad¬
versaries. Fie wrote several other things, and died in
1762. He was a polite scholar, an excellent orator, an
elegant and easy writer, and was esteemed by the first men
of his time for his learning and wit.
King, Peter, lord high chancellor of Great Britain, the
son of an eminent grocer and salter, was born at Exe¬
ter in 1669, and bred up for some years to his father’s
business; but his inclination to learning proved so strong
that he laid out all the money he could spare in books,
and devoted every moment of his leisure hours to study.
He thus became an excellent scholar before the world
suspected any such thing ; and gave the public a proof of
his skill in church history, by his Inquiry into the Con¬
stitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the Primitive
Church, that flourished within the first three hundred
years after Christ (London, 1691, in 8vo). This was
written with a view to promote the scheme of a compre¬
hension of the Dissenters. He afterwards published the
second part of the Inquiry ; and having desired, in his
preface, to be shown, either publicly or privately, any
mistakes he might have committed, that request was first
complied with by Mr Edmund Elys, between whom and our
author there passed several letters upon the subject, in
1692, which were published by Mr Elys in 1694, under Books 0
the title of Letters on several Subjects. But the most Engs
formal and elaborate answer to the Inquiry appeared j
afterwards, in a work entitled Original Draught of the „Kin&’s
Primitive Church.
His acquaintance with Mr Locke, to whom he was re¬
lated, and who left him half his library at his death, was
of great advantage to him. By the advice of that great
philosopher, after he had been some time in Holland, he
applied himself to the study of the law, in which pro¬
fession his learning and diligence soon made him noticed.
In the two last parliaments of the reign of King Wil¬
liam, and in five parliaments during the reign of Queen
Anne, he served as burgess for Beer-Alston in Devon¬
shire. In 1702, he published at London, without his
name, his History of the Apostles’ Creed, with critical
observations on its several articles ; a work which is high¬
ly esteemed. In 1708 he was chosen recorder of the city
of London ; and, in 1710, he was one of the members of
the House of Commons at the trial of Dr Sacheverel. In
1714 he was appointed lord chief justice of the com¬
mon pleas ; and the April following he was made one of the
privy council. In 1715 he was created a peer, by the
title of Lord King, Baron of Ockham in Surrey, and ap¬
pointed lord high chancellor of Great Britain, in which
situation he continued till 1733, when he resigned. He
died at Ockham, in Surrey, in the year 1734.
Books of Kings, two canonical books of the Old Tes¬
tament, so called because they contain the history of the
kings of Israel and Judah, from the beginning of the reign
of Solomon till the Babylonian captivity, that is, for the
space of nearly six hundred years. The first book of Kings
contains the latter part of the life of David, and his
death ; the flourishing state of the Israelites under Solo¬
mon, his building and dedicating the temple of Jerusa¬
lem, his shameful defection from the true religion, and
the sudden decay of the Jewish nation after his death,
when it was divided into two kingdoms. The rest of the
book is occupied in relating the acts of four kings of Ju¬
dah and eight of Israel. The second book, which is a
continuation of the same history, is a relation of the me¬
morable acts of sixteen kings of Judah, and twelve of
Israel, and the end of both kingdoms, by the carrying off
the ten tribes captive into Assyria by Shalmanasar, and
the other two into Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. It is
probable that these books were composed by Ezra, who
extracted them out of the public records which had been
kept of what passed in that nation.
KING’S County, an inland county of the province
of Leinster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north by the
county of Westmeath, on the east by the county of Kil¬
dare, on the south by the Queen’s county and Tipperary,
and on the west by the counties of Tipperary, Galway,
and Roscommon. In its greatest length from south-west
to north-east it measures upwards of fifty miles, and forty-
two in its greatest breadth from east to west, but the ir¬
regularity of its shape prevents the deduction of any
practical inference as to its dimensions from these pre¬
mises. Its actual extent is 528,166 acres, of which
394,569 are capable of cultivation, 133,349 are unprofit¬
able mountain or bog, and not more than 248 are under
water.
In the earliest periods of Irish history, this county
formed part of the territory of Hy-Falgia, and was also
known, by the name of Hy-Laoighis, a denomination that
comprehended also the Queen’s county and some other
districts. The southern part of it afterwards obtained the
name of Ely O’Carroll. It was also known by that of the
kingdom of Offaly. In the reign of Philip and Mary it
was reduced into shire ground, and assumed the title it
still retains, when its assize-town also took its name from
K I N
K l N
727
K ;’s the above-named king. At that time the heads of the
Coijty- principal clans were, the O’Conor-Falies, the O’Carrolls
^ of Ely O’Carroll, the M'Egans, the O’Delanys, and the
O’Meaghers. It is now divided into the twelve baronies
of Ballyboy, Ballycowan, Ballybritt, Clonlisk, Coolestown,
Eglish or Fircal, Garrycastle, Geashill, Kilcoursey, Upper
and Lower Philipstown, and Warrenstown. These are
again subdivided into forty-four parishes, besides seven
parts of parishes, the remaining parts of which are in some
of the adjoining counties.
According to former ecclesiastical arrangements of
Ireland, this county comprehended parts of the dioceses of
Kildare, Meath, Killaloe, Ossory, and Clonfert; but under
the new distribution of the dioceses it is comprehended
in those of Dublin, Meath, Killaloe, and Ferns.
The surface of the country is for the most part level and
uninteresting ; the great field of floetz limestone, that forms
so much of the soil of Ireland, spreading itself over all but
its southern portion. Beds of foliated limestone, of a
greenish hue and a large granular texture, adapted for va¬
rious useful purposes, are found at Tullamore. In the
south-east, the Slieve Bloom Mountains extend in a direc¬
tion from north-east to south-west for twenty miles, form¬
ing the line of demarcation between the King’s and Queen’s
counties. They are steep and craggy, and have but one
opening by which they can be crossed, called the Gap of
Glandine. They consist of a nucleus of clay, surrounded
by sandstone, with tracts of irreclaimable bog at their base.
Pure white clay, of a quartzose nature, is found in them.
Croghan Hill, in the northern extremity of the county,
rises above the surrounding level to the height of more
than five hundred feet, clothed with verdure to its summit.
It is composed of trap, conglomerate, and floetz limestone.
On those parts of its surface the basis of which is lime, the
soil is extremely barren ; whilst on the other parts it is pecu¬
liarly fertile, producing, from time immemorial, good crops
of oats and potatoes, without manure. The difference is so
marked, that the line of junction of the two formations can
be traced by the verdure on the surface. Another eleva¬
tion of the country, but less remarkable than that of
Croghan, is the hill of Cloghan, between the river Brosna
and the Slieve Bloom Mountains. Numerous and abundant
springs gush from it on all sides. The minerals found here
are iron in small quantities, manganese, ochre, chalk, and
potters’ clay. The only river that can strictly be consi¬
dered as belonging to the county is the Brosna, which rises
in the county of Westmeath, and discharges itself into the
Shannon. This latter river forms a considerable part of
the western boundary of the county. The Barrow is its
boundary to the south-east, and the Boyne skirts a small
portion of its north-eastern extremity. The Lesser Brosna,
also a branch of the Shannon, divides the county from
Tipperary. The only lake within the county is Lough
Pallis, of inconsiderable dimensions. The divisional line
which separates the Queen’s county passes through the
middle of Lough Annagh, the northern portion of which
is therefore considered as belonging to the King’s?county.
It is of inconsiderable size, not covering more than 315
acres. Lough Boura, containing 175 acres, is so shallow
that it may be safely forded in summer-time.
The soil is in general either a deep moor or a shallow
gravelly loam; the former is the more productive in dry
seasons, the latter in moist. Limestone is abundant in
most parts. The pastures, though not luxuriant, form
good sheep walks; that on the more mountainous tracts
has proved excellent for young cattle. In reclaimed bog,
corn crops are some weeks later in ripening than elsewhere,
although the natural vegetation is earlier than in the up¬
land pastures. A considerable portion of the great bog of
Allen is in this county.
The latest return of the population gives an average of
one soul to every four acres, or of about one to every King’s
acres of cultivated land. The returns of the number of County
inhabitants at various periods are as follow :— l—v"**’
1760, De Burgo  45,618
1792, Beaufort  74,500
1813, Parliamentary census 113,226
1821, Ditto .131,088
1831, Ditto 144,029
The proportion of Protestants to Catholics is about one
to four ; the number of dissenters is inconsiderable.
The county was represented in the Irish parliament by
six members ; two for the county at large, and two for each
of the boroughs of Philipstown and Banagher. The bo¬
roughs were deprived of the right of returning members at
the union ; and as the reform act has introduced no change
into the arrangements then made, the county is now repre¬
sented only by two members. The state of the constituen¬
cy, as affected by the various changes made since the year
1829, is shown in the following table, exhibiting the num¬
ber of electors of the different rates of franchise :—
Years. L.50. L.20. L.10. 40s. Total.
1st Jan. 1829, 842 95 — 1083 2020
1st Jan. 1830, 858 127 154 — 1078
1st May 1832, 346 225 739 — 1310
The peace of the county is maintained by a constabulary
force, consisting of five chief constables, forty-eight con¬
stables, and 144 sub-constables, total 197, at an expense
of L.9124 per annum, being an average of forty-seven
pounds each man nearly.
The number of children receiving education in public
schools was, in
Date. Boys. Girls. ®ex“"^cer- Total.
1821, 5531 2601 — ’ 8,132
1824-26, 5787 3929 423 10,139
Of the numbers stated in the latter return, 2064 were
of the established church, 7959 Homan Catholics, twenty-
two dissenters, and ninety-four whose religious persua¬
sion was not ascertained. The total number of schools
was 254, thirty of which, containing 1854 pupils, were
supported by grants of public money; twenty-four, con¬
taining 1404 pupils, by voluntary subscriptions; and the
remaining 200, containing 6881 pupils, were maintained
by the fees of those instructed.
The crops usually raised are, wheat, oats, barley, and
potatoes. Oxen are frequently employed in field labour;
a mode of yoking them by the horns is much approved by
some intelligent farmers, as being less irritating to the
animal, and giving a better direction to its powers. Green
crops are very general; rye-grass is much encouraged for
early feeding. Great attention is paid to the rearing of
horses, in consequence of which the county can boast of
a fine breed. The uplands and moors are chiefly employ¬
ed in feeding young cattle and sheep. The wool of these
latter is highly esteemed at Ballinasloe. In the northern
baronies there are many dairies, in some of which cheese
of a good quality is made. Lime, and limestone gravel,
either by itself or formed into a compost with the gather¬
ings of the farm refuse, constitute the general manure. The
gravel burned in heaps, with the parings of the moors,
produces very heavy crops. Bog stuff is also often used for
manure.
There is every reason to suppose that the greater por¬
tion of this county was once an uninterrupted forest.
Wherever the timber is protected it grows up to great
size and beauty. The parts bordering upon Tipperary are
richly wooded. Alder is indigenous. The ash grown
here is preferred to any other by the Dublin workmen.
The bogs furnish an inexhaustible supply of fuel, not only
728
K I N
K I N
King’s from their own peculiar vegetation, but from the trunks
County. aiuj j-QQtg 0f trees raised from them, which produce a
' ^ quick and lively fire. Notwithstanding the great preva¬
lence of bog, the general surface of the land is of consi¬
derable elevation, affording great facilities for conducting
the superfluous moisture to the rivers which intersect the
country in all directions. The fences are generally of
white thorn, which thrives remarkably tvell here.
The condition of the peasantry, though more comfort¬
able than in some other parts of Ireland, is notwithstand¬
ing low in comparison with that of the English of the
same class. The houses are small and poor, mostly co¬
vered with thatch, and seldom weatherproof. Earthen
walls and straw roofs are preferred by most, not only from
habit, but as being warmer than stone and slate. Fuel is
everywhere plentiful, the bogs furnishing an inexhaustible
supply of excellent quality. The food, in general, is po¬
tatoes and oatmeal; bearmeal is used in some parts. In
Kilcoursey, most of the cottiers’ families consume a bacon
pig annually. The peasantry are industrious when excit¬
ed by what they deem adequate remuneration. The
young men frequently leave home in quest of employment,
rather than work for wages which they consider as too low.
The women are remarkable for their industry, insomuch
that youths of provident habits who reside elsewhere,
frequently come hither in quest of wives. Besides their
household occupations, the women prepare the materials
for the manufacturer. The desire for education is suffi¬
ciently indicated by the number of small schools. Irish
and English are indifferently spoken, though, in the inter¬
course of the lower classes with each other, the former is
preferred.
The only manufactures carried on are those of wool
and linen ; but the quantities wrought are merely sufficient
for the home consumption. The Grand Canal, which
crosses the county from east to west, affords a cheap and
expeditious mode of conveying its superabundant produce
to other parts. Breweries and distilleries absorb most of
the grain raised in the county.
Remains of antiquity of very remote date are frequent.
In the Slieve Bloom Mountains there is a large pyramid
of white stones, called the Temple of the Sun, or the
White Obelisk. Of Danish raths, which are numerous,
the most remarkable is that in Finglas parish. A chain of
moats, chiefly situated at the passes of the bogs, may be
traced throughout the county. At Clonmacnois are two
round towers and several stone-crosses. This sequester¬
ed spot was the site of several places of religious obser¬
vance, whence its name of the Seven Churches. It was
also a bishop’s see, which merged in that of Meath in 1568.
There were three religious houses at Killeigh. Monas-
teroris Monastery, founded by one of the Bermingham fa¬
mily, in the district called Thotmoy, w?as a place df great
repute. Durrow was also the site of an extensive abbey.
The remains of military antiquities are still more nu¬
merous. Rathmore Castle, the area of which compre¬
hended two acres, is looked upon as the oldest in the
county. At Banagher are the remains of a fortress which
commanded an important pass over the Shannon. Birr
or Parsonstown Castle, formerly the residence of the
O’Carrols, having fallen into the hands of the Parsons
family, is now the residence of Lord Ross. Cangor Castle,
in Clonlisk barony, is noted for its defence against the
Irish, by whom it was ultimately taken and burned, and its
garrison put to the sword.
The population is mostly rural. The towns are few
and small. Philipstown, where the assizes are held, had
but 1454 inhabitants at the period of the census of 1831.
It is a market and post town, and is situated on the line
of the Grand Canal, though it has not derived any com¬
mercial advantage from its proximity to that line of com-
municatian. The town was visited by Philip II. king ofKinahot
Spain, who lodged in Forth Castle, now a gentleman’s
seat. It is well built and paved. Its public edifices are, a
church, a Roman Catholic chapel, court-house, jail, and
barracks, as also a school on the foundation of Erasmus
Smith. The place was formerly the site of Dingan Castle,
the residence of the O’Conors, who were driven from it
in 1546 by Sir William Bellingham, and forced to fly
to Connaught. The town was taken and burned by King
James’s forces in 1690.
Parsonstown has lately risen from an obscure village to
the rank of a populous, well-built, and thriving town, the
resort of many families of respectability. The church is
an elegant modern building of the Gothic style. In the
town is a pedestrian statue of the Duke of Cumberland,
who commanded the English army in 1745. Its popula¬
tion is 6594. The numbers of inhabitants in each of the
other towns whose population exceeds 1000 souls are as
follow : Banagher 2641, Shinrone 1287, Edenderry 1283,
Clara 1149, and Frankfort 1112. Tullamore, on the river
Clodagh, owes its present improved condition chiefly to
the spirit of the inhabitants, who have taken advantage
of the Grand Canal, which passes by it, in order to make
it an emporium of considerable inland trade; but also in
some degree to a conflagration which destroyed most of
the mean and ruinous huts of which before it chiefly con¬
sisted. Its principal building is the parish church, an
elegant modern structure. It contains 6342 inhabitants.
KINGHORN, a small burgh in Fife, which joins with
Kirkcaldy, Dysart, and Burntisland in sending a member
to parliament. For its constituency, see Kirkcaldy. It
has charters from King Alexander III. dated 26th June
1284 ; from King David II. dated 2d July 1364; from King
James V. dated 30th August 1541; and from King James
VI. dated 12th December 1611. By these charters its
privileges as a burgh, and its right to the harbours of Pet-
tycur and Kinghorn, w ith its lake, lands, and mills, are con¬
firmed. The revenue of these amounted in 1832 to L.670.
They w^ere then valued at L.13,114, and the debts upon
them amounted to L.5836. 2s. 5d. The various projects for
improving the harbours are mentioned in the article Forth,
and a negotiation is at present (1836) going on for their exe¬
cution, by a joint-stock company. The extent of the lake
of Kinghorn is about twenty imperial acres, and the length
of the stream flowung from it to the sea is nearly 1000
yards. The* height of the mill-sluice upon it above the
level of the high-water mark is about 178 feet ten inches.
Six mills were, within the last thirty years, driven by the
waters flowing from it, and there might have been a se¬
venth. There are at present upon it a meal and barley
mill, and three flax spinning-mills, turning, with the aid
of powerful steam-engines and their water-wheels, 3660
spindles. The other waterfalls are at present unemployed.
Flax spinning is the principal trade of the tow n. The
shipping trade, besides that of the ferry, is of little im¬
portance, consisting only of one large brig and two coast¬
ing vessels. The government of the town is vested in a
provost, two bailies, a treasurer, thirteen councillors, and
five police commissioners, chosen by the inhabitants, under
the act 5 and 6 William IV. cap. 63. It has also five in¬
corporated trades. The principal buildings are the town-
house, erected on the site of an old Saxon building called
St Leonard’s Chapel, and the schools. Both buildings are
from plans by Mr Hamilton of Edinburgh. The prison,
with its airing ground, annexed to the town-house, is, with
the exception of the jails at Kirkcaldy and Cupar, the best
in the county. The schools belong to the burgh, but
were erected by private subscription; and the gardens
were gratuitously laid out chiefly by the working classes.
The principal teacher is chosen by the burgage and land¬
ward heritors ; the burgage heritors pay half of his salary,
K I N
nghorn-and the landward heritors the other half. There is an
infant school-room, a geological museum and library-room,
io-stan- an<^ a drawin£ school-room, within the buildings. Upwards
ley. an acre ground is laid out with shrubbery, and the
borders of the walks contain a selection of plants, arranged
with tallies bearing their names, and classes, and orders;
a portion of the ground forms a bowling-green, and ano¬
ther contains the usual erections for gymnastic exercises.
Besides the parish church, there is in the burgh an Asso¬
ciate Secession meeting-house and a Baptist chapel, both
of which are well attended. This little town, from its
ample rerenue and increasing trade and population, bids
fair soon to become one of the most prosperous in the
county. Much has been done within the last ten years in
opening up streets and removing ancient deformities; .and
the operations at present in progress, under the police com¬
missioners, to carry water in pipes through all the streets,
and to light them with gas, will add further to the com¬
fort of its inhabitants. Population in 1831, 2579.
Kinghorn Ferry (see Forth). This has been a pub¬
lic ferry from the earliest period of Scottish history. By
an act of parliament passed in 1474, the freight for the
portage of man and horse at Kinghorn was to be six
pennies Scotch, and for the man separately two pennies
Scotch. In 1551, parliament raised the freight for the
portage of the man and horse to twelve pennies Scotch, and
for the man separately to six pennies Scotch; and also pro¬
vided that the ferrymen were never to charge more, under
pain of death, and confiscation of all their goods. On the
20th of May 1800, the ferrymen were allowed by the justices
at their quarter-sessions to charge passengers, of freight
ninepence sterling for the best seats in their boats, and
sixpence for the seats before the mast. At present (1836)
the freights of passengers are as high as two shillings ster¬
ling for the best and eighteenpence for the inferior sit¬
tings on board the steamers navigating these ferries.
KINGSBRIDGE, a town of the county of Devon, in
the hundred of Stanborough, 207 miles from London. It
stands at the mouth of Salcomb River, over which is a
bridge. It has a good market, which is held on Saturday,
is neat and well built, and has a grammar-school endowed.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1117, in 1811 to
1253, in 1821 to 1430, and in 1831 to 1586.
KINGSBURY, a large parish of the county of So¬
merset, in the hundred of East Kingsbury, 128 miles from
London. It is chiefly agricultural, with some few linen
manufactures. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
1134, in 1811 to 1181, in 1821 to 1470, and in 1831 to
1695.
KINGSCLERE, a town of the county of Hants, in the
hundred of the same name, fifty-four miles from London.
There is a good market, which is held on Tuesday. The
chief trade is in malting for the London brewers. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1939, in 1811 to 1863,
in 1821 to 2296, and in 1831 to 2532, and with the cha-
pelries of Ecchinswell and Sidmonton, 3151.
KING’S-LANGLEY, a town of the hundred of Daco-
rum, in the county of Hertford, twenty miles from Lon¬
don. It stands near the river Colne, and was formerly
the residence of Henry III. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 970, in 1811 to 1108, in 1821 to 1242, and in
1831 to 1423.
KING’S-NORTON, a parish of the county of Worces¬
ter, in the hundred of Halfshire, 116 miles from London.
It is on the Stratford-on-Avon Canal, four miles from Bir¬
mingham, and participates in some branches of the trade
of that town. It has now no market, though one was for¬
merly held. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 2807,
in 1811 to 3068, in 1821 to 3651, and in 1831 to 3977.
KINGSTANLEY, a town in tbe county of Gloucester,
in the hundred of Whitestone, 105 miles from London.
VOL. xn.
KIN 729
It was formerly a borough, and anciently the residence of King’s-
the Saxon king of Mercia. The inhabitants amounted in Teignton
1801 to 1434, in 1811 to 1722, in 1821 to 2269, and in Tr. H
1831 to 2438. Kingswin-
KING’S-TEIGNTON, a town of the hundred of Teign-
bridge, in the county of Devon, 185 miles from London.
It is chiefly agricultural. The inhabitants amounted in
1801 to 856, in 1811 to 1001, in 1821 to 1131, and in
1831 to 1288.
KINGSTON, a town of the hundred of the same name,
in the county of Surrey, ten miles from London. It is
sometimes called, to distinguish it, Kingston-on-Thames,
as it is situated on the right bank of that river, over which
there is a handsome bridge, lately erected. It is one of the
three county towns of Surrey. The spring assizes are
held at it, as well as the sessions; and there is a large
county jail. It is a corporate town, governed by bailiffs,
a recorder, and justices. Formerly two members were
returned to parliament. This place is supposed to have
been the residence of one of the Saxon kings, and to have
derived its name from that circumstance. There is but
little trade except that of making malt, but there is a good
market on Saturday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 3793, in 1811 to 4144, in 1821 to 4903, and in 1831 to
5989.
KINGSTON, the capital of Jamaica. See Jamaica.
Kingston, a town of Upper Canada, is advantageously
situated on the northern bank of Lake Ontario, at the head
of the river St Lawrence, and is separated from Points
Frederick and Henry by a bay which extends a consider¬
able distance to the north-west beyond the town, where
it receives the waters of a river flowing from the interior.
Point Frederick is a long, narrow peninsula, extending
about half a mile into the lake in a south-easterly direc¬
tion, distant from Kingston about three quarters of a mile,
on the opposite side of its bay. This peninsula forms the
western side of a narrow and deep inlet, called Navy Bay,
from its being the chief harbour of the British navy on
Lake Ontario. The extremity of the point has a strong
battery, and there is a dock-yard with storehouses, and the
like. Point Henry, forming the eastern side of Navy Bay, is
a high, narrow, rocky ridge, extending into the lake, and
crowned by a fort built on its extremity. The dock-yard,
storehouses, slips for building ships of war, naval barracks,
wharfs, and the like, are on an extensive scale, and in a
very short period of time a formidable fleet could be
equipped at this place. Next to Quebec and Halifax,
Kingston is the strongest town in British America; and,
with the exception of the former city and Montreal, it
is the first in commercial importance. It has risen rapid¬
ly of late years, by becoming, through the means of the
Rideau Canal, the main entrepot between the trade in the
lower province and all the settlements on the great lakes
to the westward; and, from the measures now in progress
to render the St Lawrence navigable between Montreal
and Lake Ontario, it may be expected to increase yet
more rapidly. The town is regularly laid out, whilst many
of the houses are built of stone, and are both spacious and
commodious. Ihe public buildings are, a court-house, a
government-Jiouse, a jail, an hospital, and several churches,
besides the garrison, naval depot, and other places alrea¬
dy mentioned. The harbour, which is one of the best on
the lake, is well sheltered and convenient; and here, from
the commencement of spring till the latter end of autumn,
great activity prevails. In 1828 the population of King¬
ston was 3528, and in 1834 it had risen to nearly 6000.
Kingston-upon-Hull. See Hull.
KINGSWINTON, a town of the county of Stafford, in
the hundred of Stourbridge, 124 miles from London. It
is connected by canal navigation with the chief ports of
the kingdom, and has become populous and opulent by
4 z
730
K I N
Kinross'
shire.
Kington its manufactures of glass and pottery. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 6464, in 1811 to 8267, in 1821 to
11,022, and in 1831 to 15,156.
KINGTON, a town of the county of Hereford, in the
hundred of Huntington, 155 miles from London, with a
good market on Wednesday. It stands on the river Arrow,
is well built, and has a good free-school, and some trade
in woollen goods. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to
1424, in 1811 to 1617, in 1821 to 1980, and in 1831 to
2147.
KINROSS-SHIRE, a county in Scotland, bounded on
the north-east, east, and south by the county of Fife, and
on the north and west by Perthshire, is about twelve miles
in length from east to west, and ten miles in breadth Irom
south to north; but, according to the latest survey, contains
only seventy-eight square miles, or 49,920 English acres,
being one of the smallest counties in Scotland. Kinross,
the county town, situated nearly in the centre, is in north
latitude 56. 15. and west longitude from Greenwich 3. 10.
Kinross-shire is the highest level ground in the penin¬
sula formed by the Forth and the lay, which was for¬
merly called Ross, or the promontory, and included the
counties of Fife, Kinross, and Clackmannan. From this
county the waters flow in every direction. The greater
part of the soil is dry, resting on gravel; but part of it is
damp, resting on till, with considerable fields of moss and
muir. The whole has been very much improved of late.
The productive land may extend to 30,000 acres, or about
three fifths of the whole. The only lake it contains worth
noticing is Lochleven. which is in the vicinity of Kinross.
This lake was originally about fifteen miles in circumfe¬
rence, and covered an area of 3308 acres; but, by a recent
drainage, ground to the extent of about 900 acres has
been laid dry, and is in the course of being improved. It
abounds in trout of excellent quality, pikes, perches, and
eels. There are several islands in it, all of which have been
enlarged by the drainage. On one of these, about four acres
in extent, stands the Castle of Lochleven, in which Queen
Mary was confined ; and another, called St Serf’s Island,
extending to about sixty acres, contains the ruins of a
monastery. Several rivulets flow into this lake, of which
the principal are the Gairny, the South Queich, and the
North Queich ; and the river Leven, the only stream of
any note in the district, issues from its eastern extremity,
and, after passing through a considerable part of the coun¬
ty of Fife, enters the Frith of Forth at the town of Leven.
The prevailing rocks are whinstone, sandstone, and lime¬
stone. Coal has been found on the estate of Blair-Adam ;
it is wrought at Kelty, in the parish of Cleish, on the
southern boundary of the county.
Kinross-shire is divided into a number of small estates.
Only about ten proprietors hold of the crown; the others
hold of these freeholders, the lands having been feued out
KIN
to them, for the most part, about the end of the seven- Kinross-
teenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, for pay- shire,
ment of a feu-duty. Hence, over the greater part of
the county, every single farm is a separate property, pos¬
sessed for the most part by its owner. The valued rent
is L.20,250. 4s. 3d. Scots, and the real rent, according to
the Agricultural Survey, published in 1814, was L.14,541.
10s. sterling ; but it is now much increased, and cannot be
taken at less than nearly double that sum. In 1811, the
number of freeholders was only fifteen. When the land
is let out to tenants, the leases are from fourteen to twen¬
ty-one years, except in the neighbourhood of the villages,
where they are for a shorter period ; and the rent is paid in
money, the amount being in some instances regulated by
the fiars. The size of the farms is from 100 to 300 acres.
A fair proportion of them is in grass, for which both the
soil and climate are favourable; and much of the land is
enclosed either with stone-walls or hedges. The principal
corn crops are oats and barley; wheat, though partially cul¬
tivated, does not enter into the regular course of cropping.
Potatoes, turnips, and clovers, with rye-grass, are raised
in every part of the county. On the banks of the Leven
and the Gairny there were formerly meadows of consi¬
derable extent; but these have been drained and culti¬
vated, and now form very productive land. The pastures
of the Cultivated land are occupied by cattle. Sheep are
kept in numbers only on the Cleish Hills, and on that part
of the Ochills which belongs to this county. Not much of
the district is under wood. The most considerable plan¬
tations are on Blair-Adam, the estate of Lord Chief Com¬
missioner Adam, and they are for the most part in a very
flourishing state.
Besides Kinross the county town, and Milnathort,
this county contains several villages. In 1831, Kinross
contained a population of about 2400, and Milnathort
about 1600. At both these places several annual fairs
are held; and a weekly market for the sale of grain is
held in the latter. Little manufactures are to be found
here; the weavers are employed by the manufacturers ot
Glasgow. Assessments are resorted to for the poor of
the villages, but those of the country parishes are reliev¬
ed by voluntary contributions.
Kinross-shire sends a member to parliament along with
the county of Clackmannan. Both counties are under the
jurisdiction of one sheriff, who has a substitute for each.
There are only four entire parishes, viz. Cleish, Orwell,
Kinross, and Portmoak, with portions of other three; the
first three belong to the presbytery of Dunfermline, and
the fourth to that of Kirkcaldy, both under the jurisdic¬
tion of the synod of Fife. The population in 1811, 1821,
and 1831 is given in the annexed abstract. By the re¬
turns for the first of these years, there were about ninety-
three inhabitants to the square mile.
YEARS,
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
1364
1419
1524
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
1680
1827
2019
53
34
43
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
428
446
440
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
640
735
819
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
612
646
760
PERSONS.
Males.
3466
3660
4519
Females.
3779
4102
4553
Total of
Persons.
7245
7762
9072
See Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv.; General Report View of the Agriculture of Kinross and Clackmannan;
of Scotland, vol. i.; Playfair’s Geographical and Sta- and, for its antiquities, Sibbald’s History of Fife and Kin-
tistical Account of Scotland, vol. i.; Dr Graham’s General ross.
KIP KIP 731
lnsale KINSALE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Cork,
is situated on a bay at the mouth of the river Bandon,
ippis. which forms a fine harbour called the harbour of Kinsale.
'Y^"' The town, being built upon the side of a hill, presents a
fine prospect; but, on entering it, the streets are found to
be narrow, and the communications difficult, from the
steepness of its declivities. It was much more frequent¬
ed than Cork by the early English monarchs, who be¬
stowed on the place extensive privileges, and viewed it as
the key of southern Ireland. It has now, however, sunk
under the superior importance of its neighbour. Its
port is comparatively little frequented, except as a water¬
ing place ; but a considerable fishing trade is carried on.
Kinsale underwent two sieges, one in the time of Eliza¬
beth, and another in that of William. James II. also
landed here on his arrival to recover his throne. The
town gives the title of baron to the head of the De Cour-
cy family, who enjoys the singular right of appearing co¬
vered in the presence of royalty. The population amounts
to 7688.
KINZIG, one of the six circles into which the grand
duchy of Baden is divided. It extends over 543 square
miles, comprehending twenty-seven cities and market-
towns, 180 villages, and 518 hamlets, with 198,500 inha¬
bitants. About two thirds of the population adhere to
the Catholic church, and the remainder are chiefly Lu¬
therans. The greater part of the circle consists of the
most lofty parts of the Black Forest; but between the
hills, in which many rivulets and rivers run, there are
some beautiful and fruitful valleys, which are well culti¬
vated. The circle yields more corn than is wanted for
consumption at home. The wine is of moderate quality,
and, in some of the districts, excellent. 4 he chief articles
which are exported are corn, wood, hemp, flax, tobacco,
straw-plat, and many wooden clocks, on the last of which
great ingenuity is displayed. The circle is divided into
fifteen bailiwicks. The capital is Offenburg. Ihe name is
derived from the river Kinzig, which-falls into the Rhine.
KIPPIS, Andrew, a learned and eminent English non¬
conformist divine and biographer, was born at Notting¬
ham, on the 28th of March 1725. On the death of his
father, he was, at the age of five, removed to Sleaford, in
Lincolnshire, where he received his grammatical educa¬
tion, and gave such early proofs of talents and progress as
attracted the notice of Mr Merrivale, the pastor of a con¬
gregation of dissenters at that place. To this excellent
man it was probably owing that young Kippis directed
his views to the profession of a dissenting minister, and
to those studies in which he afterwards so much excelled.
In 1741 he was placed under the tuition of Dr Doddridge
in the academy at Northampton, a seminary at that
time in high reputation. Of the advantages which this
institution afforded him Mr Kippis knew how to make
the best improvement; and his regular conduct and profi¬
ciency secured him the esteem of ins excellent tutor. Hav¬
ing completed his course of studies in five years, he was
invited to a dissenting congregation at Dorchester ; but he
gave the preference to a similar call from Boston, in Lin¬
colnshire, in 1746, where he remained till 1750, removing
from thence to Dorking, in Surrey, and, two years after¬
wards, to Long Ditch, Westminster, in the room of Dr
Hughes, deceased. This was in October 1753; in the
preceding month he had married Miss Elizabeth Bott, the
daughter of a merchant at Boston.
The situation, for which Mr Kippis was eminently qua¬
lified by his extensive abilities, being now respectable, in¬
troduced him to useful and honourable connections. He
became a manager of the presbyterian fund for assisting
poor congregations in the country in supporting their mi¬
nisters; and in 1762 he was chosen a member of Dr Wil¬
liams’s trust, for nearly similar purposes, together with the
doctor’s valuable library, which afforded him opportunities Kippis.
of very extensive usefulness. In 1762, he signified amongst
his friends his design of taking private pupils, and was on
the eve of entering into engagements with the parents of
two or three young gentlemen, when a more honourable
though, less lucrative employment was offered him. He
was appointed classical and philological tutor in Coward’s
academy, an office which he filled for upwards of twenty-
five years, with uncommon reputation to himself, and un¬
speakable advantage to his students. He received the
degree of doctor of divinity from the university of Edin¬
burgh, by the unsolicited recommendation of the learned
Professor Robertson, in 1767 ; in 1778 he was made a
member of the Antiquarian, and in 1779 a fellow of the
Royal Society.
His literary engagements having become extremely
numerous, he was, in 1784, obliged to resign his appoint¬
ment in Coward’s academy, which was discontinued in the
subsequent year. In 1786, attempts were made to esta¬
blish a new academy in the vicinity of London, a design
which Dr Kippis exerted all his influence to accomplish ;
and although his numerous engagements made it extreme¬
ly difficult for him to fill any department in it, he reluc¬
tantly yielded to the wishes of the subscribers, and became
a tutor. But the inconvenience arising from the distance
of Hackney from his place of residence induced him to re¬
sign that office in a few years. His professional duties and
private studies occupied his time after this period ; and as
he enjoyed an uninterrupted state of good health and con¬
stitutional vigour, his friends were led to hope that his life
and usefulness would be long continued; but, in conse¬
quence of a cold which he caught on a journey, he was
seized with a fever which no medical skill could subdue,
and he died on the 5th of October 1795, in the seventy-
first year of his age.
Dr Kippis was distinguished in a high degree for those
virtues and accomplishments which are universally allow¬
ed to be the chief ornaments of human nature. His tem¬
per was mild and gentle, benevolent and candid ; his man¬
ners and address were easy, polished, and conciliating.
Notwithstanding his great reputation, he was void of pride,
vanity, and self-conceit; on the contrary, he was humble,
modest, affable, and engaging. The powers and vigour of
his mind were far above mediocrity; he had a sound
judgment, a comprehensive understanding, correct imagi¬
nation, retentive memory, a refined taste, and he could
exert his faculties on any subject with the utmost facility.
He was an early riser from his youth, to which his good
health may in a great measure be ascribed. He excelled
in his acquaintance with the classics, belles-lettres, his¬
tory, and biography. He was the steady friend and advo¬
cate of genuine civil and religious liberty; and, as a divine,
he was well acquainted with the different branches of
theology, and with those subjects which are subservient
to the critical study of the Scriptures. He very seldom
introduced controverted topics into the pulpit, but con¬
fined himself to such doctrines and duties as have an im¬
mediate influence upon the temper and practice.
Of his works, which are numerous and valuable, the
following are the principal ; 1. Review of the Transac¬
tions of the present Reign; 2. The History of Learning,
Knowledge, and Taste, in Great Britain ; 3. A Vindication
of the Protestant Dissenting Ministers, with regard to
their late application to Parliament; 4. Considerations on
the Provisional Treaty with America, and the Prelimi¬
nary Articles of Peace with France and Spain; 5. The
Life of Sir John Pringle ; 6. Six Discourses delivered at
the Royal Society, on assigning the Copley Medal ; 7.
The Life of Captain James Cook, of Dr Lardner, and Dr
Doddridge; 8. Sermons preached on public occasions;
and, 9. the Biographia Britannica. This last great work,
732 KIR KIR
Kirby- which he did not live to finish, has assigned him a high
Lonsdale. rank amongst the learned of his country, and will transmit
II his name with distinction to posterity.
^ KIRBY-LONSDALE, a town of the county of West¬
moreland, in the ward of the same name, 251 miles from
London. It is a neat town, in a pleasant valley, with a
market, well supplied, on Wednesday. It is situated on the
Lune, a river abounding with trout and other fish. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1283, in 1811 to 1368, in
1821 to 1643, and in 1831 to 1686.
Kirby-Moorsidk, a town of the north riding of York¬
shire, in Rydall division, 278 miles from London, with a
good market on Wednesday. It derives its name from
its situation at the edge of Blackmoor. The inhabitants
amounted in 1801 to 1396, in 1811 to 1673, in 1821 to
1878, and in 1831 to 1802.
Kirby-Stepiien, a town of the county of Westmore¬
land, in the east ward, 265 miles from London. It is situated
on the western bank of the river Eden, and consists chiefly
of one long street. It has some manufactures of hosiery,
but little other trade. The market is held on Tuesday.
The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1141, in 1811 to
1235, in 1821 to 1312, and in 1831 to 1409.
KIRCHER, Athanasius, a Jesuit, and one of the
most learned and laborious men that this celebrated or¬
der has ever produced, was born on the 2d of May 1602,
at Geysen, a small town near Fulde in Germany. His
parents were humble, but respectable, and exerted them¬
selves to give him a good education. Having finished his
studies, he entered the society of the Jesuits, where he
found new means of satisfying his passion for learning,
and applied himself to physics, natural history, mathema¬
tics, and ancient languages, embracing with equal ar¬
dour almost every department of knowledge. Being ap¬
pointed to teach philosophy, and afterwards the oriental
languages, in the college of Wurtzbourg, he acquitted him¬
self of this double duty in the most satisfactory manner.
But the Thirty Years’ War, having interrupted his useful
labours, and disturbed his repose, forced him to quit the
country where he had already distinguished himself. He
retired into France, and first settled in the Jesuits’ College
at Avignon, where he passed two years, entirely occupied
with the study of antiquities. It was during his residence
in this city that he became acquainted with the learned
Peiresc, who advised him to attempt the explication of the
Egyptian hieroglyphics ; a task to which he afterwards ap¬
plied himself with great zeal, though, unfortunately, with
but indifferent success. Having received an appoint¬
ment to the professorship of mathematics at Vienna,
he was preparing to return to Germany, when he re¬
ceived an order to repair to Rome, whither he accord¬
ingly proceeded without delay. In 1637, the pope char¬
ged him to accompany Cardinal Frederick of Saxony to
Malta, where he was received by the grand-master of the
order of knights of St John and Jerusalem with much dis¬
tinction. He next visited Sicily and the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and then proceeded to take possession of the chair
of mathematics in the Roman College; a situation which
he filled for eight years, at the end of which he obtained
permission of his superiors to discontinue teaching in or¬
der to apply himself to other pursuits. He had a dispute
with Father Maignan respecting the invention of an opti¬
cal instrument; but though the affair made some noise,
the question of priority remained undecided. Kircher
died at Rome, on the 28th of November 1680, the same
day on which Bernin and Grimaldi expired. He was a
man of extraordinary but ill-digested erudition, without
critical judgment. He was gifted with a strong imagina¬
tion, vast memory, and indefatigable patience ; but, not¬
withstanding his persevering application, he found him¬
self unable to verify the facts stated in his works ; and he
had, besides, the folly to attempt to explain everything, jr- i
by which means he fell into serious errors, and his fideli-
ty was even brought into question. For an account of his ^
fanciful and abortive efforts to penetrate the mystery of
the Egyptian inscriptions, the reader is referred to the in¬
troductory section of the article Hieroglyphics in this
work. Several sovereigns, and amongst these Augustus
duke of Brunswick, furnished him with the sums neces¬
sary for his experiments, and also transmitted to him rare
and curious articles, with which he formed one of the
most valuable cabinets which had yet been seen ; whilst
the most distinguished foreigners who visited Rome failed
not to pay their respects to the learned Jesuit. The
works of Kircher are very numerous, and would merit a
detailed notice; but all that is consistent with the object
of this notice of his life is merely to subjoin a list of the
more important. They may be divided into three classes,
according as they relate to the physical sciences and ma¬
thematics, languages and hieroglyphics, history and an¬
tiquities, not to mention some smaller productions of an
ascetic character, which cannot be included under any of
these heads. And they are as follow, viz. 1. Ars Magnetica,
sive Conclusiones Experimentales de effectibus Magnetis,
Wurtzbourg, 1631, in 4to; 2. Magnes sive de arte mag¬
netica Opus tripartitum, Rome, 1641, in 4to; 3. Magne-
ticum Naturae regnum, sive Disceptatio physiologica de
triplici in natura rerum magnete, Rome, 1667, in 4to ; 4.
Ars magna Lucis et Umbrae in x. libros digesta, Rome,
1645, 1646, in folio ; 5. Misurgia universalis, sive ars mag¬
na consoni et dissoni in x. libros digesta, Rome, 1650, in
two vols. folio; 6. Phonurgia nova de prodigiosis sonorum
effectibus et sermocinatione per machinas sono animatas,
Kempten, 1673, in folio; 7. Mundus Subterraneus, in quo
universae naturae majestas et divitiae demonstrantur, Am¬
sterdam, 1664 or 1668, in two vols. folio; 8. Primitke
Gnomonicae Catoptricae, hoc est horologiographiae novse
specularis, Avignon, 1633, 1635, in 4to; 9. Specula Meli-
tensis encyclica, sive syntagma novorum instrumentorum
physico-mathematicorum, Messina, 1638, in 12mo; 10.
Arithmologia, sive de occultis Numerorum mysteriis,
Rome, 1665, in 4to; 11. lariffh Kircheriana, sive mensa
Pythagorica expansa, Rome, 1679, in 12mo; 12. Itinera-
rium extaticum quo Mundi opificium nova hypothesi ex-
ponitur, Rome, 1656, in 4to ; 13. Iter extaticum qui et
Mundi subterranei prodromus dicitur, quo geocosmi opifi¬
cium sive terrestris globi structura exponitur, Rome, 1657,
in 4to ; 14. Diatribe de prodigiosis crucibus quae non pri-
dem post ultimum incendium Vesuvii mentis Neapoli com-
paruerunt, Rome, 1681, in 8vo ; 15. Scrutinium physico-
medicum contagiosae luis quae pestis dicitur, Rome, 1658,
in 4to; 16. Ars magna sciendi seu combinatoria, in xii.
libros digesta, Amsterdam, 1669, in folio ; 16. Prodromus
Copticus sive iEgyptiacus, in quo linguae Coptae sive
iEgyptiacae, quondam Pharaonicae, origo, aetas, &c. exhi-
bentur, Rome, 1636, in 4to ; 18. Lingua iEgyptiaca resti-
tuta, sive Institutiones grammaticales et Lexicon Copti-
cum, Rome, 1644, in 4to; 19. Obeliscus Pamphilius, hoc
est Interpretatio nova, ethuc usque intentata Obelisci hie-
roglyphici ex hippodromo Caracallae, in forum agonale
translati, Rome, 1650, in folio; 20. CEdipus Aigyptiacus,
hoc est universalis Hieroglyphicae veterum Doctrinae, tem-
porum injuria abolitae, instauratio, Rome, 1652, in folio;
21. Obeliscus Chigius, Rome, 1666, in folio ; 22. Sphynx
mystagoga, sive diatribe hieroglyphica de mumiis, Am¬
sterdam, 1676, in folio; 23. Polygraphia, 1680; 24. His-
toria Eustachii Mariana, Rome, 1665, in 4to ; 25. China
lilustrata, Amsterdam, 1667, in folio; 26. Latium, id est
nova et parallela Latii turn veteris turn novi Descriptio,
Amsterdam, 1671, in folio; and many other works, (a.)
KIRCH HEIM, a city of the kingdom of Wirtemburg,
in the circle of the Danube, and the capital of a bailiwick
KIR KIR 733
] ilow of its own name, which extends over seventy-eight square
| miles, and contains 25,200 inhabitants. The city is situated
Ki aldy- on the river Lauter, in a fruitful valley, has a respectable
w palace, 650 houses, and 4500 inhabitants, employed in
making linen, woollen, and cotton goods, and other arti¬
cles.
KIRILOW, a city of the province of Novogorod, in
Russia, the capital of a circle of the same name, which
extends over 579 square miles, containing two cities,
1280 villages and hamlets, inhabited by 52,870 persons.
The city stands between two fresh-water lakes, and has
620 houses, with 2460 inhabitants. Long. 38. 29. E. Lat.
59. 42. N.
KIRKCALDY is a town in Fifeshire, about twelve miles
from Edinburgh, lying along the margin of a bay, on the
north side of the Frith of Forth. It consists chiefly of a
very long and spacious street, well paved and lighted, in
which there are many elegant houses and shops; also a few
smaller streets and lanes, chiefly opening into the main
street. To the west of the royalty, but within its bound¬
ary as fixed by the act 2 and 3 William IV. cap 65, are
the populous villages of Linktown, in the parish of Abbots-
hill, and the village of West Bridge, in the parish of King-
horn. In the year 1334, Kirkcaldy was mortified by David
II. to the abbey of Dunfermline; and it was possessed by
the abbey till the year 1450, when the commendator and
monastery sold it, along with its harbour, to the bailies and
inhabitants. On 5th February 1644 it acquired a charter
of erection and novodamus as a royal burgh from King
Charles II. By this charter he conveyed to the bailies,
councillors, and community, the burgh, the harbour, and
lands, the extent of which has been estimated at 487 acres.
The amount of the revenue for the year ending 10th Oc¬
tober 1835 was L.2320. Is. 2d.; the ordinary expenditure,
L.1263. 13s. 6T82d.; casual expenditure, L.24. 5s. The
debts for the burgh then amounted to L.7040. Is. 6^d., and
the effects were valued at L.1854. 18s. 3^d. The govern¬
ment of the burgh is vested in a provost, two bailies, a
dean of guild, and sixteen councillors, who are chosen
under the act 3 and 4 William IV. cap. 76. There are
also seven incorporated trades. The harbour, which is
pretty safe, is situated near the east end of the town. In
1796 a basin or inner harbour was added to it; and of
late years it has been very much deepened, and otherwise
improved. The depth of the water at its entrance at
spring tides is fifteen feet. Its basin is capable of con¬
taining fifteen sail of vessels of 350 tons and under. Its
outer harbour, when the deepening operations at pre¬
sent (1836) in progress in it are completed, will contain
considerably more. Though the harbour is the pro¬
perty of the town, yet, in terms of a statute passed in
1827, it is under the management of parliamentary com¬
missioners, consisting of the provost, two bailies, dean of
guild, and treasurer of the burgh, and the convener of the
seven incorporated trades, three commissioners chosen by
the prime guild or society of sailors, three by the mer¬
chants, and two by the county of Fife. By a decree-
arbitral dated 5th March 1684, in a submission between
the burghs of Kirkcaldy, Kinghorn, and Burntisland, the
number of Kirkcaldy boats for transporting passengers
and goods to and from Leith was limited to four. This
decree was, on 20th December 1817, declared by the su¬
preme court to be still in force; and the decision of the
court further provided, that the four boats to be entitled
to ply on the passage should be licensed by the magis¬
trates and town council of Kirkcaldy. This decree-arbi¬
tral and decision of the court has had the effect of esta¬
blishing a right of ferry in the town council of Kirkcaldy,
which is now become one of the principal sources of the
town’s revenue. The ferry is at present navigated by
two steamers belonging to the Kinghorn ferry-trustees,
who hold licenses from the town council for that purpose. Kirkcaldy.
They make from two to three trips from the ferry stations,
on each side of the firth, daily. About the commence¬
ment of the reign of Charles I. Kirkcaldy is said to have
possessed 100 sail of vessels. Between the years 1644
and 1650, and shortly after, in the subsequent struggle
with England, in less than ten years, ninety-six of its ships
were said to have been taken at sea. In 1652, it appears,
from Tucker’s report, to have had twelve vessels, the
burden of the whole of which was 582 tons. In the re¬
ports of the state of the royal burghs of Scotland made to
the commissioners appointed by the general convention
holden at Edinburgh, 9th July 1691, it appears that in
1692 the burden of the vessels then belonging to the port
of Kirkcaldy was 1215 tons, and their estimated value
was 45,200 merks. All these were then reported to be
employed in carrying coals to Holland and London, ex¬
cept one or two, which might have freights from foreign¬
ers to the Sound or to Norway. There were also four
ferry boats, of the value of 500 merks, each of which are
stated to have been very unprofitable, since Kinghorn had
built so many small boats, yawls, and great boats. In 1760
the trade of the port was so much depressed, that it then
employed no more than one coaster of fifty, and two ferry
boats each of thirty tons. The number of vessels in 1792
was twenty-six, the burden of which was 3700 tons regis-
ter, and their value about L.30,000. The shipping be¬
longing to the town in 1836 consists of seven vessels en¬
gaged in the whale fishery, eighteen in the foreign and
general trade of the country, two smacks engaged in the
London trade, two vessels in the trade to Newcastle, two
in the Glasgow trade by the great canal, one in the Dun-;
dee trade, and two in the trade of Leith, besides two open
boats. The burden of the whole amounts to about 6709
tons. There is at present a custom-house in Kirkcaldy,
which includes under its superintendence all the ports from
Aberdour on the west, to St Andrews on the east. On the
1st of January 1831 the burden of the whole of the ves¬
sels belonging to these ports amounted to 14,596 tons,
and were navigated by 1289 seamen. There is a corn
stock and sample market at Kirkcaldy, which is the most
extensive in the county. It is held every Saturday, except
on the third Saturday of February and July, and first Sa¬
turday of October, when it is held on the Friday preced¬
ing these days along with the horse and cattle market,
which are fixed at these times. The trade of Kirkcaldy
consists chiefly of flax-spinning, and weaving coarse linen
goods, such as ticks, dowlas, checks, and sail-cloth, for
home and foreign consumption. The value of the goods
manufactured in 1815, when the trade was depressed, was
estimated at L.125,981. It is now considerably increased.
There are at present ten spinning-mills within the new
limits of the burgh, turning upwards of 4895 spindles.
There are also a rope-work, four bleachfields connected
with the town for bleaching yarn, two tan-works, four salt¬
pans which used to make annually 15,000 bushels of salt
before the salt-duties were repealed, a whisky distillery,
two breweries for ale and porter, two iron founderies, and
a colliery adjacent to the burgh, at which are raised annu¬
ally 15,000 tons of coal. The banking business of the
town is managed by branches of the Bank of Scotland,
Glasgow Bank, Commercial Bank of Scotland, and Na¬
tional Bank of Scotland. There is a Chamber of Com¬
merce, or association among the merchants, which was
founded in 1825, for protecting the manufacturing inte¬
rest, and for matters of general concern. There are a
subscription library and a mechanics’ library. The for¬
mer, instituted about twenty-five years ago, now contains
about 4000 volumes. There are also two news-rooms,
maintained by public subscription. The public schools
are maintained by the magistrates and council, and con-
734 KIR
Kirk gist of a teacher of Latin and Greek, and a teacher of
^ English and writing. The late Mr Philip, merchant in
bSht Kirkcaldy, who died in 1829, left from L.70,000 to L.80,000
for the purpose of educating and clothing a hundred orphan
or destitute children in Kirkcaldy, a hundred and fifty in
Pathhead, a hundred in Abbotshall, and fifty in Kinghorn.
There is also another charity, arising from a fund left by
the late John Thomson, post-master, partly for education,
and partly for people in reduced circumstances. Besides
the established church, there are two meeting-houses of
the United Associate Synod, one of the Original Seced-
ers, one of the Original Burgher Synod, one of the Inde¬
pendents, one of the Baptists, and one of the Episcopali¬
ans. The inhabitants of Kirkcaldy took a lively interest in
all the civil and i-eligious struggles under the house of
Stuart. In 1622, when the general assembly of the pro-
testant churches of France deputed Boesnage to solicit
aid in this country, to enable them to resist the oppres¬
sion of Louis XII. the town and parish contributed, by the
king’s permission, a pecuniary aid of 1030 merks, for which
Boesnage’s receipt is engrossed in the parish records. In
1645 Kirkcaldy sent so many men to contend with Mon¬
trose at Kilsyth, that his victory over them is said to have
made 200 widows in the town alone. About the time of
the revolution in 1688, the inhabitants contrived to ap¬
prehend the Earl of Perth, who was the lord chancellor
under King James. They detained him five days under
a guard of 300 men, and afterwards sent him, under a con¬
voy of three boats and 200 men, to Alloa, where they de¬
livered him over to the Earl of Mar. The most eminent
native of Kirkcaldy was Dr Adam Smith, the author of
the Wealth of Nations. The house in which he was born
was taken down and rebuilt in 1835. Kirkcaldy unites
with Dysart, Burntisland, and Kinghorn, in sending a
member to parliament. In 1833 the constituency of these
four burghs consisted of 502 voters, whereof there were
enrolled in Kirkcaldy 314, in Dysart 105, in Burntisland
46, and in Kinghorn 37. Population in 1831, 5034.
KIRK, a Saxon term, signifying the same with church.
¥L\rk-Sessions, the name of a petty ecclesiastical judica¬
tory in Scotland. Each parish, according to its extent, is
divided into several districts, every one of which has its
own elder and deacon to oversee it. A consistory of the
ministers, elders, and deacons of a parish, forms a kirk-
session ; and these meet once a week, the minister being
their moderator, but without a negative voice. It regu¬
lates matters relating to public worship, catechising, visi¬
tations, and the like. It judges in lesser matters of scan¬
dal, but greater, as adultery, are left to the presbytery ;
and in all cases an appeal lies from it to the presbytery.
Kirk-sessions have likewise the care of the poor and poor’s
funds.
KIRCUDBRIGHT, a county in Scotland, situated be¬
tween 54. 43. and 55. 19. north latitude, and 3. 33. and
4. 34. west longitude from Greenwich, is bounded on the
north by the shires of Dumfries and Ayr, on the east and
south by the Solway frith and the Irish Sea, and on the
west by the county of Wigtown. It derives its name from
Caer, a fort, the Anglo-Saxons having erected a fort in
honour of St Cuthbert, near the site of the present Kirk¬
cudbright (originally Caer Cuthbert), the county town. It
is m length from east to west about forty-eight miles, it
varies in breadth from thirty to seventeen miles, and it
contains 8822’ scjuaie miles, or 564,480 English acres.
This district is commonly called the stewartry, not the shire,
of Kirkcudbright; and its judge, whose powers and duties
are the same as those of a sheriff, is called a steward.
iheappellation of stewartry had its rise in the ancient te¬
nure by which it was held, and the subsequent forfeiture
ot its lords ; but the distinction between stewartry and
sheriffdom is in this case purely nominal. Kirkcudbright
K I R
is one of the two counties comprehended under the gene- Kirkcm
ral name of Galloway, Wigtownshire on the west being bright
the other. W’V>
About two thirds of the surface is mountainous. A
range of mountains stretches along the whole northern
boundary, in the form of a vast amphitheatre, embracing
nearly half the county; on the boundary with Ayrshire they
are not much inferior in height to any in the south of Scot¬
land. There are also some considerable mountains on the
southern extremity, such as Criffel, 1831 feet in height;
Cairnsmore, 2597 ; and Cairnharrow, 1110. The high
lands are for the most part covered with heath, except on
a part of the northern boundary, where a narrow tract of
green hills runs out between the counties of Ayr and Dum¬
fries ; and many of them are wet and mossy. In the
middle of the district, the declivity is so gentle that the
river Dee, at thirty miles from its mouth, is only 150 feet
above the level of the sea ; yet, even in the interior, there
is no great extent of level ground, the greater part of the
surface being occupied by rocky knolls, steep banks, and
hills of a moderate elevation. On the coast, also, hills rise
almost everywhere to the height of several hundred feet.
The district is studded with a great number of lakes, of
which there is one or more in almost every parish, though
few of them are considerable. As there is not much full-
grown wood, and the plantations are but partial, and for the
most part not of many years’ growth, the general appear¬
ance of the stewartry is that of a bleak, exposed country,
on which labour has been but recently employed, and
where its efforts must always be confined to a compara¬
tively small field. Yet it contains many spots of great na¬
tural beauty, particularly on the coast, where the sea has
in several places formed deep bays, surrounded with high
grounds, some of which are fringed with coppice.
The soil of the lower grounds is, for the most part, of
a hazel colour, sometimes inclining to red, and seems to
be chiefly composed of argillaceous schistus in a state of
decomposition. It is seldom of any great depth, and the
rock, often rising above the surface, gives a rugged and
sterile appearance to much even of the arable land. This
soil is, however, in many instances possessed of great na¬
tural fertility, not soon injured by wet seasons, and affords
plentiful crops and fine natural herbage. Clay is of no
great extent, and found chiefly on the banks of the rivers.
The smooth round hills accessible to the plough have, for
the most part, a close subsoil, here called till, and do not,
therefore, admit of being profitably cultivated but after an
interval of several years pasturage. Tracts of moss, com¬
monly from four to eight feet deep, extend over a tenth
or twelfth part of the whole county.
Much of the mountainous district is composed of gra¬
nite. According to the Agricultural Survey, there are
three several districts of this rock, which occupy nearly a
fourth of the surface. Strata of very dissimilar substances,
to which Dr Hutton has given the general name of schistus,
prevail in the lower parts. Some are of a hard, compact
grain, of a blue or grayish-brown colour, for the most part
breaking irregularly, but often in parallel plates, of which
coarse slates have been made. With these are intermixed
layers of a soft argillaceous stone, which readily yields to
the weather, and is popularly known by the name of slate
band. These rocks, which also occupy a large part of the
district, are sometimes traversed by dykes of porphyry, and
also by granite. In the neighbourhood of Dumfries the pre¬
vailing rock is sandstone. Limestone is found at Kirkbean,
on the Nith, the only place in the county where it is wrought;
and there are also some promising indications of coal on
the estate of Arbigland, near Dumfries. In the parish of
Colvend, on the Solway Frith, there is a quarry which
affords millstones. Lead mines were wrought in Minni-
gaff, on the western boundary, for many years, but have
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
Ki :ud-'been discontinued. Iron ore abounds, but, from the want
b: W- of coal and wood, it is of little value. On the estate of Mr
^ Murray of Broughton, near Gatehouse, copper has lately
been discovered, and is now being wrought by an Eng¬
lish company.
The rivers are, the Nith, which separates this county
from Dumfriesshire for about nine miles on the north¬
east ; the Urr, which flows south-east by the village of
Dalbeattie, and is navigable five or six miles for small ves¬
sels ; the Dee, the largest river, which enters Loch Ken, a
lake almost in the centre of the county, about eight miles
in length, and in some places a mile in breadth, and, giv¬
ing its name to the river which issues from the lake, falls
into the Solway Frith about five miles below the town of
Kirkcudbright. It is navigable for two miles above this
town for vessels of 200 tons. In spring-tides the water
rises about thirty feet at Kirkcudbright, where there is
a well-sheltered natural harbour, of easy access. For
the last seven or eight miles of its course the banks of the
Dee are planted. St Mary’s Isle, near Kirkcudbright, is
a highly ornamented spot; and the Little Ross, a beauti¬
ful island, is situated at its mouth. There are other small
islands, as those of Fleet, Knockbrex, and Heston, scat¬
tered along the coast. The salmon fishery on this river
was rented, some years ago, at L.900. The Fleet is re¬
markable for the picturesque scenery on its banks ; but, as
its stream is circuitous, and it often changes its course, a
canal of about a mile in length has been cut, at the sole
expense of Mr Murray of Broughton, by means of which
the navigation to Gatehouse, a village about four miles
from the sea, has been rendered easy. The Cree, a more
considerable river, separates this county from Wigton-
shire, and flows into the bay of Wigton, from whence it is
navigable to the small harbour of Carty, a little below
Newton-Stewart. The stewartry is everywhere supplied
with pure springs and rivulets. Chalybeate springs are
also numerous, one of which, Lochenbreck, in the parish
of Balmaghie, seven miles from Gatehouse, is said not to
be inferior in medicinal virtues to any in the kingdom.
The landed property is not divided into large estates.
Out of 1043, their number in 1808, as given in the Agri¬
cultural Survey, 972 are stated to have been below L.500
a year. The valued rent, which was taken in 1642, is
L.l 14,637. 2s. Scots ; the real rent, in 1808, was estimat¬
ed at L.167,125 sterling, and in 1831 at L.213,308.
Many of the smaller proprietors cultivate their own estates.
According to the work just referred to, almost half the
county is held under deeds of entail, many of which have
been executed very lately. “ The condition of the pea¬
santry, at a period not very remote, seems to have been
much depressed, and the state of husbandry rude and bar¬
barous in the extreme.” (Smith’s Survey.) Referring to
the year 1720, John Maxwell of Munshes observes that
“ the tenants in general lived very meanly, on kail, groats,
milk, graddon ground in querns turned by the hand, and
the grain dried in a pot, together with a crock ewe now
and then about Martinmas. They were clothed very plain¬
ly, and their habitations were most uncomfortable. Their
general wear was of cloth made of waulked plaiding,
black and white wool mixed, very coarse, and the cloth
rarely dyed. Their hose were made of white plaiding
cloth, sewed together, with single-soled shoes, and a black
or blue bonnet, none having hats but the lairds in
1725 potatoes were first introduced into this stewartry
by William Hyland, from Ireland, who carried them on
horses’ backs to Edinburgh, where he sold them by pounds
and ounces. During these times, when potatoes were not
generally used in this country, there was for the most
part a great want of food, bordering on famine ; for, in
the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, there was not as much
victual produced as was necessary for supplying the inha-
735
bitants. The produce of the country in general was gray Kirkcud-
corn ; and you might have travelled from Dumfries to bright.
Kirkcudbright, which is twenty-seven miles, without see-
ing any other grain, except in a gentleman’s croft, which
in general produced bear or big for one third part, an¬
other third in white oats, and the remaining third in gray
oats. At that period there was no wheat raised in the
country; what was used was brought from Teviot, and it
was believed that the soil would not produce wheat. In
the year 1735 there was no mill for grinding that sort of
grain ; and the first flour mill that was constructed with¬
in these bounds was built at Clouden, in the parish of
Irongray, some years after that date.” (Murray’s Lite¬
rary History of Galloway, 2d edition, 1832, pp. 337-9.)
Yet it was in this county that the improvements of modern
husbandry were adopted, at a time when they were entire¬
ly unknown in the greater part of the kingdom. As early as
the year 1750, Mr Craik of Arbigland practised the drilling
and horse-hoeing of the celebrated Tull, which he ever
afterwards continued to follow in the culture of beans and
turnips. He enclosed and drained his estate, cleaned his
fields by fallowing, applied calcareous manures, introduced
sown grasses into his course of crops, and worked his
plough with two horses. A few of the other proprietors
followed in his steps, but their efforts were not seconded
by the tenantry at large. It is only since the end of last
century that modern husbandry has made any consider¬
able progress, but it is now quite general. The chief crops
are oats and barley, with wheat on the better soils.
A great impetus has lately been communicated to agri¬
culture in this county, by the regular and cheap commu¬
nication with Liverpool by means of steam-navigation. The
farmers have thus a ready outlet for their disposable pro¬
duce, corn, cattle, and sheep, and receive cash payments. In¬
stead of being, as formerly, far from a market, and forced in
consequence to sell to corn-dealers, a class of men with
whom bankruptcy was any thing but uncommon, the far¬
mers are now, as it were, placed in the very vicinity of
the best market, and are freed from all risk of non-pay¬
ment. By these favourable circumstances, a spirit of im¬
provement and enterprise has been roused, which promises,
ere long, to change the face and character of the county.
Nothing, indeed, has ever effected so important a change in
the circumstances of this county, as the introduction ofsteam-
navigation. The first steam-boat seen on its shores was
in 1830k; and there are now three that ply regularly be¬
tween it and the English coast, particularly Whitehaven
and‘Liverpool. Their decks are covered with sheep and
black cattle, whilst their holds are filled with corn. Nor is
this all. These vessels have opened up channels of in¬
dustry before quite unknown. Poultry, eggs, and butter,
by being sent to the ready market of England, form a new
and pretty productive source of income. Salmon, instead
of being sent as formerly round to England by the expen¬
sive mail-carriage, is now transmitted thither by| steam
more directly, and at much less expense ; whilst commodi¬
ties required from England are obtained under the most
favourable circumstances.
Unlike other hilly tracts in Scotland, the land is almost
universally enclosed, chiefly with stone walls, called Gal¬
loway Dykes. These dykes are built close, or double as
it is called, for part of their height, and afterwards single,
the stones in the latter part being laid in such a manner
as to allow' the passage of the light through the wall. But
it is now becoming a common practice to build the whole
of the wall double, and, after laying a course of stones
that project a little beyond its breadth on both sides, it is
completed by a coping of stones laid on edge, and closely
pinned.
This county is chiefly celebrated for its cattle, which
form by far the most important part of its agricultural pro-
736
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
Kirkcud- duce. They are known in every part of Britain by the
bright. name 0f Galloway cattle. (See Agriculture.) Sheep
are confined to the mountainous districts, where they are
kept in great numbers. They are of the heath or black¬
faced variety, with coarse wool, and yield a very small re¬
turn for the extent of their pastures, which, however, are
in general of the very worst description in the south of
Scotland, some large tracts being rented so low as 6d. an
acre, or even lower. It is now becoming the practice to
combine the rearing and fattening of rssheep with the cul¬
ture of arable land, by which the light soils of the other
border counties have been rendered so productive. A small,
hardy, and active race of horses, called Galloways, was
formerly reared here and in Wigtonshire, the other divi¬
sion of Galloway; but a larger breed being required for the
labours of modern husbandry, especially since two-horse
ploughs have become general, the old race is very rarely to
be found in a pure state. The name, however, is fre¬
quently applied to horses below full size, wherever they
may have been reared.
The first road act for the stewartry of Kirkcudbright
was obtained in 1779. At that period there was scarcely
any thing that deserved the name of a road, except the
military road from Dumfries to Portpatrick, which had
been made about fifteen years before; but at present very
few districts are better provided in this respect. The first
good roads were made on the estate of the Earl of Selkirk,
under the direction of his son Basil William Lord Daer, to
whom this county owes many other improvements. In 1796,
by another act of parliament, the assessments were allow¬
ed to be increased, and tolls erected; and soon afterwards
a new road was made from Dumfries to Castle-Douglas, a
distance of eighteen miles, through a hilly, broken coun¬
try, with so much attention to preserve the level, that it
has seldom a rise of more than one foot in forty, and much
of it is nearly a perfect level. All the principal roads
made since have been done with equal judgment. The
turnpike roads, in 1834, extended to 216 miles; and the
annual income obtained from tolls amounted to L.2557.
The district is also well accommodated with bridges, of
which the most considerable is one over the Dee at Tong-
land, about two miles above Kirkcudbright, which has aa
arch of 110 feet span. It is built of sandstone, brought
partly from Annan in Dumfriesshire, and partly from the
Isle of Arran. It was finished in 1808, and cost upwards
of L.7000.
Kirkcudbright, the county town, which was erected into
a royal burgh in 1455, contained, in 1831, a population of
3511. It is pleasantly situated on the Dee, and is noted
for the information and urbanity of its inhabitants. Socie¬
ties have been formed here for a purpose rather unusual,
namely, the building of houses, not for sale, but for the
use of the members who compose them. Every member
makes a small monthly payment into a general fund,
which is employed in erecting the houses, and these, as
they are finished, are assigned to the members by lot,
those to whom they fall paying five per cent, on the money
which their houses have cost, in addition to their monthly
payments; and this arrangement continues till all the mem¬
bers are supplied, and the societies dissolved. New Gal¬
loway, which was erected into a royal burgh in 1633, is si¬
tuated at the head of Loch Ken, and contains only about
400 inhabitants. The principal villages are Creetown, at
the mouth of the river Cree, on the bay of Wigtown ;
Gatehouse, twelve miles east from the former, on the river
Fleet; and Castle-Douglas, formerly called Carlinwark,
an inland place, about nine miles north-east of Kirkcud¬
bright. The Galloway Bank, now discontinued, was estab¬
lished at Castle-Douglas in June 1806. A branch of the
Bank of Scotland had been introduced into the burgh of
Kirkcudbright about twenty years previously. These three
villages seem to be in a thriving state ; the houses are for Kirkcud i
the most part of two stories, and, in other respects, they bright, i.
are superior to villages of the same extent in many other ''■''V'*-1 r;
parts of Scotland. The others are Dalbeattie on the river
Urr ; Keltonhill, noted for its great cattle fairs in June and
November; and Maxwellton, on the Nith,which, though in
this county, belongs by its situation to the town of Dum¬
fries, from which it is separated only by the bridge over
that river. By the reform act, indeed, it is included within
the parliamentary boundaries of that town.
There are no regular assessments for the poor in the
country parishes, but the ordinary kirk-session funds have
been much augmented in some parishes by charitable do¬
nations. In some instances voluntary assessments upon the
part of the heritors take place, particularly in unfavour¬
able seasons.
The inhabitants of the stewartry have few traits of cha¬
racter peculiar to themselves. Living remote from the ca¬
pital, or any large town, they are a simple, unsophisticated
people, feudal and superstitious in their sentiments. A be¬
lief in witchcraft, and in the more popular superstitions, still
obtains. They think no character superior to the minister
or the laird. These peculiarities, however, are beginning
to give way. Education has attained a most respectable
footing ; and the collision of sentiment which the people
experience by the intercourse now opened up by the faci¬
lities of communication with strangers has had a most salu¬
tary and liberalizing influence. They are an enterprising
people. They send, on an average of the last ten years,
about forty young men to the university yearly ; and the
number of those who annually cross over to England to
push their fortune, or emigrate either to our own colonies
or to foreign states, is extremely great. Of these, not a
few, after experiencing success in life, return to their native
country with a respectable competency; and thus, by their
example, stimulate others to follow their steps. Of the
extent to which emigration from this county is carried, a
correct estimate may be formed from the fact that, though
the number of males born is about five per cent, above that
of females, the latter in the stewartry exceed the former
by 2642. A great number of Irish, of the lowest grade,
are settled here.
Education, as mentioned above, is in a respectable state.
Some of the schools are excellent; few of them are bad;
and when a vacancy now takes place, the utmost pains are
taken to get the best teacher to fill it. Several sums have
been bequeathed by individuals for the support of schools,
particularly in the parishes of Balmaclellan, Dairy, and
Borgue. In addition to the parish schools, there are many
voluntary seminaries, which are in a highly respectable
and efficient state.
It has already been mentioned that the people are dis¬
tinguished for their religious character. The reformation
began here at a peculiarly early date, namely, the begin-
ingof the fifteenth century (Literary History of Galloway,
p. 61), and some of the most eminent reformers and
covenanters were connected with this cor .ty. The
persecution in the times of Charles I. and his son Charles
II. raged most hotly here. The graves of martyrs are to
be found, not only in almost every churchyard, but even in
many of the wildest moors. Presbyterianism still con¬
tinues predominant. In addition to the twenty-eight
parish churches, there are one chapel of Ease at Max¬
wellton ; one church of the Cameronian persuasion at
Urr; and six of the United Associate Synod at Urr,
Castle-Douglas, Dairy, Kirkcudbright, Creetown, and
House of the Hill. There is no Episcopalian chapel, but
there are two belonging to the Roman Catholics, one at
New Abbey and another at Dalbeattie ; and one Inde¬
pendent meeting-house at Gatehouse.
The stewartry could boast of a greater number of monas-
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
737
^ud- teries than any other county in Scotland. These were,
b ht. Dundrennan, St Mary’s Isle, and Tongland, founded in the
^ twelfth century, by Fergus, lord of Galloway ; Lincluden,
by his son Uchtred ; and Sweetheart, or New Abbey, found¬
ed in the thirteenth century, by Dervorgille, daughter of
Alan, last lord of Galloway, and mother of John Baliol,
the competitor for the throne. Of the three first of these
buildings, the remains are comparatively entire ; of the
other two, all vestiges have disappeared.
The bishopric of Galloway, both in Catholic and in Protes¬
tant times, comprehended the stewartry and Wigtonshire.
It formed the most ancient see in Scotland ; and in dignity
was inferior only to the archbishopric of St Andrews and
Glasgow, till in 1633, when Edinburgh was erected into a
bishopric, and obtained the preference over Galloway. The
bishops of Galloway were ex officio deans of the chapel
royal of Stirling.
Some very eminent men have been connected with the
stewartry as monks or bishops, such as David Panther of
St Mary’s Isle, afterwards bishop of Ross; William Mel¬
ville of Tongland, afterwards a lord of session, under the
title of Lord Tongland ; Gilbert Brown of Sweetheart, well
known as the author of a small but learned work against
the famous John Welsh, minister of Kirkcudbright; and
the following bishops ofGalloway, Alexander Gordon (known
in history as archbishop of Athens); William Cowper,
an eminent and learned theological writer; and Thomas
Sydserff. Nor in more modern times has this county been
less distinguished for eminent literary characters. Robert
Maxwell, author of The Practical Husbandman, and seve¬
ral other excellent works on agriculture ; Thomas Gordon,
the translator of Tacitus, and author of The Independent
Whig, and other works ; Robert Heron, author of a His¬
tory of Scotland in six volumes, and numerous other pub¬
lications ; Dr Alexander Murray, the celebrated linguist;
Dr Thomas Brown; Thomas earl of Selkirk, author of an
able work on emigration ; not to mention many others,
such as John Welsh and Samuel Rutherford, who were con¬
nected with this district by office and residence. In 1835
a monument to the memory of the late Dr Alexander Mur¬
ray was erected near the place of his birth, in the parish
of Minnigaff. The funds (L.450) were raised by subscrip¬
tion ; the height of the pillar is eighty feet.
The occupations of the people, according to the popula¬
tion returns in 1831, were as follows :
Occupiers of land employing labourers....;    871
Occupiers of land not employing labourers  490
Labourers employed in agriculture    2648
Employed in manufactures    529
Employed in retail trade and handicraft 2299
Capitalists, bankers, &c  440
Labourers not agricultural 1076
Other males twenty years of age  805
Male servants  J08
Female servants  2378
The county, as is evident from this table, is not remark¬
able for manufactures; but it contains a larger number of
men employed as weavers than home consumption would
require. They weave to a limited extent for the Glasgow,
Paisley, and Kilmarnock markets. The number of wea¬
vers was altogether above 500. But since 1831 the cot¬
ton mills at Gatehouse have been revived under the best
management, and in this way perhaps 200 more are add¬
ed to the manufacturing class. There are also stocking-
makers, doggers, and nailers. The chief exports of the
county are the produce of the soil; grain, black cattle, sheep,
and wool; the chief imports are coals, lime, groceries, tim¬
ber, iron, and slate.
It has already been stated, that the mountainous dis¬
tricts of the stewartry are composed of granite. A gra¬
nite quarry was opened in 1830, on the estate of Cas-
sencarrie, in the parish of Kirkmabreck, by the Liver¬
pool Dock Company. This is at present the most im¬
portant work of the kind carried on in Scotland. About
300 workmen are daily employed in it; machinery of a
kind previously unknown in Galloway has been introduced!;
a railway has been constructed connecting the quarry with
W igton Bay, a distance of about half a mile ; and a new
harbour has been built at the expense of the company,
the vessels belonging to which transport the stone from
thence to Liverpool. Besides defraying surface damage for
the line of the railwajr, the company pay to the landlord
a sum proportional to the produce of the quarry ; and thus
a piece of land, which waspreviously covered with rock and
heath, and literally worth nothing, certainly not twenty
shillings, now realizes an annual rent of about L.400.
Kircud¬
bright.
The following table contains the abstract of the population at different times.
YEARS.
1811
1821
1831
HOUSES.
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
6223 j 7380
6441 7912
6604 8283
.5
a
196
190
146
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
2662
3047
2826
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
1885
2238
2293
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
2833
2627
3164
Males.
PERSONS.
15,788
18,506
18,969
Females.
17,896
20,397
21,621
Total of
Persons.
33,684
38,903
40,590
The stewartry sends one member to parliament, the con¬
stituency in 1835 amounting to 1166. In the election for
the burghs, Kirkcudbright (which contains 111 electors)
joins with Dumfries, Sanquhar, Annan, and Lochmaben ;
and New Galloway (which contains sixteen electors) with
Wigton, Stranraer, and Whithorn. It is divided into
twenty-eight parishes, of which sixteen belong to the pres¬
bytery of Kirkcudbright, and two to that of Wigton, both
in the synod of Galloway, and ten to the presbytery and
synod of Dumfries.
See Bauties of Scotland; Murray’s Literary History
VOL. XII.
of Galloway, 2d edition, 1832 ; Smith’s Agricultural Sur¬
vey, 1810; The General Report of Scotland; Playfair’s
Account of Scotland; and Chalmers’s Caledonia. But the
greater part of this article is derived from personal know¬
ledge and private documents.
KIRKHAM, a town of the county of Lancaster, in the
hundred of Amounderness, 226 miles from London. It is
near the river Ribble, and has a way across the sands and
that river, which requires a guide, to Tarleton, a distance
of three miles. There is a market on Thursday; and some
sail-cloth manufactories are carried on. The inhabitants
5 A
73cS KIR
Kirkkil- amounted in 1801 to 1561, in 1811 to 2214, in 1821 to
lissa *2735, and in 1831 to 2469.
K 11 KIRKKILLISSA, or Kirkleeson, a city of lurkey
_^irniatij in Europe, the capital of a circle of the same name, in the
province of Rumili, about eighty miles from Constantinople,
on the road to Silistria. It is surrounded with old walls,
is defended by a citadel, and contains a bazar, several
mosques, churches, and baths, and about 1600 inhabitants,
amongst whom are many Jews, and some Greeks. Though
the country around it is stony, it produces abundance ol
grapes, melons, and other fruits; and much wine is made.
Long. 16. 55. E. Lat. 41. 50. N. . . ,
KIRMAN, or Kerman, a province of Persia, is bound¬
ed on the east by a part of Seistan and Beloochistan,
west by the province of Ears, south by Laristan, Muk-
ran, and the Persian Gulf, and north by Irak and Kho-
rassan. It has been in all ages partitioned into the ha¬
bitable and desert regions ; the former extending, in ex¬
treme length, from Regan, in Nurmansheer, to Robat, on
the boundary of Ears, about 305 miles, and in breadth,
from the southern limit of Irak to the town of Gom-
baroon or Bunder Abass, cn the shore of the Peisian
Gulf, about 280 miles in a direct line.
Even the soil of this habitable tract is in many places
unprolific, and the face of the country barren and waste.
There is not a river in the province, the few streams
that occur being merely mountain torrents swelled by the
rains, and dry during the remainder of the year; and
were it not for a few springs in the mountainous districts,
and the karezes or under-ground aqueducts (a singular
contrivance, common in Persia, by which water is con¬
ducted, by means of pits from thirty to ninety feet deep,
and about 100 paces apart, and connected by a common
trench, sometimes a distance of thirty or forty miles), the
inhabitants could not possibly exist. In this mannei water
is procured with extraordinary pains and attention, and
withal not more than sufficient to cultivate a very trifling
portion of the soil. The only exception to this desciip-
tion is the district of Nurmansheer j but, even here, the
abundant supplies of water, once so common, have much
decreased within the last twenty years ; and Lieutenant
Pottinger, in travelling through this country, concluded,
from the vast tracts of desolate plains which are encoun¬
tered in travelling across the country from the east to¬
wards Kirman, that; the desert was fast encroaching on
the regions of cultivation. _
The country is,"generally speaking, mountainous. The
principal range of mountains is that which divides Nur¬
mansheer from Laristan, and thence, running in a south¬
westerly direction, approaches within four days of Gom-
baroon. Here, running along the coast to the west and
north-west, it joins the mountains of Ears, in latitude 29.
40. N. and longitude 54. E. In its course it throws out
numerous ramifications, both to the northward and south¬
ward. So entirely do these hills intersect the country,
that the plains which they separate seldom exceed ten or
twelve miles in breadth, though often of an indefinite
length. The climate of the province varies of course with
the inequality of the ground. Snow lies to a great depth
on the mountains in winter, and, from their loftiness, it
does not melt for the greater part of the year; so that the
people in the plains are frequently seen panting from ex¬
treme heat, whilst it is freezing in the adjacent mountains.
The cold mountain air also is far from salubrious, as it
brings along with it agues, fevers, and other diseases; so
that the natives prefer the most sultry weather.
To the southward of the great chain of mountains, and
between their base and the sea, lies the Gurmseer, or hot
country, which is a narrow strip, varying from thirty to ten
leagues in breadth, and extending all along the sea-coast
of Persia, from Meenab, the capital of Laristan, to the
K I R
mouth of the Shatool-Arab or Bussorah River. The Kirman.
portion of this tract that lies within the limits of Kirman 1
is almost solely composed of saline sand; it produces no¬
thing but dates of a very inferior quality, and the climate
is peculiarly unhealthy.
The desert region of Kirman extends 270 miles in
length, from the northern boundary of Nurmansheer, in
latitude 29. 30. north, to the mountains of Khorassan, in
latitude 34. north; and in breadth 200 miles, from the city
of Yezd, in longitude 55. 40. east, to a range of moun¬
tains separating it from Seistan, in 60° east. The whole
of this tract is a salt desert, and so decidedly barren, that
it does not even produce grass, or any other vegetation,
for eighty or ninety miles at a stretch; nor is there a
drop of water. The Afghan army, on its march to invade
Persia in 1719, lost one third of its numbers in this desert.
There is a path from Kirman to Herat in Khorassan, by
which couriers can travel in eighteen days; but the risk
is so great that a high sum is always demanded for such
a journey.
This province is famous for very fine wool, produced by
great flocks of sheep and goats, which are fed on the
mountains, cold in winter, and hot and arid in summer.
Not only is the wool of the sheep of very fine quality, but
the goats produce a down that grows in winter at the
roots of the hair, in the same manner as that of the Thi¬
bet and shawl goats, and nearly as fine. This is spun into
various fabrics, which almost vie with the celebrated
shawls of Cashmere in fineness and beauty of manufac¬
ture. From the wool of the sheep are made shawls,
numuds, and felts, which are celebrated all over Asia.
The wool is prepared in a peculiar manner, being im¬
mersed in a wash, the ingredients of which are knovyn
only to the makers. The Kirmanees are also famed for
the manufacture of matchlocks. These they send to Kho¬
rassan, Cabul, Balkh, Buckharia, and the northern pro¬
vinces ; and in return receive assafcetida, gums, rhubarb,
madder, and other drugs ; Buckharia skins, furs, silk, steel,
copper, and tin (the last three articles are for home
consumption; they export the remainder to India, Sinde,
Arabia, and the Red Sea); pistachio nuts, rose,leaves
and buds for making conserve, gums, cotton, carpets, and
buttons. They import from India tin, lead, iron, copper,
steel, pepper, and all other spices ; chintz both European
and Indian, indigo, muslin, tea, satin, gold, flowered silks,
gold-cloth, cocoa-nuts, china and glass-ware, broad cloth,
&c. From Sinde they receive white cloth and coloured
stuffs for turbans; and from Arabia and the Red Sea col-
fee, gold-dust, ivory, musk, frankincense, stones, &c.
Kirman, or Kerman, called also sometimes Sirjian, a
large city, and capital of the above province, situated on
the western side of a capacious plain, so close to the
mountains, that two of them, on which there are ancient
forts, completely command it. It was in early times one
of the most flourishing cities in Persia, and was inferior to
none in size except the capital, Ispahan. It became, by
its situation in the direct road from Khorassan, Balkh,
Buckharia, the countries beyond the Oxus, and all the
northern part of the Persian empire, to the sea-port of
Bunder-Abass, a great emporium of eastern commerce,
and the centre of wealth, learning, and magnificence. The
date of its foundation is not ascertained, but Lieutenant
Pottinger states, on the authority of a manuscript history
of the conquest in the 90th year ol the hejira, or about
the 700th year of the Christian era, that Kirman was
then a very extensive city, full of riches, and celebrated
for the excellence of the shawls and arms made in it; and
he imagines that its foundation is coeval with the re¬
nowned city of Ormuz. No city has been subject to
greater reverses of fortune, or oftener the scene of severe,
destructive wars, both foreign and domestic, than Ku-
K I R
Ki A'all. ^ has been successively taken and plundered by
-«*✓ the caliphs, by Ghengis Khan, Tamerlane, the Afghans,
and Nadir Shah : in addition to all that, it has suffered
from civil broils, in the course of which it has often been
taken by storm. The last event of this kind took place
in the year 1794, when it was betrayed into the hands of
Agha Mahommed Khan, uncle of the present king, and
founder of the Kajjar dynasty, who had besieged it in
vain for several months. Under this eastern barbarian
the city was given up for three months to incessant ra¬
vages by a licentious soldiery. All its fortifications and
elegant structures, which were raised by the Afghans,
were razed to the ground; and the cruel conqueror, after
sacrificing to his revenge every person of whom he had the
slightest suspicion, carried 30,000 of the inhabitants into
slavery, or exiled them to the'distant provinces of Mazun-
deran and Azerbijan. After this dreadful calamity, the
city lay desolate for some years after the accession of the
present king, who directed the fortifications to be rebuilt
on a reduced scale. They are still, however, large, and
consist of a high mud wall, with nineteen bastions, and a
dry ditch twenty yards wide and ten deep. The works
are entirely encompassed by ruins. There are four gates,
and the ark or the citadel, in which the governor’s palace
is built, and which is on the southern face of the fort, is
defended by similar works. The bazar is well supplied
with articles of every description, and from every nation :
one part of it is covered in with very elegant domes,
built of a beautiful blue stone, dug from quarries in the
adjacent mountains. There are eight or nine caravan¬
serais within the walls, besides many inferior ones out¬
side. Kirman contains 30,000 inhabitants, consisting of
Armenians, Hindus, or Jews, resident in the place, and
of a small proportion of Guebres or Parsees. The trade
of the town, though considerable, has never revived to
its former extent; and it is not likely that it will again do
so, as the great resort of merchants is now to the sea-port
town of Bushire, farther up the Gulf of Persia, to the
prejudice of Bunder-Abass, and of course of Kirman, of
which Bunder-Abass is the port. Its manufactures of
shawls, matchlocks, and numuds or felts, are celebrated
all over Asia, and are said to afford employment to up¬
wards of one third of the inhabitants, whether male or
female. The former are made from the famous wool
already described, and rival those of Cashmere in deli¬
cacy of fabric and texture, though they are not equal in
downy softness and warmth. The revenues of the city,
which in 1810 amounted to L.25,000 per annum, and
are said to be rapidly increasing, are employed by the
prince in maintaining his court, and a body of troops for
the protection of the city and neighbourhood from the in¬
cursions of the wild predatory tribes of the mountains.
These duties arise from a heavy tax on shawls and match¬
locks. Camels, horses, &c. which enter any caravanserai
in the city, are charged each one rupee. Long. 56. 6. E.
Lat. 29. 56. N.
KIRKWALL, the chief [town in the Orkney, Islands,
is situated in long. 3. 23. 6. W. and in lat. 58. 59. 31. N.
It consists principally of one crooked, narrow street, about
a mile in length. The number of inhabitants in the town
and adjoining parish was by the last census 3721. There
are four places of worship in the parish, the established
church, the United Secession meeting-house, a congre¬
gation in connection with the Associate Synod of Original
Seceders, and a congregation of Independents. There
are ten schools in Kirkwall, attended by 422 scholars ; of
these, seventy-one are learning Latin, and twelve mathe¬
matics. The entire population between the ages of six
and twenty are able to read, and in the parish there are
only ten or twelve persons unable to read. There are from
ninety to a hundred persons on the poor’s roll, who are
K 1 R 739
relieved by the contributions made at the church door, Kirsten-
which average about L.50 a year. The trade of Kirkwall, sius-
in relation to the population, is considerable. For the
year ending 31st December 1834, the amount of tonnage
of vessels cleared outwards, coastwise and foreign, was
8248; and, for the same period, the amount of tonnage
inwards was 10,304. There were in December 1835seven-
ty-eight registered vessels belonging to the port, with a
tonnage of 4238, and navigated by 326 seamen. The
custom-house duties on goods imported from December
1833 to December 1834 amounted to L.1148 ; there were
no export duties. The principal imports are wood, hemp,
iron, tar, groceries, coals, cloths ; and the exports consist
chiefly of kelp, fish, corn, cattle, and wool. It has been
found impossible to give any thing at all approaching to
the correct value of the articles imported and exported,
as there is no record of these kept. The principal build¬
ings in Kirkwall are the cathedral of St Magnus, the
choir of which is still occupied as the parish church ; the
earl’s palace ; and that which formerly belonged to the
bishops of Orkney. St Magnus’s Church was founded by
Ronald, count of Orkney, about the middle,of the twelfth
century. It is in the form of a cross ; its length is 225 feet,
and its breadth fifty-six ; the roof is seventy-one feet from
the floor, and the spire rises about seventy feet higher.
The roof is supported in all by thirty-two pillars, of which
the four that support the central tower are twenty-four
feet in circumference. The earl’s palace was commenced
about 230 years ago, by Patrick earl of Orkney, and,
though now in ruins, its remains show that it must have
been a strong and magnificent edifice. The large hall is
sixty feet long by twenty broad, and is lighted by four
spacious windows. The bishop’s palace is almost an entire
ruin, the only part that remains in any thing like preserva¬
tion being a round tower erected by Bishop Reid, a statue
of whom still occupies a .niche fronting the cathedral. In
this palace Haco king of Norway died on his return to
Orkney, after the unsuccessful battle of Largs in 1263.
The remains of an old building, the castle of Kirkwall,
erected in the fourteenth century, by Henry St Clair, the
first earl of that name, are still to be seen ; and the anti¬
quary will be gratified to learn that the house in which
James V. passed the night during his visit to Orkney in
1540 is yet in existence. Kirkwall is the seat of the she¬
riff, commissary, and justice of peace courts. It is a
royal burgh, and, along with Wick, Dingwall, Tain, Cro¬
marty, and Dornoch, returns a member to parliament.
There are fifty-eight voters in the town.
KIRSTENSIUS, Peter, professor of physic at Upsal,
and physician extraordinary to the queen of Sweden, was
born at Breslau in 1577. He studied Greek, Latin, He¬
brew, Syriac, natural philosophy, anatomy, botany, and
other sciences. Being told that a man could not distin¬
guish himself in physic unless he understood Avicenna,
he applied himself to the study of Arabic; and qualified
himself not only to read Avicenna, but also Mesue, Rhasis,
Abenzoar, Abukasis, and Averroes. He visited Spain, Italy,
England, and did not return home from his travels till
after seven years. He was chosen by the magistrates of
Breslau to take the direction of their college and of their
schools. A fit of sickness having obliged him to resign
that difficult employment, with which he was also much
disgusted, he applied himself chiefly to the practice of
physic, and went with his family into Prussia. Here he
obtained the friendship and esteem of the chancellor Ox-
enstiern, whom he accompanied into Sweden, where he
was made professor of physic in the university of Upsal,
and physician to the queen. He died in 1640. It is said in
his epitaph, that he understood twenty-six languages. He
wrote many works, amongst which are, 1. Liber secundus
Canonis Avicennae, typis Arabicis, ex manuscriptis editus,
740
K I R
K I S
Kirthipooret ad verbum in Latinum translates, in folio; 2. De vero
II usu et abusu Medicinae; 3. Grammatica Arabica, folio;
Kirwan. 4^ Vitae quatuor Evangelistarum, ex antiquissimo codice
manuscripto Arabico erutae, in folio ; 5. Notae in Evange-
lium S. Matthaei, ex collatione textuum Arabicorum, Syri-
acorum, Egyptiacorum, Graecorum, et Latinorum, in folio,
tie ought not to be confounded with George Kerstenius,
another learned physician and naturalist, who was born
at Stettin, died in the year 1660, and is also the author
of several works.
KIRTHIPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Nepaul, and district of Patan. It was formerly the
capital of an independent principality, and was at one
time said to contain 6000 houses or families within its ju¬
risdiction; but is at present of little consideration, ibis
place was besieged by Purthi Narrain, the Ghoorkali ra¬
jah, and taken, in 1768, after a long and obstinate resis¬
tance, at which he was so enraged that he ordered the
noses and lips of the survivors to be cut off, without ex¬
ception of age or sex; and, twenty-three years afterwards,
the British ambassador at Nepaul found many persons
who had outlived this mutilation. It is three miles from
Patan. Long. 85. 37. E. Eat. 27. 30. N.
KIRTLE, a term used for a short jacket, as “ the
{[owery-kirtled Naiads ;” also for a quantity of flax, about
a hundredweight.
KIRWAN, Richard, a celebrated chemist, born in the
county of Galway, in Ireland. He was originally destined
to the study of the law, and, having been called to the
bar, followed the profession of advocate, until some cir¬
cumstances obliged him to quit it; whereupon he applied
himself to the study of the natural sciences, to which his
taste had always inclined him. Having established him¬
self in London or its neighbourhood, about the year 1779,
he read, at the sittings of the Royal Society of which he had
become a member, several memoirs, for which, in 1781, the
Copley medal wTas adjudged to him. Having returned to
his native country about the year 1789, he was some time
afterwards elected president of the Royal Irish Academy,
and published several works, not only on chemistry, geolo¬
gy, and mineralogy, but also on metaphysics and logic. He
was likewise president of the Dublin Society, and a mem¬
ber of the principal literary and scientific associations in
Europe. He died on the 22d of June 1812, at a very ad¬
vanced age. Kirwan was regarded as the Nestor of the Bri¬
tish chemists, and almost all the natural sciences have been
more or less indebted to his long labours. His works are,
1. Experiments and Observations on the Specific Gravi¬
ties and Attractive Powers of various Saline Substances,
published in the Philosophical Transactions ; 2. Elements
of Mineralogy, 1784, in two vols. 8vo, translated into
German by Crell; 3. An Essay on Phlogiston and the
Constitution of Acids, 1787 ; 4. An Estimate of the Tem¬
perature of Different Latitudes, 1787, in 8vo ; 5. A Trea¬
tise on the Analysis of Mineral Waters, 8vo ; 6. Logic,
1789, in two vols. 8vo ; to which may be added, various
communications to the learned societies of which he was
a member. At Dublin he formed an association for the
express purpose of cultivating minei’alogy ; and, as a geo¬
logist, he distinguished himself by advocating what has
since been called the Neptunian theory of the earth, in op¬
position to that of Dr Hutton. (a.)
Kirwan, Walter Blake, a celebrated Irish preacher,
was born in the county of Galway about the year 1754. He
was descended of an ancient family of the Roman Catholic
persuasion, and, in early youth, went to the college of the
English Jesuits at St Omer, where he received the rudi¬
ments of his education. At the age of seventeen, he em¬
barked for the Danish island of St Croix, in the West Indies,
where a relation of his father had large possessions; but, after
a residence of six years, during which he suffered severely
from the baneful influence of the climate, he returned to Kinval
Europe. He then entered the university of Louvain, p
where he took priest’s orders, and was soon afterwards pro- Kishen.
moted to the chair of natural and moral philosophy. In agur'
1778, he w as appointed chaplain to the Neapolitan ambas-
sador at the British court; and having obtained some repu¬
tation as a£preacher, he published several sermons, which,
how ever, do not appear to have attracted any notice. In
1787, he resolved to conform to the established religion,
from “ a conviction that he would thus obtain more exten¬
sive opportunities of doing good ;” and was introduced by
Dr Hastings, archdeacon of Dublin, to the congregation of
St Peter’s church, where he preached on the 24th of June.
His audience were impatient to hear him relate the causes
of his conversion, but they were disappointed ; for, neither
at this nor at any other time, did he ever breathe a syllable
of contempt or reproach against any religious persuasion
whatsoever. For some time after he had conformed to the
established religion, he preached every Sunday in St Pe¬
ter’s church ; but his reputation as a pulpit orator increased
so rapidly that, before the expiration of a year, he was ex¬
clusively employed to preach charity sermons, a duty in
the discharge of which his success had been unprecedent¬
ed. In 1788, he was preferred to the prebend of Howth,
and in the following year to the parish of St Nicholas
Without, the joint incomes of which amounted to about
L.400 a year; but he resigned the prebend on being pre¬
sented, in 1800, to tbe deanry of Killala. Elis popula¬
rity as a preacher appears to have been extraordinary.
Whenever he appeared in the pulpit, multitudes crowded
to hear him. He was presented with addresses and
pieces of plate from several parishes, and with the freedom
of different corporations ; his portrait was painted and
engraved by the most eminent artists ; and the collections
made, when he preached, exceeded any' thing that had
ever been known. Even at periods of public distress, his
irresistible powers of persuasion produced, by a single
sermon, contributions exceeding a thousand or twelve
hundred pounds; and his auditors, not content with emp¬
tying their purses into the plate, sometimes threw in jew¬
els or watches, as earnests of future benefactions. But
the fire which burned in his bosom at length consumed
him, and he died on the 27th of October 1805, exhausted
by the fatigues of his vocation, leaving a widow with two
sons and two daughters, to whom the king granted a pen¬
sion of L.300 a year, with reversion to the daughters. In
1814, a volume of his sermons was printed for the benefit
of his sons, who were not included in this provision; but
from these it would be difficult to discover the cause of
his unexampled popularity, since, in point of literary me¬
rit, they bear no sort of proportion to the effects which,
when delivered by him, they appear to have produced.
The master-charm no doubt consisted in the manner, of
which it is impossible for us to form any opinion. One
thing is certain, however, that, in recommending charity,
he was successful beyond all precedent, and that his pri¬
vate character corresponded, in all respects, with the hu¬
mane and benevolent sentiments expressed in his public
discourses. ’ (A>)
KIRWAL, a towm of Hindustan, belonging to the
Mahrattas, in the province of Malwah, forty-two miles
north-west from Bilsah. Long. 78. 13. E. Lat. 24. 2. N.
KISCHENAU, a town of the Russian province of Bess¬
arabia, the capital of a circle of the same name, and the
see of a bishop of Bessarabia and Moldavia. It has an
ecclesiastical seminary of the Greek church, and about
3500 inhabitants, among whom are many Jews. Long.
29. 2. 55. E. Lat. 46. 59. 30. N.
KISHENAGUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Ajmeer, thirteen miles south-east from the city of Aj-
meer. It is the capital of a small but independent prin-
jS
K I S
K len- cipality, out of the revenues of which the rajah’s de¬
ar scendants, amounting to 5000, are maintained. His go¬
vernment is completely patriarchal. The rajah is of the
] hm. Rhatore tribe of Rajpoots. Long, 75. 1. E. Lat. 26.
32. N.
Kishenagur, a town and district of Bengal. The town
is situated on the south-eastern side of the Jellinghy River.
It is the residence of the rajah, and also of the judge-
collector of the district of Nuddeah. It is noted for a
manufacture of fine cotton cloths. Long. 88. 95. E. Lat.
23. 26. N.
KISHENGUNGA, a river of Hindustan, which has its
source in the mountains to the north of the Packoli dis¬
trict, and, after a short course, joins the Jhylum River on
the north-west frontier of the province of Lahore.
KISHLAK, a town of Persia, on the road from Shi¬
raz to Ispahan, 146 miles west of Shiraz.
KISHM, Kishmee, or Jezira Derawz (Long Island).
This is the largest island in the Persian Gulf, which ex¬
tends sixty mile* along the Persian shore, and is in no
place more than twelve miles in breadth. The channel
by which it is separated from the continent, which is from
threejto eight miles wide at the northern point of the island,
is navigable for the largest vessels. This island has a
most desolate and unpromising aspect; from whatever
quarter it is seen, it presents nothing but light-gray rocks
of shells or calcareous stone or brown sand, entirely de¬
void of verdure. The inhabitants, who amount to about
10,000, including the population of Kishmee, the capital,
live chiefly by fishing and agriculture ; and there are a
few productive spots on the island, which yield a small
supply of dates, as well as of wheat and barley* They
also breed cattle and sheep, and the latter are said to
thrive well. But this island, though now barren and de¬
serted, is said at one time to have presented a very difler-
ent appearance. It contained, we are informed, 360 well-
inhabited villages, with date and fruit tree gardens-; and
from Ormuz, when it was in the height of its glory, were*
sent supplies of fruit, vegetables, and many descriptions
of provisions. Since that period it has been the scene of
great disturbance and rapine ; pirates having of late years
made descents upon it, plundering and destroying every
thing within their reach, and wantonly cutting down the
date and fruit trees, so that it can hardly supply the few
remaining families with the food which they require.
The fear of these descents drove the greater part of the
inhabitants into the town of Kishmee, which is walled,
and prepared for defence, and contains 8000 inhabitants,
though Fraser, by whom it was visited in 1821, considers
the number as rather exaggerated. The harbour or
roadstead is not very safe, being open on the north-east
to the deep channel that lies between it and Gomberoon ;
so that during the prevalence of the north-east winds,
which blow violently from November to February, boats
cannot land for many days together, on account of the
surf. For eight months of the year, however, the road¬
stead may be considered as safe, since it has good holding
ground. The island is afflicted with a scarcity of water,
and with great heats, which are extremely distressing,
from the excessive dryness, and the great glare reflected
from the rocks. The thermometer is frequently at 110°
in the shade. Upon this parched and dreary spot a Bri¬
tish force, consisting of Sepoys and Europeans, was land¬
ed from India, in order to overcome the Arab piratical
powers who molested the navigation of these seas. But
they suffered severely from the united influence of the
sultry climate and the want of shelter and of food and
water. The island is at present under the rule of an
independent Arab scheik, who pays homage to the imaums
of Muscat. The town is situated close to the sea, in lat.
26. 57. 30. N.
K I S 741
KISHTEWAR, a district of Hindu stan, in the north- Kishtewar
eastern extremity of the province of Lahore, situated II
principally between the 33d and 34th degrees of N. lat. Kistnah.
It is bounded on the north-west by the southern range of
the Cashmere Hills. The country is in general hilly and
covered with wood, and but thinly inhabited. It is also
very cold during the winter season, and presenting few
temptations to invaders, has probably on that account re¬
tained its independence. It is intersected by the river
Chunaub, over which there are no bridges ; and at the
village of Nausman, where it is seventy yards wide, it is
crossed by means of a large basket slung to a tight rope,
which reaches from side to side, and along which it is
pulled. Kishtewar, the capital, which is the residence of a
Mahommedan chief, is situated close under the southern
range ot the Cashmere Mountains. Long. 75. 20. E. Lat.
34. 7. N.
KISLOVODSKOI, a fort of Asiatic Russia, in the
government of Caucasus, and district of Georgiefsk. It
has been erected to protect the patients who resort to
the remarkable mineral water lately discovered there,
which, when it is first drawn from the spring, is perfect¬
ly limpid, but soon froths like the best champaign, and
also affects the tongue with an agreeable acid taste.
KISSER, a small inhabited island, in the Eastern Seas,
about twenty miles in circumference, lying off the north¬
eastern extremity of Timor. It affords refreshments to
shipping. Long. 127. 5. E. Lat 8. 5. S.
KISSING, by way of salutation, or as a token of re¬
spect, has been practised in all nations. The Roman
emperors saluted their principal officers by a kiss. Kiss¬
ing the mouth or the eyes was the usual compliment upon
any promotion or happy event. Soldiers kissed the gene¬
ral’s hand when he quitted his office. Fathers, amongst
the Romans, had so much delicacy, that they never em¬
braced their wives in the presence of their daughters.
Near relations were allowed to kiss their female kindred
on the mouth. Slaves kissed their master’s hand, who
used to hold it out to them for that purpose. Kissing
was a customary mode of salutation amongst the Jews, as
we may collect from the circumstance of Judas approach¬
ing his Master with a kiss. Relations used to kiss their
kindred when dying, and when dead; when dying, out
of a strange opinion that they would imbibe the depart¬
ing soul; and when dead, by way of valedictory cere¬
mony. They even kissed the corpse after it was convey¬
ed to the pile, when it had been seven or eight days dead.
KISTNAGHERRY, a town and fortress of Hindustan,
in the province of Barramahal, 105 miles west from Se-
ringapatam. Long. 78. 23. E. Lat. 12. 32. N. It is
situated on a rock 700 feet in perpendicular height, and
so remarkably bare and steep that it has never been
taken, except by surprise. In 1791 the British troops were
repulsed in an attempt to storm this fortress. It was sub¬
sequently ceded to them, and the fortress destroyed.
KISTNAH,orKRisHNAH,acelebratedriverin the south
of India, which has its source in the Western Ghauts, not
far from Sattarah, in the province of Bejapoor, which is
only fifty miles" in a direct line from the western sea-coast.
It proceeds from hence in a south-westerly direction until
it reaches Merritch, when its bulk is greatly increased by
the junction of the river Worrah, formed by a variety of
streamlets that fall from the Ghauts. During its course
eastward it is joined by the Malpurba, Gutpurba, Beemah,
and Toombuddra rivers ; and pours its prodigious volume of
waters by various mouths into the Bay of Bengal, at or a
little to the southward of Masulipatam, where it forms the
northern boundary of the Guntoor Circars. Its course,
including its windings, may be estimated at 650 miles in
length ; and its waters fertilize the provinces of Beja¬
poor, Beeder, Hyderabad, and the districts of Paulnaud,
742 K I Z
Kistnapa- Guntoor, and Condapilly. The term Krishna signifies
tam black or dark blue, and is the name of the favourite deity
lj of the Hindus, an incarnation of the preserving power ot
ma?" vislinu* ^ forms the boundary of the Deccan, according
to the best Mahommedan authors.
KISTNAPATAM, a town of Hindustan, on the sea-
coast of the Carnatic, eighty-seven miles north from Ma¬
dras. Long. 80. 16. E. Lat. 14. 19. N.
KIT, in Music, the name of a small violin, of such form
and dimension as to be capable of being carried in a case
or sheath in the pocket. Its length, measuring from the ex¬
tremities, is about sixteen inches, and that of the bow
about seventeen. Small as this instrument is, its powers
are co-extensive with those of the violin.
Kit-Cat-Club, an association of above thirty noblemen
and gentlemen of distinguished merit, formed in 1/03,
for the purpose of uniting their zeal in favour of the pro-
testant succession in the house of Hanover. 'Iheir name
was derived from Christopher Kat, a pastry cook, near the
tavern where they met, in Kings Street, Westminster,
who often supplied them with tarts. Old Jacob lonson
was their bookseller. Their portraits were painted by
Sir Godfrey Kneller. y
KITCHEN, the room in a house where the provisions
are cooked.
KITSINGEN, a city of Bavaria, and the capital of the
bailiwick of the same name, in the circle of the Upper
Maine. It stands on the right bank of the Maine, over
which is a bridge 1000 feet long, connecting it with the
suburb Etwashausen, both of which are surrounded with
walls and ditches, and flanked by towers. It contains four
churches, a convent, and hospital, and 784 houses, with
3850 inhabitants. It is one of the chief trading places
on the river, with good wharfs and cranes. It has some
manufactures of cotton, but its chief commerce is wood,
wine, corn, and other productions ot the soil.
„ ^KITTOOR, a town and district in the peshwa’s terri¬
tories, in the province of Bejapoor, twenty miles south¬
east from Merritch. In 1804 the renter of the district
complained that it was wasted by the neighbouring feu¬
datories, and also by the peshwa’s own deputy; when, by
the interference of the British, these grievances were re¬
dressed. The country is fertile.
KIUN-CHEU-FOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
capital of the island of Hainan. It has a port at two miles
distance, formed by a river, and much frequented by Chi¬
nese vessels. It has also a considerable trade.
KIUTAIAH, a large city of Asia Minor, and capital of
Anatolia. It is situated at the foot and partly up the
sides of a cluster of mountains, bounded by a fertile plain
on the south. It covers a considerable extent of ground.
The houses are large and well furnished, and it contains
handsome fountains conveyed from the hills by aqueducts.
It is not so populous as it was formerly, but it still con¬
tains between 50,000 and 60,000 inhabitants, of which
number 10,000 are Armenians, and 5000 Greeks. It
contains thirty public baths, fifty mosques, four Armenian
and one Greek church, and twenty caravanserais. It oc¬
cupies the position of the ancient Cotyaeum, on the site
of which there are still the ruins of a castle. Long. 29.
52. E. Lat. 39. 25. N.
KIU-TCHEOU-FOU, a town of China, in Tchekiang,
of the first rank, situated on a fine river. Itjaorders both
on Kiangsee and Fotchien, from which last it is separated
by a range of very rugged mountains, the ascent to which
is by stairs. Long. 118. 39. E. Lat. 29. 2. N.
KIZILBACHES, a people of Asiatic Russia, in the
government of Orenburg. They are not numerous, and
consist chiefly of Persians who have been taken captive
by the Kirghisses.
KIZILERMAK, a large river in Asia Minor, which
K L A
, . . . . til If
has its rise from Mount Argish, near Kaisarieh, and, after Kizilozien I
flowing a considerable space westwards, turns to the south, || Eiij
and falls into the Black Sea about forty miles south oflKlaproth. ^
Samsoon, in long. 36. 10. E. lat. 41. 30. N. It is the
ancient Halys, and is the finest river in Asia Minor.
KIZILOZIEN, or golden stream, a considerable river
of Persia, which is the natural boundary between the pro¬
vinces of Irak and Azerbijan. According to Rennell, it is
the Gozan of the Scripture, and has its source eight or
nine miles to the north-west of Sennah in Kurdistan. It
runs along the north-west frontier of Irak, and passes un¬
der the Kafatan Koh, or mountain of tigers, when it is
met a few miles to the east of Meanna by the Karanku,
•which takes its rise to the westward of that town, in the
mountains of Sahund. These two rivers combined force
a passage through the great range of the Caucasus, and
during their course form a junction with the Shahrood, a
river formed by two streams, one of which comes from
the vicinity of Cazween, and the other from the moun¬
tain of Elburz, behind Teheran. The collective waters,
under the designation of Sifeed Rood, or White River, so
named from the foam occasioned by the rapidity of its
current, flows in a meandering course through Ghilan to
the Caspian Sea.
KIZLAR, a fortified town and capital of a district of
the government of Caucasus, in Asiatic Russia. It is si¬
tuated on the Terek, near its entrance into the Caspian
Sea. It carries on a considerable trade, being a sort of
entrepot for the commerce of Astrakan with Persia and
the interior of the Caucasus. It exports considerable quan¬
tities of wine, brandy, and silk ; also the oil of sesamus,
which answers the same purpose as the oil of olives. It
was built in 1736, and is always garrisoned by two batta¬
lions, composed of the tribes who wander over the im¬
mense steppe between Kizlar and Astrakan. They are
chiefly Nogays, Troukhmen, and Kalmucks. Long. 46.
29. El Lat. 43. 31. N.
KLAGENFURT, a circle of the Austrian government
of Illyria, bounded on the north and the east by Stey-
ermark, on the south by Laybach, and on the west by
Villach. It extends over 1944 square miles, and compre¬
hends nine cities with their suburbs, fourteen market-
towns, and 1626 villages and hamlets, having 27,337
houses, and 163,759 inhabitants. It is generally a moun¬
tainous district, containing very lofty peaks and ridges, but
having between them many valleys beautifully picturesque
and highly fertile. The chief place is the city which gives
its name to the circle. Near to it is a lake whose waters
form the river Gian, on whose bank it is built, and whence
the northern canal is supplied with its water. It is
an open town, well built, containing seven churches, two
hospitals, an ursuline convent, and orphan house, besides
an established lyceum and gymnasium, with schools for
education in law and physic. It contains 778 houses, and
9840 inhabitants, of whom some are employed in manu¬
factures of fine cloth, cotton goods, silks, and white lead.
Long. 13. 55. 57. E. Lat. 46. 12. N.
KLAPROTH, Martin Henry, a celebrated Prussian
chemist, professor of chemistry, member of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin, foreign associate of the Institute ot
France, and of several other academies and learned societies,
was born at Berlin, on the 1st of December 1743. He had
received from nature an observing, serious, reflecting mind,
and a capacity of patient application which nothing could
tire out or exhaust. After having terminated his classical
studies, he applied himself wholly to that of mineralogy,
for which he had a decided predilection ; but he felt that
he could not make rapid progress therein without calling
in the aid of chemistry, wherefore he devoted himself to
these two branches of physical science. The analysis of
minerals appeared to him of extreme importance with re-
! 743
K L E
E ttau' ference to the proper classification of these unorganic sub¬
stances ; and multiplied experiments soon afforded him
* the means of varying the chemical processes, and of re-
^ cognizing new elements in the minerals wliich had already
been subjected to analysis. It was thus that he discover¬
ed zircon in the jargon of Ceylon ; that he demonstrated
the presence of potash in volcanic productions ; that he
made known the sulphate of strontian ; that he found pot¬
ash in the leucite or white garnet; that he discovered in
red schorl a new metal, which he named titanium, another
in pechblende which he called uranium, and a third in
the ore of white gold, to which he gave the name of tel¬
lurium. He also made known the molybdate of lead, and
proved that the ore of red silver was a sulphuret of silver
and antimony. Such are the most important of M. Kla¬
proth’s labours, those, in fact, which entitle him to rank
amongst the most distinguished chemists of his age ; but
he published, besides, a considerable number of analyses of
fossil substances, which may be found in the Journal de
Physique, the Annales de Chimie, the Journal des Mines,
and other collections of this sort. He also prepared a mi-
neralogical system, which is mainly founded upon the con¬
stituent principles of minerals. His memoirs of chemis¬
try have been collected and translated into French by
Tassaert, Paris, 1807, in two vols. 8vo. Lastly, he com¬
posed, in conjunction with Wolf, a Dictionary of Che¬
mistry, in four vols. 8vo ; a work which was translated
into French by Bouillon-Lagrange and Vagel. Klaproth
greatly contributed to advance the science of mineralogy,
and his researches have thrown much light on the system
of Werner, as well as on the classification of Haiiy. His
discoveries, and, above all, his particular means of analysis,
have served to guide several French chemists, who are in¬
debted to him for part, at least, of the fortunate results
which have rewardedjdieir researches. This distinguished
mineralogist died at Berlin, on the 1st of January 181?. (a.)
KLATTAU, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, extending over 1012 square miles, and compre¬
hending twenty-six cities and towns, 638 villages and
hamlets, with 22,058 houses, inhabited by 145,824i persons.
The capital, a city of the same name, situated on the river
Bradlenka, contains 527 houses, and 4126 inhabitants, who
are employed in making woollen cloths and hosiery, and
in working in some marble and serpentine quarries near
it. Long. 13. 16. 55. E. Lat. 49. 23. 42. N.
KLAUSENBURG, a city, the capital of the Austrian
province Siebenbirgen. It stands on the river Szamos, is
fortified, and divided into the upper and lower towns. It
contains five Catholic, one Unitarian, one reformed, and
oneLutheranjchurch, 1800 houses, and 20,600 inhabitants.
It is a seat of instruction for the several sects. There is
a Catholic seminary, with sixteen professors, for medicine,
law, and philosophy; an Unitarian college, with arector,
three curators, eleven professors, and 300 students ; a Cal¬
vinist and a Lutheran seminary. There is a china, and
some other manufactories ; and it is the residence of many
of the pure old Hungarian noble families, who maintain a
theatre and other public recreations. It is in Long. 23.
29. 23.;E. Lat. 46. 44. 8. N. In the Hungarian language
it is called Kolosvartz.
KLEIST, Edward Christiaden, a German poet, and
a soldier of distinguished bravery, was born at Zeblin, in
Pomerania,[in 1715. At nine years of age he was sent to
pursue his studies at Cron, in Poland; and he afterwards
studied at Dantzic and Konigsberg. Having finished^his
studies, he went to visit his relations in Denmark, who in¬
vited him to settle there ; and having in vain endeavoured
to obtain preferment in the law, at twenty-one years of
age he accepted of a post in the Danish army. He then
applied himself to the study of all the sciences that have
a relation to military affairs, with the same assiduity as he
K L T
had before studied civil law. In 1740, at the beginning Klin
of the reign of Frederick king of Prussia, Mr de Kleist II
went to Berlin, and was presented to his majesty, who Klinome-
made him lieutenant of his brother Prince Henry’s regi- _tfcI' ,
ment; and he was in all the compaigns which distinguish¬
ed the first five years of the king of Prussia’s reign. In
1749 he obtained the post of captain ; and in that year he
published his poem on the Spring. Before the breaking
out of the war, the king chose him, with some other offi¬
cers at Potsdam, as companions to the young prince Fre¬
deric William of Prussia, and to eat at his table. In the
first campaign, in 1756, he was nominated major of Hau¬
sen’s regiment, which being in garrison at Leipsic, he had
time to finish several new poems. After the battle of Ros-
bach, the king gave him, by an order in his own hand-writing,
the inspection of the great hospital established at Leipsic.
On this occasion his humanity was celebrated by the sick
and wounded of both parties, and his disinterestedness
was equally admired by all the inhabitants of that city.
In 1758, Prince Henry coming to Leipsic, Mr de Kleist
desired to serve in his army with the regiment of Hausen,
which was readily granted. Opportunities of distinguish¬
ing himself could not be wanting under that great officer,
and he always communicated his courage to the battalion
under his command. He also served that prince} at the
beginning of the campaign of 1759, when he was with
him in Franconia, and in all the expeditions of that army,
till he was detached with the troops under General de
Fink to join the king’s army. On the 12th of August
was fought the bloody battle of Kunnersdorf, in which
he fell. His poems, which are greatly admired, are print¬
ed in the German tongue, in two volumes 8vo.
KLIN, a circle in the Russian government of Moscow,
which extends over 1347 square miles, comprehending one
town and 606 villages, with 8000 houses, and 62,380 inha¬
bitants. The capital, of the same name, is a town situated
on the river Sestra, with 1250 inhabitants. Long. 36.
40. E. Lat. 56. 20. N.
KLINOMETER, or Clinometer (from -/Xim, which
denotes inclination, and /zsrgoi/), the name of an instru¬
ment contrived by the late Lord Webb Seymour, a noble¬
man who devoted his life to the cultivation of science.
This instrument is intended to be used by the geologist
for measuring the inclination of stratified rocks, and the
azimuth in which that inclination lies.
If a plummet-level be applied to an inclined plane in
that position in which the edge or base of the plummet-
level is horizontal, and if the edge of the plummet-level
be then turned round ninety degrees in the inclined plane,
the angle formed by the plumb-line with the line which is
perpendicular to the edge of the plummet-level is equal
to the inclination of the inclined line to the horizon. On
the same principle the inclination of a plane to the horizon
is measured by the klinometer.
In the klinometer represented at Plate XCIV. fig. I,
AC is a circular plate, the circumference of which is di¬
vided into 360 degrees ; it has three short feet on its un¬
der surface, one of which is seen at S.
The feet on. the under side of the plate are of wood,
which is preferred to metal, as less liable to slip when
placed on an inclined surface. The ends of the teet are
in a plane parallel to the upper surface of the circular
plate. The fibre of the wood is set perpendicular to the
plate, to diminish the derangement which may happen by
the expansion of the wood from moisture.
The arm CG is moveable round the centre of the circu¬
lar plate. D is an oval hole, through which is moveable
the catch of a sliding bolt; this bolt passes on the under
side of the circular plate ; the catch of the bolt is made
flush with the surface of the circular plate. Ihe bolt
serves to fix the arm CG on the circular plate. When the
744 K L O
Kloppen- instrument is to be used, C is the axis round which the
burg- arm CG turns. When the three short feet of the circular
v , plate are placed on the inclined surface of a stratified rock,
Klopstock. t|ie arm wi1jc]1 bears the spirit level EE is moved down to
the lowest point of the quadrant DD, and the arm CG is
moved round till the bubble stands in the middle of the
level; the arm CG and the level are then in the intersec¬
tion of the inclined stratum with a plane parallel to the ho¬
rizon : the degree on the edge of the circular plate at
which the arm CG now stands is noted, and the arm CG
is to be moved round through ninety degrees of the circu¬
lar plate upwards ; when the arm CG is arrived at this se¬
cond position, it is in the line of the greatest inclination
of the stratified rock. The arm which bears the spirit le¬
vel EE is then to be raised, by turning it on the centre of
the quadrant; and when the bubble stands in the middle
of the level, the arm will indicate, on the limb of the qua¬
drant, the degree of inclination of the stratified rock.
The magnetic needle in the box 00 will, at the same
time, show the magnetic azimuth, formed by the vertical
plane, which contains the angle of greatest inclination ;
and this magnetic azimuth is to be converted into true
azimuth by applying the number of degrees that the needle
varies from the true meridian, at the particular time and
place where the observation is made. The box OO has
both the top and the bottom made of glass, so that the
needle may be observed both when the instrument is
placed on the upper surface, and when the instrument is
applied to the under surface, of an inclined plane. When
the instrument is not in use, the arm CG, with the quad¬
rant and compass, are unfixed, and taken off from the
circular plate, by withdrawing the catch of the bolt which
is seen at d. The compass-box 00 is turned round an
axis, which is seen below the spirit level EE, so that the
compass-box comes into the same plane with the quadrant,
and then the quadrant, compass-box, and arm, CG, pack
into a flat box. The circular plate ACS is now separate
from the other parts of the instrument, and lies flat in an¬
other part of the box made for packing the instrument.
Lord Webb Seymour’s account of this instrument is pub¬
lished in the Transactions of the Geological Society, vol.
iii. 1816.
KLOPPENBURG, a circle of the duchy of Oldenburg,
in Germany. It extends over 612 square miles, and con¬
tains one town and fifteen parishes, with 5023 houses, and
26,964 inhabitants. The chief town, of the same name, is
situated on the river Soste, containing 151 houses, and 860
inhabitants ; but the whole parish has a population of 4790.
KLOPSTOCK, Frederic Theophilus, was born at
Quedlinburg in 1724, and one of the most celebrated of the
German poets. His father was a man of an elevated cha¬
racter, and a magistrate of that place, w ho afterwards farmed
a bailiwick in the Brandenburg part of Mansfield. Klop-
stock was the oldest of eleven children, and having re¬
ceived the rudiments of education at home, he was put to
the public school of Quedlinburg, where he soon became
conspicuous both for bodily and mental exercises. He
went to the college of the same place at the age of six¬
teen, where, under the tuition of an able teacher, he ob¬
tained a knowledge of, and taste for, the beauties of the
best classical authors. He composed some pastorals in
verse; and even at this early period he conceived the bold
design of writing an epic poem, fixing at length, after much
deliberation, on the Messiah, by which he has rendered his
name immortal.
He commenced the study of theology at the University
of Jena, in the year 1745, although in his retirement he
wras constantly ruminating on his great projected work al¬
ready mentioned, sketching out the three first cantos.
They were first written in prose, as the common measure
of German verse did not accord with his own sentiments.
Transported with the melody of Homer’s and Virgil’s
K L O
strains, he determined to make trial of German hexame- Klopst t
ters, in which he succeeded so entirely to his own satisfac- Wsa
tion, that he fixed upon this majestic verse for the whole .'|{
of his poem. By his removal from Jena to Leipzig in jL
1746, he became acquainted with a number of young vo¬
taries of the muses, who occasionally published their essays
in a paper called the Bremen Contributions, in which ap¬
peared the three cantos of Klopstock’s Messiah, and a
number of his odes, for which he was so applauded as to
animate him to persevere.
He quitted Leipzig in 1748, and resided at Langensalza,
where he carried on a fruitless correspondence with a
beautiful young lady, who discovered no inclination to re¬
turn his passion, which for some time threw a gloom over
his mind. He now published ten books of his Messiah, by
which he came to be known and admired all over Ger¬
many. It was an extremely popular work amongst all those
who were at once the lovers of poetry and devotion. It
was quoted from the pulpit by young divines, whilst others
of a more stern deportment found fault with the author, as
indulging too much in fiction on sacred topics.
He travelled into Switzerland in 1750, to pay a visit to
Bodmer of Zurich, in consequence of an invitation, and
wras received with every token of respect. The sublime
scenery of that country, the simplicity of its inhabitants,
and the freedom they enjoyed, were admirably suited to
the taste and sentiments of Klopstock. Here in all pro¬
bability he would have breathed his last, had not Baron
Bernstorff, who was charmed with his poetry, engaged
Count Molke, after returning from France to Copenhagen,
to invite him to that city, with assurances of such a pen¬
sion as would make him independent. Our author ac¬
cordingly set out for Copenhagen in the year 1751, by the
way of Brunswick and Hamburg, at which latter place
he became acquainted with a young lady, Miss Moller, of
literary abilities, and a heart susceptible of tender impres¬
sions. They were soon afterwards married, and seemed des¬
tined by Providence to be one of the happiest couplesupon
earth ; but he was early deprived of her, for she died in child¬
bed, and her memory was sacred to Klopstock to the last
hour of his existence. He lived for the most part at Co¬
penhagen till the year 1771, after which he resided at
Hamburg in the capacity of royal Danish legate, and
counsellor of the margrave of Baden, who gave him a pen¬
sion, and engaged him to pass the year 1775 at his palace
of Carlsruhe. Such was the diffidence of our poet, that it
required the most extraordinary condescension on the part
of the great to make him easy in their presence.
The decline of his health made no change on the habi¬
tual tranquillity of his mind ; he contemplated his approach¬
ing dissolution without any dismay, and his pious fortitude
continued unshaken amidst the severest sufferings. He died
at Hamburg in March 1803, being then seventy-nine years
of age, and his funeral was attended with such honours as
justly belonged to the greatest poet of the country.
The character of Klopstock as a poet is that of exube¬
rance of imagination and sentiment. His sublimity, which
is nearly unparalleled, makes him almost lose himself in
mystical extravagance. A great critic claims for the author
of the Messiah a rank amongst the very first class of poets.
His odes and lyric poems are much admired by his coun¬
trymen ; and his dramatic works display great force and
dignity, but are thought to be better adapted to the closet
than the theatre. He was also an excellent prose writer,
as is fully evinced by his Grammatical Dialogues.
KLOSTERNEUBURG, a city of Austria, in the pro¬
vince of the Lower Ens. It is situated on the river Da¬
nube, and walled ; but the fortifications are dilapidated. It
is chiefly remarkable from an establishment for education
of an ancient date, which is still maintained, consisting of
seventeen professors, with a library of 25,000 volumes, and
a museum. The houses are 479, with 3400 inhabitants.
K N E
Kni ack KNAPSACK, in a military sense, a rough leathern bag
which a soldier carries on his back, and which contains all
Ki ler. ^jg necessaries. Square knapsacks are most convenient,
^ and should be made with a division to hold the shoes and
other articles separate from the linen.
KNARESBOROUGH, a town of the west riding of
the county of York, in the wapentake of Claro, 215 miles
from London by Nottingham, and 202 by York. It is si¬
tuated on the side of a hill, almost surrounded by the river
Nidd. It was formerly fortified, and had a castle built in the
reign of William the Conqueror. It was a burgage tenure
borough, and sent two members to parliament, who are now
chosen by the ten-pound house-keepers. The chief trade
is the linen manufacture, which is extensive. Near the
town are some mineral springs of medicinal virtue, but
they are not much resorted to. A dropping well, with
great petrifying power, is a curiosity, about a mile from
the town. There is a market on Wednesday, which is
well attended; and there are eight fairs, at which much
business is transacted. The inhabitants amounted in 1801
to 3388, in 1811 to 4234, in 1821 to 5283, and in 1831 to
5296.
I KNAVE, an old Saxon word, which had at first a sense
of simplicity and innocence, for it signified a boy; Sax.
cnapa, whence a knave child, or a boy, distinguished from
a girl, in several old writers ; afterwards it was taken for a
servant boy, and at length for any servant man. It was
also applied to a minister or officer who bore the shield or
weapon of his superior; as field knapa, whom the Latins
call armiger, and the French escuyer (14 Edw. III. c. 3).
And it was sometimes of old made use of as a titular ad¬
dition, as Joannes C. filius Willielmi C. de Derby, knave
(22 Hen. VII. c. 37). The word is now perverted to the
hardest meaning, viz. a false, deceitful fellow.
KNEE, in a ship, a crooked piece of timber, having
two branches or arms, and generally used to connect the
beams of a ship with her sides or timbers. The branches
of the knees form an angle of greater or smaller extent,
according to the mutual situation of the pieces which they
are designed to unite.
Knee of the Head, a large, flat piece of timber, fixed
edgewise upon the fore part of a ship’s stem, and support¬
ing the ornamental figure or image placed under the bow¬
sprit.
The knee of the head is a phrase peculiar to shipwrights,
as this piece is always called the cut-water by seamen, if
we except a few, who, affecting to be wiser than their
brethren, have adopted this expression, probably on the
presumption that the other is a cant phrase or vulgarism.
Carling Knees, in a ship, those timbers which extend
from the ship to the hatchway, and bear up the deck on
both sides.
KNELLER, Sir Godfrey, a painter whose fame is
well established in these kingdoms. He was born at Lu-
beck in 1648, and received his first instructions in the
school of Rembrandt, but became afterwards a disciple of
Ferdinand Bol. When he had gained as much knowledge
as that school afforded him, he travelled to Rome, where
he fixed his particular attention on Titian and the Caracci.
He afterwards visited Venice, and distinguished himself
so effectually in that city by his historical pictures and his
portraits of the noble families there, that his reputation
became considerable in Italy. By the advice of some
friends he came at last to England, where it was his good
fortune to gain the favour of the Duke of Monmouth, by
whose recommendation he more than once painted the por¬
trait of King Charles II. who was so pleased with his skill
in doing it, that he used to come and sit to him at his
house in Covent Garden piazza. The death of Sir Peter
Lely left him without a competitor in England, and from
that time his fortune and fame were thoroughly establish-
VOL. XII.
K N I 745
ed. No painter could have more incessant employment, Kniephau-
and no painter could be more distinguished by public ho- sen
n°”r: was state Painter to Charles II. James II. „ J
W illiam III. Queen Anne, and George I., and equally es-
teemed and respected by them all. The Emperor Leo-
pold made him a knight of the Roman empire, and King
George I. created him a baronet. Most of the nobility
and gentry had their likenesses taken by him ; and no
painter excelled him in a sure outline, or in the graceful
disposition of his figures. His works were celebrated by
the best poets in his time. He built an elegant house at
Whitton, near Hampton Court, where he spent the latter
part of his life, and died in 1726.
KNIEPHAUSEN, a district, formerly an independent
sovereign state, but now a part of the grand duchy of Ol¬
denburg, in Germany. During the late war the great¬
er number of Dutch vessels were rendered neutral by the
count of this district, and under the colours of Kniephau-
sen were received in the English ports. It contains two
parishes, with three churches, a strong castle, and 590
houses, with 3800 inhabitants. Though ceded to Olden¬
burg when mediatised, Count Bentick, the sovereign, has
protested against the cession, and still maintains his claim
to the dominion.
KNIFE, a well-known instrument, made for cutting, and
adapted in form to the uses for which it is designed.
Knives are said to have been first made in England in
1563, by one Matthews, on Fleet Bridge, London. The
importation of all sorts of knives is prohibited.
KNIGHT (eques), amongst the Romans, a person of the
second degree of nobility, following immediately that of
the senators.
Knight (or Cnecht, Germ.), in feudal history, was ori¬
ginally an appellation or title given by the ancient Ger¬
mans to their youth after being admitted to the privilege
of bearing arms. See Chivalry.
There is scarcely a prince in Europe who lias not thought
fit to institute an order of knighthood; and the simple
title of knight, which the kings of Britain confer on private
subjects, is a derivation from ancient chivalry, although
very remote from its source.
Knight-Service (servitium militare, and in law French
chivalry'), a species of feudal tenure. The knights creat¬
ed by this tenure differed most essentially from the
knights of chivalry, though the difference seems not to
have been accurately attended to by authors. The one
class of knights was of a high antiquity, the other was
not heard of till the invention of a fee. The adorning
with arms and the blow of the sword made the act of the
creation of the ancient knight; the new knight was con¬
stituted by an investment in a piece of land. The for¬
mer was the member of an order of dignity which had par¬
ticular privileges and distinctions; the latter was the re¬
ceiver of a feudal grant. Knighthood was an honour,
knight-service a tenure. The first communicated splen¬
dour to an army, the last gave it strength and numbers.
The knight of honour might serve in any station what¬
ever, the knight of tenure was in the rank of a soldier.
By the tenure of knight-service the greater part of the
lands in England were htffden, and that principally of the
king in capite, till the middle of the seventeenth cen¬
tury ; and it was created, as Sir Edward Coke expressly
testifies, for a military purpose, viz. for defence of the
realm by the king’s own principal subjects, which was
judged to be much better than to trust to hirelings or fo¬
reigners. The description here given is that of knight-
service proper, which was to attend the king in his wars.
There were also some other species of knight-service, so
called, though improperly, because the service or render
was of a free and honourable nature, and equally uncer¬
tain as to the time of rendering as that of knight-service
5 b .
746
K N I
K N O
Knight
hood.
Knights- proper, and because they were attended with similar fruits
Errant an(j consequences. Such was the tenure by grand ser-
II jeanty, per magnum servitium, whereby the tenant was
" 1 ary bound, instead of serving the Vmg generally in his wars, to
do some special honorary service to the king in person, as
to carry his banner, his sword, or the like, or be his butler,
champion, or other officer, at his coronation. It was, in
most other respects, like knight-service, only he was not
bound to pay aid or escuage ; and when tenant by knight-
service paid five pounds for a relief on every knight’s fee,
tenant by grand serjeanty paid one year’s value of his
land, were it much or little. Tenure by carnage, which
was to wind a horn when the Scotch or other enemies en¬
tered the land, in order to warn the king’s subjects, was,
like other services of the same nature, a species of grand
serjeanty.
These services, both of chivalry and grand serjeanty,
were all personal, and uncertain as to their quantity or
duration. But the personal attendance in knight-service
growing troublesome and inconvenient in many respects,
the tenants found means of compounding for it, by first
sending others in their stead, and in process of time mak¬
ing a pecuniary satisfaction to the lords in lieu of it. By
the degenerating of knight-service, or personal military
duty, into escuage or pecuniary assessments, all the ad¬
vantages, either promised or real, of the feodal constitu¬
tions were destroyed, and nothing but the hardships re¬
mained. Instead of forming a national militia composed
of barons, knights, and gentlemen, bound by their inte¬
rest, their honour, and their oaths, to defend their king
and country, the whole of this system of tenures now
tended to nothing else but a wretched means of raising
money to pay an army of occasional mercenaries. The
military tenures, with all their heavy appendages, were
at length destroyed at one blow, by the statute 12 Charles
II. c. 24 ; a statute which was a greater acquisition to the
civil property of this kingdom than even magna charta
itself, since that only pruned the luxuriances which had
grown out of the military tenures, and thereby preserved
them in vigour; but the statute of King Charles extir¬
pated the whole, and demolished both root and branches.
KNiGHTS-Errant. During the prevalence of chivalry,
the ardour of redressing wrongs seized many knights so
powerfully, that, attended by esquires, they wandered
about in search of objects whose misfortunes and misery
required their assistance and succour. And as ladies en¬
gaged more particularly their attention, the relief of un¬
fortunate damsels was the achievement they most court¬
ed. This gave birth to knights-errant, whose adven¬
tures produced romances. These were originally told as
they happened. But the love of the marvellous came to
interfere ; fancy was indulged in the wildest exaggera¬
tions ; and poetry lent her charms to the most monstrous
fictions, and to scenes the most unnatural and grotesque.
Knights, in a ship, two short, thick pieces of wood,
commonly carved like a man’s head, having four shivers in
each, three for the haulyards, and one for the top to run
in. One of them stands fast bolted on the beams abaft the
foremast, and is therefore called the fore-knight; and the
other, standing abaft the mainmast, is called the main-
knight.
Knight’s Island, in the Pacific Ocean, the largest of
three islands called the Snares by Vancouver. It was dis¬
covered in 1791. The south point is situated in Lonff. 166.
44. E. Lat. 48. 15. S.
KNIGHTHOOD, a military order or honour, or a mark
or degree of ancient nobility, or reward of personal virtue
and merit. There are four kinds of knighthood; military,
regular, honorary, and social.
Military Knighthood is that of the ancient knights,
who acquired it by high feats of arms. They are called
milites in ancient charters and titles, by which they were dis- Reguiai .t*
tinguished from mere bachelors, and others. These knights Knight. r “
were girt with a sword, and wore a pair of gilt spurs; 1100(1
whence they were called equites aurati. Knighthood is \r H
not hereditary, but acquired. It does not come into the
world with a man, like nobility, nor can it be revoked.
Regular Knighthood is applied to all military orders
which profess to wear some particular habit. Such were
the knights templars, and such also the knights of Malta.
Honorary Knighthood is that which princes confer
on other princes, and even on their own great ministers
and favourites; such are knights of the Garter, Bath, St
Patrick, Nova Scotia, Thistle, and the like.
Social Knighthood is that which is not fixed or con¬
firmed by any formal institution, nor regulated by any
lasting statutes; of which kind many orders have been
erected on occasion of factions, of tilts and tournaments,
masquerades, and the like.
KNIGHTON, a market-town of the county of Radnor,
and hundred of its own name, in South Wales. It is a
well-built town, on the side of a hill, overlooked by a lofty
mountain. An old intrenchment, called Ossa Dyke, which
extends from the Dee to the Wye, runs at the bottom of
the town, and is said to have formed the boundary between
England and Wales. There is a market, which is held
on Thursday. The inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 785, in
1811 to 952, in 1821 to 1000, and in 1831 to 1076.
KNITTLINGEN, a market-town of the bailiwick of
Maulbroun, and circle of the Neckar, in the kingdom of
Wirtemberg. It contains 304 houses and 2380 inhabi¬
tants.
KNOLLES, Richard, was born in Northamptonshire
about the middle of the sixteenth century, and educated
at Oxford, after which he was appointed master of the
free school at Sandwich in Kent. He composed Gram-
maticce Latince, Grcecce, et Hebraicce, compendium, cum ra-
dicibus, London, 1606, and sent many excellent scholars
to the universities. He also spent twelve years in compil¬
ing a history of the Turks, which was first printed in 1610.
It is called the General History of the Turks, from the
first beginning of that nation to the rising of the Otto¬
man family. He died in 1610, and this history has been
since continued by several hands; but the best continua¬
tion is that by Paul Ricaut, consul at Smyrna, folio, Lon¬
don, 1680. Knolles wrote also the Lives and Conquests
of the Ottoman Kings and Emperors to the year 1610,
which was not printed till after his death in 1621, to which
time it was continued by another hand ; and, lastly, a
Brief Discourse of the greatness of the Turkish empire,
and wherein the greatness of the strength thereof consist-
eth.
KNOUT, the name of a punishment inflicted in Rus¬
sia, with a kind of whip called knout, and made of a
long strap of leather prepared for this purpose. With this
whip the executioners dexterously carry off a slip of skin
from the neck to the bottom of the back, laid bare to the
waist, and, repeating their blows, in a little while rend away
all the skin of the back in parallel stripes. In the com¬
mon knout the criminal receives the lashes suspended on
the back of one of the executioners ; but in the great
knout the criminal is raised into the air by means of a pul¬
ley fixed to the gallows, and a cord fastened to the two
wrists tied together; a piece of wood is placed between
his twTo legs also tied together; and another of a crucial
form under his breast. Sometimes his hands are tied be¬
hind his back; and when he is pulled up in this position
his shoulders are dislocated. The executioners can make
this punishment more or less severe; and, it is said, are so
dexterous, that when a criminal is condemned to die, they
can make him expire at pleasure, either by one or several
lashes.
KNOX.
i. KNOX, John, the great reformer of Scotland, was born
—^ at the village of Gifford in Haddingtonshire in the year
1505. His father is said, though perhaps without founda¬
tion, to have been descended from the family of Ranferly,
in the same county. The name of his mother was Sinclair;
and some of his letters, written in seasons of danger, were
subscribed John Sinclair. Whatever might be the lineage
or the situation of the father, the son was enabled to ob¬
tain the benefit of a liberal education, such as his native
country could then afford. After having been instructed
in the Latin language at Haddington school, he was in the
year 1521 sent to the university of Glasgow, where phi¬
losophy and divinity were taught by John Mair, a celebrat¬
ed schoolman. The Greek and Hebrew languages were
not then publicly taught in Scotland; but the former of
these he acquired when he was yet in the vigour of life,
and the latter during the period of his continental exile. It
is not sufficiently ascertained that he took a degree; but
if it be correctly stated that he publicly taught philosophy
in this university, and afterwards at St Andrews, we are
perhaps to infer that he was a master of arts.
He soon felt himself dissatisfied with the dry and barren
speculations of scholastic philosophy and scholastic theo¬
logy, and was gradually conducted to a more edifying course
of enquiry. Not contented, as his excellent and lamented
biographer has stated, with the extracts “ from ancient au¬
thors, which he found in the writings of the scholastic di¬
vines and canonists, he resolved to have recourse to the
original works. In them he found a method of investigat¬
ing and communicating truth, to which he had hitherto
been a stranger, and the simplicity of which recommended
itself to his mind, in spite of the prejudices of education,
and the pride of superior attainments in his own favourite
art. Among the fathers of the Christian church, Jerom
and Augustine attracted his particular attention. By the
writings of the former, he was led to the Scriptures as the
only pure fountain of divine truth, and instructed in the
utility of studying them in the original languages. In the
works of the latter, he found religious sentiments very op¬
posite to those taught in the Romish church, who, while
she retained his name as a saint in her calendar, had ba¬
nished his doctrine, as heretical, from her pulpits. From
this time, he renounced the study of scholastic theology;
and although not yet completely emancipated from super¬
stition, his mind was fitted for improving the means which
Providence had prepared, for leading him to a fuller and
more comprehensive view of the system of evangelical re¬
ligion. It was about the year 1535 when this favourable
change commenced ; but it does not appear that he pro¬
fessed himself a protestant before the year 1542.” The
reformed doctrines had been preached to his benighted
countrymen by Patrick Hamilton, abbot of Ferme, who
was allied to the royal family, and who had the higher ho¬
nour of being the proto-martyr of Scotland to the protes¬
tant faith. On the last of February 1528, he was most in¬
humanly committed to the flames in the archiepiscopal city
of St Andrews. But the seed which he had thus moisten¬
ed with his blood, sprung from the ground with a degree
of vigour which the foulest blasts of persecution were found
incapable of withering. The new opinions were gradually
adopted by men of learning as well as of rank. Between
the years 1530 and 1540, a considerable number of victims
was doomed to a cruel death, while others escaped the fangs
of their persecutors, and sought refuge in England and on
the continent. Several of these exiles, and among the rest
George Buchanan and Alexander Aless, were men distin¬
guished by their talents and learning, who obtained pre¬
ferment in foreign universities, and there reflected credit
on their native country.
747
During those times of persecution, Knox was engaged Knox.
in teaching philosophy in the university of St Andrews,  
though it does not clearly appear that he held the office of
a regent or professor. Several individuals of his acquaint¬
ance had embraced the reformed doctrines: the force of
truth gradually affected his own mind, and he arrived at
complete conviction in the year 1542, having then attained
the age of thirty-seven. As he began to recommend to
his pupils a more rational and edifying method of study, he
excited some suspicions of heretical pravity ; but when he
proceeded so far as to expose certain corruptions of the
church, he speedily found it necessary to change his place
of residence. Having retired to the south of Scotland, and
there avowed his adherence to the cause of reformation, he
wTas declared a heretic, and was degraded from his orders.
Nor was Cardinal Beaton satisfied with this more canoni¬
cal form of procedure : he employed assassins to co-operate
in the same design of supporting the church, but his intend¬
ed victim found shelter and protection in his native coun-
ty, under the roof of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry, a gen¬
tleman who had adopted the same opinions. Here he was
retained in the capacity of a domestic tutor; and the son
of another protestant, John Cockburn of Ormiston, was
likewise committed to his charge. He communicated re¬
ligious instruction, not only to his pupils, but also to the
other members of the family, and to the people of the im¬
mediate neighbourhood. He was accustomed to catechise
them in a chapel at Longniddry, and there at stated times
to read and explain a portion of the Scriptures. When re¬
ligious instruction was so scanty, and access to the foun¬
tain of sacred knowledge so difficult, the services of so
faithful a labourer must have been of no small value. About
this period, he received a new impulse from the public and
private instructions of George Wishart, who returned to his
native country in the year 1544. He had been driven
into exile by the bishop of Brechin, for the crime of read¬
ing lectures on the Greek Testament at Montrose, and
during several years had resided in the university of Cam¬
bridge. “ Excelling all his countrymen at that period in
learning, of the most persuasive eloquence, irreproachable
in life, courteous and affable in manners, his fervent piety,
zeal, and courage in the cause of truth, were tempered with
uncommon meekness, modesty, patience, prudence, and
charity. In his tour of preaching through Scotland, he
was usually accompanied by some of the principal gentry ;
and the people, who flocked to hear him, were ravished
with his discourses. To this teacher Knox attached him¬
self, and profited greatly by his sermons and private in¬
structions. During the last visit which Wishart paid to
Lothian, Knox waited constantly on his person, and bore
the sword, which was carried before him from the time
that an attempt was made to assassinate him in Dundee.
Wishart was highly pleased with the zeal of his faithful at¬
tendant, and seems to have presaged his future usefulness,
at the same time that he laboured under a strong presen¬
timent of his own approaching martyrdom.”1
Wishart was brought to the stake at St Andrews on the
1st of March 1546, and his persecutor, the blood-stained
cardinal, was not long permitted to survive. On the 29th
of the ensuing May, he was surprised in his castle by a
small and resolute band of conspirators, whom his misdeeds
had roused to acts of desperation. Having put him to
death, they kept possession of his strong-hold, and procur¬
ing assistance from England, they sustained a regular siege
from an army collected by the regent Arran. Many pro-
testants, who had no participation in the conspiracy, sought
refuge in the castle ; and among these were Sir David
Lindsay and Henry Balnaves, whose names are famili¬
arly known to all who are acquainted with the literary his-
M'Crie’s Life of Knox, vol. i. p. 41, 5th edit. Edinb. 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.
748
KNOX.
Knox.
tory of that age. Knox, being among the number of the
proscribed, was persuaded by Douglas and Cockburn to
follow the example. He was accompanied by his pupils,
and continued his religious as well as his literary instruc¬
tions. In the chapel of the castle, he read lectures on por¬
tions of the Scriptures ; and so favourable an opinion was
formed of his talents and attainments, that he was earnestly
solicited to officiate as the colleague of John Rough, chap¬
lain to the garrison. It was not without much reluctance
that he obeyed the call; but having undertaken this office,
he acquitted himself with equal ability and zeal. He oc¬
casionally preached in the parish church, as well as in the
chapel of the castle, and the popish clergy were at length
roused to some degree of counter-exertion : it was arrang¬
ed that the most learned men of the abbey and university
should every Sunday preach in their turn, partly with the
view of excluding the protestant ministers from the pulpit,
and partly with that of conciliating the affections of the
people, whose edification they had too long disregarded.
Knox and his colleague were summoned to a public dispu¬
tation, held in the presence of Winram the sub-prior, who
was vicar-general during the vacancy of the see, and who
was secretly inclined to the reformed doctrines. He did
not himself enter into much discussion, and he was very
feebly supported by a Franciscan friar, named Arbuckle,
who was finally driven to the desperate averment “ that
the apostles had not received the Holy Ghost when they
wrote the epistles, but they afterwards received it, and or¬
dained ceremonies.” It was more easy for this father to
abandon the inspiration of the holy Scriptures, than to re¬
linquish the vain ceremonies of the church : so customary
has it generally been for mankind to adore the bungling
work of their own hands.
During the short period of his ministrations at St An¬
drews, many of the citizens renounced the errors of popery,
and publicly testified the change of their religious opinions,
by partaking of the communion according to the rite of the
reformed church. But the protestants could not long re¬
tain possession of the castle. At the end of June 1547, a
considerable reinforcement arrived from France, and enabled
the regent to invest the place by sea and land: the garrison
made a brave resistance, but after an interval of a month
was reduced to the necessity of accepting terms of capitu¬
lation from Leo Strozzi, the commander of the foreign auxi¬
liaries. It was stipulated that their lives should be spared,
that they should be removed to France, and that such of
them as declined entering into the French service should be
conveyed to any other country except Scotland. Rough
had previously emigrated to England, and there he suffered
martyrdom in the year 1557. Knox, sharing the fate of
his companions, was conveyed on board one of the French
ships, which cast anchor before Rouen ; but the terms of
the capitulation were grossly violated, and, at the instiga¬
tion of the pope and the Scotish clergy, they were treated
as prisoners of war. The principal gentlemen were com •
mitted to close custody in Rouen, Cherbourg, Brest, and
Mont St Michael; while Knox and some others were sent
on board the galleys, and after being loaded with chains,
were compelled to labour at the oar. Here they were sub¬
jected to many other indignities; but in spite of every
hardship and every threat, not one of their number could
be impelled to renounce his faith. During the ensuing
winter, the galley in which he was confined lay in the river
Loire ; and, in the summer of 1548, it sailed for Scotland,
and during a considerable period lingered on the eastern
coast, for the purpose of intercepting English vessels. The
hardships to which he was now subjected produced a very
serious effect upon his health : he was seized with a vio¬
lent fever, and no hope was entertained of his recovery.
He however regained his strength, and during his captivity
had sufficient energy of mind to compose more than one
religious treatise. His treatise on prayer, written during Knox,
this season of affliction, was afterwards published. Having y-»
endured a captivity of nineteen months, he was restored to
liberty in February 1549. Of the circumstances which led
to this event, various accounts have been given ; but ac¬
cording to Dr M‘Crie, “ it is more than probable that he
owed his deliverance to the comparative indifference with
which he and his brethren were now regarded by the French
court, who, having procured the consent of the parliament
of Scotland to the marriage of Queen Mary to the dauphin,
and obtained possession of her person, felt no longer any
inclination to revenge the quarrels of the Scottish clergy.”
Knox immediately directed his course to England, where
his merits and his sufferings were neither unknown nor un¬
regarded. Soon after he made his appearance in London,
he received an appointment to officiate at Berwick, where
he began to preach with his characteristic fervour and zeal.
He exposed the errors of popery with an unsparing hand,
and his labours seem to have been attended with no incon¬
siderable success. The tendency of his zeal was not how¬
ever calculated to recommend him to the bishop of the dio¬
cese, Dr Tonstall, who, although a man of elegant learn¬
ing, was deeply infected with the ancient superstition.
Having been accused of asserting that the sacrifice of the
mass is idolatrous, the preacher was cited to appear at New¬
castle on the 4th of April 1550, before the bishop of Dur¬
ham, and to give an account of his doctrine. This prelate
was attended by several of his clergy, as well as by various
laymen, and a large number of spectators was attracted by
the peculiar circumstances of the investigation. Knox en¬
tered into a copious defence of his opinions, and with the
utmost boldness proceeded to demonstrate that the mass is
a superstitious and idolatrous substitute for the genuine sa¬
crament of the Lord’s supper. The bishop, though he pro¬
bably listened with surprize and indignation, did not ven¬
ture to inflict any ecclesiastical censure ; and the fame of
the obnoxious preacher was extended by this attempt to
restrain the boldness of his attacks on the errors of the fall¬
ing church. Having remained at Berwick till the close of
the year, he was afterwards removed to Newcastle. In
December 1551, he was appointed one of King Edward’s
chaplains in ordinary, with an annual salary of forty pounds,
which at that period was no mean provision. The chap¬
lains were six in number ; two of whom were to be in con¬
stant residence at court, while the other four were employ¬
ed in preaching in different parts of the kingdom. In the
course of this year, the Book of Common Prayer was sub¬
jected to a revisal, of which it stood in considerable need;
and Knox having been consulted among other divines, was
chiefly instrumental in procuring a material alteration in
the communion service, which at first was too favourable to
the doctrine of the real presence. One deep vestige of
this doctrine is still preserved in the kneeling posture of the
communicants, which manifestly derives its origin from the
popish adoration of the host.
The freedom of his discourses in the pulpit gave offence
to various individuals, and among others to the duke of
Northumberland, warden general of the northern marches;
and having been accused of high misdemeanours, he was
cited to appear before the privy council, which at that period
possessed an extensive and ill-defined jurisdiction. But
the malice of his enemies was altogether ineffectual, and
this call to the metropolis was followed by consequences
very different from those which they anticipated. He was
fully cleared from every imputation of blame; and having
been employed to preach at court, he made so favourable
an impression on the young king that he expressed his an¬
xiety to promote him in the church. It was resolved by
the council that during the following year he should preach
in London and the southern counties. Having returned for
a short time to Newcastle, he accordingly repaired to the
p
A'
KNOX.
jx. metropolis in the beginning of April 1553. Archbishop
—^ Cranmer had previously been directed by the council to
present him to the rectory of All- Hallows ; but Knox de¬
clared that in the existing state of the church he could not
conscientiously accept of any preferment. He was again
summoned before the council, where he gave an unreserved
explanation of his sentiments on that subject. Nor could
the promise of much higher promotion induce him to dis¬
regard the admonitions of a scrupulous conscience: the
king, with the advice of his council, made him an offer of
a bishopric ; but instead of availing himself of so favour¬
able an avenue to worldly honours, he declared the office
of a bishop, as exercised in the English church, to be des¬
titute of divine authority. It is sufficiently evident that he
considered that establishment as but imperfectly reformed
from the errors of popery ; and that, in his estimation, the
new prelacy, retaining all the proud trappings, as well as
the political character of the old, was very widely removed
from the simplicity of an evangelical church. The pre¬
mature death of the king, on the 6th of July 1553, was
fatal to the further progress of reformation, and a cloud of
spiritual darkness again overshadowed the land.
During his residence at Berwick, Knox had formed a
lasting attachment to Marjory Bowes. Her father was
Richard, the youngest son of Sir Ralph Bowes of Streat-
lam; her mother was Elizabeth, a daughter and coheiress
of Sir Roger Aske of Aske. The match was cordially ap¬
proved by the mother of the young lady, but having been
opposed hy her father, it was not concluded till after a con¬
siderable interval. After the king’s death, he had some in¬
tention of settling at Berwick, or in the immediate neigh¬
bourhood ; but he speedily discovered that he could not
safely reside in a kingdom ruled by so bigoted and cruel a
sovereign. He therefore sailed for France, and landed at
Dieppe on the 20th of January 1554. Having lingered
there till the last day of February, he pursued his solitary
way through France, and arrived in Switzerland ; but in the
beginning of the ensuing month of May, he retraced his
steps to Dieppe with the view of obtaining intelligence from
his friends in England. At that period, the intercourse
between different countries was slow and precarious; nor
was this the only occasion on which he returned to the
same place for the same purpose. While he continued to
reside on the continent, he received remittances from his
friends in Scotland as well as in England, but his provision was
neither certain nor ample. Geneva became for some time
the chief place of his abode, and here his exile was cheered
by the friendship of one of the most illustrious men of the
age. Calvin had now attained to the summit of his reputa¬
tion. They embraced the same opinions with respect to the
leading doctrines of the Christian faith, and in their per¬
sonal character they exhibited several conspicuous points
of resemblance. In their notions of ecclesiastical polity
they preserved the same agreement; and the authority of
Knox, supported by that of Calvin, has contributed to esta¬
blish in this country a simple mode of discipline and wor¬
ship, to which our ancestors adhered with unconquerable
resolution, and in support of which many of them were
found ready and willing to shed their blood.
The leisure which he enjoyed at Geneva was profitably
spent in study, to which he devoted himself “ with all the
ardour of youth, although his age now bordered upon fifty.
It seems to have been at this time that he made himself
master of the Hebrew language, which he had no oppor¬
tunity of acquiring in early life.” Many pious and learned
men had now been driven from England by the unrelent¬
ing cruelty of Queen Mary, and most of them sought refuge
in the protestant states of Germany and Switzerland.
Those who resorted to the imperial city of Frankfort, were
allowed the joint occupancy of a place of worship ; and it
was unanimously resolved to discontinue the use of the
749
surplice, the litany, the audible responses, and some other Knox.
superfluities which might rather excite the surprize than' "
the approbation of their foreign brethren. Having deter¬
mined to elect three pastors, they sent a letter of invitation
to Knox, subscribed by twenty-one of their number, at the
the head of whom stands John Bale, the exiled bishop of
Ossory. It was not without some degree of reluctance that
he consented to leave his retreat at Geneva; he however
repaired to Frankfort in the month of November 1554, and
entered upon the duties of his new charge, but his con¬
nexion with this congregation proved a source of great
uneasiness and mortification. Various dissensions which
arose among its members, were chiefly occasioned by a dif¬
ference of opinion as to the propriety of adhering to the
English service; and those dissensions were greatly fo¬
mented by Dr Cox, who had been preceptor to King Ed¬
ward, and who afterwards became bishop of Ely. In the
progress of the controversy, Knox appears to have acted
with dignity and moderation, but the ardent votaries of the
liturgy were not easily diverted from their purpose; for
when all other expedients failed, two of their number, with
the approbation of others, sought a private interview with
the magistrates, and accused him of treason against the
emperor Charles, his son Philip, and his aunt the queen
of England. This extraordinary charge was founded upon
certain passages in his tract published in 1554, under the
title of “ A Faythfull Admonition unto the Professours of
Gods Truthe in England.” Of the futility of such an ac¬
cusation the magistrates were sufficiently aware ; but they
nevertheless deemed it advisable for him to withdraw from
Frankfort, and he availed himself of the suggestion which
they conveyed to him. On the evening of the 25th of
March 1555, he delivered a farewell discourse to about fifty
members of the congregation; and on the following day
they accompanied him several miles on his journey. He
immediately returned to Geneva, and he experienced a
cordial welcome from Calvin. There he continued till the
month of August, when he again proceeded to Dieppe; and
having embarked in a vessel bound for Britain, he landed
near the eastern border of the two kingdoms about the end
of autumn. On reaching Berwick, he found his wife and
mother living in comfortable circumstances. With them
he remained for some time, and afterwards pursued his
journey to Edinburgh, where he took up his abode with a
citizen named John Syme, to whose house the friends of
reformation repaired as soon as they were aware of Knox’s
arrival. I
Notwithstanding the rigour of the penal laws, the vo¬
taries of the protestant cause were not entirely extirpated
or dispersed. The queen dowager, Mary of Loraine, hav¬
ing succeeded in her attempt to supplant the earl of Ar¬
ran, had been appointed regent on the 10th of April 1554.
She was sufficiently disposed to continue the corruptions of
the church, but several prudential considerations restrain¬
ed her from pursuing more violent measures. Some of the
protestants who were driven from England by the atro¬
cities of Mary, a worthy daughter of Henry the Eighth,
were permitted to live in Scotland without molestation,
and even to meet, though with some degree of privacy, for
the purpose of worshipping God according to the dictates
of their own conscience. William Harlow, who afterwards
became minister of St Cuthbert’s, is mentioned as the first
preacher who returned from the south at this critical period ;
and, in different parts of the country, he continued his mi¬
nistrations till the final establishment of the reformation.
His endeavours were ably seconded by John Willock, whom
Knox found residing at Edinburgh as an envoy from Anne
duchess of Friesland; for he had been entrusted vrith a
commission for arranging the commercial relations between
the two countries. He was born in Ayrshire, and had ori¬
ginally been a Franciscan friar ; but speedily quitting his
750 K N
Knox, monastery and renouncing the mass-book, he sought refuge
in England, where he was appointed chaplain to the duke of
Suffolk. After the death of the young king, he was again
compelled to change his place of residence, and he then
settled in the town of Embden, and followed the practice of
physic. He thus, became known to the duchess, who was
favourably inclined to the reformation of religion ; and his
mission to his native country afforded him peculiar oppor¬
tunities of promoting that cause in which he felt so deep
an interest. He became known to the leaders of the pro-
testant party, who privately resorted to him from the de¬
sire of religious edification. At this period, few indivi¬
duals had openly renounced the Romish creed ; and of those
who were most inclined to the protestant doctrines, very
few had ventured to discontinue their attendance at mass.
Knox was deservedly scandalized at this want of firmness
and consistency : a meeting, attended by William Mait¬
land of Lethington and other leaders of the party, was held
for the avowed purpose of discussing the lawfulness of such
compliances ; and Knox succeeded in his attempt to con¬
vince them that all participation in the worship of the Ro¬
mish church was to be avoided by those who were convin¬
ced of her gross errors. Nor were his exertions confined
to the metropolis. He accompanied John Erskine of Dun
to his seat in the neighbourhood of Montrose ; and during
a visit of a month he preached every day, being attended
by the principal persons of the adjacent district. On his
return to the south, we find him residing at Calder-house,
the seat of Sir James Sandilands, afterwards Lord Tor-
phichen, an early, zealous, and consistent friend of the re¬
formation. In the hall of this baron, who was preceptor
in Scotland of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, he
preached and administered the communion. Here his mi¬
nistrations were attended by several persons of distinction;
and among these were Archibald, Lord Lome, afterwards
earl of Argyle, John, Lord Erskine, afterwards earl of
Mar, and James Stewart, prior of St Andrews, afterwards
earl of Moray ; all of whom received religious impressions
which influenced the future course of their lives. Early
in the subsequent year, 1556, he was accompanied to the
district of Kyle by Lockhart of Bar and Campbell of Kine-
ancleuch. This division of Ayrshire had been the prin¬
cipal seat of the Lollards in Scotland, and it then contain¬
ed many friends of the purer religion. They were not
therefore unprepared for his reception: he preached not
only in the town of Ayr, but likewise in the houses of Bar,
Kineancleuch, Carnell, Ochiltree, and Gadgirth, and in se¬
veral of these places the holy communion was now dispensed.
Before Easter, he paid a visit to Finlayston, the residence of
Alexander earl of Glencairn, one of the most strenuous friends
of the reformation. In this baronial castle he also preach¬
ed and administered the sacrament. Returning to Calder-
house, he next determined to visit his friends in the north ;
and during his second residence at Dun, he was embolden¬
ed to preach in a more public manner. Many gentlemen
of that vicinity made an open profession of the reformed
faith ; and, in order to strengthen their cause, they entered
into a solemn engagement to renounce the communion of
the popish church, and, to the utmost of their ability, to.
O X.
promote the pure preaching of the gospel. “ This,” says Knox. ^
Dr M‘Crie, “ seems to have been the first of those reli-s—''
gious bonds or covenants, by which the confederation of
the protestants in Scotland was so frequently ratified.”
As he now begun to preach more openly, the ecclesias¬
tics felt a natural alarm for the safety of a tottering church ;
and the friars testified their zeal by urging the bishops to
proceed with rigour against such an offender. He was ac¬
cordingly cited to appear before an assembly of the clergy,
to be held at Edinburgh in Blackfriars church, on the 15th
of May; but when they found that he did not shrink from
this discussion, and that he was supported by some persons
of influence, they sought a pretext for superseding the cita¬
tion, on the ground of its informality. On the very day
which had been appointed for his appearance, he preached
in the bishop of Dunkeld’s house to a much larger auditory
than had previously attended him in Edinburgh ; and dur¬
ing the ensuing ten days, he regularly preached twice a-day
in the same place, without being exposed to any molesta¬
tion. About this period the Earl Marischal attended one
of his evening discourses ; and it may be regarded as a
proof of his favourable impression that he united with the
earl of Glencairn in an earnest request, that Knox would
address to the queen regent such a letter as might in¬
duce her to extend her protection to the protestant
preachers. A letter was accordingly addressed to her, and
it was delivered by the earl of Glencairn, but it does not
appear to have produced any change in her sentiments.
This letter he afterwards published, with some additions.
In the mean time he received from the English congre¬
gation at Geneva an invitation to become one of their
pastors. He readily listened to their call, and made ar¬
rangements for removing thither, accompanied by his wife,
as well as by her mother, who had now lost her husband.
He embarked them on board a vessel bound for Dieppe,
and paid another visit to the several places where he had
disseminated the truth of the gospel. He visited the earl
of Argyle at Castle Campbell, and there he repeatedly
preached to such an auditory as could be assembled. Hav¬
ing thus made no inconsiderable progress in preparing his
countrymen for a more general reception of the reformed
doctrines, he took his leave in the month of July 1556, and
joining his family at Dieppe, he again directed his course
to Geneva. His colleague in his new office was Christo-
pher Goodman, B. D., an Englishman, who afterwards be¬
came a clergyman of the church of Scotland.1 Their con¬
gregation chiefly consisted of the exiles who had withdrawn
from Frankfort in consequence of the dissensions already
mentioned. The two pastors lived together on terms of
the greatest cordiality. Knox likewise enjoyed the friend¬
ship of Calvin and Beza; and the two years which he spent
in this vocation are described as the most tranquil of his
public life. At this period was published a directory for
worship and discipline, frequently described as the Order of
Geneva; but it had been composed at Frankfort by Knox,
Whittingham, Fox, Gilby, and T. Cole. The same direc¬
tory was afterwards adopted by the reformed church of
Scotland.2
When the Scotish clergy were apprized of his having
1 Brook’s Lives of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 123.
- the Forme of Prayers and Ministration of the Sacraments, &c. vsed in the Englishe Congregation at Geneua, and approued bv
the famous and godly learned man, lohn Caluyn. Imprinted at Geneva by lohn Crespin, 1556, 8vo. This part of the volume con¬
sists of 93 pages; which are followed by “ One and fiftie Psalmes of David in Englishe metre, wherof 37 were made by Thomas
Sternehold, and the rest by others. Conferred with the hebrewe, and in certeyn places corrected as the text and sens of the Pro-
phete required,” Next follows*1 Ihe Catechisme, or manner to teach e children the Christian religion, wherin the Minister de-
mandeth the question, and the childe maketh answere. Made by the excellent Doctor and Pastor in Christes Churche, lohn Cal-
uin.” The first Scotish edition, which contains some modifications and considerable additions, bears the subsequent title: “ The
Forme of Prayers and Ministration of the Sacraments, &c. vsed in the English Church at Geneua, approued and receiued by the
Churche of Scotland : whereunto besydes that was in the former bokes, are also added sondrie other prayers, with the whole Psalmes
of Dauid in English meter.” Printed at Edinbvrgh by Robert Lekprevik, 1565, 8vo. The Catechisme has a separate title, bearing
the date of 1564. Of this work there are many other editions, several of which were printed in Holland. One edition is entitled
KNOX.
751
)X. quitted the kingdom, they renewed the citation for his ap-
—^pearance; and those who had no inclination to encounter
such a disputant, now found themselves at liberty to pro¬
ceed against him as a contumacious heretic. He was ac¬
cordingly condemned to suffer death by fire; and as the
sentence could not be executed on his person, it was exe¬
cuted on his effigy, which was in due form committed to
the flames at the cross of Edinburgh. From this sentence
he prepared an appeal, which was afterwards printed under
the title of “ The Appellation of John Knoxe from the
cruell and most unjust sentence pronounced against him by
the false Bishoppes and Clergie of Scotland.” In the course
of the year w hich followed his return to Geneva, two citi¬
zens of Edinburgh, James Syme, and James Baron, were
the bearers of an invitation for him to resume his evange¬
lical labours in his native country. They were furnished
with credentials from the earl of Glencairn, and the lords
Erskine, Lome, and James Stewart. After consulting Cal¬
vin and the other ministers of Geneva, he determined to
devote himself to this honourable and dangerous service;
and he again pursued his way to Dieppe, where he arrived
in October 1557. He had however the mortification of
receiving letters which entirely disconcerted his plan; for
he was informed that some of the protestants already re¬
pented of the invitation which had been sent to him, and
that the great body of them seemed to waver in their pur¬
pose. He lost no time in addressing a letter to the noble¬
men who had subscribed the credentials ; and it may easily
be supposed that he did not fail to upbraid them for their
want of firmness and consistency. In a similar strain, he
likewise wrote to Erskine of Dun, Wishart of Pittarow, and
to some other individuals of the protestant party. He lin¬
gered in France to await the course of events; and as he
was familiarly acquainted with the French tongue, his ta¬
lents as a preacher were not in the mean time unemployed.
About this period, he paid a visit to Lyon, and he is known
to have preached at Rochelle. A protestant congregation
had recently been formed at Dieppe; and he was now
elected one of its pastors, being associated with Delaporte.
So successful were their exertions, that some of the principal
persons of the town were induced to renounce popery, and
a general improvement began to be produced in the morals
of the inhabitants. Discouraged by the aspect of affairs in
Scotland, he at length determined to revisit Geneva, where
he again made his appearance in the beginning of the year
1558. It was at this period that some of the most learned
members of his congregation were engaged in preparing an
English version of the Bible, and he is said to have had some
share in so laudable an undertaking.1 The New Testament
was printed at Geneva in 1557, and the entire Bible in 1560.
This version, commonly called the Geneva Bible, is allowred
by competent judges to possess great merit; and, in the opi¬
nion of Dr Geddes, it is generally superior to the version
executed under the authority of King James. Of the for¬
mer version, says Dr M‘Crie, it is evident that his transla¬
tors made great use; “ and if they had followed it still
more, the version which they have given us would, upon
the wdiole, have been improved.”
In the course of the year 1558, Knox published three
different works. One of these was the Appellation. Ano¬
ther, which has also been mentioned in a former page, was
“ The copie of a Lettre delivered to the Ladie Marie, Re¬
gent of Scotland.” The third and most remarkable of Knox.
these tracts bears the title of “ The first Blast of thev ,—
Irumpet against the monstruous Regiment of Wemen.”
This anonymous work, directed against the political go¬
vernment of females, attracted a very considerable degree
of attention. It was speedily answered by John Aylmer,
who in due time became bishop of London. The doctrine
of Knox as to the inexpediency of female rule was after¬
wards controverted by David Chalmers of Ormond, and by
John Lesley, bishop of Ross. Whatever opinion may be
formed of his theory, it must at least be admitted that, ei¬
ther in England or Scotland, he had seen nothing to recon¬
cile him to the practice ; and, in one of those countries, the
regimen of a woman might with too much justice be term¬
ed monstrous. His literary labours were interrupted by
the renewal of an invitation from the Scotish protestants;
and at the beginning of the year 1559, he bade a final
adieu to Geneva, having previously been presented with
the freedom of the city. Leaving his family behind, he
once more proceeded to Dieppe, where he arrived in the
month of March; and having ascertained that he would
not be permitted to pass through England, he embarked
for Leith on the 22d of April, and was safely landed on
the 2d of the following month.
The popish church of Scotland was now approaching its
crisis, which the presence of Knox had no small tendency
to hasten. The queen regent, who for some time thought
it necessary to dissemble her real sentiments, had lately
evinced a fixed resolution to oppose the reformation with
all the weight of her authority; and the fires of persecu¬
tion had been rekindled by Hamilton, the profligate arch¬
bishop of St Andrews. Walter Mill, a venerable priest,
who had attained the age of eighty-two, was brought to the
stake on the 28th of August 1558. This atrocious execu¬
tion had such an effect in rousing the popular indignation,
that the dread of the civil or ecclesiastical authority could no
longer restrain the people from making an open avowal of
their adherence to the reformed doctrines; while their spi¬
ritual guides, Harlow, Douglas, Methven, and a few others,
began, with less fear of detection, to preach and to admi¬
nister the sacraments. In the month of October, Willock
again returned from Embden, and brought a new acces¬
sion of talent and zeal. The death of the English queen,
which took place on the 17th of November 1558, was ano¬
ther event that produced considerable influence on the
affairs of the neighbouring states. The queen regent was
however prepared to adopt the most violent measures. Se¬
veral of the preachers, Willock, Harlow, Methven, and
Christison, were cited to appear at Stirling before the high
court of justiciary on the 10th of May, that is, eight days
after Knox’s return; and very soon after his arrival had
been announced to Mary, he was proclaimed a rebel and
an outlaw. The four preachers were outlawed for non-ap¬
pearance, and a fine was levied on their sureties. After
remaining a single day in the metropolis, he hastened to
Dundee, where the chief protestants of Angus and Mearns
were then assembled. They proceeded to Perth, and there
he preached a sermon against the idolatry of the mass and
of image-worship. After the conclusion of the service, a
riot was casually excited among the common people; and,
before it was terminated, the monasteries of the Dominican
and Franciscan friars, with that of the Carthusian monks,
“ The CL. Psalmes of David in prose and meeter: with their whole vsuall Tunes, newly corrected and amended. Herevnto is
added the whole Church Discipline, with many godly Prayers, and an exact Kalendar for xxv. yeeres: and also the Song of Moses in
meeter, neuer before this time in print.” Edinburgh, printed by Andro Hart, anno 1615, 8vo. Instead of Calvin’s Catechism, this
edition includes “ A Catechisme of Christian Religion. Appointed to be printed for the vse of the Kirke of Edinbvrgh.” A more
recent edition bears the title of “ The Psalmes of David in prose and meeter : with their whole Tunes in foure or mo parts, and
some Psalmes in Reports. Whereunto is added many godly Prayers and an exact Kalendar for xxv. yeeres to come.” Printed at
Edinburgh by the Heires of Andrew Hart, anno Dom. 1635, 8vo.
1 See Archbishop Newcome’s Historical View of the English Biblical Translations, p. 68. Dublin, 1732, 8vo.
K N O X.
752
Knox, were totally demolished. The queen, who was probably
v y-—glad of such a pretext, collected a considerable army, and
advanced upon Perth; but she found the protestants so
well prepared for resistance, that she did not hazard an at¬
tack. She proposed and ratified terms of accommodation,
which she speedily shewed a strong disposition to disregard.
In order to ascertain the strength of their party, and to con¬
solidate its union, they formed a religious bond or cove¬
nant, which received many signatures in different parts of
the kingdom. From this period, they began to be distin¬
guished by the name of the Congregation, and their noble
leaders were commonly described as the Lords of the Con¬
gregation.
On his return from Perth, he preached at Anstruther
and Craill. Disregarding the admonitions of his friends,
and the threats of the archbishop, he next preached in the
cathedral of St Andrews, having selected the appropriate
subject of our Saviour’s driving the profane traders from
the holy temple. On the three ensuing days he lifted up
his warning voice in the same place ; and so signal was the
success which attended his efforts, that the magistrates and
the inhabitants resolved to establish the reformed worship
in that city; the pictures and images were removed from
the churches, and, on the 14th of June, the monasteries
were defaced. He reached the capital in the end of the
same month: on the day of his arrival he preached in St
Giles’s, and on the following day in the Abbey church. On
the 7th of July, the body of the protestant inhabitants of
Edinburgh elected him as their minister, nor did he decline
the invitation. His wife followed him from Geneva; and
her mother, after visiting her relations in England, likewise
came to end her days in Scotland. But he was soon dis¬
turbed in his new functions, in consequence of the military
occupation of the city by the troops of the queen regent.
He now made an extensive circuit in the southern and
eastern districts of the kingdom, visiting Kelso, Jedburgh,
Dumfries, Ayr, Stirling, Perth, Brechin, Montrose, Dun¬
dee, and St Andrews; nor can we doubt that the impres¬
sions produced by such a missionary were great and bene¬
ficial. After this period he was deeply engaged in the po¬
litical as well as the ecclesiastical transactions of the Con¬
gregation ; and the vigour of his talents, with the decision
of his character, was conspicuously displayed in the steps
which led to the establishment of the reformed religion.
Knox, as well as Willock, concurred in advising the sus¬
pension of Mary from the office of regent. For the space Knox,
of twelve months, the kingdom was infested with a civil
war, in which French and English troops supported their
respective allies. The contest, which had not been marked
by many of the usual atrocities of intestine warfare, termi¬
nated in the month of July 1560. Parliament soon after¬
wards assembled; and in the course of a few days the re¬
formed religion was established by the authority of the le¬
gislature.
Knox, after officiating for several months at St Andrews,
had returned to Edinburgh at the end of April, and conti¬
nued to exercise his functions during the siege of Leith.
Before the close of the year, he was visited with a severe
domestic affliction in the loss of his wife, who left two chil¬
dren of tender years. The young queen returned from
France on the 21st of August 1561. Not many days after
her arrival, she sent for the reformer, of whose powerful
influence she must have been fully aware ; but neither this
nor any of their subsequent interviews produced the effects
which she seems to have anticipated. Such topics as Mary
introduced he discussed with undaunted freedom, though
it cannot with justice be affirmed that he treated her with
incivility. She certainly did not overawe him with her
royal presence, or render him less disposed to use his ut¬
most endeavour in destroying the fabric of ancient supersti¬
tion. The Scotish reformation differed in many respects
from that of the neighbouring kingdom. In the one case,
the most essential trappings of a proud popish prelacy were
left uncurtailed, nor was the church sufficiently purified
from popish devices and observances.1 The sign of the
cross in baptism, with the entire apparatus of godfathers
and godmothers, some part of the funeral service, kneeling
at the communion, the power of the priest to remit or to
retain sins, and the powrer of the bishop to confer the gift
of the Holy Ghost, ought to have been left in the sole and
undisputed possession of those who still adhere to the mass
and transubstantiation. Queen Elizabeth, the head of the
church, was deeply tinctured with popery; insomuch that
she was dissatisfied with the twenty-ninth article, as imply¬
ing a denial of the doctrine of the real presence. She reluc¬
tantly permitted the crucifix and tapers to be removed from
the altar in her chapel. It seems to have been by her private
authority that a clause, unsanctioned by the convocation,
was added to the twentieth article ;2 a clause which makes
the averment that “ the church hath power to decree rites
1 The genuine high-churchmen seem to feel some lingering regret for the discontinuance of the popish prayers for the dead. “ In
truth,” says Mr Waddington, “ to pray for the souls of our departed friends is the most natural and pardonable error of piety; and
although it be dangerous and improper to inculcate as a church doctrine the efficacy of such prayers, it would neither be right to dis¬
courage their private and individual effusion, nor easy to disprove the possibility of their acceptance.” (Present Condition and Prospects
of the Greek or Oriental Church, p. 37- Lond. 1829, 8vo.) “ Some persons,’’ remarks Mr Palmer, “ will perhaps say that this sort of
prayer is unscriptural; that it infers either the Romish doctrine of purgatory, or something else which is contrary to the revealed will
of God, or the nature of things. But when we reflect that the great divines of the English church have not taken this ground, and that
the church of England herself has never formally condemned prayers for the dead, but only omitted them in her liturgy, we may
perhaps think that there are some other reasons to justify that omission.” (Origines Liturgicce, or Antiquities of the English Ritual,
vol. ii. p. 94. Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.) This work, which is learned and curious in its way, might with a considerable degree of
propriety have been entitled “ The Conformity of the Church of England with the Church of Rome.” Among other important facts,
he is pleased to state that “ the bishops who rule the churches of these realms were validly ordained by others, who by means of an
unbroken spiritual descent of ordinations derived their mission from the apostles, and from our Lord. This continual descent is
evident to any one who chooses to investigate it. Let him read the catalogues of our bishops ascending up to the most remote pe¬
riod. Our ordinations descend in a direct unbroken line from Peter and Paul, the apostles of the circumcision and the Gentiles.
These great apostles successive^ ordained Linus, Cletus, and Clement, bishops of Rome; and the apostolical line of succession was
regularly continued from them to Celestine, Gregory, and Vitalianus, who ordained Patrick bishop for the Irish, and Augustine and
Theodore for the English. And from those times an uninterrupted series of valid ordinations have carried down the apostolical suc¬
cession in our churches, even to the present day. There is not a bishop, priest, or deacon amongst us, who cannot, if he pleases,
trace his own spiritual descent from Saint Peter and Saint Paul.” (Yol. ii. p. 249.) To this last assertion it is only necessary to
oppose another; namely, that there is not a single bishop, priest, or deacon, who can trace his own spiritual origin for one half of the
requisite period. But what advantage could possibly result from their tracing it with the utmost certainty ? Till they make an unequi¬
vocal display of their miraculous powers, we must totally disregard their extraordinary pretensions. By arguments equally logical
and cogent, the bishop of Rome undertakes to prove that he inherits all the spiritual gifts and graces of St. Peter, and to these is
fully entitled to add all the temporal power and possessions to which he can extend his impious hand. This delirious dream of apos¬
tolical succession is disgraceful to the protestant name; and all those whom it bewilders would best maintain their consistency by
returning to the bosom of their mother chruch.
? See Archdeacon Blackburne’s Confessional, p. 368, and Dr Lamb’s Historical Account of the thirty-nine Articles, p. 33. Cam¬
bridge, 1829, 4to,
KNOX.
j ox- or ceremonies, and authority in controversies of faith.” The
- —^ king or queen superseded the pope as head of the church ;
and thus a protestant body might have, and in more instances
than one has actually had, a popish head. Pluralities and
non-residence, two manifest remnants of popery, have been
closely interwoven with an establishment, in which the idle
splendour of one class of ecclesiastics is placed in so inde¬
cent a contrast with the laborious poverty of another.1
At this period, the metropolis of Scotland contained only
one parish church. Knox was at first assisted by a reader,
named John Cairns. It was then his regular practice to
preach twice every Sunday, and thrice on other days of the
week; but in the year 1563, John Craig, minister of Ca-
nongate, was appointed his colleague. In 1562, he had for
three successive days been engaged at Maybole in a pub¬
lic disputation with Quintin Kennedy, abbot of Crossrag-
well ; and in the course of the following year, an account
of it was printed at Edinburgh, under this title: “ Heir
followeth the coppie of the Ressoning which was betuix
the Abbote of Crosraguell and John Knox.” Another learn¬
ed catholic, Ninian Winzet, addressed to him a “ Buke of
fourscoir thre Questionis,” to which it was his intention to
publish an answer, though he seems to have been prevent¬
ed by his other avocations, which were sufficiently nume¬
rous. After this period he incurred the hot indignation of
the queen for having, in one of his public discourses, ani¬
madverted with great freedom on her intended marriage.
During one of their interviews, she wept bitter tears of
anger; and some modern historians have been not a little
scandalized at his want of gallantry. In the month of De¬
cember 1563, he was summoned before the privy council
on a charge of high treason, for having written a circular
letter to the protestant gentlemen, in reference to the trial
of two persons who had been indicted for a riot in the cha¬
pel royal. Of this charge he was fully acquitted, to the great
disappointment of Mary and the popish party.
After having continued a widower for more than three
years, he married Margaret Stewart, daughter of the good
Lord Ochiltree. This marriage took place in March 1564,
when he had attained the age of fifty-nine. The noble fa¬
mily with which he thus became connected was descended
from Robert duke of Albany, second son of King Robert
the Second. Knox was again brought before the privy
council, for having, in a sermon preached in St Giles’s on
the 19th of August 1565, used certain expressions, or ra¬
ther quoted certain texts, which gave great offence to the
king, who was present, and applied them to himself. He
was for a short time prohibited from preaching. Early in
the following year, Mary subscribed the catholic league
for the extirpation of the protestants ; and if she had not
been controlled by several prudential considerations, she
seemed sufficiently prepared to adopt extreme measures.
When she returned from Dunbar, soon after the death of
Rizzio, he retired from Edinburgh, and sought refuge in
Kyle ; nor does he appear to have resumed his pastoral
care till after the final overthrow of her authority. To¬
wards the close of the year he prepared to visit England,
where his two Sons wrere residing with some of their mo¬
ther’s relations for the purpose of receiving their education.
753
He appears to have returned home soon after the queen Knox,
had plunged herself into ruin by her marriage with Both-
well. He was a member of the general assembly convened
at Edinburgh on the 25th of June 156? ; and he preached
a sermon at the coronation of the young king, which took
place at Stirling on the 29th of the ensuing month. The
assassination of the regent Moray, and the civil troubles
which ensued, depressed his mind and affected his health :
in October 1570 he felt a stroke of apoplexy, which how¬
ever was of so mitigated a kind that he was able to appear
in the pulpit; but his strength was greatly impaired by his
unceasing exertions, and he never recovered any consider¬
able degree of vigour. Before the end of that year, the
freedom of his animadversions in the pulpit gave such deep
offence to Kircaldy, governor of the castle, that at length
he found it expedient to change his habitation. He quit¬
ted the metropolis on the 5th of May 1571, and retired to
St Andrews, the scene of his early labours. Here in the
following year he published “ An Answer to a Letter of a
Jesuit named Tyrie.” In a state of great debility he re¬
turned to Edinburgh towards the end of August 1572;
and on the 24th of November he closed his most laborious
and most honourable career, after having attained the age
of sixty-seven. He left two sons by the first, and three
daughters by the second marriage. Both his sons stu¬
died at St John’s College, Cambridge, and both of them
became fellows. Nathaniel, the elder of the two, took the
degree of A. M., and died in the year 1580. Eleazer, the
younger son, proceeded B. D., and was one of the preachers
of the university. Having been collated to the vicarage of
Clacton-Magna, he died in 1591, and was buried in the
college chapel. The three daughters, named Martha, Mar¬
garet, and Elizabeth, were married to three clergymen,
James Fleming, Zachary Pont, and John Welsh. The
widow of Knox became the wife of Sir Andrew Ker of Fa-
dounside, who is described as a strenuous supporter of the
reformation.
The vigorous and ardent mind of Knox was lodged in a
diminutive and feeble body, which had been wasted by va
rious hardships, and by intense mental exertion. His na¬
tural talents were improved by no mean attainments of
learning, and he was eminently distinguished by an impe¬
tuous and impressive eloquence, which gave him a great
ascendency among his countrymen. That he was a man
of fervent and habitual piety, will not be disputed by any
one whose prejudices do not prevent him from forming a
correct estimate of his character. From an early period
of his life, he devoted his entire energies to the best of all
causes; and, in the hand of Providence, he was the great
instrument which rescued his countrymen from the fangs
of papal tyranny and superstition; nor is any other name
entitled to be mentioned with equal honour in the annals of
Scotish history. Of civil as well as ecclesiastical tyranny
he was a decided enemy; and his writings contain some
bold speculations on the subject of government. No man
was more upright in his intentions, or more disinterested
in his motives. That the impetuosity of his character oc¬
casionally impelled him beyond the bounds of moderation
may be fully admitted without any diminution of the re-
1 Bishop Lowth has stated that “ there were some in England who, by the pope’s authority, possessed at once twenty ecclesiastical
benefices and dignities, with dispensation moreover for holding as many more as they could lawfully procure, without limitation of
number.’’ (Life of William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, p. 28, 3d edit. Oxford, 1777, 8vo.) In what protestant country,
except England and Ireland, is the system of pluralities and non-residence maintained to any extent ? They are an intolerable nui¬
sance, which even there must very speedily be abated. Even the regius professor of divinity at Oxford is convinced that there is a
great and general “ demand ibr church reform and as Dr Burton is a man of sense as well as learning, he must likewise be aware
that, when there is a great and general demand for any commodity, it can in most cases be supplied. His notions of reform, as the
reader may easily conjecture, are not extravagant; and some of his suggestions are not deficient in worldly wisdom. It is notorious,
as he avers, that many clergymen enjoy the income of their benefices, because the presentations have been bought and sold; and c< if
any legislative enactment should reduce their incomes, the patrons must in all fairness refund part of the purchase money.’’ (Thoughts
upon the Demand for Church Reform, p. 38. Oxford, 1831, 8vo.) All the lay-dealers in such articles must therefore perceive the
dangerous tendency of a reform in the church.
VOL. XII. 5 c
754 KOI)
Knutsford spect due to his name : he was placed in a situation which
required great energy and decision ; and a person chiefly
Kodia^ distinguished by the gentler virtues, would have been very
' indifferently prepared to encounter the boisterous elements
with which he was destined to contend. It is not to be
concealed that he was not exempted from that spirit of in¬
tolerance which, in a greater or less degree, belonged at
that period to every sect and denomination of Christians.
He was as little disposed to tolerate the mass as the mass-
priests were to tolerate those whom they termed heretics.
The principles of mutual toleration were little understood
or relished ; and almost every one who possessed the
power betrayed the inclination of imposing, by very un¬
gentle means, his own creed upon his neighbours.
Beside the works which have already been mentioned,
he composed various others, which are accurately enume¬
rated by his biographer. “ His practical treatises,” says
Dr M£Crie, “ are among the least known, but most valu¬
able, of his writings. In depth of religious feeling, and in
power of utterance, they are superior to any works of the
same kind which appeared in that age. The thoughts are
often original, and always expressed in a style of origina¬
lity, possessing great dignity and strength, without affecta¬
tion or extravagance.” The work by which he is best
known as an author is “ The Historic of the Reformatioun
of Religioun within the Realm of Scotland.” So early as
the year 1586, an octavo edition of it, to the extent of
twelve hundred copies, was undertaken in England by
Vautrollier, a well-known printer; but when ready, or
nearly ready for publication, it was seized by the command
of Archbishop Whitgift. Some imperfect copies, all of
them wanting the beginning and the end, have however
survived this visitation of the protestant inquisitor. An
edition was afterwards published by David Buchanan, who
has taken very unwarrantable liberties with the text.
Lend. 1644, fob Edinb. 1644, 4to. He has suppressed
various passages, and interpolated others ; and the fifth
book, which has not been found in any manuscript, is per¬
haps his sole composition. A genuine edition, “ taken from
the original manuscript in the university library of Glas¬
gow,” was at length published by Matthew Crawford, pro¬
fessor of ecclesiastical history in the university of Edin¬
burgh. Edinb. 1732, fob A collective edition of his works,
executed with fidelity and elegance, might be preferable to
any monument of bronze or marble that could be erected
to the memory of this great benefactor of his native coun¬
try. ^ (x.) _
KNUTSFORD, a town of the county of Chester, in
the hundred of Bucklow, 173 miles from London. It stands
on the river Birken, is the place where the sessions for
the county are held, and has a well-attended market on
Saturday. The principal employment is in the cotton
manufacture. It is an ancient town, said to have been in
existence in the time of the Danish king Canute, who
gained a victory, and gave its name, Canute’s Ford, to the
place where his army passed. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 2052, in 1811 to2114, in 1821 to 2753, and in
1831 to 2823.
KODIAK, an island on the west coast of North Ame¬
rica, about fifty miles from the entrance into Cook’s In¬
let. It is about sixty miles in length, and, along with the
smaller island of Atognak, is separated from the continent
by the Straits of Cheligoff. The natives are robust, ac¬
tive, and well skilled in all the arts connected with fish¬
ery. They have an ingenious manner of constructing
their boats, which are almost entirely covered with lea¬
ther. The port of St Paul’s on this island was long the
chief seat of the trade of the Russians with north-western
America. The natives having been found extremely ser¬
viceable, were removed in great numbers to the other Rus¬
sian settlements along the coast.
K O K
KOEI-TCHOO, a province of China, situated near the Koe:
south-western extremity of the empire, bordering on Yu- Tchoo
nan. It is of a much more unequal surface than the rest 1
of the empire, and full of precipitous mountains, inhabited
by barbarous and independent races, from whom the Chi-
nese emperor is scarcely able to collect the moderate tri¬
bute which he exacts, even by the aid of all the forts and
garrisons which he is obliged to maintain. The moun¬
tains yield gold, silver, copper, and mercury. Sir George
Staunton estimates the population at 9,000,000.
KOEI-TCHOO-FOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
in the province of Setchuen. It is situated on the great
river Yang-tse-kiang, and has a very extensive trade.
The neighbouring country is mountainous, but is highly
cultivated, and abounds in fruit. Long. 109. 50. E. Lat.
31. 9. N.
KCEMPFER, Engelbert, was born in 1651 at Lemgow,
in Westphalia. After studying in several towns, he went
to Dantzig, where he gave the first public specimen of his
proficiency, in a dissertation De Majestatis Divisione. He
then went to Thorn, and thence proceeded to the university
of Cracow, where he took his degree of doctor in philosophy;
after which he went to Konigsberg in Prussia, and staid
there four years. He next travelled into Sweden, where
he soon began to make a figure, and was appointed secre¬
tary of the embassy to the sophi of Persia. He set out
from Stockholm with the presents for that emperor, and
went through Aaland, Finland, and Ingermanland, to Nar¬
va, where he met Mr Fabricius the ambassador, who had
been ordered to take Moscow in his way. The ambassa¬
dor having ended his negotiations at the Russian court,
set out for Persia. During their stay two years at Ispa¬
han, Dr Koempfer, whose curious and inquisitive disposition
suffered nothing to escape him unobserved, took all the
advantage possible of remaining so long in the capital of
the Persian empire. When, towards the close of 1685,
the ambassador prepared to return into Europe, Dr Koemp¬
fer chose rather to enter into the service of the Dutch
East India Company, in quality of chief surgeon to the
fleet, then cruising in the Persian Gulf. He went on board
the fleet, which, after touching at many Dutch settlements,
reached Batavia in September 1689. Dr Koempfer here ap¬
plied himself chiefly to natural history. From Batavia he
set out for Japan, in quality of physician to the embassy
which the Dutch East India Company send once a year
to the Japanese court. He quitted Japan to return to
Europe in 1692. In 1694 he took his degree of doctor of
physic at Leyden; on which occasion he communicated,
in what are called Inaugural Theses, ten very singular and
curious observations made by him in foreign countries.
He intended to digest his memoirs into proper order, but
was prevented by being made physician to the Count la
Lippe. Fie died in 1716. His principal works are,
1. Amcenitates Exotic.ce, in 4to, a work including many cu¬
rious and useful particulars in relation to the civil and na¬
tural history of the countries through which he passed ; 2.
Herbarium Ultra- Gangeiicum ; 3. The History of Japan,
in German, for which the public is indebted to Sir Hans
Sloane, who purchased for a considerable sum of money
all our author’s curiosities, both natural and artificial, as
likewise all his drawings and manuscript memoirs, and pre¬
vailed on Dr Scheuchzer to translate the Japanese history
into English.
KOHCRAAN, a district of Hindustan, in the north¬
western quarter of the province of Lahore, situated between
the thirty-third and thirty-fourth degrees of north latitude,
on the western side of the Jhylum or Hydaspes River. It
contains no town of note, and the face of the country is
extremely hilly and wild, possessed by petty chiefs, who
are tributary either to the Seiks or Afghans.
KOKAUN, an independent state of Asia, which is se-
K O L
K O M
755
!• in parated from Buckharia on the east by steep and inacces¬
sible mountains; on the south it lias the mountainous
K<; erg- tract which divides it from Buduckshang and Chitral; on
^ the south-west it is confined by Kurratageen ; on the east
and north-east by the mountains inhabited by Kirgeesh
and Kuzaks, tributary to China ; on the north-west by the
district of Tashkund, lately reduced under its authority,
with mountains and deserts. This kingdom is divided into
thirteen districts, all of which contain towns more or less
considerable. The river Sihoon or Jaxartes, which takes
its rise about four days’ journey south-east of Kokaun, di¬
vides the country into two parts. The territory of Ko¬
kaun is 200 miles in length by about 150 miles in breadth.
The general description of the country is mountainous, di¬
vided by valleys and plains, of which those near the river
Sihoon and its tributary streams are rich and fertile, and
those more removed comparatively arid and sterile. Many
villages, and a good deal of cultivated ground, are scattered
over its surface ; and many places afford rich pasture for the
flocks and herds of the tribes who wander over it. The
inhabitants are chiefly Uzbecks, who are shepherds, and
a few Tanjeks, who live in villages, and are described by
Fraser1 as a stout, fat, fair, and high complexioned people,
extremely quiet, good humoured, merry, and hospitable.
They are fond of active pursuits, such as riding, hunting,
hawking, and are more addicted to intemperance. There
are many other wandering tribes in Kirgeesh, &c. scat¬
tered over the face of the country. The winter is severe,
though there is but little snow. The summer is very hot
and parching, and there is not much rain till towards the
end of autumn. They produce a great deal of silk in the
country, which is manufactured into various fabrics. Mul¬
berry trees are planted round all the fields, and cotton is
also much cultivated. Willows, poplars, cypresses, with
all kinds of fruits known in Europe, are common here.
Sycamores are rare, but the hills are covered with lofty
pines, poplars, almond, walnut, and pistachio trees. The
name of the capital is Kokaun, which was formerly a petty
village; but, by becoming the seat of government, it has
increased so much that it now contains more than 50,000
houses. It has no wall, and water has been introduced
into most of the streets from the river Jaxartes, upon the
bank of which it is situated. The women of the towns
and villages are concealed, like those in other Mahomme-
dan states, and wear veils from head to foot. A journey
was undertaken in 1813 by M. Nazaroff, a Russian, who
travelled with the tracking caravans, and, crossing the
deserts, penetrated as far as Kokaun or Khokand, where
he was exposed to danger from the jealousy of the chiefs,
and the fanatical hatred of the people. He was at last
permitted to return to his own country.
KOLIN, a city of the circle of Kaurzim, in the Austrian
kingdom of Bohemia. It is on the banks of the Elbe,
contains 416 houses, and 4387 inhabitants, who are em¬
ployed in cotton weaving, and in iron manufactures. Near
to it is the field of battle where, in 1757, Daun defeated
Frederick of Prussia.
KOLLBERG, a city of Prussia, in the province of Po¬
merania, and the circle of Koslin. It is on the river Per-
sante, about one mile from its entrance into the Baltic.
It has some foreign trade, and considerable establishments
for building ships ; and near to it are some extensive salt¬
works, belonging to the crown. It contains four churches,
780 houses, and 7950 civil inhabitants, besides a garrison.
It is chiefly remarkable for the strength of its position, and
for its fortifications. It stands on a hill surrounded with
morasses; and the broad ditches can be with ease filled with
water from the river Persante. A strong citadel commands
the city and the entrance from the sea, and it has several
strong out-works.
trom its importance as a landing-place, it has been fre¬
quently attacked. The Russians besieged it in 1758, but
were repulsed. In 1760, it was attacked by a combined
fleet ot Russian and Swedish ships and 15,000 land troops,
but it was relieved by General Werner. Again, in the next
year, it was attacked by the Russian general Romanzoff,
with fifty-five ships of war and a powerful land force. It
was ably defended during four months, and the Russians
lost more than 3000 men in the trenches; but at length,
from want of provisions, it capitulated on the 16th De¬
cember.
Kolomea
II
Komorn.
The most distinguished defence was that in 1807, when
most of the other strong places in Prussia had surrender¬
ed to the invading armies of Bonaparte. It was attacked
by 18,000 men, commanded by Loisson, and defended by
6000 Prussians, including volunteer inhabitants. After
a siege with constant bombarding, in which the greater
part of the city was destroyed, it surrendered, having lost
1900 men. General Gniseneau, who commanded on this
occasion, first displayed his high military talents. Long.
15. 32. N. Lat. 54. 7. E.
KOLOMEA, a circle of the Austrian kingdom of Ga¬
licia, extending over 1263 square miles, and comprehend¬
ing three cities, twelve market-towns, and 204 villages,
containing 30,618 houses, with 156,614 inhabitants, of
whom 11,700 are Jews. It is an agricultural district,
yielding corn and flax in the level parts; but a large por¬
tion of it is mountainous and barren. The capital is the
city of the same name situated on the river Pruth, with
a Greek and a Catholic church, and 1890 inhabitants.
KOLUMNA, a circle in the Russian province of Mosk-
wa, which extends over 662 square miles, comprehending
one city and 269 parishes, with 65,650 inhabitants. The
capital is the city of that name, on the river Kolomenka,
which runs to the Moskwa. It contains a cathedral and
sixteen other churches, with 1150 houses, mostly of wood,
and 6340 inhabitants. There is much tallow and leather
produced, and there are manufactures of linen, silk, and
cotton goods. Long. 38. 25. E. Lat. 55. 20. N.
KOLYVAN, a province of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Tomsk, situated on the upper course of the
Obi. It is chiefly distinguished by the abundant copper
mines within its limits, containing a considerable propor¬
tion both of silver and gold. These mines were discovered
in 1727 by M. DemidofF, who, when he began to work
them in 1730, publicly extracted the copper, but was
obliged clandestinely to separate the gold. This fraud
being discovered by a German, the mines were confiscated
to the use of the government; and, according to the ac¬
counts of the board of mines, these works, from 1725 to
1786, produced about 3,500,000 pounds of silver, and
48,000 pounds of gold. The town of Kolyvan is small, si¬
tuated on the right bank of the Berda, near its junction
with the Obi. Long. 81. 50. E. Lat. 54. 48. N.
KOMORN, a circle of the province of the Farther
Danube, in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary. It ex¬
tends over 1167 square miles, comprehending one city,
five market-towns, and 156 villages and hamlets, with
12,256 houses. The inhabitants are two-thirds Catholics,
and one-third reformed Protestants. The capital is a city
of the same name, at the junction of the Vv'aag with the
Danube. It is strongly fortified, and has five Catholic,
one Lutheran, one Reformed, and one Greek church, with
1400 houses, and 11,200 inhabitants. A great part of
the city was thrown down by an earthquake in 1763, and
again by another in 1783, but the damages were speedily
1 Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, Appendix, p. 108.
756 K O N
Kong repaired. There are manufactures of woollen cloth, se-
.1! veral tanneries, and the fishery on the Danube gives em-
^onig ^rg. pipyrngnt to many persons. There is a strong fort on the
point of land where the two rivers meet. Long. 18. 2.
30. E. Lat. 47. 45. 34. N.
KONG, a kingdom of Central Africa, to the south of the
Niger, nearly midway between Ashantee and Bambarra.
According to Park, hong signifies mountain ; and the phy¬
sical aspect of the country corresponds to this, being tra¬
versed by a great central chain of mountains bearing the
same name. There is little known concerning this king¬
dom ; and it appears to be by no means so wealthy and
powerful as that of Ashantee, although the country is po¬
pulous, and abounds in horses and elephants.
KONG-CHANG-FOU, a city of China, of the first
rank, in the province of Shensi, near the western frontier.
The surrounding country is mountainous, and abounds
with the animal which produces musk. It is situated near
the head of the river Hoeiho, which falls into Yellow Ri¬
ver, and is the seat of an extensive trade. Long. 104. 19.
E. Lat. 34. 56. N.
KONGSBURG, a city of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus. It is situated on the Lovenelf, in a deep and
wild valley, which the mountain Jons Knuber, 2800 feet
high, overlooks. It contains 1500 houses, and 6800 inha¬
bitants. It was formerly the head of a mining department,
and near it the silver mines were extensively worked for
several ages, till, in the present century, it was found that
the expense exceeded the value of the gross proceeds,
and the works were abandoned. The establishment of
the cotton manufacture now gives employment to the
population, who would be otherwise in a most destitute
condition.
KONIG, George Matthias, a learned German, born
at Altorf, in Franconia, in 1616. He became professor of
poetry and of the Greek tongue there, and librarian to the
university; in which last office he succeeded his father.
He gave several public specimens of his learning, but is
principally known for a biographical dictionary, entitled
Bibliotheca Veins et Nova, 4to, Altorf, 1674; which, though
it is very defective, is still useful to biographers. He died
in 1699.
KONIGBERG, a city of the circle of Barsch or Bars,
in the Austrian kingdom of Hungary, on the river Gran.
It is in a deep valley, surrounded by three mountains. It
contains 510 houses, and 3770 inhabitants. There were
formerly mines of gold and silver, but these have ceased
for several years to be worked. Long. 18. 32. 35. E.
Lat. 42. 25. 42. N.
K O N
KONIGINGRATZ, a circle of the Austrian kingdom Konigin.
of Bohemia, extending over 1536 square miles. It con- gratz
tains forty-two cities and towns, and 810 villages and II
hamlets, with 48,250 houses, and 271,080 inhabitants. It ^onigs-
is moderately fertile, and produces corn, flax, wood, and has
good pasturage. The capital is a city of the same name,
on the river Elbe, well fortified. It contains, besides the
cathedral, six churches, two hospitals, and an orphan-house,
with 624 dwellings, and 5903 inhabitants, employed chief¬
ly in making woollen cloths. Lat. 50. 12. 38. N.
KONIGSBERG, a city of Prussia, on the river Rorike,
in the circle of that name, and in the Frankfort division of
the province of Brandenburg. It is walled, and contains
458 houses, with 4178 inhabitants, employed in making
cloth and hosiery, and in distilleries and breweries.
Konigsberg. In the recent division that has been made
of those parts of the dominion of Prussia that are out of
Germany, East Prussia has been formed into two govern¬
ments, viz. Kbnigsberg and Gumbinnen. The former of
these is composed of the territory formerly called East
Prussia, and a small part of Lithuania. It is bounded
on the north by Russia, on the east by the province of
Gumbinnen, on the south by Poland, and on the west by
the Baltic Sea and the province of Dantzic. Its extent
is 8910 square nrlas. It contains forty-eight cities or
places formerly waded, thirteen market-towns, 3717 vil¬
lages, and 76,949 houses. The inhabitants in 1826 were
683,925, of whom about 450,000 were Protestants, 110
Catholics, and the rest consisted of Jews, Moravians, and
Menonites. It is generally a level country, presenting
few elevations, and these scarcely higher than 200 feet
above the level of the sea. It is a district in which are to
be seen numerous lakes, some of great extent. The lar¬
gest of these, the Kurische-Haff, extends over 620 square
miles; and the next in size, the Frische-Haff, is upwards
of 500 miles. Besides these, there are others of various
extent, amounting in number to near five hundred. The
soil is generally sandy, but moderately productive, and
yields good crops of rye and barley, and a smalt propor¬
tion of wheat. Its breeds of sheep and cows have no¬
thing remarkable, either for their number or their quali¬
ties ; but this province has been the repository from which
the best and most numerous horses have been reared of
the whole monarchy.
The country is tolerably fertile ; and from some of the
districts of Polish Russia much corn is brought down by
the navigable rivers. The export of corn is, therefore,
one of the chief branches of commerce, and has been as
follows:—
An Account showing the Corn exported from Konigsberg in each Year from 1818 to 1831.
Y ears.
Wheat.
Quarters.
Rye.
Quarters.
Barley.
Quarters.
Oats.
Quarters.
Pease.
Quarters.
Beans.
Quarters.
Tares.
Quarters.
Hemp and
Flax Seed.
Quarters
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
31,290
12,320
28,610
15,590
5,910
4.280
10,020
8,160
14,830
37,540
95,430
76,980
75.050
75,650
84,290
73,600
67,690
14,590
1,010
10,300
3,930
6,570
6,920
72,280
129,200
81,540
250,120
160,900
44,250
29,520
8,180
2,150
2,920
240
2,980
15,310
2,010
23,320
13,460
22,720
16,870
9,880
38,590
15,130
55,650
8,640
2,000
1,160
15,660
5,930
53,210
81,800
13,680
36,600
83,100
40,920
29,530
19,910
12,100
2,334
2,080
2,150
4, ISO
7,120
8,030
5,030
9,190
4,220
23,600
15,060
1,360
410
980
560
1,070
1,300
990
4,390
4,880
780
220
9.260
7.160
9,290
5.160
2,070
1,410
3.260
18,230
24,970
18,640
31.730
3,200
12,570
10,160
22,710
27,280
28.840
37,180
38.730
18.840
K O N
l{0n slut- The other exports in one year (1831) were as follow :—
jr Bristles, 167,997 pounds; feathers, 13,860 pounds; flax,
75,230 stones; hemp, 60,276 stones ; hides and skins,
Korn tein-53^707 p0un(js. wax, 31,955 pounds; wool, 118,068
^ pounds ; linen yarn, 9000 bundles. The remaining ex¬
portable commodities are chiefly the produce of the ex¬
tensive forests, consisting of ship-timber, pot-ash, and tar.
These are chiefly shipped at Memel, but some at the ca¬
pital. Some portions of flax and of flax-seed are also
exported. The manufactures of the province are mere¬
ly of a domestic nature, and very inconsiderable.
Konigsberg, the capital of the province, is a city stand¬
ing on the navigable river Pregel, which empties itself
into the Frische-HaflF, about five miles below it. With
the exception of Berlin, it is the largest city in the Prus¬
sian dominions, and was formerly the capital. It is sur¬
rounded with walls defended by thirty-two ravelins, con¬
tains a royal palace, eleven Lutheran, two Reformed, one
Catholic, and one Menonite church, amongst which the
domkirch or cathedral is remarkable as containing the
remains of the most distinguished individuals. It has
several establishments for benevolent purposes, especially
the great royal hospital, with nearly 1000 patients. The
houses are 4503, and the inhabitants, including troops,
63,240, of whom more than 1500 are dews. Konigsberg
is the seat of an ancient and celebrated university, con¬
taining twenty-two professors, having a botanic garden,
an astronomical observatory, and the other establishments
for the education of students in medicine, law, theology,
and philosophy. It has, besides, institutions for the earlier
stages of education. The trade is considerable, notwith¬
standing the shallowness of the river renders it necessary
to load and unload ships by the aid of lighters. The ma¬
nufactures are only for the consumption of the province.
Long. 20. 25. 1. E. Lat. 54. 42. 12. N.
KONIGSLUTTER, a city of the duchy of Brunswick,
in Germany, the capital of a circle of the same name. It
is on the river Lutter, is walled, and contains a palace of
the prince, two churches, in one of which the minster is
an ancient monument to the memory of the Emperor Lo¬
thario the Second and his empress. It contains 338
houses, and 2850 inhabitants, who carry on several exten¬
sive distilleries, and make linen and other cloths.
KONIGSTEIN, a small city of the kingdom of Saxony,
in the bailiwick of Pirna and province of Meissen, situated
on the left bank of the Elbe, and containing 190 houses,
with 1450 inhabitants. It is in that part of the kingdom
commonly called Saxon Switzerland, and is remarkable for
the impregnable fortress adjoining to it. The mountain
castle overlooks the town, on a rock whose perpendicular
face towards the Elbe is about 900 feet. It includes, on the
top of the rock, within its walls, fields, gardens, meadows,
and a wood, and a well abounding with water, 900 feet
deep, so that sufficient provision for the garrison can be
grown within itself; but there are large storehouses on
the rock, for provisions, ammunition, and all necessaries;
amongst others, two great casks of wine, capable of con¬
taining 1000 hogsheads. The casernes are bomb-proof,
and, from the nature of the rock, the castle can neither be
assailed by traverses nor by mines. In this fortress, the
jewels, money, curiosities, and archives of the crown have
been deposited in time of war, and were secure when the
capital and its palaces were occupied by Frederick of
Prussia, as well as at a more recent period, when Dres¬
den was the head-quarters of the French army, and as¬
sailed by the allied forces of Russia, Austria, Prussia,
and Sweden. The castle contains also the state-prison.
On the opposite side of the Elbe is the fortress of Lillien-
stein, on a sandy rock 1080 feet above the river. It is
now dilapidated, but was occupied by the French in
1813, who added to the works.
K O N 757
KONJEUR, a small district of Hindustan, in the pro- Konjeur
vince of Orissa, situated principally between the twenty- I!
first and twenty-second degrees of north latitude. It is Room-
bounded on the north by the districts of Singboom and
Mohurbunge, and to the south by the province of Cuttack.
It was formerly tributary to the Mahrattas, but is now oc¬
cupied by independent chiefs. It is fertilized by many
streams, but is now in a neglected state. The principal
towns are Konjeur, Ogurapoor, and Andapoorgur.
KONKODOO, one of the three independent states
into which Bambouk, a considerable territory of Western
Africa, is divided. Latadoo and Bambouk are the names
of the two other kingdoms, the latter having given its
name to the whole territory. The country is crowded with
steep mountains, composed of a species of red granite,
but they are clothed with vegetation to the very sum¬
mits ; and the villages, which are built in delightful glens,
present a most romantic appearance. Gold is distribut¬
ed in larger or smaller quantities throughout Konkodoo,
and the chief occupation of the inhabitants seems to be
the collecting of the precious metal, which they separate
from grosser matter by mechanical processes. This king¬
dom is governed by a chief; but the Siratik, the regal
title of the sovereign of Bambouk, eniovs an honorary su¬
periority.
KOOKIES, a singular race of people, who inhabit the
mountains to the north-east of the Chittagong district, in
the province of Bengal. They are little known to the
inhabitants of the plain, and are seldom seen except
when they visit the markets on the borders of the jungles
in the Runganeah and Aurungabad divisions, to purchase
salt, dried fish, and tobacco. The Kookies are a stout,
muscular race, but not tall, and have the peculiar Tartar
features of the Asiatics in the east, namely, the flat nose,
small eye, and broad, round face. They are divided into
a number of distinct communities independent of each
other, and are all hunters and warriors. Their arms are
bows and arrows, clubs and spears; and, by way of de¬
fence, they build their villages, which generally contain
from 500 to 2000 inhabitants, on the most inaccessible
hills. They are much addicted to war, in which they
are almost constantly engaged ; and, like most savages,
they prefer ambuscades and surprises to regular battle.
They are vindictive in their dispositions, and always shed
blood on a principle of retaliation. They use an intoxicat¬
ing liquor distilled from rice, which they drink at mar¬
riages, these being attended with much feasting. They
have an idea of rewards and punishments in a future
state, and they have also a saint or angel which they
worship as the mediator between them and the Deity.
They have no regular priests, and the master of each fa¬
mily instructs the children in the religious knowledge
which he thinks necessary. They sometimes engage in
war with the Choomeas; but being in great dread of
fire-arms, they are quickly driven back to their native
mountains. They are, however, a great terror to the in¬
habitants on the borders of the Chittagong district, espe¬
cially to the wood-cutters, on whom they frequently make
inroads. They subsist partly by the chase ; and they
have no religious prejudice against any animal. An ele¬
phant is considered as a great prize by them, as it affords
so great a quantity of food. Their domestic animals are
gagals, goats, hogs, dogs, and fowls.
KOOM, a city of Persia, in the province ofKoom. It
stands on an extensive plain, and on the banks of a small
river, which rises at no great distance, and is lost in the
great Salt Desert. This city w7as built by the Saracens
in the year 806, upon the site, as D’Anville supposes, of
the ancient Choana. It was erected from the ruins of
seven towns, which had composed a small sovereignty un¬
der an Arabian prince. It afterwards became one of the
758 ’ K O O
Koontas- finest cities of Persia, and was long celebrated for the
see
II
Kooran-
koo.
manufacture of silks. It was taken by the Afghans in
1722, when they invaded Persia, and completely destroy¬
ed it. Part of it has since been rebuilt, but it has still the
■ appearance of a vast ruin. There is a very beautif ul col¬
lege, with a celebrated mosque and sanctuary erected to
the memory of Fatima, the daughter of Imaun Reza. In the
mosque are still to be seen the tombs ot Sofi the hirst
and Shah Abbas the Second. The dome is lofty, and
has been gilded at the expense of the king. About ten
miles to the north of the town is a very curious hill in
the middle of the plain, called by some Nimick Koh, or
the mountain of salt, and by others Koh lalism, the
mountain of the talisman ; for, according to the tradition
of the country, no person ever succeeded in gaining its
summit. Long. 50. 29. E. Lat. 34. 45. N.
KOONTASSEE, asmall town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Gujerat and district of Morvee, near the great
marshes called the Runn. I he country in the neighbour¬
hood is in a deplorable state, and the villages nearly un¬
inhabited, owing to the tumult and confusion which per¬
vade the whole district.
KOORBAH, a town of Hindustan, province of Gund-
wana, district of Choteesgur, thirty-six miles north-east
from Ruttunpoor. Long. 83. 8. E. Lat. 22. 25. N.
KOOTAHE, or Cocoa Island, in the South Pacific
Ocean, and separated from Neootabootaboo by a chan¬
nel only three miles broad. It was discovered by Schou-
ten and Le Maire, on the 10th May 1616. Long. 173.
48. W. Lat. 15. 55. S.
KOPAUL, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
nizam, in the province of Bejapoor, and district of Gujun-
dergur. It is one of the strongest places in the south of
India. The lower fort is a semicircle at the bottom of
a steep, rocky mountain, commanded by a middle and
upper fort, the last overlooking the whole. It is chiefly
formed of one immense rock, almost perpendicular, and
of great height. In 1790, when it was possessed by Tip-
poo, it was besieged by the nizam’s army, and capitulat¬
ed after a siege of six months. It is 63 miles north-west
from Bellary. Long. 76. 6. E. Lat. 15. 28. N.
KOORANKOO, a considerable kingdom of Western
Africa. It is bounded on the west by the Bullom, Lim-
ba, and Timmanee countries; on the north by Limba,
Tamisso, and Soolimana; on the east by Kissi, the Ni¬
ger, and countries little known ; and on the south by
those countries which border on the coast. These li¬
mits include a very extensive tract of country, but the
boundary lines are somewhat indefinite; indeed they are
continually fluctuating, according to the fortunes of war
as it is practised amongst savage tribes of men. For our
knowledge of Koorankoo we are indebted to the enter¬
prise of Major Laing, by whom is was visited and has
been described. A chain of hills, sixty miles in length,
runs in a north-easterly direction throughout the whole of
the country. These are for the most part clothed at their
base with the camwood tree, which constitutes the staple
article of trade. The range is composed of micaceous
granite and mica slate, interspersed with veins of quartz and
laterite, so strongly impregnated with iron as sensibly to
affect the needle at some inches distance. The principal
rivers appear to be the Rokelle and the Kamaranka. The
source of the former is set down in Major Laing’s map as
in latitude 9. 45. north, longitude 9. 55. west, a parallel
which lies in the Soolima country. It issues from the
foot of a hill, by barometrical measurement 1470 feet
above the level of the Atlantic ; and after receiving se¬
veral tributaries, and traversing Koorankoo and other
countries, falls into the sea at Sierra Leone, to which co¬
lony it is of great importance. The Rokelle is the only
river, says Major Laing, which bears one name from the
K O O
source to the sea. The rivulets and longer streams Kooran. "
which discharge themselves into it are picturesquely koo. L,
beautiful, dashing over rugged granite rocks several bun- '
dred feet in elevation. One of the tributaries, called Ba-
Jafana, had a bed of about fifteen yards in breadth,
though only about three miles from its source, which is
in a mountain named Balakonko, where the natives pro¬
cure the camwood in great abundance. The banks of
the river are likewise lined with this wood, which grows
to the height of about sixty feet. The Tongolelle, a ra¬
pid stream about thirty yards broad, also joins the Ro¬
kelle. It takes its rise in a sort of basin, surrounded
with thick brushwood, and gives birth to a rich and lux¬
uriant growth of wild canes in its centre, affording a cool
retreat to the leopards which infest this part of the coun¬
try. To such an extent are these rapacious animals
dreaded, that Major Laing “ observed the sites of seve¬
ral towns now in ruin, the inhabitants of which had been
forced to move to the westward to avoid their attacks.”
The Kamaranka appears to be a river of the same size
and general character as the Rokelle. It has also nume¬
rous tributaries. All the rivulets running south through
the mountain chain already mentioned collect behind a
lofty hill called Botato, and fall into it. About a mile
from Nyiniah, one of the largest and best-built towns
in Koorankoo, is the source of a fine stream, which
joins the Kamaranka. The spring forms a basin ten yards
in diameter, embanked with masses of granite, and
overhung with lofty trees, clad with a foliage so thick
as to bid defiance to the rays even of a vertical sun. Ma¬
jor Laing describes the scenery in this quarter as occa¬
sionally very picturesque and beautiful. After crossing
a range of hills to the eastward of Nyiniah, there pre¬
sented itself to the eye of the traveller “ an extensive
valley, partly cultivated, and partly covered with long na¬
tural grass about five feet high, the cultivated part newly
^ wn ; lines of stately palm trees, as regular as if laid out
by art, with here and there a cluster of camwood trees,
their deep shade affording a relief to the lighter hue of
the smaller herbage ; these, with a murmuring rivulet
meandering through the centre, exhibited the appearance
of a well-cultivated and tastily-arranged garden, rather
than a tract amid the wilds of Africa ; whilst, in the dis¬
tance, mountain towered above mountain in all the gran¬
deur and magnificence of nature. There was also seen
an extensive plain covered with short, thin grass ; and our
traveller having crossed a mountain ridge which separates
the head streams of the Kamaranka, flowing southward,
from those which reach the Rokelle, he ascended a lofty
eminence called Set Wolle. The summit of} this moun¬
tain, according to barometrical measurement, was 1900
feet above the level of the sea, and the view from it was
grand and extensive in the highest degree. A capacious
circle of nearly two degrees in diameter, interrupted only
by a hill to the eastward, which rose considerably higher,
presented a landscape of the most rich and varied scenery.
Camwood is the staple article of trade, and it is sent
down the Rokelle and the Kamaranka to be bartered for
various articles, chiefly salt. There is also a considerable
advantage derived from the extensive manufacture of
cloth. The loom in which this is wove is very narrow.
The artisan sits under an open shed, from the roof of
which are suspended two frames of equal breadth with
the roof, nicely divided with perpendicular strings. * By
a motion of the feet, these are made to cross one another
alternately, and at each motion the shuttle is cast through.
In this manner of working they exhibit much dexterity,
and make good progress. Women are employed in spin¬
ning thread, but the sowing and weaving are performed
by men.
Major Laing observes, “ Koorankoo is the first country
K O O
K O 11
759
Ki 'an- to the eastward of Sierra Leone where the manufacture
1 >• of cloth is common ; but it is generally of a coarse quali-
^ ty. As the traveller advances eastward, he finds the na¬
tives improve both in the texture of the cloth and the
size of the loom. In Sangara, very large and handsome
cloths are manufactured.” The Koorankoos also cultivate
a considerable portion of their ground; and in general
intelligence and industry they rank above the neighbour¬
ing tribes. Each house has its enclosed garden, where
are raised cassada, in the cultivation of which they be¬
stow great care; spinach, small onions, and tankana, an
herb which, when dried and beaten, answers as a cheap
substitute for snuff. In religion they are for the most
part pagans, and they exercise unlimited faith in grce-
grees (a sort of protecting spirits), for whom they have
houses consecrated at the entrances of the towns. The
head men are clothed in a long gown, trousers, cap, and
sandals, but the women are contented with more scanty
habiliments. They are great adepts in the art of dress¬
ing hair, and ornament each other’s heads with great
skill. Dancing is a favourite amusement; and on the
night of a funeral, which always takes place the day af¬
ter the demise of the individual, they exhibit their skill
in this art, brandishing hatchets or spears in both hands.
The laws of this people are few and inartificial. Murder
is the only crime punishable with death, and even this
can be compensated by property.
There is a portion of the Koorankoo country inhabited
by the tribe called^the Soolimas. They have a territory of
their own, which Major Laing describes as picturesque
in the extreme, being diversified with hills, extensive
vales, and fertile meadows, belted with stripes of wood,
and decorated with clumps of trees of the densest foliage.
The soil is remarkably fertile, producing chiefly rice,
yams, which are planted like potatoes in England, and
ground nuts, which are cultivated like our field peas.
Bananas, pines, and oranges, are the principal fruits;
but the first only are found in any degree of perfection.
The Soolimas have numerous herds and flocks, and a di¬
minutive kind of poultry. The elephant, the buffalo, a
species of antelope, monkeys, leopards, and wolves, are
the wild animals. The principal towns of the Soolimas
are all situated in the Koorankoo country. These are Fa-
laba, the capital ; Sangonia, a very large town on the
borders of Footah Jallou, surrounded with a strong and
lofty wall; Semba, a large, populous, and rich town near
the southern frontier, situated on a very lofty eminence ;
Mousaiah and Koonko-doogore, a stage from Semba, in
the hills. In all, these places contain a population of about
25,000 souls. Falaba derives its name from the river
Fala, on which it stands. It is nearly a mile and a half
in length, by a mile in breadth, and closely built compar¬
ed with the generality of African towns. It was built in
1768 by the Soolima king, as a stronghold to protect him
against his enemies the Foolahs ; and the site is well cho¬
sen as a place of defence, being on a gently-rising emi¬
nence in the centre of a large plain. The town is sur¬
rounded by a strong stockade of hard wood, and a deep
and broad ditch, which renders it quite impregnable ac¬
cording to the military tactics of the Africans. It con¬
tains about four thousand circular clay huts, having py¬
ramidal roofs of thatch; and, being neat and clean, they
present a very respectable appearance. The palaver or
court-house stands in an open space, towards the south¬
ern extremity of the town, and is a place of recreation as
well as of business. In the centre of the town a large
piece of ground is left vacant, for the purposes of exer¬
cise, of receiving strangers, and of holding palavers. For¬
merly the Soolimas chiefly occupied themselves in war,
but this is less practised amongst them now than hereto¬
fore. In person they are short and muscular, and well
adapted to endure privation and fatigue. Their military
weapons are the spear, the musket, the sling, and the
bow : in the management and use of the two latter they
are most expert. Where their predatory habits do not
interfere, they seemed to Major Laing both mild and in¬
offensive in disposition. In their domestic occupations
the men and women appear to have changed places. The
men attend to the dairy ; they also sow and reap; but all
the other cares of husbandry devolve upon the female sex.
They are masons, plasterers, surgeons, and the like;
whilst the men employ themselves in sewing, and not
unfrequently in washing clothes. In religion, govern¬
ment, dress, customs, and the like, the Soolimas resem¬
ble the Koorankoos, so that these do not require a separate
description.
KOPYS, a town of the province Mohilew, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of the same name, on the river
Dnieper. It contains a Greek, Catholic, a Lutheran, and
a Unitarian church, with 3800 inhabitants. Long. 30. 10.
E. Lat. 54. 20. N.
Kopvs
l
K orna.
KORAH, a district of Hindustan, in the province of
Allahabad, situated in the doab, or the space enclosed be¬
tween the Ganges and the Jumna, and between the 26th
and 27th degrees of north latitude. The country is in
general flat, except on the banks of the Ganges, where the
villages are situated, being usually surrounded by mango
trees. I he whole territory is fertile, and in a progressive
state of prosperity, under the administration of the Bri¬
tish, to whom it was ceded in 1801. Korah is the name
of the principal town, in the province of Allahabad. The
travelling distance is sixty-seven miles from Lucknow, and
301 from Delhi. Long. 80. 40. E. Lat. 26. 6. N. This is
also the name of a village in Cutch, situated about ten
miles south from Luckput Bunder, on the road from that
place to Mandavee, a sea-por t on the Gulf of Cutch. Lat.
23. 38. N.
KORDOFAN, a country of Central Africa, situated be¬
tween the kingdoms of Darfoor and Sennaar. Little can
be said of it, except that from time immemorial an invete¬
rate animosity has subsisted between the Foorians and Kor-
dofanese, arising principally from mercantile jealousy, as
the country of the latter lies in the route to Sennaar and
Suakem, the most direct line of communication with
Mecca. The governors of Kordofan had for a long time
been deputed by the Mek of Sennaar ; but, in consequence
of the weakness and dissensions of the latter kingdom,
the power was usurped by the Foorian sultan. But the
enterprising ruler of Egypt having reduced all the pro¬
vinces of Africa as far as Sennaar, both Kordofan and
Darfoor were enumerated among the kingdoms which
now acknowledge by a tribute the conqueror of Egypt
and Arabia. The country is of an arid character, destitute
of any thing like a river or lake. The tropical rains, how¬
ever, which fall at a certain season with great violence,
inundate a considerable portion of the country, and thus,
affording moisture to vegetation, agricultural operations are
carried on. Ihese are sufficient to produce wheat, and
doku, a species of millet. The king enjoys absolute au¬
thority, but policy compels him to court his warriors, who,
like those of Bornou, are invested in chain armour. What
the number of inhabitants occupying this rude tract of
country may be, it is impossible to say.
K0RD08, the ancient Corinth, a town in European
Turkey, in the peninsula of the Morea, near the Gulf of
Lepanto. It is the seat of a great archbishop, and con¬
tained about 500 houses, with 4000 inhabitants. Lon°-.
23. 3. 10. E. Lat. 37. 55. 54. N.
KORNA, a flourishing little village of Irak Arabi. It
is situated at the confluence of the Euphrates and the
Tigris, and carries on some trade with Bassora. It was
recommended by Sir J. Malcolm as a fort which might
760 K O S
Korotscha be occupied and fortified, and from which the predatory
II . Arabs might be kept in check.
Kosci- KOROTSCHA, a city of European Russia, in the pro-
jisz 0^ vjnce 0f Kursk, the capital of a circle, and standing on a
river of the same name. It contains six churches, 1033
houses, and 9800 inhabitants. Long. 36. 57. E. Lat. 50.
45. N.
KOSCIUSZKO, Thaddeus, a Polish general, less ce¬
lebrated for his exploits than forhis attachment to the in¬
dependence of his country, was descended of a noble but
not opulent family, in the province of Lithuania. He was
educated in the school of cadets at Warsaw, and made
such progress in drawing and in mathematics, that he was
named one of four pupils destined to travel at the expense
of the state, in order to improve their talents by observa¬
tion and inquiry. He consequently repaired to France,
and having there passed several years devoted to study,
returned to his native country enriched with new acqui¬
sitions. He obtained the command of a company, and
proposed to prosecute the military profession in the Polish
army, when the consequences of an unfortunate attach¬
ment for the daughter of the Marshal of Lithuania blight¬
ed his prospects, and forced him to leave his country.
He proceeded to North America, which had just declar¬
ed itself independent; served as adjutant to General Wash¬
ington in the war which the revolted colonies had to main¬
tain against the mother country, was decorated with the or¬
der of Cincinnatus, and returned to his own country, where
he lived in retirement until 1789. About this period he was
promoted to the rank of general-major by the Diet, which
was then making vain efforts to restrain the influence of fo¬
reign powers. Kosciuszko was at that time little known; but
in 1792 the affair of Dubienka, where with four thousand
men he defended for six hours a post attacked by fifteen
thousand Russians, gained him much reputation. He
served, with equal distinction, during the whole campaign
of that year, under the young Poniatowski; but the weak¬
ness of Stanislaus rendered fruitless the most generous
efforts to maintain the independence of his country. He
submitted to the conditions which were imposed upon him
by Russia, and, under the appearance of a treaty of peace,
signed the ruin of Poland. The bravest officers of the
Polish army, unable to support the disgrace thus incur¬
red, gave in their resignation. Kosciuszko was amongst
the number; but having become an object of extreme
suspicion to the enemies of his country, he found himself
obliged to quit Poland ; a circumstance which added much
to his credit with the patriotic party, and caused him to
be declared a French citizen by the Legislative Assembly
of France. He afterwards retired to Leipzig, where his
friends in Warsaw, having decided to make a new effort
against the Russians, apprised him that he had been
chosen as their chief. Kosciuszko did not refuse the peril¬
ous honour thus conferred on him ; but, convinced that
the means which his party had at their disposal were still
insufficient, he resolved to proceed circumspectly, and, in
order to avoid suspicion, undertook a journey to Italy,
where he passed several months. At the beginning of
1794, however, having learned that it was no longer pos¬
sible to restrain the impatience of the Poles, he drew near
to the scene of approaching action, and reached Cracow
at the moment when Medalinski had raised the standard
of insurrection, and when he himself had just been declar¬
ed generalissimo of the national forces. Finding himself
thus invested with dictatorial power, in circumstances of
great difficulty, he was careful not to abuse the trust repos¬
ed in him ; and, by his conduct in every instance, he amply
justified the choice of his countrymen. Master of Cracow,
he published a manifesto, and immediately marched against
the Russians at the head of a corps of five thousand men.
He encountered the enemy, in number about ten thousand,
K O S
at Wralawice, and, after a combat of four hours, completely Kosci.
defeated them. This first success produced a general rising; uszfco.
Warsaw was delivered from the presence of the Russians;
and Kosciuszko soon saw himself at the head of an army of
fifty thousand combatants, including about twenty-five
thousand regular troops. With this comparatively small
force the Polish general-in-chief had to make head at once
against the Russians and the Prussians. Frederick Wil¬
liam II., who had just failed in his contest with the French,
appeared desirous to avenge himself for this affront on the
Poles ; and, at the beginning of 1794, he marched against
Warsaw, at the head of forty thousand men. Kosciuszko,
who, upon this point, could not oppose to him more than
fifteen thousand men, had, nevertheless, the courage to
attack him at Szezekocin, on the 8th of June 1794; but,
after a murderous combat, in which he had two horses
killed under him, he was obliged to retire to the entrench¬
ed camp that covered the capital, where, for two months,
he resisted the most impetuous attacks and reiterated as¬
saults. At the same time, he contrived to restrain and
keep in order a furious populace, prone to give way to the
greatest excesses. Scarcely had he been delivered from the
Prussians, in consequence of the diversion which the insur¬
rection of Great Poland operated in his favour, when Kos¬
ciuszko saw advancing against him the Russian army
under Suwarow, and also that commanded by Fersen. It
was in vain that he attempted to prevent the junction of
these two armies. On the 4th of October, being attacked at
Macijowice, by very superior forces, he obstinately disputed
the victory during the whole day; but at length he sank
down pierced with wounds, exclaiming, as he fell, Finis
Polonice. Fie was about to expire under the sabres of the
Cossacks, when being happily recognised, he was immediate¬
ly surrounded with the respectful attentions of his enemies.
Having been sent as a prisoner to St Petersburg, he re¬
mained two years confined in a dungeon, whence he was
not liberated until after the death of the Empress Catha¬
rine. Paul 1. immediately after his accession set him at
liberty, and loaded him with marks of esteem and regard.
The first use which Kosciuszko made of his liberty was to
proceed to England, and thence to America, where he
passed several years amongst his old companions in arms.
In 1798 he returned to France, where he was received
with much distinction, and learned that a great number of
his countrymen had enlisted under the banners of the new
republic. Those who served in the army of Italy sent him
the sabre of John Sobieski, which had been found in the
Casa di Loretto. From this time he lived either at Paris or
at a country-house which he had purchased near Fontaine¬
bleau. When Napoleon was about to invade Poland in 1807,
he wished to avail himself of the name of Kosciuszko, in
the hope of thereby inducing the people of that country
to revolt against the Russians. Rut the Polish general
had too much knowledge and experience not to divine the
object for which recourse had been had to him, and he
answered by positively refusing to comply with the impe¬
rial invitation. Nevertheless there was published in the
journals a proclamation fabricated in his name, and ad¬
dressed to the Poles. But although it was not till 1814
that he had an opportunity of denouncing this fraud, yet
the truth had long been known in Europe, and the hero
of Poland had never ceased to be an object of veneration,
even when the government of Bonaparte treated him as a
suspected person. When the Russians penetrated into
Champagne in 1814, they learned with surprise that their
ancient enemy was living peaceably in the immediate vi¬
cinity. All those who had an opportunity of visiting his re¬
treat testified their regard for him in the strongest manner;
and the Emperor Alexander himself had a long interview
with the veteran arid patriotic soldier. Nothing could in¬
duce Kosciuszko to return to his native country. In 1815
K O S
Killsk lie made a tour in Italy, and afterwards established him¬
self at Saleure in Switzerland, where he died on the 16th
Kos ima. 0f October 1817. On the intelligence of his demise, the
’■'* whole of Europe resounded with his eulogium ; amongst
all nations, and in every country, justice was equally
rendered to the brave soldier and the true patriot, who,
without any other object than the independence and
welfare of Ids country, had exposed himself to the great¬
est perils, and the most painful sacrifices. His mortal re¬
mains were interred in the cathedral at Cracow, between
those of John Sobieski and of Joseph Poniatowski, See
Poland. (a.)
KOSELSK, a city of the province of Kaluga, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of the same name. It stands at the
junction of the river Schisbra with the Uragunka, and is
the best built city of the province. It contains broad
streets, a spacious market-place, seven churches, four of
them of stone, and 559 houses, with 3800 inhabitants, who
have considerable trade by the two rivers. Long. 35. 25.
E. Lat 54. 12. N.
KOSFELD, a city, the capital of a circle of the Mun¬
ster division of the province of Westphalia, in Prussia. It
stands on the river Berkel, has a fortress adjoining, and
contains two churches, 490 houses, and, including the gar¬
rison, 5850 inhabitants. There are linen and woollen ma¬
nufactures. Long. 7. 7. 17. E. Lat. 51. 57. 10. N.
KOSLIN, a circle of the Prussian government of Pome¬
rania, which extends over 5687 square miles, comprehend¬
ing twenty-eight cities and towns, and 1196 villages and
hamlets, containing, in 1827, 303,836 inhabitants. It
stretches along the shore of the Baltic Sea. The chief
place is the city of the same name, which contains the se¬
veral boards of administration for the province, and 556
houses, with 6440 inhabitants. Long. 16. 15. 55. E. Lat.
54. 12. 7. N.
KOSLOW, a city of the Russian province Tambow, the
capital of a circle of the same name, on the river Woro-
nesh. It contains three wooden and five stone churches,
a convent, and 1237 houses, with 8060 inhabitants, who
trade in salted fish, hides, tallow, and other produce of the
soil. Long. 40. 12. E. Lat. 54. 13. N.
Koslow, a city of the Russian province of Taurien, the
capital of a circle of the same name. It stands at the
bottom of a deep bay on the Black Sea. It has been de¬
clared a free port ever since 1798, and has a quarantine
station. Large quantities of produce are shipped from it,
consisting of wheat, salt, iron, wool, linen, leather, horses’
tails and hair, hides, and tallow. It contains 928 houses,
and, according to Pallas, 11,500 inhabitants. It is consider¬
ed to be unhealthy, and the water is not very good. Long.
33. 20. E. Lat. 45. 15. N.
KOSTENDIL, a city of Turkey in Europe, the capital
of a circle of the same name, in the province of Rumili.
It is an open town, on the river Egrifu, at the foot of the
mountain of that name. It contains many warm baths,
and has a population of 8000 persons.
KOSTROMA, a province of European Russia, to the
eastward of Jaraslow, extending over 39,710 square miles.
It comprehends seventeen cities or towns, and 851 parishes,
whose population amounts to 1,422,000 souls. The nobi¬
lity are numerous, and hold two thirds of the land, and of
the peasants who work upon it. It is a level district, with
a few elevations near the banks of the rivers ; and it is in
many parts covered with forests, which yield excellent
timber. The Wolga is the chief river, and is navigable,
as are the Kostroma and the Unscha. The soil is by no
means fertile, but it produces sufficient corn for the inha¬
bitants, and is enabled to grow good flax and hemp. The
pastures maintain cattle, which furnish hides and tallow.
The rivers abound with salmon, sturgeon, and other fish.
The females spin yarn in most of the cottages, and it is
VOL. XII.
K O T 761
woven and bleached within the province. The several Kosg/ig
branches ot industry enable an exportable surplus of hemp, __ il
flax, tallow, hides, dressed leather, fish, mats, bark, tar,
soap, and some iron. The navigation of the Wolga is a
source ot commerce. The city of Kostroma, the capital
of the province, and of the circle of its own name, is at
the junction of the Kostroma with the Wolga. It is the
seat of an archbishop, and of the boards of revenue and
law; is surrounded with walls, lately converted into pro¬
menades ; and contains fifty churches, including the cathe¬
dral, an ecclesiastical seminary, a gymnasium, several hos¬
pitals, and 1057 houses, with 8200 inhabitants. The lea¬
ther made here is celebrated throughout Europe, and occu¬
pies eighteen considerable tanneries in preparing it. There
is also a trade in sailcloth and other linen. Long. 41. 7.
31. E. Lat. 57. 45. 40. N.
KOSZOG, a city of the circle of Eisenburg, in the pro¬
vince of Farther Danube, in the kingdom of Hungary. It
is sometimes called Guns, from the river of that name, on
which it is built. It has some trade in internal produc¬
tions, and contains 576 houses, with 5310 inhabitants, most¬
ly of German origin. Long. 16. 27. 58. E. Lat. 47. 22.
54. N.
KOTBUS, a city, the capital of the circle of the same
name, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the
river Spree. It is a considerable manufacturing place,
with 739 houses, and 6430 inhabitants. It has a good in¬
ternal trade by the navigable river.
KOTHEN, a city, the capital of the duchy of Anhalt-
Kothen, in Germany. It is the residence of the sovereign,
and the seat of the civil and ecclesiastical branches of the
administration. It is on the river Ziathe, which runs to
the Elbe, on a level and fertile plain. The palace is re¬
markable for its hall, decorated with the arms and the pro¬
verbs of Prince Ludwing, built in 1617. It contains 740
well-built houses, and 5500 inhabitants. It has three
churches and several public buildings, and the institutions
adapted to a contracted independent state. The trade is
mostly dependent on the wants of the court.
KOTTERUS, Christopher, was one of the three fa¬
natics whose visions were published at Amsterdam in 1657,
with the title of Lux in tenebris. He lived at Sprotta, in
Silesia, and his visions began in 1616. He fancied he saw
an angel under the form of a man, who commanded him to
go and declare to the magistrates, that, unless the people
repented, the wrath of God would make dreadful havock.
The elector palatine, whom the Protestants had declared
king of Bohemia, was introduced in these visions. Kotte-
rus waited on him at Breslau in December 1620, and in¬
formed him of his commission. He went to several other
places, and at last to the court of Brandenburg. As most
of these predictions promised felicity to the elector pala¬
tine, and unhappiness to his imperial majesty, the emperor’s
fiscal in Silesia and Lusatia got him seized, set on the pil¬
lory, and banished the emperor’s dominions. Upon this
he went to Lusatia, and there lived unmolested till his
death, which happened in 1647.
KOTOO, one of the small Friendly Islands, scarcely
accessible, owing to the coral reefs that surround it. It is
sixteen miles north of Annamooka. Long. 185. 11. E.
Lat. 19. 58. S.
KOTTIAR, a district of Ceylon, situated on the east¬
ern side of the island, between the eighth and ninth de¬
grees of north latitude. Cinnamon, betel-nuts, cocoa-nuts,
and timber, form its chief produce.
KOTTILGHUR, a fortress of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of the Northern Circars, situated on the summit of
a very high and inaccessible hill. It consists of a fort and
citadel, which is capable of making very great resistance;
though it w as taken by the British in 1817, with little re¬
sistance.
5 D
762 K O T
Kotzebue. KOTZEBUE, Augustus Frederick Ferdinand Von,
a prolific German dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
born on the 3d of May 1761, at Weimar, where his father
was a counsellor of legation. He early evinced a propen¬
sity to poetry, and, whilst yet a boy, the representation of a
play which he witnessed inspired in him such a love of the
drama as determined his future destiny. He received the
rudiments of his education at his native place, and when
he was about sixteen years of age he entered the univer¬
sity of Jena. Here he remained one year ; but certain
family circumstances occurred which induced him to xe-
move to Duisburg, where he studied for a short time
at the university, and returned to Jena in 1779. He
was destined for the profession of the law, but the mastei
passion predominated ; and in gratifying his love of the
drama, as well as literature in general, he consumed no
inconsiderable portion of his time. If at this period
he did not display great talent, he at least evinced won-
erful versatility. Tragedy, comedy, ballads, essays, and
other species of literary composition, came rapidly from
his prolific pen. Their merits, however, he himself con¬
fesses in his autobiography, were exceedingly equivocal,
although some of his plays were acted with applause. In
his nineteenth year, he closed his studies at Jena with
taking the character of an opponent at a doctor’s degree.
Soon afterwards he returned to his native place, where he
diligently applied himself to the pandects, and was ad¬
mitted as an advocate. But his addresses to the muses
were still as assiduously paid as ever; and, in the ardour of
his desire for distinction, he tried his skill in almost every
species of composition, imitating, as caprice or admiration
predominated, all the great writers of Germany, Schiller,
Goethe, Wieland, Hermes, and others.
In 1781, on the invitation, it is said, of the Prussian
ambassador, Kotzebue went to St Petersburg, where he
obtained a situation under Von Bawr, general of engineers.
The latter became his warm friend, and recommended him
to the empress, who, on the death of Bawr, which occur¬
red about two years afterwards, nominated him a counsel¬
lor. His imperial patroness first placed him in a judicial
situation at Revel, and finally appointed him president of
Esthonia, on which occasion he was ennobled. His lite¬
rary ambition kept pace with his growing fortunes, and
drama succeeded drama from his pen, with great, if not in¬
creasing rapidity. In 1790, on a journey to Pyrmont, he
published his Doctor Bahrdt with the Iron Forehead, un¬
der the name of Knigge ; a work which created a consider¬
able sensation at the time of its appearance, but by which
he lowered himself not a little in public estimation. Hav¬
ing received his dismission from the imperial service, he
retired for a time to an estate which he possessed at some
distance from Narva: but, in 1797, he returned to Wei¬
mar, with a pension of 1000 guilders. Three years after¬
wards, he was induced to pay a short visit to Russia; but
he had scarcely crossed the frontiers of the empire when
he was arrested by order of Paul I. and sent to Siberia.
This treatment of Kotzebue is said to have originated in a
suspicion of the autocrat that he was the author of some
political pamphlets, in which the emperor was personally
attacked ; but the exile was kept entirely ignorant of the
cause of his banishment. He was, however, shortly after¬
wards recalled, and, as he informs us himself, well receiv¬
ed by the emperor, who confided to his direction the
theatre of St Petersburg.
After the death of Paul I. Kotzebue returned to Wei¬
mar/and in 1802 was admitted a member of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin. Some disputes which he had with
Goethe and the Schlegels induced him to remove to Pa¬
ris, where the French literati flattered his love of adula¬
tion by the attentions which they paid him. It is not
much to his credit that he repaid their kindness by the
K O T
publication of a calumnious work entitled My Recollections Kotzebue
of Paris. The Italians were treated in the same spirit of v—
illiberality in his Recollections of Rome and of Naples.
About the end of 1803 he commenced, in conjunction
with Merakel, a journal entitled Der Freym'dthige, The
Sincere, in which Napoleon was virulently attacked. In
1806 he went again to Russia, and lived from 1807 on his
estate in Esthonia, never ceasing to write against the im¬
perial usurper of France. Literature and politics continu¬
ed to engage the pen of Kotzebue until 1813, when, as
counsellor of state, he followed the Russian head-quarters
during the campaign of that year; and, in order more ef¬
fectually to excite the nations against Napoleon, he pub¬
lished in Berlin the Russian-German National Gazette
( Volksblatt). After the affairs of Europe were decided by
the victory of Waterloo, he went to St Petersburg; but
was in 1817 commissioned by the Emperor Alexander to
return to his own country, and report upon the state of
literature and public opinion, for which he was to receive
a salary of 15,000 roubles. He who had exerted himself
so much in favour of Russia, sometimes, it is affirmed, at
the expense of his native country, was not likely to be
warmly welcomed on his return home. From the first he
was looked upon as a spy ; and the zeal which he display¬
ed in his new employment soon confirmed this opinion,
and prepared the way for his destruction. He established
a literary weekly paper, in which judgment was passed
on the publications of the day, and political opinions ad¬
vanced, at once dishonourable and obnoxious to Germany,
then awakening from its torpor, and heated with the ex¬
pectation of concessions on the part of its rulers, and by
delusive anticipations of representative systems. In his
journal Kotzebue steadily ridiculed every attempt to form
liberal institutions; and not only wTas every species of po¬
litical amelioration opposed, but a marked enmity to the
liberty of the press was exhibited. A private commu¬
nication of his to the emperor of Russia, which had been
obtained, it matters not how, was published in a German
paper, and republished throughout the country ; and its
appearance excited a strong feeling of hostility and indig¬
nation against the author. Shielded as he was by the
power of the autocrat, he found it necessary to quit Wei¬
mar for Manheim, where his literary and diplomatic la¬
bours were resumed with increased activity. Unfortunate¬
ly for him, he began to point his pen more directly against
tlie enthusiastic anticipations and theoretical notions of
liberty which had become the distinguishing characteristic
of the great mass of the students at the German universi¬
ties. A spark of dangerous enthusiasm caught the heated
and disordered mind of a young student named Sand, who
doomed the versatile dramatist and venal party writer to
the death of a Caesar, under the impression that he was only
performing an act of heroic virtue in the cause of national
liberty. Flaving obtained admission into the house of his
victim, he deliberately murdered him, on the 23d of March
1819, after which he gave himself up to justice, and suf¬
fered on the scaffold. Kotzebue was three times married,
and left thirteen children. He wrote about a hundred
dramas, the best of which are the comedies, and even
these are far from being first-rate productions. As a dra¬
matist he is more artificial than natural, and more melo¬
dramatic and picturesque than profound in the knowledge
of the human heart, or happy in the concoction of incident
or illustration of manner's. Some of his plays, however,
have been translated into English, and adapted to the
British stage with great success. His Misanthropy and
Repentance, under the title of the Stranger, is a stock
piece; and his Spaniards in Peru, or the Death of Rolla,
metamorphosed into Pizzaro by Sheridan, was the most
successful play ever produced in this country. Kotzebue
wrote a history of the German empire, and the Early His-
K O U
R R A
K
ns
]
I
ang- tory of Prussia ; but as a historian he is held in little es-
Fou teem by his countrymen. (r. r. r.)
KOUANGNAN-FOU, a city of China, of the first rank,
an> in Yunan, separated from the rest of the province by
frightful mountains. The inhabitants are stigmatised by
the Chinese as barbarous. Long. 106. 14. E. Lat. 30.
32. N.
KOUANGSIN, a city of China, of the first rank, si¬
tuated on a river which falls into the Poyang Lake. It
is surrounded by lofty mountains, and carries on consi¬
derable manufactures of paper and candles. Long. 117.
44. E. Lat. 28. 27. N.
KOUBCABEIA, a considerable town of Darfoor, in
Central Africa. It constitutes the key of the western
road through the country, and is the depot of all the mer¬
chandise brought from the west. A market is held here
twice a week, the chief medium for goods of small value
being salt. The inhabitants obtain this article by collect¬
ing and boiling the earth of those places where horses,
asses, and other animals, have long been stationary. This
market is celebrated for the quantity of tokeas, or coarse
cotton cloths, here disposed of, and for the manufacture,
if such it may be called, of leather sacks for corn, water,
and other purposes. The inhabitants are a mixture of
Foorians, who speak their own language ; Arabs, Fella-
tahs, and individuals from Bengoo, and other western
countries.
KOULI KHAN, Thamas, or Schah AWjV, was not the
son of a shepherd, as the authors of the English Biogra¬
phical Dictionary assert; his father being chief of a branch
of the tribe of Affchars, and governor of a fortress erect¬
ed by that people against the Turks. Upon his father’s
death, his uncle usurped his government, under the pre¬
text of taking care of it during the minority of Kouli
Khan, or, more properly, young Nadir. Disgust at this
affront made him commence adventurer. He entered
into the service of the beglerbeg or governor of Muscada,
in Khorassan, who, discovering in him strong marks of a
military genius, promoted him to the command of a regi¬
ment of cavalry. In 1720, the Usbec Tartars having
made an irruption into Khorassan with 10,000 men, the
beglerbeg, whose whole force consisted only of 4000 horse
and 2000 infantry, called a council of war, in which it was
declared imprudent to face the enemy with such an infe¬
rior force; but Kouli Khan proposed to march against
the enemy, and engaged to conduct the expedition, and
to be answerable for the success of it. He was accord¬
ingly made general, defeated the Tartars, and took their
commander prisoner. Hossein Beglerbeg received him
at his return with marks of distinction ; but growing jea¬
lous of his rising fame, instead of obtaining him the rank
of lieutenant-general of Khorassan, as he had promised,
obtained it for another; which so exasperated Kouli Khan,
that he publicly complained of the governor’s ingratitude
and perfidy, who thereupon broke him, and ordered him
to be punished with the bastinado so severely, that the
nails of his great toes fell off. This affront occasioned
his flight, and his joining a banditti of robbers (not his
stealing his father’s or his neighbour’s sheep). The rest
of his adventures are too numerous to be inserted in this
work. In 1729 he was made general of Persia by Schah
Thamas, and permitted to take his name Thamas, and
that of Khuli, which signifies slave. His title therefore
was The Slave of Thamas, but he was ennobled by the
addition of Khan. In 1730, he fomented a revolt against
his master, for having made an ignominious peace with
the Turks ; and having the army at his command, he
procured his deposition, and his own advancement to the
throne. In 1739, he conquered the Mogul empire ; and
from this time growing as cruel as he was ambitious, he
at length met with the usual fate of tyrants, being assas¬
sinated by one of his generals, in league with his nephew
and successor, in 1747, aged sixty.
KOUMA, a river of Asiatic Russia, which rises in the
aucasus, between the Terek and the Cuban, and, taking
an easteily course, loses itself in the sand before reaching
the Caspian Sea.
KOUMISS, a sort of Tartar wine, made of fermented
maies milk. It is used by the natives as their common
beverage during the season of it, and often serves them
instead of all other food.
KOUMYKS, a Tartar and Mahommedan tribe, who live
in a sandy plain at the foot of the Caucasus, on the right
bank of the Terek. They are nominally subject to Rus¬
sia, though this does not restrain their predatory incursions
into its vicinity. They carry on some trade on the Cas¬
pian Sea.
KOUZNETZK, a small fortified town in Asiatic Rus¬
sia, and capital of a district of the same name, in the go¬
vernment of Tomsk. It was founded in 1618; and the
sable being here of peculiar beauty, the place is a great
resort of fur-merchants. Population 500. Long. 87. 30.
E. Lat. 53. 20. N.
KOWNO, a city of the province of Wilna, in Russia,
the capital of a circle of the same name, on the river Wil¬
na. It contains one Lutheran and ten Catholic churches,
is an old, well-built town, with 608 houses and 3200 inha¬
bitants. It has some trade in linen, and, by the river,
which runs to the Niemen, in corn. Long. 26. 53. 55. E.
Lat. 54. 53. 30. N.
KRAILSHEIM, a town of Wirtemberg, in the circle of
the Jaxt, and the capital of a bailiwick of the same name,
which extends over 154 square miles, and contains a popu¬
lation of 22,500 persons. The town is on the Jaxt, con¬
tains two churches, 420 houses, and 2900 inhabitants, em¬
ployed in linen, cotton, and other manufactures.
KRAKATOA, the southernmost island of a group si¬
tuated in the Straits of Sunda, about ten miles in circuit.
It contains a hot spring, used by the natives as a bath, and
is esteemed more healthy than any of the neighbouring
islands. The coral reefs with which it is surrounded afford
abundance of turtle. It has a high peaked hill on the south,
which lies in long. 105. 15. E. lat. 6. 9. S.
KRAKEN, the name of an animal of a monstrous size,
supposed to have been seen at sea, in the existence of
which the weakness and credulity of the fishermen have
excited the belief of even respectable naturalists, and
amongst others Bishop Pontoppidan, who describes it in
his Natural History of Norway. It is probable that the
whole depends on certain optical appearances arising from
a peculiar state of the atmosphere, which thus exhibits to
the deluded fancy something of the form of a huge animal.
KRANTZ, Albert, a celebrated German chronicler,
was born at Hamburg about the middle of the fifteenth
century. Having finished his studies, he set out upon his
travels, in the course of which he visited several parts of
Europe, attending the prelections of the most distinguished
professors, cultivating the society of the learned, and ex¬
ploring public libraries, by which means he made acquisi¬
tions in knowledge equally varied and extensive. He took
his degree at Rostock, and on that occasion supported se¬
veral theses with so much distinction that he was retained
to teach philosophy and theology. Krantz was rector of
this university in 1482. But being recalled to Hamburg,
he was pnuided with a canonry in the cathedral, and di¬
vided his time between preaching and teaching theology.
Elected syndic of Hamburg in 1489, he assisted the same
year at the assembly of Wismar, where the interests of
the Hanseatic towns were discussed. They deputed him
to proceed to France in 1497 to demand a treaty, and
to England in 1499 to solicit assistance against the pi¬
rates who infested the North Sea. In these different
763
Kouma
II
Krantz.
764
Krasnis-
taw
II
Krems.
K R E
missions he evinced so much prudence, sagacity, and in¬
tegrity, that John king of Denmark, and Frederick duke
of Holstein, chose him, in 1500, to terminate the dispute
which had arisen between them on the subject of the pro¬
vince of Ditmarsen. Krantz, having been named dean ot
his chapter in 1508, laboured with great zeal to remedy
the disorders which had been introduced into ecclesiastical
discipline ; but it is only by a forced interpretation of some
passages in his works, that Wolf, and after himBayle, have
endeavoured to make him be considered as one of the pie-
cursors of Luther. Krantz was witness to the first attacks
of that reformer on the church of Home, and condemned
them. He died on the 7th of December 1517, and was
interred near the eastern gate of his cathedral. Krantz
was a very learned man ; and the historical works which
he left behind him are useful, notwithstanding the errors
by which they are disfigured. Some critics have accused
him of plagiarism and of bad faith ; but he has found nu¬
merous apologists, amongst whom may be mentioned Cis-
ner, who places him in the first rank of the writers of hin
age, not only for the elegance of style and the clearness of
method, but also for the love of truth. Krantz was the
author of, 1. Chronica Regnorum Aquilonarium, Daniae,
Sueciae, Novoagiae, Strasburg, 1546, in folio ; 2. Saxonia,
sive de Saxonicae Gentis vetusta origine, longinquis ex-
expeditionibus susceptis etc. libri xii. Cologne, 1520, in
folio; 3. Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera ori¬
gine, variis gentibus, crebris e patria migrationibus, etc.
Cologne, 1519, in folio; 4. Metropolis, sive Historia Ec-
clesiastica Saxoniae, Basil, 1548, in folio ; and some other
works of little importance. (a.)
KRASNISTAW, a town of Poland, in the province of
Lublin, the capital of a circle of its own name, on a lake
and the river Wieprz. It is surrounded with walls, and
defended by a citadel, and contains 481 houses, and 3240
inhabitants, of whom many are Jews. Long. 23. 1. 39. E.
Eat. 50. 58. 46. N.
KRASNOIARSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Tomsk, situated on a small river tributary to
the Yenesei. The road to Irkoutsk passes through this
place, through which there is a considerable transit of com¬
modities for the trade with China and Eastern Siberia.
The surrounding country is remarkable for fertility, and
provisions are exceedingly cheap.
KRAW. This isthmus connects the Malay peninsula
with the continent of Asia, and in the narrowest part does
not exceed ninety-seven miles across from sea to sea.
KREMENTSCHUK, a city of the province of Pultowa,
in Russia, the capital of the circle of the same name. It
stands at the mouth of the Kagamlik, where that river falls
into the Dnieper. Its fortifications have been turned into
pleasant walks. It contains 1200 houses, and 8600 inha¬
bitants. It enjoys considerable trade on the navigable
river, in native products, and has some manufactures, and
extensive fisheries on the Dnieper. Long. 33. 23. 40. E.
Lat. 49. 3. 10. N.
KREMNITZ, a city of the circle of Barsch or Bars, in
the Austrian kingdom of Hungary. The city, with its ex¬
tensive suburbs, contains 1200 houses, and 9678 inhabi¬
tants. There is a college of mining, a mint where ducats
are coined, a gymnasium, and a Lutheran grammar school.
The chief employment is in the working of the silver and
gold mines in the surrounding district, and purifying these
metals. Long. 18. 32. 35. E. Lat. 48. 42. N.
KREMS, a city of Austria, in the circle of Manharts-
berge, and province of the Low er Ens. It is on the Danube,
is well built, and contains a nunnery founded for English
females. There are some manufactories of vinegar, of
mustard, and of linen goods, and some good wine is made.
It contains 424 houses, and 3650 inhabitants. Long. 15.
30. 42. E. Lat. 48. 21. 39. N.
K R U
KREMSIER, a city of the circle of Prerau, in the Aus- Kremsieij
trian province of Moi'avia, on the river March. It is the l!
seat of the Archbishop of Olmutz, whose castle is here, ^mau
with a fine gallery of pictures and a library of 30,000 vo- ,">w
lumes. It contains, besides the minster, six churches,
420 houses, and 4100 inhabitants, who successfully culti¬
vate vineyards.
KRESTXY, a city of the province of Novogorod, in
Russia, the capital of a circle of the same name, extending
over 372 square miles, comprehending one city, 730 villa¬
ges and hamlets, with 47,387 inhabitants. The city is on
the river Khalowa, contains 450 houses, and 1874 inha¬
bitants. Long. 32. 28. E. Lat, 58. 20. N.
KREUZ, a circle in the Austrian province of Croatia,
which extends over 664 square miles, and comprehends
two cities, two market-towns, and 294 villages and ham¬
lets, with 66,885 inhabitants. The capital is a city of the
same name, on the river Golkoniska, the seat of a bishop,
with 302 houses, and 1819 inhabitants. Long. 16. 26.
58. E. Lat. 46. 1. 16. N.
KREUZNACH, a city of Prussia, the capital of a cir¬
cle of the same name, in the province of Lower Rhine. It
is on the river Nake. It contains 700 houses, and 7205
inhabitants. It has fabrics of leather, snuff, and soap, and
very considerable establishments for salt refining, and has
a lively trade in wine grown near it, and in oil, potash,
corn, spirits, and clover-seed.
KRISHNA. See Kistna.
KROMY, a towm of the province of Orel, in Russia, the
capital of a circle of the same name, on the river Kroma.
It contains seven churches and 300 houses, with 3100 in¬
habitants. Long. 35. 51. E. Lat. 52. 38. N.
KRONSTADT, a city of Hungary, in that division of
the province of Siebenbergen denominated Sachsenland.
It is on the frontier towards Wallachia, in a plain watered
by numerous brooks, which unite to form the river Aluta.
It is an irregular-built town, but surrounded with walls.
It contains six Lutheran, two Greek, two Catholic, and
one Unitarian church, and a Franciscan convent, with a
church and cloth manufactory attached to it. It contains,
including the suburbs, which are extensive, 3200 houses,
and at the lowest estimate 25,000 inhabitants, among whom
are Germans, Hungarians, Wallachians, Greeks, Armenians,
and some Turks, who carry on a variety of manufactures
for the supply of the home market. Long. 28. 28. 25. E.
Lat. 45. 56. 30. N.
KROOK, a city of Persia, in the province of Kerman,
and capital of the district of Nurmanshur. It is ot a con¬
siderable size, and is surrounded with a deep ditch. 150
miles south-east of Kerman.
KROSSEN, a fortified city, the capital of a circle of
the same name, of the Prussian province Brandenburg.
It is on the Oder, near to where the Bober falls into that
river. It contains 574 houses, and 3605 inhabitants. Hie
manufactures are of cloth and hosiery.
KROTOSZYN, a city of Prussia, in the circle of the
same name, of the province of Posen. It is a frontier
place towards Poland, but now without fortifications, since
the union of Posen with Prussia. It contains 535 houses,
and 4860 inhabitants, speaking mostly the Polish language,
and employed in manufactures of cloth, linen, leather,
paper, and tobacco.
KRUMAU, a city of the circle of Budweis, in the Aus¬
trian kingdom of Bohemia. It is on the river Moldau, is
fortified, and, with about 300 villages around it, forms a
dukedom belonging to the Schwarzenburg family. Ihe
castle and part of the duchy is near the city, which con¬
tains 696 houses, and 4291 inhabitants, some of whom are
stocking-makers, and others cloth and paper manufacturers.
Near to it are the baths of Umlowitz, much frequented in
summer; and some mines of silver, but feebly worked.
K U M
Kteifa KTEIFA, a small town of Syria, in the pachalic of
Damascus, on the borders of the Desert. It is surrounded
umbalia. wit;h walls of sufficient strength to defend it against the
travelling Arabs. It is twenty-two miles east-north-east
of Damascus, and is supposed to be the ancient Adarisi.
KUARA, a very mountainous province situated in the
western part of Abyssinia. It is a rugged, unhealthy
country, and its chief importance consists in the gold which
passes through it from the east. It receives a governor
from Abyssinia when it dares not to do otherwise.
KUBBEER, a large salt lake, or rather marsh, of Per¬
sia, in the province of Irak. It runs from east to west
about 150 miles, and is in some places thirty-five miles in
breadth. There are roads through this morass, but they
are not easy distinguished, and the unfortunate wander¬
er who misses them is in danger either of perishing in
the swamp or of dying from thirst and heat. The road
from Koom to Tehran crosses a part of this morass.
KUBBEES, a city of Seistan, in Persia, situated on the
road from Kerman to Herat, in the midst of a desert,
150 miles north-east from Kerman, and 160 north-east
from Yezd, and the whole intermediate space being an
arid waste, intersected with one or two ranges of moun¬
tains. There is a path through this desert, by which cou¬
riers go; but the danger of perishing is so great, that a
person of this description demanded 200 rupees from
Lieutenant Pottinger, to carry a letter to his fellow-travel¬
ler, Captain Christie.
KUFA, a city of Irak Arabi, once a large and populous
city, founded by Omar after the ruin of Ctesiphon, and
the residence of the caliphs, until, owing to the vices of
the inhabitants, the seat of government was removed to
Bagdad. Little is left of this place but the mosque where
Ali was assassinated, a plain edifice, in the form of a
square, with a court in the centre, surrounded by a clois¬
ter. There is but one entrance, through an elegant gate¬
way ; and the walls being high, and flanked with bastions,
give it more the appearance of a castle than a place of
worship. The Mahommedans hold in high veneration the
spot on which this mosque has been built; and their
imams or priests, to add to its sanctity, have invented
many wonderful stories concerning it. Four miles north
of Meshed Ali.
KUFFSTEIN, a small city of the Austrian province of
Tyrol, on the river Inn. It is remarkable for the strength
of its works, which, in conjunction with those of the for¬
tress of Geroldstein, opposite to it, defends one of the im¬
portant passes between Italy and Germany.
KUILENBURG, a city of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Gelders, and circle of Thiel. It stands on the
river Leek. It is surrounded with walls, and divided by
the river into three parts, which are connected by hand¬
some stone bridges. It is an increasing place, containing,
in 1830, 4299 inhabitants, who are occupied in making
silk goods, ribbons, and fire-arms.
KULM, a city, the capital of a circle of the same name,
in the province of West Prussia, on a hill, at the foot of
which the Vistula flows. It is the see of a Catholic
bishop, and has an ecclesiastical seminary for that reli¬
gion, with four professors and about 120 pupils. It con¬
tains 397 houses, and 3640 inhabitants. It was formerly
a place of great consideration, and one of the Hanse
Towns, but has declined. Long. 18. 20. 41. E. Lat. 53.
21. 6. N.
KULMBACH, a city of Bavaria, the capital of the bai¬
liwick of the same name, in the circle of the Upper Maine.
It is on the river White-Maine, in one of the finest situa¬
tions of the circle. It is surrounded with walls, has a fine
market-place, several public buildings, 437 houses, and
3420 inhabitants.
KUMBALIA, a town of Hindustan, in the Gujerat
K U B 765
peninsula, situated about five miles from the Gulf of Kumi
Cutch, and subject to the chief of Nooanager. It is a po- J
pulous and well-built town, surrounded by a stone wall,
with round bastions, and four gates, which are sufficient '
to keep the surrounding country in awe. This place is
the resort of the Gogia Brahmins, who are attendants on
Ranchor, an incarnation of Vishnu and Dwarca. Having
accumulated fortunes from the offerings of the pilgrims
resorting to the pagoda, they have retired to Kumbalia,
which is well adapted for commerce, to which they are
much inclined. The port of this place is Sirreyah, at
which vessels anchor, and send up their cargoes in boats.
Long. 69. 45. E. Lat. 22. 15. N.
KUMI, an island in the Eastern Seas, about three or
four leagues in circuit, populous and cultivated. It is
one of a cluster, consisting of six or seven others be¬
tween Formoza and Japan, seen by Perouse. Long. 23.
16. E. Lat. 24. 33. N.
KUNASHIR, an island in the Eastern Seas, forming
part of the small archipelago of the Kuriles. It is 100
miles long, and thirty-five broad. The Russians have
erected a small fort on this island.
KUNCKEL, John, a celebrated Saxon chemist, wras
born in the duchy of Sleswick, in 1630. He became che¬
mist to the elector of Saxony, the elector of Branden¬
burg, and Charles XL king of Sweden, who gave him the
title of Counsellor in Metals, and letters of nobility, with
the surname of Louwensteing. He employed fifty years
in chemistry, in which, by the help of the furnace of a
glasshouse which he had under his care, he made several
discoveries, particularly those of the phosphorus of urine.
He died in Sweden in 1702, and left several works, some
in German, and others in Latin ; amongst which, that
entitled Observationes Chemica, and the Art of Making
Glass, printed at Paris in 1752, are the most esteemed.
KUNDAL, a town of Hindustan, in the province of
Bengal, surrounded by a country which is one entire
forest, abounding with all sorts of wild animals. Seventy-
four miles south by west from Dacca. Long. 91. 18. E.
Lat. 23. 12. N.
KUNDAPOOR, a sea-port town of India, in the pro¬
vince of Canara, situated near the mouth of a river, which
is the boundary of the northern and southern divisions of
Canara. On the north side of the river, Tippoo formerly
had a dock, which is seldom used by the British. The
town consists of 300 houses, and was formerly garrisoned
by a detachment of native infantry. Long. 74. 47. E.
Lat. 13. 33. N.
KUNEE, town of Hindustan, province of Delhi, and
district of Sirhind. It is surrounded by a mud wall and a
deep ditch, but was taken by the British in 1809, without
resistance.
KUOPIO, a circle in Russian Finland, on the sea-shore,
of the vast extent of 20,608 square miles, containing
only one town and 4423 farms, with 144,500 inhabitants.
The capital, of the same name, is a town in a peninsula on
the Lake of Kallavesi, containing 160 houses, and 920 in¬
habitants. Long. 27. 24. 55. E. Lat. 62. 53. 43. N.
KUPH, an extensive ruined village of Syria, which ap¬
pears to be the remains of a large town. The buildings
appear like magnificent palaces. The style of architec¬
ture is of the fourth or fifth century; and the crosses
over the door show the buildings to have been Christian.
Thirty-five miles south-south-west of Aleppo.
KUR, the ancient Cyrus, the most considerable river
of Georgia, in Asia. It has its rise, according to Sir R.
Kerr Porter, in a branch of the Caucasian Mountains,
from which issue several rivulets, which, uniting in one
channel, take the name of Kur; and flowing thence
through part of the Turkish dominions, gradually aug¬
ments its stream by the reception of minor rivers in its
766 K U R
Kurda course. From this point the Kur takes a south-east di"
II rection, fertilizing a country of as much beauty as gran-
Kurzola. deur. Its most considerable tributaries in this part of its
course are, the Aluzan from the north-east, and the Araxes
from the south, which falls into the Kur about seventy
miles from its mouth. After this junction, the breadth
and depth of the Kur are so much increased, that it im¬
mediately becomes navigable for larger boats. At fifty
miles lower down, it divides itself into two noble branches,
and so flows onward, through the province of Maghan, to
the north-west coast of the Caspian, whence, by these
double channels, it unites its waters with the sea. The
banks are very high, and wooded.
KURDA, a town of Hindustan, in the province of Gu-
jerat, situated near the north-west frontier, about three
miles south of the town of Theraud. It is surrounded by
a sandy and unproductive country.
KURGOMMAH, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Gundwana. It is situated in the middle of a very wild
country inhabited by Goands, who are so uncivilized as
not to know the value of the precious metals, their only
currency being cowries or shells. Long. 82. 25. E. Lat.
23. N.
KURIL, or Kuriliski Isles, extending from north
latitude 51. to 45. which probably once lengthened the
peninsula of Kamtschatka before they were disjoined from
it, are a series of islands running south from the low pro¬
montory Lopatka, which is distant one league from Shoom-
ska, the most northerly of these. Of the twenty-one
islands subject to the Russian empire, no more than four
are inhabited. The rest of these islands remain wholly
uninhabited, but are visited occasionally, for the purpose
of hunting otters and foxes.
KURSK, a province of European Russia, which extends
over 15,430 square miles, comprehending seventeen cities,
137 towns, 1532 villages and hamlets, and containing a
population of 1,611,100 persons. It is between 50. 20.
and 52. 26. north latitude, and is consequently in a tem¬
perate climate. It is an undulating district, with no ele¬
vations entitled to the name of mountains. Although well
watered by the rivers Donez and its tributary streams, it
is neither swampy nor marshy, but enjoys a dry soil. It
is fertile, and the increase of corn from the same mea¬
sure of seed is greater than in any of the provinces to the
north of it. As the greater portion of the people are oc¬
cupied in agriculture, the chief surplus produce consists
of corn, amounting in some years to upwards of 4,400,000
quarters. This forms the chief commodity for exporta¬
tion, besides which, corn, spirits, hemp and hemp oil, to¬
bacco, hides, leather, wool, tallow, wax, honey, horses,
and horned cattle, are supplied to the neighbouring pro¬
vinces. From the want of navigable rivers, most of the
commodities must be conveyed to the Wolga on wheel
carriages, which, as the roads are bad, becomes very ex¬
pensive. There are in this province a great number of
nobles, who among them possess 239,000 peasants or
slaves. The province is divided into fifteen circles. The
city of Kursk is the capital of the province, as well as of
the circle of that name. It is the seat of an archbishop.
It stands at the junction of the rivers Kura and Tuskar,
and has been fortified, but the walls are converted into pleas¬
ing promenades. It contains sixteen churches, two con¬
vents, an ecclesiastical seminary, 2340 houses, and 21,500
inhabitants. It is a place of extensive trade in wax,
tallow, hemp, and the other productions of the soil, and the
seat of some manufactures ; and near it the gardens pro¬
duce fruits that will not grow in the more northern parts
of the empire. Long. 36. 22. E. Lat. 51. 43. N.
KURZOLA, an island in the Adriatic Sea, a portion of
the Austrian province of Dalmatia. The extent is about
220 square miles. It is w ell wooded, and affords good ship
K u T
timber. It yields good wine, and some corn, but is defi- Kuster
cient in water. The inhabitants are 6440, of whom 1800 ||
live in the fortified capital of the same name, in a narrow Kuty.
strait on the east end of the island.
KUSTER, Ludolf, a very learned writer in the eigh¬
teenth century, was born at Blomberg in Westphalia.
When very young, he was, upon the recommendation of
Baron Spanheim, appointed tutor to the two sons of the
Count de Schwerin, prime minister of the king of Prus¬
sia, who, upon our author’s quitting that station, procured
him a pension of four hundred livres. He was promised
a professorship in the university of Joachim, and, till this
should become vacant, being then but twenty-five years
of age, he resolved to travel. He read lectures at
Utrecht, went to England, and thence proceeded to
France, where he collated Suidas with three manuscripts
in the king’s library, which furnished him with a great
many fragments that had never been published. He was
honoured with the degree of doctor by the university of
Cambridge, which made him several advantageous offers
to continue there, but he was called to Berlin, and there
installed in the professorship which had been promised
him. He afterwards went to Antwerp; and being brought
over to the Catholic religion, he abjured that of the Pro¬
testants. The king of France rewarded him with a pen¬
sion, and ordered him to be admitted a supernumerary
associate of the Academy of Inscriptions. But he enjoy¬
ed this only a short time, having died in 1716, at the
age of forty-six. He was a great master of Latin, and
wrote well in that language ; but his chief excellence con¬
sisted in his skill in the Greek language, to which he al¬
most entirely devoted himself. He wrote many works,
the principal of which are, 1. Historia Critica Homeri;
2. Jamblicus de Vita Pythagorae ; 3. An edition of Suidas,
Greek and Latin, in three volumes, folio; 4. An edition of
Aristophanes, Greek and Latin, in folio ; 5. A new edi¬
tion of the Greek New Testament, with Dr Mills’s Vari¬
ations, in folio.
KUSTERDINGEN, a town of Wirtemberg, in the
circle of the Black Forest, and bailiwick of Babenhausen.
It contains 175 houses and 1230 inhabitants, who grow
much flax, and convert it into linen and diaper cloth.
KUSTRIN, a city, the capital of a circle of the same
name, in the province of Brandenburg, in Prussia. It is
a strongly fortified place, with a fortress on the river
Oder, surrounded by ditches and marshes, by which the
approaches of assailants are impeded. It is one of the
chief defences on the east of the kingdom, is always
strongly garrisoned, and well stored with ammunition and
provision, and commands a bridge over the river 880 feet
in length. It contains 562 houses, and 6220 civil inha¬
bitants. Long. 14. 35. E. Lat. 52. 35. N.
KUTTENBURG, a city of the circle Czaslau, in the
Austrian kingdom of Bohemia. It is a well-built town,
with a magnificent cathedral and thirteen other churches,
and containing 746 houses and 6417 inhabitants. The
chief employment is mining for silver, lead, and copper,
in the country around. There is a house for smelting
the silver, another for refining saltpetre, and several es¬
tablishments for manufacturing the several metals.
KUTUBDEA, an island in the bay of Bengal, thirteen
miles in length by four in breadth, adjacent to the district
of Chittagong, being separated from it by a narrow strait
two miles broad, into which a vessel, in case of distress,
may safely run. In its vicinity are some valuable oyster-
beds : the oysters are of an excellent quality, and are sent
for sale to the Europeans at Dacca and Calcutta.
KUTY, a city of the circle of Kolomea, in the Aus¬
trian kingdom of Gallicia, on the river Czerny. It con¬
tains a Greek and an Armenian church, with 430 houses
and 4110 inhabitants, of whom 520 are Armenians.
K Y L
Kyle There is much occupation in the curing of leather, in a
II way similar to that followed in Russia.
KYLE, a district of Ayrshire, in Scotland. There are
three districts in Ayrshire, Garrick to the south, Kyle
in the middle, and Cunningham to the north. Garrick
is divided from Kyle by the river Boon. The boun¬
daries of Kyle are the river Boon on the south, and the
river Irvine on the north. See Ayrshire.
KYPHONISM, Kyphonismus, or Cyphonismus, an
ancient punishment frequently undergone by the martyrs
in the primitive times, wherein the body of the sufferer
was anointed with honey, and so exposed to the sun,
that the flies and wasps might be tempted to torment
him. This was- performed in three ways. Sometimes
they only tied the patient to a stake ; at other times they
hoisted him up into the air, and suspended him in a bas¬
ket ; and at others, again, stretched him out on the
ground'with his hands tied behind him. The word is
originally Greek, and comes from xttfov, which signifies
either the stake to which the patient was tied, the collar
fitted to his neck, or the instrument with which they tor¬
mented him. The scholiast on Aristophanes says it was
a wooden lock, or cage, and that it was called so from xmv-
ruv, to bend, because it kept the tortured in a bent pos¬
ture ; but others take the xupov for a log of wood laid
over the criminal’s head, to prevent his standing upright;
K Y R 767
and Hesychius describes it as a piece of wood on which Kyraut
criminals were stretched and tormented. In effect, it is II
probable the word might signify all these several things. Kyr^-
it was a generic term, and these were merely the spe- ghur'
cies. Suidas gives us the fragment of an old law, which
pumshed those who treated the laws contemptuously
with kyphonism for the space of twenty days ; after which
they were precipitated from a rock, dressed in women’s
habit.
KYRAUf, a district of Northern Hindustan, situated
between the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth de°rees
of north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the
Himalaya ridge, on the east by Bootan, on the south by
Morung, and on the west by Nepaul, from which it is
separated by a large tract little known to Europeans.
I he river Teesta is the principal river, and Bamsong the
chief town. It was conquered in 1769 by the rajah of
Gorcah.
KYRAHGUR, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
grand rajahs tributary to the Nagpoor Mahrattas, in the
province of Gundwana, eighty-six miles south-west from
Ruttunpoor. Long. 81. 32. E. Lat. 21. 27. N.
KYREEGHUR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Oude, situated on the east side of the Goggrah river,
102 miles north from Lucknow. Long. 80. 51. E. Lat’
28. 18. N. 8
•a
END OF VOLUME TWELFTH.
Printed by Thomas Allan V Co. and Neill & Co-
and Stereotyped by Thomas Allan Si Co-
HYGROMETER
PLATA CCXCV,
Fi#.2.
Fig.l.
L>£ Lire's.
VALEBOWE Hr GB O ME TEE
Fig. 8.
haatjells Hygrometer.
Fry*by G.Fikrruzri,Fdm
Eng ^ by &. A-iknuui.
I
II VCKO.M V/n\Y.
/‘LAVE CCXCVI.
Eng* by G.Axkman.
I*LA TE f f 'XrVIJ.
'la/wirn,brnru■//iaJ nu/x,,l’/-.orPen■//.
. Ur-bladder of Pogom'as chromis.
■ u-h/uux .
Hyoid bout, brandual
arches, &-c. of Pej-ch.
Hr AJ bifid dec • ol'
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ranuirn
Air bladder of
!(dm ins lobafus
hr bhidden J of'
■ fo/uiius i j eahdea
1 ir bladder of Poe/onfas chrorrus.
'‘maiurn, bra/ichial
Eng f*by ft.. 1 //' man.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
PLATE CCXCI1
Aspidophorus cxitapfunctits.
Trip/a (jumaixius.
Coitus scorpius.
'< nti trip terns Americanos.
Scorpcena nesogalUca
Sebastes variaMUs
•s Tnarmo rains.
l/onocen t/is
>omca
Gasterosteus acnleatos.
Scirena a<
l 'mbrina comides
Corvina dentex.
'ups purutatus.
Poponias taseiatus
Eruitbv e. /■ ' ■
ICHTHYOLOGY
PLATE
CCC,
by G. ALkman.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
PLATE
CCC.
Diaqramma orientale
/Immi /on <j nadrUineaUim.
<oma hihneoJum
nrion laticlavius.
Scxilopsides lycogems.
/.o holes
sontnolentus.
Premnas semzcinctus
Lalilus do/h ttus
< 'heilodacty /us carp o menus.
Fomaxentrus fasciatus.
Sarqus Rondeletii
Giyp/nsddori cadesUjuis,
Girysophrys a a rata
Pagelius eri/thrinus.
Pag ms vulgaris
S'.TUf d by G.AiJcmaji.
m
/.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
PLATE CCCI.
Cficetodon reiu'Mlatus
( /ueL)don
LuiuZa
Chcetodon ephippiiun
Heniochus
CheLmon longirostris
Platax teira.
Taurichthps varius.
coniutus.
I
ICHTHYOLOGY
PI,ATE cccn.
o
PLATE CCCn.
ICHTHYOLOGY
PseUus
Toxotes jaculatiov
Thynnuj vulgaris.
AujAs vulgaris.
Lepidopus arggreus.
'rrw
Gempylus promethms.
fiis lioy h o rhs pulcludlus.
Eng d b y G. Aik man.
%
ICHTH
pl a te err in.
Eng 4 by G.Aik/n.tu .
ICHTHYOLOGY
ifhena azorun
raUichtys Mitjptmajs.
Pteraclis trichiptenis.
\romens Perordi.
faber.
guttatus
Acanthurus Delisumus.
Naseus longicornis.
Gyrnzutrus
Osphromenus olfax
Ophieephalus striatus.
Anabas scandens.
Mupil cephalus
ICHTHYOLO GY.
PLATE CCCIV
Blennius ocellaris.
o
Anarrhichas lupus.
Periopthabruis Freycinetii
Callionymus kjm
Lopfuus pisr/tlonus
Chabrolu
Cnemlabms
Anableps tetropthcdrnus
Chmdiodus Sloard
Fsox In a us.
'Exocetus volitajis.
Silurus plums.
'
Fug * b y &. A ikmiui.
r
Ct\
I
\
O GY.
2.
PLATE CCCV.
Yllosa vulgaris.
Lepisosteus spatula.
fluvialilis
- r'? Ir/ r.-.ir'rr.iWr,-''
Hippoplossus
macro/rpi/lobj. v
vulgaris
Rhombus argus
'eras
Rchenrls naucrates
*
PLATE CCCVI.
ICHTHYOLOGT
drujiulla
vulqaris.
Murcena Helen/ /
'/iris.
Si/nbra/ichns mormon/tus
Gyrruiotus electria/s.
Hif/pocat/ipus foliatus
'/rfric y Battery
or Gymnotus.
10^* Telrodon patoca
Itiodon Atuic/a
A h/te/es monoceros
J A anus
Orthayor/srus rrwla
Ostradon
cornutus
-Erty ?" by G.Aikman
IC HTHYO L O G Y. plate cccvii.
Acipenser Ruthmus
Gillorky richiis ArXareticus.
Scyiluan fasciatiLni
Under side of 2.
'cena, lewenii
Cejitriruz vuJyaris
Rhirwbatus TTwiiiru/ma
Torpedo Bamrothi
Ccphaloptera giorna
Myliobatis guttata
Skeleton, of
Raia clavata.
Retromyzon maruius, young
Engl by G.Aikman.
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IRON-MAKING
PLATE CCCLX.
SECTION ajui PlAN of BLAST FURNACE in connection, with WATER REGULATOR and BLOWING CYLINDER.
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xii-4 i
IRON-MAKING
PLATE CCCIX.
SECTION (uul PEAN of BLAST FURNACE in connedion, with WATER REGULATOR and BLOWING CYLINDER
A. The Hearth,or receptacle,
for Metal.
C, B. The Boshes.
D. The body of the Furnace
REFERENCE to Fig? 1^2.
E. The. Tunnel head,
E,F,F. _ The Blast pipes.
G. The Dam stone.
H, II. The Tuyeres.
I. Blowing Cylinder.
K. Air Boxes.
I-. Water Regulator.
JV1 . Charging Door.
20 25 30 35
Reference to Fig?3.4&5.
A,A- Grate bars and Stoke hole,
IS,B _ Body and Health of Furnace, of Cast Iron.
C,C.  Charging Boor.
I),D,D. _ Bridi/e, over which the Clame passes.
E. EF-FF Sides of the Furnace, of Gist Iron.
F, F.F,F, _ Water Cistern to coot the Bottom or Health.
Plan. Fug 3.
vtv
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~ 1 '"m mm
• ' '•
D,D.
Eng d by G.AUcrmm.
IRON-MAKING.
PLATE CCCIX.
SECTION ami PLAN Of BLAST FURNACE in connection with WATER REGULATOR and BLOWING CYLINDER
Reference to Figfl & 2.
A. TheEearth.or receptacic E. The. Tiuiml head. I.
for Metal. E, F,F. The Blast pipes. K .
C, B. The Boshes. G. Ihe Dam stone. L.
D. The body of the Furnace. H,H. The Tuyeres. M.
Blowing Cylinder.
Air Boxes.
Water Regulator.
Charging Door.
Scale of Feel to Fig? 1 & 2.
Reference to Fug?3.4&5.
A,A.   Grate bars and Stoke hole.
0,11.  Body and Hearth of Furnace, of Cast Iron.
C,C.   Charging Door.
I),1),I>. _ Bridge,over which, the flame passes.
K,K,F,I,'.,K. Sides of the Furnace, of Cast Iron.
F,F,F,F, _ Water Cistern to cool the Bottom or Hearth ■
PLAN. Fug. 3.
ELEVATION.
Fug. 2.
Erug d by G.Aibnaii.
PLATE CCCA
IRON-MAKING.
BLAST ENGINE, Erected at Wylam Iron Works by R& wHA wnmAr
' • J tlxl n moN> Engineers,NEWCASTLE upon. TYNE.
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SN Jteprr > />'* '.•••• •' C.niftne.u fijuuL
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<i,(l. Tkgitti .*r hp Iruto/ig to (hr } '• rr.im.t,
K,K ■•/iicjv « Hxndtr.
f.f The i erm Pumps
■/ •/. T%t: laml orWtfrkuu/ G, or.
i. 7A/' • ••• f tutor..
text Ths St dr- 'Ar guiding th&JHsUm Rods
kji, Thr Romping S&xrs
SC A L£.
IRON-MAKING.
BLAST ENGINE, Erected at Wylam Iroa Works.by *J W.UAWTUON, CM Ens]inters,NEWCASTLE
ELEVATION. Fig. J.
PLATE CCCX
upon TYNE.
CROSS SECTION.
Reference .
A, A—Represents the J'Ular on which the Engine is fixed.
B, B. __ The Rlast Cylinder.
C, C. The Wind Boxes in which are fixed the discharging valves.
d,d. The, Blast Pipe leading to the Furnaces.
E,E . _ The. Steam, (ylinder.
f,f- 77ie Force PUnips. .
y,y. 77ie Hand or Working tlear.
h, h. The Cross heads.
i. i.i.i. The. Slides for guiding the Piston Rods,
k.k. The Banging Boxes.
SCALE.
o 5 10 15 20 Feet.
-J : 1 1   1 —    I
PLAN. Fig. 2.
Eng* by G.Aikmati.
«
IRON MAKIN(
PLATE CCCXI1.
Enq ^ by G. A ikman..
IRON MAKING.
KLF.VATION of WHEELS for BAR IRON MILL.
PLATE CCCXIL
IRON-MAKING.
PLATE CCCXUl.
IRON-MAKING.
PLATE
ELEVATION of WHEELS for SMALL BOLT and HOOP MILLS.
CCCX1H.
Eng d by G.Aikman.
Section
of Stcilk.
t
IKON M A K I N (i . /•>// •/. /■'a. i i j: cccjuv.
SCALE.
Inches 12 e o i 2 3 4 J 6 7 s 9 10 Feet.
IRON MAKING.
LLEVATIONoi BOILER PLATE and SHEET iRON ROLLERS.
PLATE CCCXV.
■mimd Level
Eng^by Gj\ikrrutn.
Eruj^by GJ\ikma
Iliui ? by ( •. .hkiiiiin .
7 Feet.
Inches J2 f
Eng*by G^Uknian.
PLATE CCCXm.
PLAN AND SECTION OF A CUPOLA FURNACE
Fig. 3.
24 Feet
 i
IRON MAKING.
F'iq.l.
Eng?by G^likrnan.
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Fig. 9.
KLINOMETER. LAMPS. LEWIS.
PLATE CCCXX1.
JFarey. bel*.
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